Consequences Associated With Work-To-Family Conflict

Journal of Occupational Health Psychology Copyright 2000 by the Educational Publishing Foundation
2000, Vol. 5, No. 2,278-308 1076-89980/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//1076-899B.5.2.278
Consequences Associated With Work-to-Family Conflict:

A Review and Agenda for Future Research
Tammy D. Allen, David E. L. Herst, Carly S. Bruck, and Martha Sutton

University of South Florida
A comprehensive review of the outcomes associated with work-to-family conflict was conducted
and effect sizes were estimated. A typology was presented that grouped outcomes into 3 categories:
work related, nonwork related, and stress related. Issues concerning the measurement of work-
family conflict were also discussed. The results demonstrate the widespread and serious conse-
quences associated with work-to-family conflict. On the basis of the results of the review, an
agenda for future research was provided.
Striking changes in the nature of families and the Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal (1964)
workforce, such as more dual-career couples and suggested that work-family conflict is a type of
rising numbers of working mothers with young interrole conflict in which role pressures from the
children, have increased the likelihood that employ- work and family domains are mutually incompatible
ees of both genders have substantial household to some degree. That is, work-family conflict occurs
responsibilities in addition to their work responsibili- when demands associated with one domain are
ties (Bond, Galinsky, & Swanberg, 1998; Gilbert, incompatible with demands associated with the other
Hallett, & Eldridge, 1994). These radical changes domain (Greenhaus & Buetell, 1985; Kopelman,
have prompted considerable research related to work Greenhaus, & Connolly, 1983). Although early
and family issues. The topic of work-family conflict research treated work-family conflict primarily as a
has been of particular interest. Recent research unidimensional construct, recent research (Frone,
indicates that 40% of employed parents experience Russell, & Cooper, 1992) suggests that it is reciprocal
work-family conflict at least some of the time in nature, in that work can interfere with family
(Galinsky, Bond, & Friedman, 1993). Moreover,
(work-to-family conflict; WFC) and family can interfere
Galinsky et al. reported that workers who started a with work (family-to-work conflict; FWC). WFC and
new job within the past 2 years stated that the effect of
FWC are generally considered distinct but related
the job on family life was second in importance to
constructs. Research to date has primarily investi-
open communications when formulating their deci-
gated how work interferes or conflicts with family.
sion to accept the job. Likewise, Galinsky, Johnson,
Outcomes associated with excessive work interfer-
and Friedman (1993) cited a study conducted by the
ence with family include job dissatisfaction, job
New York Times indicating that 83% of working
burnout, turnover, depression, life dissatisfaction, and
mothers and 72% of working fathers reported
marital dissatisfaction (e.g., Adams, King, & King,
experiencing conflict between their job demands and
19%; R. J. Burke, 1988; Frone et al., 1992; Greenhaus
their desire to spend more time with their families.
& Beutell, 1985; Netemeyer, Boles, & McMurrain,
These findings underscore the importance of the topic
1996; Thomas & Ganster, 1995).
of work-family conflict to both organizations and
Despite the rapidly growing body of literature
employees.
examining WFC, few efforts have been made to
review empirical findings. Over a decade ago,
Tammy D. Allen, David E. L. Herst, Carly S. Bruck, and
Martha Sutton, Department of Psychology, University of Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) reviewed the studies
South Florida. that had investigated sources or antecedents of WFC.
Aprevious version of this article was presented at the 14th More recently, Kossek and Ozeki (1998) conducted a
Annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organiza-
meta-analysis examining the relationship between
tional Psychology, Atlanta, Georgia. We thank Mark L.
Poteet, Lillian T. Eby, and Paul E. Specter for their helpful WFC and two specific outcomes: job satisfaction and
comments regarding various aspects of this article. life satisfaction. Kossek and Ozeki's work was much
Correspondence concerning this article should he ad- needed and an informative addition to the literature.
dressed to Tammy D. Allen, University of South Florida,
However, there are many additional outcome vari-
Department of Psychology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, BEH
339, Tampa, Florida 33620-8200. Electronic mail may he ables that have been empirically related to WFC that
sent to [email protected]. were not included in Kossek and Ozeki's study. The
WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT 279
purpose of the present article is to fill this void in the Method

literature. This review provides a comprehensive
summary and evaluation of empirical research of the Relevant articles were identified through manual and
outcomes associated with WFC, including an organiz- computer searches. Computerized searches were conducted
through PsycLJT and OVID information bases using the key
ing framework and suggestions for future research.
words "work and family conflict.11 A manual search was
An extensive review is needed for several reasons, conducted of all articles published from 1977 through 1998
One area of concern is the limited amount of in Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Organizational
integration in the field. The work and family research Behavior, Journal of Marriage and the Family, Journal of
arena is fractionated because of diverse types of Vocational Behavior, Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision-Making Processes, and Academy of Management
individuals working in it. For example, individuals
Journal. Additionally, the reference list of each identified
working in disciplines such as psychology, sociology, article was manually cross-checked for other potential
business, and social work have contributed to work articles. Attempts were also made to locate articles that used
and family research. This tends to lead to an emphasis slightly different terms such as "interrole conflict" and
on different issues (e.g., sociologists are more "multiple role stress'1 to refer to WFC.
Our criteria for inclusion in the review were twofold.
concerned with family-related outcomes, whereas
One, WFC had to be a quantitatively measured variable in
organizational psychologists are more concerned with the study. Thus, we eliminated articles that were not
work-related outcomes) without an examination of empirical. Two, the study had to measure the relationship
similar work in other disciplines. As noted by Russell between WFC and one or more variables that could
(1991), implications associated with fractionation and theoretically be considered outcomes of WFC. This
eliminated articles that focused solely on sources or
isolation are that progress in research and practice is
antecedents of WFC. It should be noted at this point that
not systematic or integrated. Separate, disjointed the majority of studies in the work and family arena have
theories may develop across fields as a result. This been cross-sectional in nature, precluding firm causal
limits the progress that could be made by taking a inferences regarding the direction of the relationships
broader, more integrative perspective that builds on studied. For the purposes of the present review, we in-
cluded variables that seemed more reasonable or plausible
previous research. By providing a summary of
as outcomes of WFC rather than as causes. It is not
existing research organized under one framework, we our intention to infer that reverse causality is not feasible. A
hope that researchers from various disciplines will total of 67 articles were located that fit these criteria.
become more familiar with one another's work, Statements regarding significance are based on the zero-
facilitating the integration of findings from various order bivariate correlation between WFC and the outcome
variable reported in each study. Except where noted
subfields and subsequent theory building. Addition-
otherwise, relationships cited in text are in the expected
ally, a comprehensive review of the area should help direction (e.g., greater WFC was associated with less job
clarify and underscore the widespread negative satisfaction). Figure 1 provides a framework of the variables
effects of WFC. A better understanding of these included in the study.
effects might aid in efforts to manage the work and To provide an estimate of the effect size associated
with each of the relationships reviewed, we followed
family interface. Moreover, highlighting the dysfunc-
meta-analytic procedures described in Rosenthal (1991).
tional and socially costly effects associated with WFC Both unweighted and weighted by sample size average
may help convince policymakers of the need to correlations were computed. Only studies that included a
provide interventions that can help mitigate WFC. zero-order bivariate correlation between WFC and an-
For clarity and parsimony, our article is restricted other variable were included in these analyses. In circum-
stances in which a study involved a sample that was a sub-
to a review of the outcomes associated with work-to-
set of the same sample used in another study, the study
family conflict (WFC). In some cases, results were with the largest sample was included in die analysis. An
reported in which researchers combined WFC with exception was made if sample selection criteria were
FWC or asked about work and family conflict in general. clearly different. If a study assessed several specific in-
Those cases are noted in the review. This review is dices of WFC (conflict between parent and worker and
conflict between spouse and worker) these were combined to
divided into four major sections. First, the criteria
form a general assessment of WFC. A similar approach was
used to identify articles for the review and to conduct used in analyzing several outcome variables. For example, if
statistical analyses are briefly described. Second, we a .study examined overall mental health and psychological
examine issues concerning the measurement of WFC. distress, the correlations were combined for the statistical
Third, we present the results of our review for the analyses. In studies in which separate correlations were
reported for different subgroups (e.g., male vs. female;
three categories of outcomes followed by a summary
single-earner vs. dual-earner), the correlation for each
and suggestions for additional research for each. subgroup was weighted by sample size and combined. For
Finally, a general discussion of findings and future consistency purposes, we reversed the sign of the correlation
research are provided. in cases such as when a high score on the WFC measure
280 ALLEN, HERST, BRUCK, AND SOTTON
Work-Related Outcomes
Job Satisfaction
Organizational Commitment
Intention to Turnover
Absenteeism
Job Performance
Career Satisfaction
Career Success
Nonwork-Related Outcomes
Life Satisfaction
Marital Satisfaction
Family Satisfaction
Family Performance
Leisure Satisfaction
Stress-Related Outcomes
General Psychological Strain

Somatic/Physical Symptoms
Depression
Substance Abuse
Burnout
Work-Related Stress
Family-Related Stress
Figure I. Framework of study variables. WFC = work-to-family conflict.
indicated less WFC. Results of the effect size analyses are Review
summarized in Table 1. Only outcome variables in which
more than one study had been conducted were included in Measurement of WFC
this table.
We should note at this point that there were only a small A review of the literature concerning outcomes
number of studies conducted for many of the variables.
associated with WFC would be incomplete without
Accordingly, the reported average effects should be
reviewed with caution before drawing generalizable con- being prefaced by a discussion of measurement
clusions concerning the proposed relationships. Although issues. Despite the abundance of research examining
there is no rule of thumb regarding the number of stud- both the causes and consequences of WFC, there is
ies that need to be conducted before a meta-analysis is
ambiguity regarding the nature of the construct, its
appropriate, second-order sampling error poses a distinct
threat to the validity of results when only a small number of measurement, and its relationship with other vari-
studies are included (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). ables. Netemeyer et al. (1996) noted that the lack of
Table 1
Meta-Analysis Results for WFC and Work, Nonwork, and Stress Outcomes
Variable k n r SDr *"' Range
Work outcomes
Job satisfaction 38 12,624 -.23 .14 -.24 +.14 to -.47
Career satisfaction 2 525 -.02 .07 -.04 -.07 to +.03
Organizational commitment 6 1,208 -.18 .14 -.23 -.06 to -.42
Intention to turnover 10 2,863 .29 .14 .29 +.03 to +.50
Absenteeism 2 457 -.06 .09 -.02 .00 to -.13
Job performance 4 1,248 -.10 .11 -.12 .00 to -.26
Nonwork outcomes
Life satisfaction 18 6,395 -.28 .12 -.28 -.09 to -.53
Marital satisfaction 14 4,662 -.24 .13 -.23 -.01 to -.49
Family satisfaction 7 2,053 -.17 .08 -.17 -.02 to -.27
Stress outcomes
General psychological strain 13 4,481 .34 .15 .29 .1610.57
Somatic/physical symptoms 17 7,780 .30 .15 .29 .08 to .53
Depression 11 4,304 .34 .10 .32 ,20to.51
Alcohol abuse 3 1,574 .13 .01 .13 .12to.l4
Burnout 10 3,582 .40 .18 .42 .08 to .57
Work-related stress 15 6,182 .41 .13 .41 .12 to .56
Family-related stress 6 1,886 .30 .15 .31 .20 to .51
Note- WFC = work-to-family conflict; k = number of sample groups for which correlations were included; r =
unweighted mean of the correlations; rw = weighted mean of the correlations.
consistency with which the WFC construct has been The WFC scale that has received the most use is
operationalized makes it difficult to argue that all based on the 8-item measure developed by Kopelman
measures are associated with a core construct. Indeed, et al. (1983). However, researchers using the Kopel-
it seems likely that some of the inconsistent results man et al. measure often adapt it in some form. For
documented in subsequent sections of this review example, several studies have included only 4 items
may be a function of different WFC operationaliza- from the scale (Adams et al., 1996; Aryee & Luk,
tions. Specific problems include the use of single- 1996; Gutek, Searle, & Klepa, 1991) or 6 items
item measures, adapted measures of unknown valid- (Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999; Parasuraman, Puro-
ity, study-developed measures of unknown validity, hit, Godshalk, & Beutell, 1996). In yet another
and different foci (e.g., work interfering with leisure, measurement variation, Thomas and Ganster (1995)
work interfering with home life in general, and work combined the 8-item Kopelman et al. scale with a
interfering with social life). Examples of these issues 16-item measure developed by Bohen and Viveros-
are elaborated below. Long (1981). Other measures of WFC used have been
Several WFC studies are based on the 1977 Quality based on adaptations from other researchers. For
of Employee Survey (QES; Quinn & Staines, 1979; example, Bacharach, Bamberger, and Conley (1991)
e.g., Coverman, 1989; Rice, Frone, & McFarlin, used a 4-item scale based on Holahan and Gilbert
1992). In the QES study, WFC was measured with a (1979) that assessed the extent that the job impacts
one-item question that asked the extent that work and home, family, or social life. Bedeian, Burke, and
family interfered with each other. The problems Moffett (1988) and Greenhaus, Bedeian, and Moss-
associated with one-item measures of psychological holder (1987) used 8 items adapted from R. J. Burke,
constructs have been well-documented, generating Weir, and DuWors (1979) that assessed the impact of
concerns regarding unknown reliability and validity job on home life. The 8 items measure the perceived
(e.g., Wanous, Reichers, & Hudy, 1997). Kossek and effects of current job demands on mental and physical
Ozeki's (1998) study further underscored the poten- states at home; participation in home activities,
tial problems associated with brief bidirectional vacation, and social activities; and the respondents'
measures. They found that when bidirectional or relationship with spouse. These adapted measures are
combined WFC scales were used, the number of suspect because they possess unknown validity.
items in the WFC scale was correlated with the size of A number of studies have included study-generated
the relationships found between WFC and job measures lacking rigorous psychometric develop-
satisfaction and life satisfaction. ment. For example, Wiersma and Van Den Berg
(text continues on page 286)

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(1991) used a 26-item study-generated measure that measure. As noted by the authors, their measure
assessed the difficulty of combining domesticity with provides researchers with the flexibility to measure
paid labor. Shamir (1983) developed a 6-item scale any of the six dimensions of interrole conflict
that combined 4 items focusing on how work interfered independently. We recommend that researchers con-
with family and 2 items on how work interfered with sider incorporating these recently developed mea-
free-time activities. O'Driscoll, llgen, and Hildreth sures into their research.
(1992) used a 7-item measure that assessed the extent
that work interfered with nonwork activities nonspe-
WFC Relationship With Other Variables
cific to family life. Hughes and Galinsky (1994)
developed their own 8-item measure they termed Our review suggested that the outcomes associated
family role difficulty that evaluated the frequency the with WFC could be organized into three categories:
individual experienced job-related difficulties in work related, nonwork related, and stress related.
performing family roles. Cooke and Rousseau (1984) These categories were derived inductively. That is,
combined WFC and FWC into a single measure to rather than try and fit the identified outcome variables
form a study-generated measure. Other researchers into predetermined categories, the categories emerged
have used 2-, 3-, and 4-item study-generated mea- from themes identified through the course of the
sures (e.g., Beatty, 1996; Krone et al., 1992; Jones & review. Our purpose in grouping the large number of
Butler, 1980). outcome variables was not to develop mutually
Another issue concerning the construct validity of exclusive categories but to provide a meaningful
existing WFC measures involves the use of specific organizing framework for discussion. Although it was
versus global measures. Some measures, such as that clear that work-related and nonwork-related out-
used by Aryee (1992) that was based on Small and comes were relevant categories, a number of studies
Riley (1990), focus on specific aspects of WFC with also examined stress-related outcome variables.
different subscales for each (e.g., job vs. spouse Many of these stress-related variables, such as
conflict; job vs. homemaker conflict). Similarly, the somatic complaints and depression, could not be
measure developed by Holahan and Gilbert (1979) easily differentiated as work or nonwork as they
includes subscales that assess worker versus parent encompassed both. Consequently, we thought it
and worker versus spouse conflict. By contrast, other would be appropriate to place all stress-related
measures such as Kopelman et al. (1983) are more outcomes in a separate group despite some overlap
global assessments of the extent that WFC interferes with the other two categories.
with overall home life. The distinction is important
for, as Kossek and Ozeki (1998) noted, combining
Work-Related Outcomes
items that focus on multiple nonwork roles may
change relationships with specific outcomes. The Variables primarily associated with work were
content adequacy of most measures of WFC can also included in this category. A summary of studies under
be questioned. Specifically, although three forms of this category is provided in Table 2. Research has
WFC have been identifiedtime-based, strain-based, examined a variety of attitudinal and behavioral
and behavior-based (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985), work-related outcomes associated with WFC. Job
most measures of WFC are content deficient in that satisfaction is the outcome variable that has attracted
they have focused on the former two and failed to the most research attention. Although the results have
incorporate behavior-based forms of conflict. been mixed, the majority of these studies have found
Several recent studies have begun to address that as WFC increases, job satisfaction decreases. In
measurement-related issues concerning WFC. Ste- their meta-analysis of the relationship between WFC
phens and Sommer (1996) introduced a WFC and job satisfaction, Kossek and Ozeki (1998)
measure that includes all three forms of WFC but reported a weighted mean correlation of -.23. In the
does not address FWC. Netemeyer et al. (1996) present study, the mean sample weighted correlation
developed and provided validity evidence for a between WFC and job satisfaction was -.24. Indi-
measure that included both directions of interrole vidual job satisfaction-WFC studies are reviewed
conflict (WFC and FWC) but does not assess all three below.
forms. Most promising perhaps is a recent measure Based on data drawn from the QES (Quinn &
developed by Carlson, Kacmar, and Williams (1998) Staines, 1979), several studies have reported a
that incorporates all three forms of interrole conflict significant relationship between WFC and job satisfac-
from both directions, resulting in a six-dimension tion (Coverman, 1989; Rice et al., 1992; Staines,
Pottick, & Fudge, 1986). Using the same sample of study. In the college alumni sample, job satisfaction
accounting professionals, Bedeian et al. (1988) and was related to WFC. In the student sample, the
Parasuraman, Greenhaus, Rabinowitz, Bedeian, and relationship was nonsignificant.
Mossholder (1989) both reported a significant relation- Some researchers have found no relationship
ship between WFC and global job satisfaction. between job satisfaction and WFC. On the basis of a
These same results have been found in studies with sample of employed MBA and graduate students,
diverse samples such as executives (Judge, Boudreau, Wiley (1987) found no relationship between WFC
& Bretz, 1994), police personnel (R. J. Burke, 1988), and a global measure of job satisfaction. O'Driscoll et
health professionals (Thomas & Ganster, 1995), al. (1992) found that job interferences with nonwork
full-time employees enrolled in evening courses activities were not related to summed facets of job
(Adams et al., 1996), working mothers with children satisfaction. In a small sample study of matched male
attending day care (Anderson-Kulman & Paludi, and female executives, Lyness and Thompson (1997)
1986), retail employees (Good, Sisler, & Gentry, found a nonsignificant relationship between WFC and
1988), employed Black mothers (Katz & Piotr- job satisfaction. Likewise, Thompson and Blau
kowski, 1983), restaurant employees (Boles & Babin, (1993) obtained nonsignificant results with a sample
1996), fathers of elementary-age school children of female employees. Most recently, a nonsignificant
(Stewart & Barling, 1996), working adults (Adams & relationship was observed among employed parents
Jex, 1999), nurses and engineers (Bacharach et al., in dual-earner families in Hong Kong (Aryee, Luk,
1991), teachers (Cooke & Rousseau, 1984), dual- Leung, & Lo, 1999).
career professionals (Duxbury, Higgins, & Thomas,
Career-related variables have been the target of
1996), and married male naval personnel (Jones &
several investigations. It is interesting that the two
Butler, 1980). Netemeyer et al. (1996) tested the
studies that have examined WFC and career satis-
relationship between WFC and job satisfaction with
faction have found no relationship. Neither Aryee
three different samples: elementary and high school
and Luk (1996) nor Parasuraman et al. (1996) found
teachers and administrators, small business owners,
a significant relationship between WFC and ca-
and real estate sales employees. Significant results
reer satisfaction in samples of Hong Kong dual-
were obtained for each sample.
earner couples and entrepreneurs, respectively. The
Significant results have also been found in studies
weighted mean across the two samples was -.04.
that sampled individuals living outside the United
Peluchette (1993) examined the relationship be-
States. For example, significant results have been
tween subjective career success and WFC with a
found with samples of hotel workers in Jerusalem
sample of full-time faculty members. The results
(Shamir, 1983), Israeli male prison guards (Drory &
indicated that individuals reporting a greater degree
Shamir, 1988), married nurses, managers, and social
of WFC tended to report lower levels of subjective
workers from Hong Kong (Chiu, 1998), and profes-
career success.
sional and managerial women sampled from the
Organizational commitment is another work-
Who's Who of Canadian Women (Beatty, 1996).
related variable that has been studied in association
Likewise, in a study of married professional women
employed in Singapore, Aryee (1992) separated WFC with WFC, with equivocal results. Significant results
into three types (job-parent, job-spouse, and job- were obtained by Netemeyer et al. (1996) and Good et
homemaker) and found that all three types of WFC al. (1988), who found that as WFC increases,
were related to global job satisfaction. organizational commitment decreases. Lyness and
Mixed results within studies have also been Thompson (1997) examined three different types of
reported. In several of these studies, the differences commitment. They found that WFC was negatively
have been across gender. Using a one-item measure of related to affective commitment, positively related to
job satisfaction and a sample of dual-career parents continuance commitment, and not related to norma-
with children attending day-care centers, Wiersma tive commitment. Both Wiley (1987) and O'Driscoll
and Van den Berg (1991) found a significant et al. (1992) found that job interferences with
relationship for women but not for men. Similarly, nonwork activities were not related to organizational
Greenglass, Pantony, and Burke (1988) found that commitment. Likewise, Anderson-Kulman and Paludi
three aspects of role conflict (professional vs. self; (1986) found no relationship between WFC and work
professional vs. parent; professional vs. spouse) each commitment. The weighted mean correlation ob-
related to job satisfaction for women but not for men. served across studies was -.23. It should be noted that
Kopelman et al. (1983) included two samples in their most of these studies were based on affective
commitment; therefore, the individual correlations Summary of Work-Related Outcomes

for continuance and normative commitment were and Suggestions for Future Research
excluded from the statistical analysis.
Researchers have also been interested in the As mentioned earlier, WFC has been measured a
relationship between WFC and turnover. One study variety of ways. Additionally, the outcome variables
has examined actual turnover, finding that increased studied have often been operationalized very differ-
WFC was related to greater turnover (Greenhaus, ently. This operational variability is one possible
Collins, Singh, & Parasuraman, 1997). The results explanation for the inconsistent results concerning
have also fairly consistently indicated that greater job satisfaction. For example, some studies measured
levels of WFC are associated with greater intentions job satisfaction using a global measure (e.g., Rice et
to leave the organization (R. 1. Burke, 1988; Good et al., 1992), some summed multiple facets (e.g.,
al., 1988; Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999; Greenhaus Bedeian et al., 1988), whereas others used a
et al., 1997; Lyness & Thompson, 1997; Netemeyer et combination of the former two (Staines et al., 1986).
al., 1996). Similarly, in a study of naval personnel, As noted by Specter (1997), correlations among job
Jones and Butler (1980) found that WFC was satisfaction facets tend to be small. This suggests that
inversely related to intentions to reenlist in the Navy. people may not have global feelings that produce the
Additionally, Aryee (1992) found that turnover same level of satisfaction with every job aspect. For
intentions were related to job-spouse conflict and example, WFC may correlate more highly with
job-parent conflict but not to job-homemaker con- specific facets of job satisfaction such as supervision
flict. Aryee's study highlights the implications of
and benefits than with others.
using global versus specific measures of WFC, as
Although job satisfaction is the outcome variable
specific facets of WFC may be differentially related to
that has received the most attention by researchers,
outcomes. The weighted mean correlation observed
our review revealed that intentions to turnover was
across studies, excluding the one study examining
the work-related variable most highly related to
actual turnover, was .29.
WFC. This finding suggests that a common response
Two studies were located that examined the
to a high degree of WFC may be a desire to flee the
relationship between WFC and absenteeism. Using a
situation. Employees may seek alternative employ-
sample of health care workers, Thomas and Ganster
ment with organizations that offer environments that
(1995) found no relationship between WFC and
are supportive of work-nonwork balance. It should be
self-reports of absenteeism. Goff, Mount, and Jamison
noted that only one study has examined actual
(1990) studied the relationship between WFC and
turnover rate (Greenhaus et al., 1997). The correlation
company-provided records of absenteeism before and
between WFC and turnover in Greenhaus et al. was
after the implementation of an onsite child care
.14, substantially lower than the average correlation
center. The bivariate correlations were nonsignificant;
observed with turnover intentions. More research is
however, regression results indicated that WFC was
needed to determine the extent that WFC is related to
significantly related to absenteeism after child care
actual turnover. Research has also shown that job
center implementation. The weighted mean correla-
satisfaction is an antecedent to turnover (Maertz &
tion across these two studies was -.02.
Several studies have examined the relationship Campion, 1998). Future studies may examine if job
satisfaction mediates the relationship between WFC
between job performance and WFC with mixed
results. Frone, Yardley, and Markel (1997) found a and turnover intentions.
significant relationship using a multiple-item self- Although the average weighted correlation be-
rated measure of in-role job performance. Aryee tween WFC and affective organization commitment
(1992) used a four-item self-report measure of work was moderately strong, the individual study results
quality and found that it was related to job-parent were highly inconsistent. It appears that smaller
conflict but not to job-spouse or job-homemaker effects were found in studies that used more random
conflict. Netemeyer et al. (1996) used a multiple-item samples (e.g., employed mothers working in different
self-rated measure of sales performance and found occupations at different organizations) than studies in
null results. Likewise, nonsignificant results were which employees came from the same occupation or
obtained using a 13-item measure of performance organization. Future studies are needed to examine
provided by the employee's supervisor (Greenhaus et organization and job type as a moderator of the
al., 1987). The weighted mean correlation observed WFC-organizational commitment relationship.
across studies was -.12. The findings suggest the need for more research
examining work-related behavioral outcomes. Only a extent does WFC influence career decision making?
handful of studies have examined the effect of WFC For example, is WFC related to capitalizing on
on variables such as absenteeism, job performance, learning and development opportunities, decisions to
and turnover. For example, only two studies have accept a promotion, or the decision to relocate for the
examined the relationship between absenteeism and company?
WFC. Although these two studies suggest that there is
little relationship between the two, it is difficult to Nonwork-Related Outcomes
reach a firm conclusion on the basis of this limited
information. Perhaps more organizations could be Variables in this category were those associated
primarily with nonwork aspects of life. Table 3
convinced to implement programs designed to reduce
contains a summary of these studies. Life satisfaction
WFC if there was stronger evidence that WFC can
is the variable most often associated with WFC in the
influence these economic bottom-line indicators.
nonwork domain. In their meta-analysis, Kossek and
The findings to date are especially unclear
Ozeki (1998) reported a weighted mean correlation of
regarding the outcome of job performance. WFC may
.31. Our analysis yielded a weighted mean correla-
have a greater impact on other domains of perfor-
tion of .28. In general, these studies reported that
mance such as organizational citizenship behavior
greater levels of WFC were associated with lower
(Organ, 1988). Individuals experiencing a high
levels of reported life satisfaction. Drawn from the
degree of WFC may feel compelled to keep the
same sample of married professionals with children
task-related behaviors that are typically the focus of
living at home, Duxbury and Higgins (1991) and
performance evaluations at an acceptable level, but
Higgins and Duxbury (1992) found that WFC was
they may not be willing to go above and beyond the
related to life satisfaction. In studies based on the
call of duty for the organization. Additionally,
same sample of accounting professionals, Greenhaus
individuals experiencing a high degree of WFC may
et al. (1987), Bedeian et al. (1988), and Parasuraman
be less likely to engage in other work-related
el al. (1989) found that WFC was strongly related to
extrarole behaviors such as mentoring relationships.
quality of life. Two studies using QES data also found
The career-related benefits of mentoring for the
a significant relationship between WFC and life
mentor and the protege' are well-documented (cf.
satisfaction (Rice et al., 1992; Staines et al., 1986).
Allen, Poteet, & Burroughs, 1997; Scandura, 1992), Other studies finding support for the relationship
but these relationships often involve activities that between WFC and life satisfaction include Adams et
take place outside of the work domain. Individuals al. (1996), Aryee et al. (1999), Chiu (1998), Googins
experiencing WFC may be reluctant to put in the time and Burden (1987), Judge et al. (1994), Kopelman et
and energy required to develop such relationships. al. (1983), Netemeyer et al. (1996), O'Driscoll et al.
Finally, additional research is needed using more (1992), and Wiley (1987). Additionally, Aryee (1992)
objective indicants of job performance (e.g., sales found that life satisfaction was related to all three of
volume) or supervisor ratings in addition to self- the specific types of WFC studied: job-spouse,
report ratings. job-parent, and job-homemaker.
There is also limited research examining the In contrast, two studies have failed to support the
relationship between WFC and career-related out- relationship between WFC and life satisfaction.
comes. The new conceptualization of employee Cooke and Rousseau (1984) had a sample of teachers
careers places a greater emphasis on subjective complete a combined WFC and FWC measure of
success than in the past (Hall, 1996; Hall & Mirvis, interrole conflict. The result was a nonsignificant
1995). Research is needed to support that of relationship between WFC and life satisfaction.
Peluchette (1993), who found a significant relation- Beutell and Greenhaus (1982) found that wives'
ship between WFC and subjective career success. number of role conflicts and role intensity were not
This may be explained by the concept of spillover. related to either their own or their husbands' life
Specifically, if individuals have difficulty managing satisfaction.
the extent their work is interfering with family, these Several studies have focused on relationship or
conflicts may flow into negative feelings concerning marital satisfaction/functioning as WFC outcomes with
career success. Closer examination of the relationship somewhat mixed results. Increased levels of WFC
between WFC and objective career-related outcomes were found to be inversely related to marital adjust-
is also needed. How do competing demands between ment (Barling, 1986; Beatty, 1996; Bedeian et al.,
work and family differentially affect the career 1988; Chiu, 1998; Duxbury et al., 1996, Greenglass et
outcomes of men and women? Similarly, to what al., 1988; Greenhaus et al., 1987; Parasuraman et al.,
S. S 1^, S
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uxbury & Higgins (1991)
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WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT
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rone, &McFarlin (1992)
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1989; Suchet & Barling, 1986). Using the QES data, experience more dissatisfaction with their life when
Coverman (1989) found that higher WFC was related that sense of balance is violated.
to lower marital satisfaction for men but not for Although the average weighted correlation be-
women. In contrast, two studies revealed significant tween WFC and marital satisfaction was moderately
relationships for women but not for men (Kinnunen & strong, the individual study results were highly
Mauno, 1998; Matthews, Conger, & Wickrama, inconsistent. The discrepant findings are puzzling as
1996). Aryee (1992) found that job-spouse conflict no clear themes or explanations for the variability
and job-parent conflict were related to marital emerged from the review. Especially telling were the
satisfaction, but job-homemaker conflict was not. findings from Netemeyer et al. (1996) that included
Lastly, in their three-sample study, Netemeyer et al. three different samples composed of similar demo-
(1996) found that WFC was not related to marital graphic backgrounds. Whereas two of the samples
satisfaction among elementary and high school yielded moderate-sized correlations between WFC
educators but was related to marital satisfaction and marital satisfaction, the third sample yielded a
among small business owners and real estate sales correlation of .01. The results suggest the involve-
employees. Similarly, MacEwen and Barling (1994) ment of moderator variables. Indeed, Suchet and
found that increased WFC was related to marital Barling (1986) found evidence for spouse support as a
withdrawal for both male and female Canadian moderator. Specifically, with a sample of employed
married parents but was only related to marital anger mothers, Suchet and Barling found that when spouse
for the female sample. The weighted mean correlation support was high, WFC was not associated with
found across studies was .23. marital functioning. Similarly, Barling (1986) found
WFC has also been related to family satisfaction. that hardiness moderated the relationship between
On the basis of two different samples, Kopelman et al. WFC and marital functioning. In future studies, it
(1983) found that general family satisfaction was may be helpful to examine possible reciprocal effects
negatively related to WFC. Similar results based on between marital satisfaction and WFC. Specifically,
the QES were reported by Rice et al. (1992) and by individuals may purposively engage in more work
Frone, Barnes, and Farrell (1994). Most recently, because of marital problems that in turn creates greater
Aryee et al. (1999) also found that family satisfaction WFC, subsequently escalating marital dissatisfaction.
was inversely related to WFC. In contrast, two studies More research is needed examining different
conducted by Parasuraman and her colleagues found aspects of nonwork life. A limited number of studies
no relationship between family satisfaction and WFC have examined family satisfaction and WFC, with
(Parasuraman, Greenhaus, & Granrose, 1992; Para- somewhat inconsistent results. Although the meta-
suraman et al., 1996). The weighted mean correlation analytic results suggests there is a low to moderate
observed across these studies was .17. Finally, relationship between WFC and family satisfaction,
single studies have shown WFC to be negatively additional studies would help clarify the nature of this
related to satisfaction with leisure activities (Rice et relationship. Only one study examining WFC and
al., 1992), family performance (Frone, Yardley, & parental satisfaction and one study examining WFC
Markel, 1997), and parental satisfaction (Kinnunen & and leisure satisfaction were identified in the review.
Mauno, 1998). Research of this nature could be conducted using a
multidimensional measure of life satisfaction such as
that developed by Alfonso, Allison, Rader, and
Gorman (1996). This would generate a better understand-
Summary ofNonwork Variables ing of the specific aspects of life (e.g., satisfaction
and Suggestions for Future Research with social life) related to WFC.
Among the nonwork variables, life satisfaction was

most strongly related to WFC. It is interesting to note Stress-Related Outcomes
that the two studies with the lowest correlations for
life satisfaction were conducted in the early 1980s. Given the importance most individuals place on
More recent studies have found that increased WFC is their families, it seems likely that jobs that interfere
consistently related to decreased life satisfaction. This with family life would be stressful. Therefore, it is not
trend may reflect employees' greater desire for surprising that WFC has been associated with a
balance between their work and family lives. As variety of stress-related outcomes. No specific form
people have come to expect more balance, they may of stress has been a focus. Both physical and
(text continues on page 300)
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Female professionals wi
Married employees of la
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Table 4 (continued)
J
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* j j E CB
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Male executives
Frone etal. (1996)
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Where clarif
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WFC
stimated. e
ote.
psychological stress within work and nonwork longitudinal study, Frone, Russell, and Cooper (1997)
domains have been examined. A summary of studies found no relationship between WFC and overall
examining WFC and stress-related outcomes is health or between WFC and hypertension. The
provided in Table 4. weighted mean correlation observed across studies
General psychological health has been explored in was .29.
several studies. O'Driscoll et al. (1992) found that as One of the more alarming outcomes linked with
job interference with nonwork activities increased, WFC has been depression. All the cross-sectional
psychological strain increased. Psychological strain studies examining WFC and depression have indi-
was measured by the General Health Questionnaire, cated that increased WFC is related to increased
which assessed general mental health, coping with depression (Frone et al., 1992, 1996; Googins &
difficulties, feelings of self-worth, and enjoyment of Burden, 1987; Greenglass et al., 1988; Klitzman et
daily activities. Beatty (1996) found that increased al., 1990; MacEwen & Barling, 1994; Netemeyer et
levels of WFC were associated with increased levels al., 1996; Reifman et al., 1991; Thomas & Ganster,
of anxiety and irritability/hostility. Similarly, Green- 1995). In another study, Beatty (1996) separated her
glass et al. (1988) found increased conflict was sample of female managers and professionals into
associated with increased anxiety. Matsui, Ohsawa, those with children and those without. Depression
and Onglatco (1995) found that WFC among married was significantly related to WFC for women with
Japanese women employed full time was related to a children but was not for women without children. We
life strain index that included assessments of found a weighted mean correlation across studies of
vocational strain, psychological strain, interpersonal .32. However, it should be noted that in a longitudinal
strain, and physical strain. In two studies, Parasura- study, Frone, Russell, and Cooper (1997) found no
man et al. (1992) and Parasuraman et al. (1996) found relationship between depression and WFC over time.
that genera] life stress (e.g., feelings such as being In several studies, Frone and his associates have
upset, frustrated, or tense) significantly related to found significant relationships between WFC and
WFC. Similarly, Klitzman, House, Israel, and Mero alcohol abuse. Specifically, increased WFC was
(1990) found that WFC was related to negative associated with increased frequency of heavy drink-
feelings outside of work. In contrast, Coverman ing, drinking to cope, and drinking problems (Frone,
(1989) found no relationship between WFC and a Russell, & Cooper, 1993; Frone et al., 1994, 1996;
measure of general well-being. The weighted mean Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1997). Furthermore, Frone,
correlation observed across studies was .29. Russell, and Cooper (1997) found that WFC pre-
A number of studies have found a relationship dicted heavy alcohol use across time. The weighted
between increased WFC and increased physical mean correlation observed across studies was .13.
symptoms or somatic complaints such as poor One study also found a relationship between cigarette
appetite, fatigue, and nervous tension (Adams & Jex, use and WFC (Frone et al., 1994).
1999; R. J. Burke, 1988; Cooke & Rousseau, 1984; The research examining WFC and stress associated
Greenglass et al., 1988; Guelzow, Bird, & Koball, with the work domain has yielded fairly consistent
1991; Hughes & Galinsky, 1994; Kinnunen & significant results. A number of studies specifically
Mauno, 1998; Klitzman et al., 1990; Nelemeyer el al., focused on WFC and job burnout, finding that
1996; Reifman, Biernat, & Lang, 1991; Thomas & increased WFC was related to increased job burnout
Ganster, 1995). In two independent samples, Frone, (Aryee, 1993; Bacharach et al., 1991; R. J. Burke,
Russell, and Barnes (1996) found that increased WFC 1988; Drory & Shamir, 1988; Greenglass & Burke,
was related to a single-item measure of overall 1988; Izraeli, 1988; Kinnunen & Mauno, 1998;
physical health. Research has also shown WFC to be Netemeyer et al., 1996). Using a unique sample of
related to general health and energy (R. J. Burke, Israeli physician couples, Izraeli (1988) found that
1988; Googins & Burden, 1987; Grandey & Cropan- job burnout was related to WFC for men but not for
zano, 1999; Judge et al., 1994). Several contrasting women. The weighted mean correlation calculated
results have also been obtained. For example, across studies that examined job burnout was .42.
Coverman (1989) found that WFC related to psycho- WFC has also been related to other forms of
physiological symptoms for women but not for men. work-related stress, such as work alienation (R. J.
In their study of health professionals, Thomas and Burke, 1988), job tension (Netemeyer et al., 1996;
Ganster (1995) reported that greater WFC was Stewart & Barling, 1996), affective professionalstress
associated with an elevated blood pressure but was (Guelzow et al., 1991), negative feelings at work
not related to cholesterol levels. Finally, in a (Klitzman et al., 1990; Stewart & Barling, 1996),
WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT
quality of work life (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991; The research conducted by Frone and his col-
Higgins & Duxbury, 1992), and job/work stress leagues points out the value and the need for
(Prone et a]., 1992; Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997; longitudinal studies. As noted previously, most
Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999; Greenglass & Burke, research involving WFC has been cross-sectional. As
1988; Judge et al., 1994; Kinnunen & Mauno, 1998). Frone, Russell, and Cooper (1997) illustrated, WFC
In a study using an experience sampling strategy, may not predict variation in outcomes over time. For
Williams and Alliger (1994) found that WFC was not example, the effects for depression disappeared in
significantly related to work-related distress. The their longitudinal analysis. On the other hand,
weighted mean correlation found across these studies although the effect size observed between alcohol
was .41. abuse and WFC was rather modest, important
The limited research examining family-related implications are raised by the fact that the longitudi-
stress has also been fairly consistent. Increased WFC nal nature of the research does support causal
has been related to increased family distress (Frone et inferences (Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1997).
al., 1992; Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997; Grandey The costs associated with stress-related illnesses
& Cropanzano, 1999), affective parental and marital are substantial. For example, it has been estimated
stress (Guelzow et al., 1991), and quality of family that stress-related illnesses cost American business
life (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991; Higgins & Duxbury, between $50 billion and $150 billion a year (Hatfield,
1992). In contrast, Williams and Alliger (1994) did 1990). One area of future research that appears
not find a significant relationship between family- warranted is more integration of the stress and
related distress and WFC. The weighted mean work-family literature. Individual characteristics
correlation found across studies was .31. have figured prominently into our understanding of
the experience of stress (Latack, 1989). For example,
research has shown that certain personality character-
Summary of Stress-Related Variables istics such as Type A behavior, inflexibility, intoler-
and Suggestions for Future Research ance for ambiguity, and neuroticism may predispose
individuals to generally experience a heightened sense of
Our review revealed that one of the most consistent stress (Greenhaus & Callanan, 1994). Limited re-
and strongest findings in the literature was the search has examined the role of individual differences
significant relationship between WFC and stress- and the experience of WFC. The stress literature
related outcomes. These effects were found in both could inform work-family researchers on the interven-
the work and nonwork domains. With the exception ing and moderating factors that may determine who is
of alcohol abuse, the average weighted correlations most likely to stay healthy while experiencing WFC
within the stress-related category of variables ranged and who is most likely to experience a stress-related
from .29 to .42. The strongest relationships observed disorder. More empirical research based on integra-
were those of WFC with burnout and work-related tive models, such as that proposed by Greenhaus and
stress. These findings underscore the extent that Parasuraman (1986), that incorporate the stress and
interferences with family brought on by work work-family literature is needed.
demands creates tension within the work domain.
A great degree of variation was observed concern-
ing how physical symptoms were measured. Some Conclusions and General Suggestions
studies have used more general overall health for Future Research
measures based on one or few items (e.g., Frone et al.,
1996; Judge et al., 1994), whereas others included a The results of this review convincingly demon-
large number of items assessing specific symptoms strate the widespread and serious consequences
and frequency (e.g., Netemeyer et al., 1996). More associated with WFC. Excessive WFC presents
studies are needed that use objective health indices problems for employees, their families, employers,
such as blood pressure and cholesterol levels. The and for society as a whole (Parasuraman & Green-
correlations between objective measures and WFC haus, 1997). WFC has dysfunctional and socially
have been lower than correlations between WFC and costly effects on individual work life, home life, and
general self-report measures (Frone, Russell, & general well-being and health. While it should be
Cooper, 1997; Thomas & Ganster, 1995). It would acknowledged that the majority of studies referenced
also be informative to examine WFC and health were based on self-reports and nonexperimental
ailments associated with stress, such as cardiovascu- designs that preclude confirmation of causality, we
lar disease and gastric disorders. believe it can be safely concluded that WFC is
associated with job, family, and life attitudes, work the frequent occurrence of mixed findings between
behaviors, and a variety of stress-related variables. WFC and variables such as job satisfaction. One hint
Moreover, the results are based on many types of of how third variables can influence these relation-
participants and settings and include samples from a ships was provided in Beatty (1996). Beatty found
variety of countries. that women with children reported similar levels of
A major purpose of this article was to provide a WFC as women without children; however, WFC was
summary of the empirical research regarding the associated with fewer negative health effects for
outcomes associated with WFC. Despite the volumi- women without children than for women with
nous body of extant research, the review identified children. Along these lines, it would seem fruitful to
several relevant issues and general areas of inquiry move beyond demonstrating the main effects of WFC
that warrant future research attention. and to examine variables that may influence the
relationship between WFC and consequences. One
Measurement Refinement recent research trend has been to test integrative
mediation models that examine hypothesized anteced-
Some of the inconsistent results revealed in the ents and outcomes of WFC simultaneously (e.g.,
review may be attributed to measurement issues. As Frone et al., 1992, 1996). Despite the obvious value
noted previously, WFC has been operationalized in of this type of research, middle-range studies are also
divergent ways. To address this issue, researchers needed to develop WFC theory. For example,
need more psychometric work establishing the research exploring limited combinations of people
construct validity of WFC, such as the recent studies and situations, including possible moderators such as
conducted by Netemeyer et al. (1996), Stephens and organizational and personal characteristics, would be
Sommer (1996), and Carlson et al. (1998). Their valuable.
measures were developed on the basis of advocated One opportunity for future research is to investi-
validation procedures. Researchers should avoid gate if there are underlying dispositional variables
using one-item measures and mixed directional that explain the relationship between WFC and
measures that fail to distinguish between WFC and affective variables such as life and job satisfaction.
FWC. For example, it would be interesting to assess the
Other measurement concerns relate to the use of extent that individuals who are generally high in
objective versus subjective measures. WFC has been negative affectivity also tend to report higher levels of
most frequently measured through self-report meth- WFC and lower levels of job and life satisfaction and
ods that fail to distinguish between objective and stress (M. J. Burke, Brief, & George, 1993).
subjective or psychological role conflict. As discussed
by Greenhaus (1988), the distinction between objec-
tive role conflict from experience or psychological Differences in Outcomes of WFC With Special
role conflict is important because each type of conflict Segments of the Population
may have different consequences. Many other areas
of study reveal substantial differences between Although WFC studies have incorporated a variety
objective and subjective measures of the same phenom- of samples, the studies that have focused on special
ena (e.g.. Judge et al., 1994, concerning subjective and groups have primarily examined gender differences
objective career success; Spector, Jex, & Chen, 1995, or dual-career versus single-career couples. Indeed,
concerning objective and subjective reports of job many studies examining WFC limit their sample to
characteristics). Research examining WFC by means married individuals. Given the growing number of
of methodologies other than subjective self-reports single-parent homes, it seems important to also
should further our understanding of how WFC differen- examine the effects of WFC on this segment of the
tially affects individuals. Improved measurement may population. In 1991, close to 60% of divorced,
be just as important to furthering our understanding of separated, and widowed women with children youn-
WFC as are theoretical advancements. ger than 6 years were employed. Moreover, the figure
was 80% for women with children between the ages
Tests for Moderators of 6 and 17 years (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992,
as cited by Greenhaus and Callanan, 1994). Likewise,
Qualitatively, differential findings across studies research examining ethnic differences and the experi-
suggest undetected moderator variables may be ence of WFC is virtually nil (for an exception, see
involved. Few researchers have attempted to explain Katz & Piotrkowski, 1983). Minority groups often
experience unique career issues such as stereotyping, Conclusion

restricted advancement opportunities, attributional
biases, and stresses associated with token status The objective of this study was to organize and
(Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1993; Greenhaus, Para- summarize current research regarding the outcomes
suraman, & Wormley, 1990; Kanter, 1977; Pettigrew associated with WFC. By reviewing what is known,
& Martin, 1987). These issues serve as likely sources we hope we have illuminated possible paths to be
taken in the future by work and family researchers.
of stress that may exacerbate WFC.
There is little to suggest that the conditions that have
Another potential area for study would be to
generated increasing conflicts between work and
examine individuals of different socioeconomic status
family life will abate in the near future. Continuing
(SES). Our review indicates that most studies have
organizational turbulence such as downsizings and
used middle-class or higher SES samples (e.g.,
mergers and economic factors such as the need for
managers, accountants, and educators). As noted by
two-income families suggest that WFC is likely to
Kelly (1988), the work and family literature has
keep affecting employees. Carefully planned and
generally failed to integrate the urban underclass. The systematic research based on collaboration among
importance of this area for future study is underscored researchers from diverse disciplines is needed to
by the fact that Welfare to Work laws should increase develop models for future research.
the number of individuals of lower economic means
who face conflicts between work and family.
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Received July 15,1999
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impact of work-family conflict and overload. Journal of Revision received October 15, 1999
Social Behavior and Personality, S, 635-646. Accepted October 19, 1999

Consequences Associated With Work-To-Family Conflict

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Journal of Occupational Health Psychology Copyright 2000 by the Educational Publishing Foundation

2000, Vol. 5, No. 2,278-308 1076-89980/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//1076-899B.5.2.278

Consequences Associated With Work-to-Family Conflict:

Tammy D. Allen, David E. L. Herst, Carly S. Bruck, and Martha Sutton

purpose of the present article is to fill this void in the Method

General Psychological Strain

Figure I. Framework of study variables. WFC = work-to-family conflict.

Variable k n r SDr *"' Range

(text continues on page 286)

C1 f-1 CN rl >O O O> OS

commitment; therefore, the individual correlations Summary of Work-Related Outcomes

^ g u" O flj "2 u

reenhaus, Redeian, & Mossholde

Among the nonwork variables, life satisfaction was

1 '| "III S H 1 -s' i Il11lgl

11 " ^ s c nil " ^ -5

Kinnunen & Mauno (1998^

Employed parents, Stud'

Judge, Boudreau, & Bretz <

Employed parents, Stud;

Frone etal. (1996)

experience unique career issues such as stereotyping, Conclusion

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