Linux Fun

Linux Fundamentals
Paul Cobbaut
Linux Fundamentals
Paul Cobbaut
lt-0.970.452
Published Sun 01 Aug 2010 05:36:53 PM CEST
Abstract
This book is meant to be used in an instructor-led training. For self-study, the intent is to read this book next to a
working Linux computer so you can immediately do every subject, practicing each command.
This book is aimed at novice Linux system administrators (and might be interesting and useful for home users that
want to know a bit more about their Linux system). However, this book is not meant as an introduction to Linux
desktop applications like text editors, browsers, mail clients, multimedia or office applications.
More information and free .pdf available at http://www.linux-training.be .
Feel free to contact the authors:
• Paul Cobbaut: [email protected], http://www.linkedin.com/in/cobbaut
Contributors to the Linux Training project are:
• Serge van Ginderachter: [email protected], docbook xml and pdf build scripts; svn hosting
• Hendrik De Vloed: [email protected], buildheader.pl script
We'd also like to thank our reviewers:
• Wouter Verhelst: [email protected], http://grep.be
• Geert Goossens: [email protected], http://www.linkedin.com/in/geertgoossens
• Elie De Brauwer: [email protected], http://www.de-brauwer.be
• Christophe Vandeplas: [email protected], http://christophe.vandeplas.com
• Bert Desmet: [email protected], http://bdesmet.be
• Rich Yonts: [email protected],
Copyright 2007-2010 Paul Cobbaut

Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Unix and Linux ...................................................................... 1
1.1. Unix History ............................................................................................ 1
1.1.1. AT&T Bell Labs ........................................................................... 1
1.1.2. The Unix Wars .............................................................................. 1
1.1.3. University of California, Berkeley ................................................ 2
1.1.4. GNU's not Unix ............................................................................ 2
1.1.5. Linux ............................................................................................. 3
1.2. Licensing .................................................................................................. 3
1.2.1. Proprietary ..................................................................................... 3
1.2.2. BSD ............................................................................................... 3
1.2.3. GNU General Public License (GPL) ............................................ 3
1.2.4. Others... ......................................................................................... 4
1.3. Current Distributions ............................................................................... 4
1.3.1. What is a distribution ? ................................................................. 4
1.3.2. Linux Distributions ....................................................................... 4
1.3.3. BSD Distributions ......................................................................... 7
1.3.4. Major Vendors of Unix ................................................................. 8
1.3.5. Solaris ............................................................................................ 8
1.4. Certification .............................................................................................. 9
1.4.1. LPI: Linux Professional Institute .................................................. 9
1.4.2. Red Hat Certified Engineer .......................................................... 9
1.4.3. MySQL .......................................................................................... 9
1.4.4. Novell CLP/CLE ......................................................................... 10
1.4.5. Sun Solaris .................................................................................. 10
1.4.6. Other certifications ...................................................................... 10
1.5. Discovering the classroom ..................................................................... 10
2. Getting help ..................................................................................................... 11
2.1. man pages .............................................................................................. 11
2.1.1. man $command ........................................................................... 11
2.1.2. man $configfile ........................................................................... 11
2.1.3. man $daemon .............................................................................. 11
2.1.4. man -k (apropos) ......................................................................... 11
2.1.5. whatis .......................................................................................... 12
2.1.6. whereis ........................................................................................ 12
2.1.7. man sections ................................................................................ 12
2.1.8. man $section $file ....................................................................... 12
2.1.9. man man ...................................................................................... 13
2.1.10. mandb ........................................................................................ 13
2.2. online help ............................................................................................. 13
2.2.1. Google ......................................................................................... 13
2.2.2. Wikipedia .................................................................................... 14
2.2.3. The Linux Documentation Project .............................................. 14
2.2.4. Red Hat ....................................................................................... 14
2.2.5. Ubuntu ......................................................................................... 14
2.2.6. www.linux-training.be ................................................................. 14
3. First steps ......................................................................................................... 15
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Linux Fundamentals
3.1. working with directories ........................................................................ 15

3.1.1. pwd .............................................................................................. 15
3.1.2. cd ................................................................................................. 15
3.1.3. absolute and relative paths .......................................................... 16
3.1.4. path completion ........................................................................... 17
3.1.5. ls .................................................................................................. 17
3.1.6. mkdir ........................................................................................... 19
3.1.7. rmdir ............................................................................................ 19
3.2. practice : working with directories ........................................................ 21
3.3. solution : working with directories ........................................................ 22
3.4. working with files .................................................................................. 24
3.4.1. file ............................................................................................... 24
3.4.2. touch ............................................................................................ 24
3.4.3. rm ................................................................................................ 25
3.4.4. cp ................................................................................................. 26
3.4.5. mv ................................................................................................ 27
3.4.6. rename ......................................................................................... 27
3.5. practice : working with files .................................................................. 29
3.6. solution : working with files .................................................................. 30
3.7. file contents ............................................................................................ 32
3.7.1. head ............................................................................................. 32
3.7.2. tail ................................................................................................ 32
3.7.3. cat ................................................................................................ 33
3.7.4. tac ................................................................................................ 34
3.7.5. more and less .............................................................................. 34
3.7.6. strings .......................................................................................... 34
3.8. practice : file contents ............................................................................ 36
3.9. solution : file contents ............................................................................ 37
4. The Linux file system tree ............................................................................. 38
4.1. all files are case sensitive ...................................................................... 38
4.2. everything is a file ................................................................................. 38
4.3. / (the root directory) ............................................................................... 38
4.4. man hier ................................................................................................. 38
4.5. filesystem hierarchy standard ................................................................ 39
4.6. common directories ................................................................................ 39
4.6.1. /bin binaries ................................................................................. 39
4.6.2. /boot static files to boot the system ............................................. 39
4.6.3. /dev device files .......................................................................... 40
4.6.4. /etc configuration files ................................................................. 40
4.6.5. /home sweet home ....................................................................... 42
4.6.6. /initrd ........................................................................................... 42
4.6.7. /lib shared libraries ...................................................................... 43
4.6.8. /media for removable media ....................................................... 43
4.6.9. /mnt standard mount point .......................................................... 44
4.6.10. /opt optional software ................................................................ 44
4.6.11. /proc conversation with the kernel ............................................ 44
4.6.12. /root the superuser's home ......................................................... 48
4.6.13. /sbin system binaries ................................................................. 48
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4.6.14. /srv served by your system ........................................................ 48

4.6.15. /sys Linux 2.6 hot plugging ...................................................... 48
4.6.16. /tmp for temporary files ............................................................ 49
4.6.17. /usr Unix system resources ....................................................... 49
4.6.18. /var variable data ....................................................................... 49
4.7. practice : file system tree ....................................................................... 51
4.8. solution : file system tree ....................................................................... 53
5. Introduction to the shell ................................................................................. 55
5.1. about shells ............................................................................................ 55
5.1.1. several shells ............................................................................... 55
5.1.2. external or built-in commands .................................................... 55
5.1.3. type .............................................................................................. 55
5.1.4. running external commands ........................................................ 55
5.1.5. which ........................................................................................... 56
5.1.6. alias ............................................................................................. 56
5.1.7. echo ............................................................................................. 57
5.1.8. shell expansion ............................................................................ 58
5.1.9. displaying shell expansion .......................................................... 58
5.2. practice: about shells .............................................................................. 59
5.3. solution: about shells ............................................................................. 60
5.4. control operators .................................................................................... 62
5.4.1. ; semicolon .................................................................................. 62
5.4.2. & ampersand ............................................................................... 62
5.4.3. && double ampersand ................................................................ 62
5.4.4. || double vertical bar .................................................................... 63
5.4.5. Combining && and || .................................................................. 63
5.4.6. # pound sign ............................................................................... 64
5.4.7. \ escaping special characters ....................................................... 64
5.4.8. end of line backslash .................................................................. 64
5.5. practice: control operators ..................................................................... 65
5.6. solution: control operators ..................................................................... 66
5.7. shell variables ........................................................................................ 67
5.7.1. $ dollar sign ................................................................................ 67
5.7.2. case sensitive ............................................................................... 67
5.7.3. $PS1 ............................................................................................ 67
5.7.4. $PATH ........................................................................................ 68
5.7.5. $? dollar question mark .............................................................. 68
5.7.6. unbound variables ....................................................................... 68
5.7.7. creating and setting variables ...................................................... 69
5.7.8. set ................................................................................................ 69
5.7.9. unset ............................................................................................ 69
5.7.10. env ............................................................................................. 69
5.7.11. exporting variables .................................................................... 70
5.7.12. delineate variables ..................................................................... 70
5.7.13. quotes and variables .................................................................. 71
5.8. practice: shell variables .......................................................................... 72
5.9. solution: shell variables ......................................................................... 73
5.10. shell arguments .................................................................................... 75
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5.10.1. white space removal .................................................................. 75

5.10.2. single quotes .............................................................................. 75
5.10.3. double quotes ............................................................................ 75
5.10.4. echo and quotes ......................................................................... 76
5.10.5. shell embedding ........................................................................ 76
5.10.6. back ticks .................................................................................. 77
5.10.7. back ticks or single quotes ........................................................ 77
5.11. practice: shell arguments ..................................................................... 78
5.12. solution: shell arguments ..................................................................... 79
5.13. file globbing ......................................................................................... 80
5.13.1. * asterisk ................................................................................... 80
5.13.2. ? question mark ......................................................................... 80
5.13.3. [] square brackets ...................................................................... 80
5.13.4. a-z and 0-9 ranges ..................................................................... 81
5.13.5. $LANG and square brackets ..................................................... 81
5.14. bash shell options ................................................................................. 82
5.15. shell history .......................................................................................... 82
5.15.1. history variables ........................................................................ 82
5.15.2. repeating commands in bash ..................................................... 83
5.15.3. repeating commands in ksh ....................................................... 84
5.16. practice : shell globbing, options and history ...................................... 85
5.17. solution: shell globbing, options and history ....................................... 87
5.18. shell i/o redirection .............................................................................. 89
5.18.1. stdin, stdout, and stderr ............................................................. 89
5.18.2. > output redirection ................................................................... 89
5.18.3. noclobber ................................................................................... 89
5.18.4. >> append ................................................................................. 90
5.18.5. 2> error redirection ................................................................... 90
5.18.6. 2>&1 ......................................................................................... 90
5.18.7. < input redirection ..................................................................... 91
5.18.8. << here document ..................................................................... 91
5.18.9. confusing i/o redirection ........................................................... 91
5.18.10. quick file clear ........................................................................ 92
5.18.11. swapping stdout and stderr ...................................................... 92
5.19. practice : i/o redirection ....................................................................... 93
5.20. solution : i/o redirection ....................................................................... 94
6. Pipes and filters ............................................................................................... 95
6.1. pipes ....................................................................................................... 95
6.1.1. about pipes .................................................................................. 95
6.1.2. | vertical bar ................................................................................ 95
6.1.3. multiple pipes .............................................................................. 95
6.2. filters ...................................................................................................... 95
6.2.1. about filters ................................................................................. 95
6.2.2. cat does nothing .......................................................................... 96
6.2.3. tee ................................................................................................ 96
6.2.4. grep .............................................................................................. 96
6.2.5. cut ................................................................................................ 98
6.2.6. tr .................................................................................................. 98
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Linux Fundamentals
6.2.7. wc ................................................................................................ 99
6.2.8. sort ............................................................................................. 100
6.2.9. uniq ............................................................................................ 101
6.2.10. comm ....................................................................................... 101
6.2.11. od ............................................................................................. 102
6.2.12. sed ........................................................................................... 102
6.3. some pipeline examples ....................................................................... 103
6.3.1. who | wc .................................................................................... 103
6.3.2. who | cut | sort .......................................................................... 103
6.3.3. grep | cut ................................................................................... 103
6.4. practice : pipes and filters .................................................................... 104
6.5. solution : pipes and filters .................................................................... 105
7. Basic Unix tools ............................................................................................. 107
7.1. common tools ....................................................................................... 107
7.1.1. find ............................................................................................ 107
7.1.2. locate ......................................................................................... 107
7.1.3. date ............................................................................................ 108
7.1.4. cal .............................................................................................. 108
7.1.5. sleep .......................................................................................... 109
7.1.6. time ............................................................................................ 109
7.2. compression tools ................................................................................. 110
7.2.1. gzip - gunzip ............................................................................. 110
7.2.2. zcat - zmore .............................................................................. 110
7.2.3. bzip2 - bunzip2 ......................................................................... 110
7.2.4. bzcat - bzmore .......................................................................... 111
7.3. practice : basic Unix tools ................................................................... 112
7.4. solution : basic Unix tools ................................................................... 113
8. Introduction to vi .......................................................................................... 115
8.1. about vi(m) ........................................................................................... 115
8.2. introduction to using vi(m) .................................................................. 115
8.2.1. command mode and insert mode .............................................. 115
8.2.2. start typing (a A i I o O) ........................................................... 115
8.2.3. replace and delete a character (r x X) ....................................... 116
8.2.4. undo and repeat (u .) ................................................................. 116
8.2.5. cut, copy and paste a line (dd yy p P) ....................................... 116
8.2.6. cut, copy and paste lines (3dd 2yy) .......................................... 117
8.2.7. start and end of a line (0 or ^ and $) ........................................ 117
8.2.8. join two lines (J) and more ....................................................... 117
8.2.9. words (w b) ............................................................................... 118
8.2.10. save (or not) and exit (:w :q :q! ) ............................................ 118
8.2.11. Searching (/ ?) ......................................................................... 119
8.2.12. Replace all ( :1,$ s/foo/bar/g ) ................................................. 119
8.2.13. Reading files (:r :r !cmd) ......................................................... 119
8.2.14. text buffers .............................................................................. 119
8.2.15. multiple files ........................................................................... 120
8.2.16. abbreviations ........................................................................... 120
8.2.17. key mappings .......................................................................... 120
8.2.18. setting options ......................................................................... 120
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8.3. practice : vi(m) ..................................................................................... 122

8.4. solution : vi(m) ..................................................................................... 123
9. Introduction to scripting .............................................................................. 124
9.1. about shell scripting ............................................................................. 124
9.2. hello world ........................................................................................... 124
9.3. she-bang ............................................................................................... 124
9.4. comment ............................................................................................... 124
9.5. Variables .............................................................................................. 125
9.6. Shell ..................................................................................................... 125
9.7. for loop ................................................................................................. 126
9.8. while loop ............................................................................................ 126
9.9. until loop .............................................................................................. 127
9.10. parameters .......................................................................................... 127
9.11. test [ ] ................................................................................................. 128
9.12. if if, then then, or else ....................................................................... 129
9.13. let ........................................................................................................ 129
9.14. runtime input ...................................................................................... 130
9.15. sourcing a config file ......................................................................... 130
9.16. case ..................................................................................................... 130
9.17. shopt ................................................................................................... 131
9.18. Practice : scripts ................................................................................. 131
9.19. Solutions ............................................................................................. 132
10. Introduction to users .................................................................................. 136
10.1. Identify yourself ................................................................................. 136
10.1.1. whoami .................................................................................... 136
10.1.2. who .......................................................................................... 136
10.1.3. who am i ................................................................................. 136
10.1.4. w .............................................................................................. 136
10.1.5. id .............................................................................................. 137
10.2. users ................................................................................................... 138
10.2.1. user management ..................................................................... 138
10.2.2. /etc/passwd ............................................................................... 138
10.2.3. root .......................................................................................... 138
10.2.4. useradd .................................................................................... 139
10.2.5. /etc/default/useradd .................................................................. 139
10.2.6. userdel ..................................................................................... 139
10.2.7. usermod ................................................................................... 139
10.3. passwords ........................................................................................... 140
10.3.1. passwd ..................................................................................... 140
10.3.2. /etc/shadow .............................................................................. 140
10.3.3. password encryption ................................................................ 141
10.3.4. password defaults .................................................................... 142
10.3.5. disabling a password ............................................................... 143
10.3.6. editing local files ..................................................................... 144
10.4. home directories ................................................................................. 145
10.4.1. creating home directories ........................................................ 145
10.4.2. /etc/skel/ ................................................................................... 145
10.4.3. deleting home directories ........................................................ 145
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Linux Fundamentals
10.5. user shell ............................................................................................ 146

10.5.1. login shell ................................................................................ 146
10.5.2. chsh ......................................................................................... 146
10.6. switch users with su ........................................................................... 147
10.6.1. su to another user .................................................................... 147
10.6.2. su to root ................................................................................. 147
10.6.3. su as root ................................................................................. 147
10.6.4. su - $username ........................................................................ 147
10.6.5. su - .......................................................................................... 147
10.7. run a program as another user ........................................................... 148
10.7.1. about sudo ............................................................................... 148
10.7.2. setuid on sudo ......................................................................... 148
10.7.3. visudo ...................................................................................... 149
10.7.4. sudo su .................................................................................... 149
10.8. practice: users ..................................................................................... 150
10.9. solution: users .................................................................................... 151
10.10. shell environment ............................................................................. 153
10.10.1. /etc/profile .............................................................................. 153
10.10.2. ~/.bash_profile ....................................................................... 153
10.10.3. ~/.bash_login ......................................................................... 153
10.10.4. ~/.profile ................................................................................ 154
10.10.5. ~/.bashrc ................................................................................ 154
10.10.6. ~/.bash_logout ....................................................................... 154
10.10.7. Debian overview ................................................................... 155
10.10.8. RHEL5 overview .................................................................. 155
11. Introduction to groups ............................................................................... 156
11.1. about groups ....................................................................................... 156
11.2. groupadd ............................................................................................. 156
11.3. /etc/group ............................................................................................ 156
11.4. usermod .............................................................................................. 156
11.5. groupmod ........................................................................................... 157
11.6. groupdel .............................................................................................. 157
11.7. groups ................................................................................................. 157
11.8. gpasswd .............................................................................................. 157
11.9. vigr ..................................................................................................... 158
11.10. practice: groups ................................................................................ 159
11.11. solution: groups ................................................................................ 160
12. Standard file permissions ........................................................................... 161
12.1. file ownership ..................................................................................... 161
12.1.1. user owner and group owner ................................................... 161
12.1.2. chgrp ........................................................................................ 161
12.1.3. chown ...................................................................................... 161
12.2. list of special files .............................................................................. 162
12.3. permissions ......................................................................................... 162
12.3.1. rwx .......................................................................................... 162
12.3.2. three sets of rwx ...................................................................... 163
12.3.3. permission examples ............................................................... 163
12.3.4. setting permissions (chmod) ................................................... 164
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Linux Fundamentals
12.3.5. setting octal permissions ......................................................... 165

12.3.6. umask ...................................................................................... 165
12.4. practice: standard file permissions ..................................................... 167
12.5. solution: standard file permissions ..................................................... 168
12.6. sticky and setgid bits ......................................................................... 170
12.6.1. sticky bit on directory ............................................................. 170
12.6.2. setgid bit on directory ............................................................. 170
12.6.3. setgid and setuid on regular files ............................................ 171
12.7. practice: sticky, setuid and setgid bits ............................................... 172
12.8. solution: sticky, setuid and setgid bits ............................................... 173
12.9. access control lists ............................................................................. 174
12.9.1. acl in /etc/fstab ........................................................................ 174
12.9.2. getfacl ...................................................................................... 174
12.9.3. setfacl ...................................................................................... 174
12.9.4. remove an acl entry ................................................................. 175
12.9.5. remove the complete acl ......................................................... 175
12.9.6. the acl mask ............................................................................ 175
12.9.7. eiciel ........................................................................................ 176
13. File links ....................................................................................................... 177
13.1. inodes ................................................................................................. 177
13.1.1. inode contents ......................................................................... 177
13.1.2. inode table ............................................................................... 177
13.1.3. inode number .......................................................................... 177
13.1.4. inode and file contents ............................................................ 178
13.2. about directories ................................................................................. 178
13.2.1. a directory is a table ................................................................ 178
13.2.2. . and .. ...................................................................................... 179
13.3. hard links ........................................................................................... 179
13.3.1. creating hard links ................................................................... 179
13.3.2. finding hard links .................................................................... 179
13.4. symbolic links .................................................................................... 179
13.5. removing links ................................................................................... 180
13.6. practice : links .................................................................................... 181
13.7. solution : links .................................................................................... 182
14. Process management ................................................................................... 183
14.1. terminology ........................................................................................ 183
14.1.1. process ..................................................................................... 183
14.1.2. PID .......................................................................................... 183
14.1.3. PPID ........................................................................................ 183
14.1.4. init ........................................................................................... 183
14.1.5. kill ........................................................................................... 183
14.1.6. daemon .................................................................................... 183
14.1.7. zombie ..................................................................................... 183
14.2. basic process management ................................................................. 184
14.2.1. $$ and $PPID .......................................................................... 184
14.2.2. pidof ........................................................................................ 184
14.2.3. parent and child ....................................................................... 184
14.2.4. fork and exec .......................................................................... 185
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14.2.5. exec ......................................................................................... 185

14.2.6. ps ............................................................................................. 185
14.2.7. pgrep ........................................................................................ 186
14.2.8. top ............................................................................................ 187
14.3. signalling processes ............................................................................ 188
14.3.1. kill ........................................................................................... 188
14.3.2. list signals ............................................................................... 188
14.3.3. kill -1 (SIGHUP) ..................................................................... 188
14.3.4. kill -15 (SIGTERM) ................................................................ 189
14.3.5. kill -9 (SIGKILL) .................................................................... 189
14.3.6. killall ....................................................................................... 189
14.3.7. pkill ......................................................................................... 189
14.3.8. top ............................................................................................ 189
14.3.9. SIGSTOP and SIGCONT ....................................................... 190
14.4. practice : basic process management ................................................. 191
14.5. solution : basic process management ................................................. 192
14.6. priority and nice values ...................................................................... 194
14.6.1. introduction ............................................................................. 194
14.6.2. pipes (mkfifo) .......................................................................... 194
14.6.3. some fun with cat .................................................................... 194
14.6.4. top ............................................................................................ 195
14.6.5. top -p ....................................................................................... 195
14.6.6. renice ....................................................................................... 195
14.6.7. impact of nice values .............................................................. 196
14.6.8. nice .......................................................................................... 196
14.7. practice : process priorities ................................................................ 197
14.8. solution : process priorities ................................................................ 198
14.9. background processes ......................................................................... 200
14.9.1. jobs .......................................................................................... 200
14.9.2. control-Z .................................................................................. 200
14.9.3. & ampersand ........................................................................... 200
14.9.4. jobs -p ..................................................................................... 200
14.9.5. fg ............................................................................................. 201
14.9.6. bg ............................................................................................. 201
14.10. practice : background processes ....................................................... 202
14.11. solution : background processes ....................................................... 203
A. Keyboard settings ......................................................................................... 205
A.1. About Keyboard Layout ..................................................................... 205
A.2. X Keyboard Layout ............................................................................ 205
A.3. Shell Keyboard Layout ....................................................................... 205
B. Hardware Settings ........................................................................................ 207
B.1. buses .................................................................................................... 207
B.1.1. about buses ............................................................................... 207
B.1.2. /proc/bus .................................................................................... 207
B.1.3. /usr/sbin/lsusb ........................................................................... 207
B.1.4. /var/lib/usbutils/usb.ids ............................................................. 207
B.1.5. /usr/sbin/lspci ............................................................................ 208
B.2. interrupts .............................................................................................. 208
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B.2.1. about interrupts ......................................................................... 208

B.2.2. /proc/interrupts .......................................................................... 208
B.2.3. dmesg ........................................................................................ 209
B.3. io ports ................................................................................................. 209
B.3.1. about io ports ............................................................................ 209
B.3.2. /proc/ioports .............................................................................. 209
B.4. dma ...................................................................................................... 210
B.4.1. about dma ................................................................................. 210
B.4.2. /proc/dma .................................................................................. 210
Index .................................................................................................................... 211
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List of Tables
1.1. Early Unix Timeline ........................................................................................ 1
1.2. Eighties Unix Timeline .................................................................................... 2
1.3. Current BSD Timeline ..................................................................................... 2
8.1. getting to command mode ........................................................................... 115
8.2. switch to insert mode ................................................................................... 115
8.3. replace and delete ........................................................................................ 116
8.4. undo and repeat ............................................................................................ 116
8.5. cut, copy and paste a line ............................................................................ 116
8.6. cut, copy and paste lines .............................................................................. 117
8.7. start and end of line ..................................................................................... 117
8.8. join two lines ............................................................................................... 117
8.9. words ............................................................................................................ 118
8.10. save and exit vi .......................................................................................... 118
8.11. searching .................................................................................................... 119
8.12. replace ........................................................................................................ 119
8.13. read files and input .................................................................................... 119
8.14. text buffers ................................................................................................. 120
8.15. multiple files .............................................................................................. 120
8.16. abbreviations .............................................................................................. 120
10.1. Debian User Environment .......................................................................... 155
10.2. Red Hat User Environment ........................................................................ 155
12.1. Unix special files ....................................................................................... 162
12.2. standard Unix file permissions .................................................................. 162
12.3. Unix file permissions position ................................................................... 163
12.4. Octal permissions ....................................................................................... 165
xiii
Chapter 1. Introduction to Unix and Linux
1.1. Unix History
1.1.1. AT&T Bell Labs

In 1969 Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson wrote UNICS (Uniplexed Information
and Computing System) at Bell Labs. Together with Douglas McIlroy they are
seen as the creators of Unix. The name Unics is a play on the Multics Operating
System for mainframe computers. Unics (later renamed to Unix) was written for
mini-computers like the DEC PDP-series. In 1973 they decided to write Unix in
C (instead of assembler), to make it portable to other computers. Unix was made
available to universities, companies and the US government, including the full source
code. This meant that every C programmer could make changes. By 1978 about 600
computers were running Unix.
Table 1.1. Early Unix Timeline
1969-1977 1978-1980 1981 1982
4.1BSD
BSD 4.1BSD
SunOS 1.0
UNIX Time Sharing System
Unix
Unix
System III
1.1.2. The Unix Wars

The unity and openness that existed in the Unix world until 1977 was long gone by
the end of the eighties. Different vendors of distinct versions of Unix tried to set the
standard. Sun and AT&T joined the X/Open group to unify Unix. Other vendors
joined the Open Software Foundation or OSF. These struggles were not good for
Unix, allowing for new operating system families like OS/2, Novell Netware and
Microsoft Windows NT to take big chunks of server market share in the early nineties.
The table below shows the evolution of a united Unix into several Unixes in the
eighties.
1
Introduction to Unix and Linux
Table 1.2. Eighties Unix Timeline
1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
4.3BSD BSD Net/2
4.1BSD
4.3BSD NeXTSTEP
SunOS1.0 SunOS3.2 Solaris
SystemVr4
System V UnixWare
System V AIX
III + V HP-UX
1.1.3. University of California, Berkeley

Students of Berkeley were happy to join in the development of Bell Labs Unix, but
were not so happy with the restrictive licensing. Unix was open source software,
but it still required purchase of a license. So during the eighties, they rewrote all
the Unix tools until they had a complete Unix-like operating system. By 1991, the
BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution) branch of Unix was completely separate from
the Bell Labs Unix. NetBSD, FreeBSD, and OpenBSD are three current Unix-
like operating systems derived from the 1991 BSD Net/2 codebase. Sun Solaris,
Microsoft Windows NT, and Apple Mac OS X all used source code from BSD. The
table below shows operating systems still in use today that are in a way derived from
the 1978-1981 BSD codebase.
Table 1.3. Current BSD Timeline
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000-2008
FreeBSD
BSD Net/2 NetBSD
NetBSD OpenBSD
NeXTSTEP Mac OS X
Solaris
1.1.4. GNU's not Unix

Largely because of discontent with the restrictive licensing on existing Unix
implementations, Richard Stallman initiated the GNU Project in 1983. The GNU
project aims to create free software. Development of the GNU operating system
started, aiming to create a complete Unix-like branch, separate from the two other
(BSD and Bell Labs). Today the GNU compiler gcc and most other GNU utilities (like
bash) are among the most popular on many Unix-like systems. The official kernel of
this project is GNU/Hurd, but you can hardly call that kernel a finished product.
2
1.1.5. Linux
Where GNU/Hurd failed, the Linux kernel succeeded! In 1991 a Finnish student
named Linus Torvalds started writing his own operating system for his intel 80386
computer. In January 1992, Linus decided to release Linux under the GNU GPL.
Thanks to this, thousands of developers are now working on the Linux kernel. Linus
Torvalds is in charge of the kernel developers.
Contrary to popular belief, they are not all volunteers. Today big companies like
Red Hat, Novell, IBM, Intel, SGI, Oracle, Montavista, Google, HP, NetApp, Cisco,
Fujitsu, Broadcom, and others are actively paying developers to work on the Linux
kernel. According to the Linux Foundation "over 3700 individual developers from
over 200 different companies have contributed to the kernel between 2005 and april
2008". 1057 developers from 186 different companies contributed code to make
kernel version 2.6.23 into 2.6.24.
1.2. Licensing
1.2.1. Proprietary
Some flavors of Unix, like HP-UX, IBM AIX, and Sun Solaris 9 are delivered in
binary form after purchase. You are not authorized to install or use these without
paying a licensing fee. You are not authorized to distribute these copies to other
people and you are not authorized to look at or change the closed source code of
the operating system. This software is usually protected by copyright, patents, and
extensive software licensing.
1.2.2. BSD
BSD style licenses are close to the public domain. They essentially state that you
can copy the software, but you have to leave the copyright notice that refers to BSD.
This license gives a lot of freedom but offers few protection to someone copying and
selling your work.
1.2.3. GNU General Public License (GPL)

More and more software is being released under the GPL (in 2006 Java was released
under the GPL). The goal of the GPL is to guarantee that free software stays free.
Everyone can work together on GPL software, knowing that the software will be
freely available to everyone. The GPL can protect software, even in court.
Free is to be understood as in freedom of speech, not to be confused with free as in

not having to pay for your free beer. In other words, or even better, in other languages
3
free software translates to vrije software (Dutch) or Logiciel Libre (French) whereas
the free from free beer translates to gratis.
Briefly explained, the GPL allows you to copy software, the GPL allows you to
distribute (sell or give away) that software, and the GPL grants you the right to read
and change the source code. But the person receiving or buying the software from
you has the same rights. And should you decide to distribute modified versions of
GPL software, then you are obligated to put the same license on the modifications
(and provide the source code of your modifications).
1.2.4. Others...
There are many other licenses on software. You should read and understand them
before using any software.
1.3. Current Distributions
1.3.1. What is a distribution ?

Unix comes in many flavors usually called distributions. A distribution (or in short
distro) is a collection of software packages distributed on CD, online, or pre-installed
on computers. All the software in a distribution is tested and integrated nicely into
a whole. Software is maintained (patched) by the distributor and is managed by an
integrated package manager. Many distros have a central repository of approved
software. Installing software from outside the distro can sometimes be cumbersome
and may void your warranty on the system.
1.3.2. Linux Distributions

There are hundreds of Linux distributions, just take a look at the distrowatch.com
website. For many years, Red Hat, Suse, and Mandrake were considered the big three
for end users. Red Hat is still the biggest commercial Linux vendor and since 2008
the most popular Linux distribution for home users is Ubuntu from Canonical.
Linux distribution detection

Depending on the distribution used, there are distinct files that contain the distribution
version.
The /etc/redhat-release file contains the Red Hat version on most of the Red Hat and
Red Hat derived systems. Debian and Ubuntu systems contain /etc/debian-version.
Note that Ubuntu was originally derived from Debian.
4
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /etc/redhat-release

Red Hat Enterprise Linux AS release 4 (Nahant Update 4)
serge@venusia:~$ cat /etc/debian_version

lenny/sid
The /etc/lsb-release file can be found on distributions that follow the Linux Standard
Base. Other variations to these files are /etc/slackware-version, /etc/SuSE-release,
/etc/gentoo-release and /etc/mandrake-release.
serge@venusia:~$ cat /etc/lsb-release

DISTRIB_ID=Ubuntu
DISTRIB_RELEASE=8.04
DISTRIB_CODENAME=hardy
DISTRIB_DESCRIPTION="Ubuntu 8.04.1"
Red Hat
Redhat has been a company since 1993. They distribute Red Hat Enterprise
Linux (RHEL) to companies and manage the Fedora project. RHEL is probably
the most popular Linux-based distro on servers. Fedora is a very popular and user
friendly Linux-based distro, aimed towards home users. The company makes a profit
of around one hundred million dollars a year selling support contracts. Red Hat
contributes a lot to the Linux kernel and other free software projects.
Red Hat Linux
Red Hat Linux was distributed from 1994 until 2003. It was one of the oldest common
Linux distributions. Red Hat Linux was the first distro to use the rpm package format.
Many other distros are originally derived from Red Hat Linux. The company Red
Hat, Inc. decided to split Red Hat Linux into Fedora and Red Hat Enterprise
Linux.
Fedora
Fedora is sponsored by Red Hat which is aimed toward home users. There is no
official support from Red Hat. Every six to eight months, there is a new version
of Fedora. Fedora usually has more recent versions of kernel and applications than
RHEL. Fedora 9 was released May 2008.
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 4
Since 2005 Red Hat has distributed four different RHEL4 variants. RHEL AS is
for mission-critical computer systems. RHEL ES is for small to mid-range servers.
RHEL WS is for technical power user desktops and critical design. Red Hat Desktop
is for multiple deployments of single user desktops. Red Hat does not give an
5
explanation for the meaning of AS, ES and WS, but it might be Advanced Server,
Entry-level Server, and Workstation.
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5
Red Hat Enterprise Linux version 5 has been available since March 2007. One of the
notable new features is the inclusion of Xen. Xen is a free virtual machine application
that allows NetBSD and Linux to serve as host for guest operating systems. Besides
virtualization, RHEL 5 also has better SELinux support, clustering, network storage
and smart card integration.
CentOS and Unbreakable Linux
Both CentOS and Oracle's Unbreakable Linux are directly derived from RHEL,
but all references to Red Hat trademarks are removed. Companies are allowed to do
this (GPL), and are hoping to make a profit selling support (without having the cost
of developing and maintaining their own distribution). Red Hat is not really worried
about this since they develop a lot on Linux and thus can offer much better support.
The Oracle offering is still very recent, so let's wait and see how many organizations
will buy a complete solution from Oracle.
Ubuntu
Ubuntu is a rather new distribution, based on Debian, and funded by South African
developer and billionaire astronaut Mark Shuttleworth. Ubuntu is giving away free
(as in beer and speech) CDs with Ubuntu, Linux for Human Beings. Many people
consider Ubuntu to be the most user friendly Linux distribution. The company behind
Ubuntu is Canonical which intends to make a profit of selling support soon. Ubuntu
is probably the most popular Unix-like distribution on personal desktops.
Image copied from xkcd.com.
Novell Suse
A couple of years ago, Novell bought the German company Suse. They are seen as
the main competitor to Red Hat with their SLES (Suse Linux Enterprise Server) and
6
SLED (Suse Linux Enterprise Desktop) versions of Suse Linux. Similar to Fedora,
Novell hosts the OpenSUSE project as a testbed for upcoming SLED and SLES
releases.
Novell has signed a very controversial deal with Microsoft. Some high-profile open
source developers have left the company because of this agreement and many
people from the open source community are actively advocating to abandon Novell
completely.
Debian
Debian is one of the most secure Linux distros. It is known to be stable and reliable.
The Debian people also have a strong focus towards freedom. You will not find
patented technologies or non-free software in the standard Debian repositories. A lot
of distributions (Ubuntu, Knoppix, ...) are derived from the Debian codebase. Debian
has aptitude, which is considered the best package management system.
Mandriva
Mandriva is the unification of the Brazilian distro Conectiva with the French distro
Mandrake. They are considered a user friendly distro with support from the French
government.
1.3.3. BSD Distributions
FreeBSD
FreeBSD is a complete operating system. The kernel and all of the utilities are held in
the same source code tree. FreeBSD runs on many architectures and is considered to
be reliable and robust. Millions of websites are running on FreeBSD, including some
large ones like yahoo.com, apache.org, sony.co.jp, netcraft, php.net, and freebsd.org.
Apple's MacOSX contains the FreeBSD virtual file system, network stack, and more.
NetBSD
NetBSD development started around the same time (1993) as FreeBSD. NetBSD
aims for maximum portability and thus runs on many architectures. NetBSD is often
used in embedded devices.
OpenBSD
Co-founder Theo De Raadt from NetBSD founded the OpenBSD project in
1994. OpenBSD aims for maximum security. Over the past ten years, only two
7
vulnerabilities have been found in the default install of OpenBSD. All source code
is thoroughly checked. OpenBSD runs on sixteen different architectures and is
commonly used for firewalls and IDS. The OpenBSD people also bring us OpenSSH.
1.3.4. Major Vendors of Unix

We should at least mention IBM's AIX, Sun's Solaris, and Hewlett-Packard's HP-
UX, which are all based on the original Unix from Bell Labs (Unix System V).
Sun's SunOS, HP's Tru64 (originally from DEC), and Apple's MacOSX are more
derived from the BSD branch. But most Unixes today may contain source code and
implementations from both original Unix-branches.
1.3.5. Solaris
Solaris 8 and Solaris 9

All Sun Solaris releases before Solaris 10 are proprietary binary only, just like IBM
AIX and HP-UX.
Solaris 10
Solaris 10 is the officially supported Sun distribution. It is a free (as in beer)
download. Sun releases binary patches and updates. Sun would like a community
built around the Solaris kernel, similar to the Linux community. Sun released the
Solaris kernel under the CDDL, a license similar to the GPL, hoping this will happen.
Nevada and Solaris Express

Nevada is the codename for the next release of Solaris (Solaris 11). It is currently
under development by Sun and is based on the OpenSolaris code. Solaris Express
Community Edition is an official, free binary release including open source
OpenSolaris and some closed source technologies, updated twice a month without
any support from Sun. Solaris Express Developer Edition is the same, but with some
support, thorough testing before release, and is released twice a year.
OpenSolaris, Belenix and Nexenta

OpenSolaris is an open source development project (yes, it is only source code).
Future versions of the Solaris operating system are based on this source code. The
Belenix LiveCD is based on OpenSolaris. Another famous OpenSolaris based distro
is Nexenta. Nexenta (www.gnusolaris.org) looks like Ubuntu and feels like Debian.
The goal of this GNU/Solaris project is to have the best Linux desktop (Ubuntu)
including the aptitude package manager running on a Sun Solaris kernel.
8
1.4. Certification
1.4.1. LPI: Linux Professional Institute
LPIC Level 1
This is the junior level certification. You need to pass exams 101 and 102 to
achieve LPIC 1 certification. To pass level one, you will need Linux command
line, user management, backup and restore, installation, networking, and basic system
administration skills.
LPIC Level 2
This is the advanced level certification. You need to be LPIC 1 certified and pass
exams 201 and 202 to achieve LPIC 2 certification. To pass level two, you will need
to be able to administer medium sized Linux networks, including Samba, mail, news,
proxy, firewall, web, and ftp servers.
LPIC Level 3
This is the senior level certification. It contains one core exam (301) which tests
advanced skills mainly about ldap. To achieve this level you also need LPIC Level
2 and pass a specialty exam (302 or 303). Exam 302 mainly focuses on Samba, and
303 on advanced security. More info on http://www.lpi.org.
Ubuntu
When you are LPIC Level 1 certified, you can take a LPI Ubuntu exam (199) and
become Ubuntu certified.
1.4.2. Red Hat Certified Engineer

The big difference with most other certifications is that there are no multiple choice
questions for RHCE. Red Hat Certified Engineers have to take a live exam consisting
of two parts. First, they have to troubleshoot and maintain an existing but broken
setup (scoring at least 80 percent), and second they have to install and configure a
machine (scoring at least 70 percent).
1.4.3. MySQL
There are two tracks for MySQL certification; Certified MySQL 5.0 Developer
(CMDEV) and Certified MySQL 5.0 DBA (CMDBA). The CMDEV is focused
9
towards database application developers, and the CMDBA towards database

administrators. Both tracks require two exams each. The MySQL cluster DBA
certification requires CMDBA certification and passing the CMCDBA exam.
1.4.4. Novell CLP/CLE

To become a Novell Certified Linux Professional, you have to take a live practicum.
This is a VNC session to a set of real SLES servers. You have to perform several
tasks and are free to choose your method (commandline or YaST or ...). No multiple
choice involved.
1.4.5. Sun Solaris

Sun uses the classical formula of multiple choice exams for certification. Passing
two exams for an operating system gets you the Solaris Certified Administrator for
Solaris X title.
1.4.6. Other certifications

There are many other lesser known certifications like EC council's Certified Ethical
Hacker, CompTIA's Linux+, and Sair's Linux GNU.
1.5. Discovering the classroom

It is now time to take a look at what we have in this classroom. Students should be
able to log on to one or more (virtual) Linux computers and test connectivity to each
other and to the internet.
10
Chapter 2. Getting help
2.1. man pages

Most Unix files and commands have pretty good man pages to explain their use. Man
pages also come in handy when you are using multiple flavors of Unix or several
Linux distributions since options and parameters sometimes vary.
2.1.1. man $command

Type man followed by a command (for which you want help) and start reading. Press
q to quit the manpage. Some man pages contain examples (near the end).
paul@laika:~$ man whois

Reformatting whois(1), please wait...
2.1.2. man $configfile

Most configuration files have their own manual.
paul@laika:~$ man syslog.conf

Reformatting syslog.conf(5), please wait...
2.1.3. man $daemon

This is also true for most daemons (background programs) on your system..
paul@laika:~$ man syslogd

Reformatting syslogd(8), please wait...
2.1.4. man -k (apropos)

man -k (or apropos) shows a list of man pages containing a string.
paul@laika:~$ man -k syslog

lm-syslog-setup (8) - configure laptop mode to switch syslog.conf ...
logger (1) - a shell command interface to the syslog(3) ...
syslog-facility (8) - Setup and remove LOCALx facility for sysklogd
syslog.conf (5) - syslogd(8) configuration file
syslogd (8) - Linux system logging utilities.
syslogd-listfiles (8) - list system logfiles
11
Getting help
2.1.5. whatis
To see just the description of a manual page, use whatis followed by a string.
paul@u810:~$ whatis route

route (8) - show / manipulate the IP routing table
2.1.6. whereis
The location of a manpage can be revealed with whereis.
paul@laika:~$ whereis -m whois

whois: /usr/share/man/man1/whois.1.gz
This file is directly readable by man.
paul@laika:~$ man /usr/share/man/man1/whois.1.gz
2.1.7. man sections

By now you will have noticed the numbers between the round brackets. man man
will explain to you that these are section numbers. Executable programs and shell
commands reside in section one.
1 Executable programs or shell commands

2 System calls (functions provided by the kernel)
3 Library calls (functions within program libraries)
4 Special files (usually found in /dev)
5 File formats and conventions eg /etc/passwd
6 Games
7 Miscellaneous (including macro packages and conventions), e.g. man(7)
8 System administration commands (usually only for root)
9 Kernel routines [Non standard]
2.1.8. man $section $file

Therefor, when referring to the man page of the passwd command, you will see it
written as passwd(1); when referringto the passwd file, you will see it written as
passwd(5). The screenshot explains how to open the man page in the correct section.
[paul@RHEL52 ~]$ man passwd # opens the lowest section (1)

[paul@RHEL52 ~]$ man 5 passwd # opens a page from section 5
12
Getting help
2.1.9. man man

If you want to know more about man, then Read The Fantastic Manual (RTFM).
Unfortunately, manual pages do not have the answer to everything...
paul@laika:~$ man woman

No manual entry for woman
2.1.10. mandb
Should you be convinced that a man page exists, but you can't access it, then try
running mandb.
root@laika:~# mandb
0 man subdirectories contained newer manual pages.
0 manual pages were added.
0 stray cats were added.
0 old database entries were purged.
2.2. online help
2.2.1. Google
Google is a powerful tool to find help about Unix, or anything else. Here are some
tricks.
Look for phrases instead of single words.
Search only pages from the .be TLD (or substitute .be for any other Top Level
Domain). You can also use "country:be" to search only pages from Belgium (based
on ip rather than TLD).
Search for pages inside one domain
Search for pages not containing some words.
13
Getting help
2.2.2. Wikipedia
Wikipedia is a web-based, free-content encyclopedia. Its growth over the past two
years has been astonishing. You have a good chance of finding a clear explanation
by typing your search term behind http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ like this example
shows.
2.2.3. The Linux Documentation Project

You can find much documentation, faqs, howtos and man pages about Linux and
many of the programs running on Linux on www.tldp.org .
2.2.4. Red Hat

Red Hat has a lot of info online at http://www.redhat.com/docs/manuals/ in both
pdf and html format. These manuals are good, but unfortunately are not always up
to date.
2.2.5. Ubuntu
Help for every Ubuntu release is available at https://help.ubuntu.com. Ubuntu also
has video of how to perform tasks on Ubuntu at http://screencasts.ubuntu.com.
2.2.6. www.linux-training.be
This book is available for free in .pdf format. Download it at http://www.linux-
training.be and learn more about Linux fundamentals, system administration,
networking, storage, security and more.
14
Chapter 3. First steps
3.1. working with directories

To explore the Linux file tree, you will need some tools. Here's a small overview of
the most common commands to work with directories. These commands are available
on any Linux system.
3.1.1. pwd
The you are here sign can be displayed with the pwd command (Print Working
Directory). Go ahead, try it: Open a command line interface (like gnome-terminal,
konsole, xterm, or a tty) and type pwd. The tool displays your current directory.
paul@laika:~$ pwd
/home/paul
3.1.2. cd
You can change your current directory with the cd command (Change Directory).
paul@laika$ cd /etc
paul@laika$ pwd
/etc
paul@laika$ cd /bin
paul@laika$ pwd
/bin
paul@laika$ cd /home/paul/
paul@laika$ pwd
/home/paul
cd ~
You can pull off a trick with cd. Just typing cd without a target directory, will put
you in your home directory. Typing cd ~ has the same effect.
paul@laika$ cd /etc
paul@laika$ pwd
/etc
paul@laika$ cd
paul@laika$ pwd
/home/paul
paul@laika$ cd ~
paul@laika$ pwd
/home/paul
15
First steps
cd ..
To go to the parent directory (the one just above your current directory in the
directory tree), type cd .. .
paul@laika$ pwd
/usr/share/games
paul@laika$ cd ..
paul@laika$ pwd
/usr/share
paul@laika$ cd ..
paul@laika$ cd ..
paul@laika$ pwd
/
To stay in the current directory, type cd . ;-)
cd -
Another useful shortcut with cd is to just type cd - to go to the previous directory.
paul@laika$ pwd
/home/paul
paul@laika$ cd /etc
paul@laika$ pwd
/etc
paul@laika$ cd -
/home/paul
paul@laika$ cd -
/etc
3.1.3. absolute and relative paths

You should be aware of absolute and relative paths in the file tree. When you type
a path starting with a slash, then the root of the file tree is assumed. If you don't start
your path with a slash, then the current directory is the assumed starting point.
The screenshot below first shows the current directory (/home/paul). From within this
directory, you have to type cd /home instead of cd home to go to the /home directory.
paul@laika$ pwd
/home/paul
paul@laika$ cd home
bash: cd: home: No such file or directory
paul@laika$ cd /home
paul@laika$ pwd
/home
16
First steps
When inside /home, you have to type cd paul instead of cd /paul to enter the
subdirectory paul of the current directory /home.
paul@laika$ pwd
/home
paul@laika$ cd /paul
bash: cd: /paul: No such file or directory
paul@laika$ cd paul
paul@laika$ pwd
/home/paul
In case your current directory is the root directory, then both cd /home and cd home
will get you in the /home directory.
paul@laika$ cd /
paul@laika$ pwd
/
paul@laika$ cd home
paul@laika$ pwd
/home
paul@laika$ cd /
paul@laika$ pwd
/
paul@laika$ cd /home
paul@laika$ pwd
/home
This was the last screenshot with pwd statements. From now on, the current directory
will often be displayed in the prompt. Later in this book we will explain how the shell
variable $PS1 can be configured to show this.
3.1.4. path completion

The tab key can help you in typing a path without errors. Typing cd /et followed by
the tab key will expand the command line to cd /etc/. When typing cd /Et followed
by the tab key, nothing will happen because you typed the wrong path (uppercase E).
You will need fewer key strokes when using the tab key, and you will be sure your
typed path is correct!
3.1.5. ls
You can list the contents of a directory with ls.
paul@pasha:~$ ls
allfiles.txt dmesg.txt httpd.conf stuff summer.txt
paul@pasha:~$
17
First steps
ls -a
A frequently used option with ls is -a to show all files. Showing all files means
including the hidden files. When a filename on a Unix file system starts with a dot,
it is considered a hidden file and it doesn't show up in regular file listings.
paul@pasha:~$ ls
allfiles.txt dmesg.txt httpd.conf stuff summer.txt
paul@pasha:~$ ls -a
. allfiles.txt .bash_profile dmesg.txt .lesshst stuff
.. .bash_history .bashrc httpd.conf .ssh summer.txt
paul@pasha:~$
ls -l
Many times you will be using options with ls to display the contents of the directory
in different formats or to display different parts of the directory. Typing just ls gives
you a list of files in the directory. Typing ls -l (that is a letter L, not the number 1)
gives you a long listing (more information on the contents).
paul@pasha:~$ ls -l
total 23992
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 24506857 2006-03-30 22:53 allfiles.txt
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 14744 2006-09-27 11:45 dmesg.txt
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 8189 2006-03-31 14:01 httpd.conf
drwxr-xr-x 2 paul paul 4096 2007-01-08 12:22 stuff
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2006-03-30 22:45 summer.txt
ls -lh
Another frequently used ls option is -h. It shows the numbers (file sizes) in a more
human readable format. Also shown below is some variation in the way you can give
the options to ls. We will explain the details of the output later in this book.
paul@pasha:~$ ls -l -h
total 24M
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 24M 2006-03-30 22:53 allfiles.txt
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 15K 2006-09-27 11:45 dmesg.txt
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 8.0K 2006-03-31 14:01 httpd.conf
drwxr-xr-x 2 paul paul 4.0K 2007-01-08 12:22 stuff
paul@pasha:~$ ls -lh
total 24M
paul@pasha:~$ ls -hl
total 24M
18
First steps

paul@pasha:~$ ls -h -l
total 24M
3.1.6. mkdir
Walking around the Unix file tree is fun, but it is even more fun to create your own
directories with mkdir. You have to give at least one parameter to mkdir, the name
of the new directory to be created. Think before you type a leading / .
paul@laika:~$ mkdir MyDir

paul@laika:~$ cd MyDir
paul@laika:~/MyDir$ ls -al
total 8
drwxr-xr-x 2 paul paul 4096 2007-01-10 21:13 .
drwxr-xr-x 39 paul paul 4096 2007-01-10 21:13 ..
paul@laika:~/MyDir$ mkdir stuff
paul@laika:~/MyDir$ mkdir otherstuff
paul@laika:~/MyDir$ ls -l
total 8
drwxr-xr-x 2 paul paul 4096 2007-01-10 21:14 otherstuff
drwxr-xr-x 2 paul paul 4096 2007-01-10 21:14 stuff
paul@laika:~/MyDir$
mkdir -p
When given the option -p, then mkdir will create parent directories as needed.
paul@laika:~$ mkdir -p MyDir2/MySubdir2/ThreeDeep

paul@laika:~$ ls MyDir2
MySubdir2
paul@laika:~$ ls MyDir2/MySubdir2
ThreeDeep
paul@laika:~$ ls MyDir2/MySubdir2/ThreeDeep/
3.1.7. rmdir
When a directory is empty, you can use rmdir to remove the directory.
paul@laika:~/MyDir$ rmdir otherstuff

paul@laika:~/MyDir$ ls
stuff
paul@laika:~/MyDir$ cd ..
paul@laika:~$ rmdir MyDir
19
First steps
rmdir: MyDir/: Directory not empty

paul@laika:~$ rmdir MyDir/stuff
paul@laika:~$ rmdir MyDir
rmdir -p
And similar to the mkdir -p option, you can also use rmdir to recursively remove
directories.
paul@laika:~$ mkdir -p dir/subdir/subdir2

paul@laika:~$ rmdir -p dir/subdir/subdir2
paul@laika:~$
20
First steps
3.2. practice : working with directories

1. Display your current directory.
2. Change to the /etc directory.
3. Now change to your home directory using only three key presses.
4. Change to the /boot/grub directory using only eleven key presses.
5. Go to the parent directory of the current directory.
6. Go to the root directory.
7. List the contents of the root directory.
8. List a long listing of the root directory.
9. Stay where you are, and list the contents of /etc.
10. Stay where you are, and list the contents of /bin and /sbin.
11. Stay where you are, and list the contents of ~.
12. List all the files (including hidden files) in your home directory.
13. List the files in /boot in a human readable format.
14. Create a directory testdir in your home directory.
15. Change to the /etc directory, stay here and create a directory newdir in your home
directory.
16. Create in one command the directories ~/dir1/dir2/dir3 (dir3 is a subdirectory

from dir2, and dir2 is a subdirectory from dir1 ).
17. Remove the directory testdir.
18. If time permits (or if you are waiting for other students to finish this practice),
use and understand pushd and popd. Use the man page of bash to find information
about pushd, popd and dirs.
21
First steps
3.3. solution : working with directories

1. Display your current directory.
pwd
2. Change to the /etc directory.

cd /etc
3. Now change to your home directory using only three key presses.
cd (and the enter key)
4. Change to the /boot/grub directory using only eleven key presses.

cd /boot/grub (use the tab key)
5. Go to the parent directory of the current directory.

cd .. (with space between cd and ..)
6. Go to the root directory.

cd /
7. List the contents of the root directory.

ls
8. List a long listing of the root directory.

ls -l
9. Stay where you are, and list the contents of /etc.

ls /etc
10. Stay where you are, and list the contents of /bin and /sbin.
ls /bin /sbin
11. Stay where you are, and list the contents of ~.

ls ~
12. List all the files (including hidden files) in your home directory.
ls -al ~
13. List the files in /boot in a human readable format.

ls -lh /boot
14. Create a directory testdir in your home directory.

mkdir ~/testdir
15. Change to the /etc directory, stay here and create a directory newdir in your home
directory.
22
First steps
cd /etc ; mkdir ~/newdir
16. Create in one command the directories ~/dir1/dir2/dir3 (dir3 is a subdirectory

from dir2, and dir2 is a subdirectory from dir1 ).
mkdir -p ~/dir1/dir2/dir3
17. Remove the directory testdir.

rmdir testdir
use and understand pushd and popd. Use the man page of bash to find information
about pushd, popd and dirs.
man bash
The Bash shell has two built-in commands called pushd and popd. Both commands
work with a common stack of previous directories. Pushd adds a directory to the stack
and changes to a new current directory, popd removes a directory from the stack and
sets the current directory.
paul@laika:/etc$ cd /bin
paul@laika:/bin$ pushd /lib
/lib /bin
paul@laika:/lib$ pushd /proc
/proc /lib /bin
paul@laika:/proc$
paul@laika:/proc$ popd
/lib /bin
paul@laika:/lib$
paul@laika:/lib$
paul@laika:/lib$ popd
/bin
paul@laika:/bin$
23
First steps
3.4. working with files
3.4.1. file
The file utility determines the file type. Linux does not use extensions to determine
the file type. Your editor does not care whether a file ends in .TXT or .DOC. As a
system administrator, you should use the file command to determine the file type.
Here are some examples on a typical Linux system.
paul@laika:~$ file pic33.png

pic33.png: PNG image data, 3840 x 1200, 8-bit/color RGBA, non-interlaced
paul@laika:~$ file /etc/passwd
/etc/passwd: ASCII text
paul@laika:~$ file HelloWorld.c
HelloWorld.c: ASCII C program text
Here's another example of the file utility. It shows different type of binaries on
different architectures.
# Solaris 9 on Intel
bash-2.05$ file /bin/date
/bin/date: ELF 32-bit LSB executable 80386 Version 1, dynamically \
linked, stripped
# Ubuntu Linux on AMD64

paul@laika:~$ file /bin/date
/bin/date: ELF 64-bit LSB executable, AMD x86-64, version 1 (SYSV), for\
GNU/Linux 2.6.0, dynamically linked (uses shared libs), for GNU/Linux \
2.6.0, stripped
# Debian Sarge on SPARC

paul@pasha:~$ file /bin/date
/bin/date: ELF 32-bit MSB executable, SPARC, version 1 (SYSV), for GNU/\
Linux 2.4.1, dynamically linked (uses shared libs), for GNU/Linux 2.4.1\
, stripped
The file command uses a magic file that contains patterns to recognize filetypes.
The magic file is located in /usr/share/file/magic. Type man 5 magic for more
information.
3.4.2. touch
One easy way to create a file is with touch. (We will see many other ways for creating
files later in this book.)
paul@laika:~/test$ touch file1

paul@laika:~/test$ ls -l
total 0
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2007-01-10 21:40 file1
24
First steps

touch -t
Of course, touch can do more than just create files. Can you determine what by
looking at the next screenshot? If not, check the manual for touch.
paul@laika:~/test$ touch -t 200505050000 SinkoDeMayo

paul@laika:~/test$ touch -t 130207111630 BigBattle
paul@laika:~/test$ ls -l
total 0
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 1302-07-11 16:30 BigBattle
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2005-05-05 00:00 SinkoDeMayo
3.4.3. rm
When you no longer need a file, use rm to remove it. Unlike some graphical user
interfaces, the command line in general does not have a waste bin or trashcan to
recover files. When you use rm to remove a file, the file is gone. Therefore, be careful
when removing files!
paul@laika:~/test$ ls
BigBattle SinkoDeMayo
paul@laika:~/test$ rm BigBattle
SinkoDeMayo
rm -i
To prevent yourself from accidentally removing a file, you can type rm -i.
paul@laika:~/Linux$ touch brel.txt

paul@laika:~/Linux$ rm -i brel.txt
rm: remove regular empty file `brel.txt'? y
paul@laika:~/Linux$
rm -rf
By default, rm will not remove non-empty directories. However rm accepts several
options that will allow you to remove any directory. The rm -rf statement is famous
because it will erase anything (providing that you have the permissions to do so).
When you are logged on as root, be very careful with rm -rf (the f means force and
the r means recursive) since being root implies that permissions don't apply to you,
so you can literally erase your entire file system by accident.
25
First steps
paul@laika:~$ ls test
SinkoDeMayo
paul@laika:~$ rm test
rm: cannot remove `test': Is a directory
paul@laika:~$ rm -rf test
paul@laika:~$ ls test
ls: test: No such file or directory
3.4.4. cp
To copy a file, use cp with a source and a target argument. If the target is a directory,
then the source files are copied to that target directory.
paul@laika:~/test$ touch FileA

FileA
paul@laika:~/test$ cp FileA FileB
FileA FileB
paul@laika:~/test$ mkdir MyDir
FileA FileB MyDir
paul@laika:~/test$ cp FileA MyDir/
paul@laika:~/test$ ls MyDir/
FileA
cp -r
To copy complete directories, use cp -r (the -r option forces recursive copying of
all files in all subdirectories).
FileA FileB MyDir
paul@laika:~/test$ ls MyDir/
FileA
paul@laika:~/test$ cp -r MyDir MyDirB
FileA FileB MyDir MyDirB
paul@laika:~/test$ ls MyDirB
FileA
cp multiple files to directory

You can also use cp to copy multiple files into a directory. In this case, the last
argument (aka the target) must be a directory.
cp file1 file2 dir1/file3 dir1/file55 dir2
cp -i
To prevent cp from overwriting existing files, use the -i (for interactive) option.
26
First steps
paul@laika:~/test$ cp fire water

paul@laika:~/test$ cp -i fire water
cp: overwrite `water'? no
paul@laika:~/test$
cp -p
To preserve permissions and time stamps from source files, use cp -p.
paul@laika:~/perms$ cp file* cp
paul@laika:~/perms$ cp -p file* cpp
paul@laika:~/perms$ ll *
-rwx------ 1 paul paul 0 2008-08-25 13:26 file33
-rwxr-x--- 1 paul paul 0 2008-08-25 13:26 file42
cp:
total 0
cpp:
total 0
3.4.5. mv
Use mv to rename a file or to move the file to another directory.

file100
paul@laika:~/test$ mv file100 ABC.txt
ABC.txt
paul@laika:~/test$
When you need to rename only one file then mv is the preferred command to use.
3.4.6. rename
The rename command can also be used but it has a more complex syntax to enable
renaming of many files at once. Below are two examples, the first switches all
occurrences of txt to png for all filenames ending in .txt. The second example switches
all occurrences of uppercase ABC in lowercase abc for all filenames ending in .png .
The following syntax will work on debian and ubuntu (prior to Ubuntu 7.10).
123.txt ABC.txt
27
First steps
paul@laika:~/test$ rename 's/txt/png/' *.txt

123.png ABC.png
paul@laika:~/test$ rename 's/ABC/abc/' *.png
123.png abc.png
paul@laika:~/test$
On Red Hat Enterprise Linux (and many other Linux distributions like Ubuntu 8.04),
the syntax of rename is a bit different. The first example below renames all *.conf
files replacing any occurrence of conf with bak. The second example renames all (*)
files replacing one with ONE.
[paul@RHEL4a test]$ ls
one.conf two.conf
[paul@RHEL4a test]$ rename conf bak *.conf
one.bak two.bak
[paul@RHEL4a test]$ rename one ONE *
ONE.bak two.bak
[paul@RHEL4a test]$
28
First steps
3.5. practice : working with files

1. List the files in the /bin directory
2. Display the type of file of /bin/cat, /etc/passwd and /usr/bin/passwd.
3a. Download wolf.jpg and book.pdf from http://www.linux-training.be (wget http://

www.linux-training.be/studentfiles/wolf.jpg)
3b. Display the type of file of wolf.jpg and book.pdf
3c. Rename wolf.jpg to wolf.pdf (use mv).
3d. Display the type of file of wolf.pdf and book.pdf.
4. Create a directory ~/touched and enter it.
5. Create the files today.txt and yesterday.txt in touched.
6. Change the date on yesterday.txt to match yesterday's date.
7. Copy yesterday.txt to copy.yesterday.txt
8. Rename copy.yesterday.txt to kim
9. Create a directory called ~/testbackup and copy all files from ~/touched in it.
10. Use one command to remove the directory ~/testbackup and all files in it.
11. Create a directory ~/etcbackup and copy all *.conf files from /etc in it. Did you
include all subdirectories of /etc ?
12. Use rename to rename all *.conf files to *.backup . (if you have more than one
distro available, try it on all!)
29
First steps
3.6. solution : working with files

1. List the files in the /bin directory
ls /bin
2. Display the type of file of /bin/cat, /etc/passwd and /usr/bin/passwd.

file /bin/cat /etc/passwd /usr/bin/passwd
3a. Download wolf.jpg and book.pdf from http://www.linux-training.be (wget http://

www.linux-training.be/studentfiles/wolf.jpg)
wget http://www.linux-training.be/studentfiles/wolf.jpg
wget http://www.linux-training.be/studentfiles/book.pdf
3b. Display the type of file of wolf.jpg and book.pdf

file wolf.jpg book.pdf
3c. Rename wolf.jpg to wolf.pdf (use mv).

mv wolf.jpg wolf.pdf
3d. Display the type of file of wolf.pdf and book.pdf.

file wolf.pdf book.pdf
4. Create a directory ~/touched and enter it.

mkdir ~/touched ; cd ~/touched
5. Create the files today.txt and yesterday.txt in touched.

touch today.txt yesterday.txt
6. Change the date on yesterday.txt to match yesterday's date.

touch -t 200810251405 yesterday.txt (substitute 20081025 with yesterdays date)
7. Copy yesterday.txt to copy.yesterday.txt

cp yesterday.txt copy.yesterday.txt
8. Rename copy.yesterday.txt to kim

mv copy.yesterday.txt kim
9. Create a directory called ~/testbackup and copy all files from ~/touched in it.
mkdir ~/testbackup ; cp -r ~/touched ~/testbackup/
10. Use one command to remove the directory ~/testbackup and all files in it.
rm -rf ~/testbackup
11. Create a directory ~/etcbackup and copy all *.conf files from /etc in it. Did you
include all subdirectories of /etc ?
30
First steps
cp -r /etc/*.conf ~/etcbackup
Only *.conf files that are directly in /etc/ are copied.
12. Use rename to rename all *.conf files to *.backup . (if you have more than one
distro available, try it on all!)
On RHEL: touch 1.conf 2.conf ; rename conf backup *.conf
On Debian: touch 1.conf 2.conf ; rename 's/conf/backup/' *.conf
31
First steps
3.7. file contents
3.7.1. head
You can use head to display the first ten lines of a file.
paul@laika:~$ head /etc/passwd

root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash
daemon:x:1:1:daemon:/usr/sbin:/bin/sh
bin:x:2:2:bin:/bin:/bin/sh
sys:x:3:3:sys:/dev:/bin/sh
sync:x:4:65534:sync:/bin:/bin/sync
games:x:5:60:games:/usr/games:/bin/sh
man:x:6:12:man:/var/cache/man:/bin/sh
lp:x:7:7:lp:/var/spool/lpd:/bin/sh
mail:x:8:8:mail:/var/mail:/bin/sh
news:x:9:9:news:/var/spool/news:/bin/sh
paul@laika:~$
The head command can also display the first n lines of a file.
paul@laika:~$ head -4 /etc/passwd

daemon:x:1:1:daemon:/usr/sbin:/bin/sh
bin:x:2:2:bin:/bin:/bin/sh
sys:x:3:3:sys:/dev:/bin/sh
Head can also display the first n bytes.
paul@laika:~$ head -c4 /etc/passwd

rootpaul@laika:~$
3.7.2. tail
Similar to head, the tail command will display the last ten lines of a file.
paul@laika:~$ tail /etc/services

vboxd 20012/udp
binkp 24554/tcp # binkp fidonet protocol
asp 27374/tcp # Address Search Protocol
asp 27374/udp
csync2 30865/tcp # cluster synchronization tool
dircproxy 57000/tcp # Detachable IRC Proxy
tfido 60177/tcp # fidonet EMSI over telnet
fido 60179/tcp # fidonet EMSI over TCP
# Local services
paul@laika:~$
The tail command has other useful options, some of which we will use some of them
during this course.
32
First steps
3.7.3. cat
The cat command is one of the most universal tools. All it does is copy standard
input to standard output. In combination with the shell this can be very powerful and
diverse. Some examples will give a glimpse into the possibilities. The first example
is simple, you can use cat to display a file on the screen. If the file is longer than the
screen, it will scroll to the end.
paul@laika:~$ cat /etc/resolv.conf

nameserver 194.7.1.4
paul@laika:~$
concatenate
cat is short for concatenate. One of the basic uses of cat is to concatenate files into
a bigger (or complete) file.
paul@laika:~$ echo one > part1

paul@laika:~$ echo two > part2
paul@laika:~$ echo three > part3
paul@laika:~$ cat part1 part2 part3
one
two
three
paul@laika:~$
create files
You can use cat to create files with one or more lines of text. Type the command as
shown in the screenshot below. Then type one or more lines, finishing each line with
the enter key. After the last line, type and hold the Control (Ctrl) key and press d.
The Ctrl d key combination will send an EOF (End of File) to the running process
ending the cat command.
paul@laika:~/test$ cat > winter.txt

It is very cold today!
paul@laika:~/test$ cat winter.txt
paul@laika:~/test$
You can choose this end marker for cat with << as is shown in this screenshot.
paul@laika:~/test$ cat > hot.txt <<stop

> It is hot today!
> Yes it is summer.
> stop
paul@laika:~/test$ cat hot.txt
It is hot today!
Yes it is summer.
33
First steps
paul@laika:~/test$
copy files
In the third example you will see that cat can be used to copy files. We will explain
in detail what happens here in the bash shell chapter.
paul@laika:~/test$ cat winter.txt

paul@laika:~/test$ cat winter.txt > cold.txt
paul@laika:~/test$ cat cold.txt
paul@laika:~/test$
3.7.4. tac
Just one example will show you the purpose of tac (as the opposite of cat).
paul@laika:~/test$ cat count

one
two
three
four
paul@laika:~/test$ tac count
four
three
two
one
paul@laika:~/test$
3.7.5. more and less

The more command is useful for displaying files that take up more than one screen.
More will allow you to see the contents of the file page by page. Use the spacebar to
see the next page, or q to quit. Some people prefer the less command to more.
3.7.6. strings
With the strings command you can display readable ascii strings found in (binary)
files. This example locates the ls binary then displays readable strings in the binary
file (output is truncated).
paul@laika:~$ which ls
/bin/ls
paul@laika:~$ strings /bin/ls
/lib/ld-linux.so.2
librt.so.1
34
First steps
__gmon_start__
_Jv_RegisterClasses
clock_gettime
libacl.so.1
...
35
First steps
3.8. practice : file contents

1. Display the first 12 lines of /etc/services.
2. Display the last line of /etc/passwd.
3. Use cat to create a file named count.txt that looks like this:
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
4. Use cp to make a backup of this file to cnt.txt.
5. Use cat to make a backup of this file to catcnt.txt
6. Display catcnt.txt, but with all lines in reverse order (the last line first).
7. Use more to display /var/log/messages.
8. Display the readable character strings from the /usr/bin/passwd command.
9. Use ls to find the biggest file in /etc.
36
First steps
3.9. solution : file contents

1. Display the first 12 lines of /etc/services.
head -12 /etc/services
2. Display the last line of /etc/passwd.

tail -1 /etc/passwd
3. Use cat to create a file named count.txt that looks like this:
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
cat > count.txt
4. Use cp to make a backup of this file to cnt.txt.

cp count.txt cnt.txt
5. Use cat to make a backup of this file to catcnt.txt

cat count.txt > catcnt.txt
6. Display catcnt.txt, but with all lines in reverse order (the last line first).
tac catcnt.txt
7. Use more to display /var/log/messages.

more /var/log/messages
8. Display the readable character strings from the /usr/bin/passwd command.

strings /usr/bin/passwd
9. Use ls to find the biggest file in /etc.

cd ; ls -lrS /etc
37
Chapter 4. The Linux file system tree
4.1. all files are case sensitive

Linux is case sensitive, this means that FILE1 is different from file1, and /etc/hosts is
different from /etc/Hosts (the latter one does not exist on a typical Linux computer).
This screenshot shows the difference between two files, one with uppercase W, the
other with lowercase w.
paul@laika:~/Linux$ ls
winter.txt Winter.txt
paul@laika:~/Linux$ cat winter.txt
It is cold.
paul@laika:~/Linux$ cat Winter.txt
It is very cold!
4.2. everything is a file

A directory is a special kind of file, but it is still a file. Even a terminal window or
a hard disk is represented somewhere in the file system hierarchy as a file. It will
become clear throughout this course that everything on Linux is a file.
4.3. / (the root directory)

All Linux systems have a directory structure that starts at the root directory. The root
directory is represented by a slash, like this: /. Everything that exists on your linux
system can be found below this root directory. Let's take a brief look at the contents
of the root directory.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ ls /
bin dev home media mnt proc sbin srv tftpboot usr
boot etc lib misc opt root selinux sys tmp var
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
4.4. man hier

There are some differences in the filesystems between Linux distributions. For
help about your machine, enter man hier to find information about the file system
hierarchy. This manual will explain the directory structure on your computer.
38
The Linux file system tree
4.5. filesystem hierarchy standard

Many Linux distributions partially follow the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard
(FHS). The FHS may help make more Unix/Linux file system trees conform better
in the future. The FHS is available online at http://www.pathname.com/fhs/ where
we read: "The filesystem hierarchy standard has been designed to be used by Unix
distribution developers, package developers, and system implementors. However, it
is primarily intended to be a reference and is not a tutorial on how to manage a Unix
filesystem or directory hierarchy."
4.6. common directories

Below we will discuss the most common directories in alphabetical order.
4.6.1. /bin binaries

The /bin directory contains binaries for use by all users. According to the FHS the /bin
directory should contain /bin/cat and /bin/date (among others). You will find a bin
subdirectory in many other directories. Binaries are sometimes called executables.
In the screenshot below you see common Unix/Linux commands like cat, cp, cpio,
date, dd, echo, grep, and so on. Many of these will be covered in this book.
paul@laika:~$ ls /bin
archdetect egrep mt setupcon
autopartition false mt-gnu sh
bash fgconsole mv sh.distrib
bunzip2 fgrep nano sleep
bzcat fuser nc stralign
bzcmp fusermount nc.traditional stty
bzdiff get_mountoptions netcat su
bzegrep grep netstat sync
bzexe gunzip ntfs-3g sysfs
bzfgrep gzexe ntfs-3g.probe tailf
bzgrep gzip parted_devices tar
bzip2 hostname parted_server tempfile
bzip2recover hw-detect partman touch
bzless ip partman-commit true
bzmore kbd_mode perform_recipe ulockmgr
cat kill pidof umount
...
4.6.2. /boot static files to boot the system

The /boot directory contains all files needed to boot the computer. These files don't
change very often. On Linux systems you typically find the /boot/grub directory
here. /boot/grub contains /boot/grub/menu.lst (the grub configuration file is often
linked to /boot/grub/grub.conf) which defines the boot menu that is displayed before
the kernel starts.
39
4.6.3. /dev device files

Device files in /dev appear to be ordinary files, but are not actually located on the hard
disk. The /dev directory is populated with files as the kernel is recognizing hardware.
common physical devices

Common hardware such as hard disk devices are represented by device files in /dev.
Below a screenshot of SATA device files on a laptop and then IDE attached drives
on a desktop. (The detailed meaning of these devices will be discussed later.)
#
# SATA or SCSI
#
paul@laika:~$ ls /dev/sd*
/dev/sda /dev/sda1 /dev/sda2 /dev/sda3 /dev/sdb /dev/sdb1 /dev/sdb2
#
# IDE or ATAPI
#
paul@barry:~$ ls /dev/hd*
/dev/hda /dev/hda1 /dev/hda2 /dev/hdb /dev/hdb1 /dev/hdb2 /dev/hdc
Besides representing physical hardware, some device files are special. These special
devices can be very useful.
/dev/tty and /dev/pts

For example, /dev/tty1 represents a terminal or console attached to the system. (Don't
break your head on the exact terminology of 'terminal' or 'console', what we mean
here is a command line interface.) When typing commands in a terminal that is part
of a graphical interface like Gnome or KDE, then your terminal will be represented
as /dev/pts/1 (1 can be another number).
/dev/null
On Linux you will find other special devices such as /dev/null which can be
considered a black hole; it has unlimited storage, but nothing can be retrieved from
it. Technically speaking, anything written to /dev/null will be discarded. /dev/null
can be useful to discard unwanted output from commands. /dev/null is not a good
location to store your backups ;-).
4.6.4. /etc configuration files

All of the machine-specific configuration files should be located in /etc. Many times
the name of a configuration files is the same as the application, daemon, or protocol
with .conf added as the extension. There is much more to be found in /etc.
40
paul@laika:~$ ls /etc/*.conf
/etc/adduser.conf /etc/ld.so.conf /etc/scrollkeeper.conf
/etc/brltty.conf /etc/lftp.conf /etc/sysctl.conf
/etc/ccertificates.conf /etc/libao.conf /etc/syslog.conf
/etc/cvs-cron.conf /etc/logrotate.conf /etc/ucf.conf
/etc/ddclient.conf /etc/ltrace.conf /etc/uniconf.conf
/etc/debconf.conf /etc/mke2fs.conf /etc/updatedb.conf
/etc/deluser.conf /etc/netscsid.conf /etc/usplash.conf
/etc/fdmount.conf /etc/nsswitch.conf /etc/uswsusp.conf
/etc/hdparm.conf /etc/pam.conf /etc/vnc.conf
/etc/host.conf /etc/pnm2ppa.conf /etc/wodim.conf
/etc/inetd.conf /etc/povray.conf /etc/wvdial.conf
/etc/kernel-img.conf /etc/resolv.conf
paul@laika:~$
/etc/X11/
The graphical display (aka X Window System or just X) is driven by software from
the X.org foundation. The configuration file for your graphical display is /etc/X11/
xorg.conf.
/etc/skel/
The skeleton directory /etc/skel is copied to the home directory of a newly created
user. It usually contains hidden files like a .bashrc script.
/etc/sysconfig/
This directory, which is not mentioned in the FHS, contains a lot of Red Hat
Enterprise Linux configuration files. We will discuss some of them in greater
detail. The screenshot below is the /etc/sysconfig directory from RHELv4u4 with
everything installed.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ ls /etc/sysconfig/
apmd firstboot irda network saslauthd
apm-scripts grub irqbalance networking selinux
authconfig hidd keyboard ntpd spamassassin
autofs httpd kudzu openib.conf squid
bluetooth hwconf lm_sensors pand syslog
clock i18n mouse pcmcia sys-config-sec
console init mouse.B pgsql sys-config-users
crond installinfo named prelink sys-logviewer
desktop ipmi netdump rawdevices tux
diskdump iptables netdump_id_dsa rhn vncservers
dund iptables-cfg netdump_id_dsa.p samba xinetd
paul@RHELv4u4:~$
The file /etc/sysconfig/firstboot tells the Red Hat Setup Agent not to run at boot time.
If you want to run the Red Hat Setup Agent at the next reboot, then simply remove
this file, and run chkconfig --level 5 firstboot on. The Red Hat Setup Agent allows
41
you to install the latest updates, create a user account, join the Red Hat Network and
more. It will then create the /etc/sysconfig/firstboot file again.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /etc/sysconfig/firstboot

RUN_FIRSTBOOT=NO
The /etc/sysconfig/harddisks file contains some parameters to tune the hard disks.
The file explains itself.
You can see hardware detected by kudzu in /etc/sysconfig/hwconf. Kudzu is

software from Red Hat for automatic discovery and configuration of hardware.
The keyboard type and keymap table are set in the /etc/sysconfig/keyboard file.
For more console keyboard information, check the manual pages of keymaps(5),
dumpkeys(1), loadkeys(1) and the directory /lib/kbd/keymaps/.
root@RHELv4u4:/etc/sysconfig# cat keyboard

KEYBOARDTYPE="pc"
KEYTABLE="us"
We will discuss networking files in this directory in the networking chapter.
4.6.5. /home sweet home

You will find a lot of locations with an extensive hierarchy of personal or project
data under /home. It is common (but not mandatory) practice to name the users home
directory after the username in the format /home/$USERNAME. For example:
paul@pasha:~$ ls /home
geert guillaume maria paul tom
Besides giving every user (or every project or group) a location to store personal
files, the home directory of a user also serves as a location to store the user profile. A
typical Unix user profile contains many hidden files (files whose filename starts with
a dot). The hidden files of the Unix user profiles contain settings specific for that user.
paul@pasha:~$ ls -d /home/paul/.*
/home/paul/. /home/paul/.bash_profile /home/paul/.ssh
/home/paul/.. /home/paul/.bashrc /home/paul/.viminfo
/home/paul/.bash_history /home/paul/.lesshst /home/paul/.Xauthority
4.6.6. /initrd
This empty directory is used as a mount point by Red Hat Enterprise Linux during
boot time. Do not remove this directory, doing so causes a kernel panic during the
next boot.
42
4.6.7. /lib shared libraries

Binaries, like those found in /bin, often use shared libraries located in /lib. Below is
a screenshot of the partial contents of /lib.
paul@laika:~$ ls /lib/libc*
/lib/libc-2.5.so /lib/libcfont.so.0.0.0 /lib/libcom_err.so.2.1
/lib/libcap.so.1 /lib/libcidn-2.5.so /lib/libconsole.so.0
/lib/libcap.so.1.10 /lib/libcidn.so.1 /lib/libconsole.so.0.0.0
/lib/libcfont.so.0 /lib/libcom_err.so.2 /lib/libcrypt-2.5.so
/lib/modules
Typically, the kernel loads kernel modules from /lib/modules/$kernel-version. This

directory is discussed in detail in the Linux kernel chapter.
/lib32 and /lib64
We currently are in a transition between 32-bit and 64-bit systems. Therefore, you
may encounter directories named /lib32 and /lib64 which clarify the register size used
during compilation time of the libraries. My current 64-bit laptop has some older 32-
bit binaries and libraries for compatibility with legacy applications. This screenshot
uses the file utility to demonstrate the difference.
paul@laika:~$ file /lib32/libc-2.5.so

/lib32/libc-2.5.so: ELF 32-bit LSB shared object, Intel 80386, \
version 1 (SYSV), for GNU/Linux 2.6.0, stripped
paul@laika:~$ file /lib64/libcap.so.1.10
/lib64/libcap.so.1.10: ELF 64-bit LSB shared object, AMD x86-64, \
version 1 (SYSV), stripped
The ELF (Executable and Linkable Format) is used in almost every Unix-like
operating system since System V.
4.6.8. /media for removable media

The /media directory serves as a mount point for removable media devices such as
CD-ROM's, digital cameras, and various usb-attached devices. Since /media is rather
new in the Unix world, you could very well encounter systems running without this
directory. Solaris 9 does not have it, Solaris 10 does. Most Linux distributions today
mount all removable media in /media.
paul@laika:~$ ls /media/
cdrom cdrom0 usbdisk
43
4.6.9. /mnt standard mount point

Unix and Linux administrators used to mount many directories here, like /mnt/
something/. According to the FHS, /mnt should only be used to mount something
temporarily. You likely will encounter many systems with more than one directory
mounted on /mnt and used as a mountpoints for various local and remote filesystems.
4.6.10. /opt optional software

Most systems today have an empty /opt directory. It is considered outdated, but you
may find some systems with add-on software installed in /opt. If that is the case, the
package should install all its files in the typical /bin, /lib, /etc subdirectories within /
opt/$packagename/. If for example the package is called wp, then it installs in /opt/
wp, putting binaries in /opt/wp/bin and manpages in /opt/wp/man. Little, if any, of
the default software which comes along with the distributions will be installed in /opt.
4.6.11. /proc conversation with the kernel

/proc is another special directory, appearing to be ordinary files, but not taking up
disk space. It is actually a view of the kernel, or better, what the kernel manages, and
is a means to interact with it directly. /proc is a proc filesystem.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ mount -t proc

none on /proc type proc (rw)
When listing the /proc directory, you will see many numbers (on any Unix), and some
interesting files (on Linux)
mul@laika:~$ ls /proc
1 2339 4724 5418 6587 7201 cmdline mounts
10175 2523 4729 5421 6596 7204 cpuinfo mtrr
10211 2783 4741 5658 6599 7206 crypto net
10239 2975 4873 5661 6638 7214 devices pagetypeinfo
141 29775 4874 5665 6652 7216 diskstats partitions
15045 29792 4878 5927 6719 7218 dma sched_debug
1519 2997 4879 6 6736 7223 driver scsi
1548 3 4881 6032 6737 7224 execdomains self
1551 30228 4882 6033 6755 7227 fb slabinfo
1554 3069 5 6145 6762 7260 filesystems stat
1557 31422 5073 6298 6774 7267 fs swaps
1606 3149 5147 6414 6816 7275 ide sys
180 31507 5203 6418 6991 7282 interrupts sysrq-trigger
181 3189 5206 6419 6993 7298 iomem sysvipc
182 3193 5228 6420 6996 7319 ioports timer_list
18898 3246 5272 6421 7157 7330 irq timer_stats
19799 3248 5291 6422 7163 7345 kallsyms tty
19803 3253 5294 6423 7164 7513 kcore uptime
19804 3372 5356 6424 7171 7525 key-users version
1987 4 5370 6425 7175 7529 kmsg version_signature
1989 42 5379 6426 7188 9964 loadavg vmcore
44
2 45 5380 6430 7189 acpi locks vmnet

20845 4542 5412 6450 7191 asound meminfo vmstat
221 46 5414 6551 7192 buddyinfo misc zoneinfo
2338 4704 5416 6568 7199 bus modules
Let's investigate the file properties inside /proc. Looking at the date and time will
display the current date and time showing the files are constantly updated (a view
on the kernel).
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ date
Mon Jan 29 18:06:32 EST 2007
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ ls -al /proc/cpuinfo
-r--r--r-- 1 root root 0 Jan 29 18:06 /proc/cpuinfo
paul@RHELv4u4:~$
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ ...time passes...
paul@RHELv4u4:~$
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ date
Mon Jan 29 18:10:00 EST 2007
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ ls -al /proc/cpuinfo
-r--r--r-- 1 root root 0 Jan 29 18:10 /proc/cpuinfo
Most files in /proc are 0 bytes, yet they contain data--sometimes a lot of data. You
can see this by executing cat on files like /proc/cpuinfo, which contains information
about the CPU.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ file /proc/cpuinfo

/proc/cpuinfo: empty
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /proc/cpuinfo
processor : 0
vendor_id : AuthenticAMD
cpu family : 15
model : 43
model name : AMD Athlon(tm) 64 X2 Dual Core Processor 4600+
stepping : 1
cpu MHz : 2398.628
cache size : 512 KB
fdiv_bug : no
hlt_bug : no
f00f_bug : no
coma_bug : no
fpu : yes
fpu_exception : yes
cpuid level : 1
wp : yes
flags : fpu vme de pse tsc msr pae mce cx8 apic mtrr pge...
bogomips : 4803.54
Just for fun, here is /proc/cpuinfo on a Sun Sunblade 1000...
paul@pasha:~$ cat /proc/cpuinfo

cpu : TI UltraSparc III (Cheetah)
fpu : UltraSparc III integrated FPU
promlib : Version 3 Revision 2
prom : 4.2.2
type : sun4u
ncpus probed : 2
45
ncpus active : 2
Cpu0Bogo : 498.68
Cpu0ClkTck : 000000002cb41780
Cpu1Bogo : 498.68
Cpu1ClkTck : 000000002cb41780
MMU Type : Cheetah
State:
CPU0: online
CPU1: online
... and on a Sony Playstation 3.
[root@ps3 tmp]# uname -a

Linux ps3 2.6.20-rc5 #58 SMP Thu Jan 18 13:35:01 CET 2007 ppc64 ppc64
ppc64 GNU/Linux
[root@ps3 tmp]# cat /proc/cpuinfo
processor : 0
cpu : Cell Broadband Engine, altivec supported
clock : 3192.000000MHz
revision : 5.1 (pvr 0070 0501)
processor : 1
cpu : Cell Broadband Engine, altivec supported
clock : 3192.000000MHz
revision : 5.1 (pvr 0070 0501)
timebase : 79800000
platform : PS3
machine : PS3
Most of the files in /proc are read only, some require root privileges, some files are
writable, and many files in /proc/sys are writable. Let's discuss some of the files in /
proc.
/proc/filesystems
The /proc/filesystems file displays a list of supported file systems. When you mount
a file system without explicitly defining one, then mount will first try to probe /
etc/filesystems and then probe /proc/filesystems for all the filesystems without the
nodev label. If /etc/filesystems ends with a line containing only an asterisk (*) then
both files are probed.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /proc/filesystems

nodev sysfs
nodev rootfs
nodev bdev
nodev proc
nodev sockfs
nodev binfmt_misc
nodev usbfs
nodev usbdevfs
nodev futexfs
nodev tmpfs
nodev pipefs
nodev eventpollfs
46
nodev devpts
ext2
nodev ramfs
nodev hugetlbfs
iso9660
nodev relayfs
nodev mqueue
nodev selinuxfs
ext3
nodev rpc_pipefs
nodev vmware-hgfs
nodev autofs
paul@RHELv4u4:~$
/proc/interrupts
On the x86 architecture, /proc/interrupts displays the interrupts.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /proc/interrupts

CPU0
0: 13876877 IO-APIC-edge timer
1: 15 IO-APIC-edge i8042
8: 1 IO-APIC-edge rtc
9: 0 IO-APIC-level acpi
12: 67 IO-APIC-edge i8042
14: 128 IO-APIC-edge ide0
15: 124320 IO-APIC-edge ide1
169: 111993 IO-APIC-level ioc0
177: 2428 IO-APIC-level eth0
NMI: 0
LOC: 13878037
ERR: 0
MIS: 0
paul@RHELv4u4:~$
On a machine with two CPU's, the file looks like this.
paul@laika:~$ cat /proc/interrupts

CPU0 CPU1
0: 860013 0 IO-APIC-edge timer
1: 4533 0 IO-APIC-edge i8042
7: 0 0 IO-APIC-edge parport0
8: 6588227 0 IO-APIC-edge rtc
10: 2314 0 IO-APIC-fasteoi acpi
12: 133 0 IO-APIC-edge i8042
14: 0 0 IO-APIC-edge libata
15: 72269 0 IO-APIC-edge libata
18: 1 0 IO-APIC-fasteoi yenta
19: 115036 0 IO-APIC-fasteoi eth0
20: 126871 0 IO-APIC-fasteoi libata, ohci1394
21: 30204 0 IO-APIC-fasteoi ehci_hcd:usb1, uhci_hcd:usb2
22: 1334 0 IO-APIC-fasteoi saa7133[0], saa7133[0]
24: 234739 0 IO-APIC-fasteoi nvidia
NMI: 72 42
LOC: 860000 859994
ERR: 0
paul@laika:~$
47
/proc/kcore
The physical memory is represented in /proc/kcore. Do not try to cat this file, instead
use a debugger. The size of /proc/kcore is the same as your physical memory, plus
four bytes.
paul@laika:~$ ls -lh /proc/kcore

-r-------- 1 root root 2.0G 2007-01-30 08:57 /proc/kcore
paul@laika:~$
/proc/swaps
You can find information about swap partition(s) in /proc/swaps.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /proc/swaps
Filename Type Size Used Priority
/dev/mapper/VolGroup00-LogVol01 partition 1048568 0 -1
paul@RHELv4u4:~$
4.6.12. /root the superuser's home

On many systems, /root is the default location for the root user's personal data and
profile. If it does not exist by default, then some administrators create it.
4.6.13. /sbin system binaries

/sbin is similar to /bin, but it is mainly used for booting and configuration tools used
for configuring the system. Many of the system binaries require root priviledge to
perform certain tasks. You will find other /sbin subdirectories in other directories.
4.6.14. /srv served by your system

You may find /srv to be empty on many systems, but not for long. The FHS suggests
locating cvs, rsync, ftp and www data in this location. The FHS also approves
administrative naming in /srv, like /srv/project55/ftp and /srv/sales/www. Red Hat
plans to move some data currently located in /var to /srv.
4.6.15. /sys Linux 2.6 hot plugging

The /sys directory was created for the Linux 2.6 kernel. Since 2.6, Linux uses sysfs
to support usb and IEEE 1394 (FireWire) hot plug devices. See the manual pages
of udev(8) (the successor of devfs) and hotplug(8) for more info (or visit http://linux-
hotplug.sourceforge.net/ ).
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ ls /sys/*
/sys/block:
48
dm-0 fd0 hdb md0 ram1 ram11 ram13 ram15 ram3 ram5 ram7 ram9
dm-1 hda hdc ram0 ram10 ram12 ram14 ram2 ram4 ram6 ram8 sda
/sys/bus:
i2c ide pci platform pnp scsi serio usb
/sys/class:
firmware i2c-adapter input misc netlink printer scsi_device tty
graphics i2c-dev mem net pci_bus raw scsi_host usb
/sys/devices:
pci0000:00 platform system
/sys/firmware:
acpi
/sys/module:
ac dm_mirror ext3 ip_conntrack ipt_state md5
autofs4 dm_mod floppy iptable_filter ipv6 mii
battery dm_snapshot i2c_core ip_tables jbd mptbase
button dm_zero i2c_dev ipt_REJECT lp mptfc
/sys/power:
state
paul@RHELv4u4:~$
4.6.16. /tmp for temporary files

Applications and users should use /tmp to store temporary data when needed.Data
stored in /tmp may use either disk space or RAM. Both of which are managed by
the operating system. Never use /tmp to store data that is important or which you
wish to archive.
4.6.17. /usr Unix system resources

Although /usr is pronounced like user, remember that it stands for Unix System
Resources. The /usr hierarchy should contain sharable, read only data. Some people
choose to mount /usr as read only. This can be done from its own partition or from
a read only NFS share.
4.6.18. /var variable data

Data that is unpredictable in size, such as log files (/var/log), print spool directories
(/var/spool), and various caches (/var/cache) should be located in /var. But /var is
much more than that since it contains Process ID files in /var/run and temporary
files that survive a reboot in /var/tmp. There will be more examples of /var usage
further in this book.
/var/lib/rpm
Red Hat Enterprise Linux keeps files pertaining to RPM in /var/lib/rpm/.
49
/var/spool/up2date
The Red Hat Update Agent uses files in /var/spool/up2date. This location is also
used when files are downloaded from the Red Hat Network.
50
4.7. practice : file system tree

1. Does the file /bin/cat exist ? What about /bin/dd and /bin/echo. What is the type
of these files ?
2. What is the size of the Linux kernel file(s) (vmlinu*) in /boot ?
3. Create a directory ~/test. Then issue the following commands:

cd ~/test
dd if=/dev/zero of=zeroes.txt count=1 bs=100
od zeroes.txt
dd will copy one times (count=1) a block of size 100 bytes (bs=100) from the file /
dev/zero to ~/test/zeroes.txt. Can you describe the functionality of /dev/zero ?
4. Now issue the following command:

dd if=/dev/random of=random.txt count=1 bs=100 ; od random.txt
dev/random to ~/test/random.txt. Can you describe the functionality of /dev/random ?
5. Issue the following two commands, and look at the first character of each output
line.
ls -l /dev/sd* /dev/hd*
ls -l /dev/tty* /dev/input/mou*
The first ls will show block(b) devices, the second ls shows character(c) devices. Can
you tell the difference between block and character devices ?
6. Use cat to display /etc/hosts and /etc/resolv.conf. What is your idea about the
purpose of these files ?
7. Are there any files in /etc/skel/ ? Check also for hidden files.
8. Display /proc/cpuinfo. On what architecture is your Linux running ?
9. Display /proc/interrupts. What is the size of this file ? Where is this file stored ?
10. Can you enter the /root directory ? Are there (hidden) files ?
11. Are ifconfig, fdisk, parted, shutdown and grub-install present in /sbin ? Why are
these binaries in /sbin and not in /bin ?
12. Is /var/log a file or a directory ? What about /var/spool ?
13. Open two command prompts (Ctrl-Shift-T in gnome-terminal) or terminals (Ctrl-

Alt-F1, Ctrl-Alt-F2, ...) and issue the who am i in both. Then try to echo a word from
one terminal to the other.
51
14. Read the man page of random and explain the difference between /dev/random
and /dev/urandom.
52
4.8. solution : file system tree

1. Does the file /bin/cat exist ? What about /bin/dd and /bin/echo. What is the type
of these files ?
ls /bin/cat ; file /bin/cat
ls /bin/dd ; file /bin/dd
ls /bin/echo ; file /bin/echo
2. What is the size of the Linux kernel file(s) (vmlinu*) in /boot ?

ls -lh /boot/vm*
3. Create a directory ~/test. Then issue the following commands:

cd ~/test
dd if=/dev/zero of=zeroes.txt count=1 bs=100
od zeroes.txt
dev/zero to ~/test/zeroes.txt. Can you describe the functionality of /dev/zero ?
/dev/zero is a Linux special device. It can be considered a source of zeroes. You

cannot send something to /dev/zero, but you can read zeroes from it.
4. Now issue the following command:

dd if=/dev/random of=random.txt count=1 bs=100 ; od random.txt
dev/random to ~/test/random.txt. Can you describe the functionality of /dev/random ?
/dev/random acts as a random number generator on your Linux machine.
5. Issue the following two commands, and look at the first character of each output
line.
ls -l /dev/sd* /dev/hd*
ls -l /dev/tty* /dev/input/mou*
The first ls will show block(b) devices, the second ls shows character(c) devices. Can
you tell the difference between block and character devices ?
Block devices are always written to (or read from) in blocks. For hard disks, blocks
of 512 bytes are common. Character devices act as a stream of characters (or bytes).
Mouse and keyboard are typical character devices.
6. Use cat to display /etc/hosts and /etc/resolv.conf. What is your idea about the
purpose of these files ?
/etc/hosts contains hostnames with their ip address
53
/etc/resolv.conf should contain the ip address of a DNS name server.
7. Are there any files in /etc/skel/ ? Check also for hidden files.
Issue "ls -al /etc/skel/". Yes, there should be hidden files there.
8. Display /proc/cpuinfo. On what architecture is your Linux running ?

The file should contain at least one line with Intel or other cpu.
9. Display /proc/interrupts. What is the size of this file ? Where is this file stored ?
The size is zero, yet the file contains data. It is not stored anywhere because /proc is
a virtual file system that allows you to talk with the kernel. (If you answered "stored
in RAM-memory, that is also correct...).
10. Can you enter the /root directory ? Are there (hidden) files ?
Try "cd /root". Yes there are (hidden) files there.
11. Are ifconfig, fdisk, parted, shutdown and grub-install present in /sbin ? Why are
these binaries in /sbin and not in /bin ?
Because those files are only meant for system administrators.
12. Is /var/log a file or a directory ? What about /var/spool ?

Both are directories.
13. Open two command prompts (Ctrl-Shift-T in gnome-terminal) or terminals (Ctrl-

Alt-F1, Ctrl-Alt-F2, ...) and issue the who am i in both. Then try to echo a word from
one terminal to the other.
tty-terminal: echo Hello > /dev/tty1
pts-terminal: echo Hello > /dev/pts/1
14. Read the man page of random and explain the difference between /dev/random
and /dev/urandom.
man 4 random
54
Chapter 5. Introduction to the shell
5.1. about shells
5.1.1. several shells

The command line interface used on most Linux systems is bash, which stands
for Bourne again shell. The bash shell incorporates features from sh (the original
Bourne shell), csh (the C shell), and ksh (the Korn shell). Ubuntu recently started
including the dash (Debian ash) shell.
This chapter will explain general features of a shell mainly using the /bin/bash shell.
Important differences in /bin/ksh will be mentioned separately.
5.1.2. external or built-in commands

Not all commands are external to the shell, some are built-in. External commands
are programs that have their own binary and reside somewhere in the file system.
Many external commands are located in /bin or /sbin. Builtin commands are
functions inside the shell program itself.
5.1.3. type
To find out whether a command given to the shell will be executed as an external
command or as a built-in command, use the type command.
paul@laika:~$ type cd
cd is a shell builtin
paul@laika:~$ type cat
cat is /bin/cat
You can also use this command to show you whether the command is aliased or not.
paul@laika:~$ type ls
ls is aliased to `ls --color=auto'
5.1.4. running external commands

Some commands have both built-in and external versions. When one of these
commands is executed, the builtin version takes priority. To run the external version,
you must enter the full path to the command.
55
Introduction to the shell
paul@laika:~$ type -a echo

echo is a shell builtin
echo is /bin/echo
paul@laika:~$ /bin/echo Running the external echo command...
Running the external echo command...
5.1.5. which
The which command will search for binaries in the PATH environment variable.
(Variables will be explained later.) In the screenshot below, it is determined that cd
is built-in, and ls, cp, rm, mv, mkdir, pwd, and which are external commands.
[root@RHEL4b ~]# which cp ls mv rm cd mkdir pwd which

/bin/cp
/bin/ls
/bin/mv
/bin/rm
/usr/bin/which: no cd in (/usr/kerberos/sbin:/usr/kerberos/bin:...
/bin/mkdir
/bin/pwd
/usr/bin/which
5.1.6. alias
create an alias
The shell allows you to create aliases. Aliases are often used to create an easier to
remember name for an existing command or to easily supply parameters.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ cat count.txt

one
two
three
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ alias dog=tac
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ dog count.txt
three
two
one
abbreviate commands
An alias can also be useful to abbreviate an existing command.
paul@laika:~$ alias ll='ls -lh --color=auto'

paul@laika:~$ alias c='clear'
paul@laika:~$
56
default options
Aliases can be used to supply commands with default options. The example below
shows how to set the -i option default when typing rm.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ rm -i winter.txt

rm: remove regular file `winter.txt'? no
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ rm winter.txt
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ ls winter.txt
ls: winter.txt: No such file or directory
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ touch winter.txt
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ alias rm='rm -i'
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ rm winter.txt
rm: remove regular empty file `winter.txt'? no
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
Some distributions enable default aliases to protect users from accidentally erasing
files ('rm -i', 'mv -i', 'cp -i')
viewing aliases
You can provide one or more aliases as arguments to the alias command to get their
definitions. Providing no arguments gives a complete list of current aliases.
paul@laika:~$ alias c ll
alias c='clear'
alias ll='ls -lh --color=auto'
unalias
You can undo an alias with the unalias command.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ which rm

/bin/rm
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ alias rm='rm -i'
alias rm='rm -i'
/bin/rm
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ unalias rm
/bin/rm
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
5.1.7. echo
This book frequently uses the echo command to demonstrate shell features. The echo
command echoes the input that it receives.
57
paul@laika:~$ echo Burtonville

Burtonville
paul@laika:~$ echo Smurfs are blue
Smurfs are blue
5.1.8. shell expansion

The shell is very important because every command on your Linux system is
processed and most likely changed by the shell. After you type the command, but
before the command is executed, the shell might change your command line! The
manual page of a typical shell contains more than one hundred pages.
One of the primary features of a shell is to perform a command line scan. When
you enter a command at the shell's command prompt and press the enter key, then
the shell will start scanning that line. While scanning the line, the shell may make
many changes to the command line you typed. This process is called shell expansion.
After the shell has finished scanning and modifying that line, it will be executed.
Shell expansion is influenced by the following topics: control operators, white space
removal, filename generation, variables, escaping, embedding, and shell aliases. All
of these topics are discussed in the next sections.
5.1.9. displaying shell expansion

You can display the shell expansion with set -x, and stop displaying it with set +x.
You might want to use this further on in this course, or when in doubt about exactly
what the shell is doing with your command.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ set -x

++ echo -ne '\033]0;paul@RHELv4u3:~\007'
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo $USER
+ echo paul
paul
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo \$USER
+ echo '$USER'
$USER
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ set +x
+ set +x
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo $USER
paul
58
5.2. practice: about shells

1. Is tac a shell built-in command ?
2. Is there an existing alias for rm ?
3. Read the man page of rm, make sure you understand the -i option of rm. Create
and remove a file to test the -i option.
4. Execute: alias rm='rm -i' . Test your alias with a test file. Does this work as
expected ?
5. List all current aliases.
6. Create an alias called 'city' that echoes your hometown.
7. Use your alias to test that it works.
8. Execute set -x to display shell expansion for every command.
9. Test the functionality of set -x by executing your city and rm aliases.
10 Execute set +x to stop displaying shell expansion.
11. Remove your city alias.
12. What is the location of the cat and the passwd commands ?
13. Explain the difference between the following commands:

echo
/bin/echo

echo Hello
echo -n Hello
59
5.3. solution: about shells

1. Is tac a shell built-in command ?
type tac
2. Is there an existing alias for rm ?

alias rm
3. Read the man page of rm, make sure you understand the -i option of rm. Create
and remove a file to test the -i option.
man rm
touch testfile
rm -i testfile
4. Execute: alias rm='rm -i' . Test your alias with a test file. Does this work as
expected ?
touch testfile
rm testfile (should ask for confirmation)
5. List all current aliases.

alias
6. Create an alias called 'city' that echoes your hometown.

alias city='echo Antwerp'
7. Use your alias to test that it works.

city (it should display Antwerp)
8. Execute set -x to display shell expansion for every command.

set -x
9. Test the functionality of set -x by executing your city and rm aliases.

shell should display the resolved aliases and then execute the command, like this:
paul@deb503:~$ set -x
paul@deb503:~$ city
+ echo antwerp
antwerp
10 Execute set +x to stop displaying shell expansion.

set +x
11. Remove your city alias.

unalias city
12. What is the location of the cat and the passwd commands ?
60
which cat (probably /bin/cat)
which passwd (probably /usr/bin/passwd)

echo
/bin/echo
The echo command will be interpreted by the shell as the built-in echo command.
The /bin/echo command will make the shell execute the echo binary located in the
/bin directory.

echo Hello
echo -n Hello
The -n option of the echo command will prevent echo from echoing a trailing newline.
echo Hello will echo six characters in total, echo -n hello only echoes five characters.
61
5.4. control operators
5.4.1. ; semicolon
You can put two or more commands on the same line separated by a semicolon ; .
The shell will scan the line until it reaches the semicolon. All the arguments before
this semicolon will be considered a separate command from all the arguments after
the semicolon. Both series will be executed sequentially with the shell waiting for
each command to finish before starting the next one.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo Hello

Hello
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo World
World
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo Hello ; echo World
Hello
World
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
5.4.2. & ampersand

When a line ends with an ampersand &, the shell will not wait for the command
to finish. You will get your shell prompt back, and the command is executed in
background. You will get a message when this command has finished executing in
background.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ sleep 20 &

[1] 7925
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
...wait 20 seconds...
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
[1]+ Done sleep 20
The technical explanation of what happens in this case is explained in the chapter
about processes.
5.4.3. && double ampersand

The shell will interprete && as a logical AND. When using && the second command
is executed only if the first one succeeds (returns a zero exit status).
paul@barry:~$ echo first && echo second

first
second
paul@barry:~$ zecho first && echo second
62
-bash: zecho: command not found
Another example of the same logical AND principle. This example starts with a
working cd followed by ls, then a non-working cd which is not followed by ls.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ cd gen && ls

file1 file3 File55 fileab FileAB fileabc
file2 File4 FileA Fileab fileab2
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ cd gen && ls
-bash: cd: gen: No such file or directory
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$
5.4.4. || double vertical bar

The || represents a logical OR. The second command is executed only when the first
command fails (returns a non-zero exit status).
paul@barry:~$ echo first || echo second ; echo third

first
third
paul@barry:~$ zecho first || echo second ; echo third
-bash: zecho: command not found
second
third
paul@barry:~$
Another example of the same logical OR principle.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ cd gen || ls

[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ cd gen || ls
-bash: cd: gen: No such file or directory
5.4.5. Combining && and ||

You can use this logical AND and logical OR to write an if-then-else structure on
the command line. This example uses echo to display whether the rm command was
successful.
paul@laika:~/test$ rm file1 && echo It worked! || echo It failed!

It worked!
paul@laika:~/test$ rm file1 && echo It worked! || echo It failed!
rm: cannot remove `file1': No such file or directory
It failed!
paul@laika:~/test$
63
5.4.6. # pound sign

Everything written after a pound sign (#) is ignored by the shell. This is useful to
write a shell comment, but has no influence on the command execution or shell
expansion.
paul@barry:~$ mkdir test # we create a directory

paul@barry:~$ cd test #### we enter the directory
paul@barry:~/test$ ls # is it empty ?
paul@barry:~/test$
5.4.7. \ escaping special characters

The backslash \ character enables the use of control characters, but without the shell
interpreting it, this is called escaping characters.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo hello \; world

hello ; world
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo hello\ \ \ world
hello world
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo escaping \\\ \#\ \&\ \"\ \'
escaping \ # & " '
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo escaping \\\?\*\"\'
escaping \?*"'
5.4.8. end of line backslash

Lines ending in a backslash are continued on the next line. The shell does not interpret
the newline character and will wait on shell expansion and execution of the command
line until a newline without backslash is encountered.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo This command line \

> is split in three \
> parts
This command line is split in three parts
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
64
5.5. practice: control operators

0. Each question can be answered by one command line!
1. When you type passwd, which file is executed ?
2. What kind of file is that ?
3. Execute the pwd command twice. (remember 0.)
4. Execute ls after cd /etc, but only if cd /etc did not error.
5. Execute cd /etc after cd etc, but only if cd etc fails.
6. Execute sleep 6, what is this command doing ?
7. Execute sleep 200 in background (do not wait for it to finish).
8. Use echo to display "Hello World with strange' characters \ * [ } ~ \\ ." (including
all quotes)
9. Use one echo command to display three words on three lines.
10. Echo it worked when touch test42 works, and echo it failed when the touch
failed. All on one command line as a normal user (not root). Test this line in your
home directory and in /bin/ .
65
5.6. solution: control operators

0. Each question can be answered by one command line!
1. When you type passwd, which file is executed ?

which passwd
2. What kind of file is that ?

file /usr/bin/passwd
3. Execute the pwd command twice. (remember 0.)

pwd ; pwd
4. Execute ls after cd /etc, but only if cd /etc did not error.

cd /etc && ls
5. Execute cd /etc after cd etc, but only if cd etc fails.

cd etc || cd /etc
6. Execute sleep 6, what is this command doing ?

pausing for six seconds
7. Execute sleep 200 in background (do not wait for it to finish).

sleep 200 &
8. Use echo to display "Hello World with strange' characters \ * [ } ~ \\ ." (including
all quotes)
echo \"Hello World with strange\' characters \\ \* \[ \} \~ \\\\ \. \"
or
echo \""Hello World with strange' characters \ * [ } ~ \\ . "\"

echo -e "one \ntwo \nthree"
10. Echo it worked when touch test42 works, and echo it failed when the touch
failed. All on one command line as a normal user (not root). Test this line in your
home directory and in /bin/ .
paul@deb503:~$ cd ; touch test42 && echo it worked || echo it failed
it worked
paul@deb503:~$ cd /bin; touch test42 && echo it worked || echo it failed
touch: cannot touch `test42': Permission denied
it failed
66
5.7. shell variables
5.7.1. $ dollar sign

Another important character interpreted by the shell is the dollar sign $. The shell
will look for an environment variable named like the string following the dollar
sign and replace it with the value of the variable (or with nothing if the variable does
not exist).
These are some examples using $HOSTNAME, $USER, $UID, $SHELL, and
$HOME.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo This is the $SHELL shell

This is the /bin/bash shell
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo This is $SHELL on computer $HOSTNAME
This is /bin/bash on computer RHELv4u3.localdomain
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo The userid of $USER is $UID
The userid of paul is 500
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo My homedir is $HOME
My homedir is /home/paul
5.7.2. case sensitive

An example is the $USER variable. The example shows that shell variables are case
sensitive!
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo Hello $USER

Hello paul
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo Hello $user
Hello
5.7.3. $PS1
The $PS1 variable determines your shell prompt. You can use backslash escaped
special characters like \u for the username or \w for the working directory. The bash
manual has a complete reference.
In this example we change the value of $PS1 a couple of times.
paul@deb503:~$ PS1=prompt
prompt
promptPS1='prompt '
prompt
prompt PS1='> '
>
> PS1='\u@\h$ '
paul@deb503$
paul@deb503$ PS1='\u@\h:\W$'
paul@deb503:~$
67
5.7.4. $PATH
The $PATH variable is very important, it determines where the shell is looking for
commands to execute (unless the command is built-in). The shell will not look in the
current directory for commands to execute! (Looking for executables in the current
directory provided an easy way to crack DOS computers). If you want the shell to
look in the current directory, then add a . to your path.
[[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $PATH

/usr/kerberos/bin:/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ PATH=$PATH:.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $PATH
/usr/kerberos/bin:/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
Your path might be different when using su instead of su - because the latter will take
on the environment of the target user. The root user will have some sbin directories
added to the PATH variable.
[paul@RHEL3 ~]$ su
Password:
[root@RHEL3 paul]# echo $PATH
/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin
[root@RHEL3 paul]# exit
[paul@RHEL3 ~]$ su -
Password:
[root@RHEL3 ~]# echo $PATH
/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:
[root@RHEL3 ~]#
5.7.5. $? dollar question mark

The exit code of the previous command is stored in the shell variable $?. Actually $?
is a shell parameter and not a variable, since you cannot assign a value to $?.
paul@laika:~/test$ touch file1 ; echo $?

0
paul@laika:~/test$ rm file1 ; echo $?
0
paul@laika:~/test$ rm file1 ; echo $?
rm: cannot remove `file1': No such file or directory
1
5.7.6. unbound variables

The example below tries to display the value of the $MyVar variable, but it fails
because the variable does not exist. By default the shell will display nothing when a
variable is unbound (does not exist).
68
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ echo $MyVar
There is, however, the nounset shell attribute that you can use to generate an error
when a variable does not exist.
paul@laika:~$ set -u
paul@laika:~$ echo $Myvar
bash: Myvar: unbound variable
paul@laika:~$ set +u
paul@laika:~$ echo $Myvar
paul@laika:~$
In the bash shell set -u is identical to set -o nounset and likewise set +u is identical
to set +o nounset.
5.7.7. creating and setting variables

This example creates the variable $MyVar and sets its value.
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ MyVar=555

[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ echo $MyVar
555
5.7.8. set
You can use the set command to display a list of environment variables. On Ubuntu
and Debian systems, the set command will also list shell functions after the shell
variables. Use set | more to see the variables then.
5.7.9. unset
Use the unset command to remove a variable from your shell environment.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ MyVar=8472

[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $MyVar;unset MyVar;echo $MyVar
8472
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
5.7.10. env
The env command can also be useful for other neat things, such as starting a clean
shell (a shell without any inherited environment). The env -i command clears the
69
environment for the subshell. Notice that bash will set the $SHELL variable on
startup.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ bash -c 'echo $SHELL $HOME $USER'

/bin/bash /home/paul paul
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ env -i bash -c 'echo $SHELL $HOME $USER'
/bin/bash
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
You can also use the env command to set the $LANG, or any other, variable for just
one instance of bash with one command. The example below uses this to show the
influence of the $LANG variable on file globbing.
[paul@RHEL4b test]$ env LANG=C bash -c 'ls File[a-z]'

Filea Fileb
[paul@RHEL4b test]$ env LANG=en_US.UTF-8 bash -c 'ls File[a-z]'
Filea FileA Fileb FileB
[paul@RHEL4b test]$
5.7.11. exporting variables

You can export shell variables to other shells with the export command. This will
export the variable to child shells.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ var3=three

[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ var4=four
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ export var4
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $var3 $var4
three four
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ bash
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $var3 $var4
four
But it will not export to the parent shell (previous screenshot continued).
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ export var5=five

[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $var3 $var4 $var5
four five
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ exit
exit
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $var3 $var4 $var5
three four
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
5.7.12. delineate variables

Until now, we have seen that bash interpretes a variable starting from a dollar sign,
continuing until the first occurrence of a non-alphanumeric character that is not an
70
underscore. In some situations, this can be a problem. This issue can be resolved with
curly braces like in this example.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ prefix=Super

[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo Hello $prefixman and $prefixgirl
Hello and
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo Hello ${prefix}man and ${prefix}girl
Hello Superman and Supergirl
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
5.7.13. quotes and variables

Notice that double quotes still allow the parsing of variables, whereas single quotes
prevent this.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ MyVar=555

[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo $MyVar
555
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo "$MyVar"
555
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo '$MyVar'
$MyVar
The bash shell will replace variables with their value in double quoted lines, but not
in single quoted lines.
paul@laika:~$ city=Burtonville
paul@laika:~$ echo "We are in $city today."
We are in Burtonville today.
paul@laika:~$ echo 'We are in $city today.'
We are in $city today.
71
5.8. practice: shell variables

1. Use echo to display Hello followed by your username. (use a bash variable!)
2. Copy the value of $LANG to $MyLANG.
3. List all current shell variables.
4. Create a variable MyVar with a value of 1201.
5. Do the env and set commands display your variable ?
6. Destroy your variable.
7. Find the list of shell options in the man page of bash. What is the difference between
"set -u" and "set -o nounset" ?
8. Create two variables, and export one of them.
9. Display the exported variable in an interactive child shell.
10. Create a variable, give it the value 'Dumb', create another variable with value 'do'.
Use echo and the two variables to echo Dumbledore.
11. Activate nounset in your shell. Test that it shows an error message when using
non-existing variables.
12. Deactivate nounset.
13. Find the list of backslash escaped characters in the manual of bash. Add the time
to your PS1 prompt.
72
5.9. solution: shell variables

1. Use echo to display Hello followed by your username. (use a bash variable!)
echo Hello $USER

MyLANG=$LANG
3. List all current shell variables.

set
set|more on Ubuntu/Debian
4. Create a variable MyVar with a value of 1201.

MyVar=1201
5. Do the env and set commands display your variable ?

env | more
set | more
You will notice that set displays all variables, whereas env does not.
6. Destroy your variable.

unset MyVar
7. Find the list of shell options in the man page of bash. What is the difference between
"set -u" and "set -o nounset" ?
read the manual of bash (man bash), search for nounset -- both mean the same thing.
8. Create two variables, and export one of them.

var1=1; export var2=2
9. Display the exported variable in an interactive child shell.

bash
echo $var2
10. Create a variable, give it the value 'Dumb', create another variable with value 'do'.
Use echo and the two variables to echo Dumbledore.
varx=Dumb; vary=do
echo ${varx}le${vary}re
11. Activate nounset in your shell. Test that it shows an error message when using
non-existing variables.
set -u
set -o nounset
73
Both these lines have the same effect (read the manual of bash, search for nounset).
12. Deactivate nounset.

set +u
set +o nounset
13. Find the list of backslash escaped characters in the manual of bash. Add the time
to your PS1 prompt.
PS1='\t \u@\h$ '
74
5.10. shell arguments
5.10.1. white space removal

Before execution, the shell scans at the command line. Parts that are separated by one
or more consecutive white spaces (or tabs) are considered separate arguments, any
white space is removed. The first argument is the command to be executed, the other
arguments are given to the command. The shell effectively cuts your command into
one or more arguments.
This explains why the following four different command lines are the same after shell
expansion.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo Hello World

Hello World
Hello World
Hello World
Hello World
The echo command will display each argument it receives from the shell. The echo
command will also add a new whitespace between the arguments it received.
It is important for troubleshooting any script to know that the shell cuts your
command line in distinct arguments.
5.10.2. single quotes

You can prevent the removal of white spaces by quoting the spaces. The contents of
the quoted string are considered as one argument. In the screenshot below the echo
receives only one argument.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo 'A line with single quotes'

A line with single quotes
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
5.10.3. double quotes

You can also prevent the removal of white spaces by double quoting the spaces. Same
as above, echo only receives one argument.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo "A line with double quotes"

A line with double quotes
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
75
The only difference between single and double quotes is the parsing of shell
variables. You can already see the difference in this screenshot.
paul@laika:~$ echo 'My user is $USER'

My user is $USER
paul@laika:~$ echo "My user is $USER"
My user is paul
5.10.4. echo and quotes

Quoted lines can include special escaped characters recognized by the echo command
(when using echo -e). The screenshot below shows how to use \n for a newline and
\t for a tab (usually eight white spaces).
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo -e "A line with \na newline"

A line with
a newline
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo -e 'A line with \na newline'
A line with
a newline
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo -e "A line with \ta tab"
A line with a tab
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo -e 'A line with \ta tab'
A line with a tab
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
The echo command can generate more than white spaces, tabs and newlines. Look
in the man page for a list of options (and remember that echo may be both built-in
and external).
5.10.5. shell embedding

Shells can be embedded on the command line, or in other words, the command line
scan can spawn new processes containing a fork of the current shell. You can use
variables to prove that new shells are created. In the screenshot below, the variable
$var1 only exists in the (temporary) sub shell.
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ echo $var1
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ echo $(var1=5;echo $var1)

5
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ echo $var1
You can embed a shell in an embedded shell, this is called nested embedding of
shells.
This screenshot shows an embedded shell inside an embedded shell.
76
paul@deb503:~$ A=shell
paul@deb503:~$ echo $C$B$A $(B=sub;echo $C$B$A; echo $(A=sub;echo $C$B$A))
shell subshell subsub
5.10.6. back ticks

Single embedding can be useful to avoid changing your current directory. The
screenshot below uses back ticks instead of dollar-bracket to embed.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo `cd /etc; ls -d * | grep pass`

passwd passwd- passwd.OLD
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
5.10.7. back ticks or single quotes

Placing the embedding between backticks uses one character less than the dollar
and parenthesis combo. Be careful however, backticks are often confused with single
quotes. The technical difference between ' and ` is significant! You can not use
backticks to nest embedded shells.
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ echo `var1=5;echo $var1`

5
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ echo 'var1=5;echo $var1'
var1=5;echo $var1
77
5.11. practice: shell arguments

1. Display A B C with two spaces between B and C.
2. Complete the following command (do not use spaces) to display exactly the
following output:
echo -e "4+4=8" ; echo -e "10+14=24"
4+4 =8
10+14 =24
3. Use echo to display the following exactly:

??\\
5. Execute cd /var and ls in an embedded shell.
6. Create the variable embvar in an embedded shell and echo it. Does the variable
exist in your current shell now ?
7. Explain what "set -x" does. Can this be useful ?
8. Given the following screenshot, add exactly four characters to that command line
so that the total output is FirstMiddleLast.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo First; echo Middle; echo Last

First
Middle
Last
9. Display the type of the passwd command using the which command inside back
ticks.
78
5.12. solution: shell arguments

1. Display A B C with two spaces between B and C.
echo "A B C"
2. Complete the following command (do not use spaces) to display exactly the
following output:
4+4 =8
10+14 =24
The solution is to use tabs with \t.

echo -e "4+4\t=8" ; echo -e "10+14\t=24"
3. Use echo to display the following exactly:

echo '??\\'

echo -e "one \ntwo \nthree"
5. Execute cd /var and ls in an embedded shell.

echo $(cd /var ; ls)
The echo command is only needed to show the result of the ls command. Omitting
will result in the shell trying to execute the first file as a command.
6. Create the variable embvar in an embedded shell and echo it. Does the variable
exist in your current shell now ?
$(embvar=emb;echo $embvar) ; echo $embvar (the last echo fails).
$embvar does not exist in your current shell
7. Explain what "set -x" does. Can this be useful ?

It can be useful to display shell expansion for troubleshooting your command.
8. Given the following screenshot, add exactly four characters to that command line
so that the total output is FirstMiddleLast.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo First; echo Middle; echo Last

First
Middle
Last
echo -n First; echo -n Middle; echo Last
9. Display the type of the passwd command using the which command inside back
ticks.
type `which passwd`
79
5.13. file globbing
5.13.1. * asterisk
The shell is also responsible for file globbing (or dynamic filename generation). The
asterisk * is interpreted by the shell as a sign to generate filenames, matching the
asterisk to any combination of characters (even none). When no path is given, the
shell will use filenames in the current directory. See the man page of glob(7) for more
information. (This is part of LPI topic 1.103.3.)
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls
file1 file2 file3 File4 File55 FileA fileab Fileab FileAB fileabc
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls File*
File4 File55 FileA Fileab FileAB
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls file*
file1 file2 file3 fileab fileabc
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls *ile55
File55
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls F*ile55
File55
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls F*55
File55
5.13.2. ? question mark

Similar to the asterisk, the question mark ? is interpreted by the shell as a sign to
generate filenames, matching the question mark with exactly one character.
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls File?
File4 FileA
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls Fil?4
File4
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls Fil??
File4 FileA
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls File??
File55 Fileab FileAB
5.13.3. [] square brackets

The square bracket [ is interpreted by the shell as a sign to generate filenames,
matching any of the characters between [ and the first subsequent ]. The order in this
list between the brackets is not important. Each pair of brackets is replaced by exactly
one character.
80
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls File[5A]
FileA
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls File[A5]
FileA
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls File[A5][5b]
File55
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls File[a5][5b]
File55 Fileab
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls File[a5][5b][abcdefghijklm]
ls: File[a5][5b][abcdefghijklm]: No such file or directory
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls file[a5][5b][abcdefghijklm]
fileabc
You can also exclude characters from a list between square brackets with the
exclamation mark !. And you are allowed to make combinations of these wild cards.
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls file[a5][!Z]
fileab
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls file[!5]*
file1 file2 file3 fileab fileabc
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls file[!5]?
fileab
5.13.4. a-z and 0-9 ranges

The bash shell will also understand ranges of characters between brackets.
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls file[a-z]*
fileab fileab2 fileabc
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls file[0-9]
file1 file2 file3
[paul@RHELv4u3 gen]$ ls file[a-z][a-z][0-9]*
fileab2
5.13.5. $LANG and square brackets

But, don't forget the influence of the LANG variable. Some languages include
lowercase letters in an uppercase range (and vice versa).
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ ls [A-Z]ile?
file1 file2 file3 File4
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ ls [a-z]ile?
file1 file2 file3 File4
81
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ echo $LANG

en_US.UTF-8
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ LANG=C
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ echo $LANG
C
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ ls [a-z]ile?
file1 file2 file3
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ ls [A-Z]ile?
File4
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$
5.14. bash shell options

Both set and unset are built-in shell commands. They can be used to set options of
the bash shell itself. The next example will clarify this. By default, the shell will treat
unset variables as a variable having no value. By setting the -u option, the shell will
treat any reference to unset variables as an error. See the man page of bash for more
information.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $var123
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ set -u

-bash: var123: unbound variable
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ set +u
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
To list all the set options for your Bash shell, use echo $-. The noclobber option will
be explained later in this book (in the I/O redirection chapter).
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $-

himBH
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ set -C ; set -u
himuBCH
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ set +C ; set +u
himBH
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
5.15. shell history
5.15.1. history variables

The bash shell will remember the commands you type so you can easily repeat
previous commands. Some variable definitions are used for this: $HISTFILE points
to the location of the history file, $HISTSIZE will tell you how many commands will
82
be remembered in your current shell session, and $HISTFILESIZE is the limit of the
number of commands that will be kept in the history file. The file will be truncated
when this limit is exceeded. Your shell session history is written to the file when
exiting the shell. This screenshot lists some history variables in bash.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo $HISTFILE

/home/paul/.bash_history
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo $HISTFILESIZE
1000
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo $HISTSIZE
1000
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
The $HISTFILE (defaults to .sh_history in the home directory) and $HISTSIZE

variables are also used by the Korn shell (ksh).
$ set | grep -i hist

HISTSIZE=5000
5.15.2. repeating commands in bash

To repeat the last command in bash, type !!. This is pronounced as bang bang. To
repeat older commands, use history to display the shell command history and type !
followed by a number. The shell will echo the command and execute it.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ history

2 cat /etc/redhat-release
3 uname -r
4 rpm -qa | grep ^parted
...
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ !3
uname -r
2.6.9-34.EL
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
You can also use bang followed by one or more characters, bash will then repeat the
last command that started with those characters. But this can be very dangerous, you
have to be certain that the last command in your current shell history that starts with
those characters is the command you wish to execute.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ ls file4

file4
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ !ls
ls file4
file4
You can also use a colon followed by a regular expression to manipulate the previous
command.
83
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ !ls:s/4/5

ls file5
file5
The history command can also receive a value indicating the number of the most
recent history lines to display.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ history 4

422 ls file4
423 ls file4
424 ls file5
425 history 4
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
5.15.3. repeating commands in ksh

Repeating a command in the Korn shell is very similar. The Korn shell also has the
history command, but uses the letter r to recall lines from history.
This screenshot shows the history command. Note the different meaning of the
parameter.
$ history 17
17 clear
18 echo hoi
19 history 12
20 echo world
21 history 17
Repeating with r can be combined with the line numbers given by the history
command, or with the first few letters of the command.
$ r e
echo world
world
$ cd /etc
$ r
cd /etc
$
84
5.16. practice : shell globbing, options and

history
1. Create a test directory and enter it.
2. Create files file1 file10 file11 file2 File2 File3 file33 fileAB filea fileA fileAAA
file( file 2 (the last one has 6 characters including a space)
3. List (with ls) all files starting with file
4. List (with ls) all files starting with File
5. List (with ls) all files starting with file and ending in a number.
6. List (with ls) all files starting with file and ending with a letter
7. List (with ls) all files starting with File and having a digit as fifth character.
8. List (with ls) all files starting with File and having a digit as fifth character and
nothing else.
9. List (with ls) all files starting with a letter and ending in a number.
10. List (with ls) all files that have exactly five characters.
11. List (with ls) all files that start with f or F and end with 3 or A.
12. List (with ls) all files that start with f have i or R as second character and end
in a number.
13. List all files that do not start with the letter F.
15. Show the influence of $LANG in listing A-Z or a-z ranges.
16. Write a command line that executes 'rm file55'. Your command line should print
'success' if file55 is removed, and print 'failed' if there was a problem.
17. You receive information that one of your servers was cracked, the cracker
probably replaced the ls command. You know that the echo command is safe to use.
Can echo replace ls ? How can you list the files in the current directory with echo ?
18. The cd command is also compromised, can echo be used to list files in other
directories ? Explain how this works (list the contents of /etc and /bin without ls).
19. Is there another command besides cd to change directories ?
20. Make sure bash remembers the last 5000 commands you typed.
85
21. Open more than one console (press Ctrl-shift-t in gnome terminal) with the same
user account. When is command history written to the history file ?
22. Issue the date command. Now display the date in YYYY/MM/DD format.
23. Issue the cal command. Display a calendar of 1582 and 1752. Notice anything
special ?
86
5.17. solution: shell globbing, options and

history
1. Create a test directory and enter it.
mkdir testdir; cd testdir
2. Create files file1 file10 file11 file2 File2 File3 file33 fileAB filea fileA fileAAA
file( file 2 (the last one has 6 characters including a space)
touch file1 file10 file11 file2 File2 File3 file33 fileAB filea fileA fileAAA
touch "file("
touch "file 2"
3. List (with ls) all files starting with file

ls file*
4. List (with ls) all files starting with File

ls File*
5. List (with ls) all files starting with file and ending in a number.
ls file*[0-9]
6. List (with ls) all files starting with file and ending with a letter
ls file*[a-z]
7. List (with ls) all files starting with File and having a digit as fifth character.
ls File[0-9]*
8. List (with ls) all files starting with File and having a digit as fifth character and
nothing else.
ls File[0-9]
9. List (with ls) all files starting with a letter and ending in a number.
ls [a-z]*[0-9]
10. List (with ls) all files that have exactly five characters.
ls ?????
11. List (with ls) all files that start with f or F and end with 3 or A.
ls [fF]*[3A]
12. List (with ls) all files that start with f have i or R as second character and end
in a number.
ls f[iR]*[0-9]
87
13. List all files that do not start with the letter F.
ls [!F]*

MyLANG=$LANG
15. Show the influence of $LANG in listing A-Z or a-z ranges.

see example in book
16. Write a command line that executes 'rm file55'. Your command line should print
'success' if file55 is removed, and print 'failed' if there was a problem.
rm file55 && echo success || echo failed
17. You receive information that one of your servers was cracked, the cracker
probably replaced the ls command. You know that the echo command is safe to use.
Can echo replace ls ? How can you list the files in the current directory with echo ?
echo *
18. The cd command is also compromised, can echo be used to list files in other
directories ? Explain how this works (list the contents of /etc and /bin without ls).
echo /etc/* # the shell expands the directory for you
echo /bin/*
19. Is there another command besides cd to change directories ?

pushd popd
20. Make sure bash remembers the last 5000 commands you typed.
HISTSIZE=5000
21. Open more than one console (press Ctrl-shift-t in gnome terminal) with the same
user account. When is command history written to the history file ?
when you type exit
22. Issue the date command. Now display the date in YYYY/MM/DD format.
date +%Y/%m/%d
23. Issue the cal command. Display a calendar of 1582 and 1752. Notice anything
special ?
cal 1582
The calendars are different depending on the country. Check http://www.linux-

training.be/studentfiles/dates.txt
88
5.18. shell i/o redirection
5.18.1. stdin, stdout, and stderr

The shell (and almost every other Linux command) takes input from stdin (stream
0) and sends output to stdout (stream 1) and error messages to stderr (stream 2) .
The keyboard often server as stdin, stdout and stderr both go to the disply. The shell
allows you to redirect these streams.
5.18.2. > output redirection

stdout can be redirected with a greater than sign. While scanning the line, the shell
will see the > sign and will clear the file.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo It is cold today!

It is cold today!
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo It is cold today! > winter.txt
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ cat winter.txt
It is cold today!
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
Let me repeat myself here: While scanning the line, the shell will see the > sign and
will clear the file! This means that even when the command fails, the file will be
cleared!

It is cold today!
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ zcho It is cold today! > winter.txt
-bash: zcho: command not found
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
Note that the > notation is in fact the abbreviation of 1> (stdout being referred to
as stream 1.
5.18.3. noclobber
Erasing a file while using > can be prevented by setting the noclobber option.

It is cold today!
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ set -o noclobber
-bash: winter.txt: cannot overwrite existing file
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ set +o noclobber
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
89
The noclobber can be overruled with >|.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ set -o noclobber

-bash: winter.txt: cannot overwrite existing file
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo It is very cold today! >| winter.txt
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
5.18.4. >> append

Use >> to append output to a file.

It is cold today!
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ echo Where is the summer ? >> winter.txt
It is cold today!
Where is the summer ?
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
5.18.5. 2> error redirection

Redirecting stderr is done with 2>. This can be very useful to prevent error messages
from cluttering your screen. The screenshot below shows redirection of stdout to a
file, and stderr to /dev/null. Writing 1> is the same as >.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ find / > allfiles.txt 2> /dev/null

[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
5.18.6. 2>&1
To redirect both stdout and stderr to the same file, use 2>&1.
[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$ find / > allfiles_and_errors.txt 2>&1

[paul@RHELv4u3 ~]$
Note that the order of redirections is significant. For example, the command
ls > dirlist 2>&1
directs both standard output (file descriptor 1) and standard error (file descriptor 2)
to the file dirlist, while the command
90
ls 2>&1 > dirlist
directs only the standard output to file dirlist, because the standard error was made a
copy of the standard output before the standard output was redirected to dirlist.
5.18.7. < input redirection

Redirecting stdin is done with < (short for 0<).
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ cat < text.txt

one
two
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ tr 'onetw' 'ONEZZ' < text.txt
ONE
ZZO
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
5.18.8. << here document

The here document (sometimes called here-is-document) is a way to append input
until a certain sequence (usually EOF) is encountered. The EOF marker can be typed
literally or can be called with Ctrl-D.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ cat <<EOF > text.txt

> one
> two
> EOF
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ cat text.txt
one
two
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ cat <<brol > text.txt
> brel
> brol
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ cat text.txt
brel
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
5.18.9. confusing i/o redirection

The shell will scan the whole line before applying redirection. The following
command line is very readable and is correct.
cat winter.txt > snow.txt 2> errors.txt
But this one is also correct, but less readable.

2> errors.txt cat winter.txt > snow.txt
Even this will be understood perfectly by the shell.

< winter.txt > snow.txt 2> errors.txt cat
91
5.18.10. quick file clear

So what is the quickest way to clear a file ?
>foo
And what is the quickest way to clear a file when the noclobber option is set ?
>|bar
5.18.11. swapping stdout and stderr

When filtering an output stream, e.g. through a regular pipe ( | ) you only can filter
stdout. Say you want to filter out some unimportant error, out of the stderr stream.
This cannot be done directly, and you need to 'swap' stdout and stderr. This can be
done by using a 4th stream referred to with number 3:
3>&1 1>&2 2>&3
This Tower Of Hanoi like construction uses a temporary stream 3, to be able to swap
stdout (1) and stderr (2). The following is an example of how to filter out all lines
in the stderr stream, containing $uninterestingerror.
/usr/bin/$somecommand 3>&1 1>&2 2>&3 | grep -v $uninterestingerror 3>&1 1>&2 2>&3
But in this example, it can be done in a much shorter way, by using a pipe on
STDERR:
/usr/bin/$somecommand |& grep -v $uninterestingerror
92
5.19. practice : i/o redirection

1. Use ls to output the contents of the /etc/ directory to a file called etc.txt.
2. Activate the noclobber shell option.
3. Verify that nocclobber is active by repeating your ls on /etc/.
4. When listing all shell options, which character represents the noclobber option ?
5. Deactivate the noclobber option.
6. Make sure you have two shells open on the same computer. Create an empty
tailing.txt file. Then type tail -f tailing.txt. Use the second shell to append a line of
text to that file. Verify that the first shell displays this line.
7. Create a file that contains the names of five people. Use cat and output redirection
to create the file and use a here document to end the input.
93
5.20. solution : i/o redirection

1. Use ls to output the contents of the /etc/ directory to a file called etc.txt.
ls /etc > etc.txt
2. Activate the noclobber shell option.

set -o noclobber
3. Verify that nocclobber is active by repeating your ls on /etc/.

ls /etc > etc.txt (should not work)
4. When listing all shell options, which character represents the noclobber option ?
set $- (noclobber is visible as C)
5. Deactivate the noclobber option.

set +o noclobber
6. Make sure you have two shells open on the same computer. Create an empty
tailing.txt file. Then type tail -f tailing.txt. Use the second shell to append a line of
text to that file. Verify that the first shell displays this line.
paul@deb503:~$ > tailing.txt
paul@deb503:~$ tail -f tailing.txt
hello
world
in the other shell:

paul@deb503:~$ echo hello >> tailing.txt
paul@deb503:~$ echo world >> tailing.txt
7. Create a file that contains the names of five people. Use cat and output redirection
to create the file and use a here document to end the input.
paul@deb503:~$ cat > tennis.txt << ace
> Justine Henin
> Venus Williams
> Serena Williams
> Martina Hingis
> Kim Clijsters
> ace
paul@deb503:~$ cat tennis.txt
Justine Henin
Venus Williams
Serena Williams
Martina Hingis
Kim Clijsters
paul@deb503:~$
94
Chapter 6. Pipes and filters
6.1. pipes
6.1.1. about pipes

One of the most powerful advantages of Linux is the use of pipes.
A pipe takes stdout from the previous command and sends it as stdin to the next
command. All commands in a pipe run simultaneously.
6.1.2. | vertical bar

A pipe is represented by a vertical bar | between two commands. Below is a very
simple pipe.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat count.txt | tac

five
four
three
two
one
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$
6.1.3. multiple pipes

One command line can use multiple pipes. All commands in the pipe can run at the
same time.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat count.txt | tac | tac

one
two
three
four
five
6.2. filters
6.2.1. about filters

Tools that are written to be used with a pipe are often called filters. These filters are
very small programs (or tools) that do one specific thing very efficiently. They can
be used as building blocks for solutions.
95
Pipes and filters
6.2.2. cat does nothing

When between two pipes, the cat command does nothing (except putting stdin on
stdout.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ tac count.txt | cat | cat | cat | cat | cat

five
four
three
two
one
6.2.3. tee
Writing long pipes in Unix is fun, but sometimes you might want intermediate results.
This is were tee comes in handy. The tee filter puts stdin on stdout and also into a
file. So tee is almost the same as cat, except that it has two identical outputs.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ tac count.txt | tee temp.txt | tac
one
two
three
four
five
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat temp.txt
five
four
three
two
one
6.2.4. grep
The grep filter is famous among Unix users. The most common use of grep is to
filter lines of text containing (or not containing) a certain string.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat tennis.txt
Amelie Mauresmo, Fra
Kim Clijsters, BEL
Justine Henin, Bel
Serena Williams, usa
Venus Williams, USA
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat tennis.txt | grep Williams
Venus Williams, USA
You can write this without the cat.

[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ grep Williams tennis.txt
Venus Williams, USA
96
Pipes and filters
One of the most useful options of grep is grep -i which filters in a case insensitive
way.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ grep Bel tennis.txt

Justine Henin, Bel
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ grep -i Bel tennis.txt
Kim Clijsters, BEL
Justine Henin, Bel
Another very useful option is grep -v which outputs lines not matching the string.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ grep -v Fra tennis.txt

Kim Clijsters, BEL
Justine Henin, Bel
Venus Williams, USA
And of course, both options can be combined to filter all lines not containing a case
insensitive string.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ grep -vi usa tennis.txt

Amelie Mauresmo, Fra
Kim Clijsters, BEL
Justine Henin, Bel
With grep -A1 one line after the result is also displayed.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ grep -A1 Henin tennis.txt

Justine Henin, Bel
With grep -B1 one line before the result is also displayed.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ grep -B1 Henin tennis.txt

Kim Clijsters, BEL
Justine Henin, Bel
With grep -C1 (context) one line before and one after are also displayed. All three
options (A,B, and C) can display any number of lines (using e.g. A2, B4 or C20).
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ grep -C1 Henin tennis.txt

Kim Clijsters, BEL
Justine Henin, Bel
97
Pipes and filters
6.2.5. cut
The cut filter can select columns from files, depending on a delimiter or a count of
bytes. The screenshot below uses cut to filter for the username and userid in the /etc/
passwd file. It uses the colon as a delimiter, and selects fields 1 and 3.
[[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cut -d: -f1,3 /etc/passwd | tail -4
Figo:510
Pfaff:511
Harry:516
Hermione:517
When using a space as the delimiter for cut, you have to quote the space.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cut -d" " -f1 tennis.txt

Amelie
Kim
Justine
Serena
Venus
This example uses cut to display the second to the seventh character of /etc/passwd.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cut -c2-7 /etc/passwd | tail -4

igo:x:
faff:x
arry:x
ermion
6.2.6. tr
You can translate characters with tr. The screenshot shows the translation of all
occurrences of e to E.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat tennis.txt | tr 'e' 'E'

AmEliE MaurEsmo, Fra
Kim ClijstErs, BEL
JustinE HEnin, BEl
SErEna Williams, usa
VEnus Williams, USA
Here we set all letters to uppercase by defining two ranges.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat tennis.txt | tr 'a-z' 'A-Z'

AMELIE MAURESMO, FRA
KIM CLIJSTERS, BEL
JUSTINE HENIN, BEL
SERENA WILLIAMS, USA
98
Pipes and filters
VENUS WILLIAMS, USA

Here we translate all newlines to spaces.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat count.txt

one
two
three
four
five
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat count.txt | tr '\n' ' '
one two three four five [paul@RHEL4b pipes]$
The tr -s filter can also be used to squeeze multiple occurrences of a character to one.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat spaces.txt

one two three
four five six
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat spaces.txt | tr -s ' '
one two three
four five six
You can also use tr to 'encrypt' texts with rot13.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat count.txt | tr 'a-z' 'nopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghijklm'

bar
gjb
guerr
sbhe
svir
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ cat count.txt | tr 'a-z' 'n-za-m'
bar
gjb
guerr
sbhe
svir
This last example uses tr -d to delete characters.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ cat tennis.txt | tr -d e

Amli Maursmo, Fra
Kim Clijstrs, BEL
Justin Hnin, Bl
Srna Williams, usa
Vnus Williams, USA
6.2.7. wc
Counting words, lines and characters is easy with wc.
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Pipes and filters
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ wc tennis.txt

5 15 100 tennis.txt
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ wc -l tennis.txt
5 tennis.txt
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ wc -w tennis.txt
15 tennis.txt
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ wc -c tennis.txt
100 tennis.txt
6.2.8. sort
The sort filter will default to an alphabetical sort.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ cat music.txt

Queen
Brel
Led Zeppelin
Abba
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ sort music.txt
Abba
Brel
Led Zeppelin
Queen
But the sort filter has many options to tweak its usage. This example shows sorting
different columns (column 1 or column 2).
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ sort -k1 country.txt

Belgium, Brussels, 10
France, Paris, 60
Germany, Berlin, 100
Iran, Teheran, 70
Italy, Rome, 50
France, Paris, 60
Italy, Rome, 50
Iran, Teheran, 70
The screenshot below shows the difference between an alphabetical sort and a
numerical sort (both on the third column).

Italy, Rome, 50
France, Paris, 60
Iran, Teheran, 70
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ sort -n -k3 country.txt
Italy, Rome, 50
France, Paris, 60
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Pipes and filters
Iran, Teheran, 70
6.2.9. uniq
With uniq you can remove duplicates from a sorted list.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ cat music.txt

Queen
Brel
Queen
Abba
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ sort music.txt
Abba
Brel
Queen
Queen
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ sort music.txt |uniq
Abba
Brel
Queen
uniq can also count occurrences with the -c option.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ sort music.txt |uniq -c

1 Abba
1 Brel
2 Queen
6.2.10. comm
Comparing streams (or files) can be done with the comm. By default comm will
output three columns. In this example, Abba, Cure and Queen are in both lists, Bowie
and Sweet are only in the first file, Turner is only in the second.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ cat > list1.txt

Abba
Bowie
Cure
Queen
Sweet
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ cat > list2.txt
Abba
Cure
Queen
Turner
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ comm list1.txt list2.txt
Abba
Bowie
Cure
Queen
Sweet
Turner
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Pipes and filters
The output of comm can be easier to read when outputting only a single column. The
digits point out which output columns should not be displayed.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ comm -12 list1.txt list2.txt

Abba
Cure
Queen
Turner
Bowie
Sweet
6.2.11. od
European humans like to work with ascii characters, but computers store files in bytes.
The example below creates a simple file, and then uses od to show the contents of
the file in hexadecimal bytes, in octal bytes and in ascii (or backslashed) characters.
paul@laika:~/test$ cat > text.txt

abcdefg
1234567
paul@laika:~/test$ od -t x1 text.txt
0000000 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 0a 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 0a
0000020
paul@laika:~/test$ od -b text.txt
0000000 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 012 061 062 063 064 065 066 067 012
0000020
paul@laika:~/test$ od -c text.txt
0000000 a b c d e f g \n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 \n
0000020
paul@laika:~/test$
6.2.12. sed
The stream editor sed can perform editing functions in the stream, using regular
expressions.
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ echo level5 | sed 's/5/42/'

level42
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ echo level5 | sed 's/level/jump/'
jump5
Add g for global replacements (all occurrences of the string per line).
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ echo level5 level7 | sed 's/level/jump/'

jump5 level7
paul@deb503:~/pipes$ echo level5 level7 | sed 's/level/jump/g'
jump5 jump7
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Pipes and filters
6.3. some pipeline examples
6.3.1. who | wc
How many users are logged on to this system ?
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ who

root tty1 Jul 25 10:50
paul pts/0 Jul 25 09:29 (laika)
Harry pts/1 Jul 25 12:26 (barry)
paul pts/2 Jul 25 12:26 (pasha)
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ who | wc -l
4
6.3.2. who | cut | sort

Display a sorted list of logged on users.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ who | cut -d' ' -f1 | sort

Harry
paul
paul
root
Display a sorted list of logged on users, but every user only once.
[paul@RHEL4b pipes]$ who | cut -d' ' -f1 | sort | uniq

Harry
paul
root
6.3.3. grep | cut

Display a list of all bash user accounts on this computer. Users accounts are explained
in detail later.
paul@deb503:~$ grep bash /etc/passwd
paul:x:1000:1000:paul,,,:/home/paul:/bin/bash
serena:x:1001:1001::/home/serena:/bin/bash
paul@deb503:~$ grep bash /etc/passwd | cut -d: -f1
root
paul
serena
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Pipes and filters
6.4. practice : pipes and filters

1. Put a sorted list of all bash users in bashusers.txt.
2. Put a sorted list of all logged on users in onlineusers.txt.
3. Make a list of all files in /etc that contain the string samba.
4. Make a sorted list of all files in /etc that contain the case insensitive string samba.
5. Look at the output of /sbin/ifconfig. Write a line that displays only ip address and
the subnet mask.
6. Write a line that removes all non-letters from a stream.
7. Write a line that receives a textfile, and outputs all words on a separate line.
8. Write a spell checker on the command line. (There might be a dictionary in /usr/
share/dict/ .)
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Pipes and filters
6.5. solution : pipes and filters

1. Put a sorted list of all bash users in bashusers.txt.
grep bash /etc/passwd | cut -d: -f1 | sort > bashusers.txt
2. Put a sorted list of all logged on users in onlineusers.txt.

who | cut -d' ' -f1 | sort > onlineusers.txt
3. Make a list of all files in /etc that contain the string samba.
ls /etc | grep samba
4. Make a sorted list of all files in /etc that contain the case insensitive string samba.
ls /etc | grep -i samba | sort
5. Look at the output of /sbin/ifconfig. Write a line that displays only ip address and
the subnet mask.
/sbin/ifconfig | head -2 | grep 'inet ' | tr -s ' ' | cut -d' ' -f3,5
6. Write a line that removes all non-letters from a stream.

paul@deb503:~$ cat text
This is, yes really! , a text with ?&* too many str$ange# characters ;-)
paul@deb503:~$ cat text | tr -d ',!$?.*&^%#@;()-'
This is yes really a text with too many strange characters
7. Write a line that receives a textfile, and outputs all words on a separate line.
paul@deb503:~$ cat text2

it is very cold today without the sun
paul@deb503:~$ cat text2 | tr ' ' '\n'

it
is
very
cold
today
without
the
sun
8. Write a spell checker on the command line. (There might be a dictionary in /usr/
share/dict/ .)
paul@rhel ~$ echo "The zun is shining today" > text
paul@rhel ~$ cat > DICT

is
shining
sun
the
today
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Pipes and filters
paul@rhel ~$ cat text | tr 'A-Z ' 'a-z\n' | sort | uniq | comm -23 - DICT
zun
You could also add the solution from question number 6 to remove non-letters, and
tr -s ' ' to remove redundant spaces.
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Chapter 7. Basic Unix tools
7.1. common tools
7.1.1. find
The find command can be very useful at the start of a pipe to search for files. Here are
some examples. You might want to add 2>/dev/null to the command lines to avoid
cluttering your screen with error messages.
Find all files in /etc and put the list in etcfiles.txt

find /etc > etcfiles.txt
Find all files of the entire system and put the list in allfiles.txt
find / > allfiles.txt
Find files that end in .conf in the current directory (and all subdirs).
find . -name "*.conf"
Find files of type file (not directory, pipe or etc.) that end in .conf.
find . -type f -name "*.conf"
Find files of type directory that end in .bak .

find /data -type d -name "*.bak"
Find files that are newer than file42.txt

find . -newer file42.txt
Find can also execute another command on every file found. This example will look
for *.odf files and copy them to /backup/.
find "/data/*.odf" -exec cp {} /backup/ \;
Find can also execute, after your confirmation, another command on every file found.
This example will remove *.odf files if you approve of it for every file found.
find "/data/*.odf" -ok rm {} \;
7.1.2. locate
The locate tool is very different from find in that it uses an index to locate files. This
is a lot faster than traversing all the directories, but it also means that it is always
outdated. If the index does not exist yet, then you have to create it (as root on Red
Hat Enterprise Linux) with the updatedb command.
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Basic Unix tools
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ locate Samba

warning: locate: could not open database: /var/lib/slocate/slocate.db:...
warning: You need to run the 'updatedb' command (as root) to create th...
Please have a look at /etc/updatedb.conf to enable the daily cron job.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ updatedb
fatal error: updatedb: You are not authorized to create a default sloc...
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ su -
Password:
[root@RHEL4b ~]# updatedb
[root@RHEL4b ~]#
Most Linux distributions will schedule the updatedb to run once every day.
7.1.3. date
The date command can display the date, time, timezone and more.
paul@rhel55 ~$ date
Sat Apr 17 12:44:30 CEST 2010
A date string can be customized to display the format of your choice. Check the man
page for more options.
paul@rhel55 ~$ date +'%A %d-%m-%Y'
Saturday 17-04-2010
Time on any Unix is calculated in number of seconds since 1969 (the first second
being the first second of the first of January 1970). Use date +%s to display Unix
time in seconds.
paul@rhel55 ~$ date +%s
1271501080
When will this seconds counter reach two thousand million ?

paul@rhel55 ~$ date -d '1970-01-01 + 2000000000 seconds'
Wed May 18 04:33:20 CEST 2033
7.1.4. cal
The cal command displays the current month, with the current day highlighted.
paul@rhel55 ~$ cal
April 2010
Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
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Basic Unix tools
25 26 27 28 29 30
You can select any month in the past or the future.

paul@rhel55 ~$ cal 2 1970
February 1970
Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
7.1.5. sleep
The sleep command is sometimes used in scripts to wait a number of seconds. This
example shows a five second sleep.
paul@rhel55 ~$ sleep 5
paul@rhel55 ~$
7.1.6. time
The time command can display how long it takes to execute a command. The date
command takes only a little time.
paul@rhel55 ~$ time date

Sat Apr 17 13:08:27 CEST 2010
real 0m0.014s
user 0m0.008s
sys 0m0.006s
The sleep 5 command takes five real seconds to execute, but consumes little cpu
time.
paul@rhel55 ~$ time sleep 5
real 0m5.018s
user 0m0.005s
sys 0m0.011s
This bzip2 command compresses a file and uses a lot of cpu time.
paul@rhel55 ~$ time bzip2 text.txt
real 0m2.368s
user 0m0.847s
sys 0m0.539s
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Basic Unix tools
7.2. compression tools
7.2.1. gzip - gunzip

Users never have enough disk space, so compression comes in handy. The gzip
command can make files take up less space.
paul@rhel55 ~$ ls -lh text.txt

-rw-rw-r-- 1 paul paul 6.4M Apr 17 13:11 text.txt
paul@rhel55 ~$ gzip text.txt
paul@rhel55 ~$ ls -lh text.txt.gz
-rw-rw-r-- 1 paul paul 760K Apr 17 13:11 text.txt.gz
You can get the original back with gunzip.
paul@rhel55 ~$ gunzip text.txt.gz

7.2.2. zcat - zmore

Text files that are compressed with gzip can be viewed with zcat and zmore.
paul@rhel55 ~$ head -4 text.txt

/
/opt
/opt/VBoxGuestAdditions-3.1.6
/opt/VBoxGuestAdditions-3.1.6/routines.sh
paul@rhel55 ~$ gzip text.txt
paul@rhel55 ~$ zcat text.txt.gz | head -4
/
/opt
7.2.3. bzip2 - bunzip2

Files can also be compressed with bzip2 which takes a little more time than gzip,
but compresses better.
paul@rhel55 ~$ bzip2 text.txt

paul@rhel55 ~$ ls -lh text.txt.bz2
-rw-rw-r-- 1 paul paul 569K Apr 17 13:11 text.txt.bz2
Files can be uncompressed again with bunzip2.
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Basic Unix tools
paul@rhel55 ~$ bunzip2 text.txt.bz2

7.2.4. bzcat - bzmore

And in the same way bzcat and bzmore can display files compressed with bzip2.
paul@rhel55 ~$ bzip2 text.txt

paul@rhel55 ~$ bzcat text.txt.bz2 | head -4
/
/opt
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Basic Unix tools
7.3. practice : basic Unix tools

1. Explain the difference between these two commands. This question is very
important. If you don't know the answer, then look back at the shell chapter.
find /data -name "*.txt"
find /data -name *.txt
2. Explain the difference between these two statements. Will they both work when
there are 200 .odf files in /data ? How about when there are 2 million .odf files ?
find /data -name "*.odf" > data_odf.txt
find /data/*.odf > data_odf.txt
3. Write a find command that finds all files created after January 30th 2010.
4. Write a find command that finds all *.odf files created in September 2009.
5. Count the number of *.conf files in /etc and all its subdirs.
6. Two commands that do the same thing: copy *.odf files to /backup/ . What would
be a reason to replace the first command with the second ? Again, this is an important
question.
cp -r /data/*.odf /backup/
find /data -name "*.odf" -exec cp {} /backup/ \;
7. Create a file called loctest.txt. Can you find this file with locate ? Why not ? How
do you make locate find this file ?
8. Use find and -exec to rename all .htm files to .html.
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Basic Unix tools
7.4. solution : basic Unix tools

1. Explain the difference between these two commands. This question is very
important. If you don't know the answer, then look back at the shell chapter.
find /data -name "*.txt"
find /data -name *.txt
When *.txt is quoted then the shell will not touch it. The find tool will look in the
/data for all files ending in .txt.
When *.txt is not quoted then the shell might expand this (when one or more files
that ends in .txt exist in the current directory). The find might show a different result,
or can result in a syntax error.
2. Explain the difference between these two statements. Will they both work when
there are 200 .odf files in /data ? How about when there are 2 million .odf files ?
find /data -name "*.odf" > data_odf.txt
find /data/*.odf > data_odf.txt
The first find will output all .odf filenames in /data and all subdirectories. The shell
will redirect this to a file.
The second find will output all files named .odf in /data and will also output all files
that exist in directories named *.odf (in /data).
With two million files the command line would be expanded beyond the maximum
that the shell can accept. The last part of the command line would be lost.
3. Write a find command that finds all files created after January 30th 2010.
touch -t 201001302359 marker_date
find . -type f -newer marker_date
4. Write a find command that finds all *.odf files created in September 2009.
touch -t 200908312359 marker_start
touch -t 200910010000 marker_end
find . -type f -name "*.odf" -newer marker_start ! -newer marker_end
5. Count the number of *.conf files in /etc and all its subdirs.
find /etc -type f -name '*.conf' | wc -l
6. Two commands that do the same thing: copy *.odf files to /backup/ . What would
be a reason to replace the first command with the second ? Again, this is an important
question.
cp -r /data/*.odf /backup/
find /data -name "*.odf" -exec cp {} /backup/ \;
The first might fail when there are too many files to fit on one command line.
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Basic Unix tools
7. Create a file called loctest.txt. Can you find this file with locate ? Why not ? How
do you make locate find this file ?
You cannot locate this with locate because it is not yet in the index.
updatedb
8. Use find and -exec to rename all .htm files to .html.
paul@rhel55 ~$ find . -name '*.htm'

./one.htm
./two.htm
paul@rhel55 ~$ find . -name '*.htm' -exec mv {} {}l \;
paul@rhel55 ~$ find . -name '*.htm*'
./one.html
./two.html
114
Chapter 8. Introduction to vi
8.1. about vi(m)

The vi editor is installed on almost every Unix. Linux will very often install vim (vi
improved) which is similar. Every system administrator should know vi(m), because
it is an easy tool to solve problems.
The vi editor is not intuitive, but once you get to know it, vi becomes a very powerful
application. Most Linux distributions will include the vimtutor which is a 45 minute
lesson in vi(m).
8.2. introduction to using vi(m)
8.2.1. command mode and insert mode

The vi editor starts in command mode. In command mode, you can type commands.
Some commands will bring you into insert mode. In insert mode, you can type text.
The escape key will return you to command mode.
Table 8.1. getting to command mode

key action
Esc set vi(m) in command mode.
8.2.2. start typing (a A i I o O)

The difference between a A i I o and O is the location where you can start typing.
a will append after the current character and A will append at the end of the line. i
will insert before the current character and I will insert at the beginning of the line.
o will put you in a new line after the current line and O will put you in a new line
before the current line.
Table 8.2. switch to insert mode

command action
a start typing after the current character
A start typing at the end of the current line
i start typing before the current character
I start typing at the start of the current line
o start typing on a new line after the current line
O start typing on a new line before the current line
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Introduction to vi
8.2.3. replace and delete a character (r x X)

When in command mode (it doesn't hurt to hit the escape key more than once) you
can use the x key to delete the current character. The big X key (or shift x) will delete
the character left of the cursor. Also when in command mode, you can use the r key
to replace one single character. The r key will bring you in insert mode for just one
key press, and will return you immediately to command mode.
Table 8.3. replace and delete
command action
x delete the character below the cursor
X delete the character before the cursor
r replace the character below the cursor
p paste after the cursor (here the last deleted character)
xp switch two characters
8.2.4. undo and repeat (u .)

When in command mode, you can undo your mistakes with u. You can do your
mistakes twice with . (in other words, the . will repeat your last command).
Table 8.4. undo and repeat
command action
u undo the last action
. repeat the last action
8.2.5. cut, copy and paste a line (dd yy p P)

When in command mode, dd will cut the current line. yy will copy the current line.
You can paste the last copied or cut line after (p) or before (P) the current line.
Table 8.5. cut, copy and paste a line
command action
dd cut the current line
yy (yank yank) copy the current line
p paste after the current line
P paste before the current line
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Introduction to vi
8.2.6. cut, copy and paste lines (3dd 2yy)

When in command mode, before typing dd or yy, you can type a number to repeat
the command a number of times. Thus, 5dd will cut 5 lines and 4yy will copy (yank)
4 lines. That last one will be noted by vi in the bottom left corner as "4 line yanked".
Table 8.6. cut, copy and paste lines
command action
3dd cut three lines
4yy copy four lines
8.2.7. start and end of a line (0 or ^ and $)

When in command mode, the 0 and the caret ^ will bring you to the start of the current
line, whereas the $ will put the cursor at the end of the current line. You can add 0 and
$ to the d command, d0 will delete every character between the current character and
the start of the line. Likewise d$ will delete everything from the current character till
the end of the line. Similarly y0 and y$ will yank till start and end of the current line.
Table 8.7. start and end of line
command action
0 jump to start of current line
^ jump to start of current line
$ jump to end of current line
d0 delete until start of line
d$ delete until end of line
8.2.8. join two lines (J) and more

When in command mode, pressing J will append the next line to the current line.
With yyp you duplicate a line and with ddp you switch two lines.
Table 8.8. join two lines
command action
J join two lines
yyp duplicate a line
ddp switch two lines
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Introduction to vi
8.2.9. words (w b)
When in command mode, w will jump to the next word and b will move to the
previous word. w and b can also be combined with d and y to copy and cut words
(dw db yw yb).
Table 8.9. words
command action
w forward one word
b back one word
3w forward three words
dw delete one word
yw yank (copy) one word
5yb yank five words back
7dw delete seven words
8.2.10. save (or not) and exit (:w :q :q! )

Pressing the colon : will allow you to give instructions to vi (technically speaking,
typing the colon will open the ex editor). :w will write (save) the file, :q will quit an
unchanged file without saving, and :q! will quit vi discarding any changes. :wq will
save and quit and is the same as typing ZZ in command mode.
Table 8.10. save and exit vi
command action
:w save (write)
:w fname save as fname
:q quit
:wq save and quit
ZZ save and quit
:q! quit (discarding your changes)
:w! save (and write to non-writable file!)
The last one is a bit special. With :w! vi will try to chmod the file to get write
permission (this works when you are the owner) and will chmod it back when the
write succeeds. This should always work when you are root (and the file system is
writable).
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Introduction to vi
8.2.11. Searching (/ ?)
When in command mode typing / will allow you to search in vi for strings (can be
a regular expression). Typing /foo will do a forward search for the string foo and
typing ?bar will do a backward search for bar.
Table 8.11. searching

command action
/string forward search for string
?string backward search for string
n go to next occurrence of search string
/^string forward search string at beginning of line
/string$ forward search string at end of line
/br[aeio]l search for bral brel bril and brol
/\<he\> search for the word he (and not for here or the)
8.2.12. Replace all ( :1,$ s/foo/bar/g )

To replace all occurrences of the string foo with bar, first switch to ex mode with : .
Then tell vi which lines to use, for example 1,$ will do the replace all from the first
to the last line. You can write 1,5 to only process the first five lines. The s/foo/bar/
g will replace all occurences of foo with bar.
Table 8.12. replace

command action
:4,8 s/foo/bar/g replace foo with bar on lines 4 to 8
:1,$ s/foo/bar/g replace foo with bar on all lines
8.2.13. Reading files (:r :r !cmd)

When in command mode, :r foo will read the file named foo, :r !foo will execute the
command foo. The result will be put at the current location. Thus :r !ls will put a
listing of the current directory in your text file.
Table 8.13. read files and input

command action
:r fname (read) file fname and paste contents
:r !cmd execute cmd and paste its output
8.2.14. text buffers

There are 36 buffers in vi to store text. You can use them with the " character.
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Introduction to vi
Table 8.14. text buffers

command action
"add delete current line and put text in buffer a
"g7yy copy seven lines into buffer g
"ap paste from buffer a
8.2.15. multiple files

You can edit multiple files with vi. Here are some tips.
Table 8.15. multiple files

command action
vi file1 file2 file3 start editing three files
:args lists files and marks active file
:n start editing the next file
:e toggle with last edited file
:rew rewind file pointer to first file
8.2.16. abbreviations
With :ab you can put abbreviations in vi. Use :una to undo the abbreviation.
Table 8.16. abbreviations

command action
:ab str long string abbreviate str to be 'long string'
:una str un-abbreviate str
8.2.17. key mappings

Similarly to their abbreviations, you can use mappings with :map for command mode
and :map! for insert mode.
This example shows how to set the F6 function key to toggle between set number
and set nonumber. The <bar> seperates the two commands, set number! toggles
the state and set number? reports the current state.
:map <F6> :set number!<bar>set number?<CR>
8.2.18. setting options

Some options that you can set in vim.
120
Introduction to vi
:set number ( also try :se nu )

:set nonumber
:syntax on
:syntax off
:set all (list all options)
:set tabstop=8
:set tx (CR/LF style endings)
:set notx
You can set these options (and much more) in ~/.vimrc for vim or in ~/.exrc for
standard vi.
paul@barry:~$ cat ~/.vimrc

set number
set tabstop=8
set textwidth=78
map <F6> :set number!<bar>set number?<CR>
paul@barry:~$
121
Introduction to vi
8.3. practice : vi(m)

1. Start the vimtutor and do some or all of the exercises. You might need to run
aptitude install vim on xubuntu.
2. What 3 key combination in command mode will duplicate the current line.
3. What 3 key combination in command mode will switch two lines' place (line five
becomes line six and line six becomes line five).
4. What 2 key combination in command mode will switch a character's place with
the next one.
5. vi can understand macro's. A macro can be recorded with q followed by the name
of the macro. So qa will record the macro named a. Pressing q again will end the
recording. You can recall the macro with @ followed by the name of the macro. Try
this example: i 1 'Escape Key' qa yyp 'Ctrl a' q 5@a (Ctrl a will increase the number
with one).
6. Copy /etc/passwd to your ~/passwd. Open the last one in vi and press Ctrl v. Use
the arrow keys to select a Visual Block, you can copy this with y or delete it with
d. Try pasting it.
7. What does dwwP do when you are at the beginning of a word in a sentence ?
122
Introduction to vi
8.4. solution : vi(m)

1. Start the vimtutor and do some or all of the exercises. You might need to run
aptitude install vim on xubuntu.
vimtutor
2. What 3 key combination in command mode will duplicate the current line.
yyp
3. What 3 key combination in command mode will switch two lines' place (line five
becomes line six and line six becomes line five).
ddp
4. What 2 key combination in command mode will switch a character's place with
the next one.
xp
5. vi can understand macro's. A macro can be recorded with q followed by the name
of the macro. So qa will record the macro named a. Pressing q again will end the
recording. You can recall the macro with @ followed by the name of the macro. Try
this example: i 1 'Escape Key' qa yyp 'Ctrl a' q 5@a (Ctrl a will increase the number
with one).
6. Copy /etc/passwd to your ~/passwd. Open the last one in vi and press Ctrl v. Use
the arrow keys to select a Visual Block, you can copy this with y or delete it with
d. Try pasting it.
cp /etc/passwd ~
vi passwd
(press Ctrl-V)
7. What does dwwP do when you are at the beginning of a word in a sentence ?
dwwP can switch the current word with the next word.
123
Chapter 9. Introduction to scripting
9.1. about shell scripting

bash has support for programming constructs that can be saved as scripts. These
scripts in turn then become more bash commands. Many Linux commands are
scripts. Scripts run whenever a user logs on or a service is started.
This means that system administrators also need basic knowledge of scripting to
understand how their servers and their applications are started, updated, upgraded,
patched, maintained, configured and removed, and also to understand how a user
environment is built.
9.2. hello world

Just like in every programming course, we start with a simple hello_world script.
The following script will output Hello World.
echo Hello World
After creating this simple script in vi, you'll have to chmod +x hello_world to make
it executable. And unless you add the scripts directory to your path, you'll have to
type the path to the script for the shell to be able to find it.
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ chmod +x hello_world

[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ ./hello_world
Hello World
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$
9.3. she-bang
Let's expand our example a little further by putting #!/bin/bash on the first line of
the script. The #! is called a she-bang, where the she-bang is the first two characters
of the script.
#!/bin/bash
echo Hello World
9.4. comment
Let's expand our example a little further.
124
Introduction to scripting
#!/bin/bash
# Hello World Script
echo Hello World
9.5. Variables
#!/bin/bash
var1=4
echo var1 = $var1
Scripts can contain variables, but since scripts are run in their own shell, the variables
do not survive the end of the script.
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ echo $var1
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ ./vars

var1 = 4
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$
Luckily, you can force a script to run in the same shell; this is called sourcing a script.
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ source ./vars

var1 = 4
4
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$
The above is identical to the below.
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ . ./vars

var1 = 4
4
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$
9.6. Shell
You can never be sure which shell a user is running. A script that works flawlessly
in bash might not work in ksh, csh, or dash. To instruct a shell to run your script
in a certain shell, you can start your script with a shebang followed by the shell it is
supposed to run in. This script will run in a bash shell.
#!/bin/bash
echo -n hello
echo A bash subshell ècho -n hello`
125
This script will run in a Korn shell (unless /bin/ksh is a link to /bin/bash). The /etc/
shells file contains a list of shells on your system.
#!/bin/ksh
echo -n hello
echo a Korn subshell ècho -n hello`
Some user may try to perform setuid based script root spoofing. This is a rare but
possible attack. To improve script security and to avoid interpreter spoofing, you need
to add -- after the #!/bin/bash, which disables further option processing so bash will
not accept any options.
#!/bin/bash -
or
#!/bin/bash --
Any arguments after the -- are treated as filenames and arguments. An argument of
- is equivalent to --.
9.7. for loop

The example below shows the syntax of a classical for loop in bash.
for i in 1 2 4
do
echo $i
done
An example of a for loop combined with an embedded shell to generate the list.
for file in `ls *.txt`

do
cp $file $file.bak
echo Backup of $file put in $file.bak
done
9.8. while loop

Below a simple example of a while loop.
let i=100;
while [ $i -ge 0 ] ;
do
echo Counting down, from 100 to 0, now at $i;
let i--;
126
done
9.9. until loop

Below a simple example of an until loop.
let i=100;
until [ $i -le 0 ] ;
do
echo Counting down, from 100 to 1, now at $i;
let i--;
done
9.10. parameters
A bash shell script can have parameters. The numbering you see in the script below
continues if you have more parameters. You also have special parameters containing
the number of parameters, a string of all of them, and also the process id, and the last
error code. The man page of bash has a full list.
#!/bin/bash
echo The first argument is $1
echo The second argument is $2
echo The third argument is $3
echo \$ $$ PID of the script

echo \# $# count arguments
echo \? $? last error code
echo \* $* all the arguments
Below is the output of the script above in action.
[paul@RHEL4a scripts]$ ./pars one two three

The first argument is one
The second argument is two
The third argument is three
$ 5610 PID of the script
# 3 count arguments
? 0 last error code
* one two three all the arguments
[paul@RHEL4a scripts]$ ./pars a b c
The first argument is a
The second argument is b
The third argument is c
# 3 count arguments
? 0 last error code
* a b c all the arguments
[paul@RHEL4a scripts]$ ./pars 1 2
The first argument is 1
The second argument is 2
The third argument is
127

# 2 count arguments
? 0 last error code
* 1 2 all the arguments
[paul@RHEL4a scripts]$
9.11. test [ ]
The test command can test whether something is true or false. Let's start by testing
whether 10 is greater than 55.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ test 10 -gt 55 ; echo $?

1
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
The test command returns 1 if the test fails. And as you see in the next screenshot,
test returns 0 when a test succeeds.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ test 56 -gt 55 ; echo $?

0
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
If you prefer true and false, then write the test like this.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ test 56 -gt 55 && echo true || echo false

true
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ test 6 -gt 55 && echo true || echo false
false
The test command can also be written as square brackets, the screenshot below is
identical to the one above.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ [ 56 -gt 55 ] && echo true || echo false

true
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ [ 6 -gt 55 ] && echo true || echo false
false
Below are some example tests. Take a look at man test to see more options for tests.
[ -d foo ] Does the directory foo exist ?

[ '/etc' = $PWD ] Is the string /etc equal to the variable $PWD ?
[ $1 != 'secret' ] Is the first parameter different from secret ?
[ 55 -lt $bar ] Is 55 less than the value of $bar ?
[ $foo -ge 1000 ] Is the value of $foo greater or equal to 1000 ?
[ "abc" < $bar ] Does abc sort before the value of $bar ?
[ -f foo ] Is foo a regular file ?
[ -r bar ] Is bar a readable file ?
[ foo -nt bar ] Is file foo newer than file bar ?
[ -o nounset ] Is the shell option nounset set ?
128
Tests can be combined with logical AND and OR.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ [ 66 -gt 55 -a 66 -lt 500 ] && echo true || echo false
true
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ [ 66 -gt 55 -a 660 -lt 500 ] && echo true || echo false
false
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ [ 66 -gt 55 -o 660 -lt 500 ] && echo true || echo false
true
9.12. if if, then then, or else

The if then else construction is about choice. If a certain condition is met, then
execute something, else execute something else. The example below tests whether a
file exists, and if the file exists then a proper message is echoed.
#!/bin/bash
if [ -f isit.txt ]
then echo isit.txt exists!
else echo isit.txt not found!
fi
If we name the above script 'choice', then it executes like this.
[paul@RHEL4a scripts]$ ./choice

isit.txt not found!
[paul@RHEL4a scripts]$ touch isit.txt
[paul@RHEL4a scripts]$ ./choice
isit.txt exists!
9.13. let
The let built-in shell function instructs the shell to perform an evaluation of arithmetic
expressions. It will return 0 unless the last arithmetic expression evaluates to 0.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ let x="3 + 4" ; echo $x

7
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ let x="10 + 100/10" ; echo $x
20
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ let x="10-2+100/10" ; echo $x
18
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ let x="10*2+100/10" ; echo $x
30
The bash shell can also convert between different bases.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ let x="0xFF" ; echo $x

255
129
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ let x="0xC0" ; echo $x

192
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ let x="0xA8" ; echo $x
168
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ let x="8#70" ; echo $x
56
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ let x="8#77" ; echo $x
63
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ let x="16#c0" ; echo $x
192
9.14. runtime input

You can ask the user for input with the read command in a script.
#!/bin/bash
echo -n Enter a number:
read number
9.15. sourcing a config file

[paul@RHEL4a scripts]$ cat myApp.conf
# The config file of myApp
# Enter the path here

myAppPath=/var/myApp
# Enter the number of quines here

quines=5
[paul@RHEL4a scripts]$ cat myApp.bash

#!/bin/bash
#
# Welcome to the myApp application
#
. ./myApp.conf
echo There are $quines quines
[paul@RHEL4a scripts]$ ./myApp.bash

There are 5 quines
9.16. case
You can sometimes simplify nested if statements with a case construct.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ ./help

What animal did you see ? lion
You better start running fast!
130
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ ./help

What animal did you see ? dog
Don't worry, give it a cookie.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ cat help
#!/bin/bash
#
# Wild Animals Helpdesk Advice
#
echo -n "What animal did you see ? "
read animal
case $animal in
"lion" | "tiger")
echo "You better start running fast!"
;;
"cat")
echo "Let that mouse go..."
;;
"dog")
echo "Don't worry, give it a cookie."
;;
"chicken" | "goose" | "duck" )
echo "Eggs for breakfast!"
;;
"liger")
echo "Approach and say 'Ah you big fluffy kitty...'."
;;
"babelfish")
echo "Did it fall out your ear ?"
;;
*)
echo "You discovered an unknown animal, name it!"
;;
esac
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
9.17. shopt
You can toggle the values of variables controlling optional shell behavior with the
shopt built-in shell command. The example below first verifies whether the cdspell
option is set; it is not. The next shopt command sets the value, and the third shopt
command verifies that the option really is set. You can now use minor spelling
mistakes in the cd command. The man page of bash has a complete list of options.
paul@laika:~$ shopt -q cdspell ; echo $?

1
paul@laika:~$ shopt -s cdspell
paul@laika:~$ shopt -q cdspell ; echo $?
0
paul@laika:~$ cd /Etc
/etc
paul@laika:/etc$
9.18. Practice : scripts

0. Give each script a different name, keep them for later!
131
1. Write a script that receives four parameters, and outputs them in reverse order.
2. Write a script that receives two parameters (two filenames) and outputs whether
those files exist.
3. Write a script that counts the number of files ending in .txt in the current directory.
4. Write a script that asks for two numbers, and outputs the sum and product (as
shown here).
Enter a number: 5
Enter another number: 2
Sum: 5 + 2 = 7
Product: 5 x 2 = 10
5. Improve the previous script to test that the numbers are between 1 and 100, exit
with an error if necessary.
6. Improve the previous script to congratulate the user if the sum equals the product.
7. Improve the script from question 2. to complain if it does not receive exactly two
parameters.
8. Write a script that counts from 3 to 7 and then from 7 to 3, and all this three times,
once with a for loop, once with a while loop and once with a until loop. Show the
teacher that it works!
9. Write a script that asks for a filename. Verify existence of the file, then verify that
you own the file, and whether it is writable. If not, then make it writable.
10. Make a configuration file for the previous script. Put a logging switch in the
config file, logging means writing detailed output of everything the script does to a
log file in /tmp.
11. Make the case statement in "Wild Animals Helpdesk Advice" case insensitive.
Use shopt (with the correct toggled option) for this, but reset the value back to it's
original after the end of the case statement. (A solution is available in appendix 1,
but try to find it yourself.)
take a look at linux system scripts in /etc/init.d and /etc/rc.d and try to understand
them. Where does execution of a script start in /etc/init.d/samba ? There are also some
hidden scripts in ~, we will discuss them later.
9.19. Solutions
1. Write a script that receives four parameters, and outputs them in reverse order.
132
echo $4 $3 $2 $1
2. Write a script that receives two parameters (two filenames) and outputs whether
those files exist.
#!/bin/bash
if [ -f $1 ]
then echo $1 exists!
else echo $1 not found!
fi
if [ -f $2 ]
then echo $2 exists!
else echo $2 not found!
fi
3. Write a script that counts the number of files ending in .txt in the current directory.
#!/bin/bash
ls *.txt > /dev/null 2>&1

if [ $? -ne 0 ]
then echo "There are 0 files ending in .txt"
else
let i=0
for file in *.txt
do
let i++
done
echo "There are $i files ending in .txt"
fi
4. Write a script that asks for two numbers, and outputs the sum and product (as
shown here).
Enter a number: 5
Enter another number: 2
Sum: 5 + 2 = 7
Product: 5 x 2 = 10
#!/bin/bash
echo -n "Enter a number : "

read n1
echo -n "Enter another number : "

read n2
let sum="$n1+$n2"
let pro="$n1*$n2"
echo -e "Sum\t: $n1 + $n2 = $sum"

echo -e "Product\t: $n1 * $n2 = $pro"
133
5. Improve the previous script to test that the numbers are between 1 and 100, exit
with an error if necessary.
echo -n "Enter a number between 1 and 100 : "

read n1
if [ $n1 -lt 1 -o $n1 -gt 100 ]

then
echo Wrong number...
exit 1
fi
6. Improve the previous script to congratulate the user if the sum equals the product.
if [ $sum -eq $pro ]

then echo Congratulations $sum == $pro
fi
7. Improve the script from question 2. to complain if it does not receive exactly two
parameters.
if [ $# -ne 2 ]
then
echo Must get two parameters...
exit 1
fi
8. Write a script that counts from 3 to 7 and then from 7 to 3, and all this three times,
once with a for loop, once with a while loop and once with a until loop. Show the
teacher that it works!
9. Write a script that asks for a filename. Verify existance of the file, then verify that
you own the file, and whether it is writable. If not, then make it writable.
10. Make a configuration file for the previous script. Put a logging switch in the
config file, logging means writing detailed output of everything the script does to a
log file in /tmp.
11. A script with a case insensitive case statement, using the shopt nocasematch
option. The nocasematch option is reset to the value it had before the scripts started.
#!/bin/bash
#
# Wild Animals Case Insensitive Helpdesk Advice
#
if shopt -q nocasematch; then

nocase=yes;
else
nocase=no;
shopt -s nocasematch;
134
fi
echo -n "What animal did you see ? "

read animal
case $animal in
"lion" | "tiger")
echo "You better start running fast!"
;;
"cat")
echo "Let that mouse go..."
;;
"dog")
echo "Don't worry, give it a cookie."
;;
"chicken" | "goose" | "duck" )
echo "Eggs for breakfast!"
;;
"liger")
echo "Approach and say 'Ah you big fluffy kitty.'"
;;
"babelfish")
echo "Did it fall out your ear ?"
;;
*)
echo "You discovered an unknown animal, name it!"
;;
esac
if [ nocase = yes ] ; then

shopt -s nocasematch;
else
shopt -u nocasematch;
fi
take a look at linux system scripts in /etc/init.d and /etc/rc.d and try to understand
them. Where does execution of a script start in /etc/init.d/samba ? There are also some
hidden scripts in ~, we will discuss them later.
Always take time to properly document every script that you write!
135
Chapter 10. Introduction to users
10.1. Identify yourself
10.1.1. whoami
The whoami command tells you your username.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# whoami

root
[root@RHEL5 ~]# su - paul
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ whoami
paul
10.1.2. who
The who command will give you information about who is logged on the system.
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ who

root tty1 2008-06-24 13:24
sandra pts/0 2008-06-24 14:05 (192.168.1.34)
paul pts/1 2008-06-24 16:23 (192.168.1.37)
10.1.3. who am i
With who am i the who command will display only the line pointing to your current
session.
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ who am i

paul pts/1 2008-06-24 16:23 (192.168.1.34)
10.1.4. w
The w command shows you who is logged on and what they are doing.
$ w
05:13:36 up 3 min, 4 users, load average: 0.48, 0.72, 0.33
USER TTY FROM LOGIN@ IDLE JCPU PCPU WHAT
root tty1 - 05:11 2.00s 0.32s 0.27s find / -name shad
inge pts/0 192.168.1.33 05:12 0.00s 0.02s 0.02s -ksh
laura pts/1 192.168.1.34 05:12 46.00s 0.03s 0.03s -bash
paul pts/2 192.168.1.34 05:13 25.00s 0.07s 0.04s top
136
Introduction to users
10.1.5. id
The id command will give you your user id, primary group id, and a list of the groups
that you belong to.
root@laika:~# id
uid=0(root) gid=0(root) groups=0(root)
root@laika:~# su - brel
brel@laika:~$ id
uid=1001(brel) gid=1001(brel) groups=1001(brel),1008(chanson),11578(wolf)
137
10.2. users
10.2.1. user management

User management on any Unix can be done in three complimentary ways. You can
use the graphical tools provided by your distribution. These tools have a look and
feel that depends on the distribution. If you are a novice linux user on your home
system, then use the graphical tool that is provided by your distribution. This will
make sure that you do not run into problems.
Another option is to use command line tools like useradd, usermod, gpasswd, passwd
and others. Server administrators are likely to use these tools, since they are familiar
and very similar accross many different distributions. This chapter will focus on these
command line tools.
A third and rather extremist way is to edit the local configuration files directly using
vi (or vipw/vigr). Do not attempt this as a novice on production systems!
10.2.2. /etc/passwd
The local user database on Linux (and on most Unixes) is /etc/passwd.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# tail /etc/passwd

inge:x:518:524:art dealer:/home/inge:/bin/ksh
ann:x:519:525:flute player:/home/ann:/bin/bash
frederik:x:520:526:rubius poet:/home/frederik:/bin/bash
steven:x:521:527:roman emperor:/home/steven:/bin/bash
pascale:x:522:528:artist:/home/pascale:/bin/ksh
geert:x:524:530:kernel developer:/home/geert:/bin/bash
wim:x:525:531:master damuti:/home/wim:/bin/bash
sandra:x:526:532:radish stresser:/home/sandra:/bin/bash
annelies:x:527:533:sword fighter:/home/annelies:/bin/bash
laura:x:528:534:art dealer:/home/laura:/bin/ksh
As you can see, this file contains seven columns separated by a colon. The columns
contain the username, an x, the user id, the primary group id, a description, the name
of the home directory, and the login shell.
10.2.3. root
The root user also called the superuser is the most powerful account on your Linux
system. This user can do almost anything, including the creation of other users. The
root user always has userid 0 (regardless of the name of the account).
[root@RHEL5 ~]# head -1 /etc/passwd

138
10.2.4. useradd
You can add users with the useradd command. The example below shows how to
add a user named yanina (last parameter) and at the same time forcing the creation
of the home directory (-m), setting the name of the home directory (-d), and setting
a description (-c).
[root@RHEL5 ~]# useradd -m -d /home/yanina -c "yanina wickmayer" yanina

[root@RHEL5 ~]# tail -1 /etc/passwd
yanina:x:529:529:yanina wickmayer:/home/yanina:/bin/bash
The user named yanina received userid 529 and primary group id 529.
10.2.5. /etc/default/useradd
Both Red Hat Enterprise Linux and Debian/Ubuntu have a file called /etc/default/
useradd that contains some default user options. Besides using cat to display this
file, you can also use useradd -D.
[root@RHEL4 ~]# useradd -D

GROUP=100
HOME=/home
INACTIVE=-1
EXPIRE=
SHELL=/bin/bash
SKEL=/etc/skel
10.2.6. userdel
You can delete the user yanina with userdel. The -r option of userdel will also remove
the home directory.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# userdel -r yanina
10.2.7. usermod
You can modify the properties of a user with the usermod command. This example
uses usermod to change the description of the user harry.

harry:x:516:520:harry potter:/home/harry:/bin/bash
[root@RHEL4 ~]# usermod -c 'wizard' harry
harry:x:516:520:wizard:/home/harry:/bin/bash
139
10.3. passwords
10.3.1. passwd
Passwords of users can be set with the passwd command. Users will have to provide
their old password before twice entering the new one.
[harry@RHEL4 ~]$ passwd

Changing password for user harry.
Changing password for harry
(current) UNIX password:
New UNIX password:
BAD PASSWORD: it's WAY too short
New UNIX password:
Retype new UNIX password:
passwd: all authentication tokens updated successfully.
[harry@RHEL4 ~]$
As you can see, the passwd tool will do some basic verification to prevent users
from using too simple passwords. The root user does not have to follow these rules
(there will be a warning though). The root user also does not have to provide the old
password before entering the new password twice.
10.3.2. /etc/shadow
User passwords are encrypted and kept in /etc/shadow. The /etc/shadow file is read
only and can only be read by root. We will see in the file permissions section how it
is possible for users to change their password. For now, you will have to know that
users can change their password with the /usr/bin/passwd command.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# tail /etc/shadow

inge:$1$yWMSimOV$YsYvcVKqByFVYLKnU3ncd0:14054:0:99999:7:::
ann:!!:14054:0:99999:7:::
frederik:!!:14054:0:99999:7:::
steven:!!:14054:0:99999:7:::
pascale:!!:14054:0:99999:7:::
geert:!!:14054:0:99999:7:::
wim:!!:14054:0:99999:7:::
sandra:!!:14054:0:99999:7:::
annelies:!!:14054:0:99999:7:::
laura:$1$Tvby1Kpa$lL.WzgobujUS3LClIRmdv1:14054:0:99999:7:::
The /etc/shadow file contains nine colon separated columns. The nine fields contain
(from left to right) the user name, the encrypted password (note that only inge and
laura have an encrypted password), the day the password was last changed (day 1 is
January 1, 1970), number of days the password must be left unchanged, password
expiry day, warning number of days before password expiry, number of days after
expiry before disabling the account, and the day the account was disabled (again,
since 1970). The last field has no meaning yet.
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10.3.3. password encryption
encryption with passwd

Passwords are stored in an encrypted format. This encryption is done by the crypt
function. The easiest (and recommended) way to add a user with a password to the
system is to add the user with the useradd -m user command, and then set the user's
password with passwd.
[root@RHEL4 ~]# useradd -m xavier

[root@RHEL4 ~]# passwd xavier
Changing password for user xavier.
New UNIX password:
Retype new UNIX password:
passwd: all authentication tokens updated successfully.
[root@RHEL4 ~]#
encryption with openssl

Another way to create users with a password is to use the -p option of useradd, but that
option requires an encrypted password. You can generate this encrypted password
with the openssl passwd command.
[root@RHEL4 ~]# openssl passwd stargate

ZZNX16QZVgUQg
[root@RHEL4 ~]# useradd -m -p ZZNX16QZVgUQg mohamed
encryption with crypt

A third option is to create your own C program using the crypt function, and compile
this into a command.
[paul@laika ~]$ cat MyCrypt.c

#include <stdio.h>
#define __USE_XOPEN
#include <unistd.h>
int main(int argc, char** argv)

{
if(argc==3)
{
printf("%s\n", crypt(argv[1],argv[2]));
}
else
{
printf("Usage: MyCrypt $password $salt\n" );
}
return 0;
}
141
This little program can be compiled with gcc like this.
[paul@laika ~]$ gcc MyCrypt.c -o MyCrypt -lcrypt
To use it, we need to give two parameters to MyCript. The first is the unencrypted
password, the second is the salt. The salt is used to perturb the encryption algorithm in
one of 4096 different ways. This variation prevents two users with the same password
from having the same entry in /etc/shadow.
paul@laika:~$ ./MyCrypt stargate 12

12L4FoTS3/k9U
01Y.yPnlQ6R.Y
330asFUbzgVeg
42XFxoT4R75gk
Did you notice that the first two characters of the password are the salt ?
The standard output of the crypt function is using the DES algorithm which is old
and can be cracked in minutes. A better method is to use MD5 passwords which can
be recognized by a salt starting with $1$.
paul@laika:~$ ./MyCrypt stargate '$1$12'

$1$12$xUIQ4116Us.Q5Osc2Khbm1
$1$01$yNs8brjp4b4TEw.v9/IlJ/
$1$33$tLh/Ldy2wskdKAJR.Ph4M0
$1$42$Hb3nvP0KwHSQ7fQmIlY7R.
The MD5 salt can be up to eight characters long. The salt is displayed in /etc/shadow
between the second and third $, so never use the password as the salt!
paul@laika:~$ ./MyCrypt stargate '$1$stargate'

$1$stargate$qqxoLqiSVNvGr5ybMxEVM1
10.3.4. password defaults
/etc/login.defs
The /etc/login.defs file contains some default settings for user passwords like
password aging and length settings. (You will also find the numerical limits of user
ids and group ids and whether or not a home directory should be created by default).
142
[root@RHEL4 ~]# grep -i pass /etc/login.defs

# Password aging controls:
# PASS_MAX_DAYS Maximum number of days a password may be used.
# PASS_MIN_DAYS Minimum number of days allowed between password changes.
# PASS_MIN_LEN Minimum acceptable password length.
# PASS_WARN_AGE Number of days warning given before a password expires.
PASS_MAX_DAYS 99999
PASS_MIN_DAYS 0
PASS_MIN_LEN 5
PASS_WARN_AGE 7
chage
The chage command can be used to set an expiration date for a user account (-E),
set a mimimum (-m) and maximum (-M) password age, a password expiration date,
and set the number of warning days before the password expiration date. Much of
this functionality is also available from the passwd command. The -l option of chage
will list these settings for a user.
[root@RHEL4 ~]# chage -l harry

Minimum: 0
Maximum: 99999
Warning: 7
Inactive: -1
Last Change: Jul 23, 2007
Password Expires: Never
Password Inactive: Never
Account Expires: Never
[root@RHEL4 ~]#
10.3.5. disabling a password

Passwords in /etc/shadow cannot begin with an exclamation mark. When the second
field in /etc/passwd starts with an exclamation mark, then the password can not be
used.
Using this feature is often called locking, disabling, or suspending a user account.
Besides vi (or vipw) you can also accomplish this with usermod.
The first line in the next screenshot will disable the password of user harry, making
it impossible for harry to authenticate using this password.
[root@RHEL4 ~]# usermod -L harry

[root@RHEL4 ~]# tail -1 /etc/shadow
harry:!$1$143TO9IZ$RLm/FpQkpDrV4/Tkhku5e1:13717:0:99999:7:::
The root user (and users with sudo rights on su) still will be able to su to harry
(because the password is not needed here). Also note that harry will still be able to
login if he has set up passwordless ssh!
143
[root@RHEL4 ~]# su - harry

[harry@RHEL4 ~]$
You can unlock the account again with usermod -U.
Watch out for tiny differences in the command line options of passwd, usermod,
and useradd on different distributions! Verify the local files when using features like
"disabling, suspending, or locking" users and passwords!
10.3.6. editing local files

If you still want to manually edit the /etc/passwd or /etc/shadow, after knowing these
commands for password management, then use vipw instead of vi(m) directly. The
vipw tool will do proper locking of the file.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# vipw /etc/passwd

vipw: the password file is busy (/etc/ptmp present)
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10.4. home directories
10.4.1. creating home directories

The easiest way to create a home directory is to supply the -m option with useradd
(it is likely set as a default option on Linux).
A less easy way is to create a home directory manually with mkdir which also
requires setting the owner and the permissions on the directory with chmod and
chown (both commands are discussed in detail in another chapter).
[root@RHEL5 ~]# mkdir /home/laura

[root@RHEL5 ~]# chown laura:laura /home/laura
[root@RHEL5 ~]# chmod 700 /home/laura
[root@RHEL5 ~]# ls -ld /home/laura/
drwx------ 2 laura laura 4096 Jun 24 15:17 /home/laura/
10.4.2. /etc/skel/
When using useradd with the -m option, the /etc/skel/ directory is copied to
the newly created home directory. The /etc/skel/ directory contains some (usually
hidden) files that contain profile settings and default values for applications. In this
way /etc/skel/ serves as a default home directory and as a default user profile.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# ls -la /etc/skel/

total 48
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:11 .
drwxr-xr-x 97 root root 12288 Jun 24 15:36 ..
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 24 Jul 12 2006 .bash_logout
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 176 Jul 12 2006 .bash_profile
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 124 Jul 12 2006 .bashrc
10.4.3. deleting home directories

The -r option of userdel will make sure that the home directory is deleted together
with the user account.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# ls -ld /home/wim/

drwx------ 2 wim wim 4096 Jun 24 15:19 /home/wim/
[root@RHEL5 ~]# userdel -r wim
[root@RHEL5 ~]# ls -ld /home/wim/
ls: /home/wim/: No such file or directory
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10.5. user shell
10.5.1. login shell

The /etc/passwd file specifies the login shell for the user. In the screenshot below
you can see that user annelies will log in with the /bin/bash shell, and user laura with
the /bin/ksh shell.

annelies:x:527:533:sword fighter:/home/annelies:/bin/bash
laura:x:528:534:art dealer:/home/laura:/bin/ksh
You can use the usermod command to change the shell for a user.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# usermod -s /bin/bash laura

laura:x:528:534:art dealer:/home/laura:/bin/bash
10.5.2. chsh
Users can change their login shell with the chsh command. First, user harry obtains
a list of available shells (he could also have done a cat /etc/shells) and then changes
his login shell to the Korn shell (/bin/ksh). At the next login, harry will default into
ksh instead of bash.
[harry@RHEL4 ~]$ chsh -l

/bin/sh
/bin/bash
/sbin/nologin
/bin/ash
/bin/bsh
/bin/ksh
/usr/bin/ksh
/usr/bin/pdksh
/bin/tcsh
/bin/csh
/bin/zsh
[harry@RHEL4 ~]$ chsh -s /bin/ksh
Changing shell for harry.
Password:
Shell changed.
[harry@RHEL4 ~]$
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10.6. switch users with su
10.6.1. su to another user

The su command allows a user to run a shell as another user.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ su harry
Password:
[harry@RHEL4b paul]$
10.6.2. su to root
Yes you can alsu su to become root, when you know the root password.
[harry@RHEL4b paul]$ su root
Password:
[root@RHEL4b paul]#
10.6.3. su as root
Uness you are logged in as root, running a shell as another user requires that you
know the password of that user. The root user can become any user without knowing
the user's password.
[root@RHEL4b paul]# su serena
[serena@RHEL4b paul]$
10.6.4. su - $username
By default, the su command maintains the same shell environment. To become
another user and also get the target user's environment, issue the su - command
followed by the target username.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ su - harry
Password:
[harry@RHEL4b ~]$
10.6.5. su -
When no username is provided to su or su -, the command will assume root is the
target.
[harry@RHEL4b ~]$ su -
Password:
[root@RHEL4b ~]#
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10.7. run a program as another user
10.7.1. about sudo

The sudo program allows a user to start a program with the credentials of another
user. Before this works, the system administrator has to set up the /etc/sudoers file.
This can be useful to delegate administrative tasks to another user (without giving
the root password).
The screenshot below shows the usage of sudo. User paul received the right to run
useradd with the credentials of root. This allows paul to create new users on the
system without becoming root and without knowing the root password.
paul@laika:~$ useradd -m inge

useradd: unable to lock password file
paul@laika:~$ sudo useradd -m inge
[sudo] password for paul:
paul@laika:~$
10.7.2. setuid on sudo

The sudo binary has the setuid bit set, so any user can run it with the effective userid
of root.
148
paul@laika:~$ ls -l `which sudo`

-rwsr-xr-x 2 root root 107872 2008-05-15 02:41 /usr/bin/sudo
paul@laika:~$
10.7.3. visudo
Check the man page of visudo before playing with the /etc/sudoers file.
10.7.4. sudo su
On some linux systems like Ubuntu and Kubuntu, the root user does not have a
password set. This means that it is not possible to login as root (extra security). To
perform tasks as root, the first user is given all sudo rights via the /etc/sudoers. In
fact all users that are members of the admin group can use sudo to run all commands
as root.
root@laika:~# grep admin /etc/sudoers

# Members of the admin group may gain root privileges
%admin ALL=(ALL) ALL
The end result of this is that the user can type sudo su - and become root without
having to enter the root password. The sudo command does require you to enter your
own password. Thus the password prompt in the screenshot below is for sudo, not
for su.
paul@laika:~$ sudo su -
Password:
root@laika:~#
149
10.8. practice: users

1. Create the users Serena Williams, Venus Williams and Justine Henin, all of them
with password set to stargate, with username (lowercase!) as their first name, and
their full name in the comment. Verify that the users and their home directory are
properly created.
2. Create a user called kornuser, give him the Korn shell (/bin/ksh) as his default
shell. Log on with this user (on a command line or in a tty).
3. Create a user named einstime without home directory, give him /bin/date as his
default logon shell. What happens when you log on with this user ? Can you think of
a useful real world example for changing a user's login shell to an application ?
4. Try the commands who, whoami, who am i, w, id, echo $USER $UID .
5a. Lock the venus user account with usermod.
5b. Use passwd -d to disable the serena password. Verify the serena line in /etc/
shadow before and after disabling.
5c. What is the difference between locking a user account and disabling a user
account's password ?
6. As root change the password of einstime to stargate.
7. Now try changing the password of serena to serena as serena.
8. Make sure every new user needs to change his password every 10 days.
9. Set the warning number of days to four for the kornuser.
10a. Set the password of two separate users to stargate. Look at the encrypted
stargate's in /etc/shadow and explain.
10b. Take a backup as root of /etc/shadow. Use vi to copy an encrypted stargate to

another user. Can this other user now log on with stargate as a password ?
11. Put a file in the skeleton directory and check whether it is copied to user's home
directory. When is the skeleton directory copied ?
12. Why use vipw instead of vi ? What could be the problem when using vi or vim ?
13. Use chsh to list all shells, and compare to cat /etc/shells. Change your login shell
to the Korn shell, log out and back in. Now change back to bash.
14. Which useradd option allows you to name a home directory ?
15. How can you see whether the password of user harry is locked or unlocked ? Give
a solution with grep and a solution with passwd.
150
10.9. solution: users

1. Create the users Serena Williams, Venus Williams and Justine Henin, all of them
with password set to stargate, with username (lowercase) as their first name, and their
full name in the comment. Verify that the users and their home directory are properly
created.
useradd -c "Serena Williams" serena ; passwd serena
useradd -c "Venus Williams" venus ; passwd venus
useradd -c "Justine Henin" justine ; passwd justine
tail /etc/passwd ; tail /etc/shadow ; ls /home
Keep user logon names in lowercase!
2. Create a user called kornuser, give him the Korn shell (/bin/ksh) as his default
shell. Log on with this user (on a command line or in a tty).
useradd -s /bin/ksh kornuser ; passwd kornuser
3. Create a user named einstime without home directory, give him /bin/date as his
default logon shell. What happens when you log on with this user ? Can you think of
a useful real world example for changing a user's login shell to an application ?
useradd -s /bin/date einstime ; passwd einstime
It can be useful when users need to access only one application on the server. Just
logging on opens the application for them, and closing the application automatically
logs them off.
4. Try the commands who, whoami, who am i, w, id, echo $USER $UID .
who ; whoami ; who am i ; w ; id ; echo $USER $UID
5a. Lock the venus user account with usermod.

usermod -L venus
5b. Use passwd -d to disable the serena password. Verify the serena line in /etc/
shadow before and after disabling.
grep serena /etc/shadow; passwd -d serena ; grep serena /etc/shadow
5c. What is the difference between locking a user account and disabling a user
account's password ?
Locking will prevent the user from logging on to the system with his password (by
putting a ! in front of the password in /etc/shadow). Disbling with passwd will erase
the password from /etc/shadow.
6. As root change the password of einstime to stargate.

Log on as root and type: passwd einstime
7. Now try changing the password of serena to serena as serena.

log on as serena, then execute: passwd serena... it should fail!
151
8. Make sure every new user needs to change his password every 10 days.
For an existing user: chage -M 10 serena
For all new users: vi /etc/login.defs (and change PASS_MAX_DAYS to 10)
9. Set the warning number of days to four for the kornuser.

chage -W 4 kornuser
10a. Set the password of two separate users to stargate. Look at the encrypted
stargate's in /etc/shadow and explain.
If you used passwd, then the salt will be different for the two encrypted passwords.
10b. Take a backup as root of /etc/shadow. Use vi to copy an encrypted stargate to

another user. Can this other user now log on with stargate as a password ?
Yes.
11. Put a file in the skeleton directory and check whether it is copied to user's home
directory. When is the skeleton directory copied ?
When you create a user account with a new home directory.
12. Why use vipw instead of vi ? What could be the problem when using vi or vim ?
vipw will give a warning when someone else is already using vipw on that file.
13. Use chsh to list all shells, and compare to cat /etc/shells. Change your login shell
to the Korn shell, log out and back in. Now change back to bash.
On Red Hat Enterprise Linux: chsh -l
14. Which useradd option allows you to name a home directory ?

-d
15. How can you see whether the password of user harry is locked or unlocked ? Give
a solution with grep and a solution with passwd.
grep harry /etc/shadow
passwd -S harry
152
10.10. shell environment

It is nice to have these preset and custom aliases and variables, but where do they all
come from ? The shell uses a number of startup files that are checked (and executed)
whenever the shell is invoked. What follows is an overview of startup scripts.
10.10.1. /etc/profile
Both the bash and the ksh shell will verify the existence of /etc/profile and execute
it if it exists.
When reading this script, you might notice (at least on Debian Lenny and on Red Hat
Enterprise Linux 5) that it builds the PATH environment variable. The script might
also change the PS1 variable, set the HOSTNAME and execute even more scripts
like /etc/inputrc
You can use this script to set aliases and variables for every user on the system.
10.10.2. ~/.bash_profile
When this file exists in the users home directory, then bash will execute it. On Debian
Linux it does not exist by default.
RHEL5 uses a brief ~/.bash_profile where it checks for the existence of ~/.bashrc
and then executes it. It also adds $HOME/bin to the $PATH variable.
[serena@rhel53 ~]$ cat .bash_profile

# .bash_profile
# Get the aliases and functions

if [ -f ~/.bashrc ]; then
. ~/.bashrc
fi
# User specific environment and startup programs
PATH=$PATH:$HOME/bin
export PATH
10.10.3. ~/.bash_login
When .bash_profile does not exist, then bash will check for ~/.bash_login and
execute it.
Neither Debian nor Red Hat have this file by default.
153
10.10.4. ~/.profile
When neither ~/.bash_profile and ~/.bash_login exist, then bash will verify the
existence of ~/.profile and execute it. This file does not exist by default on Red Hat.
On Debian this script can execute ~/.bashrc and will add $HOME/bin to the $PATH
variable.
serena@deb503:~$ tail -12 .profile

# if running bash
if [ -n "$BASH_VERSION" ]; then
# include .bashrc if it exists
if [ -f "$HOME/.bashrc" ]; then
. "$HOME/.bashrc"
fi
fi
# set PATH so it includes user's private bin if it exists

if [ -d "$HOME/bin" ] ; then
PATH="$HOME/bin:$PATH"
fi
10.10.5. ~/.bashrc
As seen in the previous points, the ~/.bashrc script might be executed by other scripts.
Let us take a look at what it does by default.
Red Hat uses a very simple ~/.bashrc, checking for /etc/bashrc and executing it. It
also leaves room for custom aliases and functions.
[serena@rhel53 ~]$ more .bashrc

# .bashrc
# Source global definitions

if [ -f /etc/bashrc ]; then
. /etc/bashrc
fi
# User specific aliases and functions
On Debian this script is quite a bit longer and configures $PS1, some history variables
and a number af active and inactive aliases.
serena@deb503:~$ ls -l .bashrc
-rw-r--r-- 1 serena serena 3116 2008-05-12 21:02 .bashrc
10.10.6. ~/.bash_logout
When exiting bash, it can execute ~/.bash_logout. Debian and Red Hat both use this
opportunity to clear the screen.
154
serena@deb503:~$ cat .bash_logout

# ~/.bash_logout: executed by bash(1) when login shell exits.
# when leaving the console clear the screen to increase privacy
if [ "$SHLVL" = 1 ]; then
[ -x /usr/bin/clear_console ] && /usr/bin/clear_console -q
fi
[serena@rhel53 ~]$ cat .bash_logout

# ~/.bash_logout
/usr/bin/clear
10.10.7. Debian overview

Below is a table overview of when Debian is running any of these bash startup scripts.
Table 10.1. Debian User Environment

script su su - ssh gdm
~./bashrc no yes yes yes
~/.profile no yes yes yes
/etc/profile no yes yes yes
/etc/bash.bashrc yes no no yes
10.10.8. RHEL5 overview

Below is a table overview of when Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 is running any of
these bash startup scripts.
Table 10.2. Red Hat User Environment

script su su - ssh gdm
~./bashrc yes yes yes yes
~/.bash_profile no yes yes yes
/etc/profile no yes yes yes
/etc/bashrc yes yes yes yes
155
Chapter 11. Introduction to groups
11.1. about groups

Users can be listed in groups. Groups allow you to set permissions on the group level
instead of having to set permissions for every individual user. Every Unix or Linux
distribution will have a graphical tool to manage groups. Novice users are advised
to use this graphical tool. More experienced users can use command line tools to
manage users, but be careful: Some distributions do not allow the mixed use of GUI
and CLI tools to manage groups (YaST in Novell Suse). Senior administrators can
edit the relevant files directly with vi or vigr.
11.2. groupadd
Groups can be created with the groupadd command. The example below shows the
creation of five (empty) groups.
root@laika:~# groupadd tennis

root@laika:~# groupadd football
root@laika:~# groupadd snooker
root@laika:~# groupadd formula1
root@laika:~# groupadd salsa
11.3. /etc/group
Users can be a member of several groups. Group membership is defined by the /etc/
group file.
root@laika:~# tail -5 /etc/group

tennis:x:1006:
football:x:1007:
snooker:x:1008:
formula1:x:1009:
salsa:x:1010:
root@laika:~#
The first field is the group's name. The second field is the group's (encrypted)
password (can be empty). The third field is the group identification or GID. The
fourth field is the list of members, these groups have no members.
11.4. usermod
Group membership can be modified with the useradd or usermod command.
root@laika:~# usermod -a -G tennis inge

root@laika:~# usermod -a -G tennis katrien
156
Introduction to groups
root@laika:~# usermod -a -G salsa katrien

root@laika:~# usermod -a -G snooker sandra
root@laika:~# usermod -a -G formula1 annelies
tennis:x:1006:inge,katrien
football:x:1007:
snooker:x:1008:sandra
formula1:x:1009:annelies
salsa:x:1010:katrien
root@laika:~#
Be careful when using usermod to add users to groups. By default, the usermod
command will remove the user from every group of which he is a member if the group
is not listed in the command! Using the -a (append) switch prevents this behaviour.
11.5. groupmod
You can change the group name with the groupmod command.
root@laika:~# groupmod -n darts snooker

tennis:x:1006:inge,katrien
football:x:1007:
formula1:x:1009:annelies
salsa:x:1010:katrien
darts:x:1008:sandra
11.6. groupdel
You can permanently remove a group with the groupdel command.
root@laika:~# groupdel tennis

root@laika:~#
11.7. groups
A user can type the groups command to see a list of groups where the user belongs to.
[harry@RHEL4b ~]$ groups

harry sports
[harry@RHEL4b ~]$
11.8. gpasswd
You can delegate control of group membership to another user with the gpasswd
command. In the example below we delegate permissions to add and remove group
157
members to serena for the sports group. Then we su to serena and add harry to the
sports group.
[root@RHEL4b ~]# gpasswd -A serena sports

[root@RHEL4b ~]# su - serena
[serena@RHEL4b ~]$ id harry
uid=516(harry) gid=520(harry) groups=520(harry)
[serena@RHEL4b ~]$ gpasswd -a harry sports
Adding user harry to group sports
[serena@RHEL4b ~]$ id harry
uid=516(harry) gid=520(harry) groups=520(harry),522(sports)
[serena@RHEL4b ~]$ tail -1 /etc/group
sports:x:522:serena,venus,harry
[serena@RHEL4b ~]$
Group administrators do not have to be a member of the group. They can remove
themselves from a group, but this does not influence their ability to add or remove
members.
[serena@RHEL4b ~]$ gpasswd -d serena sports

Removing user serena from group sports
[serena@RHEL4b ~]$ exit
Information about group administrators is kept in the /etc/gshadow file.
[root@RHEL4b ~]# tail -1 /etc/gshadow

sports:!:serena:venus,harry
[root@RHEL4b ~]#
To remove all group administrators from a group, use the gpasswd command to set
an empty administrators list.
[root@RHEL4b ~]# gpasswd -A "" sports
11.9. vigr
Similar to vipw, the vigr command can be used to manually edit the /etc/group file,
since it will do proper locking of the file. Only experienced senior administrators
should use vi or vigr to manage groups.
158
11.10. practice: groups

1. Create the groups tennis, football and sports.
2. In one command, make venus a member of tennis and sports.
3. Rename the football group to foot.
4. Use vi to add serena to the tennis group.
5. Use the id command to verify that serena is a member of tennis.
6. Make someone responsible for managing group membership of foot and sports.
Test that it works.
159
11.11. solution: groups

1. Create the groups tennis, football and sports.
groupadd tennis ; groupadd football ; groupadd sports
2. In one command, make venus a member of tennis and sports.

usermod -a -G tennis,sports venus
3. Rename the football group to foot.

groupmod -n foot football
4. Use vi to add serena to the tennis group.

vi /etc/group
5. Use the id command to verify that serena is a member of tennis.

id (and after logoff logon serena should be member)
6. Make someone responsible for managing group membership of foot and sports.
Test that it works.
gpasswd -A (to make manager)
gpasswd -a (to add member)
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Chapter 12. Standard file permissions
12.1. file ownership
12.1.1. user owner and group owner

The users and groups of a system can be locally managed in /etc/passwd and /etc/
group, or they can be in a NIS, LDAP, or Samba domain. These users and groups
can own files. Actually, every file has a user owner and a group owner, as can be
seen in the following screenshot.
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ ls -l
total 24
-rw-rw-r-- 1 paul paul 17 Feb 7 11:53 file1
-rw-rw-r-- 1 paul paul 106 Feb 5 17:04 file2
-rw-rw-r-- 1 paul proj 984 Feb 5 15:38 data.odt
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 0 Feb 7 16:07 stuff.txt
User paul owns three files, two of those are also owned by the group paul; data.odt is
owned by the group proj. The root user owns the file stuff.txt, as does the group root.
12.1.2. chgrp
You can change the group owner of a file using the chgrp command.
root@laika:/home/paul# touch FileForPaul

root@laika:/home/paul# ls -l FileForPaul
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul
root@laika:/home/paul# chgrp paul FileForPaul
-rw-r--r-- 1 root paul 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul
12.1.3. chown
The user owner of a file can be changed with chown command.
-rw-r--r-- 1 root paul 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul
root@laika:/home/paul# chown paul FileForPaul
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul
You can also use chown to change both the user owner and the group owner.
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Standard file permissions
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul
root@laika:/home/paul# chown root:project42 FileForPaul
-rw-r--r-- 1 root project42 0 2008-08-06 14:11 FileForPaul
12.2. list of special files

When you use ls -l, for each file you can see ten characters before the user and group
owner. The first character tells us the type of file. Regular files get a -, directories get
a d, symbolic links are shown with an l, pipes get a p, character devices a c, block
devices a b, and sockets an s.
Table 12.1. Unix special files
first file type

character
- normal file
d directory
l symbolic link
p named pipe
b block device
c character device
s socket
12.3. permissions
12.3.1. rwx
The nine characters following the file type denote the permissions in three triplets. A
permission can be r for read access, w for write access, and x for execute. You need
the r permission to list (ls) the contents of a directory. You need the x permission to
enter (cd) a directory. You need the w permission to create files in or remove files
from a directory.
Table 12.2. standard Unix file permissions
permission on a file on a directory

r (read) read file contents (cat) read directory contents (ls)
w (write) change file contents (vi) create files in (touch)
x (execute) execute the file enter the directory (cd)
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12.3.2. three sets of rwx

We already know that the output of ls -l starts with ten characters for each file. This
screenshot shows a regular file (because the first character is a - ).
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ ls -l proc42.bash
-rwxr-xr-- 1 paul proj 984 Feb 6 12:01 proc42.bash
Below is a table describing the function of all ten characters.
Table 12.3. Unix file permissions position

position characters function
1 - this is a regular file
2-4 rwx permissions for the user owner
5-7 r-x permissions for the group owner
8-10 r-- permissions for others
When you are the user owner of a file, then the user owner permissions apply to
you. The rest of the permissions have no influence on your access to the file.
When you belong to the group that is the group owner of a file, then the group
owner permissions apply to you. The rest of the permissions have no influence on
your access to the file.
When you are not the user owner of a file and you do not belong to the group
owner, then the others permissions apply to you. The rest of the permissions have
no influence on your access to the file.
12.3.3. permission examples

Some example combinations on files and directories are seen in this screenshot. The
name of the file explains the permissions.
paul@laika:~/perms$ ls -lh
total 12K
drwxr-xr-x 2 paul paul 4.0K 2007-02-07 22:26 AllEnter_UserCreateDelete
-rwxrwxrwx 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:21 EveryoneFullControl.txt
-r--r----- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:21 OnlyOwnersRead.txt
-rwxrwx--- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:21 OwnersAll_RestNothing.txt
dr-xr-x--- 2 paul paul 4.0K 2007-02-07 22:25 UserAndGroupEnter
dr-x------ 2 paul paul 4.0K 2007-02-07 22:25 OnlyUserEnter
paul@laika:~/perms$
To summarize, the first rwx triplet represents the permissions for the user owner.
The second triplet corresponds to the group owner; it specifies permissions for all
members of that group. The third triplet defines permissions for all other users that
are not the user owner and are not a member of the group owner.
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12.3.4. setting permissions (chmod)

Permissions can be changed with chmod. The first example gives the user owner
execute permissions.
paul@laika:~/perms$ ls -l permissions.txt
-rw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod u+x permissions.txt
-rwxr--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
This example removes the group owners read permission.
paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod g-r permissions.txt

-rwx---r-- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
This example removes the others read permission.
paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod o-r permissions.txt

-rwx------ 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
This example gives all of them the write permission.
paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod a+w permissions.txt

-rwx-w--w- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
You don't even have to type the a.
paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod +x permissions.txt

-rwx-wx-wx 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
You can also set explicit permissions.
paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod u=rw permissions.txt

-rw--wx-wx 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
Feel free to make any kind of combination.
paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod u=rw,g=rw,o=r permissions.txt

-rw-rw-r-- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
Even fishy combinations are accepted by chmod.
164
paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod u=rwx,ug+rw,o=r permissions.txt

-rwxrw-r-- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
12.3.5. setting octal permissions

Most Unix administrators will use the old school octal system to talk about and set
permissions. Look at the triplet bitwise, equating r to 4, w to 2, and x to 1.
Table 12.4. Octal permissions

binary octal permission
000 0 ---
001 1 --x
010 2 -w-
011 3 -wx
100 4 r--
101 5 r-x
110 6 rw-
111 7 rwx
This makes 777 equal to rwxrwxrwx and by the same logic, 654 mean rw-r-xr-- . The
chmod command will accept these numbers.
paul@laika:~/perms$ chmod 777 permissions.txt

-rwxrwxrwx 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
-rwxr-x--- 1 paul paul 0 2007-02-07 22:34 permissions.txt
12.3.6. umask
When creating a file or directory, a set of default permissions are applied. These
default permissions are determined by the umask. The umask specifies permissions
that you do not want set on by default. You can display the umask with the umask
command.
[Harry@RHEL4b ~]$ umask

0002
[Harry@RHEL4b ~]$ touch test
[Harry@RHEL4b ~]$ ls -l test
-rw-rw-r-- 1 Harry Harry 0 Jul 24 06:03 test
165
[Harry@RHEL4b ~]$
As you can also see, the file is also not executable by default. This is a general security
feature among Unixes; newly created files are never executable by default. You have
to explicitly do a chmod +x to make a file executable. This also means that the 1 bit
in the umask has no meaning--a umask of 0022 is the same as 0033.
166
12.4. practice: standard file permissions

1. As normal user, create a directory ~/permissions. Create a file owned by yourself
in there.
2. Copy a file owned by root from /etc/ to your permissions dir, who owns this file
now ?
3. As root, create a file in the users ~/permissions directory.
4. As normal user, look at who owns this file created by root.
5. Change the ownership of all files in ~/permissions to yourself.
6. Make sure you have all rights to these files, and others can only read.
7. With chmod, is 770 the same as rwxrwx--- ?
8. With chmod, is 664 the same as r-xr-xr-- ?
9. With chmod, is 400 the same as r-------- ?
10. With chmod, is 734 the same as rwxr-xr-- ?
11a. Display the umask in octal and in symbolic form.
11b. Set the umask to 077, but use the symbolic format to set it. Verify that this works.
12. Create a file as root, give only read to others. Can a normal user read this file ?
Test writing to this file with vi.
13a. Create a file as normal user, give only read to others. Can another normal user
read this file ? Test writing to this file with vi.
13b. Can root read this file ? Can root write to this file with vi ?
14. Create a directory that belongs to a group, where every member of that group
can read and write to files, and create files. Make sure that people can only delete
their own files.
167
12.5. solution: standard file permissions

1. As normal user, create a directory ~/permissions. Create a file owned by yourself
in there.
mkdir ~/permissions ; touch ~/permissions/myfile.txt
2. Copy a file owned by root from /etc/ to your permissions dir, who owns this file
now ?
cp /etc/hosts ~/permissions/
The copy is owned by you.
3. As root, create a file in the users ~/permissions directory.

(become root)# touch /home/username/permissions/rootfile
4. As normal user, look at who owns this file created by root.

ls -l ~/permissions
The file created by root is owned by root.
5. Change the ownership of all files in ~/permissions to yourself.

chown user ~/permissions/*
You cannot become owner of the file that belongs to root.
6. Make sure you have all rights to these files, and others can only read.
chmod 644 (on files)
chmod 755 (on directories)
7. With chmod, is 770 the same as rwxrwx--- ?
yes
8. With chmod, is 664 the same as r-xr-xr-- ?
No
9. With chmod, is 400 the same as r-------- ?
yes
10. With chmod, is 734 the same as rwxr-xr-- ?
no
11a. Display the umask in octal and in symbolic form.

umask ; umask -S
168
11b. Set the umask to 077, but use the symbolic format to set it. Verify that this works.
umask -S u=rwx,go=
12. Create a file as root, give only read to others. Can a normal user read this file ?
Test writing to this file with vi.
(become root)
# echo hello > /home/username/root.txt
# chmod 744 /home/username/root.txt
(become user)
vi ~/root.txt
13a. Create a file as normal user, give only read to others. Can another normal user
read this file ? Test writing to this file with vi.
echo hello > file ; chmod 744 file
Yes, others can read this file
13b. Can root read this file ? Can root write to this file with vi ?
Yes, root can read and write to this file. Permissions do not apply to root.
14. Create a directory that belongs to a group, where every member of that group
can read and write to files, and create files. Make sure that people can only delete
their own files.
mkdir /home/project42 ; groupadd project42
chgrp project42 /home/project42 ; chmod 775 /home/project42
You can not yet do the last part of this exercise...
169
12.6. sticky and setgid bits
12.6.1. sticky bit on directory

You can set the sticky bit on a directory to prevent users from removing files that
they do not own as a user owner. The sticky bit is displayed at the same location as
the x permission for others. The sticky bit is represented by a t (meaning x is also
there) or a T (when there is no x for others).
root@RHELv4u4:~# mkdir /project55

root@RHELv4u4:~# ls -ld /project55
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 7 17:38 /project55
root@RHELv4u4:~# chmod +t /project55/
drwxr-xr-t 2 root root 4096 Feb 7 17:38 /project55
root@RHELv4u4:~#
The sticky bit can also be set with octal permissions, it is binary 1 in the first of four
triplets.
root@RHELv4u4:~# chmod 1775 /project55/

drwxrwxr-t 2 root root 4096 Feb 7 17:38 /project55
root@RHELv4u4:~#
You will typically find the sticky bit on the /tmp directory.
root@barry:~# ls -ld /tmp

drwxrwxrwt 6 root root 4096 2009-06-04 19:02 /tmp
12.6.2. setgid bit on directory

setgid can be used on directories to make sure that all files inside the directory are
owned by the group owner of the directory. The setgid bit is displayed at the same
location as the x permission for group owner. The setgid bit is represented by an
s (meaning x is also there) or a S (when there is no x for the group owner). As
this example shows, even though root does not belong to the group proj55, the files
created by root in /project55 will belong to proj55 since the setgid is set.
root@RHELv4u4:~# groupadd proj55

root@RHELv4u4:~# chown root:proj55 /project55/
root@RHELv4u4:~# chmod 2775 /project55/
root@RHELv4u4:~# touch /project55/fromroot.txt
root@RHELv4u4:~# ls -ld /project55/
drwxrwsr-x 2 root proj55 4096 Feb 7 17:45 /project55/
root@RHELv4u4:~# ls -l /project55/
total 4
-rw-r--r-- 1 root proj55 0 Feb 7 17:45 fromroot.txt
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root@RHELv4u4:~#
You can use the find command to find all setgid directories.
paul@laika:~$ find / -type d -perm -2000 2> /dev/null

/var/log/mysql
/var/log/news
/var/local
...
12.6.3. setgid and setuid on regular files

These two permissions cause an executable file to be executed with the permissions
of the file owner instead of the executing owner. This means that if any user executes
a program that belongs to the root user, and the setuid bit is set on that program,
then the program runs as root. This can be dangerous, but sometimes this is good
for security.
Take the example of passwords; they are stored in /etc/shadow which is only readable
by root. (The root user never needs permissions anyway.)
root@RHELv4u4:~# ls -l /etc/shadow
-r-------- 1 root root 1260 Jan 21 07:49 /etc/shadow
Changing your password requires an update of this file, so how can normal non-root
users do this? Let's take a look at the permissions on the /usr/bin/passwd.
root@RHELv4u4:~# ls -l /usr/bin/passwd
-r-s--x--x 1 root root 21200 Jun 17 2005 /usr/bin/passwd
When running the passwd program, you are executing it with root credentials.
You can use the find command to find all setuid programs.
paul@laika:~$ find /usr/bin -type f -perm -04000

/usr/bin/arping
/usr/bin/kgrantpty
/usr/bin/newgrp
/usr/bin/chfn
/usr/bin/sudo
/usr/bin/fping6
/usr/bin/passwd
/usr/bin/gpasswd
...
In most cases, setting the setuid bit on executables is sufficient. Setting the setgid bit
will result in these programs to run with the credentials of their group owner.
171
12.7. practice: sticky, setuid and setgid bits

1a. Set up a directory, owned by the group sports.
1b. Members of the sports group should be able to create files in this directory.
1c. All files created in this directory should be group-owned by the sports group.
1d. Users should be able to delete only their own user-owned files.
1e. Test that this works!
2. Verify the permissions on /usr/bin/passwd. Remove the setuid, then try changing
your password as a normal user. Reset the permissions back and try again.
3. If time permits (or if you are waiting for other students to finish this practice), read
about file attributes in the man page of chattr and lsattr. Try setting the i attribute on
a file and test that it works.
172
12.8. solution: sticky, setuid and setgid bits

1a. Set up a directory, owned by the group sports.
groupadd sports
mkdir /home/sports
chown root:sports /home/sports
1b. Members of the sports group should be able to create files in this directory.
chmod 770 /home/sports
1c. All files created in this directory should be group-owned by the sports group.
chmod 2770 /home/sports
1d. Users should be able to delete only their own user-owned files.
chmod +t /home/sports
1e. Test that this works!
Log in with different users (group members and others and root), create files and
watch the permissions. Try changing and deleting files...
2. Verify the permissions on /usr/bin/passwd. Remove the setuid, then try changing
your password as a normal user. Reset the permissions back and try again.
root@deb503:~# ls -l /usr/bin/passwd
-rwsr-xr-x 1 root root 31704 2009-11-14 15:41 /usr/bin/passwd
root@deb503:~# chmod 755 /usr/bin/passwd
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 31704 2009-11-14 15:41 /usr/bin/passwd
A normal user cannot change password now.
root@deb503:~# chmod 4755 /usr/bin/passwd

-rwsr-xr-x 1 root root 31704 2009-11-14 15:41 /usr/bin/passwd
3. If time permits (or if you are waiting for other students to finish this practice), read
about file attributes in the man page of chattr and lsattr. Try setting the i attribute on
a file and test that it works.
paul@laika:~$ sudo su -
[sudo] password for paul:
root@laika:~# mkdir attr
root@laika:~# cd attr/
root@laika:~/attr# touch file42
root@laika:~/attr# lsattr
------------------ ./file42
root@laika:~/attr# chattr +i file42
root@laika:~/attr# lsattr
173
----i------------- ./file42
root@laika:~/attr# rm -rf file42
rm: cannot remove `file42': Operation not permitted
root@laika:~/attr# chattr -i file42
root@laika:~/attr# rm -rf file42
root@laika:~/attr#
12.9. access control lists
12.9.1. acl in /etc/fstab

File systems that support access control lists, or acls, have to be mounted with the
acl option listed in /etc/fstab. In the example below, you can see that the root file
system has acl support, whereas /home/data does not.
root@laika:~# tail -4 /etc/fstab

/dev/sda1 / ext3 acl,relatime 0 1
/dev/sdb2 /home/data auto noacl,defaults 0 0
pasha:/home/r /home/pasha nfs defaults 0 0
wolf:/srv/data /home/wolf nfs defaults 0 0
12.9.2. getfacl
Reading acls can be done with /usr/bin/getfacl. This screenshot shows how to read
the acl of file33 with getfacl.
paul@laika:~/test$ getfacl file33

# file: file33
# owner: paul
# group: paul
user::rw-
group::r--
mask::rwx
other::r--
12.9.3. setfacl
Writing or changing acls can be done with /usr/bin/setfacl. These screenshots show
how to change the acl of file33 with setfacl.
First we add user sandra with octal permission 7 to the acl.
paul@laika:~/test$ setfacl -m u:sandra:7 file33
174
Then we add the group tennis with octal permission 6 to the acl of the same file.
paul@laika:~/test$ setfacl -m g:tennis:6 file33
The result is visible with getfacl.

# file: file33
# owner: paul
# group: paul
user::rw-
user:sandra:rwx
group::r--
group:tennis:rw-
mask::rwx
other::r--
12.9.4. remove an acl entry

The -x option of the setfacl command will remove an acl entry from the targeted file.
paul@laika:~/test$ setfacl -m u:sandra:7 file33

paul@laika:~/test$ getfacl file33 | grep sandra
user:sandra:rwx
paul@laika:~/test$ setfacl -x sandra file33
paul@laika:~/test$ getfacl file33 | grep sandra
Note that omitting the u or g when defining the acl for an account will default it to
a user account.
12.9.5. remove the complete acl

The -b option of the setfacl command will remove the acl from the targeted file.
paul@laika:~/test$ setfacl -b file33

# file: file33
# owner: paul
# group: paul
user::rw-
group::r--
other::r--
12.9.6. the acl mask

The acl mask defines the maximum effective permissions for any entry in the acl.
This mask is calculated every time you execute the setfacl or chmod commands.
175
You can prevent the calculation by using the --no-mask switch.
paul@laika:~/test$ setfacl --no-mask -m u:sandra:7 file33

# file: file33
# owner: paul
# group: paul
user::rw-
user:sandra:rwx #effective:rw-
group::r--
mask::rw-
other::r--
12.9.7. eiciel
Desktop users might want to use eiciel to manage acls with a graphical tool.
You will need to install eiciel and nautilus-actions to have an extra tab in nautilus
to manage acls.
paul@laika:~$ sudo aptitude install eiciel nautilus-actions
176
Chapter 13. File links
13.1. inodes
To understand links in a file system, you first have to understand what an inode is.
13.1.1. inode contents

An inode is a data structure that contains metadata about a file. When the file system
stores a new file on the hard disk, it stores not only the contents (data) of the file, but
also extra properties like the name of the file, the creation date, its permissions, the
owner of the file, and more. All this information (except the name of the file and the
contents of the file) is stored in the inode of the file.
The ls -l command will display some of the inode contents, as seen in this screenshot.
root@rhel53 ~# ls -ld /home/project42/

drwxr-xr-x 4 root pro42 4.0K Mar 27 14:29 /home/project42/
13.1.2. inode table

The inode table contains all of the inodes and is created when you create the file
system (with mkfs). You can use the df -i command to see how many inodes are
used and free on mounted file systems.
oot@rhel53 ~# df -i
Filesystem Inodes IUsed IFree IUse% Mounted on
/dev/mapper/VolGroup00-LogVol00
4947968 115326 4832642 3% /
/dev/hda1 26104 45 26059 1% /boot
tmpfs 64417 1 64416 1% /dev/shm
/dev/sda1 262144 2207 259937 1% /home/project42
/dev/sdb1 74400 5519 68881 8% /home/project33
/dev/sdb5 0 0 0 - /home/sales
/dev/sdb6 100744 11 100733 1% /home/research
In the df -i screenshot above you can see the inode usage for several mounted file
systems. You don't see numbers for /dev/sdb5 because it is a fat file system.
13.1.3. inode number

Each inode has a unique number (the inode number). You can see the inode numbers
with the ls -li command.
177
File links
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ touch file1

paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ ls -li
total 12
817266 -rw-rw-r-- 1 paul paul 0 Feb 5 15:38 file1
These three files were created one after the other and got three different inodes (the
first column). All the information you see with this ls command resides in the inode,
except for the filename (which is contained in the directory).
13.1.4. inode and file contents

Let's put some data in one of the files.
total 16
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ cat file2
It is winter now and it is very cold.
We do not like the cold, we prefer hot summer nights.
The data that is displayed by the cat command is not in the inode, but somewhere
else on the disk. The inode contains a pointer to that data.
13.2. about directories
13.2.1. a directory is a table

A directory is a special kind of file that contains a table which maps filenames
to inodes. Listing our current directory with ls -ali will display the contents of the
directory file.
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ ls -ali
total 32
817262 drwxrwxr-x 2 paul paul 4096 Feb 5 15:42 .
800768 drwx------ 16 paul paul 4096 Feb 5 15:42 ..
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File links
13.2.2. . and ..
You can see five names, and the mapping to their five inodes. The dot . is a mapping
to itself, and the dotdot .. is a mapping to the parent directory. The three other names
are mappings to different inodes.
13.3. hard links
13.3.1. creating hard links

When we create a hard link to a file with ln, an extra entry is added in the directory.
A new file name is mapped to an existing inode.
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ ln file2 hardlink_to_file2

total 24
817270 -rw-rw-r-- 2 paul paul 92 Feb 5 15:42 hardlink_to_file2
Both files have the same inode, so they will always have the same permissions and
the same owner. Both files will have the same content. Actually, both files are equal
now, meaning you can safely remove the original file, the hardlinked file will remain.
The inode contains a counter, counting the number of hard links to itself. When the
counter drops to zero, then the inode is emptied.
13.3.2. finding hard links

You can use the find command to look for files with a certain inode. The screenshot
below shows how to search for all filenames that point to inode 817270. Remember
that an inode number is unique to its partition.
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ find / -inum 817270 2> /dev/null

/home/paul/test/file2
/home/paul/test/hardlink_to_file2
13.4. symbolic links

Symbolic links (sometimes called soft links) do not link to inodes, but create a name
to name mapping. Symbolic links are created with ln -s. As you can see below, the
symbolic link gets an inode of its own.
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File links
paul@RHELv4u4:~/test$ ln -s file2 symlink_to_file2

total 32
817270 -rw-rw-r-- 2 paul paul 106 Feb 5 17:04 hardlink_to_file2
817267 lrwxrwxrwx 1 paul paul 5 Feb 5 16:55 symlink_to_file2 -> file2
Permissions on a symbolic link have no meaning, since the permissions of the target
apply. Hard links are limited to their own partition (because they point to an inode),
symbolic links can link anywhere (other file systems, even networked).
13.5. removing links

Links can be removed with rm.
paul@laika:~$ touch data.txt

paul@laika:~$ ln -s data.txt sl_data.txt
paul@laika:~$ ln data.txt hl_data.txt
paul@laika:~$ rm sl_data.txt
paul@laika:~$ rm hl_data.txt
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File links
13.6. practice : links

1. Create two files named winter.txt and summer.txt, put some text in them.
2. Create a hard link to winter.txt named hlwinter.txt.
3. Display the inode numbers of these three files, the hard links should have the same
inode.
4. Use the find command to list the two hardlinked files
5. Everything about a file is in the inode, except two things : name them!
6. Create a symbolic link to summer.txt called slsummer.txt.
7. Find all files with inode number 2. What does this information tell you ?
8. Look at the directories /etc/init.d/ /etc/rc.d/ /etc/rc3.d/ ... do you see the links ?
9. Look in /lib with ls -l...
10. Use find to look in your home directory for regular files that do not(!) have one
hard link.
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File links
13.7. solution : links

1. Create two files named winter.txt and summer.txt, put some text in them.
echo cold > winter.txt ; echo hot > summer.txt
2. Create a hard link to winter.txt named hlwinter.txt.

ln winter.txt hlwinter.txt
3. Display the inode numbers of these three files, the hard links should have the same
inode.
ls -li winter.txt summer.txt hlwinter.txt
4. Use the find command to list the two hardlinked files

find . -inum xyz
5. Everything about a file is in the inode, except two things : name them!
The name of the file is in a directory, and the contents is somewhere on the disk.
6. Create a symbolic link to summer.txt called slsummer.txt.

ln -s summer.txt slsummer.txt
7. Find all files with inode number 2. What does this information tell you ?
It tells you there is more than one inode table (one for every formatted partition +
virtual file systems)
8. Look at the directories /etc/init.d/ /etc/rc.d/ /etc/rc3.d/ ... do you see the links ?
ls -l /etc/init.d
ls -l /etc/rc.d
ls -l /etc/rc3.d
9. Look in /lib with ls -l...

ls -l /lib
10. Use find to look in your home directory for regular files that do not(!) have one
hard link.
find ~ ! -links 1 -type f
182
Chapter 14. Process management
14.1. terminology
14.1.1. process
A process is compiled source code that is currently running on the system.
14.1.2. PID
All processes have a process id or PID.
14.1.3. PPID
Every process has a parent process (with a PPID). The child process is often started
by the parent process.
14.1.4. init
The init process always has process ID 1. The init process is started by the kernel
itself so technically it does not have a parent process. init serves as a foster parent
for orphaned processes.
14.1.5. kill
When a process stops running, the process dies, when you want a process to die, you
kill it.
14.1.6. daemon
Processes that start at system startup and keep running forever are called daemon
processes or daemons. These daemons never die.
14.1.7. zombie
When a process is killed, but it still shows up on the system, then the process is
referred to as zombie. You cannot kill zombies, because they are already dead.
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Process management
14.2. basic process management
14.2.1. $$ and $PPID

Some shell environment variables contain information about processes. The $$
variable will hold your current process ID, and $PPID contains the parent PID.
Actually $$ is a shell parameter and not a variable, you cannot assign a value to it.
Below we use echo to display the values of $$ and $PPID.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $$ $PPID

4224 4223
14.2.2. pidof
You can find all process id's by name using the pidof command.
root@rhel53 ~# pidof mingetty

2819 2798 2797 2796 2795 2794
14.2.3. parent and child

Processes have a parent-child relationship. Every process has a parent process.
When starting a new bash you can use echo to verify that the pid from before is the
ppid of the new shell. The child process from above is now the parent process.

4812 4224
Typing exit will end the current process and brings us back to our original values
for $$ and $PPID.

4812 4224
exit
4224 4223
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
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Process management
14.2.4. fork and exec

A process starts another process in two phases. First the process creates a fork of
itself, an identical copy. Then the forked process executes an exec to replace the
forked process with the target child process.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ echo $$

4224
5310 4224
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
14.2.5. exec
With the exec command, you can execute a process without forking a new process.
In the following screenshot a Korn shell (ksh) is started and is being replaced with a
bash shell using the exec command. The pid of the bash shell is the same as the pid
of the Korn shell. Exiting the child bash shell will get me back to the parent bash,
not to the Korn shell (which does not exist anymore).

4224 # PID of bash
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ ksh
$ echo $$ $PPID
5343 4224 # PID of ksh and bash
$ exec bash
5343 4224 # PID of bash and bash
exit
4224
14.2.6. ps
One of the most common tools on Linux to look at processes is ps. The following
screenshot shows the parent child relationship between three bash processes.

4224 4223
4866 4224
4884 4866
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ ps fx
PID TTY STAT TIME COMMAND
4223 ? S 0:01 sshd: paul@pts/0
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Process management
4224 pts/0 Ss 0:00 \_ -bash

4866 pts/0 S 0:00 \_ bash
4884 pts/0 S 0:00 \_ bash
4902 pts/0 R+ 0:00 \_ ps fx
exit
4224 pts/0 Ss 0:00 \_ -bash
4866 pts/0 S 0:00 \_ bash
4903 pts/0 R+ 0:00 \_ ps fx
exit
4224 pts/0 Ss 0:00 \_ -bash
4904 pts/0 R+ 0:00 \_ ps fx
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
On Linux, ps fax is often used. On Solaris ps -ef (which also works on Linux) is
common. Here is a partial output from ps fax.
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ ps fax

1 ? S 0:00 init [5]
...
3713 ? Ss 0:00 /usr/sbin/sshd

5042 ? Ss 0:00 \_ sshd: paul [priv]
5044 ? S 0:00 \_ sshd: paul@pts/1
5045 pts/1 Ss 0:00 \_ -bash
5077 pts/1 R+ 0:00 \_ ps fax
14.2.7. pgrep
Similar to the ps -C, you can also use pgrep to search for a process by its command
name.
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ sleep 1000 &

[1] 32558
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ pgrep sleep
32558
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ ps -C sleep
PID TTY TIME CMD
32558 pts/3 00:00:00 sleep
You can also list the command name of the process with pgrep.
paul@laika:~$ pgrep -l sleep

9661 sleep
186
Process management
14.2.8. top
Another popular tool on Linux is top. The top tool can order processes according to
cpu usage or other properties. You can also kill processes from within top. Press h
inside top for help.
In case of trouble, top is often the first tool to fire up, since it also provides you
memory and swap space information.
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Process management
14.3. signalling processes
14.3.1. kill
The kill command will kill (or stop) a process. The screenshot shows how to use a
standard kill to stop the process with pid 1942.
paul@ubuntu910:~$ kill 1942

paul@ubuntu910:~$
By using the kill we are sending a signal to the process.
14.3.2. list signals

Running processes can receive signals from each other or from the users. You can
have a list of signals by typing kill -l, that is a letter l, not the number 1.
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ kill -l

1) SIGHUP 2) SIGINT 3) SIGQUIT 4) SIGILL
5) SIGTRAP 6) SIGABRT 7) SIGBUS 8) SIGFPE
9) SIGKILL 10) SIGUSR1 11) SIGSEGV 12) SIGUSR2
13) SIGPIPE 14) SIGALRM 15) SIGTERM 17) SIGCHLD
18) SIGCONT 19) SIGSTOP 20) SIGTSTP 21) SIGTTIN
22) SIGTTOU 23) SIGURG 24) SIGXCPU 25) SIGXFSZ
26) SIGVTALRM 27) SIGPROF 28) SIGWINCH 29) SIGIO
30) SIGPWR 31) SIGSYS 34) SIGRTMIN 35) SIGRTMIN+1
36) SIGRTMIN+2 37) SIGRTMIN+3 38) SIGRTMIN+4 39) SIGRTMIN+5
48) SIGRTMIN+14 49) SIGRTMIN+15 50) SIGRTMAX-14 51) SIGRTMAX-13
52) SIGRTMAX-12 53) SIGRTMAX-11 54) SIGRTMAX-10 55) SIGRTMAX-9
64) SIGRTMAX
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$
14.3.3. kill -1 (SIGHUP)

It is common on Linux to use the first signal SIGHUP (or HUP or 1) to tell a process
that it should re-read its configuration file. Thus, the kill -1 1 command forces the
init process (init always runs with pid 1) to re-read its configuration file.
root@deb503:~# kill -1 1
root@deb503:~#
It is up to the developer of the process to decide whether the process can do this
running, or whether it needs to stop and start. It is up to the user to read the
documentation of the program.
188
Process management
14.3.4. kill -15 (SIGTERM)

The SIGTERM signal is also called a standard kill. Whenever kill is executed
without specifying the signal, a kill -15 is assumed.
Both commands in the screenshot below are identical.
paul@ubuntu910:~$ kill 1942

paul@ubuntu910:~$ kill -15 1942
14.3.5. kill -9 (SIGKILL)

The SIGKILL is different from most other signals in that it is not being sent to the
process, but to the Linux kernel. A kill -9 is also called a sure kill. The kernel will
shoot down the process. As a developer you have no means to intercept a kill -9 signal.
root@rhel53 ~# kill -9 3342
14.3.6. killall
The killall command will also default to sending a signal 15 to the processes.
This command and its SysV counterpart killall5 can by used when shutting down
the system. This screenshot shows how Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5.3 uses killall5
when halting the system.
root@rhel53 ~# grep killall /etc/init.d/halt

action $"Sending all processes the TERM signal..." /sbin/killall5 -15
action $"Sending all processes the KILL signal..." /sbin/killall5 -9
14.3.7. pkill
You can use the pkill command to kill a process by its command name.

[1] 30203
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ pkill sleep
[1]+ Terminated sleep 1000
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$
14.3.8. top
Inside top the k key allows you to select a signal and pid to kill. Below is a partial
screenshot of the line just below the summary in top after pressing k.
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Process management
PID to kill: 1932
Kill PID 1932 with signal [15]: 9
14.3.9. SIGSTOP and SIGCONT

A running process can be suspended when it receives a SIGSTOP signal. This is the
same as kill -19 on Linux, but might have a different number in other Unix systems.
A suspended process does not use any cpu cycles, but it stays in memory and can be
re-animated with a SIGCONT signal (kill -18 on Linux).
Both signals will be used in the section about background processes.
190
Process management
14.4. practice : basic process management

1. Use ps to search for the init process by name.
2. What is the process id of the init process ?
3. Use the who am i command to determine your terminal name.
4. Using your terminal name from above, use ps to find all processes associated with
your terminal.
5. What is the process id of your shell ?
6. What is the parent process id of your shell ?
7. Start two instances of the sleep 3342 in background.
8. Locate the process id of all sleep commands.
9. Display only those two sleep processes in top. Then quit top.
10. Use a standard kill to kill one of the sleep processes.
11. Use one command to kill all sleep processes.
191
Process management
14.5. solution : basic process management

1. Use ps to search for the init process by name.
root@rhel53 ~# ps -C init
PID TTY TIME CMD
1 ? 00:00:04 init
2. What is the process id of the init process ?

1
3. Use the who am i command to determine your terminal name.
root@rhel53 ~# who am i
paul pts/0 2010-04-12 17:44 (192.168.1.38)
4. Using your terminal name from above, use ps to find all processes associated with
your terminal.
oot@rhel53 ~# ps fax | grep pts/0

2941 ? S 0:00 \_ sshd: paul@pts/0
2942 pts/0 Ss 0:00 \_ -bash
2972 pts/0 S 0:00 \_ su -
2973 pts/0 S 0:00 \_ -bash
3808 pts/0 R+ 0:00 \_ ps fax
3809 pts/0 R+ 0:00 \_ grep pts/0
or also
root@rhel53 ~# ps -ef | grep pts/0

paul 2941 2939 0 17:44 ? 00:00:00 sshd: paul@pts/0
paul 2942 2941 0 17:44 pts/0 00:00:00 -bash
root 2972 2942 0 17:45 pts/0 00:00:00 su -
root 2973 2972 0 17:45 pts/0 00:00:00 -bash
root 3816 2973 0 21:25 pts/0 00:00:00 ps -ef
root 3817 2973 0 21:25 pts/0 00:00:00 grep pts/0
5. What is the process id of your shell ?

2973 in the screenshot above, probably different for you
echo $$ should display same number as the one you found
6. What is the parent process id of your shell ?

2972 in the screenshot above, probably different for you
in this example the PPID is from the su - command, but when inside gnome then for
example gnome-terminal can be the parent process
7. Start two instances of the sleep 3342 in background.
192
Process management
sleep 3342 &

sleep 3342 &
8. Locate the process id of all sleep commands.

pidof sleep
9. Display only those two sleep processes in top. Then quit top.
top -p pidx,pidy (replace pidx pidy with the actual numbers)
10. Use a standard kill to kill one of the sleep processes.

kill pidx
11. Use one command to kill all sleep processes.

pkill sleep
193
Process management
14.6. priority and nice values
14.6.1. introduction
All processes have a priority and a nice value. Higher priority processes will get
more cpu time than lower priority processes. You can influence this with the nice
and renice commands.
14.6.2. pipes (mkfifo)

Processes can communicate with each other via pipes. These pipes can be created
with the mkfifo command.
The screenshots shows the creation of four distinct pipes (in a new directory).
paul@ubuntu910:~$ mkdir procs

paul@ubuntu910:~$ cd procs/
paul@ubuntu910:~/procs$ mkfifo pipe33a pipe33b pipe42a pipe42b
paul@ubuntu910:~/procs$ ls -l
total 0
prw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2010-04-12 13:21 pipe33a
prw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2010-04-12 13:21 pipe33b
prw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2010-04-12 13:21 pipe42a
prw-r--r-- 1 paul paul 0 2010-04-12 13:21 pipe42b
paul@ubuntu910:~/procs$
14.6.3. some fun with cat

To demonstrate the use of the top and renice commands we will make the cat
command use the previously created pipes to generate a full load on the cpu.
The cat is copied with a distinct name to the current directory. (This enables us to
easily recognize the processes within top. You could do the same exercise without
copying the cat command, but using different users. Or you could just look at the pid
of each process.)
paul@ubuntu910:~/procs$ cp /bin/cat proj33

paul@ubuntu910:~/procs$ cp /bin/cat proj42
paul@ubuntu910:~/procs$ echo -n x | ./proj33 - pipe33a > pipe33b &
[1] 1670
paul@ubuntu910:~/procs$ ./proj33 <pipe33b >pipe33a &
[2] 1671
paul@ubuntu910:~/procs$ echo -n z | ./proj42 - pipe42a > pipe42b &
[3] 1673
paul@ubuntu910:~/procs$ ./proj42 <pipe42b >pipe42a &
[4] 1674
The commands you see above will create two proj33 processes that use cat to bounce
the x character between pipe33a and pipe33b. And ditto for the z character and
proj42.
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Process management
14.6.4. top
Just running top without options or arguments will display all processes and an
overview of innformation. The top of the top screen might look something like this.
top - 13:59:29 up 48 min, 4 users, load average: 1.06, 0.25, 0.14

Tasks: 139 total, 3 running, 136 sleeping, 0 stopped, 0 zombie
Cpu(s): 0.3%us, 99.7%sy, 0.0%ni, 0.0%id, 0.0%wa, 0.0%hi, 0.0%si, 0.0%st
Mem: 509352k total, 460040k used, 49312k free, 66752k buffers
Swap: 746980k total, 0k used, 746980k free, 247324k cached
Notice the cpu idle time (0.0%id) is zero. This is because our cat processes are
consuming the whole cpu. Results can vary on systems with four or more cpu cores.
14.6.5. top -p
The top -p 1670,1671,1673,1674 screenshot below shows four processes, all of then
using approximately 25 percent of the cpu.
paul@ubuntu910:~$ top -p 1670,1671,1673,1674
PID USER PR NI VIRT RES SHR S %CPU %MEM TIME+ COMMAND

1674 paul 20 0 2972 616 524 S 26.6 0.1 0:11.92 proj42
1670 paul 20 0 2972 616 524 R 25.0 0.1 0:23.16 proj33
1671 paul 20 0 2972 616 524 S 24.6 0.1 0:23.07 proj33
1673 paul 20 0 2972 620 524 R 23.0 0.1 0:11.48 proj42
All four processes have an equal priority (PR), and are battling for cpu time. On
some systems the Linux kernel might attribute slightly varying priority values, but
the result will still be four processes fighting for cpu time.
14.6.6. renice
Since the processes are already running, we need to use the renice command to
change their nice value (NI).
The screenshot shows how to use renice on both the proj33 processes.
paul@ubuntu910:~$ renice +8 1670

1670: old priority 0, new priority 8
paul@ubuntu910:~$ renice +8 1671
Normal users can attribute a nice value from zero to 20 to processes they own. Only
the root user can use negative nice values. Be very careful with negative nice values,
since they can make it impossible to use the keyboard or ssh to a system.
195
Process management
14.6.7. impact of nice values

The impact of a nice value on running processes can vary. The screenshot below
shows the result of our renice +8 command. Look at the %CPU values.
PID USER PR NI VIRT RES SHR S %CPU %MEM TIME+ COMMAND

1674 paul 20 0 2972 616 524 S 46.6 0.1 0:22.37 proj42
1673 paul 20 0 2972 620 524 R 42.6 0.1 0:21.65 proj42
1671 paul 28 8 2972 616 524 S 5.7 0.1 0:29.65 proj33
1670 paul 28 8 2972 616 524 R 4.7 0.1 0:29.82 proj33
Important to remember is to always make less important processes nice to more

important processes. Using negative nice values can have a serere impact on a
system's usability.
14.6.8. nice
The nice works identical to the renice but it is used when starting a command.
The screenshot shows how to start a script with a nice value of five.
paul@ubuntu910:~$ nice -5 ./backup.sh
196
Process management
14.7. practice : process priorities

1. Create a new directory and create six pipes in that directory.
2. Bounce a character between two pipes.
3. Use top and ps to display information (pid, ppid, priority, nice value, ...) about
these two cat processes.
4. Bounce another character between two other pipes, but this time start the
commands nice. Verify that all cat processes are battling for the cpu. (Feel free to
fire up two more cats with the remaining pipes).
5. Use ps to verify that the two new cat processes have a nice value. Use the -o and
-C options of ps for this.
6. Use renice te increase the nice value from 10 to 15. Notice the difference with
the usual commands.
197
Process management
14.8. solution : process priorities

1. Create a new directory and create six pipes in that directory.
[paul@rhel53 ~]$ mkdir pipes ; cd pipes
[paul@rhel53 pipes]$ mkfifo p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6
[paul@rhel53 pipes]$ ls -l
total 0
prw-rw-r-- 1 paul paul 0 Apr 12 22:15 p1
2. Bounce a character between two pipes.

[paul@rhel53 pipes]$ echo -n x | cat - p1 > p2 &
[1] 4013
[paul@rhel53 pipes]$ cat <p2 >p1 &
[2] 4016
3. Use top and ps to display information (pid, ppid, priority, nice value, ...) about
these two cat processes.
top (probably the top two lines)
[paul@rhel53 pipes]$ ps -C cat

PID TTY TIME CMD
4013 pts/0 00:03:38 cat
4016 pts/0 00:01:07 cat
[paul@rhel53 pipes]$ ps fax | grep cat

4013 pts/0 R 4:00 | \_ cat - p1
4016 pts/0 S 1:13 | \_ cat
4044 pts/0 S+ 0:00 | \_ grep cat
4. Bounce another character between two other pipes, but this time start the
commands nice. Verify that all cat processes are battling for the cpu. (Feel free to
fire up two more cats with the remaining pipes).
echo -n y | nice cat - p3 > p4 &
nice cat <p4 >p3 &
5. Use ps to verify that the two new cat processes have a nice value. Use the -o and
-C options of ps for this.
[paul@rhel53 pipes]$ ps -C cat -o pid,ppid,pri,ni,comm
PID PPID PRI NI COMMAND
4013 3947 14 0 cat
4016 3947 21 0 cat
4025 3947 13 10 cat
4026 3947 13 10 cat
6. Use renice te increase the nice value from 10 to 15. Notice the difference with
the usual commands.
[paul@rhel53 pipes]$ renice +15 4025
[paul@rhel53 pipes]$ renice +15 4026
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Process management
[paul@rhel53 pipes]$ ps -C cat -o pid,ppid,pri,ni,comm

PID PPID PRI NI COMMAND
4013 3947 14 0 cat
4016 3947 21 0 cat
4025 3947 9 15 cat
4026 3947 8 15 cat
199
Process management
14.9. background processes
14.9.1. jobs
Stuff that runs in background of your current shell can be displayed with the jobs
command. By default you will not have any jobs running in background.
root@rhel53 ~# jobs
root@rhel53 ~#
This jobs command will be used several times in this section.
14.9.2. control-Z
Some processes can be suspended with the Ctrl-Z key combination. This sends
a SIGSTOP signal to the Linux kernel, effectively freezing the operation of the
process.
When doing this in vi(m), then vi(m) goes to the background. The background vi(m)
can be seen with the jobs command.
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ vi procdemo.txt
[5]+ Stopped vim procdemo.txt

[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ jobs
14.9.3. & ampersand

Processes that are started in background using the & character at the end of the
command line are also visible with the jobs command.
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ find / > allfiles.txt 2> /dev/null &

[6] 5230
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$ jobs
[6]- Running find / >allfiles.txt 2>/dev/null &
[paul@RHEL4a ~]$
14.9.4. jobs -p
An interesting option is jobs -p to see the process id of background processes.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ sleep 500 &
200
Process management
[1] 4902
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ sleep 400 &
[2] 4903
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ jobs -p
4902
4903
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ ps `jobs -p`
4902 pts/0 S 0:00 sleep 500
4903 pts/0 S 0:00 sleep 400
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$
14.9.5. fg
Running the fg command will bring a background job to the foreground. The number
of the background job to bring forward is the parameter of fg.
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ jobs

[1] Running sleep 1000 &
[2]- Running sleep 1000 &
[3]+ Running sleep 2000 &
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ fg 3
sleep 2000
14.9.6. bg
Jobs that are suspended in background can be started in background with bg. The
bg will send a SIGCONT signal.
Below an example of the sleep command (suspended with Ctrl-Z) being reactivated
in background with bg.

[1] 6702
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ sleep 3000
[2]+ Stopped sleep 3000

[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ bg 2
[2]+ sleep 3000 &
[2]+ Running sleep 3000 &
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$
201
Process management
14.10. practice : background processes

1. Use the jobs command to verify whether you have any processes running in
background.
2. Use vi to create a little text file. Suspend vi in background.
3. Verify with jobs that vi is suspended in background.
4. Start find / > allfiles.txt 2>/dev/null in foreground. Suspend it in background

before it finishes.
5. Start two long sleep processes in background.
6. Display all jobs in background.
7. Use the kill command to suspend the last sleep process.
8. Continue the find process in background (make sure it runs again).
9. Put one of the sleep commands back in foreground.
10. (if time permits, a general review question...) Explain in detail where the numbers
come from in the next screenshot. When are the variables replaced by their value ?
By which shell ?
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Process management
14.11. solution : background processes

1. Use the jobs command to verify whether you have any processes running in
background.
jobs (maybe the catfun is still running?)
2. Use vi to create a little text file. Suspend vi in background.

vi text.txt
(inside vi press ctrl-z)
3. Verify with jobs that vi is suspended in background.

[paul@rhel53 ~]$ jobs
[1]+ Stopped vim text.txt
4. Start find / > allfiles.txt 2>/dev/null in foreground. Suspend it in background

before it finishes.
[paul@rhel53 ~]$ find / > allfiles.txt 2>/dev/null

(press ctrl-z)
[2]+ Stopped find / > allfiles.txt 2> /dev/null
5. Start two long sleep processes in background.

sleep 4000 & ; sleep 5000 &
6. Display all jobs in background.

[1]- Stopped vim text.txt
[2]+ Stopped find / > allfiles.txt 2> /dev/null
7. Use the kill command to suspend the last sleep process.

[paul@rhel53 ~]$ kill -SIGSTOP 4519
[1] Stopped vim text.txt
[2]- Stopped find / > allfiles.txt 2> /dev/null
8. Continue the find process in background (make sure it runs again).

bg 2 (verify the job-id in your jobs list)
9. Put one of the sleep commands back in foreground.

fg 3 (again verify your job-id)
10. (if time permits, a general review question...) Explain in detail where the numbers
come from in the next screenshot. When are the variables replaced by their value ?
By which shell ?
203
Process management

4224 4223
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ bash -c "echo $$ $PPID"
4224 4223
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ bash -c 'echo $$ $PPID'
5059 4224
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ bash -c ècho $$ $PPID`
4223: 4224: command not found
The current bash shell will replace the $$ and $PPID while scanning the line, and
before executing the echo command.

4224 4223
The variables are now double quoted, but the current bash shell will replace $$ and
$PPID while scanning the line, and before executing the bach -c command.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ bash -c "echo $$ $PPID"

4224 4223
The variables are now single quoted. The current bash shell will not replace the $$
and the $PPID. The bash -c command will be executed before the variables replaced
with their value. This latter bash is the one replacing the $$ and $PPID with their
value.
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ bash -c 'echo $$ $PPID'

5059 4224
With backticks the shell will still replace both variable before the embedded echo is
executed. The result of this echo is the two process id's. These are given as commands
to bash -c. But two numbers are not commands!
[paul@RHEL4b ~]$ bash -c ècho $$ $PPID`

4223: 4224: command not found
204
Appendix A. Keyboard settings
A.1. About Keyboard Layout

Many people (like US-Americans) prefer the default US-qwerty keyboard layout. So
when you are not from the USA and want a local keyboard layout on your system,
then the best practice is to select this keyboard at installation time. Then the keyboard
layout will always be correct. Also, whenever you use ssh to remotely manage a linux
system, your local keyboard layout will be used, independent of the server keyboard
configuration. So you will not find much information on changing keyboard layout
on the fly on linux, because not many people need it. Below are some tips to help you.
A.2. X Keyboard Layout

This is the relevant portion in /etc/X11/xorg.conf, first for Belgian azerty, then for
US-qwerty.
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ grep -i xkb /etc/X11/xorg.conf

Option "XkbModel" "pc105"
Option "XkbLayout" "be"
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ grep -i xkb /etc/X11/xorg.conf

Option "XkbModel" "pc105"
Option "XkbLayout" "us"
When in Gnome or KDE or any other graphical environment, look in the graphical
menu in preferences, there will be a keyboard section to choose your layout. Use the
graphical menu instead of editing xorg.conf.
A.3. Shell Keyboard Layout

When in bash, take a look in the /etc/sysconfig/keyboard file. Below a sample US-
qwerty configuration, followed by a Belgian azerty configuration.
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ cat /etc/sysconfig/keyboard

KEYBOARDTYPE="pc"
KEYTABLE="us"
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ cat /etc/sysconfig/keyboard

KEYBOARDTYPE="pc"
KEYTABLE="be-latin1"
The keymaps themselves can be found in /usr/share/keymaps or /lib/kbd/keymaps.
205
Keyboard settings
[paul@RHEL5 ~]$ ls -l /lib/kbd/keymaps/

total 52
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14 amiga
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14 atari
drwxr-xr-x 8 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14 i386
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14 include
drwxr-xr-x 4 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14 mac
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 3 Apr 1 00:14 ppc -> mac
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Apr 1 00:14 sun
206
Appendix B. Hardware Settings
B.1. buses
B.1.1. about buses

Hardware components communicate with the Central Processing Unit or cpu over
a bus. The most common buses today are usb, pci, agp, pci-express and pcmcia aka
pc-card. These are all Plag and Play buses.
Older x86 computers often had isa buses, which can be confugred using jumpers or
dip switches.
B.1.2. /proc/bus
To list the buses recognized by the Linux kernel on your computer, look at the
contents of the /proc/bus/ directory (screenshot from Ubuntu 7.04 and RHEL4u4
below).
root@laika:~# ls /proc/bus/
input pccard pci usb
[root@RHEL4b ~]# ls /proc/bus/

input pci usb
Can you guess which of these two screenshots was taken on a laptop ?
B.1.3. /usr/sbin/lsusb
To list all the usb devices connected to your system, you could read the contents
of /proc/bus/usb/devices (if it exists) or you could use the more readable output of
lsusb, which is executed here on a SPARC system with Ubuntu.
root@shaka:~# lsusb
Bus 001 Device 002: ID 0430:0100 Sun Microsystems, Inc. 3-button Mouse
Bus 001 Device 003: ID 0430:0005 Sun Microsystems, Inc. Type 6 Keyboard
Bus 001 Device 001: ID 04b0:0136 Nikon Corp. Coolpix 7900 (storage)
root@shaka:~#
B.1.4. /var/lib/usbutils/usb.ids
The /var/lib/usbutils/usb.ids file contains a gzipped list of all known usb devices.
207
Hardware Settings
paul@barry:~$ zmore /var/lib/usbutils/usb.ids | head

------> /var/lib/usbutils/usb.ids <------
#
# List of USB ID's
#
# Maintained by Vojtech Pavlik <[email protected]>
# If you have any new entries, send them to the maintainer.
# The latest version can be obtained from
# http://www.linux-usb.org/usb.ids
#
# $Id: usb.ids,v 1.225 2006/07/13 04:18:02 dbrownell Exp $
B.1.5. /usr/sbin/lspci
To get a list of all pci devices connected, you could take a look at /proc/bus/pci or
run lspci (partial output below).
paul@laika:~$ lspci
...
00:06.0 FireWire (IEEE 1394): Texas Instruments TSB43AB22/A IEEE-139...
00:08.0 Ethernet controller: Realtek Semiconductor Co., Ltd. RTL-816...
00:09.0 Multimedia controller: Philips Semiconductors SAA7133/SAA713...
00:0a.0 Network controller: RaLink RT2500 802.11g Cardbus/mini-PCI
00:0f.0 RAID bus controller: VIA Technologies, Inc. VIA VT6420 SATA ...
00:0f.1 IDE interface: VIA Technologies, Inc. VT82C586A/B/VT82C686/A...
00:10.0 USB Controller: VIA Technologies, Inc. VT82xxxxx UHCI USB 1....
00:10.1 USB Controller: VIA Technologies, Inc. VT82xxxxx UHCI USB 1....
...
B.2. interrupts
B.2.1. about interrupts

An interrupt request or IRQ is a request from a device to the CPU. A device raises
an interrupt when it requires the attention of the CPU (could be because the device
has data ready to be read by the CPU).
Since the introduction of pci, irq's can be shared among devices.
Interrupt 0 is always reserved for the timer, interrupt 1 for the keyboard. IRQ 2 is
used as a channel for IRQ's 8 to 15, and thus is the same as IRQ 9.
B.2.2. /proc/interrupts
You can see a listing of interrupts on your system in /proc/interrupts.
paul@laika:~$ cat /proc/interrupts
208
Hardware Settings
CPU0 CPU1
0: 1320048 555 IO-APIC-edge timer
1: 10224 7 IO-APIC-edge i8042
7: 0 0 IO-APIC-edge parport0
8: 2 1 IO-APIC-edge rtc
10: 3062 21 IO-APIC-fasteoi acpi
12: 131 2 IO-APIC-edge i8042
15: 47073 0 IO-APIC-edge ide1
18: 0 1 IO-APIC-fasteoi yenta
19: 31056 1 IO-APIC-fasteoi libata, ohci1394
20: 19042 1 IO-APIC-fasteoi eth0
21: 44052 1 IO-APIC-fasteoi uhci_hcd:usb1, uhci_hcd:usb2,...
22: 188352 1 IO-APIC-fasteoi ra0
23: 632444 1 IO-APIC-fasteoi nvidia
24: 1585 1 IO-APIC-fasteoi VIA82XX-MODEM, VIA8237
B.2.3. dmesg
You can also use dmesg to find irq's allocated at boot time.
paul@laika:~$ dmesg | grep "irq 1[45]"

[ 28.930069] ata3: PATA max UDMA/133 cmd 0x1f0 ctl 0x3f6 bmdma 0x2090 irq 14
[ 28.930071] ata4: PATA max UDMA/133 cmd 0x170 ctl 0x376 bmdma 0x2098 irq 15
B.3. io ports
B.3.1. about io ports

Communication in the other direction, from CPU to device, happens through IO
ports. The CPU writes data or control codes to the IO port of the device. But this is
not only a one way communication, the CPU can also use a device's IO port to read
status information about the device. Unlike interrupts, ports cannot be shared!
B.3.2. /proc/ioports
You can see a listing of your system's IO ports via /proc/ioports.
[root@RHEL4b ~]# cat /proc/ioports

0000-001f : dma1
0020-0021 : pic1
0040-0043 : timer0
0050-0053 : timer1
0060-006f : keyboard
0070-0077 : rtc
0080-008f : dma page reg
00a0-00a1 : pic2
00c0-00df : dma2
00f0-00ff : fpu
0170-0177 : ide1
02f8-02ff : serial
209
Hardware Settings
...
B.4. dma
B.4.1. about dma

A device that needs a lot of data, interrupts and ports can pose a heavy load on the
cpu. With dma or Direct Memory Access a device can gain (temporary) access to
a specific range of the ram memory.
B.4.2. /proc/dma
Looking at /proc/dma might not give you the information that you want, since it only
contains currently assigned dma channels for isa devices.
root@laika:~# cat /proc/dma

1: parport0
4: cascade
pci devices that are using dma are not listed in /proc/dma, in this case dmesg can be
useful. The screenshot below shows that during boot the parallel port received dma
channel 1, and the Infrared port received dma channel 3.
root@laika:~# dmesg | egrep -C 1 'dma 1|dma 3'

[ 20.576000] parport: PnPBIOS parport detected.
[ 20.580000] parport0: PC-style at 0x378 (0x778), irq 7, dma 1...
[ 20.764000] irda_init()
--
[ 21.204000] pnp: Device 00:0b activated.
[ 21.204000] nsc_ircc_pnp_probe() : From PnP, found firbase 0x2F8...
[ 21.204000] nsc-ircc, chip->init
210
/etc/slackware-version, 5
Index /etc/sudoers, 148, 149
/etc/SuSE-release, 5
Symbols /etc/sysconfig, 41
;, 62 /etc/sysconfig/firstboot, 41
!, 81, 83 /etc/sysconfig/harddisks, 42
!!, 83 /etc/sysconfig/hwconf, 42
? (file globbing), 80 /etc/sysconfig/keyboard, 42
/, 38 /etc/X11/xorg.conf, 41
/bin, 39, 55 /home, 42
/bin/bash, 55, 153 /lib, 43
/bin/csh, 55 /lib/kbd/keymaps/, 42
/bin/dash, 55 /lib/modules, 43
/bin/ksh, 55, 153 /lib32, 43
/bin/rm, 57 /lib64, 43
/bin/sh, 55 /media, 43
/boot, 39 /mnt, 44
/boot/grub, 39 /opt, 44
/boot/grub/grub.conf, 39 /proc, 44
/boot/grub/menu.lst, 39 /proc/bus, 207
/dev, 40 /proc/bus/pci, 208
/dev/null, 40, 90 /proc/bus/usb/devices, 207
/dev/pts/1, 40 /proc/cpuinfo, 45
/dev/random, 53 /proc/dma, 210
/dev/tty1, 40 /proc/filesystems, 46
/dev/urandom, 52, 54 /proc/interrupts, 47, 208
/dev/zero, 53 /proc/ioports, 209
/etc, 40 /proc/kcore, 48
/etc/bashrc, 154 /proc/swaps, 48
/etc/debian-version, 4 /proc/sys, 46
/etc/default/useradd, 139 /root, 48
/etc/filesystems, 46 /sbin, 48, 55
/etc/fstab, 174 /srv, 48
/etc/gentoo-release, 5 /sys, 48
/etc/group, 156, 161 /tmp, 49
/etc/gshadow, 158 /usr, 49
/etc/hosts, 53 /usr/bin/getfacl, 174
/etc/inputrc, 153 /usr/bin/passwd, 171
/etc/login.defs, 142 /usr/bin/setfacl, 174
/etc/lsb-release, 5 /var, 49
/etc/mandriva-release, 5 /var/cache, 49
/etc/passwd, 138, 146, 161 /var/lib/rpm, 49
/etc/profile, 153 /var/lib/usbutils/usb.ids, 207
/etc/redhat-release, 4 /var/log, 49
/etc/resolv.conf, 54 /var/run, 49
/etc/shadow, 140, 171 /var/spool, 49
/etc/shells, 126, 146 /var/spool/up2date, 50
/etc/skel, 41, 145 /var/tmp, 49
211
Index
., 179 B
.., 179 backticks, 77
.bash_login, 153 bash, 2
.bash_logout, 154 Belenix, 8
.bash_profile, 153 bg(1), 201
.bashrc, 153, 154 Bourne again shell, 55
.exrc, 121 BSD, 2
.vimrc, 121 BSD Net/2, 2
`(backtick), 77 bunzip2, 110
'(single quote), 77 bus, 207
[, 80 bzcat, 111
$? (shell variables), 68 bzip2, 110, 111
$ (shell variables), 67 bzmore, 111
$$, 184
$HISTFILE, 82 C
$HISTFILESIZE, 83 cal, 108
$HISTSIZE, 82 Canonical, 6
$LANG, 81 case sensitive, 38
$PATH, 56, 68 cat, 96
$PPID, 184 cat(1), 33
* (file globbing), 80 cd, 15
\, 64 cd -, 16
&, 62 cd .., 16
&&, 62 cd ~, 15
#!/bin/bash, 125 CentOS, 6
>, 89 chage(1), 143
>>, 90 chgrp(1), 161
>|, 90 chkconfig, 41
|, 95 chmod, 165
||, 63 chmod(1), 118, 164
1>, 90 chmod +x, 124, 166
2>, 90 chown(1), 161
2>&1, 90 chsh(1), 146
777, 165 CMDBA, 10
CMDEV, 9
A comm(1), 101
absolute and relative paths, 16 command line scan, 58
access control list, 174 command mode(vi), 115
acl, 176 cp(1), 26, 26
acls, 174 cpu, 207
agp, 207 crypt, 141
AIX, 8 Ctrl D, 33
alias(bash), 56, 56 Ctrl-Z, 200
apropos, 11 current directory, 15
aptitude, 8 cut(1), 98
aptitude(1), 7
D
daemon, 183
212
Index
date, 108 GNU/Solaris, 8

debian, 6 GNU Project, 2
Debian, 8 gpasswd, 157
Dennis Ritchie, 1 GPL, 3
devfs, 48 grep(1), 96
df -i, 177 grep -i, 97
directory, 178 grep -v, 97
distributions, 4 groupadd(1), 156
dma, 210 groupdel(1), 157
dmesg(1), 209, 210 groupmod(1), 157
Douglas McIlroy, 1 groups(1), 157
dumpkeys(1), 42 gunzip(1), 110
gzip, 110
E gzip(1), 110
echo(1), 57, 76, 184
echo $-, 82 H
eiciel, 176 hard link, 179
ELF, 43 head(1), 32
embedding(shell), 76 hidden files, 18
env(1), 69, 69 history, 83
environment variable, 67 HP-UX, 8
EOF, 91 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/, 14
exec, 185 http://screencasts.ubuntu.com, 14
executables, 39 http://www.linux-training.be, 14
export, 70 http://www.pathname.com/fhs/, 39
http://www.redhat.com/docs/manuals/, 14
F http://www.tldp.org, 14
Fedora, 5, 5, 5 http://xkcd.com, 6, 135, 148
fg(1), 201 https://help.ubuntu.com, 14
FHS, 39
file(1), 24, 43 I
file globbing, 80 id(1), 137
file ownership, 161 IEEE 1394, 48
Filesystem Hierarchy Standard, 39 if then else (bash), 129
filters, 95 init, 183
find(1), 107, 171, 171, 179 inode, 177, 179
FireWire, 48 inode table, 177
fork, 185 insert mode(vi), 115
for loop (bash), 126 interrupt, 208
FreeBSD, 2, 7 IO Ports, 209
freedom of speech, 3 IRQ, 208
isa, 207
G
gcc, 2 J
gcc(1), 142 jobs, 200
getfacl, 174
GID, 156 K
glob(7), 80 Ken Thompson, 1
GNU/Hurd, 2 keymaps(5), 42
213
Index
kill(1), 183, 188, 188 Novell, 6

killall(1), 189 Novell Certified Linux Professional, 10
Korn Shell, 146
kudzu, 42 O
od(1), 102
L OpenBSD, 2, 7
less(1), 34 OpenSSH, 8
let, 129 openssl(1), 141
Linus Torvalds, 3 OpenSUSE, 7
ln, 179
ln(1), 179 P
loadkeys(1), 42 package manager, 4
locate(1), 107 parent directory, 16
logical AND, 63 passwd(1), 140, 140, 141, 171
logical OR, 63 pc-card, 207
Logiciel Libre, 4 pci, 207
LPIC 1 Certification, 9 pci-express, 207
LPIC 2 Certification, 9 pcmcia, 207
ls, 163, 177 pgrep(1), 186
ls(1), 17, 177, 178 PID, 183
ls -l, 18 pidof(1), 184
lspci, 208 pipe, 95
lsusb, 207 pipes, 194
pkill(1), 189
M popd, 23
MacOSX, 8 PPID, 183
magic(5), 24 primary group, 139
man, 11 process, 183
man(1), 12 process id, 183
mandb(1), 13 ps, 185
man hier, 38 ps -ef, 186
man -k, 11 ps fax, 186
man man, 12 pushd, 23
Mark Shuttleworth, 6 pwd, 15
mkdir, 19
mkdir -p, 19 R
mkfifo, 194 random number generator, 53
more(1), 34 read, 130
Multics, 1 Red Hat, Inc., 5
mv(1), 27 Red Hat Desktop, 5
Red Hat Enterprise Linux, 5, 5
N Red Hat Network, 50
NetBSD, 2, 7 Red Hat Update Agent, 50
Nexenta, 8 rename(1), 27
nice, 196 renice, 195
nice(1), 194 renice(1), 194
noclobber, 89 repository, 4
nodev, 46 RHCE, 9
nounset(shell), 69 RHEL AS, 5
214
Index
RHEL ES, 5 T
RHEL WS, 5 tab key, 17
Richard Stallman, 2 tac(1), 34
rm(1), 25, 180 tail(1), 32
rmdir, 19 tee(1), 96
rm -rf, 25 test, 128
root, 138, 148 Theo De Raadt, 7
root directory, 38 time, 109
rpm, 5 top, 189
RPM, 49 top(1), 187
touch(1), 24
S tr, 99
set, 82 tr(1), 98
set(shell), 69 Tru64, 8
set +x, 58 type(shell), 55
setfacl, 174
setgid, 170, 171 U
setuid, 148, 171, 171 Ubuntu, 4, 6, 8
set -x, 58 Ubuntu, Linux for Human Beings, 6
shell, 153 umask(1), 165
shell comment, 64 unalias(bash), 57
shell escaping, 64 Unbreakable Linux, 6
shell expansion, 58, 75 UNICS, 1
shopt, 131 uniq(1), 101
SIGHUP, 188 Unix, 1, 1
SIGTERM, 189 unset, 82
skeleton, 41 unset(shell), 69
sleep, 109 until loop (bash), 127
soft link, 179 updatedb(1), 107
Solaris, 8 usb, 48, 207
sort(1), 100 useradd, 139, 145
stderr, 89 useradd(1), 141, 145
stdin, 89, 95, 96 useradd -D, 139
stdout, 89, 95, 96 userdel(1), 139
sticky bit, 170 usermod, 156
strings(1), 34 usermod(1), 139, 143, 144
su -, 68
su(1), 147, 147 V
sudo, 148 vi(1), 115
sudo(1), 149 vigr(1), 158
sudo su -, 149 vim(1), 115
SunOS, 8 vimtutor(1), 115
Sun Solaris, 8 vipw(1), 144
Suse, 6 visudo(1), 149
swap partition(s), 48 vrije software, 4
symbolic link, 179
sysfs, 48 W
w(1), 136
215
Index
wc(1), 99
whatis(1), 12
whereis(1), 12
which(1), 56
while loop (bash), 126
who(1), 136
who am i, 136
whoami(1), 136
wild cards, 81
X
X, 41
Xen, 6
X Window System, 41
Z
zcat, 110
zmore, 110
zombie, 183
216

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Linux Fundamentals

Published Sun 01 Aug 2010 05:36:53 PM CEST

More information and free .pdf available at http://www.linux-training.be .

Feel free to contact the authors:

• Paul Cobbaut: [email protected], http://www.linkedin.com/in/cobbaut

Contributors to the Linux Training project are:

• Hendrik De Vloed: [email protected], buildheader.pl script

We'd also like to thank our reviewers:

• Wouter Verhelst: [email protected], http://grep.be

• Geert Goossens: [email protected], http://www.linkedin.com/in/geertgoossens

• Elie De Brauwer: [email protected], http://www.de-brauwer.be

• Christophe Vandeplas: [email protected], http://christophe.vandeplas.com

• Bert Desmet: [email protected], http://bdesmet.be

• Rich Yonts: [email protected],

Copyright 2007-2010 Paul Cobbaut

3.1. working with directories ........................................................................ 15

4.6.14. /srv served by your system ........................................................ 48

5.10.1. white space removal .................................................................. 75

8.3. practice : vi(m) ..................................................................................... 122

10.5. user shell ............................................................................................ 146

12.3.5. setting octal permissions ......................................................... 165

14.2.5. exec ......................................................................................... 185

B.2.1. about interrupts ......................................................................... 208

1.1. Unix History

1.1.1. AT&T Bell Labs

Table 1.1. Early Unix Timeline

1969-1977 1978-1980 1981 1982

1.1.2. The Unix Wars

Table 1.2. Eighties Unix Timeline

1.1.3. University of California, Berkeley

Table 1.3. Current BSD Timeline

1.1.4. GNU's not Unix

1.2.3. GNU General Public License (GPL)

Free is to be understood as in freedom of speech, not to be confused with free as in

1.3. Current Distributions

1.3.1. What is a distribution ?

1.3.2. Linux Distributions

Linux distribution detection

paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /etc/redhat-release

serge@venusia:~$ cat /etc/debian_version

serge@venusia:~$ cat /etc/lsb-release

Red Hat Linux

Red Hat Enterprise Linux 4

Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5

CentOS and Unbreakable Linux

Image copied from xkcd.com.

1.3.3. BSD Distributions

1.3.4. Major Vendors of Unix

Solaris 8 and Solaris 9

Nevada and Solaris Express

OpenSolaris, Belenix and Nexenta

1.4.1. LPI: Linux Professional Institute

1.4.2. Red Hat Certified Engineer

towards database application developers, and the CMDBA towards database

1.4.4. Novell CLP/CLE

1.4.5. Sun Solaris

1.4.6. Other certifications

1.5. Discovering the classroom

2.1. man pages

2.1.1. man $command