Engineering Design Handbook - Hydraulic Fluids

AMC PAMPHLET A
MP 7061123
PROPERTY OF
&MC TECHNICAL LlBRARfo
ENGINEERING DESIGN
HANDBOOK
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
~~ ~ ~
HEAD llART ERS, U. S. ARMY MAT ER IE 1 C 0 M MA ND APRIL 1971

AMCP 706-123
USTOF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig.No . Title
.
Page
.
1-1 Graphic Symbol for a Three.position. Four-port Hydraulic Valve ...................... 1-3
1-2 Graphic Symbols for (A) a Hydraulic Pump With Variable Displacement and Pressure
Compensation; and (B) a HydraulicTMotor With Variable Displacement .................-1-3
1-3 Graphic Symbol for a Hydraulic Oscillatory Device ................................. 1-3
1-4 Graphic Symbol for a Variable-flow Hydraulic Volume Control. Such as a Needle Valve..... 1-3
1-5 Graphic Symbol for a Pressure Relief Valve ....................................... 1-3
2-1 Rotary Motor Circuit Which Produces Constant Torque ............................. 2.2
2-2 Spur Gear Rotary Hydraulic Pump .............................................. 2.3
2-3 Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Spur Gear Rotary Hydraulic Pump:..........2.4
2-4 Crescent Seal Internal Gear Hydraulic Pump ...................................... 2.4
2-5 Gerotor Internal Gear Hydraulic Pump .......................................... 2.4
2-6 ................... 2-5

Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Vane Hydraulic Pump
2-7 Unbalanced Vane Hydraulic Pump .............................................. 2.5
2-8 Vane-type Hydraulic Pumps and Motors ......................................... 2.5
2-9 Balanced Vane Hydraulic Pump ................................................. 2.6
2-10 Axial-piston Hydraulic Pump .................................................. 2.6
2-11 Redial-piston Hydraulic Pump With Rotating Piston Housing ......................... 2-7
2-12 Radial-piston Hydraulic Pump With Spherical Pistons ............................... 2.7
2-13 Rotating Piston Hydraulic Pump ............................................... 2.7
2- 14 Two-rotor Screw Hydraulic Pump With Helical Gears............................... 2.8
2-15 TypicalBellowsPump ....................................................... 2.8
2-16 Typical Diaphragm Pump ..................................................... 2.9
2-17 Rotating Linear Actuator ..................................................... 2.9
2-18 Plunger-type Linear Actuator .................................................. 2.10
2-19 Telescoping Linear Actuator .................................................. 2.10
X
AMCP 706-123
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (cont'd)
Fig.No. Title
.
Page
.
2-20 Double-acting Linear Actuator ................................................. 2.10
2-21 Stepped-tandem Linear Actuator ............................................... 2.11
2-22 Dual Linear Actuator ........................................................ 2.11
2-23 Cushioned Double-acting Linear Actuator ........................................ 2.11
2-24 Mounting Arrangements for Linear Actuators .................................... -2-12
2-25 Applications of Linear Actuators ............................................... 2.13
2-26 Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Spur Gear Hydraulic Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-14
2-21 Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Crescent Seal Hydraulic Motor ..............2.14
2-28 Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Gerotor Hydraulic Motor ..................2.15
2-29 Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for a Vane Hydraulic Motor ...................-2-15
2-30 Typical Single-vane Actuator .................................................. 2.16
2-31 Typical Double-vane Actuator ................................................. 2.16
2-32 Helix-spline Rotary Actuator .................................................. 2.16
2-33 Piston-rack Rotary Actuator .................................................. 2.16
2-34 Diagram of a Hydraulic Intensifier Circuit ........................................ 2.18
2-35 Basic Configurations of Filter Assemblies ......................................... 2.20
2-36 Hydraulic Fluid Filter With Disk-type Filter Elements ............................... 2.20
2-31 Weight-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator ........................................... 2.22
2-38 Spring-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator ........................................... 2.22
2-39 Nonseparated Pneumatic-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator ............................. 2.22
240 Diaphragm-type Pneumatic-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator ........................... 2.23
2 41 Bladder-type Pneumatic-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator ............................. 2-23
xi
AMCP 706-123
Fig. No . Title
.
Page
.
2-42 Free-floating Piston, Pneumatic-loaded HydraulicAccumulator ....................... 2-23
2-43 Major Types of Sliding-spool Hydraulic Valve Configurations ......................... 2.25
2-44 Sketch of a Flapper Seating Valve .............................................. 2.25
2-45 Direct Spring-loadedPoppet-type Pressure Relief Valve .............................. 2.25
2-46 Jet-pipe Flow-dividing Valve .................................................. 2.26
2-47 Direct-acting Pressure-relief Valve .............................................. 2-26
2-48 Differential Pressure-relief Valve ............................................... 2.26
2-49 Pilot-operated Pressure-relief Valve ............................................. 2.27
2-50 Pilot-operated Unloading Valve ................................................ 2.27
2-51 Load-dividingvalve ......................................................... 2-27
2-52 Sequencevalve ............................................................ 2-27
2-53 Counterbalance Back-pressure Valve ............................................ 2.27
2-54 Pressure Reducing Valve (Constant Downstream Pressure) ............................ 2.28
2-55 Pressure Regulating Valve (Constant Pressure Differentiat) ........................... 2.28
2-56 Pressureswitch ............................................................ 2-28
2-57 Poppet-typecheckvalve ..................................................... 2.29
2-58 Pilot-operated Check Valve ................................................... 2.29
2-59 Mechanically Operated, Nonadjustable Deceleration Valve ........................... 2-29
2-60 '&ee-port Shuttle Valve ...................................................... 21-30
2-6 1 Time-delayvalve ........................................................... 2-30
2-62 Disk-type Globe Valve ....................................................... 2.30

xii
AMCP 706-123
~
LIST OF ILLdSTRATIONS (contd)
Fig. No. Title

.
Page
.
2-63 Needlevalve .............................................................. 2-30
2-64 Pressure-compensatedFlow-control Valve ........................................ 2.30
2-65 Positive-displacement Metering Valve ............................................ 2-31
2-66 Pressure-compensatedFlow-divider ............................................. 2-31
2-67 Two-stage Spool-type Servovalve ............................................... 2.32
2-68 Servovalve Transducers ....................................................... 2-32
2-69 Servovalve Internal Feedback Systems ........................................... 2-33
2-70 Flow Gain of a Spool Valve ................................................... 2.34
2-71 Counterflow Plane Wall Heat Exchanger ......................................... 2.37
2-72 Hydraulic Circuit With Air-cooled Heat Exchangers ................................. 2.37
2-73 Shell and Tube Single-pass Heat Exchanger ....................................... 2.38
2-74 Typical Flare Fittings for Hydraulic Tubing ....................................... 2.41
2-75 Typical Flareless Fittings for Hydraulic Tubing .................................... 241
2-76 Typical Self-sealingCouplings for Hydraulic Hose .................................. 2.42
2-77 Cross-sectional Skeich of a Typical Shock Absorber ................................ 2.43
2-78 Sketch of a Hydropneumatic Shock Mechanism .................................... 2.43
2-79 Sketch of a Hydropneumatic Recoil Mechanism ................................... 2.43
3-1 Velocity Distribution in a Liquid Between Two Parallel Plates With the Top Plate Moving
With Respect to the Stationary Bottom Plate ..................................... 3.2
3-2 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Newtonian Fluid ............................. 3.4
3-3 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Plastic Material .............................. 3-4
34 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Pseudoplastic Material ........................ 3.5
3-5 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Dilatant Material ............................. 3.5
3-6 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Thixotropic Material .......................... 3.5
Xiii
AMCP 706-1 23
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (contd)
.
Fig No. Title
. page
3-7 Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a Rheopectic Material ......................... 3.5
3-8 Viscosity Curves for a Newtonian Fluid and a Non-Newtonian Fluid .................... 3.6
3-9 Streamline Flow and Turbulent Flow in a Pipe ....................................3.6

3-10 Cannon-Fenske Capillary Tube Viscometer ....................................... 3.7
3-1 1 Cross-sectional View of a Saybolt Viscometer ..................................... 3-7
3-12 Cannon-Master Viscometer .................................................... 3.8
3-13 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Four Military Specification Hydraulic Fluids ........... :3-10
3-14 Method of Calculating the ASTM Slope of a Hydraulic Fluid ......................... 3.12
3-15 Schematic Representation of Viscosity Index (V.I.) ................................. 3.13
3-16 Viscosity Blending Chart ..................................................... 3.15
3-17 Viscosity vs Pressure at Several Temperatures for a Typical Petroleum Fluid .............. 3-16
3-18 Viscosity vs Temperature at Various Pressures for MLO-60.50 Fluid .................... 3-17
3-19 Schematic Diagram of Pump Test Apparatus for Determining Shear Stability of Hydraulic
Fluids ................................................................... 3-19
3-20 Effect of Shear Upon Viscosity of a MIL-H-5606B Hydraulic Fluid in a Pump Test ........ 3-20
3-21 Effect of Sonic Irradiation on the Viscosity of a MJLH-5606B Hydraulic Fluid ...........3.20
3-22 Cleveland Open Cup Flash and Fire Point Test Apparatus ............................ 3.23
3-23 High-pressure Spray Ignition Test Apparatus ...................................... 3.25
3-24 Low-pressure Spray Ignition Test Apparatus ...................................... 3.25
3-25 Hot Manifold Ignition Test Apparatus ........................................... 3.26
3-26 Test Apparatus for the Pipe Cleaner Evaporation Test ............................... 3.27
XiV
AMCP 706-123
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (contd)
. .
Fig No Title
.
Page
.
3-27 Autoignition Temperature Test Apparatus ........................................ 3-28
3-28 Spontaneous Ignition Temperature of a MILO-5606 Fluid in Air in Contact With Various
Surfaces As a Function of Test Chamber Pressure ................................... 3-29
3-29 Spontaneous Ignition Temperature of a Chlorinated Phenyl Methyl Silicone in Air in

Contact With Various Surfaces As a Function of Test Chamber Pressure ................3.30
3-30 Spontaneous Ignition Temperature of Seven Hydraulic Fluids at Atmospheric Pressure in

Contact With a Pyrex Glass Surface As a Function of Oxygen Concentrations ............. 3.31
3-31 Vapor Pressure vs Temperature of Typical Fluids (Approximate) ...................... 3-33
3-32 Vapor Pressure vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids .................... 3.34
3-33 Cut-away Sketch of the Evaporation Loss Apparatus Used in ASTM D972 Test Method ....3.35
3-34 Density vs Temperature of Typical Fluids (Approxkate) ............................ 3.36
3-35 Density vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids at Atmospheric Pressure ..... 3.37
3-36 Relative Density vs Pressure at Several Temperatures of a Typical Fluid Conforming to

MILH-5606B .............................................................. 3-38
3-37 Density vs Pressure at Several Temperatures for MLO-60-50 Fluid (an ester of
trimethylolpropane) ........................................................ 3-39
3-38 Coefficient of Cubical Expansion vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids ..... 3-40
3-39 Lipkin Bicapillary Pycnometer for Determining Density and Specific Gravity of Liquids .... 3-41
3-40 Singham Pycnometer for Determining Density and Specific Gravity of Liquids ............ 3-41
3-41 Specific Heat vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids .................... 3-43
3-42 Thermal Conductivity vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydraulic Fluids .............. 3-44
AMCP 706-123
Fig.No . .
Title page
3-43 Fluid Percent Volume Compression vs Pressure of Typical Fluids .................... -3-45
3-44 Bulk
. Modulus vs Pressure-A Generalized
. ~-Relationship for a Variety of Fluids Over
~
the Range of 32" to 425" F ................................................... 3-47
3-45 Example Representation of Secant and Tangent Bulk Moduli ......................... 3-48
3 4 ................3.49
Apparatus for Measurement of Adiabatic Bulk Modulus by Sonic Speed
347 Graph of Constant Used in Eq.3-27 .... ........................................ 3.50
3-48 Emulsion Test Apparatus ..................................................... 3.53
3-49 FoamingTestApparatus ..................................................... 3-53
3-50 Nitrogen Solubility vs Pressure of Two Petroleum Products ........................... 3.55
3-51 Air Solubility vs Pressure of Typical Fluids ....................................... 3.55
3-52 Trace Sediment Test Tube .................................................... 3.57
3-53 Coefficient of Friction in the Transition from Hydrodynamic to Boundary Lubrication .....3.58
3-54 Five Bench-type Friction and Wear Testers ....................................... 3.62
3-55 Cavity Formation and Collapse Between Rollers or

GearTeeth ................................................................ 3.83
3-56 Cavity Formation and Collapse in an W i c e ...................................... 3.84
3-57 Relative Radiation Resistance of Elastomers ...................................... 3.89
3-58 Relative Radiation Resistance of Thermosetting Resins .............................. 3.90
3-59 Relative Radiation Resistance of Thermoplastic Resins .............................. 3.91
41 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Liquids MILL 10295A. MILL2 1260A.

MIL-H-27601A(USAF). and MILH-46OOqORD) ................................. 4-56
42 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Liquids W.L800. MILL2 104B.

MILF.25598(USAF). and MILL45 199A ....................................... 4-57
AMCP 706-123
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (concluded)
.
Fig No . Title
4-3 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Liquids MILH-8446B and

MICH-l9457B(SHIPS) ....................................................... 4-58
4-4 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Liquids MIL-H-5606BYMIL.H.6083C.

andMILF-l711I(NORD) .................................................... 4-59
4-5 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Liquids MILL6085A. MILG7808G.

and MILL-23699A ......................................................... 4-60
4-6 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Commercial Phosphate Ester Liquids ..................4-61
47 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Commercial Hydrocarbon Liquids .................... 4.62
4-8 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Commercial Polysiloxane. Halocarbon. and Fluorolube

Liquids .................................................................. 4-63
4-9 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Commercial Phosphate Ester Liquids .................. 4-64
4-10 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Commercial Halofluorocarbon Liquids ................4.65

....................................
4-1 1 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Requirements for MIL-H-1391OB.
MILH.22072A(WP). and MIGG46002(ORD) ................................... 4.66
4-12 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Requirements for W.B-680a. MIS-10137.

andMILS-81087A(AGS) ..................................................... 4-67
4-13 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Requirements for MIGH.l3866B(MR).

MILL17672B. and MIL-H-81019(WEP) ......................................... 4-68
414 Viscosity-temperature Graphs of Specification Requirements for MILH.13919B.

MILF.l7111(NORD).andMI S.10150 .......................................... 4-69
6-1 One-gal Screw Cap Can. Type V. Class 4 ......................................... 6.1
6-2 One-qt Hermetically Sealed Can. Type I .......................................... 6.2
6-3 One-pt Spout Top Can. Type V. Class 8 .......................................... 6.2
6-4 Markings on Top and Side of 55-gal Drum ........................................ 6-4
6-5 Markings on Sides of 5-gal Tight-head Pail ........................................ 6.5
xvii
AMCP 706-123
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title

. Page
.
2-1 Loss Coefficients of Hydraulic Systems .......................................... 2-39
2-2 ........................
Dimensions and Characteristics of Pipe for Hydraulic Systems 2.40
2-3 Wall Thickness Equivalents .................................................... 2-40
3-1 Viscosity Requirements of Five Specification Hydraulic Fluids ........................ 3.9
3-2 Estimated Shear Rates of Lubricants ............................................ 3.16
3-3 Pour Point Requirements of Four Military Specification Fluids ....................... 3.21
3-4 Flash Point Requirement of Five Military Specification Fluids ........................ 3.23
3-5 BulkModulus .............................................................. 3-46
3-6 Foaming Requirement of Military Specifications ................................... 3.54
3-7 Maximum Operating Temperature of Hydraulic Fluids .............................. 3.67
3-8 Oxidation and Varnishing Resistance of Hydraulic Fluids ............................ 3.68
3-9 Deterioration Temperature of Hydraulic Fluids .................................... 3.69
3-10 Hydrolytic Stability of Hydraulic Fluids ......................................... 3.69
3-11 Radiation Resistance of Hydraulic Fluids ......................................... 3.70
3-12 Liquid-metal Corrosiveness Test Methods ......................................... 3.77
3-13 ............ 3-78

Oxidation-corrosion Limits of Several Military Hydraulic Fluid Specifications
3-14 Fog or Humidity Corrosiveness Test Methods ..................................... 3.79
3-15 Gear-box Corrosiveness Test Methods ........................................... 3.80
3-16 Effect of Mechanical and Liquid Variables on Cavitation ............................ 3.82
3-17 Properties of Elastomers ...................................................... 3.84
3-18 Common Trade Names and Recommended Uses of Basic Types of Elastomers ...........3.86
AMCP 706-123
LIST OF TABLES (contd)
Table No. Title

. Page
.
3-19 Comparative Properties of Commonly Used Elastomers .............................. 3.87
3-20 Compatibility of Commercial Hydraulic Fluids With Elastomers ....................... 3.88
3-21 Rubber Swell Requirements of Military Specification Hydraulic Fluids .................. 3.92
3-22 Effect of Hydraulic Fluids on Standard Paints ..................................... 3.93
3-23 Resistance of Military Specification Coatings to Hydraulic Fluids ...................... 3.94
3-24 Resistance of Paints to Attack by Chemical Media .................................. 3.95
41 Characteristics of Hydraulic Fluid Base Stocks ..................................... 44
6.1 Hydraulic Fluid Container Sizes ............................................... -6-2
6-2 Recommended Abbreviations .................................................. 6.3
6.3 AIA Particle Contamination Limits for Hydraulic Fluids ............................. 6.7
6-4 Particle Contamination Limits for Hydraulic Systems at Martin Aircraft Company .........6.7
6-5 Effects of Various Contaminants on Hydraulic System Components .................... 6.9
6-6 Solid Particle Contamination Limits in Hydraulic Fluid Corresponding to MILH-5606B ....6.11
AMCP 706-123
PREFACE
The Engineering Design Handbook Series of the Army Materiel Command is a

coordinated series of handbooks containing basic information and fundamental data.
The handbooks are authoritative reference books of practical information and quantita-
tive facts helpful in the design and development of materiel that will meet the tactical
and technical needs of the Armed Forces.
The use of hydraulics for power transmission and control has increased spectacularly
in the past few decades. There are numerous reasons for this trend. The forces available
in electrical systems are limited. Mechanical systems frequently require complex, and
sometimes impractical, linkages for remote use of power. In applications requiring
transmission of large amounts of power or large forces, the power-to-weight ratio of
electrical or mechanical systems is generally much lower than that of hydraulic sys-
tems. The general field of hydraulic power transmission has been developing in both
the equipment and fluid areas. Virtually every major piece of stationary and mobile
equipment used by industry and the Armed Forces now incorporates at least one
hydraulic system.
The objectives of this Handbook are: (1) to collect diverse sources of information to
conserve time, materials, and money in the successful design of new equipment, (2) to
provide guidance in capsule form for new personnel, Armed Forces contractors, or
experienced design engineers in other fields who require information about hydraulic
fluids, (3) to supply current fundamental information, and (4) to place the reader in
a position to use new information generated subsequent to the publication of this
handbook. To meet these objectives, the handbook has been written to provide the
necessary background regarding hydraulic equipment and fluids so that more complete
information and data available in the references can be utilized.
This handbook is organized into six chapters. Chapter 1 presents the inherent advan-
tages, disadvantages, and areas of application of electrical, mechanical, and hydraulic
systems along with a brief review of the principles of hydraulics. Chapter 2 includes
descriptions of the major types of hydraulic circuit components and explanations,
where applicable, of the methods of operation. Chapter 3 discusses the important
properties of hydraulic fluids. These discussions are directed toward the significance
of each property and the method(s) and accuracy of determination. Chapter 4 presents
fluids currently conforming to Federal Specifications along with pertinent information
from each specification. This chapter also includes a review of new nonspecification
fluids which may find applications under extreme environmental conditions. Chapter
5 discusses additives frequently required to modify properties of base stock fluids.
Chapter 6 presents the methods of handling and storing hydraulic fluids.
The text of this handbook was prepared by D. R. Wilson, M. E. Campbell, L. W.
Breed, H. S. Hass, and J. Galate of Midwest Research Institute under subcontract to
the Engineering Handbook Office of Duke University, prime contractor to the U S .
Army Materiel Command for the Engineering Design Handbook Series. Many helpful
xx
AMCP 706-123
comments were supplied by 3. Messina of Frankford Arsenal and other members of the
Ad Hoc Working Group of which Mr. Messina was chairman.
The Handbooks are readily available to all elements of AMC including personnel and
contractors having a need and/or requirement. The Army Materiel Command policy
is to release these Engineering Design Handbooks to other DOD activities and their
contractors and other Government agencies in accordance with current Army Regula-
tion 70-31, dated 9 September 1966. Procedures for acquiring these Handbooks follow:
a. Activities within AMC and other DOD agencies should direct their request
on an official form to:
Commanding Officer
Letterkenny Army Depot
ATTN: AMXLE-ATD
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 17201
b. Contractors who have Department of Defense contracts should submit their

requests, through their contracting offcer with proper justification, to the address
indicated in par. a.
c. Government agencies other than DOD having need for the Handbooks may
submit their request directly to the Letterkenny Army Depot, as indicated in par. a
above, or to:
Commanding General
U.S. Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMCAM-ABS
Washington, D. C. 20315
d. Industries not having a Government contract (this includes universities) must

forward their requests to:
Commanding General
U.S. Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMCRD-TV
e. All foreign requests must be submitted through the Washington, D. C.,

Embassy to:
Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence
ATTN: Foreign Liaison Office
Department of the Army
All requests-other than those originating within the DOD-must be accompanied by

a valid justification.
Comments and suggestionson this handbook are welcome and should be addressed to:
U.S. Army Research Office-Durham

Box CM, Duke Station
Durham, North Carolina 27706
HEADQUARTERS
UNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20315
15 A p r i l 1971
AMC PAMPHLET
NO . 706-123
ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph Page
.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ................................................... x
LISTOFTABLES ......................................................... xviii
PREFACE ................................................................ xx
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1 GENERAL ................................................................. 1-1

1-2 METHODS OF TRANSMITTING POWER ......................................... 1.1
1-2.1 Electrical Power Transmission ................................................... 1-1
1-2.2 Mechanical Power Transmission .................................................. 1-1
1-2.3 Pneumatic Power Transmission .................................................. 1-1
1-2.4 Hydraulic Power Transmission ................................................... 1.1
1-3 PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS ................................................ 1-2
1-3.1 Generation and Use of Fluid Power ............................................... 1-2
1-3.1.1 Fluid Power Circuits .......................................................... 1-2
1-3.1.2 Symbolic Representation of Components .......................................... 1-2
1-3.1.3 Uses of Hydraulic Power ....................................................... 1-3
1-3.2 Requirements for Hydraulic Fluids ............................................... 1.4
1-33.1 System Dependency of the Hydraulic Fluid ........................................ 14
1-3:2.1.1 Temperature ................................................................ 1.4
1-3.2.1.2 Viscosity ................................................................... 14
1-3.2.1.3 Compatibility With System Materials .............................................. 1-4
1-3.2.1.4 Hydraulic System Accuracy, Speed of Response, and Stability .........................
. .
1-5
.
1-3.2.I 5 Fluid Stability (Temperature and Shear) ........................................... 1-5
1-3:2.1.6 Lubricity ................................................................... 1.5
1-3.2.1.7 Pressure .................................................................... 1.6
1-3.2.1 .a Lacquer and Insoluble Material Formation ......................................... 1-6
1-3.2.2 Other Considerations .......................................................... 1-6
1-3.2.2.1 Availability ................................................................. 1-6
1-3.2.2.2 Cost ....................................................................... 1-6
1-3.2.2.3 Handling ................................................................... 1-6
1-3.2.2.4 Storage .................................................................... 1.
1-3.2.2.5 Contamination ............................................................... 1. 7
REFERENCES .............................................................. 1.7
i
AMCP 706-1 23
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)
Paragraph Page
.
CHAPTER 2
POWER TRANSMISSION EQUrPMENT
2-0 LISTOFSYMBOLS .......................................................... 2-1

2-1 GENERAL ................................................................. 2-1
2-2 PUMPS .................................................................... 2-3
2-2.1 GearPumps ................................................................. 2-3
2-2.1.1 External Gear Pumps .......................................................... 2.3
2-2.1.2 Internal Gear Pumps .......................................................... 2-4
2-2.2 VanePumps ................................................................. 2-5
2-2.2.1 Unbalanced Vane Pumps ....................................................... 2.5
2-2.2.2 Balanced Vane Pumps ......................................................... 2.6
2-2.3 PistonPumps ................................................................ 2-6
2-2.3.1 Axial-pistonPumps ........................................................... 2-6
2-2.3.2 Radial-piston Pumps .......................................................... 2.7
2-2.3.3 Rotating Piston Pumps ....................................................... -2-7
2-2.4 ScrewPumps ................................................................ 2-8
2-2.5 BellowsPumps ............................................................... 2-8
2-2.6 Diaphragm Pumps ............................................................ 2-8
2-2.7 Connection Between Pump and Drive Motor ........................................ 2.9
2-3 ACTUATORS ............................................................... 2-9
2-3.1 Linear Actuators ............................................................. 2.9
2-3.1.1 Classification of Linear Actuators ................................................ 2.9
2-3.1.2 MountingConfiguration ....................................................... 2-11
2-3.1.3 Kinematics of Linear Actuators .................................................. 2.11
2-3.2 Rotary Actuators or Motors .................................................... 2.14
2-3.2.1 GearMotors ................................................................. 2-14
2-3.2.2 VaneMotors ................................................................ 2-15
2-3.2.3 Limited-rotation Motors ...................................................... -2-15
2-3.2.4 Piston Motors ............................................................... 2. 16
2-3.3 Fluid Transmissions ...........................................................2. 17
2-4 INTENSIFIERS .............................................................. 2-17
2-5 RESERVOIRS ............................................................... 2-18
2-5.1 Function ................................................................... 2-18
2-5.2 Capacity ................................................................... 2-18
2-5.3 Design ..................................................................... 2-18
2-6 FILTERS ................................................................... 2-19
2-6.1 Classification of Filters ........................................................ 2.19
2-6.2 FilteringMethods ............................................................ 2-19
2-6.2.1 Mechanical Filters ............................................................ 2.19
2-6.2.2 Adsorbent Filters ............................................................ 2.20
2-6.2.3 Absorbent Filters ............................................................. 2-20
2-6.3 Hydraulic Fluid-Mter Compatibility .............................................. 2.2 1
2-6.4 Filter Pressure Drop ........................................................... 2.2 1
2-6.5 Replacement or Cleaning Intervals ................................................ 2.21
2-7 ACCUMULATORS ........................................................... 2-21
2-7.1 Accumulator Loading ......................................................... 2-21
2-7.1.1 Weight-loaded Accumulators .................................................... 2.22
2-7.1.2 Spring-loadedAccumulators .................................................... 2.22
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2-7.1.3 Pneumatic-loaded Accumulators .................................................. 2.22

2-7.2 Accumulator Selection Considerations ............................................ 2.23
2-8 VALVES ................................................................... 2.24
2-8.1 Valve Configurations .......................................................... 2.24
2-8.1.1 Sliding-spool Valves ........................................................... 2.24
2-8.1.2 Seatingvalves ............................................................... 2-24
2-8.1.3 Flow-dividing Valves .......................................................... 2.24
2-8.2 ValveTypes ................................................................. 2-24
2-8.2.1 Pressure-control Valves ........................................................ 2.26
2-8.2.2 Directional-control Valves ...................................................... 2.28
2-8.2.3 Volume-control Valves ........................................................ 2.30
2-8.3 ValveActuation .............................................................. 2-31
2-8.3.1 Manual Actuation ............................................................ 2-31
2-8.3.2 SpringActuation ............................................................. 2-31
2-8.3.3 Cam Actuation .............................................................. 2.3 1
2-8.3.4 Solenoid Actuation ....................................................... :...2.3 1
2-8.3.5 PilotFluidActuation .......................................................... 2-32
2-8.3.6 Servomechanism Actuation ..................................................... 2.32
2-8.4 Principles of Valve Analysis ..................................................... 2.32
2-8.5 ValveDesignConsiderations .................................................... 2-33
2-9 HEAT EXCHANGERS ........................................................ 2.3 5
2-9.1 Modes of Heat Transfer ........................................................ 2.35
2-9.1.1 Conduction ................................................................. 2-35
2-9.1.2 Convection ................................................................. 2-35
2-9.1.3 Radiation ................................................................... 2-36
2-9.1.4 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ................................................ 2.36
2-9.2 Types of Cooling Systems ...................................................... 2.36
2-9.2.1 Air.cooledHeatExchangers ..................................................... 2.37
2-9.2.2 Water-cooled Heat Exchangers ................................................... 2.37
2-10 HYDRAULICPIPING ......................................................... 2-38
2-10.1 HydraulicLineSize ........................................................... 2-38
2-10.1.1 Pressure Drop ............................................................... 2-38
2-10.1.2 Pressure Surges .............................................................. 2-39
2-10.1.3 PipeandTubingSizes ......................................................... 2-39
2-10.2 Hose, Tubing, and Pipe Fittings .................................................. 2.39
2-11 SHOCKABSORBERS ......................................................... 2-39
2-11.1 Hydraulic Shock Absorbers ............................................... ..... 2.40
2-11.2 Hydropneumatic Shock Absorbers ............................................... 2.4 1
2-11.3 Hydraulic Fluid Properties Pertinent to Shock Absorbers ............................. 244
2-12 LIQrnDSPRINGS ............................................................ 2-44
REFERENCES .............................................................. 2-44
CHAPTER 3
FLUID PROPERTIES. SIGNIFICANCE. AND TEST METHODS
3-0 LIST OF SYMBOLS .......................................................... 3. 1

3-1 GENERAL ................................................................. 3.1
iii
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3-2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ...................................................... 3-2

3-2.1 Viscosity .................................................................. 3-2
3-2.1.1 Absolute Viscosity ........................................................... 3.2
3-2.1.2 KinematicViscosity .......................................................... 3-3
3-2.1.3 Other Viscosity Scales ......................................................... 3.3
3-2.1.4 Viscosity Unit Conversions ..................................................... 3.3
3-2.1.5 Newtonian Fluids ............................................................. 3-4
3-2.1.6 Non-Newtonian Materials ...................................................... 3-4
3-2.1.7 Determination of Viscosity of Non-Newtonian Materials ..............................3.5
3-2.1.8 Turbulent Flow and Reynolds Number ........................................... 3.6
3-2.1.9 Measurement of Viscosity ..................................................... 3.6
3-2.1.10 Significance of Viscosity ...................................................... 3.7
3-2.1.1 1 Test Methods for Viscosity ..................................................... 3.7
3-2.2 Viscosity-temperature Properties ................................................ 3.8
3-2.2.1 ASTM Viscosity-temperature Charts ............................................. 3.9
3-2.2.2 ASTMSlope ................................................................. 3-9
3-2.2.3 Viscosity-temperature Coefficient .............................................. 3.11
3-2.2.4 Viscosity Index ............................................................ 3.11
3-2.2.5 Test Methods for Viscosity-temperature Properties ................................. 3.13
3-2.3 Viscosity of Blends of Two Liquids ............................................. 3.14
3-2.4 Viscosity-pressure Properties .................................................. 3.14
3-2.5 Viscosity-shear Characteristics ................................................. 3.16
3-2.5.1 Temporary Viscosity Loss Due to Shear .......................................... 3.16
3-2.5.2 Permanent Viscosity Loss Due to Shear .......................................... 3.18
3-2.5.3 Test Methods for Viscosity-shear Characteristics ................................... 3.18
3-2.6 Low-temperature Properties ................................................... 3.18
3-2.6.1 CloudPoint ............................................................... 3-20
3-2.6.2 PourPoint ................................................................ 3-20
3-2.6.3 Freezingpoint ............................................................. 3-20
3-2.6.4 Test Methods for Low Temperature Properties .................................... 3.20
3-2.6.5 Significance of Cloud and Pour Points ........................................... 3.22
3-2.7 Flammability Characteristics .................................................. 3.22
3-2.7.1 Flash and Fire Points ........................................................ 3.22
3-2.7.1.1 Test Methods for Flash and Fire Points .......................................... 3.22
3-2.7.1.2 Significance of Flash and Fire Points ............................................ 3.24
3-2.7.2 Flammability Tests Under Simulated Service Conditions ............................. 3.24
3-2.7.3 Effects of Evaporation on Flammability (Pipe Cleaner Test) .......................... 3-27
3-2.7.4 Autoignition Temperature .................................................... 3.27
3-2.7.5 Fire-resistant Liquids ........................................................ 3.28
3-2.8 Volatility ................................................................. 3.28
3-2.8.1 Vaporpressure ............................................................. 3-32
3-2.8.2 BoilingPoint .............................................................. 3-32
3-2.8.3 Evaporation ................................................................ 3-33
3-2.9 Density, Specific Gravity, and Thermal Expansion .................................. 3.35
3-2.9.1 Density ................................................................... 3-35
3-2.9.2 SpecificGravity ............................................................ 3-38
3-2.9.3 APIGravity ............................................................... 340
3-2.9.4 Coefficient of Cubical Expansion ............................................... 3.40
3-2.9.5 Test Methods for Density and Specific Gravity .................................... 3.40
3-2.10 Heat Transfer Characteristics .................................................. 342
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AMCP 706-123
Paragraph
3-2.10.1 SpecificHeat .............................................................. 3-42

3-2.10.2 Thermal Conductivity ....................................................... 3.42
3-2.11 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus .............................................. 3.44
3-2.11.1 Compressibility ............................................................ 3~
3-2.1 1.2 BulkModulus .............................................................. 3-45
3-2.11.2.1 Secant Bulk Modulus ........................................................ 3-45
3-2.1 1.2.2 Tangent Bulk Modulus ....................................................... 3.46
3-2.1 1.3 Sonic Bulk Modulus ......................................................... 3.46
3-2.11.4 Measurement of Bulk Modulus ................................................. 3-47
3-2.11.4.1 Secant and Tangent Bulk Moduli ............................................... 3.47
3-2.1 1.4.2 SonicBulkModulus ......................................................... 3-48
3-2.11.4.3 Estimation of Bulk Modulus (Penn State Method) .................................. 3.49
3-2.1 1.4.4 Estimation of Bulk Modulus (Other Methods) ..................................... 3.51
3-2.12 Emulsions and Foaming in Hydraulic Fluids ...................................... 3.51
3-2.12.1 Emulsion Characteristics ..................................................... 3.5 1
3-2.12.2 Foaming Characteristics ...................................................... 3.52
3-2.12.3 Tests for Emulsion and Foaming Characteristics ................................... 3-52
3-2.13 GasSolubility .............................................................. 3-54
3-2.14 Low-temperature Stability .................................................... 3.55
3-2.14.1 General ................................................................... 3.55
3-2.14.2 Test Methods for Low-temperature Stability ...................................... 3.56
3-2.15 Sedimentation ............................................................. 3.56
3-3 LUBRICATION PROPERTIES ............................................... -3-57
3-3.1 General ................................................................... 3-57
3-3.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication ................................................... 3.57
3-3.3 Transition from Hydrodynamic to Boundary Lubrication ............................ 3.57
3-3.4 Boundary Lubrication ....................................................... 3-58
3-3.5 Extreme Pressure Lubrication ................................................. 3.59
3-3.6 Definition of Terms Used in Describing Lubricating Characteristics ..................... 3.59
3-3.6.1 Filmstrength .............................................................. 3-59
3-3.6.2 Oiliness ................................................................... 3-59
3-3.6.3 Lubricity ................................................................. 3-59
3-3.7 Preventionofwe ar .......................................................... 3-60
3-3.7.1 MechanicalFacto rs .......................................................... 3-60
3-3.7.2 LubricationFactors ......................................................... 3-60
3-3.8 Test Methods for Lubricating Properties ......................................... 3.60
3-3.8.1 Bench-type Friction and Wear Testers ............................................ 3.6 1
3-3.8.1.1 TimkenTester ............................................................. 3-61
3-3.8.1.2 AlmenTester .............................................................. 3.61
3-3.8.1.3 FalexTester ............................................................... 3-61
3-3.8.1.4 Four-ballTester ............................................................ 3-62
3-3.8.1.5 SAETester ................................................................ 3-63
3-3.8.2 Evaluation of Lubricating Properties by Pump Tests ................................ 3.63
3-3.8.2.1 Simulative Recirculating Pump Test ............................................. 3.63
3-3.8.2.2 Pump Loop Wear Test ....................................................... 3.64
3-3.8.3 Other Lubricating Characteristics Tests .......................................... 3.64
3-3.8.3.1 Load-carrying Ability of Lubricating Oils at 400 F ................................. 3.64
3-3.8.3.2 Loadcarrying Capacity of Steam Turbine Oils ...................................... 3.64
V
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3-3.8.3.3 Gear Fatigue Characteristics of Aircraft Gas Turbine
Lubricants at 400" F ......................................................... 3.64
3-3.8.3.4 bad-carrying Ability of Lubricating Oils (Ryder Gear Machine) ....................... 3.64
3-4 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES ................................................... 3.65
3-4.1 Chemicalstability .......................................................... 3-65
3-4.2 OxidationStability .......................................................... 3-65
3-4.3 Thermalstability ........................................................... 3 ~ 6
3-4.4. Hydrolytic Stability ......................................................... 3.67
3-4.5 Radiation Resistance ........................................................ 3.68
3-4.6 Chemical Stability Tests ...................................................... 3.69
3-4.6.1 Indicators of Liquid Stability .................................................. 3.70
3-4.6.1.1 Color .................................................................... 3. 70
3-4.6.1.2 Neutralization Number ....................................................... 3.70
3-4.6.1.3 CarbonResidue ............................................................ 3-71
3-4.6.2 Oxidation Stability Tests ..................................................... 3.72
3-4.6.2.1 Oxidation-corrosion Test ..................................................... 3.72
3-4.6.2.2 Steam Turbine Oxidation Test ................................................. 3.72
3-4.6.2.3 Evaporation Tests ........................................................... 3.73
3-4.6.2.4 Thin Film Oxidation Tests .................................................... 3.73
3-4.6.2.5 Dornte Oxidation Test ....................................................... 3.73
3-4.6.3 Thermal Stability Tests ...................................................... 3.73
3-4.6.3.1 Perm State Bomb Test ....................................................... 3.73
3-4.6.3.2 High-temperature Test ....................................................... 3.73
3-4.6.3.3 Sustained High-temperature Stability Tests ....................................... 3.73
3-4.6.3.4 Low-temperature Stability Test ................................................ 3.74
3-4.6.4 Hydrolytic Stability Tests .................................................... 3.74
3-4.6.4.1 Beverage Bottle Test ......................................................... 3.74
3-4.6.4.2 Other Hydrolytic Stability Tests ................................................ 3.74
3-4.6.5 Radiation Resistance Tests .................................................... 3.74
3-5 CORROSIVENESS ......................................................... 3-75
3-5.1 Chemical Corrosion ......................................................... 3.75
3-5.2 Electrochemical Corrosion .................................................... 3.75
3-5.3 Corrosiveness Tests .......................................................... 3.76
3-5.3.1 Metal-liquid Corrosiveness Tests ................................................ 3.76
3-5.3.2 Humidity-type Corrosiveness Tests .............................................. 3.76
3-5.3.3 Gear-box and Engine Corrosiveness Tests ......................................... 3.79
3-6 COMPATIBILITY .......................................................... 3-79
3-6.1 Hydraulic Fluid Compatibility With Metals ....................................... 3.80
3-6.1.1 MetalFatigue .............................................................. 3.81
3-6.1.2 Cavitation ................................................................. 3-81
3-6.2 Elastomers ................................................................ 3-83
3-6.2.1 Basic Elastomer Materials ..................................................... 3.85
3-6.2.2 Effect of bdiation on Elastomers, Plastics, and Resins .............................. 3.87
3-6.2.3 Test Methods for Elastomer-liquid Compatibility ................................... 3.92
3-6.3 Compatibility With Coatings ................................................... 3.93
3-6.3.1 Compatibility With Paints ................... . ................................. 3.93
3-6.3.2 Compatibility With Other Coatings .............................................. 3.93
3-6.4 Compatibility With Other Lubricants ............................................ 3.93
3-6.5 Compatibility With Additives .................................................. 3.96
REFERENCES ............................................................. 3-96
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CHAPTER 4
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
41 GENERAL ................................................................ 4-1

4-2 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS .................................... 4.1
42.1 Classification by Physical Properties ............................................. 4.1
42.2 Classification by Chemical Properties ............................................ 4-1
42.3 Classification by Operating Characteristics ........................................ 4.2
42.4 Classification by Fire Resistance ............................................... 4.2
42.5 Classification into Petroleum or Nonpetroleum Hydraulic Fluids ....................... 4.2
4-2.6 Classification Used in This Handbook ........................................... 4.3
43 PETROLEUM BASE HYDRAULIC FLUIDS ...................................... 4-3
4-4 NONPETROLEUM BASE HYDRAULIC FLUIDS .................................. 4.3
44.1 PhosphateEsters ........................................................... 4-3
44.2 Silicate Esters .............................................................. 4-5
44.3 Organic Acid Esters ......................................................... 4.5
44.4 Polysiloxanes .............................................................. 4-5
4-4.5 Glycols ................................................................... 4.5
4-4.6 Castoroils ................................................................ 4-6
4-4.7 Polyoxyalkylene Glycols ..................................................... 4.6
4-4.8 WaterGlycols .............................................................. 4-6
44.9 Emulsions ................................................................. 4-7
4-5 NONSPECIFICATION AND POTENTIAL HYDRAULIC FLUIDS ..................... 4.7
4-5.1 Petroleum Base Fluids ....................................................... 4.7
45.2 Nonpetroleum Base Hydraulic Fluids ............................................ 4.7
4-5.2.1 PhosphateEsters ........................................................... 4-7
4-5.2.2 Halogenated Compounds ..................................................... 4.8
45.2.2.1 Polysiloxanes (Silanes) ....................................................... 4.8
45.2.2.2 Hydrocarbons .............................................................. 4-8
4-5.2.2.3 Perfluorinated Polymers ...................................................... 4.9
45.2.3 PolyphenylEthers .......................................................... 4-9
45.2.4 Heterocyclic Compounds ..................................................... 4.9
4-5.2.5 Phosphonitrilates ........................................................... 4-9
45.2.6 LiquidMetals .............................................................. 4-9
46 HYDRAULIC FLUID AND LUBRICANT SPECIFICATIONS ........................ 4. 10
47 VISCOSITY-TEMPERATUREGRAPHS ......................................... 4.55
CHAPTER 5
ADDITIVES
5- 1 GENERAL ................................................................ 5-1

5-2 OXIDATION INHIBITORS ................................................... 5. 1
5-2.1 Mode of Action of Antioxidants ............................................... 5.1
5-2.2 Classes of Antioxidants and Synergism ........................................... 5.2
5-2.2.1 Metal Deactivators .......................................................... 5.2
5-2.2.2 Free Radical Acceptors ...................................................... 5.2
5-2.2.3 Hydroperoxide Destroyers .................................................... 5.2
5-2.2.4 Synergism ................................................................. 5-2
5-2.3 Examples of the Use of Inhibitors in Various Fluid Lubricants ........................ 5.2
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5-2.3.1 Esters .................................................................... 5.2
5-2.3.2 Highly Refined Mineral Oils ..................................................... 5.3
5-2.3.3 Silicon-containingFluids ..................................................... 5.3
5-2.3.4 Ethers .................................................................... 5-3
5-3 CORROSIONINHIBITORS ................................................... 5-4
5-3.1 Definitions ................................................................ 5-4
5-3.2 Mode of Action of Rust Inhibitors .............................................. 5.4
5-3.3 Limitations in the Use of Rust Inhibitors ......................................... 5.4
5-3.4 Examples of Rust and Corrosion Inhibitors ....................................... 5.5
5-3.5 Volatile Corrosion Inhibitors .................................................. 5.5
5-4 VISCOSITY INDEX IMPROVERS ............................................. 5.6
5-4.1 ModeofAction ............................................................ 5-6
5-4.2 Limitations ................................................................ 5-6
5-4.3 Examples of Effective Polymers ................................................ 5.6
5-5 FOAM INHIBITORS, EMULSIFIERS, AND DEMULSIFIERS ........................ 5.7
5-5.1 Characteristics of Foams and the Mode of Foam Inhibition ........................... 5.7
5-5.2 Examples of Foam Inhibitors .................................................. 5.7
5-5.3 Emulsifiers and Demulsifiers .................................................. 5.8
5.6 . LUBRICITY ............................................................... 5-8
5-6.1 Hydrodynamic vs Boundary Lubrication ......................................... 5.8
5-6.2 Oiliness, Antiwear, and Extreme-pressure Additives ................................. 5.8
5-6.2.1 Oiliness Additives ........................................................... 5.8
5-6.2.2 Antiwear Additives .......................................................... 5-9
5-6.2.3 Extreme-pressure Additives ................................................... 5.9
5-6.3 Classes of Lubricity Additives ................................................. 5.9
5-6.3.1 Additives for Mineral Oils and Esters ............................................ 5.9
5-6.3.2 Additives for Silicon-containingFluids ........................................... 5.9
5-6.3.3 Additives for Aryl Ether Fluids ................................................ 5.10
5-7 POUR POINT DEPRESSANTS ................................................ 5.10
5-8 SEAL DEGRADATION RETARDANTS ......................................... 5.10
5-9 HYDROLYTIC INHIBITORS ................................................. 5.10
5-10 CAVITATION INHIBITORS .................................................. 5.11
5-11 BIOCIDES ................................................................ 5-11
REFERENCES ............................................................. 5-11
CHAPTER 6
STORAGEAND HANDLING
6- 1 CONTAINERS ............................................................. 6-1
6-1.1 General ................................................................... 6-1
6- 1.2 ContainerMaterials ......................................................... 6-1
6-1.3 Container Sizes, Storage, and Marking ........................................... 6.1
6-2 CONTAMINANTS .......................................................... 6-3
6-2.1 Sources of Contamination .................................................... 6.3
6-2.1.1 Contamination from Lint and Dust ............................................. 6.3
6-2.1.2 Moisture Contamination During Storage ......................................... 6.3
6-2.1.3 Contamination Accompanying Additives ......................................... 6.3
6t2.2 Types of Contaminants ...................................................... 6.5
6-2.2.1 Water As a Contaminant ...................................................... 6.5
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AMCP 706-123
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6-2.2.2 Solid Contaminant Particles ................................................... 6.6

6-2.2.3 Liquid Contaminants Other Than Water .......................................... 6.6
6-2.2.4 Microbiological Contaminants ................................................. 6.7
6-2.3 Effects of Contamination ..................................................... 6.8
6-2.3.1 Effects of Contamination on the Hydraulic Fluid .................................. 6.8
6-2.3.2 Effects of Contamination on the Hydraulic System ................................. 6.8
6-2.4 Methods of Determining Contamination ......................................... 6.9
6-2.4.1 Solid Particle Contamination Measurement by Counting ............................. 6.9
6-2.4.2 Solid Particle Contamination Measurement by Weighing ............................. 6. 10
6-2.4.3 Solid Particle Contamination Measurement by Combined Counting
and Weighmg Methods ....................................................... 6. 10
6-2.4.4 Liquid Contaminant Measurement .............................................. 6.10
6-3 PRECAUTIONS ............................................................ 6-11
6-3.1 HedthHazard ............................................................. 6-11
6-3.1.1 Precautions Against Poisoning ................................................. 6.11
6-3.1.2 Precautions Against Dangerous Vapors and Sprays .................................. 6.12
6-3.2 Danger of Explosion and Fire .................................................. 6.12
6-3.3 Other Precautions ........................................................... 6.12
REFERENCES ............................................................. 6. 12
GLOSSARY ............................................................... G-1
INDEX ................................................................... 1-1
AMCP 706-123
CHAPTER 2
POWER TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT
2-0 LIST OF SYMBOLS s = specific gravity of liquid

Ta = ambient temperature
A = cross-sectional area or area of a Ti = final ambient temperature after
radiating surface, ft2 a pressure or volume change
D = diameter, in. U = liquid velocity, fps; or overall
De = equivalent diameter, in. heat transfer coefficient,
F = force, lb; or in heat transfer, a Btu/(hr)(f(DF)
. 3
dimensionless factor which V = volume, ft , i n , or cm
accounts for the geometric V i = final gas valume
orientation of surfaces and Z i = compressibility factor of gas,
their emittances dimensionless
f = coefficient of friction, or Zi = final compressibility factor of
friction factor gas, dimensionless
G = flow rate, gpm A P = change in pressure, psi
h = convective fiim cgeffcient, A T = temperature difference, O F
Btu/(hr)(ft?("F) A T,,t,l = total temperature difference

K = friction loss coefficient across which heat is being
k = thermal conductivity, transferred, O F
Btu/(hr)(ft2)('F/ft) q = decimal operating efficiency

L = damping length or length of a v = Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
pipeline, ft 0.17 14 x l0-*Btu/(hr)(ft2)("@
Le = equivalent length of a pipeline, ft
1 = thickness of a material, ft Note: Where more than one set of units have been
N = number of pound moles
specified, or no units specified, a consistent set of units
P = pressure, psi or mm Hg must be used.
Pf= liquid pressure, psi
Pg = gas pressure, psi
P i = final accumulator pressure after 2- 1 GENERAL
a pressure or volume change,psi
Q = volumetric flow rate, gpm; or The preceding chapter pointed out that the hydraulic
rate of heat flow, B t u h fluid performs a basic function in a hydraulic power or
Qp = increase in thermal energy due control system and must satisfy numerous require-
to pumping, B t u h ments to perform adequately in a given circuit. Fur-
Q - increase in thermal energy due thermore, the hydraulic fluid influences the operation
1-
to friction in a valve, Btu/hr of the system components and they, in turn, affect the
R = universal gas constant, 10.72 performance of the hydraulic fluid. Hence, the compo-
psia-ft3PR-lb mole nents of a system cannot be designed or specified in-
R = degrees Rankine (DF+460) dependently of the hydraulic fluid, nor can the hydrau-
Rn = thermal resistance of system lic fluid be selected independently of the component
component n, hr-"F/Btu design.The hydraulic circuit, involvingbothmechanical
2-1
AMCP 706-123
~~ ~ ~ ~~
The pressure regulator (d) and the relief valve (g) pro-
vide pressure control. A fluid reservoir (b) serves both
for storage and as a system vent location. Less obvious
is the hydraulic fluid without which the system could
not perform a single useful function.
The design of a hydraulic system encompasses many
factors. Given a particular power transmission or con-
trol problem, the designer must first determine what
type of components will accomplish the desired objec-
tive. A conceptual layout of the system is then followed
by engineering analysis to determine the necessary size,
configuration, and details of the hardware. Suitable
materials must be selected for component construction,
and engineering drawings must be prepared. Underly-
ing each of these steps is the nebulous factor commonly
referred to as good engineering practice. This entails a
knowledge, usually acquired through experience, of the
features which constitute good design practice, i.e.,
those factors which cannot be readily subjected to pre-
cise mathematical and engineering analysis.
The equations with which the designer constructs a
r-1 mathematical model of a hydraulic system are, in gen-
d ' I eral, nonlinear differential equations, frequently of sec-
dl
ond or higher order. Such equations usually require
c numerical solutions and, hence, digital and analog
f computers have become valuable aids in the design of
LLI hydraulic systems. A thorough engineering analysis be-
C I gins with the specification of certain parameters which
the system must satisfy-such as force or load require-
ments, stability, speed of response, accuracy, and reso-
a lution. The mathematical model is then manipulated
until the desired specifications are met on paper. The
resulting information can be used in system specifica-
tion and fabrication.
However, a detailed computer solution of the equa-
tions which describe the system does not always result
b in a design which performs as predicted by the analysis.
Fig. 21. Rotary Motor Circuit Which Produces Constant
It is frequently possible, using the appropriate approxi-
Torque [Shown are: (a) hydraulic pump and
mations and sound engineering practice, to design a
drive motor, (b) reservoir and strainer,
system based upon hand computations which will per-
(c) manually operated control valve, (d) pres-
form as well as, or better than, one based upon a de-
sure regulator valve, (e) check valve, (f) hy-
tailed computer analysis. Usually, it is desirable to use
draulic motor, and (g) pressure relief valve]-
a preliminary hand-calculated analysis to optimize a
The circuit of Fig. 2-1 contains all six of the basic subsequent, more detailed computer analysis. Math-
components mentioned in Chapter 1. The pump (a), ematical techniques in the form of computer programs
driven by an electric motor, serves as the source of fluid are now available, which facilitate detailed analysis by
energy. The fixed-displacement hydraulic motor ( f ) relieving the designer of the necessity of developing
converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. Hy- routines for the solution of complex nonlinear equa-
draulic piping is provided between the system compo- tions.
nents. Directional controls are provided by the manu- Merritt (Ref. 4) distinguishes between two types of
ally actuated control valve (c) and the check valve (e). parameters involved in hydraulic system design. A
2-2
AMCP 706-123
hard parameter is defined as a physical quantity which 2-2.1.1 External Gear Pumps
can be measured with good precision and which re-
mains essentially constant. A soft parameter, on the In external gear pumps, two or more gears mesh with
other hand, is a quantity which is difficult to measure minimum clearance. The gear motion generates a suc-
or compute and, for a given system, can be determined tion at the inlet, which causes fluid to be drawn into the
only within a range of values. The most important pump housing. The liquid is drawn through the pump
design features of a system should be based upon hard and is displaced as the teeth mesh on the outlet side.
parameters, if possible. Merritt points out that an im- (I) Spur gear pumps: A spur gear rotary hydraulic
portant part of sound engineering design practice is the pump is illustrated in Fig. 2-2. The two gears rotate in
ability to distinguish between hard and soft parameters. opposite directions and transfer liquid from the inlet to
the outlet through the volume between the teeth and
the housing. The output depends on tooth width and
2-2 PUMPS depth, and is largest for a minimum number of teeth.
Involute teeth with a pressure angle of 20-30 deg are
A hydraulic pump is a device used to impart motion common in spur gear pumps. However, progressive-
to a liquid and thereby convert mechanical energy to contact and edge-contact gears are sometimes used to
hydraulic energy. It provides the force required to avoid the severe loads generated by liquid trapped be-
transmit power. Pumps are rated in terms of flow and tween the contact points of the meshed involute teeth.
pressure. The flow rating (volumetric output) is the
amount of liquid which can be delivered by the pump
per unit time at a specified speed. A pump does not
produce pressure. The pressure developed at the outlet
depends on the resistance to flow in the circuit.
Pumps are classified according to configuration or
operating characteristics. One obvious classification is
that of rotary or reciprocating pumps. Rotary pumps
utilize a rotating assembly to transfer the fluid from the
inlet to the outlet andtoimpart motion. Rotary pumps
can be further classified as gear, vane, or rotating piston
pumps. Reciprocating pumps employ a plunger or pis-
ton to impart motion to the fluid.
Pumps can also be classified as positive- or non-
positive-displacement devices. Positive-displacement
pumps move a definite amount of fluid during each
stroke or revolution. They are most frequently used in
hydraulic systems. Nonpositive-displacement, or hy-
drodynamic, pumps provide continuous flow. They are
primarily low-pressure devices with high volumetric
output.
Positive-displacement pumps can be of either fixed Fig. 2-2. Spur Gear Rotary Hydraulic Pump
or variable displacement. The output of a fixed-dis-
placement pump is constant at a given pump speed. [From: H. E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control System:*
The output of a variable-displacement pump can be Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons]
changed by adjusting the geometry of the displacement
chamber. The spur gear pump is a fixed-displacement pump.
Output at a given speed decreases slightly with pres-
sure. Typical operating characteristics are shown in
2-2.1 GEAR PUMPS Fig. 2-3. These curves are for a spur gear pump operat-
ing with a liquid of constant viscosity. This viscosity
Gear pumps are the most widely used pumps for effect illustrates one of the ways in which the liquid
hydraulic systems. They are available in a wide range influences the specification of system components.
of flow and pressure ratings. The drive and gears are
*Superscript numbers refer to References at the end of each
the only moving parts. chapter.
2-3
AMCP 706-123 LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
of both gears. The contact point of the gear teeth forms
100 50 a seal, as does the small tip clearance at the crescent.
This pump is generally used for low output applications
at pressures below 1,OOO psi.
a0 40
U
W
rn ZZ
>= 60 30 0
a
I- W
V
'
v)
n
8 ::
40 20
20 10
-CRESCENT
0
0 60 120 180 240 300
DISCHARGE PRESSURE, psi
Fig. 2-4. Crescent Seal Internal Gear Hydraulic
Fig. 2-3. Typical Operating Characteristic Curves Pump [Shown are: crescent C, gear teeth
for a Spur Gear Rotary Hydraulic Pump T, and drive gear G I
2
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics . [Erom: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics?
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
( 2 ) Helical gear pumps: A variation of the external ( 2 ) Gerotor pumps: The gerotor pump consists of a
gear spur gear pump is the helical gear pump. The fact pair of gears which are always in sliding contact (Fig.
that several teeth are engaged simultaneously allows 2-5). The larger internal gear has one more tooth than
the helical gear pump to carry larger loads at high the external gear. Both gears rotate in the same direc-
speeds than can the spur gear pump. Operation is simi- tion. Liquid is drawn into the chamber where the teeth
lar to that of the spur gear pump, but with less noise are separating, and is ejected when the teeth again start
and usually smaller flow pulsations. Because of the to mesh. The seal is provided by the sliding contact.
helical gear configuration, end thrusts are developed by Gerotor pumps are restricted to low-pressure opera-
helical gears. These forces act in opposite directions on tion because of the loads generated by the hydraulic
the drive and driven gears. unbalance.
( 3 ) Herringbone gear pumps: Another variation of OUTER
the external gear pump incorporates herringbone gears.
Like all gear pumps, the herringbone device is a con-
stant displacement pump. It is generally available for
pressures up to about 2,000 psi but some models are
rated at over 3,000 psi.
2-2.1.2 Internal Gear Pumps
There are two types of internal gear pum.ps: the cres-

cent seal pump and the geroter pump.
(1) Crescent seal pumps: The crescent seal pump DECREASING INCREASING
consists of an inner and outer gear separated by a cres- POCKETS POCKETS
cent-shaped seal (Fig. 2-4). The gears rotate the same
direction, with the inner gear rotating at a higher speed. Fig. 2-5. Gerotor Internal Gear Hydraulic Pump
The liquid is drawn into the pump at the point where 2
the gear teeth begin to separate and is carried to the [From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics.
outlet in the space between the crescent and the teeth Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
24
AMCP 706-123
2-2.2 VANE PUMPS 2-2.2.1 Unbalanced Vane Pumps
Vane pumps consist of a rotor mounted in a cam- In the unbalanced vane pump, the rotor and cam
shaped housing. The rotor is provided with radial slots housing are eccentric (Fig. 2-7). The pump suction is
which accommodate vanes. As the internal assembly generated in the region where the vanes begin to move
rotates, the vanes are forced radially outward against outward. The liquid is carried around the rotor by the
the housing by centrifugal force sometimes assisted by vanes, which form a seal with the housing and the end
springs. Vane pumps can operate at speeds up to 2,000 plates, and it is discharged as the vanes are forced back
rpm and are available in pressure ratings to 2,500 psi. into the rotor slots by the eccentric housing.
Their simple construction results in a high degree of
re!iability and easy maintenance. They are relatively
low in cost and exhibit long operating life partially due
to the fact that vane wear is accommodated by the
-Vanes
radial motion of the vanes. They have comparatively
high volumetric and overall efficiencies, and are availa-
ble in a wide range of output ratings. Typical operating
characteristic curves of a vane pump are shown in
Fig. 2-6. LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
I Fig. 2-7. Unbalanced Vane Hydraulic Pump

[From: H. E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control Systems4
c
-n
5' Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons]
,or
Ei Unbalanced vane pumps can be either fixed- or vari-
3+ able-displacement pumps. In the fixed-displacement
=a pump the rotor-housing eccentricity is constant and,
n5
hence, the displacement volume is fixed. A constant
volume of fluid is discharged during each revolution of
400 800 1
Pressure (psi)
the rotor. Variable displacement can be provided if the
housing can be moved with respect to the rotor. This
movement changes the eccentricity and, therefore, the
Fig. 2-6. Typical Operating Characteristic Curves for displacement.
a Vane Hydraulic Pump In addition to sliding vanes, rolling vanes and
swinging vanes are also available in unbalanced vane
[From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by pumps (Fig. 2-8). Each of these variations is hydro-
permission of Penton Publishing Co.] statically unbalanced. This unbalance causes high bearing
Operating limitations of vane pumps are imposed by

vane tip speed, bearing loads, and cavitation. The force
exerted by the vanes against the housing can be con-
trolled by using dual vanes, i.e., two vanes in each slot.
Each of the dual vanes has a smaller contact area than
a single vane. The dual vane design also provides a
better seal between the vanes and the housing.
Vane pumps exhibit a good tolerance to liquid con-
tamination. They are generally used with petroleum- ( A) (B)
base or Military Specification hydraulic fluids in mo- Fig. 2-8. Vane-type Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
bile operations and with petroleum or fire-resistant (A) Rolling Vane, and (B) Swinging Vane
hydraulic fluids in stationary applications. Discharge
4
pulsations can sometimes constitute a problem if high [From: H. E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control Systems.
response is desired. Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons]
2-5
AMCP 706-123
loads and generally limits the application of unbalanced

DISCHARGE
vane pumps to operating pressures less than about 1,500 PORT
psi (Ref. 4).
2-2.2.2 Balanced Vane Pumps
Hydraulic balance is achieved in the balanced vane
pump in which the rotor is in an elliptic housing (Fig.
2-9). This configuration creates two diametrically-
opposed displacement volumes. The two high-pressure
zones balance the forces on the rotor shaft. In many PORT A;;$; RGE
such units no springs are provided to assist the outward A1
VANE BI
motion of the vanes. This condition restricts operation
to speeds above a minimum at which the centrifugal Fig. 2-9. Balanced Vane Hydraulic Pump
force is sufficient to hold the vanes against the housing.
Other designs utilize sprinp for start-up and low-speed
operation. Balanced vane pumps are necessarily fured- 2-2.3.1 Axial-piston Pumps
displacement machines.
In the axial-piston pump, rotary shaft motion is con-
2-2.3 PISTON PUMPS verted to axial reciprocating motion which drives the
The applications for which the piston pump is well- piston. Most axial-piston pumps are multi-piston de-
suited are determined by its two principal advantages- signs and utilize check valves or port plates to direct
high-pressure capability and high volumetric eff- liquid flow from inlet to discharge. Output can be con-
ciency. In addition, the piston pump can operate at trolled by manual, mechanical, or pressure-compen-
speeds over 2,000 rpm; is available in a wide range of sated controls. An axial-piston pump is shown in Fig.
output ratings; and provides a compact, lightweight 2-10. Rotary drive motion is converted to reciprocat-
unit for high power applications, low noise level when ing, axial piston motion by means of the thrust cam, or
flow path is linear, and better system economy in the wobble plate, mounted on the drive shaft. Variable-
higher power ranges (above 20 hp). displacement volume is provided by the internal valv-
Piston pumps are classified by the motion of the ing arrangement. Axial-piston pumps are available
piston relative to the drive shaft. There are three with output ratings of over 100 gpm, and some types
categories-axial, radial, or rotating. are rated at pressures above 5,000 psi.
INLET OR OUTLET PORT BARREL PISTON KEFPER PLATE
THRUST CAM
WIPER SEAL
HAFT BEARING
\
INLET OR OUTLET POkT BARREL BEARING
Fig. 2-10. Axial-piston Hydraulic Pump

[From: H. E. Memt, HydmuZic ControZSystems? Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons.]
2-6
AMCP 706-123
2-2.3.2 Radial-piston Pumps Pumps of this type operate at high speeds, ranging from
about 7,000 rpm for a 35-gpm unit to nearly 20,000
In a radial-piston pump, the pistons move perpen- rpm for pumps with 2- to 8-gpm output ratings (Ref.
dicularly to the shaft centerline. Two basic types of 1). One advantage of the spherical-piston pump is a
radial-piston pumps are available. One uses cylindrical- relatively high power-to-weight ratio.
shaped pistons and the other uses spherical-shaped pis-
-1. Pintle
tons. In the pump shown in Fig. 2-1 1, the pistons move Cylinder block
in a rotating cylinder block and are forced outward by Stroking ring
centrifugal force. In Fig. 2-1 1, only one piston is
shown (in four positions); however, most pumps are I -XI
multi-piston.
Cylinder
CYLINDER BLOCK Boil
Fig. 2-12. Radial-pistonHydraulic Pump With Spher-

ical Pistons
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems'.
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
SLIDE BLOCK 2-2.3.3 Rotating Piston Pumps

CONTROL
Fig. 2-11. Radial-piston Hydraulic Pump With Ro- The rotating piston pump (sometimes called the ro-
tating Piston Housing [One piston is shown tary abutment pump) has three parallel synchronous
at four positions-A, B, C, and D] shafts (Fig. 2-13). Piston rotors are mounted on the
outside shafts and seal dynamically against the cylin-
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics? drical housing. The rotor mounted on the center shaft
forms an abutment valve. The rims of the piston rotors
pass through a bucket cut in the center rotor. Except
A radial-piston pump which employs spherical pis- when the rim is meshed with the abutment valve, a
tons is shown in Fig. 2-12. The pistons move radially rolling-contact seal is maintained between the rotors.
in a rotating cylinder block. They are forced against the Liquid is drawn'into the right cylinder shown in Fig.
eccentric housing by centrifugal force. Liquid porting 2-13, pumped through to the left cylinder, and dis-
is achieved by means of a pintle. The displacement can charged by the left piston. Pumps of this type are avail-
be varied by changing the eccentricity of the housing. able with ratings to over 150 gpm at 1,500 psi.
Fig. 2-13. Rotating Piston Hydraulic Pump [Shown are two rotating pistons F!, and &., and rotating abutment V.]
[From: H. E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control Sy.stem?. Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons]
2-7
AMCP 706-123
2-2.4 SCREW PUMPS materials. Bellows pumps also are very effective pumps
for liquids that are contaminated with solid particle
A screw pump is an axial-flow gear pump. Fig. 2-14 material, and for abrasive slurries. There are no small
shows a two-rotor screw pump with helical gears. Liq- clearance areas for the particles to damage or close.
uid is introduced at the two ends and discharged at the
center. The seal is formed by the contact of the two
gears at the intersection of their addenda and by the
small clearance between the gears and the pump hous-
ing. In pumps employing double helical gears, as shown I-
in Fig. 2-14, the thrust loads are balanced. This design
is frequently employed in large pumps. Screw pumps ds
1 - 1
l I
are especially applicable where quiet operation is essen-

tial. In screw pumps, the gears must be in contact at the BELLOWS-
intersection of their addenda. This contact plus the
minimum clearance at the outside diameter of the
gears, provides a series of sealed chambers along the
length of the screws. Screw pumps can also be arranged
with three rotors. The center gear is the driver, and no LIQUID LIQUID
timing gears are necessary.
Fig. 2-15. Typical Bellows Pump
TOP VIEW
- DISCHARGE - 2-2.6 DIAPHRAGM PUMPS
A sketch of a typical diaphragm pump is shown in

Fig. 2-16. The diaphragm is a flexible disk attached
about its circumference to the pump housing. The ac-
tuator moves the diaphragm in a reciprocating motion
INTAKE which proviclis the pumping action. Diaphragms can
be flexible sheets of metal or elastic nonmetals. Liquid
Fig. 2-14. Two-rotor Screw Hydraulic Pump With
flow is controlled by check valves at the inlet and outlet
Helical Gears
ports. Diaphragm pumps are primarily low pressure,
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydruulic?. pulsating flow pumps and are not often used for hy-
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] draulic power sources. Diaphragm pumps are occa-
sionally used as hydraulic power sources where a
remote pump is required-such as in high-temperature
2-2.5 BELLOWS PUMPS or corrosive environments. The valve head, containing
the inlet and outlet valves, can be located in the hostile
A sketch of a typical bellows pump is shown in Fig.
2-15. The bellows is constructed of thin flexible metals environment and the diaphragm unit located in a
or elastic nonmetals. Compression of the bellows by the remote place. One of the most common uses of dia-
actuator provides the pumping action. Liquid flow is phragm pumps is the fuel pump on automobiles.
controlled by check valves at the inlet and outlet ports. Diaphragm pump advantages include simple con-
Bellows pumps are not generally used in hydraulic sys- struction, no lubrication problems, ,high volumetric ef-
tems and find only limited applications in other fields.
ficiency, and insensitivity to contamination. Major
One area of application has been the medical field
where they have the advantage of simple construction disadvantages are the low pressures obtainable, pulsat-
and are easily fabricated of inexpensive disposable ing flow, and low flow rates.
2-8
AMCP 706-1 23
2-3.1 LINEAR ACTUATORS

DLAPHRAGM
ACTUATOR A linear actuator or hydraulic cylinder is a fluid
motor that generates linear motion. Various types are
DIAPHRAGM widely used in hydraulic systems because of their high
force capability, ease of speed control, and high power
output for a given size and weight. They are especially
suitable for control systems due to their high mechani-
cal stiffness and speed of response.
2-3.1.1 Classification of Linear Actuators

:D
The many types of linear actuators which are availa-
ble give rise to several criteria for classification.
Fig. 2-16. Typical Diaphragm Pump (1) Rotating or nonrorating: In a rotating actuator
the cylinder, rod, and piston can rotate. In many ap-
plications, such as on rotary machine tools, this
feature is necessary to allow unrestricted motion of
2-2.7 CONNECTION BETWEEN PUMP AND the piston rod. Such an actuator is illustrated in Fig.
DRIVE MOTOR 2-17. In order to permit stationary mounting of the
fluid connections, a rotating seal is required.
The physical connection between the hydraulic
The nonrotating linear actuator, in which the cylin-
pump and its drive motor is not technically a hydraulic
der is not free to rotate, is the most widely used fluid
component. However, it is an important part of the
motor.
hydraulic system, and in many cases, may be the weak-
est link in the power train. There are a number of
methods for coupling the drive motor output shaft to
the hydraulic pump input shaft. Some of the more com-
mon methods are keys and pins, flexible couplings,
universal joints, clutches, and splines. The most fre-
quently used connector in hydraulic systems is the
spline. Fig. 2-17. Rotating Linear Actuator
Splines offer the advantage of being able to transmit [From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems?
the maximum load with the smallest coupling diame-
ter. In addition, they are self-centering, tend to equally
distribute the load, and are simple to manufacture with
standard gear-cutting equipment. Their major disad- (2) Piston or plunger: The piston and rod assembly
vantage is the problem of wear. Even the best designed in a piston-type linear actuator serves to divide the
splines are subject to relative motion of the parts and cylinder volume into two separate chambers. The pis-
are difficult to lubricate. ton and attached sealing devices provide the seal be-
tween the two chambers. The rotating actuator shown
in Fig. 2-17 is a piston actuator.
In a plunger-type there is no piston. The end of the
2-3 ACTUATORS reciprocating rod serves as the working face (see Fig.
2-18). The only seal provided is at the point where the
An actuator is a device for converting hydraulic en- plunger passes through the end of the cylinder. An
ergy to mechanical energy, and thus has a function external force is required to move the plunger into
opposite that of a pump. An actuator, or fluid motor, the cylinder.
can be used to produce linear, rotary, or oscillatory Both types provide a longer stroke and permit the
motion. use of the highest pressure.
2-9
AMCP 706-123
(4) Cylinder action: The type of cylinder action is

important in the specification of linear actuators. An
actuator can be single-acting or double-acting. The sin-
gle-acting type can move the piston rod in only one
direction by the application of hydraulic pressure. A
plunger-type actuator, discussed in subparagraph 2-
3.1.1(2), is a single-acting actuator. In -the double-
acting actuator, liquid pressure can be applied to either
side of the piston, thereby providing a hydraulic force
in both directions (Fig. 2-20). Double-acting actuators
are also shown in Figs. 2-17 and 2-19. Springs, external
forces, or a combination of both can be used to assist
return of the piston rod or plunger.
DOUBLE-ACTING CIRCUIT
(THRUST IN BOTH DIRECTIONS)
Fig. 2-18. Plunger-type Linear Actuator

1
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems.
- PACKED
'GLAND
( 3 ) Rod classification: Linear actuators can also be t
classified as to rod type. A cylinder with one piston rod
is termed a single-rod actuator. The actuators shown in
Figs. 2-17 and 2-18 are single-rod actuators. A double-
Fig. 2-20. Double-acting Linear Actuator
rod actuator has piston rods extending from both ends
2
of the cylinder. A telescoping rod consists of a series of [From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics.
nested rods which provide a long extension (Fig. 2-19). Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
Such rods are useful for applications requiring a long
stroke but with only limited space available for the
unextended rod. A positional rod is used where the ( 5 ) Single, tandem, and dual actuators:Yet another
stroke is split up into two or more portions. The cylin- means of actuator classification is its assembly. Assem-
der can be actuated to any one of the positions. blies of actuators can be designed to obtain various
types of cylinder operation. A tandem actuator is one
in which two or more piston and rod combinations are
assembled as a rigid unit with all pistons mounted on
a single rod. Fig. 2-21 shows a stepped-tandem
actuator-two pistons of different sizes mounted on one
d-
RAISE rod. Such actuators can be designed to obtain, for ex-
+ ample, a low-force, high-speed action followed by a
high-force, low-speed action. Tandem pistons can also
be designed to provide a large working area (and thus
large forces for a given pressure) for a small cylinder
diameter. The piston and rod assemblies of a dual ac-
tuator (Fig. 2-22) are not fastened together as in the
tandem actuator. In most dual actuator designs, a given
LOWER piston acts on another only in one direction. Tandem
Fig. 2-19. Telescoping Linear Actuator and dual actuators are frequently used in hydro-
2
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics. pneumatic systems where air is used as the power source
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] and a hydraulic fluid is used for control.
2-10
AMCP 706-123
ports as the piston nears the end of the stroke (Fig.

2-23). A cushion-plunger attached to the piston enters
a cushion cylinder. This cushion plunger then blocks
the discharge port and traps liquid beneath the piston.
This liquid assists in the deceleration of the piston as
Fig. 2-21. Stepped-tandem Linear Actuator it approaches the cylinder head. A check valve allows
1 fluid to flow back into the cylinder at the start of the
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems.
return stroke. The rate of piston deceleration can be
controlled by designing the cushion plunger with a
proper taper. This taper then permits a gradual closing
of the discharge ports.
2-3.1.2 Mounting Configuration
One of the advantageous features of linear actuators

Fig. 2-22. Dual Linear Actuator is the variety of ways in which they can be mounted in
1
a system. Several mounting arrangements are illus-
[From: E. C. Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems. trated in Fig. 2-24.
2-3.1.3 Kinematics of Linear Actuators
(6) Cushioned or noncushioned type: In noncush- The nature of the force provided by a linear actuator
ioned actuators, no provision is made for controlled depends on the kinematic linkage between the straight-
acceleration or deceleration of the piston assembly. line output of the cylinder and the point at which the
Therefore, such units have speed and inertia limitations force and motion are utilized. Because of the many
imposed at both ends of the stroke. Cushioned actua- alternatives in the design of the linkage, the linear ac-
tors are designed to enable the kinetic energy of the tuator can be used to produce rotary or oscillatory
moving piston to be absorbed at the ends of the stroke motion as well as linear motion. The resultant ver-
and thereby reduce peak pressures and forces. Cushion- satility of linear actuators is partially illustrated by the
ing can be accomplished by blocking the discharge applications shown in Fig. 2-25.
CUSHION
FLUID
INLET AND
OUTLET
\ \
ROD
\
SEAL
\ FLUID
INLET AND
OUTL\ET
ROD
SCRAPER
SECONDARY I I ROO I
POCKET CAPTIVE CYLINDER PACKING
AREA BARREL
Fig. 2-23. Cushioned Double-acting Linear Actuator

2
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics. Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
2-1 1
AMCP 706-123
S IDE FOOT MOUNT CENTERLINE MOUNT
END FOOT MOUNT S IDE FLUSH MOUNT
REAR FLANGE MOUNT FRONT FLANGE MOUNT
SQUARE REAR FLANGE MWNT SQUARE FRONT FLANGE MOUNT
FRONT TRUNNION MOUNT *

CLEVIS MOUNT INTERMED1ATE TRUNNION AVA ILABLE
REAR TRUNNION MOUNT

INTERMEDIATETRUNNION AVAILABLE TIE RODS EXTENDED BOW ENDS
TIE RODS EXTENDED REAR END ONLY TIE RODS EXTENDED FRONT END ONLY
BASIC MOUNl WUBLE-END CONSTRUCTION

AVAILABLE I N ANY MOUNT
Fig. 2-24. Mounting Arrangements for Linear Actuators

3
[From: Stewart and Storer, Fluid Power. Used by permission of Howard W. Sams and Co., Inc.]
2-12
AMCP 706-123
1 s t c l a s s lever 2 n d class lever 3 r d class lever 4 positive

positions w i t h
two cylinders
Toggle S t r a i g h t line S t r a i g h t line Trammel

t h r u s t reduced motion plate
m u l t i p l i e d 2.1
Motion
S t r a i g h t line m o t i o n S t r o i g ht push Horizontal transferred t o
in t w o d i r e c t i o n s parallel motion a distant point
Practically E n.g i ne b a r r i n g Fast rotary

continuous r o t a r y motion using
motion steep screw nut
Fig. 2-25. Applications of Linear Actuators

1
[From: E. C.Fitch, Fluid Power and Control Systems. Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
2-1 3
AMCP 706-1 23 LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
2-3.2 ROTARY ACTUATORS OR MOTORS

25
As in the case of a linear actuator, the function of a 20'ii

rotary actuator, or rotary fluid motor, is to convert Q
m
hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. Rotary mo- l5z
tors are usually rated in terms of the theoretical torque
developed per 100 psi of inlet or differential pressure. 10 --
n
c
'0
The actual running torque and the stalled torque may 5 L
be from 60 to 90 percent of the theoretical torque,
depending on the type of motor. The running volumet- 0- 1 1 I I I I
I ]
0
ric efficiency may vary from about 75 to 95 percent,
again depending on the particular motor. The highest
operating efficiency occurs near the rated torque
I 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Speed ( r p m ) I
and speed. Fig. 2-26. Typical Operating Characteristic Curves
The desirable features of the various types of rotary for a Spur Gear Hydraulic Motor
motors include:
[From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
(1) The ability to suddenly start, stop, and reverse
without motor damage permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
(2) The ability to operate as a pump for braking
(3) A higher horsepower-to-weight ratio than any
other conventional power source (2) Crescent seal motors: The crescent seal motor
(4) An infinitely-variable speed range employs an inner and outer gear with a crescent-shaped
(5) The ability to operate through zero speed for seal separating the teeth during part of the revolution.
overrunning loads Its operational features are the reverse of those of the
(6) The ability to accommodate contaminants in crescent seal pump illustrated in Fig. 2-4. Motor units
the fluid. of this type are suitable for high-speed, low-power oper-
Rotary fluid motors are essentially rotary pumps ations at low-to-moderate pressure. Starting torque and
operating in reverse. The mechanical characteristics of running efficiencies are low. Typical operating curves
a particular rotary motor are nearly identical with for crescent seal motors are shown in Fig. 2-27.
those of the corresponding pump. LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
I I I I I I
2-3.2.1 Gear Motors 150 6 <
Gear motors, like gear pumps, can be classified as

-
0
c
100 4 9
external or internal gear units. Also like gear pumps, Y
they are fixed-displacementdevices. External gear mo- 50 2 z

tors include the gear-on-gear units such as the spur gear -
LL
motor. Internal gear motors include the crescent seal 1 I I I I I I

'0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200
types and the gerotor-type unit.
Speed ( r p m )
(1) Gear-on-gearmotors: In the gear-on-gear motor,
rotary motion is produced by the unbalanced hydraulic -
forces on the gear teeth which are exposed to the inlet Fig. 2-27. Typical Operating Characteristic Curves
pressure. An example is the spur gear motor which has for a Crescent Seal Hydraulic Motor
the same mechanical features as the spur gear pump [From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
shown in Fig. 2-2. These units are applicable for peak permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
operating pressures up to about 1,500 psi and are avail-
able with rated capacities up tu 120 gpm, maximum
speeds of about 3,000 rpm, and power ratings up to ( 3 ) Gerotor-type motors: The gerotor motor (see
approximately 50 hp. Bearing loads generated by the Fig. 2-5 for corresponding pump) is suitable for high-
hydraulic unbalance are high, as in the case with un- speed operation and exhibits relatively high starting-
balanced gear pumps. Typical operating curves for spur torque efficiency. It can be used for operating pressures
gear motors are given in Fig. 2-26. up to about 2,000 psi. Volumetric efficiency is relatively
2-14
AMCP 706-123
LIVE GRAPH
low and leakage rates are high at most speeds. The cost Click here to view
of gerotor motors is relatively high in comparison with
the other gear motors. The operating curves of Fig.
2-28 are typical of the gerotor motor.
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view I
600 24
500 20
-& 400 16
.-
I
-
-0
2)
0
300 12
U
200 8
I-
100 4
0
'
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Speed (rpm)
Fig. 2-29. Typical Operating Characteristic Curves
for a Vane Hydraulic Motor
Fig. 2-28. Typical Operating Characteristic Curves [From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
for a Gerotor Hydraulic Motor permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
2-3.2.3 Limited-rotation Motors
Limited-rotation motors, or rotary actuators, pro-

2-3.2.2 Vane Motors
vide an oscillating power output. A variety of such
units is available, all of which consist of one or more
Most vane motors are of the balanced-rotor type fluid chambers and a movable surface against which
because hydraulic unbalance causes large radial bear- the fluid pressure is applied. Both vane-type and piston-
ing loads which limit the use of unbalanced vane mo- type motors can be used to obtain an oscillatory output.
tors to low pressure operation and applications where (1) Vane type: There are two types of limited-rota-
weight and space considerations do not preclude the tion vane motors, the single-vane and the double-vane.
use of large, heavy bearings. Therefore, most vane mo- The single-vane unit consists of a cylindrical housing,
tors have a mechanical configuration similar to that of a shaft with a single vane, a barrier which limits the
the balanced vane pump shown in Fig. 2-9 and are thus vane rotation, and end pieces which support the shaft
fixed-displacement units. To accommodate starting (Fig. 2-30). High-pressure liquid enters on one side of
and low-speed operation, it is usually necessary to pro- the vane, forcing the vane to rotate to the barrier. A
vide a force-in addition to the centrifugal force-to rotation of approximately 280 deg can be obtained with
move the vane radially outward. Springs are commonly the single-vane unit. In the double-vane unit, the high-
@ for this purpose. pressure fluid enters on one side of a vane and is ported
As with vane pumps, rolling and swinging vanes can through the shaft to the corresponding side of the other
also be used in vane motor design (see Fig. 2-8). The vane (Fig. 2-3 1). A rotation of about 100 deg is possible
overall running effkiencies of vane motors are typically with the double-vane motor. In both the double- and
80 to 85 percent. They are available at rated powers up the single-vane units, seals are maintained between the
to approximately 125 hp, pressure ratings to about 2,- rotor and the barriers and between the vanes and the
500 psi, and maximum speeds of approximately 3,000 housing. Limited-rotation vane motors are available
rpm. Characteristic operating curves of a vane motor with torque outputs ranging from less than 10 in.-lb at
are shown in Fig. 2-29. about 50 psi to nearly 750,000in.-lb at 3,000 psi.
2-1 5
AMCP 706-123
'GUIDE ROD
Fig. 2-32. Helix-spline Rotary Actuator

[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulic?.
Fig. 2-30. Typical Single-vane Actuator Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
"'"\
/ h.-FILLED CHAMBER
Fig. 2-33. Piston-rack Rotary Actuator

[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics?
Fig. 2-31. Typical Double-vane Actuator
2-3.2.4 Piston Motors
[From: Fluid Power Issue; Muchine Design. Used by
permission of Penton Publishing Co.] Piston motors which generate a continuous rotary
output motion (as opposed to linear actuators) can be
classified in terms of the piston motionaxial, radial, or
(2) Piston type: Piston-driven actuators are availa- rotary. They can be fixed- or variable-displacement de-
ble in several configurations designed to produce an vices. They can operate at high pressures and have high
oscillating output. The helix-splineunit employs a shaft volumetric efficiencies. The power-to-weight ratio of
with a helical screw which passes through the piston piston motors is not as favorable as that of gear and
(Fig. 2-32). A guide rod prevents rotation of the piston. vane motors, but piston units are available with power
Rotations of greater than 360 deg are possible. A self- outputs greater than 300 hp. Relative cost per horse-
locking helix angle prevents rotation when an external power is high.
torque is applied. The piston-rack unit consists of two (1) Axial-piston type: The operation of an axial-pis-
or more pistons which provide the rack for a rack-and- ton motor is essentially the same as that of an axial-
pinion system (Fig. 2-33). Many variations of the latter piston pump except for the direction of flow (see Fig.
design are available. 2- 10). The high-pressure liquid introduced through the
2-16
AMCP 706-123
motor inlet forces the piston assembly against the (2) Fixed-displacementpump and variable-displace-
thrust cam or wobble plate. The angular application of ment motor: The pump operates as described in par.
this force causes the plate to rotate and this rotation is 2-3.3(1). The torque of the motor varies inversely with
transmitted by the shaft. The displacement can be var- speed. Motor flow rate is a function of both displace-
ied by changing the angle of the thrust cam. Leakage ment and relief-valve flow. The transmission produces
is low under both running and stalled conditions. constant horsepower and a torque which varies
(2) Radial-piston type: The radial-piston motor is with speed.
also essentially its pump counterpart operating in re- (3) Variable-displacementpump andfixed-displace-
verse (Fig. 2-11). Liquid enters the piston chamber ment motor: The pump pressure and speed are con-
through a central pintle. The piston is forced radially stant, but the torque and horsepower vary. The motor
outward against the thrust ring, thereby producing a pressure and torque are constant while the speed and
force tangent to the piston chamber. The resulting horsepower vary. The resulting transmission has con-
torque causes the shaft to rotate. This motor type ex- stant torque. The horsepower varies with speed.
hibits very high volumetric efficiencies and high (4) Variable-displacement pump and motor: The
torque, and is well-suited for low-speed application be- pump operates as in the preceding case. The motor
cause of the small mass of the rotating parts. torque and speed are inverse functions of the displace-
(3) Rotary-piston type: The rotary-piston motor is ment. The torque and horsepower transmitted by the
the same as the rotary-piston pump except for the flow system can be constant or variable.
direction. The pump was described in par. 2-2.3.3.
Units are available with a rating of up to 300 hp at
2,800 rpm with a maximum torque of over 20,000 in.- 2-4 INTENSIFIERS
lb. Weight and space-to-power ratios are high, and cost
per horsepower is usually high. A liquid intensifier-used only in single cylinder ap-
plications-is a device used to compress the liquid by a
pressure greater than the system pressure generated by
2-3.3 FLUID TRANSMISSIONS the primary pump. This is accomplished by using dif-
ferent piston working areas to boost the pressure. The
A fluid transmission is a device which converts me- increase in pressure obtained in the simple intensifier
chanical power into fluid power, transports this power, shown in Fig. 2-34 is directly related to the area ratio
and then converts it back into mechanical power. of the pistons. The high-pressure piston is attached to
Therefore, the circuit consists of some suitable combi- the same rod as the larger low-pressure piston. When
nation of pump and motor with the necessary piping. the control valve is in the neutral position, the liquid,
The transmission characteristics depend on the pump which is at system pressure, is directed to a reservoir.
and motor combination. The various possible combina- If the left solenoid is actuated, fluid is introduced to the
tions are outlined in the paragraphs which follow. As- rod side of the low-pressure piston and into the cham-
sumptions made are that the pump outlet and motor ber on the downstream side of the high-pressure piston.
inlet pressure are the same; a constant output pressure The piston assembly moves to the right, returning the
is maintained on variable-displacement pumps; and the fluid in the low-pressure chamber to a reservoir. The
pump speed is constant. Fixed-displacement pumps are intensifier is then ready for a working stroke. When the
assumed to have relief valves. right solenoid is energized, fluid is introduced into the
(1) Fixed-displacement pump and motor: The tor- low-pressure chamber. The piston assembly is driven to
que and horsepower of the pump are functions of the the left, compressing the fluid in the high-pressure
pressure but the speed and flow rate are usually con- chamber. Because of the reciprocating pumping action,
stant. Below the relief-valve setting, the motor torque the intensifier produces a pulsating high-pressure flow.
and horsepower vary with pressure while the speed and The high-pressure flow rate is less than the system flow
flow rate are constant. At or above the relief-valve rate by the same ratio as that of system pressure to
pressure, the motor torque is constant, but motor speed boosted pressure.
and flow rate are functions of the volume flow rate In circuits which require high-volume, low-pressure
through the relief valve. The resulting transmission ex- flows-as well as smaller high-pressure flow over short
hibits constant speed with variable torque and horse- periods-the fluid intensifier offers an economic alterna-
power below the relief valve pressure, and constant tive to the necessity of providing two primary power
torque with variable speed and horsepower at sources.The intensifier has several additional advan-
higher pressures. tages. A low power input can be used to maintain a
2-1 7
AMC? 706-1 23
CYLINDER
HIGH
,CYLINDER
LIMIT SWITCH G
%=
L LOW-PRESSURE
PISTON
'(AREA= 10x
THAT OF THE
PRESSURE C I - ~
A
HIGH-PRESSURE
B
PISTON)
5,000
psi
(AREA=O.l THAT
I I
LIMIT SWITCH H
--D
'I
OF LOW PRESSURE
DIRECTIONAL'
CONTROL
VALVE
t
Fig. 2-34. Diagram of a Hydraulic Intensifier Circuit
2
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial HydrauIics . Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
high pressure for a period of time. The high-pressure must be determined. The size and configuration depend
regions of the circuit can be localized, thereby reducing on many factors. The minimum required capacity can
the amount of high-pressure piping and the number of vary from one to three times the volumetric rating of
high-pressure seals required. Because of the seal be- the pump in gallons per minute. The reservoir should
tween the high- and low-pressure chambers, the inten- be sufficiently large to accommodate the liquid neces-
sifier can be operated with a liquid different from that sary to fill all system components if the liquid drains
used in the high-pressure part of the circuit. Since no back to the reservoir. It should have sufficient capacity
heat is generated while static pressure is maintained to maintain a liquid supply at the pump suction at all
and little heat is generated during rapid cycling, only times. Sufficient liquid should be in the system to pre-
small reserves of oil are required. vent the formation of vortices at the pump suction.
Reservoir volume should be provided to allow time for
solid contaminants and gases to separate from the liq-
uid. This factor also depends on both the charac-
2-5 RESERVOIRS teristics of the liquid and filtering system design. Ade-
quate space above the liquid level should be provided
to accommodate thermal expansion of the liquid. If the
2-5.1 FUNCTION reservoir serves as the primary means of dissipating
heat from the liquid, it should be large enough to ac-
Reservoirs not only provide a storage facility for the commodate the required cooling. In some applications,
liquid but can also serve to separate entrained air, the liquid in the reservoir is intermittently used as a
remove contaminants, and dissipate heat from the heat sink. It is then necessary to provide storage for
liquid. Thus, along with heat exchangers and fil- enough liquid to give the desired heat capacity. For
ters, the reservoir is an important liquid-condition- operation in cold environments excessive cooling can
ing component. also be avoided by proper reservoir capacities.
2-5.2 CAPACITY 2-5.3 DESIGN
Even before the conditioning functions of the reser- There are three basic reservoir arrangements-sepa-
voir are considered in design, the necessary capacity rate, integral, and dual-purpose. Separate reservoirs are
2-1 8
AMCP 706-123
commonly used in large stationary systems where space Filters are rated in terms of the degree of filtration.
and weight are not important considerations. Integral The ratings are usually expressed in microns (1 micron
reservoirs are spaces provided within the hydraulic sys- = 3.937 x losin.). If a filter can remove 98 percent of
tem-such as piping, tubular structural members, or the particles of a certain size or larger, then this particle
machine bases. Such a design minimizes space and size, expressed in microns, is termed the nominalfiltra-
weight requirements. However, the storage of a hot tion value. The absolutefiltration value is the size of the
liquid within the system can sometimes cause thermal smallest particle which the filter can completely
distortion of precision components. If the liquid can remove from the flow. Filters are usually rated in terms
serve as both a lubricant and a hydraulic fluid, in- of both nominal and absolute values. It is common
dividual reservoirs are not required. The reservoir in practice to specify filters with an absolute filtration
which such a liquid is stored is termed a dual-purpose value equal to one-half of the smallest clearance
reservoir. For example, the case which houses the or tolerance in the components which the filter
transmission in some vehicles, and which thus contains must protect.
the transmission lubricant, also serves as the hydraulic
fluid reservoir. In such applications it is, of course,
necessary that the liquid function satisfactorily both as 2-6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF FILTERS
a lubricant and as a hydraulic fluid. Also, since the
liquid absorbs heat from two sources, it may be difficult Filters are classified according to the filter media, the
to provide adequate cooling. configuration, or the filtering method. The filter media
Many of the guidelines which assist in the design of can be either the surface-type or the depth-type. The
reservoirs are the same regardless of the reservoir type. surface-type filtering media contain numerous orifices
Baffles should be provided between the suction line and of relatively uniform size. Particles larger than the ori-
the fluid-return lines to prevent continual use of the fice size are trapped on the surface of the media. Depth-
same liquid. Baffles also reduce the liquid velocity and type media have long tortuous paths through which the
thereby facilitate the settling of solid contaminants and liquid must flow. Particles larger than the cross section
deaeration of the liquid. of these flow paths are retained except perhaps for
Lines which return liquid to the reservoir should be some particles which are larger in only one dimension.
well below the liquid level to minimize aeration. Suc- Wire mesh is an example of a surface filter medium.
tion lines should also terminate below the minimum Depth media include sintered metal powders and fi-
liquid level, but the inlet should be at least 1-1/2 pipe brous materials such as paper, felt, glass, and cellulose.
diameters above the tank floor. If the suction line Classification by filter media is closely related to clas-
strainer is not sufficiently beneath the liquid level at all sification by filtering method, which is discussed in
times, a vortex could form and permit air to enter the par. 2-6.2.
suction line. Gravity drains from seal cavities should be There are five basic filter configurations (see Fig.
separate from the liquid return lines and should enter 2-35). The T-type filter is the most widely used unit
the reservoir above the liquid level. because it is compact and easy to clean or replace.
Ample provision must be made for draining and By-pass reliefs and pressure-difference indicators are
cleaning. Liquid-level indicators should be provided to frequently incorporated to determine when a filter
indicate the maximum and minimum allowable liquid is clogged.
levels. An air breather and filter allow air to enter or
leave the reservoir as the liquid level fluctuates. Some
reservoirs are pressurized to assist pump suction. 2-6.2 FILTERING METHODS
There are three basic physical mechanisms by which

filters can remove contaminants from a hydraulic
2-6 FILTERS fluid-mechanical, adsorbent, and absorbent. The filter-
The ability to keep the liquid clean is a very impor- ing methods sometimes function in combination.
tant factor in the long-term operation of a hydraulic
system. To minimize contaminant levels, foreign mat-
ter should be prevented from entering the system; con- 2-6.2.1 Mechanical Filters
ditions conducive to contaminant formation within the
system should be avoided; and filters should be used to In a mechanical filter, particles are removed from the
remove contaminants. hydraulic fluid by virtue of their inability to pass
2-19
AMCP 706-123
Y-type
In-line type
30 gpm
2 Wash type
Fig. 2-35. Basic Configurations of Filter Assemblies

4
[From: H. E. Merrit, Hydraulic Control Systems, Used by permission of John Wiley and Sons]
through the multitude of small holes or orifices in the between the disks. The filter can be cleaned while in
filter. Metal or fabric screens are commonly used as the service by revolving the central shaft to which alternate
filter media. The disk-type filter shown in Fig. 2-36 is disks are keyed. The stationary elements then act as
also a mechanical filter. The size of particles which can wipers. Wire-screen mechanical filters can also be
be removed by this filter depends on the spacing cleaned if care is taken not to force contaminant parti-
cles inside or through the elements.
2-6.2.2 Adsorbent Filters
Adsorption is the phenomenon by which particles of

one material tend to adhere to solid or liquid surfaces.
The filter medium in an adsorbent-type filter is finely
divided to present maximum surface area to the flow.
Materials used in the filter elements include activated
clay, charcoal, fullers earth, chemically treated paper,
and bone black. The flow passages of the filter can also
mechanically remove contaminants. One disadvantage
of the adsorbent filter is the tendency to remove certain
additives in the hydraulic fluid. Hence, it is not usually
recommended for service with fluids which contain ad-
ditives. Many adsorbent filter housings are designed to
accommodate either an adsorbent filter element or a
mechanical filter element.
2-6.2.3 Absorbent Filters

UJ
Fig. 2-36. Hydraulic Fluid Filter With Disk-type A porous, permeable medium is used as an element
Filter Elements in an absorbent filter. Element materials include
2
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraufici diatomaceous earth, wood, pulp, asbestos, paper, vari-
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] ous textiles, and a variety of other substances. As the
2-20
AMCP 706-123
hydraulic fluid passes through the filter medium, con- 2-6.5 REPLACEMENT OR CLEANING
taminants are trapped by absorption. Water and water- INTERVALS
soluble contaminants can be removed by some absorb-
ent filters. The size of solid contaminant which can be Two approaches can be made to establish a mainte-
filtered depends upon the permeability and porosity of nance program for hydraulic fluid filters. If instru-
the filter element. ments are provided to monitor filter operation, replace-
ment or cleaning can be based upon the data obtained
from these measurements. If no such data are available,
2-6.3 HYDRAULIC FLUID-FILTER it is necessary to establish a systematic maintenance
COMPATIBILITY program which specifies the operating intervals for
each filter.
The hydraulic fluid filter must not be affected by the Pippenger and Hicks (Ref. 2) present the following
hydraulic fluid at any operating condition. Also, the guidelines on which to base a filter maintenance
filter must not have any effect on the hydraulic fluid- schedule:
such as removing additives in the liquid. Filter compat- (1) Providi instruments to monitor filter saturation
ibility is not often a problem with pure mechanical-type and indicate cleaning or replacement requirements
filters. In this case it is only necessary to use a filter (2) Stress the importance of the filters in the system
element made of materials (usually metal) that are operating procedure by instructing a11 operating and
compatible with the particular hydraulic fluid. This is maintenance personnel in the filter locations, functions,
not the case, however, when absorbent- or adsorbent- and service schedules
type filters are used. In addition to their mechanical (3) Establish service procedures which minimize
filtering action, these filters also have a chemical filter- downtime and fluid loss
ing action. The chemical action may result in the re- (4) Maintain records of filter performance and use
moval of additives as well as impurities and contami- these to establish satisfactory filter service times
nants. Because additives are usually included to ( 5 ) Evaluate filter performance to determine if dif-
improve properties of the liquid, their removal is not ferent filters might improve the system operation.
desirable. Special consideration must be given to the
use of these filters when the hydraulic fluid is not a
straight unmodified base stock.
2-7 ACCUMULATORS
2-6.4 FILTER PRESSURE DROP
An accumulator is a device which can store hydrau-
The influence of pressure drop on filter selection lic energy. It is useful in intermittent operation of hy-
involves a compromise between two conflicting factors. draulic machines when the accumulator can be charged
In order to filter small particles from a hydraulic fluid, at a low flow rate during the idle portion of the cycle
the size of the filter passages must be small, and this of the driven machine. Accumulators can be used for
results in high pressure drop. However, if the pressure pressure compensation, pulse damping, leakage com-
drop is too high, contaminant particles can penetrate pensation, emergency power, auxiliary pressure, and
into or through the filter element. A pressure drop several other applications. They can also be used to
greater than 12 or 15 psi is usually sufficient to force apply pressure across a physical boundary between two
the contaminants commonly found in hydraulic sys- liquids without contact or mixing of the liquids. This
tems through a typical filter. feature permits the pressurization of hazardous fluids,
The pressure drop is a function of contaminant parti- e.g., a volatile liquid, by means of a second liquid which
cle size, the fineness of the filter medium, the ability of can be safely pumped.
the particle to resist the drag forces created by the flow,
the rate at which particles accumulate in the filter, and
the mechanical strength of the filter element. The pres- 2-7.1 ACCUMULATOR LOADING
sure differential which can be tolerated across a filter
also depends upon the location of the filter in the sys- Accumulators are classified in terms of the manner
tem. Allowable pressure drop is also an important fac- in which the load is applied. This is the major factor
tor in establishing the cleaning and service schedule of which influences design. Accumulators can be weight-
a filter. loaded, spring-loaded, or pneumatic-loaded.
2-2 1
AMCP 706-123
2-7.1.1 Weight-loaded Accumulators Oil port,
The weight-loaded accumulator consists of a piston

mounted vertically in a cylinder (Fig. 2-37). The piston
rod or plunger is loaded with weights which provide
potential energy to compress the fluid. This accumula-
tor produces virtually constant pressure at all fluid
levels. However, weight-loaded accumulators are very
Fig. 2-38. Spring-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator
heavy and expensive. They also do not respond quickly
to changes in the system demand. For these reasons, [From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
they are not often used in modern hydraulic systems. permission of Penton Publishing Co.]
direct contact with the hydraulic fluid, whereas in the

second type they are separated by a diaphragm, blad-
CYLINDER
der, or piston.
PACKING P (1) Nonseparated-type: Pressurization in a non-
separated, pneumatic-loaded accumulator is achieved
CYLINDER C
by introducing a pressurizing gas into a container
above the liquid level. The pressurized storage vessel is
a simple example of this type. Limit switches, which are
actuated by liquid level, are usually used to limit pres-
sure. This type can accommodate large liquid volumes,
but aeration of the liquid often precludes their use in
hydraulic systems. Fig. 2-39 shows a diagram of a non-
separated pneumatic accumulator in a circuit.
CHECK VALVE V
OF FLUID -
FROM SOURCE
UNDER PRESSUR
*TO WORK LOAD
Accumulator
Shop air
Relief valve
High level
switch
Fig. 2-37. Weight-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator
6
2
[From: Pippenger and Hicks, Industrial Hydraulics .
Low level
switch
2-7.1.2 Spring-loaded Accumulators

switch
An accumulator in which the compression energy is Closing
supplied by a spring is shown in Fig. 2-38. The pressure valve
varies with the amount of fluid in the accumulator
since the spring force depends on displacement. Al-
Fig. 2-39. Nonseparated Pneumatic-loaded Hydrau-
though such spring-loaded devices are easy to main-
lic Accumulator
tain, they are relatively bulky and costly. Most applica-
tions are for low-volume, low-pressure systems. [From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by
2-7.1.3 Pneumatic-loaded Accumulators

(2) Separated-type: Aeration in the pneumatic-
There are two types of pneumatic-loaded accumula- loaded accumulator can be eliminated by providing a
tors. In one type, the gas which provides the load is in barrier between the pressurizing gas and the hydraulic
2-22
Next Page
AMCP 706-123
fluid. Diaphragms, bladders, or pistons are used as A free-floating piston can also serve as a barrier
barriers. A diaphragm-type accumulator is shown in between the gas and hydraulic fluid (Fig. 2-42). This
Fig. 2-40. The spherical vessel is separated into two type is less effective as a pulsation damper than is the
compartments by a flexible diaphragm. One compart- bladder-t ype.
ment is connected to the hydraulic system and the Fluid port-
other to the high-pressure gas system. In most designs
a spring-loaded, normally-open check valve or a screen
is provided at the liquid connection to prevent extru-
sion of the diaphragm into the liquid line when the fluid
is discharged. Accumulator charged with oir and f l u i d pressure
Piston shown in "balonced" position
To pressure
manifold
Hydraulic f l u i d dischorged
Piston"bot1omed"ogainst f l u i d port head
Eza 0
Fluid Air
Fig. 2-42 . Free-floating Piston, Pneumatic-loaded
Hydraulic Accumulator
[From: E. Lewis, Design of Hydraulic Control Systems.
Fig. 2-40 . Diaphragm-type Pneumatic-loaded Hydrau- Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
lic Accumulator
The separated, pneumatic-loaded accumulators are
[From: E. Lewis, Design of Hydraulic Control Systems. the most commonly used. They are small, lightweight,
Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.] and can be mounted in any position.
The bladder-type accumulator usually has a bladder 2-7.2 ACCUMULATOR SELECTION

inside a cylindrical shell with pressurized gas inside the CONSIDERATIONS
bladder and the hydraulic fluid between the bladder
and the housing (Fig. 2-41). The bladder is usually The factors which enter into the selection or specifi-
constructed with the thinnest wall near the gas port. It cation of accumulators depend on the desired function
thus expands at the top first and then along the walls, of the unit in the hydraulic system. The compression
forcing the liquid out through the poppet valve. This and expansion of the gas in pneumatic-loaded ac-
design can be used for ratios of maximum to minimum cumulators are governed by the laws of gas dynamics.
pressure up to about 5 to 1 and, because of the low If discharge time is rapid (less than about 1 min for
inertia of the bladder, it is especially suitable for damp- most applications), the expansion process can be as-
ing pulsations. sumed to be adiabatic. Isothermal relations can be used
for compression if the process is slow.
The precharge pressure should be selected so that use
is made of all liquid in the accumulator. The total
volume required is the sum of the compressed gas
volume and the volume of the liquid required by the
system. The compressed gas volume is a function of the
Air Oi I
Fig. 2-41. Bladder-type Pneumatic-loaded Hydrau- charge and discharge times. The required liquid
lic Accumulator volume must be determined from the desired perform-
ance of the accumulator. Empirical relations are availa-
[From: Fluid Power Issue; Machine Design. Used by ble to determine the liquid volume required to effec-
permission of Penton Publishing Co.] tively damp pump pressure surges or to suppress line
2-23
AMCP 706-123
CHAPTER 3
FLUID PROPERTIES, SIGNIFICANCE, AND TEST METHODS
3-0 LIST OF SYMBOLS Viscosity Index is to be

calculated
2 2 N= relative surface speed
A = area, in. or cm
B,,= isothermal secant bulk modulus p= pressure, psi, psia, or'psig
at 0 psig and temperature t, psi R = rate of shear, sec"
B, = adiabatic (isentropic) secant R, = Reynolds number,
bulk modulus, psi dimensionless
Bs = adiabatic (isentropic) tangent s= specific gravity
bulk modulus, psi S= shearing stress, psi or dyne/cm2
B , = sonic bulk modulus, psi t= temperature
B,= isothermal secant bulk modulus T= time, sec
at pressure p and temperature U= viscosity at 100F of the fluid
t, psi whose Viscosity Index is to be
B,= isothermal tangent bulk calculated
modulus at pressure p and V= velocity, cm/sec or ft/sec
temperature t, psi V, = initial volume
C = speed of sound, cm/sec KI. = Viscosity Index, dimensionless
C , = isentropic compressibility VTC = viscosity temperature coefficient
C , = isothermal compressibility 2= fluid viscosity
cp = specific heat at constant /3 = conversion factor
pressure, cal/g-"C r= ratio of bulk moduli or specific
c y = specific heat at constant heats, dimensionless
volume, cal/g-"C 77 = absolute viscosity, poise or
D = diameter, in. centipoise (cp), dyne-sec/cm2
d = length, cm or in. v= kinematic viscosity, stoke or
e = 2.71828, the base of natural centistoke (cst), cm2/sec
logarithms p= fluid density, g/cm3
E" = viscosity, Engler degrees p0 = density at atmospheric
F = force, lb or dyne temperature and pressure,
H = viscosity at 100F of a standard g/cm3
fluid of 100 Viscosity Index
having the same viscosity at 3-1 GENERAL
210F as the fluid whose
Viscosity Index is to be The specific requirements of a hydraulic fluid are
calculated determined by the design of the hydraulic system and
k = constant for a given oil and by the functions the system must perform. A liquid that
temperature, (psi)-' is satisfactory as a hydraulic fluid in one application or
L = viscosity at 100F of a standard system may be completely unsuitable in a second ap-
fluid of 0 Viscosity Index plication or system. Therefore, in considering the prop-
having the same viscosity at erties required of a hydraulic fluid, it should be remem-
210F as the fluid whose bered that the relative importance of any one property
3-1
AMCP 706-123
will depend upon the hydraulic system, its use, and Viscosity is defined by Newton's Law-at a given
its environment. point in a liquid, the shearing stress Sis directly propor-
The various properties which are important in the tional to the rate of shear R, i.e.,
selection and use of hydraulic fluids are presented in S =r)R (3-1)
this chapter. Some properties may be important in all
liquids, while others have significance only in limited The proportionality constant q is known as the coeffi-
applications. Properties are discussed in relation to cient of viscosity or simply the viscosity. Since for the
their function in a hydraulic system. The importance of relative motion of two parallel layers of liquid the
these properties is assessed, and methods for measuring shearing stress is equal to F/A, where Fis the force and
them are given. A is the area, and since the rate of shear is equal to V/d
where Vis the velocity and d is the distance between
the layers (see Fig. 3-1), Eq. 3-1 may be written as
3-2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3-2.1 VISCOSITY
or
Viscosity is one of the most important properties of
a liquid from the standpoint of its performance in hy- (3-3)
draulic systems. It is the resistance offered by a liquid
to relative motion of its molecules or the resistance a
liquid offers to flow. Temperature is the most impor- 3-2.1.1 Absolute Viscosity
tant variable affecting viscosity and must be stated in
all viscosity data. The viscosity q defined by Eq. 3-3 is the absolute or
Fig. 3-1. Velocity Distribution in a Liquid Between Two Parallel Plates With the
Top Plate Moving With Respect to the Stationary Bottom Plate
3-2
AMCP 706-123
dynamic viscosity. If the metric system of units (centi- The Saybolt Universal and Saybolt Furol viscosity
meter, gram, second) is used, the unit of absolute vis- scales, used extensively in the United States, give vis-
cosity is the dyne-second per square centimeter or the cosity in terms of seconds-Saybolt Universal Seconds
poise. Because the poise is a rather large unit, the cen- (SUS) or Saybolt Furol Seconds (SFS). A Furol vis-
tipoise (one hundredth of a poise) is customarily used. cosity is approximately one-tenth of the Universal vis-
Pure water at a temperature of 20.2"C (68.4"F) has an cosity for the same liquid at the same temperature. The
absolute viscosity of one centipoise. If the English sys- Furol scale is used chiefly for petroleum products hav-
tem of units (foot, pound, second) is used, the unit of ing viscosities greater than 1,OOO SUS, such as heavy
absolute viscosity is the pound-second per square inch fuel and road oils.
or the reyn. Since the reyn is an extremely large unit,
the newton (one millionth of a reyn) is more conven-
ient. Conversion between metric and English system 3-2.1.4 Viscosity Unit Conversions
units of absolute viscosity can be made on the basis that
one reyn (or one million newtons) is equal to 68,950 A viscosity determined in a particular instrument at
poises (or 6,895,000 centipoises). a specific temperature can be converted to the equiva-
lent viscosity in some other instrument at the same
temperature. A wide variety of equations, tables,
3-2.1.2 Kinematic Viscosity charts, and nomographs have been developed to facili-
tate such conversions. Currently, the trend is toward
The ratio of the absolute viscosity of a liquid to its expressing viscosity in the metric units of centipoises
density frequently occurs in the study of viscosity and (cp) and centistokes (cSt). Data in convenient tabular
hydraulics and the term "kinematic viscosity" with the form for the conversion of kinematic viscosity to Say-
symbol V has been assigned to it bolt Universal and Saybolt Furol viscosity are provided
in American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
(3-4) Method D-2161-66 (Ref. 2). Procedures for converting
the five more common viscosity scales to the metric
where p is the density. In the metric system, the unit scale in centistokes are described.
of kinematic viscosity is the square centimeter per sec- (1) Saybolt Universal seconds to centistokes:
ond or the stoke. The centistoke (one hundredth of a
stoke) is more generally used. The kinematic viscosity 195
of a liquid can be looked upon as the liquid's resistance v = 0.226 T - -, 32 4 T 4 100 sec (3-5)
T
to flow under its own gravity head.
(T = efflux time in seconds)
3-2.1.3 Other Viscosity Scales

v = 0.220 T - -,
135 T > 1OOsec (3-6)
T
Numerous other scales of viscosity have been estab-
lished which express viscosity in terms of arbitrary (2) Saybolt Furol seconds to centistokes:
units based on the instruments used to make the meas-
urement. The five most common scales used in the 184
petroleum industry are the Saybolt Universal and Say- v = 2.24 T - -,T 25 G T G 40 sec (3-7)
bolt Furol used mainly in the United States, the Red-
wood No. 1 (Standard) and Redwood No. 2 (Admi-
60
ralty) used in Great Britain, and the Engler used chiefly v = 2.16T - -,T>40sec
T
(3-8)
in Germany and other countries in Europe. All five are
empirical instruments in that the time of outflow of an
arbitrary constant amount of liquid through a fixed (3) Redwood No. 1 (Standard) seconds to centi-
orifice is quoted as a measurement of the viscosity of stokes:
the liquid. The instruments are similar, but various
179
dimensions and amounts of liquid used assign different v = 0.260 T - -, 34 G T < 100 sec (3-9)
T
viscosity numbers to the same fluid; therefore, the vis-
cosity is meaningful only when the instrument and tem- 50
perature are also named (Ref. 1).
v = 0.247 T - -, T > 1OOsec (3-10)
T
3-3
AMCP 706-123
(4) Redwood No. 2 (Admiralty) seconds to centi-

stokes:
-
V = 2.46 T - - 32
loo,
T
< T < 9Osec (3- 1 1) t t
v = 2.45 T , T > 9Osec (3-12)
( 5 ) Engler Degrees (E) to centistokes:
v = 8.0 E - *,
E
1.35 < E G 3.2 (3-13) Rate of Shear k i t e of Shear
Fig. 3-2. Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a
v = 7.6E- 2,
40
E > 3.2 (3-14) Newtonian Fluid
Non-Newtonian materials may be classified into

3-2.1.5 Newtonian Fluids five types-plastic, pseudoplastic, dilatant, thixotropic,
and rheopectic.
When a liquid flows in such a manner that the shear- (1) Plastic. A definite minimum stress or force must
ing stress S is directly proportional to the rate of shear be hpplied to this type of material before any flow
(see par. 3-2. l), the liquid is said to flow in accordance occurs, and viscosity decreases as shear rate increases
with Newtons Law and is called a Newtonian fluid. (see Fig. 3-3). Examples of such materials are putty,
Flow of this type is know as viscous or streamline molding clay, and many types of greases.
flow. Viscous flow consists of an orderly motion in
which layers of liquid slide past one another in a direc- PLASTIC
tion parallel to the direction of flow. The viscosity 7 is
constant with respect to the rate of shear R (see Fig.
3-2). Most hydraulic fluids behave in a Newtonian, or 4 4
nearly Newtonian, manner at the temperatures, pres-
sures, and flow rates normally encountered in hydrau-
lic systems. However, there are some types of materials
that are never Newtonian, and most Newtonian fluids
can be made to behave in a non-Newtonian manner by
changing the pressure, temperature, and/or flow rate
sufficiently (Ref. 3). Non-Newtonian materials are dis-
cussed in the paragraphs which foilow.
Kate of Shear Shear Stress
3-2.1.6 Non-Newtonian Materials
Plastic Material
The viscosities of some materials are altered by
shearing effects and these materials are termed non-
(2) Pseudoplastic. This type of material has no fixed
Newtonian. The viscosity depends on the rate of shear yield point; however, the viscosity does decrease with
at which it is measured. Since c non-Newtonian fluid increasing shear rates (see Fig. 3-4). Examples of such
can have an unlimited number of viscosities (as the materials are water base liquids and resinous materials.
shear rate is varied), the term apparent viscosity is
used instead of viscosity. Apparent viscosity is ex- ( 3 ) Dilatant. The apparent viscosity of this type of
pressed in units of absolute viscosity, and the rate of material increases as the rate of shear increases, and the
shear used in the measurement is given. material will often solidify at high rates of shear (see
3-4
AMCP 706-123
Fig. 3-5). However, when the applied force is removed, THIXO TROPIC
the material reverts to its original state, i.e., liquid.
Examples of dilatant materials are pigment-vehicle
suspensions-such as paints and printing ink-and some
starches.
PSEUDOPLAST I C
Rate of Shear Shear S t r e s s

Thixotropic Material
Rate of Shear Shear Stress ( 5 ) Rheopectic. This type of material is similar to

the thixotropic materials except that the apparent vis-
Fig. 3-4. Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a cosity increases with shearing time up to some max-
Pseudoplastic Material imum value (see Fig. 3-7). Some bearing greases are
manufactured with this property to facilitate pumping
into containers in a less viscous state, but toincrease in
DILA T A N T viscosity when in use in a bearing. However, many such
greases are not true rheopectic materials as they do not
revert to their original state after the applied force is
removed but retain a somewhat higher viscosity.
RHEOPECTIC
f
U
.3
rn
0
Rate of Shear Shear Stress 0
rn
Fig. 3-5. Viscosity and Shear Stress Curves for a 5

Dilatant Material
Rate of S h e a r
(4) Thixofropic. The viscosity of this type of Rheopectic Material
material is time-dependent-if it is subjected to a con-
stant rate of shear, its structure breaks down, and its
apparent viscosity decreases to some minimum value 3-2.1.7 Determination of Viscosity of
(see Fig. 3-6). However, when the applied force is Non-Newtonian Materials
removed, the. material reverts to its original state, i.e.,
gelled. Paints are probably the most notable example of As shown in Fig. 3-8, the determination of the vis-
thixotropic materials. Quicksand is also thixotropic. cosity of a non-Newtonian fluid at only one shear rate
3-5
AMCP 706-123
is not usually sufficient. The viscosity of the Newtonian

and non-Newtonian fluids shown have the same value
at a shear rate Ro. Incorrect comparisons and applica-
tion difficulties would be invited if the viscosities at
only this point were specified.
TURBULENT FLOW
Newtonian Fluid
Non- Newtonian
STREAMLINE FLOW
V Fig. 3-9. Streamline Flow and Turbulent Flow in a Pipe
Rate of Shear
Fig. 3-8. Viscosity Curves for a Newtonian Fluid and 3-2.1.9 Measurement of Viscosity
a Non-Newtonian Fluid
Liquid viscosity is measured by an instrument called
a viscometer. A large number of viscometers have been
3-2.1.8 Turbulent Flow and Reynolds Number developed. Eight of the most common measurements
upon which viscometers are based are (Ref. 4)
If the flow velocity of a Newtonian fluid is increased (1) The time of flow of a quantity of liquid through
beyond some critical value, the flow characteristics be- a capillary or a short tube, using gravity as themoving
gin to change. The critical velocity marks the transition force.
between viscous flow, where the liquid follows New- (2) The torque required to rotate a cylinder, disk, or
ton's Law, and turbulent flow, where the liquid does paddle in a liquid at constant speed
not behave in a Newtonian fashion. Viscous flow is an (3) The torque exerted on a disk suspended in a
orderly motion of the liquid in the direction of flow. rotating cup of the liquid
Turbulent flow, however, is an erratic flow with eddy (4) The rotational speed of a cylinder or disk driven
currents (see Fig. 3-9). Reynolds has shown that the in the liquid by a constant torque
critical velocity depends upon the dimensionless ( 5 ) The time of fall through the liquid of a ball or
parameter known as the Reynolds number (Ref. 3). For cylindrical object
flow in pipes, Reynolds number R n is given by:
(6) The time of rise of an air bubble through the
liquid
(7) The rate of damping of ultrasonic waves in-
- DVP duced in the liquid
R , -- (3-15)
V (8) The pressure drop through a capillary.
The most widely used viscometers in the petroleum
where industry are the capillary and the short tube viscome-
D = pipe diameter ters. ASTM D-445-65 (Ref. 5) prescribes the standard
V = fluid velocity procedure for measuring kinematic viscosity and de-
p = fluid density scribes the capillary viscometers that are to be used.
v = kinematic viscosity Briefly, the method calls for measuring the time of flow
of a known quantity of liquid at a constant temperature
When the Reynolds number is sufficiently low, the flow through a capillary with gravity as the only moving
is viscous and the liquid behaves in a Newtonian man- force, and multiplying the time by a calibration con-
ner. The transition to turbulent flows usually occurs stant. The calibration constant is determined by using
between Reynolds number values of 2,100-4,00& a master viscometer (Bureau of Standards) and stand-
depending upon the geometry of the conduit and the ard oils. Absolute viscosity is given by the equation
liquid properties. rl = VP (3-16)
3-6
AMCP 706-123
A separate determination of the density p must be 3-2.1.10 Significance of Viscosity

made before calculating the absolute viscosity. ASTM
D-445-65 (Ref. 5) lists several approved test procedures The single most important property of a hydraulic
for determining density. fluid is its viscosity. Various components within a hy-
The Cannon-Fenske capillary viscometer (see Fig. draulic system have competing requirements as to high
3-10) is the most common one used in hydraulic fluid or low viscosity. High viscosity provides thick lubricat-
work. A cross section of the Saybolt viscometer, widely ing films and reduces internal leakage. Low viscosity
used in the petroleum industry, is shown in Fig. 3-11. results in less internal friction, smaller pressure losses
in pipes and valves, and an increase in control action
T
and component response. Thus, a compromise in vis-
cosity requirements must be made. The viscosity of the
hydraulic fluid affects the response of system compo-
nents, and because its sensitivity to temperature usually
imposes limitations on the upper or lower operating
temperature of any hydraulic system, viscoshy must
always be considered in design calculations.
230 .o
.
I P
(dimensions i n m i l l i m e t e r s )
Fig. 3-10 Cannon-Fenske Capillary Tube Viscometer
3-2.1.1 1 Test Methods for Viscosity
(1) Kinematic Viscosity

Test Methods: Federal Test Method 305.4 (Ref. 6)
ASTM D-445-65 (Ref. 5)
These methods describe the procedure for determin-
ing the kinematic viscosity of transparent or opaque
fluids higher than 0.2 centistoke. Determinations may
be made at temperatures where the flow in the glass
capillary type viscometers is Newtonian, The time is
measured for a fixed volume of a test fluid to flow
through the capillary under a gravity head and at a
closely controlled temperature. The kinematic viscosity
is then calculated from the eMux time and the viscome-
ter calibration factor.
Precision: For clean transparent oils tested at loo"
and 210"F, results should not be considered suspect
unless they differ by more than the following amounts:
T
4.92
Repeatability- 0.35 percent of mean
Reproducibility- 0.7 percent of mean
(2) Saybolt Viscosity
1
ASTM D-88-56 (Ref. 8)
These methods describe the procedure for determin-
ing the Saybolt viscosity of petroleum products in the
temperature range of 70" to 210F.The emux time in
seconds of 60 ml of the sample flowing under gravity
head through a calibrated orifice is measured under
carefully controlled temperature conditions. A Univer-
sal orifice is used for Saybolt Universal viscosity and a
CORK /w ( d i mens ion

i n inches
Furol orifice is used for Saybolt Furol viscosity. The
time is corrected by an orifice factor and reported as the
STOPPER viscosity of the sample at the test temperature in Say-
Fig. 3-11. Cross-sectional View of a Saybolt Viscom- bolt Universal Seconds (SUS) or Saybolt Furol Seconds
eter (SFS). Viscosity values below 200 sec are reported to
3-7
AMCP 706-123
the nearest 0.1 sec. Values above 200 sec are reported
-
to the nearest whole second.
(3) Conversion of Kinematic Viscosity to Saybolt
Universal Viscosity or to Saybolt Furol Viscosity
ASTM D-2161-66 (Ref. 10)
These methods provide conversion tables and equa-
tions for converting viscosity in centistokes at any tem-
perature to Saybolt Universal Seconds at the same tem-
perature; and also for converting viscosity in
centistokes at 122"and 210F to Saybolt Furol Seconds
at the same temperature.
(4) Calibration of Master Viscometers and Viscosity
Oil Standards
Test Method: ASTM D-2162-64 (Ref. 11)
This method covers procedures for calibrating mas-
ter viscometers and viscosity oil standards, both of
which may be used to calibrate routine viscometers
used in the determination of kinematic viscosity (Ref.
5). Master viscometers are calibrated with water at
620-640
I1
445 -455
6 8 9 (20C). They are then used to calibrate viscosity oil

standards, i.e., stable Newtonian liquids.
Specifications, dimensions, and operating instruc-
tions are given for the following types of viscometers:
(a) Modified Ostwald Viscometers: Cannon-
Fenske routine, Cannon-Manning semi-micro,
Pinkevitch, Zeitfuchs, SIL, BS/U-tube, BS/U
miniature Fig. 3-12. Cannon-Master Viscometer
(b) Suspended-level Viscometers: Ubbelohde,
Fitzsimons, Atlantic, BS/IL/SL, BS/IP/SL(S),
magnitude of the temperature change. Most compo-
BS/IP/MSL, Cannon-Ubbelohde, Cannon-
Ubbelohde semi-micro. nents of a hydraulic system are quite specific in their
(c) Reverse-flow Viscometers: Cannon-Fenske demands for a particular viscosity at their operating
opaque, Zeitfuchs Cross-arm, BS/IP/RF, temperature. This operating temperature rarely coin-
Lantz-Zeitfuchs. cides with the fixed temperatures that are standard in
( 5 ) Glass Kinematic Viscometers the test methods for viscosity. To match the viscosity
Test Method: ASTM D-2515-66 (Ref. 12) of a liquid to the requirements of a component requires
This method provides specifications for glass capil- a knowledge of the viscosity-temperature characteris-
lary-type kinematic viscometers suitable for use in the tics of the liquid over its usable temperature range.
ASTM Test Method for kinematic viscosity (Ref. 5). A Petroleum liquids described by Military Specifica-
Cannon-Master viscometer is shown in Fig. 3-12. tions are available for use within various temperature
ranges. Some are usable to -80F and others to
+550"F. Increases in the upper temperature limit of
petroleum liquids have been obtained by special proc-
3-2.2 VISCOSITY-TEMPERATURE
essing or with additives. The development of liquids
PROPERTIES
suitable for use in high-temperature environments is
one of the prime areas of current interest in the hydrau-
Temperature is the most important factor affecting lic fluid industry. Properties of available high-tempera-
viscosity. Viscosity decreases with increasing temperature liquids will be discussed in greater detail inchap-
ture, but the rate of decrease depends upon the struc- ter 4. Viscosity requirements at various temperatures of
ture and chemical composition of the liquid. The several typical Military Specification hydraulic fluids
amount of the decrease depends primarily upon the are given in Table 3-1.
3-a
AMCP 706-1 23
TABLE 3-1.
Temperature9 MILH-5606B MILH-8446B MILH-13866B (MR) W-B-680a MILH-27601A

OF
-65 3000 (max) 2500 (max) To be reported
-40 500 (max) 1800 (max) 4000 (max)
-30 4200 (max)
100 To be reported 55 (min) 3.5 (min) 385 (rnax)
at 122F at 0F
130 10.0 (min)
210 To be reported 15 (min) 1.3 (min) 3.2 (min)
at 212F
400 2.5 (min) Report at
500F
References: MILH-5606B;Hydmulic Fluid, Petroleum Base, Aircraft, Missile, and Ordnance.

MILH-8446B;Hydmulic Fluids, Nonpetroleum Base, Aircraft.
MIGH-I 3866B;Hydraulic Fluid, Petmleum Base, Artillery Recoil, SpechL
W-V-680a;Brake Fluid, Automotive.
MIGH-27601A; Hydmulic Fluid, Petroleum, High Temperawe, Flight Velzi~k-
I
3-2.2.1 ASTM Viscosity-temperature Charts to predict viscosity. The actual viscosity-temperature

properties of the liquid must be determined and plotted
Many systems have been developed for expressing The ASTM charts are based on a modified
the viscosity-temperature characteristics of liquids. Walther equation:
The most widely used procedure utilizes the viscosity- log [log ( v + c)] = A logoR +B (3-17)
temperature charts published by ASTM (see Fig. 3-13).
These charts, available from ASTM, are described in an where
ASTM Method (Ref. 13) and in a Federal Test Method c = a constant
(Ref. 14). Five different viscosity-temperature charts 'R = temperature, "Rankine
similar to that shown in Fig. 3-13 are available with v = viscosity, cSt
various temperature ranges and either kinematic or A,B = constants for each fluid
Saybolt Universal viscosity scales. These charts are
constructed so that the plot of viscosity vs temperature The ASTM chart expresses c as a constant varying
is a straight line for most petroleum liquids. Thus, only from 0.75 at 0.4 cSt to 0.6 at 1.5 cSt and above (Ref.
two viscosity measurements, usually at loo" and 15). The use of this equation in chart form obviates the
210"F, need to be made to determine a line from which necessity of determining the constants A and B when
the approximate viscosity at any other temperature can two or more viscosities are determined experimentally
be read. and plotted.
The viscosity-temperature charts are useful for pre-
dicting viscosity only when the graph for a liquid is 3-2.2.2 ASTM Slope
linear. In most instances this will occur over the tem-
perature range that a given liquid is Newtonian. How- A simple method of expressing a change in viscosity
ever, many Newtonian petroleum liquids will deviate with temperature is by using the slope of the curve on
from linearity at low viscosities, i.e., high temperature. the ASTM charts. Since the curve accurately portrays
Many liquids deviate from linearity near their cloud the viscosity-temperature characteristics of a particular
points (par. 3-2.6.2) because of the formation of wax liquid, its slope is a measure of the Iiquid's sensitivity
particles. For non-Newtonian liquids, and for New- to a change in temperature. The slope may be deter-
tonian liquids that are in nonlinear conditions of behav- mined graphically from the chart as the tangent of the
ior, the plot of viscosity vs temperature cannot be used angle formed by the viscosity-temperature line and the
3-9
AMCP 706-1 23
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY, cSt
IS3 'AlIS03SIA 311VW3NIll
3-10
AMCP 706-123
lines of constant viscosity (see Fig. 3-14). The slope Subsequently, however, solvent refining, the use of ad-
values are unitless and negative, but by convention the ditives, and synthetics have produced materials that are
minus sign is omitted. The greater the slope, the greater outside the KZ. scale in both directions.
the change in viscosity for a given change in tempera- The KZ. of a liquid with a given viscosity at 210F
ture. If the slope is determined at a temperature where is calculated by relating its viscosity at 100F to the
the graph is not a straight line, the slope of the tangent viscosity at 100F for each of the standard fractions
to the curve at the temperature in question is used. having a viscosity at 210F equal to that of the un-
The ASTM slope is easily determined and values known at 210F. The K I. is calculated by the follow-
accurate to within k0.01 slope units can be obtained ing equation:
by use of the chart and a simple ruler. However, the
slope has little physical meaning and has not been
(3-19)
adopted for general use.
3-2.2.3 Viscosity-temperature Coefficient where

L viscosity at 100F of a
=
Another way of expressing the viscosity-temperature petroleum fraction.of 0 KZ.

relationship of a liquid is the viscosity-temperature co- having the same viscosity at
efficient (VTC) which is defined by 210F as the fluid whose KZ. is
to be calculated
H = viscosity at 100F of a
VTC =
Vloo - v210 -- I - - v210
(3- 18) petroleum fraction of 100 KZ.
v100 V100 having the same viscosity at
210F as the fluid whose KZ. is
to be calculated
where v1 and y10 are the kinematic viscosities in cen- U = viscosity at 100F of the fluid
tistokes of the liquid at loo" and 210"F, respectively. whose K I . is to be calculated
The VTChas the advantage of expressing the viscosity-
temperature characteristics of a liquid as a number, but An ASTM Method (Ref. 16) and a Federal Test
by definition, is applicable only to the temperature Method (Ref. 17) provide tables of values for L, H, and
range of loo" to 210F. It has not found wide use in the ( L - H) for determining the KZ. of a liquid from either
hydraulic fluid industry. the centistoke or the Saybolt viscosities at loo" and
210F. A schematic representation of KZ. is shown in
Fig. 3-15.
3-2.2.4 Viscosity Index
The KZ. scale as described has been in general use in
The Viscosity Index (KZ.) of a liquid is a number the United States although it had a number of deficien-
indicating the effect of a change in temperature on cies. For many years the procedure used to calculate
viscosity. A low KZ. signifies a relatively large change the KZ.was given by ASTM D-567-53 (Ref. 18) which
of viscosity with temperature. A high KZ. signifies a has since been replaced because of the anomalies that
relatively small change of viscosity with temperature. resulted from use of the method. Some of the problems
The convenience afforded by the use of a single number experienced were
to express the viscosity-temperature characteristics of (1) It was based on arbitrary standards.
a liquid has resulted in the widespread adoption of the (2) The system broke down for light oils having
viscosity index system in the petroleum industry. viscosities below about 8 cSt at 210F.
The K I . is an empirical scale using two series of (3) In the range above KZ. of 125, the scale became
petroleum fractions as standards. One fraction which meaningless since two oils that have equal viscosity at
seemed to have minimum viscosity-temperature sen- 100Fbut widely different viscosities at 210F may have
sitivity was arbitrarily assigned a KZ. of 100. The other the same KZ.
fraction with maximum viscosity-temperature sen- (4) KZ. is not an additive property. The KZ. of an
sitivity was assigned a KZ. of zero. At the time the oil blend cannot be determined by manipulation of the
index scale was developed, all other petroleum frac- KZ. of the individual components, particularly when
tions were expected to fall within the zero to 100 limits. widely different types of liquids are involved.
3-11
AMCP 706-123
3-12
AMCP 706-123
lOO'F 210'F
Fig. 3-15. Schematic Representation of Viscosity Index (V.1.)

[From: Lubrication, Vol. 47 (1961). Used by permission of Texaco, Inc.]
In spite of its shortcomings, the KZ. remains the (a) Chart A. Saybolt Universal Viscosity:-30" to
most popular system for expressing viscosity-tempera- +450"F, 33 to 100,000,000 Saybolt Universal
ture characteristics of fluids. Numerous suggestions Seconds
have been proposed to eliminate the shortcomings of (b) Chart B. Saybolt Universal Viscosity,
the system or to find a more fundamental means of Abridged:-30" to +350"F, 33 to 100,OOO Say-
expressing viscosity-temperature characteristics. Most bolt Universal Seconds
of the suggestedsystems were too complex for general (c) Chart C. Kinematic Viscosity, High Range:
use or had faults of their own, so a method (Refs. 16, -30" to +450"F, 2 to 20,000,000 centistokes
17) was developed to correct the deficiencies in the (d) Chart D. Kinematic Viscosity, Low Range:
ASTM E l ' s above 100 without shifting the values -30" to +450"F, 0.40 to 100 centistokes
between 0 and 100. Values above 100 are designated (e) Chart E. Kinematic Viscosity, Low Tempera-
Viscosity Index Extended ( V.Z.E) (Ref. 19) to dis- ture Range:-100" to +450"F, 2.0 to 20,000,000
tinguish them from values obtained by the previ- centistokes
ous method. (f) Chart F. Kinematic Viscosity, Extended
Range:-100'' to +700"F, 0.40 to 20,000,000
centistokes
3-22.? Test Methods for Viscosity-temperature ( 2 ) Culcuiution of Viscosity Index
Properties Test Methods: Federal Test Method 91 11.2 (Ref. 17)
ASTM D-2270-64 (Ref. 16)
(1) Viscosiry-temperuture Charts These methods provide tables and equations for cal-
culating the V.I. of petroleum products from their vis-
Test Methods: ASTM D-341-43 (Ref. 13) cosities at loo" and 210F. Tables are provided for liq-
FederalTest Method 9121.1 (Ref. 14) uids with viscosities at 210F between the values of 210
These methods provide specifications for standard and 75.0 cSt.
viscosity-temperature charts (e.g., Fig. 3-13) for pe- Tedious calculation of V.Z. can be eliminated by the
troleum fluids for both kinematic and Saybolt viscosi- use of data in ASTM Data Series 39a, ASTM Viscosiry
ties and for a range of temperatures. Charts available Index Tables Culculutedfrom Kinematic Viscosity,Sep-
from ASTM Headquarters are: tember 1965. This reference gives V.I. in the following
3-1 3
AMCP 706-123
ranges: from 0 to 200 U. for all liquids from 2 to 75 per square inch, the increase in viscosity can cause
cSt at 210F;up to 300 K L for liquids from 2.00 to 9.99 considerable differences in the results obtained by a
cSt at 210F; and up to 250 KZ. for liquids from 10.00 lubrication theory calculation (Ref. 4).
to 19.98 cSt at 210F. A number of empirical equations have been sug-
gested for relating viscosity to pressure. The following
one, although valid only over a moderate pressure
3-2.3 VISCOSITY OF BLENDS OF TWO range, is the one most commonly used (Ref. 20):
LIQUIDS
q p = rl e b (3-20)
The ASTM viscosity-temperature charts can be used
to predict the composition of a new blend of two liquids
to give a required viscosity, or to estimate the composi-
tion of an existing blend when the viscosities of the two where
components are known. In this procedure, the vertical r) p = absolute viscosity at pressure p,
scale of any ASTM chart is used without change. The cst
horizontal scale between 0"-1WF is relabeled 0-100 77 = absolute viscosity at
percent and used to represent the percent by volume of atmospheric pressure, cSt
the higher viscosity component. The viscosity at a given e= 2.71828 (base of natural
temperature of the lower viscosity component is logarithms)
marked on the zero percent line and the viscosity at the k= a constant for a given oil and
same temperature of the higher viscosity component on temperature, (psi)-'
the 100 percent line. The two points are connected by p= pressure, psi
a straight line, and the required volumetric composi-
tion of any blend of intermediate viscosity may be read Several general statements about the viscosi -
on the abscissa (see Fig. 3-16). Conversely, the compo- ty-pressure properties of petroleum products can be
sition of a blend can be estimated when the viscosities made, namely:
of the two components are known and plotted in this (1) A pressure increase of about 500 psi has the
manner (Ref. 4). equivalent but opposite effect on viscosity as a tempera-
ture increase of 2F.
(2) The same increase in pressure will show a
3-2.4 VISCOSITY-PRESSURE PROPERTIES greater effect on viscosity at high pressures than at
low pressures.
(3) Lower viscosity fluids are less affected by pres-
The viscosity of a liquid varies with pressure as well sure than higher viscosity fluids.
as temperature. For many years pressure effects in hy- (4) An increase in pressure will increase the El.
draulic systems were neglected since the pressures en- The study of the effects of pressure on viscosity is an
countered were moderate and the viscosity was not area of research that has received considerable interest
greatly affected. Viscosity increases with increases in in recent years. The viscosity of liquids at pressures up
pressure, and the rate of increase is greater at lower to 150,OOO psi and temperatures up to 425F has been
temperatures and pressures. The rate of increase is also reported by the ASME (Ref. 21) and, more recently, by
influenced by the structural and chemical composition Wilson (Ref. 22). Klaus et al. (Refs. 23-25) have con-
of the fluid. Graphs of viscosity vs pressure at several ducted viscosity-pressurestudies on numerous liquids,
temperatures for a typical petroleum fluid are shown in at pressures up to 10,OOO psi, which are likely to be
Fig. 3- 17. Graphs of viscosity vs temperature at several encountered in typical hydraulic systems. As more data
pressures for a typical synthetic fluid are shown in are accumulated on viscosity-pressure effects, more in-
Fig. 3-18. telligent choices of lubricants and hydraulic fluids will
Most of the work on viscosity-pressure effects has be possible. The inclusion of viscosity-pressure data in
been done in studies concerned with lubrication theory. design studies could result in the use of liquids of lower
Lubricating fluids for ball bearings and gears are often viscosity than the classical lubrication equations would
subjected to extremely high pressures at contact sur- indicate. Using a liquid of lower viscosity has the ad-
faces under which their viscosities are increased appre- vantage of permitting lower operating temperatures,
ciably. At pressures as low as a few thousand pounds less liquid friction, and smaller power losses.
3-14
AMCP 706-1 23
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~
o
/' LOWER VISCOSITY COMPONENT- VOLUME
EXAMPLE: MIXTURE O F A
COMPONENT O F 150 cSt
I.000
1
3 WITH A COMPONENT OF
40 cSt
+(I000
COMPONENT AND 82%
LOW VISCOSITY
COMPONENT IS 50 .O cSt
4.0. 4.0
3.0. 3.0
2.0 2.0
3-15
AMCP 706-123
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
1,000, OGO where speeds are high and clearances small. Some typi-
cal shear rates are shown in Table 3-2 (Ref. 26). Circu-
100,000 lation of a hydraulic fluid through a system subjects the
fluid to rapid shear rates and sudden pressure changes
10,000
as it passes through orifices and close tolerance areas
1, 000 (Ref. 27). The resultant loss in viscosity may be either
a permanent loss, or a temporary loss, or a combination
100 of the two.
10 3-2.5.1 Temporary Viscosity Loss Due to
1 Shear
Temporary viscosity loss is due to orientation or
0.1 lining-up of the long chain polymer molecules in the
0 50 100 1
direction of flow. The polymer molecules thicken a
PRESSURE, PSIG x liquid more when they are oriented in a random man-
ner, than when they are oriented in the direction of
Fig. 3-17. Viscosity vs Pressure at Several Temperatures
flow. The orientation of the molecules can actually be
for a Typical Petroleum Fluid seen when the flow in transparent tubes is observed
under polarized light (Ref. 28). When the shear-
[From: ASME Pressure- Viscosity Report, Vol. 221 Used ing stress is removed, the liquids regain their origi-
by permission of ASME] nal viscosity.
Temporary loss of viscosity has two important ef-
fects on the performance of hydraulic fluids-an in-
3-2.5 VISCOSITY-SHEAR CHARACTERISTICS crease in leakage and a reduction of fluid friction. Leak-
age around close fitting parts increases as the viscosity
Some aircraft and many industrial hydraulic fluids decreases and can result in reduced system efficiency if
currently in use contain polymeric thickeners called the rate becomes too great. However, the reduction in
Viscosity Index improvers, or K I. improvers, to fluid friction that accompanies reduced viscosity in-
reduce viscosity change due to temperature. When liq- creases system efficiency and performance. Several
uids containing these K I . improvers are subjected to methods for measuring the temporary viscosity de-
high rates of shear, they often suffer a loss in viscosity crease have been developed. One method uses a bank
and KI. because of degradation of the polymers. The of capillary tubes; another uses a rotating tapered plug
unit of shear rate is the reciprocal second (sec-). A viscometer. The concentric cylinder is another com-
shear rate of one reciprocal second occurs when paral- mon apparatus. Any one of these methods is sufficient
lel planes 1 cm apart move in opposite directions at a for determining the relationship between viscosity and
relative speed of 1 cm/sec. High shear rates will occur shear rate (Ref. 28).
TABLE 3-2.
ESTIMATED SHEAR RATES OF LUBRICANTS
I I ~adialclemce I Relative Shear Rate ,
Application Velocity
of Parts sec -1
Parts, in.
Piston-cylinderclearance in automotive engine 0.001 200400 200,000 to
in./sec 400,000
Plain journal bearing (2-in. diameter) 0.001 to 1800 rpm 188,000 to
0.0001 1,820,000
Ball-typehydraulic pump 0.0003 3500 rpm 3,000,000
Bosch piston-type Diesel fuel pump 0.00004 36 in./sec 900,000
[From: Klaus and Fenske, Some Viscosity shear Characteristics of Lubricants, Lubrication Engineering26.
Used by permission of ASLE.]
3-16
AMCP 706-123
3-17
AMCP 706-1 23
3-2.5.2 Permanent Viscosity Loss Due to molecules in extremely short periods of time as com-
Shear pared to the pump tests. The sonic energy is supplied
from magnetostrictive oscillators. One such device gen-
Permanent viscosity loss is the result of chemical erates 10 kilocycles per second at 200 watts (Ref. 27).
breakdown or mechanical rupturing of the large The sonic method has the advantages of using only a
polymer molecules into smaller molecules. Rupture of small sample (50 ml or less) of the liquid and requiring
the polymer molecules may occur in both laminar and one hour or less to perform. Fig. 3-21 (Ref. 31) shows
turbulent flow; however, polymer degradation is gener- the effect of sonic irradiation on the viscosity of a typi-
ally greater under turbulent conditions. Cavitation, cal MIL-H-5606B fluid.
where large shearing forces are developed by the rapid The correlation between sonic results and pump test
formation and collapse of cavities in the liquid, can results has been poor in many cases. Recent investiga-
cause extensive scission of the polymer chain. Polymer tions have shown that the poor correlation might be
degradation by chemical reactions (oxidation, hydrol- attributed to at least two factors (Ref. 32): (1) the sonic
ysis, radiation; etc.) does occur, but mechanical scission procedure is performed at atmospheric pressure
of the polymer chain resulting from the large shearing whereas the pump test uses a reservoir under pressure,
forces on the molecule is the principal cause of viscosity and (2) both methods vary in their effect on different
loss in hydraulic fluids. Viscosity losses due to reduc- polymers. The problem of dissolving gases in the liquid
tion in the chain length (molecular weight) of the from the pressurized reservoir can be reduced by using
polymer thickener are permanent and the liquids do an interface such as a diaphragm between the liquid
not regain their viscosity when the shearing forces and the pressurizing gas. When the effect of dissolved
are removed. gases and the selective nature of the sonic irradiations
are considered, there is closer correlation to data from
pump tests. Considerable effort has been expended in
3-2.5.3 Test Methods for Viscosity-shear
developing a set of conditions to be used in the sonic
Characteristics
method and much of the work has been summarized in
ASTM Special Technical Publication No.182 (Ref. 29).
There are several methods of measuring permanent
shear viscosity loss. Most of them are summarized in (3) Diesel Injector Method: The diesel injector
ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 182 (Ref. method is similar to the pump-orifice method in that
29). The three most commonly used methods are the the liquid is pressurized and forced through a small
pump-orifice test, the sonic method, and the diesel in- orifice. In the injector method, the diesel injector serves
jector method. as both the pressurizing pump and the orifice. Excellent
(1) Pump-orifice Test: The liquid is pressurized agreement between pump tests and results obtained by
with a pump and the pressure is released by passing the multiple passes through the diesel injector have been
liquid through a small orifice to a low pressure area. obtained (Ref. 4).
After a given number of cycles the amount of perma-
nent shear viscosity loss is expressed as the percent
change in the viscosity at a given temperature. This test 3-2.6 LOW-TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES
simulates actual service conditions and employs hy-
draulic system components. As hydraulic fluids are cooled, they become more
Federal Test Method 3471.2 (Ref. 30) describes a viscous and flow becomes slower. If cooling is carried
procedure and apparatus (see Fig. 3-19) used to deter- to sufficiently low temperatures, the fluids approach
mine shear stability of hydraulic fluids with a pump plastic solids. Many liquids, if cooled under prescribed
test. The method consists of pumping one pint of liquid conditions, will begin to precipitate wax or separate
through a simulated hydraulic system and reporting components at a specific temperature. This tempera-
changes in visual appearance, viscosity, and neutraliza- ture is called the cloud point. If cooling under pre-
tion number. Graphs of viscosity loss of MIL-H-5606B scribed conditions is continued, a temperature will be
fluid during a pump loop test similar to that described reached at which the oil will not pour or flow. This
above are shown in Fig. 3-20 (Ref. 31). temperature is defined as the solid point. By definition,
the pour point is 5F above the solid point. The pour
(2) Sonic Method: The sonic method consists of point approximates the lowest temperature at which a
subjecting the liquid to high-frequency vibrations that liquid will flow in a container of a given size. To be
produce permanent shear breakdown of the polymer useful, a hydraulic fluid must have a pour point below
3-18
AMCP 706-123
r - - --
5
- - -.- -- 1
0
1 I-
s
I -J
4
I-
I z
W
x
z
0
l
z
I H
>
z
w
,I I---I---- t \--J
3-19
AMCP 706-1 23
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
components removed. The latter are referred to as deep
dewaxed fluids.
3-2.6.2 Pour Point
The pour point may mark a temperature at which

crystallization of wax has proceeded to such an extent
that further lowering of temperature would cause flow
to cease (waxy pour point) or it may, with wax-free
fluids, represent the temperature at which the viscosity
is sufficiently high that further cooling would cause
flow to cease (viscous pour point). Liquids which are
10 20 30 40 5 0 ~ 1 0 4 free of wax or other components that can precipitate on
cooling behave like Newtonian fluids even at low tem-
Pumping Cycles peratures. The viscosity at the pour point is approxi-
Fig. 3-20. Effect of Shear Upon Viscosity of a MIL- mately the same for all fluids of this type and has been
H-5606B Hydraulic Fluid in a Pump Test0 found to be in the range of lo5 to 106cSt.
Most commercially available petroleum fluids have
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view a waxy pour point rather'than a viscous pour point.
They are Newtonian fluids only when the temperature
is above the point at which wax begins to separate. The
formation of waxy crystals does not mean the fluid has
solidified. Flow has been prevented by the crystals but
if the liquid is agitated to rupture the crystalgtructure,
the liquid will flow even though the temperature is
below the pour point. The waxy pour point is depend-
J 30
*?a
v)
1 ent upon such factors as the rate of cooling and degree
of agitation (Ref. 4). Table 3-3 lists the minimum pour
point required by four common Military Specifications
for hydraulic fluids.
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 3-2.6.3 Freezing Point

Sonic Exposure Time, min
For pure, or essentially pure, hydrocarbons the tem-
Fig. 3-21. Effect of Sonic Irradiation on the Viscosity
perature at which solidification occurs is called the
of a MIL-H-5606B Hydraulic Fluids
freezing point. This term is also frequently and loosely
used for other petroleum products where the proper
the minimum temperatures expected in operation. It is term would be either the cloud point, the pour point,
difficult to define either pour point or solid point pre- or the solid point. The freezing point is defined as the
cisely as the transition from liquid to solid is gradual. temperature at which a pure hydrocarbon passes from
a liquid to a solid state. Test methods for determining
freezing points usually apply to fuels, solvents, and
3-2.6.1 Cloud Point other types of relatively pure hydrocarbons.
The cloud point is of interest for use at low tempera-

tures. It is defined as the temperature at which wax or 3-2.6.4 Test Methods for Low Temperature
other dissolved solids begin to crystallize and become Properties
noticeable when liquids are chilled under specified con-
ditions. Dissolved moisture can also cause clouding of (1) Cloud and Pour Point
a liquid on cooling and lead to erroneous results. Many Test Methods: Federal Test Method 201.8 (Ref. 33)
liquids have no cloud point. Some base stocks have no ASTM D-97-66 (Ref. 34)
waxy components and other stocks can have the waxy ASTM D-2500-66 (Ref. 35)
3-20
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 3-3.
POUR POINT REQUIREMENTS OF FOUR MILITARY SPECIFICATION FLUIDS
Fluid Type USe Pour Point, OF, max

MILH-5606B Petroleum Aircraft -75
MILH-8446B Nonpetroleum Aircraft -75
MILH- 13866B Petroleum Artillery -50
MILH-2760 1A Nonpetroleum Aircraft -65
These methods describe the procedures for determin- A sample of the oil is placed in a glass jar in a bath
ing the cloud point for liquids which are transparent in and subjected to a schedule of temperature variations
layers 1-1/2 in. in thickness and for determining pour for a period of up to 6 days. The lowest temperature at
point for any petroleum fluid. which no surface movement will occur when the sam-
(a) Cloud point: (ASTM D-2500-66, Federal Test ple is turned horizontally for 3 sec (the solid point) is
Method 201.8) A sample of the fluid is placed then determined. The stable pour point is recorded as
in a test jar, heated at least 25F above the the temperature 5F above the solid point. This method
approximate cloud point, and then chilled in differs from the method of par. 3-2.6.4(1) in that the
successively cooler baths. At intervals of 2F sample first undergoes a period of heating and cooling
the sample is inspected for clouding. When a over a period of several days.
distinct cloudiness or haze appears at the bot- Precision:
tom of the test jar, the temperature reading is (a) Repeatability. Results may vary in one labora-
recorded as the cloud point. tory by 5F for oils with pour stability charac-
teristics. For blends with solid points below
Precision: Duplicate results from one laboratory 0F results may vary 10F.
may differ by 4F and the results of two different labs (b) Reproducibility. Results may vary in different
may differ by 8F for gas oils. For all other oils, re- laboratories by 10F. The averages of three or
sults of duplicate tests should not differ by more more results per laboratory in different
than 10F. laboratories should not differ more than 5F.
(b) Pour point: (ASTM D-97-66, Federal Test (3) Diluted Pour Point
Method 201.8) A sample of the fluid is placed Test Method: Federal Test Method 204 (Ref. 37)
in a test jar of 1-1/4 in. diameter and heated to This method is used for indicating the flow charac-
15F above the expected pour point, but not teristics of engine oils that have been diluted with avia-
hotter than 115F. The sample is then chilled tion gasoline.
in successively cooler baths. At intervals of A sample of the oil is diluted to a mixture of 70
5"F, the jar is tilted and the fluid surface is percent oil and 30 percent diluent. The diluent is a
inspected for movement. When the fluid re- mixture of 80 percent naphtha and 20 percent xylene.
aches a temperature where the jar can be tilted The pour point is determined as outlined in ASTM
horizontally for 5 sec with no movement, the D-97-66 (Ref. 34) or Federal Test Method 201.8 (Ref.
temperature is recorded as the solid point. The 33) for cloud and pour point (par. 3-2.6.4(1)).
pour point is taken as the temperature 5F Precision: The same limits as set forth in ASTM or
above the solid point temperature. Federal Test Method for cloud and pour point (par.
3-2.6.4(1)) apply to this method.
Precision: Results of the pour point from one labora- (4) Cloud Intensity at Low Temperature
tory may vary by 5F and from different laboratories Test Method: Federal Test Method 202 (Ref. 38)
by 10F. This method describes the procedure for determining
(2) Pour Stability Characteristics the ability of hydraulic fluids or highly refined
Test Method: Federal Test Method 203 (Ref. 36) light lubricating oils to remain free of turbidity at
This method is used for determining the stable pour low temperatures.
point of blends of winter grade motor oil and of certain A sample of the fluid and a standard are stored at
types of hydraulic fluids. -65F (or lower as specified by the purchaser) for a
3-21
AMCP 706-1 23
specified period. It is then agitated and its turbidity is an instantaneous flash. The fire point, however, is the
compared to the standard. The standard is a mixture of minimum temperature at which sufficient vapor is
barium chloride, sulfuric acid, and sodium hydroxide. continuously generated to sustain combustion. Since
The turbidity of the sample is reported as less than, differences between flash and fire points are not great,
more than, or equal to the standard. and since fire point data cannot be obtained in a closed
tester, the fire point is often omitted in commercial data
on hydraulic fluids. Table 3-4 lists the flash point
3-2.6.5 Significance of Cloud and Pour Points requirements of five common Military Specifications for
hydraulic fluids.
Many hydraulic systems are required to operate in

3-2. Z 1.1 Test Methods for Flash and Fire Points
extremely cold weather. Under these conditions the oil
must flow to the suction side of the hydraulic pump on (1) Cleveland Open Cup Method
start-up of the system. The pour point, being the lowest Test Methods: Federal Test Method 1103.6 (Ref. 39)
temperature at which a liquid will flow under normal ASTM D-92-66 (Ref. 40)
gravity head, must be considered in selecting a hydrau- These methods describe a procedure for determining
lic fluid for cold weather applications. The oil chosen the flash and fire points of petroleum products except
for the system should have a pour point below the fuel oils and those products having an open cup flash
lowest anticipated start-up temperature. point below 175F.
The cloud point, on the other hand, is of little signifi- The test cup is filled with the sample and the temper-
cance. A formation of the waxy crystals may tend to ature of the sample is increased, first rapidly and then
plug up small orifices, but this fact is taken into account at a slower constant rate as the flash point is ap-
in the design of hydraulic systems for low temperature proached. At 5F intervals, a small flame is passed
operation. The clouding of liquids, however, will some- across the cup in a prescribed manner. The lowest tem-
times cause the clogging of filters if no preheating facili- perature at which application of the test flame causes
ties are available. vapors above the surface of the sample to ignite is taken
as the flash point. The test is continued until the ap-
plication of the test flame causes the fluid to ignite and
3-2.7 FLAMMABILITY CHARACTERISTICS burn for at least 5 sec. That temperature is the .fire
point. A sketch of the Cleveland Open Cup apparatus
The measurement of the flammability characteristics is shown in Fig. 3-22.
of a hydraulic fluid is complex. The degree of flamma-
bility is influenced by the characteristics of the liquid, Precision: Results should not be considered suspect
the source of the ignition, whether the liquid has vapo- unless they differ by more than the following amounts:
rized, and many other factors. The potential danger (a) Repeatability.
from hydraulic fluids is frequently great because of the Flash point 15F, 8.3C
high pressures involved in many systems. Fracture of Fire point lWF, 55C
hydraulic lines or leakage from faulty connections can (b) Reproducibility.
form a fine spray of liquid which is readily ignitable. Flash point 3WF, 16.7C
Numerous tests have been developed to determine the Fire point 20F, 11.1C
flammability characteristics of liquids both under (2) Tag Closed Cup Tester Method
laboratory conditions and also under simulated operat- Test Methods: Federal Test Method 1101.6 (Ref. 41)
ing conditions. ASTM D-56-64 (Ref. 42)
These methods describe procedures for determining
the flash and fire points of fluids that flash below
3-2.7.1 Flash and Fire Points 175F, with the exception of products classified as
fuel oils.
The flash and fire points are the most common The sample is placed in the cup of the tester; the lid
laboratory measurements of the flammability of a liq- is closed; and the temperature is increased at a slow
uid. The flash point is the minimum temperature at constant rate. A small flame is directed into the cup at
which sufficient liquid is vaporized under specified con- 1F intervals. The lowest temperature at which the ap-
ditions to create a mixture that will burn if ignited. As plication of the test flame causes a vapor above the
the name flash indicates, burning at this point is only sample to ignite is the flash point.
3-22
AMCP 706-123
Specifiation Fluid Type USe Flash Point, "F,min

MILH-5606B Petroleum Aircraft 200
MILH-8446B Nonpetroleum Aircraft 395
MILH- 13866B Petroleum Artillery 210
W-B680a Nonpetroleum Automotive 179.6
MILH-27601A Petroleum Aircraft 360
THERMOMETER
TEST FLAME
APP LICA T 0 R
TEST CUP
HEATER (FLAME-TYPE
OR ELECTRIC
RESISTANCE-TYPE)
Fig. 3-22. Cleveland Open Cup Flash and Fire Point Test Apparatus
Precision: Results should not be considered suspect mechanism on the cover that opens a shutter, lowers
unless they differ by more than the following amounts: the test flame through the opening into the vapor space
(a) Repeatability. 2F of the cup in 0.5 sec, leaves the flame in place for 1 sec,
(b) Reproducibility. Below 55"F-GF and quickly retracts the flame and closes the shutter.
55F or above-4"F The flash point is recorded as the temperature of the
(3) Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Tester Method sample at the time the test flame application causes a
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 1102 (Ref. 43) distinct flash in the interior of the cup.
ASTM D-93-66 (Ref. 44) Precision: Results should not be considered suspect
These methods describe procedures for the determi- unless they differ by more than the following amounts:
nation of the flash point of fuel oils, lubricating oils,
suspensions of solids, liquids that tend to form a surface Materia Flash Point Repeatability Reproducibility
film under test conditions, and other liquids, with the Range
Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Tester. Suspen.
The sample is placed in the cup of the tester; the lid sion of 95" to 110F 4F 6F
closed; and the sample heated at a slow, constant rate Solids
with continual stirring. A small flame is directed into
All Below 220F 4F 6F
the cup at 5F intervals with simultaneous interruption
of stirring. The test flame is applied by operating the Others Above 220F 10F 15F
AMCP 706-123
3-2.7.1.2 Significance of Flash and Fire Points the general types of tests and procedures and the efforts
towards standardization is given in Ref. 46.
Petroleum liquids do not burn as such, but in gen- ( 1) Spray Ignition Tests
eral, must first be vaporized. The flash and fire points There are two versions of this test-the high-pressure
are measures of the minimum temperature at which spray ignition test and the low-pressure spray igni-
sufficient vapor will be given off from the liquid so that tion test.
a combustible mixture of air and vapor is obtained. In High-pressure Spray Test (MIL-F-7100( Ref.
this manner, the relative fire and explosion hazard can 45)): The liquid is pressurized to 1,000 psi with
be estimated from the flash and fire points. nitrogen and forced through an orifice 0.0145
Flash and fire points are also useful for evaluation of in. in diameter. Attempts are made to obtain
used liquids. If a liquid undergoes a rise in flash or fire ignition by application of an oxy-acetylene
point while in service, loss of the lighter fractions by torch flame at various standard distances from
evaporation is indicated. A lower flash or fire point is the nozzle. At each position, a report is made
an indication that the liquid has become contaminated as to whether or not the fluid will ignite, will
with a more volatile product (such as a fuel) or that flash with diffculty, or flashes readily. If flash-
some of the heavier fractions have broken down. The ing occurs, the distance from the orifice at
flash and fire points are also aids in establishing the which the ignition or flashing is carried down-
identity of unknown petroleum products. stream from the test flame area, and whether
the flashing is self-extinguishingor results in a
3-2.7.2 Flammability Tests Under Simulated sustained fire, are also reported. A pictorial
Service Conditions sketch of the high-pressure spray ignition test
apparatus is shown in Fig. 3-23.
There are many complex factors involved in assess- Low-pressure Spray Test (Ref. 4): A fire is
ing the flammability of hydraulic fluids, and no one started in a metal pan filled with oil-soaked
single test can be used to evaluate all of the types of rags and is allowed to burn. The liquid to be
liquids under all of the expected conditions of use. The tested is sprayed towards the fire from the
flash and fire points are laboratory tests that bear little reservoir of an ordinary paint spray machine
resemblance to actual operating conditions. As a result, several feet from the fire. The increased inten-
several different methods for testing the flammability sity of the fire is then used as a measure of the
of liquids were developed. Most of these tests were flammability of the liquid. A pictorial sketch
designed to simulate conditions in aircraft resulting of the low-pressure spray ignition test ap-
from a broken hydraulic line spraying liquid onto vari- paratus is shown in Fig. 3-24.
ous sources of ignition. Although the tests were deve- An alternative low-pressure spray ignition test has
loped primarily for the aircraft industry, they are useful been developed by Rowand and Sargent (Ref. 46). This
in any industry where hydraulic liquids are exposed to method uses an airless paint spray gun. The gun gener-
ignition sources. Three of the more common of these ates a flat, well-defined atomized spray by pumping the
tests-the spray ignition, the hot manifold or hot surface liquid onto a high-speed rotating disk which propels
ignition, and the incendiary gun fire test-are described the liquid in the form of small droplets through a slot
in MIL-F-7100, Fluid, Hydraulic, Nonflammable, Air- in the side of the gun. A glass blowers torch 4 in. from
craft(Ref. 4 9 , an early specification for a fire-resistant the nozzle is the ignition source. The amount of flame
hydraulic fluid. It was issued December 1950 and can- produced in the spray is used as a measure of the flam-
celled February 1958. No products were ever produced mability of the liquid. This method has the advantages
that conformed to the specification. The fire-resistance of requiring only electricity, a source of ignition, and
tests in the specification (described briefly here) are still can be performed in a laboratory hood.
used by many companies involved in hydraulic fluid
(2) Hot Manifod Ignition Test (MIL-F-7100(Ref.
work, although they vary from company to company.
Other tests are described in the literature, in various 45))
Military Specifications, and in ASTM special publica- The liquid is allowed to drop at a specified rate on
tions. Many of these tests are similar in nature but a simulated aircraft manifold heated to approximately
differ in their apparatus and procedures. A major prob- 1300F. The ignition of the liquid and the carrying of
lem confronting industry today is the lack of test stand- the flame to the pan below the manifold are used as
ardization and interpretation of test results to ade- measures of the flammability of the liquid. Variations
quately measure fire resistance of fluids. A review of of the test involve raising or lowering the manifold
3-24
AMCP 706-123
r F L U I D RESERVOIR
'LENE
PRESSURE SOURCE
Fig. 3-23. High-pressure Spray Ignition Test Apparatus
N O F BURNING RAGS
FLUID SPRAY
PAINT SPRAY GUN

AIR SUPPLY
Fig. 3-24. Low-pressure Spray Ignition Test Apparatus

3-25
AMCP 706-123
temperature until ignition occurs or until the limits of and/or explosion, depending on the rate of pressure
the apparatus have been exceeded. This variation pro- release, volume of air, and quantity of organic material.
vides an indication of the spontaneous ignition temper- The phenomenon of compression ignition can be im-
ature of liquids contacting heated steel surfaces in the portant in generating fires in hydraulic systems. Ac-
presence of large amounts of air. A pictorial sketch of cumulators, pressure gages, and other closed-end
the hot manifold spray ignition test apparatus is shown equipment are especially susceptible to this phenome-
in Fig. 3-25. non. Two basic tests have been developed to determine
( 3 ) Incendiary Gun Fire Tests (MIL-F-7100 (Ref. the compression ignition characteristics of hydraulic
45)) fluids-the diesel engine test and the shock tube or pip-
The liquid is placed in a 3 ft long, 5 / 8 in. OD alumi- ing system test.
num alloy tube and pressurized to 1,OOO psi with nitro- (a) Diesel Engine Compression Ignition: This test
gen. A cal.30 incendiary bullet is fired from a range of is described in MIL-H-19475 (Ref. 47), a Mili-
50 yd into the tube. Observations for burning or explo- tary Specification for hydraulic fluids for Na-
sion of the liquid are made and are reported as a meas- val aircraft catapult launching systems. The
ure of the flammability of the liquid. test is a modification of the ASTM CFR Ce-
(4) Compression Ignition tane rating engine test described in ASTM
It has been found that high-pressure air suddenly Manual of Engine Test Methods for Rating
expanding into a confined space containing organic Fuels. A sample of the liquid is injected into
matter such as a hydraulic fluid can cause ignition a variable compression diesel engine, and the
FLUID SUPPLY TUBE

DROPS O F FLUID
ONTO MANIFOLD
HEAT TUBE
(INSIDE TUBE) \L/ /
LDRIP PAN
Fig. 3-25. Hot Manifold Ignition Test Apparatus

3-26
AMCP 706-123
engineisthenturnedover at variouscompression
ratios. The lowest compression ratio for com-
bustion of the liquid is reported as a measure
of the fluids flammability. The higher the
compression ratio, the more resistant the liq-
uid is to compression ignition.
(b) Shock Tube or Piping System Test: This test is
described in MIL-H-22072 (Ref. 48) for a tire-
resistant hydraulic fluid. A small amount of
steel wool soaked with the liquid is placed at
the closed end of a pipe. By use of high-pres-
sure air and a fast opening valve, a shock wave
is introduced and directed down the pipe.
Combustion of the liquid on the steel wool can DIMENSIONS IN INCHES
be determined by a rapid rise in temperature of
the steel wool or by examination at the end of
Fig. 3-26. Test Apparatus for the Pipe Cleaner Evap-
the test. Several repeat tests are conducted, oration Test
and the results are reported as the ratio of the
number of times that fire occurred to the num-
ber of tests tried at a given temperature. The
ASTM D-2155-66 (Ref. 50). A small sample of the
fewer times the liquid burns, the more resistant
liquid to be tested is injected, with a hypodermic sy-
it is to compression ignition. Reproducible re-
ringe, into a heated glass flask containing air. The con-
sults have been difficult to obtain in this test.
tents of the flask are observed in a darkened room for
5 min following injection of the sample or until ignition
3-2.7.3 Effects of Evaporation on occurs. Ignition is evidenced by the sudden appearance
Flammability (Pipe Cleaner Test) of a flame inside the flask. The lowest temperature at
which autoignition occurs is taken as the autoignition
Test Method: Federal Test Method 352 (Ref. 49) temperature of the product in air at 1 atmosphere pres-
sure. The time lag between injection and ignition is also
-
This method is used for determining the effect of
reported. A cross-sectional sketch of the AIT ap-
evaporation on the flammability of a liquid petroleum
product. A pipe cleaner, soaked with the fluid, is passed paratus is shown in Fig 3-27.
repeatedly through a flame at a rate of 25 cycles per A new test procedure is expected to be included in
minute and the number of passes required for ignition the revised edition of Federal Test Method Standard
is noted. The fluid is then stored in an oven for the time 791a. The new procedure will be designated Method
and at the temperature required by the fluid specifica- 5050 and entitled Autogenous Ignition at Reduced or
tion, and its flammability is rechecked. Four repeats of Elevated Pressure. The temperature determined with
the test are made before and after heating in the oven. this test procedure is sometimes referred to as the reac-
The results are reported as the average number of cy- tion threshold temperature.
cles necessary for a self-sustaining flame to be achieved The autoignition temperature is a laboratory meas-
on the pipe cleaner both before and after partial evapo- urement and is very sensitive to the procedure used in
ration in the oven. A sketch of the test apparatus is its determination. It has been shown that in practice
shown in Fig. 3-26. autoignition depends on many factors, such as the na-
ture of the surface contacting the liquids, the composi-
tion of the combustible air mixture, and the pressure at
3-2.7.4 Autoignition Temperature the area of contact. Researchers at the U. S. Bureau of
Mines (Ref. 51) have found that the AIT of a MIL-O-
The autoignition temperature (A1T)-often called the 5606 liquid increases appreciably with a decrease in
spontaneous ignition temperature (SIT)-is that tem- environmentai pressure below one atmosphere but
perature at which a flame can be obtained without an changes little with increasing environmental pressures
external source of ignition. It should not be confused above one atmosphere (Fig. 3-28). Not all liquids will
with flash or fire points which rely upon ignition have the marked change in slope of the AIT/pressure
source. Autoignition temperature is determined by curve near atmospheric pressure shown on Fig. 3-28.
3-27
AMCP 706-1 23
ERLENMEYER FLASK -\
200cc
HEATERS
8 INSULATION
THERMOCOUPLE Sd
Fig. 3-27. Autoignition Temperature Test Apparatus
Some liquids will have a gradual decrease in minimum and emulsion-type. A complete discussion of the vari-
spontaneous ignition temperature with pressure in- ous types is beyond the scope of this text and the discus-
crease and may or may not exhibit a slope change near sion here will be limited.
one atmosphere. For example, Fig. 3-29shows that the (1) Synthetics: A wide variety of synthetic liquids
AIT of a chlorinated phenyl methyl silicone liquid is have been investigated as candidate hydraulic fluids,
essentially a linear function of pressure. Figs. 3-28 and and certain types have been adopted and specifications
3-29 also show that the nature and type of surface in written (see Chapter 4). Some of the typical classes of
contact with these liquids have little or no effect on the fluids under investigation are phosphate esters, haloge-
change in AIT with pressure. It has also been found nated hydrocarbons, silicones, and silicates. A detailed
(Ref. 52) that the AIT generally decreases with increas- discussion of synthetic fluids can be found in Refs. 53,
ing environmental oxygen content (see Fig. 3-30). 54, and 55.
3-2.7.5 Fire-resistant Liquids (2) Water-glycol: Water-glycol base fire-resistant
The development of liquids that are inflammable or liquids are solutions of from 35 to 50 percent water in
highly fire-resistant is the area of hydraulic fluid re- ethylene or propylene glycol, which are thickened, if
search that is receiving the greatest attention. As late necessary, to a higher viscosity by adding a water-solu-
as 1950 fire-resistant hydraulic fluids were uncommon. ble polyglycol. The fire resistance of these liquids is due
For reasons of safety, insurance companies and Gov- entirely to the presence of water. They were originally
ernment and industrial safety agencies have en- developed for use in military equipment but have been
couraged the use of fire-resistant fluids in Government, used extensively in industrial equipment.
industrial, and agricultural equipment. Fire-resistant
liquids should not be confused with high-temperature (3) Emulsions: Emulsion-type hydraulic fluids are
liquids. A fire-resistant liquid will not burn easily. A multiphase systems containing two liquids, such as oil
high-temperature liquid will not significantly change and water, which are not usually mutually soluble.
its properties at high temperatures. Water is a fire- Water-in-oil emulsions have found wide acceptance as
resistant liquid but it is not a high-temperature liquid. industrial hydraulic fluids. The emulsions contain up to
40 percent water which acts as a snuffer to render the
One of the fundamental properties of petroleum liq- liquid fire-resistant.
uids is their flammability. Although the flammability
characteristics of petroleum liquids can be modified by
the use of special refining procedures (Ref. 50) and/or 3-2.8 VOLATILITY
the use of additives, fluids of this type have shown
considerable improvement in fire resistance over MIL- All liquids tend to vaporize when they are heated.
H-5606B type hydraulic fluids (Ref. 55). Other catego- The volatility of a liquid describes the degree and rate
ries of fire-resistant liquids are synthetic, water base, at which it will vaporize under given conditions of
3-28
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I - 1,100
LEGEND
- 1,000
z
Symbol Surface z
c
x Aluminum z
V Beryllium copper - 900
w
t- 0 Copper Bz
A Magnesium -I
0 Pyrex -800 p
0 Stainless steel 6
tn
+ Titanium c
v)
-700 5
z
=!
- 600
-I
rn
tn s
I - 500 W
3
-z
5 - 3
c
5 0 z
200 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 7400
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 -I
Fig. 3-28. Spontaneous Ignition Temperature of a MIL-0-5606 Fluid in Air in

Contact With Various Surfaces As a Function of Test Chamber Pressure5'
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
600 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I l l l l i 1100
W
h
-
3
- - 1000 -$
ac Z
3 LEGEND
2
ai Symbol Surface
Lu 3
2 - X Aluminum
W
I-
500
v
0
Beryllium copper
Copper
- 900
v)
5
Z Z
A Magnesium -I
-
0
1 Pyrex
b
Z
t
IS k--* 800
3
rn
Wo9
Z o Stainless steel 0
- 400
(3 Titanium 5
m
3
- 700 0
0 c
-
Z
2Q -
-I
600
50 300 -
i4
CL
m
- - 3
500 w
z rn
r'- F
-I
C
400 R
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 *
0
n
Fig. 3-29. Spontaneous Ignition Temperature of a Chlorinated Phenyl Methyl

Siliwne in Air in Contact With V h s Surfaces As a Function of
Test Chamber Prw---esl
a 1i
400
380
I I I
I
I
I
LEGEND
Hydraulic fluid
I
MLO 53-446
MLO 54-581
MLO 54-856
MLO 54-645
MLO 8200
MLO 54-540
MIL-H-5606B
-4
0
LIVE GRAPH P
d
Click here to view N
w
AMCP 706-123
temperature and pressure. It is desirable that a hydrau- An apparatus has been developed for determining
lic fluid have low volatility. Vaporization of a liquid in the vapor pressure of low-volatility solids and liquids.
service can result in pump damage through cavitation The apparatus can determine absolute vapor pressures
and a reduction in efficiency.There are three character- at temperatures up to l W F , in a very short period of
istics generally used to indicate the volatility character- time, and with relatively simple equipment. The
istics of a liquid-vapor pressure, boiling point, and method is based on the kinetic theory of gases, which
evaporation loss. All three are different aspects of the states that the weight loss of a material per unit time
volatility of a liquid. is proportional to the vapor pressure of the material
(Ref. 4).
A tentative standard test method (Ref. 59) has been
3-2.8.1 Vapor Pressure adopted by ASTM for determining the vapor pressure
of petroleum products that are nonviscous. The
The pressure exerted by a vapor which is in equilib- method involves injecting a sample of the liquid into a
rium with the liquid is known as vapor pressure. For glass bulb that has been evacuated. The rise in pressure
a given liquid, this pressure is a function only of tem- in the bulb, resulting from the sample introduction, is
perature. The more volatile the liquid, the higher the the sum of the vapor pressure of the sample and the
vapor pressure at a specified temperature and the faster partial pressure of dissolved air, practically all of which
the vaporization. comes out of solution.
The vapor pressure for a pure liquid is a physical The vapor pressure of hydraulic fluids and other
property of the liquid for a given temperature. How- low-volatility liquids is usually expressed in millimeters
ever, most hydraulic fluids are mixtures of several com- of mercury. The vapor pressure of more volatile pro-
ponents. The vapor pressure of the mixture is a com- ducts such as gasoline and solvents is often expressed
posite value that reflects the combined effects of the as the Reid vapor pressure. The Reid vapor pressure is
individual components. Theoretically, the vapor pres- approximately the vapor pressure in pounds per square
sure of the mixture can be calculated from knowledge inch absolute. The method of measuring the Reid vapor
of the vapor pressures of the individual components pressure of a liquid is described by ASTM D-323-58
and their mole fractions. (Ref. 60) and Federal Test Method 1201.6 (Ref. 61). It
Numerous methods have been developed for deter- is determined by placing a sample of the fuel (chilled
mining the vapor pressure of pure fluids. Several of the to 32 to 40F) in a sealed bomb with air at ambient
more common test methods are the isoteniscope, gas pressure and 100F and measuring the change of pres-
saturation methods, and effusion methods. The use of sure in the bomb. The Reid vapor pressure is a standard
these methods to determine the vapor pressure of mix- measure of volatility in the fuels and solvents industry.
tures, such as hydraulic fluids, can introduce errors,
and it is difficult to obtain accurate vapor pressure
data. Of the above methods, the isoteniscope is proba-
3-2.8.2 Boiling Point
bly the most commonly used. Descriptions of the
isoteniscope technique and apparatus can be found in
Refs. 56 and 57. However, a standardized test proce- The boiling point becomes important only for rela-
dure has not been adopted, and the apparatus and test tively pure compounds and is not generally used to
procedure vary slightly in different laboratories. When describe liquids which are mixtures. It is determined by
the vapor pressure is presented, it is frequently the extrapolation of vapor pressure data or by simply heat-
vapor pressure of the base liquid. A graph of vapor ing a liquid until it refluxes or distills. For liquids that
pressure vs temperature for some of the more common are mixtures, a range of boiling points is obtained
types of hydraulic fluids is shown in Fig. 3-31 (Ref. 58). rather than a single boiling point. The boiling point
The vapor pressures of specific hydraulic fluids may temperature range of petroleum products is normally
differ from those of the examples shown in Fig. 3-31. determined by ASTM D-86-66, Distillation of Pe-
In an homologous series of liquids, the vapor pressures troleum Products. A 100-ml sample of the product is
of the individual liquids vary inversely with their distilled in a prescribed manner, depending upon its
molecular weights. Fig. 3-32 is a graph of vapor pres- nature. Temperature readings taken are the initial boil-
sure vs temperature for several types of liquids and ing temperature of the sample, the maximum boiling
exemplifiesthe differences in the vapor pressures of two temperature, and other temperatures as prescribed per-
petroleum base hydraulic fluids (MIL-H-5606B and centages of the distilled product are recovered in a
MIL-H-27601A). condensing unit.
3-32
AMCP 706-123
1000
100
E
E
0.01
0.001
40 ti0 120 160 200 2% 360
TEMPERATURE,
Fig. 3-31. Vapor Pressure vs Temperature of Typical Fluids (Approximate)
[From: F. D. Yeaple, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Power and Conrrolm.Used by permission of McGraw-Hill, Inc.]
Boiling of a hydraulic fluid in a system can result in hydraulic fluids, lubricants, and greases. The actual
failure or component damage. Formation of vapor in evaporation rate is not an overly important factor in
control lines, actuators, servomotors, and other compo- closed-loop hydraulic systems which are not exposed to
nents will adversely affect the operation of those com- the atmosphere, but can be important in systems with
ponents. Boiling on the suction side of the pump will reservoirs vented to the atmosphere. Several tests for
reduce the pump delivery and cause cavitation in determining evaporation loss have been developed and
the pump. adopted as ASTM or Federal Test Methods. Most of
these tests are essentially the same in that they consist
3-2.8.3 Evaporation of heating a sample of the liquid in the presence of air
Evaporation loss is widely used in the United States and observing the results. They differ in their proce-
to describe the volatility of liquid products such as dure, apparatus, and method of reporting results.
3-33
Next Page
AMCP 706-12?
~-
i 000
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
100
2 10
E
E
1
d
0
a
s
0.1
0.01
200 300 400 5 00
TEMPERATURE, OF
Fig. 3-32. Vapor Pressure vs Temperature of Several Types of Hydradie Fhdds
(1) Evaporation (Tackiness Test): oven is heated to the temperature for the period of time
Test Method: Federal Test Method 353 (Ref. 62) called for in the fluid specification. The c d t i o n of the
This test method is intended for hydraulic fluids fluid on the slide is reported. A fluid k considered to
which contain viscosity improvers (such as acryloid have passed the test if it is still oily and not hardlor
polymers). It serves as a means of determining the tacky.
tackiness of the viscosity improver after the base liquid
(2) Evaporation Loss:
has been evaporated.
A glass slide is dipped in a sample of the fluid at Test Methods: Federal Test h4ethod 351.2 (Ref. 63)
room temperature and then suspended in an oven. The ASTM D-972-56(Ref. 64)
3-34
AMCP 706-123
CHAPTER 4
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
4- 1 GENERAL Because of the wide and vastly di'fferent areas of

application, it is not suprising that hydraulic fluids
As the use of hydraulics and fluid power systems has have been classified by many different systems based on
increased, the number and types of hydraulic fluids their different characteristics such as physical proper-
available have also increased. This chapter presents a ties, chemical types, operating capabilities, utility, or
description of several methods used to classify hydrau- specific applications. Although none of these groupings
lic fluids. In addition, descriptions of the more common fully describe the properties of a hydraulic fluid, they
types of hydraulic fluids are presented with a brief are still employed and assist in selecting fluids for use
summary of specifications for each type of fluid and in specific areas.
specification data sheets listing exact specification re-
quirements for every hydraulic fluid discussed. These
specification summaries and data sheets are presented 4-2.1 CLASSIFICATION BY PHYSICAL
at the end of the chapter. PROPERTIES
4-2 CLASSIFICATION OF A classification based on viscosity ranges was one of

HYDRAULIC FLUIDS the. earliest methods used since petroleum products
were the only hydraulic fluids widely used and viscosity
A wide range of liquids is available for use in hydrau- was the most important property of this class of hy-
lic systems, and it is desirable to employ a classification draulic fluids. The viscosity method is accepted and
system to assist those using hydraulic fluids to deter- used as a means of classifying petroleum base hydraulic
mine if a liquid under consideration may function satis- fluids by the fluid manufacturers, the automotive in-
factorily for a particular application. However, the task dustry, hydraulic component manufacturers, and hy-
of selecting the most meaningful classification system draulic system designers and builders. Hydraulic fluids
is complicated by several factors. The areas of applica- grouped in this manner are generally specified as suita-
tion of hydraulic systems and the type.of equipment ble for use in a given application within a specified
used have become so diverse that a classification useful viscosity range. However, in the case of nonpetroleum
in one area of application has little or no meaning in base synthetic fluids, a classification based on viscosity
another. In addition, the increasing number and types range alone is not sufficient because of the importance
of hydraulic fluids available add to the complexity of of other properties.
the task. In simple, low performance hydraulic sys-
tems, where operating parameters are not severe, al-
most .any liquid-water, water-based liquids, natural pe-
troleum products, or the more sophisticated synthetic 4-2.2 CLASSIFICATION BY CHEMICAL
liquids-may be used with varying degrees of satisfac- PROPERTIES
tion. In other areas, where the operating parameters are
very severe, only a limited number of liquids may be Chemical classification of hydraulic fluids is exten-
considered and selection must be made with considera- sively used by technical personnel, such as chemists
ble care. In addition, there are liquids which are used and petroleum engineers. Chemical classification as-
primarily for purposes other than as hydraulic fluids, sists them in predicting general characteristics of a new
but which have properties permitting them to be em- hydraulic fluid or in developing a new hydraulic fluid
ployed for the latter purpose in many applications. for a specific application. In chemical compounds such
AMCP 706-123
as hydraulic fluids, the physical properties are depend- Classification of hydraulic fluids and systems based
ent upon the compound structure and, accordingly, the on operational temperature ranges is not satisfactory in
physical properties of two chemically similar fluids many cases, such as in industrial systems, since there
may not be the same. Within a given class of hydraulic is no need for a-65F operational temperature require-
fluids where the chemical properties are similar, the ment. However, it is important that every hydraulic
physical properties of these fluids may vary greatly. fluid have a definite operational temperature range es-
tablished. Knowledge of these temperature limits is
4-2.3 CLASSIFICATION BY OPERATING necessary in selecting a hydraulic fluid for a specific
CHARACTERISTICS application.
When classifying hydraulic fluids according to ope-

rating characteristics, the most common operational 4-2.4 CLASSIFICATION BY FIRE
parameters used are the temperature limits and the RESISTANCE
fire-resistant characteristics of the hydraulic fluid. The
aerospace industry and the Air Force are the principal Hydraulic fluids can be classed as flammable or fire-
users of the classification system based on operational resistant. However, this classification is somewhat arbi-
temperatures and have established the following system
trary since the degree of flammability depends on both
types: the specific fluid and the definition of "flammability".
(1) Type I.-65" to 160F
Generally, fire-resistant hydraulic fluids are of three
(2) Type II.-65" to 275F
types-synthetic fluids, water-based fluids, and emul-
(3) Type 111.-65" to 400F
sions. Fire-resistant synthetic fluids are fire-resistant
(4) Type IV.-65" to 550F
because of their chemical nature and include phosphate
( 5 ) Type V. 0" to 700F esters, chlorinated hydrocarbons, halogen-containing
(6) Type VI. +W to 1 , W F (Proposed) compounds, organophosphorus derivatives, and mix-
Although this classification system has proved valu- tures of similar materials. The water-base fluids are
able and useful to some users, it does not identify other
solutions of various natural or synthetic materials in
properties of the liquids and one type may include sev-
water, and depend upon their water content for fire-
eral chemical classes. Type I liquids include some pe-
resistance. Glycols, polyglycols, and mi,xtures contain-
troleum hydrocarbons, phosphate esters, silicate esters,
ing additives are the most common hydraulic fluids of
emulsions, water-base liquids, polyalkylene glycols,
this type. Emulsion-type hydraulic fluids also depend
and halogenated hydrocarbons. Type I1 liquids include
upon water content for fire-resistance and are water-in-
petroleum hydrocarbons and silicate esters. Type I11
oil mixtures made from petroleum hydrocarbons, but
liquids include the deep dewaxed highly refined hydro-
may contain various additives to provide other desira-
carbons, synthetic hydrocarbons, silicate esters, and
ble properties.
silicones. Type IV liquid requirements have not been
fully met by any class of fluids. However, the deep
dewaxed highly refined mineral oils covered under
MIL-H-27601A (-40"to + 550F) closely approach the 4-2.5 CLASSIFICATION INTO PETROLEUM
Type IV requirements. Type V and VI fluids have not OR NONPETROLEUM HYDRAULIC
been completely defined or tested. Some potential can- FLUIDS
didate fluids for Type V are polyphenyl ethers, per-
fiuoroalkylesters, and specially refined hydrocarbons. One of the most widely used classifications of hy-
Liquid metals have some potential for satisfying Type draulic fluids is based on a separation into two general
VI requirements. classes-petroleum and nonpetroleum. However, the
In general, there are commercial hydraulic fluids petroleum class hydraulic fluids may contain additives,
readily available which operate satisfactorily over the even synthetic additives, without changing their clas-
temperature ranges of Types I, 11, and I11 hydraulic sifications. The nonpetroleum and/or synthetic class of
systems. However, for the higher temperature ranges of hydraulic fluids includes a considerably wider range of
Types IV, V, and VI, only a limited number of fluids liquids since it contains those derived from nonpe-
are available and those are usable only for relatively troleum base liquids (water, castor oil) as well as the
short durations. Extensive research programs are being synthetic base liquids produced by major chemical
conducted to develop fluids (and components) which reactions, although the base material for some of these
will be usable in Types IV, V, and VI hydraulic systems. liquids may be a petroleum product.
4-2
AMCP 706-123
4-2.6 CLASSIFICATION USED IN THIS oxidation, corrosion, sludge, and foam formation. Of
HANDBOOK course, not all fluids in this class will have all of these
characteristics but, through selection of the proper
The classification system used in this handbook com- grade of petroleum base fluid and additives, the desired
bines the two classification systems described in pars. properties may usually be obtained. These fluids gener-
4-2.2and 4-2.5. The major division in this classification ally have a high viscosity index (approximately 100)so
is petroleum base and nonpetroleum and/or synthetic that they may be used over a wide temperature range.
base. However, the latter category is subdivided into They have pour points as low as-90F and flash points
chemical classes to aid in identifying the wide range of as high as 400F. Fire point of these fluids generally
properties of these hydraulic fluids. ranges from 400"to 550F.Viscosity and viscosity-tem-
Comparative or relative ratings of some of the gen- perature characteristics vary over a wide range.
eral characteristics of the different classes of hydraulic Most petroleum and many chemical manufacturing
fluids are shown in Table 4-1.It must be remembered companies market a large number of petroleum base
that these ratings are only a general overall rating of hydraulic fluids, and these companies can provide in-
the hydraulic fluid base stock in each class and that formation on specific properties or applications of their
wide variation may be found in specific liquids products. There are numerous Military or Government
particularly when additives are used. Specifications covering different types of petroleum
A description of general properties and characteris- base hydraulic fluids. Some of the more widely used
tics of the different classes of hydraulic fluids is given liquids are described in the specification summaries
in subsequent paragraphs. Included at the end of the and specification data sheets in par. 4-6.
chapter are summaries and specification data of Mili-
tary or Government Specificationsfor typical liquids in
the respective classes (see par. 4-6).Requirements such
as composition, usable temperature range, and typical 4-4 NONPETROLEUM BASE
usage are listed. There are specifications for hydraulic HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
fluids other than those listed. No attempt was made to
list specifications for all liquids or oils which could be
used as hydraulic fluids. The hydraulic fluids and lubri- 4-4.1 PHOSPHATE ESTERS
cants selected are those which are most widely used or
those which represent the range of properties in specific This class of hydraulic fluids results from the incor-
classes of hydraulic fluids. It should be remembered poration of phosphorus into organic molecules. The
that the specification values are only limiting values resulting compounds have properties making them use-
and that specific hydraulic fluids may differ considera- ful as hydraulic fluids. They can also be used as a base
bly from these values. Also, it should be noted that stock fluid, as a part of the base stock, or as an additive.
there are many nonspecification hydraulic fluids, in all The principal advantage of this class of hydraulic fluids
classes, which may have properties equal or superior to over petroleum base hydraulic fluids is that many of the
the specification values. compounds are not only excellent lubricants but also
have excellent fire-resistant properties. They have good
oxidation stability and their thermal stability is consid-
4-3 PETROLEUM BASE HYDRAULIC ered good at medium-high temperatures, but they begin
FLUIDS to deteriorate rapidly above 300F. Hydrolytic stability
ranges from poor to very good depending upon in-
Petroleum base hydraulic fluids were among the first dividual compounds. Viscosity-temperature character-
liquids employed as hydraulic or power transmission istics of most phosphate esters are considered medium-
fluids. The use of petroleum base hydraulic fluids far to-good. In this respect they are equivalent to the better
surpasses that of all other ciasses including the synthet- petroleum base hydraulic fluids but are not as good as
ics and nonpetroleum classes. However, the wide var- the best petroleum products. Viscosity of the phosphate
iety of materials produced from different grades of ester hydraulic fluids is generally low and, on an
crude oils and additives makes a summary of their equivalent volatility basis, their viscosity characteris-
properties difficult. In general, these fluids are consid- tics are superior to petroleum base products. Some
ered to give outstanding performance, long life, good phosphate esters can be used as a mild extreme pres-
lubricating characteristics, and protection against rust, sure lubricant.
e
P
Viscosity- Volatility- Thermal Oxidative Hydrolytic Fire Lubricating Additive

Fluid Class temperature viscosity Stability Stability Stability Resistance Ability Response
I. Petroleum Base G P G F E P F E
11. Nonpetroleum Base

A. Phosphate Esters G F F G F E E G
B. Silicate Esters E G E G F F G G
C. Carboxylic Acid Esters G G F F G F G G
D. Pulysiloxanes E E G F E F P P
E. Glycols G G G G G F G F
F. Castor Oils G G F F G F G G
G. Polyoxy Glycols r, G G G G F G F
H. Water Glycols G P F G E E P G
I. Enulsions G P F G E E P G
111. Experimental and Potential Fluids

A. Polysiloxanes (Silanes 1 F F E G E F F F
B. Hydrocarbons G G E F E P c; G
C. Fluorinated Polymers P P E E G E P P
D. Polyphenyl Ethers F G E G E F G G
E. Heterocyclic Synthetics - G G -
F. Phosphonitrilates F G w E W G E G
G. Liquid Metals G F G P P P F F
AMCP 706-123
The MIL-SPEC requirements for a typical phos- lubricating properties. However, they allow fairly high
phate ester base hydraulic fluid are shown in the sum- wear because of low shear strength, high volatility, and
mary and specification data sheets in par. 4-6. susceptibility to oxidative breakdown. For these rea-
sons, the monoesters have little or no applications as
hydraulic fluids. On the other hand, the diesters
4-4.2 SILICATE ESTERS have excellent viscosity-temperature properties, low
volatility, good lubricating characteristics, high chemi-
This class of hydraulic fluids has many properties cal solvency, good additive response, and good hy-
similar to the phosphate esters since both are esters of drolytic stability. The diester lubricating film charac-
organic acids. The principal differences in the two teristics and oxidation stability are generally equal to or
classes are in hydrolytic stability, lubricating character- better than equivalent petroleum hydrocarbon fluids.
istics, flammability, and viscosity-temperature rela- The principal restriction or limitation of organic ester
tionships. In general, silicate esters have low volatility liquids is thermal stability since they tend to break
and excellent viscosity-temperature characteristics, but down at temperatures above 500F.
relatively poor hydrolytic stability. One of the out- The MIL-SPEC requirements for typical organic
standing characteristics of this class of hydraulic fluids acid esters are given in the summary and data sheets in
is good thermal stability combined with excellent re- par. 4-6.
sponse to antioxidant additives. Silicate esters possess
only fair oxidation stability and are similar to hydro-
carbon hydraulic fluids in their susceptibility to attack 4-4.4 POLYSI LOXANES
by oxygen; however, it is relatively easy to improve this
property with proper additives. The lubricating proper- The silicone liquids, as a class, possess very good
ties of silicate esters are only fair but with care in viscosity-temperature and mechanical properties, mak-
selection of materials and operating conditions, these ing them attractive as base stocks for synthetic lubri-
hydraulic fluids will provide some degree of lubrica- cants or as hydraulic fluids. These liquids have been
tion. Silicate esters are generally fairly good solvents used as hydraulic fluids, either alone or as compounded
and, although they do not dissolve many plastics or hydraulic fluids. Other characteristics which make the
synthetic elastomers, they tend to harden most elas- silicone liquids ideal for hydraulic fluids under severe
tomers after prolonged exposure at elevated tempera- operating conditions are: (1) their properties do not
tures. With proper additives and the right operating change appreciably under a wide range of temperature
conditions, some silicate ester hydraulic fluids operate and atmospheric conditions, (2) they have very low
satisfactorily for extended periods at temperatures up volatility, (3) they are compatible with many construc-
to 425F. tion materials, (4) they resist permanent viscosity
In addition to their use as hydraulic fluids, silicate change under severe mechanical stresses, (5) they are
esters are used as heat-transfer fluids, electronic equip- available in a wide range of viscosities, (6) they have
ment coolants, weapon lubricants, etc. because of their very good dielectric properties, (7) they have good oxi-
outstanding thermal stability and excellent response to dation resistance, and (8) they have low chemical sol-
antioxidants. A typical MIL-SPEC for a silicate ester vency properties. These liquids are also less flammable
aircraft hydraulic fluid is given in the summary and the than petroleum oils of similar viscosities but do not
specification data sheets in par. 4-6. resist ignition in many flammability tests. Significant
limitations of silicone liquids are their marginal lu-
4-4.3 ORGANIC ACID ESTERS bricity for ferrous materials in sliding contact and their
high compressibility. In general, the serviceable tem-
This class of liquids is employed principally as lubri- perature of most silicone fluids ranges from well below
cants for gas turbine engines, instrument lubricants, -65" to above 400F.
base stock for synthetic greases, and, to a limited ex- Summaries of Federal and MIL-SPEC requirements
tent, as a base stock for hydraulic fluids. Use as a for typical silicone fluids and data sheets for these
hydraulic fluid is generally in applications where en- specifications are in par. 4-6.
gine lubricating oil is used to actuate hydraulic units
such as accessories attached to jet engines.
Organic esters are produced in both monoester (sin- 4-4.5 GLYCOLS
gle ester group) and diester (two ester groups per mole- This class of hydraulic fluids is frequently referred to
cule) compounds. The monoesters have relatively good by several names including polyglycols, polyalkylene
4-5
AMCP 706-123
glycols, and polyethers. These glycol or polyglycol liq- polyoxypropylene base and are characterized by high
uids are used extensively as base stocks and as compo- viscosity indexes, low pour points, good thermal stabil-
nents for synthetic lubricants and hydraulic fluids such ity, fair-to-good oxidation stability, good water toler-
as air conditioner lubricants, heavy duty brake fluids, ance, good corrosion resistance, and compatibility with
and components of fire-resistant water-base hydraulic rubber and other materials in brake systems. These
fluids. These liquids are characterized by good lubricity liquids are considered particularly useful as hydraulic
and antiwear properties, high flash point, high viscosity fluids for automotive brake systems.
indices (up to 150), wide range of viscosities, low A summary of MIL-SPEC requirements for a brake
volatility and pour point, poor-to-fair high temperature fluid containing this class of liquid and a data sheet of
oxidation properties, little effect on rubber and metals, specification properties are in par. 4-6.
and very good solubility characteristics and additive
response. They have good resistance to sludge and var-
nish formation, and excellent resistance to mechanical
shear. The viscosity-temperature properties are equal
to or better than similar petroleum products. In gen- 4-4.8 WATER GLYCOLS
eral, the serviceable temperature range of these fluids
is from near 0" to above 500F.
MIL-SPEC requirements for a typical glycol type
This class of hydraulic fluids is generally considered
hydraulic fluid are given in the summary and specifica-
fire-resistant. It usually contains 35-60 percent water,
tion data sheets in par. 4-6.
a glycol, and a water-soluble thickener to improve vis-
cosity.Additives are also incorporated to improve anti-
4-4.6 CASTOR OILS corrosion, antiwear, and lubricity properties. Since
the fire-resistance properties of these liquids are de-
This class of hydraulic fluids is based on organic pendent upon the water content, extended use at tem-
fatty oils similar to animal oils, fish oils, and mineral peratures above 150F is not recommended. The vis-
oils. Because of their properties, they are seldom used cosity of these liquids is fairly low, but with proper
alone as a lubricating oil or hydraulic fluid. The organic additives they may be used satisfactorily at fairly low
oils oxidize, causing gumming, and they spoil or operating temperatures in systems such as aircraft hy-
become rancid, thus releasing free fatty acids. At high draulic systems. Typical viscosity indices for these liq-
temperature, these oils tend to decompose to corrosive uids are in the range of 140 to 160. Because of the
acids. These oils also will support bacteria and care corrosive nature of the water component of these liq-
should be taken to keep them sterile. The addition of uids, proper additives must be used to make them com-
castor oil or other fatty oils to petroleum mineral oils patible with most common construction materials such
will increase the load-carrying ability. Some of the liq- as steel, aluminum, brass, and copper. It is generally
uids incorporating these oils are steam-cylinder oils, not good practice to use these liquids in contact with
marine-engine oils, cutting oils, automatic-transmis- soft or sacrificial plated materials such as galvanizing
sion fluids, hydraulic fluids, and industrial gear oils. In or cadmium plating. Antiwear and lubricity additives
general, castor oils are moderately high viscosity liq- can make these liquids suitable for use in hydraulic
uids with a flash point above 500F and a pour point systems and machines at moderate pressures. However,
above 0F. at high pressures or loads, service and maintenance
Summary and data sheets of several typical MIL- problems increase. The additive-containing water-
SPEC requirements for compounded liquids containing glycol liquids generally are compatible with the various
castor oil are in par. 4-6. seal and packing materials used in systems designed for
petroleum type fluids, but these aqueous-base liquids
tend to soften or lift many conventional paints or coat-
4-4.7 POLYOXYALKYLENE GLYCOLS ings. In general usage, it is a good practice to conduct
periodic checks of water content of these liquids since
The polyoxyalkylene glycol class of hydraulic fluids the viscosity and other properties vary appreciably with
have many of the same properties as the polyalkylene the water content.
In some cases, the
glycol liquids discussed in par. 4-4.5. MIL-SPEC requirements for a typical water-glycol
polyoxyalkylene liquids have somewhat superior prop- type hydraulic fluid are given in the summary and
erties. Most of these fluids have a polyoxyethylene- specification data sheets in par. 4-6.
4-6
AMCP 706-123
4-4.9 EMULSIONS petroleum base hydraulic fluids. Improvements sought

are in the area of extended operating temperature
These water-oil mixtures are another class of liquid range, fire resistance, improved thermal and oxidative
which depend upon water content for their fire-resist- stability, better viscosity-volatility characteristics, bet-
ant properties. These liquids, which have many character response of susceptibility to inhibitors and addi-
teristics similar to the water-glycol liquids, are availa- tives, and better low temperature fluidity. Improve-
ble in two general types-oil-in-water or water-in-oil. ments are being obtained by a combination of several
The first of these has water as the continuous phase and procedures including chemical conversion of selected
the oil is present in lesser amounts as the dispersed mineral oil fractions such as (1) hydrocracked naph-
media. Many problems are associated with the water thenes, (2) isomerized wax, (3) alkylated aromatics,
phase-including corrosion in both the liquid and vapor and polymerized olefins; use of advanced refining tech-
phase, and high wear because of poor lubricating char- niques (super-refining, vacuum fractionation, deep
acteristics. The other type of emulsion, the water-in-oil dewaxing) on selected crude stocks; and a selection of
mixture in which the oil is the continuous phase and the improved inhibitors and additives. Petroleum fractions
water is the dispersed media, has considerably different have been produced that are capable of extended use at
and generally better characteristics. These emulsions temperatures up to 650"F, and with a useful life of more
have good-to-acceptable corrosion and lubricating than 50 hr at 700F in essentially oxygen-free systems.
properties as well as fire-resistance, emulsion stability, New products in this class of hydraulic fluids are con-
high viscosity index, film strength, good system cool- stantly being developed so it is not practical to specify
ing, compatibility with most materials, oxidation sta- property limits here. However, the developmental hy-
bility, and reasonable material cost. draulic fluids generally have properties superior to the
Water-in-oil emulsions do not have high load specification fluids. This result is, of course, the objec-
capacity or lubricating characteristics but where fire tive of the research efforts.
resistance is needed for safety, these liquids can be
applied. The usable temperature range of these liquids
is generally between 0" and 150F. However, they may 4-5.2 NONPETROLEUM BASE HYDRAULIC
be used somewhat beyond this range. At this time, FLUIDS
there are no MIL-SPEC requirements covering this
class of fluids; however, there are several commercial
4-5.2.1 Phosphate Esters
products that are widely used.
The nonspecification and commercial phosphate es-
ter hydraulic fluids have chemical and physical proper-
4-5 NONSPECIFICATION AND ties which are generally similar, or somewhat superior,
POTENTIAL HYDRAULIC to the specification phosphate ester fluids discussed in
FLUIDS par. 4-4.1. Three groups of materials, called tertiary
phosphate esters, are products whose physical proper-
ties vary with type of ester and molecular weight.
4-5.1 PETROLEUM BASE FLUIDS One group, the trialkyl phosphates, range from wa-
ter soluble liquids to water immiscible liquids, or low
Most petroleum and many chemical companies pro- melting solids, with increasing molecular weight.
duce hydrocarbon or petroleum base hydraulic fluids A second group, alky aryl phosphates are intermedi-
which are not qualified under Military or Federal ate range phosphates that vary from mobile liquids to
Specifications. However, many of these liquids have low-melting-point solids depending upon chemical
properties generally similar to the specification liquids structure. These liquids have a typical viscositirange
and are useful in hydraulic system applications. The list of 1.5 to 10 cSt at 210Fand viscosity indices up to 160.
of these products and manufacturers is too extensive to The recommended maximum operating temperature of
list in this handbook, and it is recommended that in- this class of phosphate esters, which is probably the
dividual manufacturers be contacted for information most widely used material for fire-resistant hydraulic
concerning properties and applications of a specific hy- fluids, is as high as 350F. The phosphate esters have
draulic fluid. flash points which range from 200" to 500F with fire
Many petroleum manufacturers have extensive pro- points from 50F to more than 300F above the flash
grams directed toward the development of improved points. However, the most indicative property, as a
4- 7
AMCP 706-123
measure of the flammability of phosphate esters, is the that "Houghto-Safe" is also the name of a glycol
spontaneous or autogenous ignition temperature which water fluid.)
ranges from 800F to more than 1,100"F. 5. Other Phosphate Ester Base Hydraulic Fluids
The third group, the triaryl phosphates, are the most and Lubricants
viscous of the tertiary phosphate compounds, have a In addition to these typical commercial products,
short liquid range, and are essentially water insoluble. phosphate ester liquids are compounded with many
This type of phosphate has a maximum recommended different materials to produce new liquids for different
bulk operating temperature range between 150" and applications. Some of these liquids are compounds of
200F which is somewhat lower than the aryl phos- several types of phosphate esters and additives; others
phates. Their applications are mostly as compounding are compounds of phosphate esters and other liquids
ingredients for synthetic hydraulic fluids. such as chlorinated silicone liquids. In general, the pur-
The major advantage of the phosphate esters as a pose of these developmental oils is to improve or extend
class of hydraulic fluids is their fire resistant properties the operating temperature limits and the range of cer-
combined with their ability to lubricate moving parts, tain characteristics such as lubricity, antiseize, and vis-
especially steel on steel. cosity index.
Some of the names of commercial liquids of the phos-
phate ester-type widely used by industry are:
1. Skydrol 7000 and 500A (Monsanto Chemi-
cal Company) 4-5.2.2 Halogenated Compounds
Both of these hydraulic fluids are fire-resistant phos-
phate esters containing small amounts of several addi-
tives (the 7000 and 500 designations refer to the fluid 4-5.2.2.1 Polysiloxanes (Manes)
viscosity in centistokes at -40F). These fluids were
developed for use in transport aircraft hydraulic sys- These compounds are silicone-containing materials
tems. Skydrol 500A has been adopted as the standard being investigated for applications as hydraulic fluids.
hydraulic fluid by most of the world's airlines. These liquids have molecular structures which contain
only silicon-to-carbon bonds and no silicon-oxygen
2. Pydraul (Monsanto Chemical Company) bonds as do other silicones and silicate esters. The
These liquids are a series of fire-resistant phosphate molecular organic radical of these fluids may be paraf-
esters and additive-containing hydraulic fluids deve- finic or aromatic hydrocarbons with mixtures of alkyl,
loped for industrial machinery. Pydraul hydraulic aryl, alkaryl, or arylalkyl groups present.
fluids are less expensive than Skydrol and are available In general, these liquids have poor lubricity and 'i
in a range of viscosities to fit numerous industrial ap- narrow viscosity range. Some additives have shown
plications. Pydraul AC, although produced primarily promise of improving selected characteristics; some
as a fire-resistant lubricant for air compressor systems, polymers are effective in increasing the viscosity; tricre-
may also be used in certain hydraulic systems. syl phosphate and sodium petroleum sulfonate both act
3. FR YQUEL (Cellulube) (Stauffer Chemical as antiwear additives, and sodium and potassium
Company) amides are effective as antioxidants. Because of su-
These liquids are a group of fire-resistant triaryl perior thermal stability and chemical inertness, the si-
phosphate ester hydraulic fluids and/or lubricants lanes appear to be a promising base stock for hydraulic
available in controlled viscosity ranges. The product or fluids for use in the temperature range of 0" to more
fluid numbers represent the fluid viscosity at 100F in than 700F. Typical properties of silane fluids are pour
Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS). Products available point,-25"F; flash point, above 500F; bulk density, 7.4
include FRYQUEL 90, 150,220,300, 550, and 1,OOO. Ib/gal; and viscosity, 37 cSt at 100F.
Although these liquids function primarily as fire-resist-
ant hydraulic fluids, they also find applications as lu- 4-5.2.2.2 Hydrocarbons
bricants where fire resistance is not a requirement.
The halogenated hydrocarbon liquids possess several
4. Houghto-Safe (E. F. Houghton and Company) properties that make them attractive for use as hydrau-
These products are also a series of phosphate ester lic fluids. They have outstanding fire resistance, good
fire-resistant hydraulic fluids and lubricants which thermal stability and heat-transfer characteristics,
have properties and recommended usage similar to the good oxidative stability, and boundary-lubrication ac-
Cellulube and Pydraul fluids. (The reader is reminded tivity. However, they do have some deficiencies, i.e.,
ea
AMCP 706-123
poor viscosity-temperature properties and high freez- and are marginal lubricants. Their operating tempera-
ing point. ture range is room temperature to near 1 , W F . How-
Some of the commercial hydrocarbon liquids usable ever, their main deterrent is their deficiency in low-
as hydraulic fluids and/or lubricating fluids are: temperature characteristics.
(1) Aroclor (Monsanto Chemical Company)
Aroclor fluids are a series of hydrocarbon liquids 4-5.2.4 Heterocyclic Compounds
containing chlorinated biphenyls and cover a wide
range of viscosities. These fluids have excellent shear Several heterocyclic compounds have been investi-
resistance, are thermally and chemically stable, non- gated for applications as synthetic hydraulic fluids and
corrosive, and provide a high degree of extreme pres- lubricants. The most promising are those compounds
sure lubricity. containing nitrogen, which show thermal stability
(2) Kel-F Fluids (Halocarbon Corporation) above 800F to around 1,200"F. Other heterocyclic
The Kel-F fluids are a series of wide range hydrocar- compounds are less stable. At the present time, no
bon hydraulic fluids and oils containing halofluorocar- commercial fluids of this class are available.
bon oils. These fluids are fire-resistant, chemically and
thermally stable, and may be used in mechanisms as-
sociated with reactive chemicals. The Kel-F fluids have 4-5.2.5 Phosphonitrilates
extreme resistance to breakdown, and excellent flow
and load-bearing characteristics. In addition to hydrau- These liquids are being investigated as intermediate
lic fluid applications, they are also employed as com- temperature range hydraulic fluids and also as lubri-
pressor lubricants. cants. Generally, they are stable to hydrolysis and resist
thermal polymerization up to 750F. These liquids are
(3) Fluorolube (Hooker Chemical Company)
still classed as research items and no commerical fluids
The Fluorolube fluids are a series of hydrocarbon are available.
compounded liquids of similar composition, properties,
and usage as the Kel-F fluids.
4-5.2.6 Liquid Metals
Liquid metals have some possible usage as hydraulic

4-5.2.2.3 Perfluorinated Polymers fluids for special applications at very high temperatures
(to 1,500"F). The liquid metal which has been investi-
The perfluorinated polymers are stable, high-tem- gated most, identified as NAK-77, is a mixture of
perature liquids ca,pable of use in the range of-50" to sodium and potassium. This liquid is silvery in appear-
+700"F that do not form sludge or tar even in the ance (similar to mercury), and highly reactive with
presence of air. These liquids have excellent flow char- oxygen so that it must be used in closed oxygen-free
acteristics, outstanding thermal and chemical stability, systems. The mixture melts at about 1@F,atomizes in
generally good corrosion characteristics, and are com- air at room temperature, and ignites spontaneously in
patible with most metals and seal materials. A typical air at 239F. If water is present, NAK-77 reacts vio-
commercial fluid of this type is Krytox 143 (E. 1. du lently, releasing hydrogen and heat sufficient to ignite
Pont de Nemours and Company). Perfluorinated both the hydrogen and the NAK-77 if any oxygen is
polymers' are corrosive with certain metals above present. Surface tension is about twice that of water and
500"F, and provide little or no protection against rust- its specific gravity is slightly less than water. Viscosity
ing of ferrous metals at relatively high humidities. is about 0.50 cSt at 115Fand the friction coefficient is
high, about 10 times that of light oil.
Handling and usage of liquid metals are difficult
since the hydraulic system must be hermetically sealed
4-5.2.3 Polyphenyl Ethers and contain an inert gas. If NAK-77 burns, it is nonex-
plosive unless water is present, but the fumes are toxic.
This class of liquids has been proposed for use as a In addition to NAK-77, other liquid metals have
high-temperature hydraulic fluid and considerable been investigated experimentally but they generally
investigation has been conducted in this direction. Gen- have higher melting points and similar hazardous ope-
erally, these liquids have good oxidation stability, do rating characteristics so that liquid metals seem to offer
not hydrolyze, resist decomposition from radiation, only limited usage for very special applications.
4-9
AMCP 706-123
4-6 HYDRAULIC FLUID AND Navy-WP: Naval Air Systems Command (AS)
LUBRICANT SPECIFICATIONS Washington, D.C. 20360
Navy-SA: Naval Supply Systems
The following pages contain information on the Command Headquarters
specifications for hydraulic fluids and lubricants men- Washington, D.C. 20360
tioned in preceding paragraphs. For each liquid, data Navy-YD: Naval Facilities Engineering
presented are: (a) a Specification Summary Sheet; and Headquarters Command
(b) Specification Property Requirements Sheet. The Washington, D.C. 20360
specifications are presented in the following order: Air Force-1 1: Systems Engineering Group
(AFSC, SEP)
1. Petroleum Base Liquids: Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433
VV-L-800 Air Force-67: Middletown Air Material Area
MIL-L-2104B (MAAMA, MANSS)
MIL-H-5606B Olmsted AFB, Pennsylvania 17057
MIL-H-6083C
MIS-I01 37 VV-LdOO: L UBRICA TING OIL,GENERAL PUR -
MIS- 10150 POSE, PR ESER VATI YE (WATER-
MIL-L-10295A DISPLACING, LOW TEMPERATURE)
MIL-H-l3866B(MR)
MIL-H-13919B (NATO Symbol: 0-190)
MIL-F-1711l(N0RD)
MIL-L-1733lF(SHIPS), Amendment 1 a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
MIL-L-17672B ers a general purpose, water-displacing, lubricating oil
MIL-L-21260A for low-temperature applications. It has a pour point of
MIL-F-25598(USAF) -70"For lower and a viscosity of 7,000 cSt at -40F.
MIL-H-27601A(USAF) b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
MIL-L-45199A ture range is not specified.
MIL-H-46001A c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe-
MIL-L-46002(ORD) troleum base oil containing additives necessary to meet
MI L-L-46oO4(ORD) specification requirements. Principal requirements are
MIL-H-8 1019(WEP) for corrosion, oxidation and water displacing proper-
ties.
2. Phosphate Ester Liquids: MIL-H- 19457B
d. Uses: This liquid is a lubricating oil for protec-
(SHIPS) tion against corrosion of small arms, automatic weap-
3. Silicate Ester Liquids: MIL-H-8446B
ons, fuze mechanisms, general squirt-can applications
4. Organic Acid Ester Liquids: MIL-6085A; MIL-
and whenever a general purpose, water-displacing, low
L-7808G; MIL-L-23699A
temperature, lubricating oil is required.
5 . Polysiloxane Liquids: MIL-S-81087A(ASG);
e. Limitations: This liquid loses its Newtonian
VV-D-001078 (GSA-FSS)
properties at temperatures below -WF,snould not be
6. Glycol Liquids: MIL-H-5559A(WEPS) used on aircraft equipment such as guns when opera-
7. Castor Oils Liquids: MIL-P-46046A(MR); tion at -65F is required.Very low-temperature applica-
JAN-F-461 tions should be established by tests.
8. Poboxyalkylene Glycol Liquids: MIL-H- f. Custodian: Army-MR
13910B; VV-B-680a
9. Water Glycol Liquids: MIL-H-22072A(WP)
MIL-L-2104B: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL
The code assigned to the abbreviations for military
COMBUSTION ENGINE (HEA VY
activities listed as the custodians of a specification is:
DUTY)
Army-MR: U.S. Army Materials Research Agency
Watertown, Massachusetts 02 172 (NATO Symbol: None)
Army-GL: U.S. Army Natick Laboratories a. General characteristirs: This specification cov-
Natick, Massachusetts 07 162 ers a multi-grade, detergent-type, petroleum base oil
Navy-SH: Naval Ship Engineering Center which may contain additives to meet specifica-
Washington, D.C. 20360 tion requirements.
4-10
AMCP 706-123
VV-L-800: LUBRICATING OIL, GENERAL RJRPOSE, PRESERVATIVE (WATER-DISPLACWG, rn TDPERATURE)
PROPEIirIEs VALUES
Color: No. 7 (Max) (ASTM)

Specific Gravity: NR
Pour Point, OF; (Max): -70
Flash Point, O F ; (Min): 275
Viscosity, cSt: -65OF (Max) 60,000
-40'F (Max) 7,000
100'F (Min) 12
Neutralization No. : mg KOH/g (Max) Report
Additives: Antiwear (tricresyl phosphate); $ wt As Req'd and Approved
Oxid. Inhibitors, 46 wt As Req'd and Approved
B u r Point Depressant, $ wt A s Req'd and Approved
Viscosity Improvers $ wt As Req'd and Approved
Others As Req'd and Approved
Precipitation No.. 0.05
Water Content: 46 (Max) --
Corr. and Oxid. Stability: Steel s.20
168 hr at 250'F Aluminum Alloy 10.20
Max wt Chg,mg/cm2 Magnesium Alloy f3.20
Cad.-Plate lG.20
Copper s.20
Pitting, Etch and Corr. at 20X None
$ Vis Chg at 100F -5 to +20
Neutral. No. Increase (Max) 0.20
Insoluble Mat'l or Gwmning;
46 wt None
Copper Corr.: 72 hr at 212'F No. 3 (ASTM)
Low Temperature Stability: 72 hr at -65F No Solids, noneel
Rubber Swell: Type "L", Vol Chg; $ --
Solid Particle Content: 5-15 Microns --
(Max Parts/100 ml) 16-25 Microns --
26-50 Microns --
51-100 Microns --
Over 100 Microns --
Evaporation: 4 hr at 150'F --
Corrosivity: brass-steel, 10 days, 75OF, 5056 R.H. No Corrosion
Recommended Temperature Range, OF: > -40
NATO Symbol: 0-190
Storage Stability:
Compatibility: --
Water Stability: 1 hr at 77'F, 5056 R.H. No Corrosion
Humidity Cabinet: 8 days, 95-10@ R.H. Three 1.0 mn dots
Machine Gun Test: -75'F, 25 Rounds No Stoppage
Notes: NR, no requirements.

--, no information.
Use: General purpose water displacing lub at low temperature, corrosion protection for
small arms and automatic weapons.
4-1 1
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L2104B: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL COVBUSTION ENGINE (HEAVY DUTY)
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color : NR
S p e c i f i c Gravity: NR
Pour Point, OF (Max): Grade 10 -20
Grade 30 0
Grade 50 +15
Stable Pour Point, OF (Max): Grade 10 ( c n l y ) -20
Flash Point, OF (Min): Grade 10 360
Grade 30 390
Grade 50 400
Viscosity, c S t : 0F; Grade 10 (Max) 2,614
OOF; Grade 30 ( M a x ) 43,570
OOF; Grade 50 (Max) NR
210F; Grade 10 5.44- 7.29
210'F; Grade 30 9.65-12.98
210F; Grade 50 16 -83-22.7
Additives: Allowed (No r e r e f i n e d )
Oxid. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : ( f e r r o u s and nonferrous engine
parts) No Corrosion
Low Temperature Deposit: 180 h r low temp cycle S l i g h t Corrosion
Ring Stick: 120 h r engine t e s t Nonstick, Kin wear
Light-load deposit accumulation: 120 h r engine t e s t Minimize Deposit
Foaming: 75'F, a f t e r 5 . 0 min blowing, m l ( M a x ) No l i m i t
75'F, a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , m l (Nm) 300
200'F a f t e r 5 . 0 min blowing, m l (Max) No l i m i t
200'F a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , m l (Max) 25
Repeat 75F Test Same as i n i t . 75'F Test
O i l Additive S t a b i l i t y : No a d d i t i v e i n s t a b i l i t y
Storage S t a b i l i t y : Remain Homogeneous
Compatibilj t y : A l l o i l s t o Spec
Recommended Temperature Rsnge, OF: Above -10
NATO Symbol: None
Water Content :

_ -, no information.
Use: Heavy duty engine o i l f o r r e c r i p o c a t i n g engines, e t c .
4-1 2
AMCP 706-123
~~
b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera- open hydraulic system unless the reservoir is filled
ture range is not specified, but use above -10F frequently. It is most effective in closed-system hy-
is recommended. draulic units. It is not interchangeable with any other
c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe- types of hydraulic fluid.
troleum base oil which may contain antifoam and pour f. Custodians: Army-MR
point depressant additives, as well as corrosion and Navy-WP
oxidation inhibitors to meet specification requirements. Air Force-1 1
It shall not contain any re-refined components.
d. Uses: This liquid is for crankcase lubrication of MIL-H-6083C: HYDRA ULIC FL UIDS,PETROLEUM
reciprocating internal combustion engines of both BASE, FOR PR ESER VATION AND
spark-ignition and combustion-ignition types when TESTING
ambient temperatures are above -10F. (NATO Symbol: C-635)
e. Limitations: This liquid is not recommended for a. General characteristics: This liquid is a pe-
gear box applications without prior performance troleum base corrosion preservative for hydraulic
evaluation. For highly supercharged compression-igni- equipment. The finished product shall have no deleteri-
tion engines operating at output levels of 150 psi brake ous effect on pressure-seal packing used on aircraft
mean effective pressure or above, it may be necessary hydraulic systems and shock struts.
to decrease oil drain periods or change to oils supplied b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
under MIL-L-45 199A and specifically intended for this ture range is -65 to +160F.
service. This liquid shall be compatible with other oils c. Chemical composition: The finished liquid shall
qualified to this specification and shall have good stor- be a petroleum base oil with additives to provide corro-
age life when stored in closed containers at nor- sion protection and to improve the viscosity/tempera-
mal temperatures. ture characteristics and resistance to oxidation. No
f. Custodians: Army-MR pour point depressant additive is allowed.
Navy-SH d. Uses: This fluid is intended as a preservative oil
Air Force-1 1 in aircraft and ordnance hydraulic systems during ship-
ment and storage, and also as a testing and flushing
MIL-H-5606B: HYDRAULIC FL UID, PETROLEUM liquid for hydraulic system components. It is not in-
BASE: AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND tended as an operational hydraulic fluid, but may be
ORDNA NCE used for limited operational use.
e. Limitations: Not recommended for high tem-
(NATO Symbol: H-5 15) perature use or for heavy duty requirements. This liq-
a. General characteristics: This specification cov- uid is not interchangeable with Hydraulic Fluid, Castor
ers a petroleum base hydraulic fluid for low tem - Oil Base, Specification MIL-H-7644(USAF) or Hy-
pera ture applications. It is dyed red for Identifica- draulic Fluid, Nonpetroleum Base, Automotive,
tion purposes.
Specification VV-B-680a.
b. Usable temperatures:The recommended operat-
f. Custodians: Army-MR
ing temperature ranges are -65 to 160F in open sys-
tems and -65 to 275F in closed systems. Navy-SA
c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe- Air Force-1 1
troleum base oil with the following additives: viscosity
index improver, oxidation inhibitor, and TCP antiwear MIS-10137: HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM
agent. The finished liquid must not contain any pour BASE, INTERMEDIA TE VISCOSITY
point depressants. (NATO Symbol: None)
d. Uses: The primary uses for this liquid include a. General characteristics:This hydraulic fluid is a
aircraft hydraulic system, automatic pilots, shock petroleum base liquid containing additives for moder-
struts, brakes and flap control mechanisms. It is also ate temperature ranges. It is dyed dark green or dark
used in missile hydraulic servo-controlled systems and blue for identification purposes.
ordnance hydraulic systems using synthetic seal - b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
.jng materials. ture range is not specified.
e. Limitations: Since this material has a rather c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a refined
high rate of evaporation, it should not be used as a petroleum base liquid with additive materials to im-
general purpose high temperature lubricant or in prove oxidation resistance and viscosity-temperature
4-13
AMCP 706-1 23
MIIrH-5606B: HYDRAULIC FIUID, PETROIEUM BASE, AIRCRAFT, MISSIIjE AND ORDNANCP
I PROPERTIES VALUES
Co'or: Red
P o u r P o i n t , "F (Max): -75
F l a s h P o i n t , "F (Min): 200
Vi-cosity, cSt: -65F ( M a x ) 3,000
-40F (Max) 500
130F (Min) 10
Additives: Antiwear; % > I t 0.50
Oxidation I n h i b i t o r s , % w t f 2.00
Corrosion I n h i b i t o r s , $ w t NR
v i s c o s i t y Improvers, % w t 20.00
f
Others No Pour P o i n t Dep.

;Ieutrai i z a t i o n wo. : mi: KoH/~ ax) 0.20
P r e c i p i t a t i o n No. : (Max) NR
Evaporation: 4 hr a t 150F O i l y , nontacky
Corr. and Oxid. S t a b i l i t y : Steel 10.20
168 hr a t 250F, Aluminum Alloy yo .20
Max wt Chg, Magnesium tO.20
mJcm2 Cad.-Plate to. 20
Copper t0.60
P i t t i n g , Etch. or Corr. a t 20X None
Visc Chg a t 13OoF, '$ -5 t o +20
N e u t r a l . No. Chg (Max) +O .20
S o l i d P a r t i c l e Content: 5-15 Microns 2,500
(Max P a r t / l 0 0 m l ) 16-25 Microns 1,000
26-50 Microns 250
51-100 Microns 25
Over 100 Microns None
Copper S t r i p Corr.: 72 h r a t 250'F (Max) No. 2 (ASTM)
Low Temp S t a b i l i t y : 72 h r a t -65F No S o l i d s , nongel
Rubber Swell: Type "L" Vol Chg, % 19-28
FoaminC;:, A f t e r 5.0 min blowing, m l ( M a x ) 65
( a t 75F) A f t e r 10.0 rnin s e t t l i n g , m l (Max) None
Storage S t a b i l i t y : 75'F, months (Min) 12.0
Water Content: ( M a x ) 100 P P
Recommended Temp. Range, OF: A i r ( c l o s e d ) -65/160 (275)
Specific Gravity; NR
Shear S t a b i l i t y : Vise Chg; c S t / l 3 0 " F (Max) -15%
(30 min S o n i c O s c i l . ) V i s c Chg; cSt/-40"F ( M a x ) Ref. F l u i d
N e u t r a l . No. Chg ( M a x ) f 0.20
NATO Symbol/Interchangeable Ifyd. F l u i d : H- 515/none

Corr. P r o t . ( b a r e s t e e l ) : 100 h r a t 120F, 100% R.H. NR
- - .. ____
Notes: NR, no r e q u i r e m e n t s .
RT, room t e m p e r a t u r e .
Use: Auto. p i l o t s , shock a b s o r b e r s , b r a k e s , flap c o n t r o l s , m i s s i l e servo, and o t h e r
systems u s i n g s y n t h e t i c s e a l s .
4-14
AMCP 706-123
~~ ~~ ~_____ ~ ~
MIL-H-6083C: HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASE, FOR PRESERVATION AND TESTIIVG
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Red (Clear)

Pour P o i n t , OF (Max): -7 5
Flash P o i n t , OF (Min): 200
V i s c o s i t y , cSt: -65OF (Max) 3500
-40F ( M a x ) 800
130'F (Min)
Additives: Antiwear; $ w t 0.50
Oxidation I n h i b i t o r s , $ w t < 2.00
Corrosion I n h i b i t o r s , $ w t Allowed
V i s c o s i t y Improvers, $ w t 10.0
Others No Pour h i n t Dep.
N e u t r a l i z a t i o n No. : mg KOH/g (Max) 0.20
Precipitation NO. : (wax) 0
Evaporation: 4 h r at 150F NR
Corr. and Oxid. S t a b i l i t y : S t e e l 9.20
168 hr a t 250F, Aluminum Alloy -lo .20
Max w t Chg, Magnesium f0.20
mg/cm2 Cad.-Plate fl.20
Copper 9.60
P i t t i n g , Etch. o r Corr. a t 2OX None
Visc. Chg a t 130DF, $ -50 t o 420
N e u t r a l . No. Chg (Max) 0.30
ax Part/IOO m l ) 16-25 Microns 1,000
26-50 Microns 250
51-100 Microns 25
Over 100 Microns 5
Low Temp S t a b i l i t y : 72 h r a t -65'F No S o l i d s , nongel
Rubber Swell: Type "L" Vol Chg, $ 19-26.5
Foaming: (75'F) A f t e r 5 . 0 min blowing, m l (Max) 65
A f t e r 1 0 . 0 min s e t t l i n g , ml (Max) Complete c o l l a p s e
Storage S t a b i l i t y : 75'F, months (Min)
Water Content: % (Max) 0.05
Recommended Temp Range, O F : A i r -651160
Shear S t a b i l i t y : Visc Chg; cSt/130F (Max) 5,000 pump c y c l e ; T e s t
( 3 0 min Sonic O s c i l . ) Visc Chg; cSt/-40DF (Max) Ref. f l u i d , MIL-F-5602
N e u t r a l . No. Chg (Max) +0,30
NATO Symbol/Interchangeable Hyd. Fluid: C-635/See Note
Corr. Prot. ( b a r e s t e e l ) : 100 h r a t 120F, 10% R.H. Trace

Not interchangeable w i t h c a s t o r o i l or nonpetroleum base o i l s .
Use: P r e s e r v a t i v e o i l f o r o r d . and a i r c r a f t systems, t e s t or f l u s h .
4-15
AMCP 706-123
MIS-10137 : HYDElAuLIC FLUID, PETROLEUM PASIC, INTEPJGDIATE TSTSCOSITI
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color: Blue/Green
Pour P o i n t , OF (Max): -75
Flash Point, OF (Min): 200
v i s c o s i t y , c s t : @OF 50 f 5.0
lOO'F 7.5 f 0.5
Neutralization No. : mg KOH/g (Max) 0.20
Additives: $ w t ; Antiwear ( t r i c r e s y l phosphate) 0.5 f 0.1
Oxidation I n h i b i t o r < 2.0
Viscosity Improvers 5 10.0
Pour Point Depressant None
Others Approval Req'd
168 h r a t 250F Aluminum Alloy 39.20
M a x w t Chg, Magnesium Alloy fo.20
mg/m2 Cad.-Plate fo.20
Copper fo.60
P i t t i n g , Etch o r Corr. a t 2 0 X None
$ Visc Chg a t 130F -5 t o +20
Increase i n n e u t r a l N O . ( M ~ x ) 0.20
Insoluble M a t ' l or Grmnn-ing None
Low Temperature S t a b i l i t y : 72 h r at -65F No S o l i d , nongel
Rubber Swell: Type "L", $ Vol Chg 19-20
Evaporation: 4 h r a t 150'F Oily, nontacky
(Max P a r t s / 1 0 0 ml) 16-25 Microns 1,000
15 min Max f i l t e r
time 26-50 Microns 250
51-100 Microns 25
Over 100 Microns None
Weight of Residue: mg (Max) 0.30
Fonming: (75'F) a f t e r 5.0 min blowing, m l (Max) 65
a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g m l (MG) None
Water Content: $ ( M W ) 0.015
Storage S t a b i l i t y : ( 70"-120F) month (Min) 12
NATO Symbol: None
Recommended Temperature Range, F : Intermediate
Compatibility: None Recommended
Use: Guided m i s s i l e ( N I K E ) hydraulic systems, moderate temperatures.
4-1 6
AMCP 706-123
characteristics, and tricresyl phosphate for antiwear a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
properties. The liquid may also be prepared by blending ers a light duty, low viscosity oil with suitable additives
equal quantities of fluids on the qualified products list to meet specification requirements for low ambient
of MIL-H-5606 and MIL-H-46004. temperatures.
d. Uses: This hydraulic fluid is for guided missile b. Usable temperatures: This liquid is intended for
hydraulic systems such as the NIKE HERCULES use at ambient temperatures from -65" to 0F.
Missile System at intermediate temperatures. c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe-
e. Limitations: This liquid shall contain no pour troleum base oil, or a synthetically prepared product,
point depressants, admixtures of resins, rubber, soaps, or combination thereof, with suitable additives to meet
gums, fatty oils, oxidized hydrocarbons or other addi- the requirements of this specification including foam-
tives unless specifically approved. It has a storage life ing, oxidation, ring stick and wear tests, as well as
of 12 months under normal conditions (-70"to viscosity range, flash, pour point, etc.
+ 120F). d. Uses: This liquid is used for crankcase lubrica-
f. Custodian: U.S. Army Missile Command tion of reciprocating internal combustion engines at
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama 35809 very low ambient temperatures, and other applications
where a light duty nonoxidizing and nondeposit-form-
MIS-101.50: HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM ing oil is required.
BASE, LOW TEMPERATURE, COR- e. Limitations:This liquid is not for high tempera-
R OSION PREVENTING ture or heavy duty applications. This liquid is to be
compatible with all engine oils previously qualified to
(NATO Symbol: None) this specification. It has good storage life when stored
a. General characteristics: This liquid is a pe- in closed containers at normal temperatures.
troleum base hydraulic fluid containing additives for f. Custodians: Army-MR
use in aircraft, missile, and ordnance hydraulic systems Navy-SH
in the low temperature range. It has a pour point of Air Force-1 1
-9O"Fand a viscosity of 800 cSt at -65F.
MIL-H-l3866B(MR): HYDRAULIC FL UID, PETRO-
b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
LEUM BASE, ARTILLERY
ture range is not specified, but the liquid is generally for
very low temperature applications (to -9O"F)and mod- RECOIL, SPECIAL
erate high temperatures (less than + 200F). (NATO Symbol: None)
c. Chemical composition: The finished liquid is a a General characteristics: This hydraulic fluid is
clear and transparent petroleumbase fluid with polyme- one grade of special recoil hydraulic fluid for shock
ric additives to improve viscosity-temperature charac- load mechanisms. The liquid is clear and transparent
teristics, and other additives to inhibit oxidation and and is dyed green for identification purposes.
corrosion and to improve antiwear properties. b. Usable temperatures: The usable temperature
d. Uses: This hydraulic fluid is intended for use in range is not specified, but is generally limited to be-
automatic pilots, shock absorbers, brakes, flap-control tween -30" and +200"F.
mechanisms, missile hydraulic servo-controlled sys- c. Chemical composition: The finished liquid base
tems, and other hydraulic systems using synthetic seal- is a refined mineral oil-free from resin, soap, unrefined
ing materials. oils, and injurious ingredients which may affect the
e. Limitations: This hydraulic fluid is not for high proper function of the fluid. Viscosity index improvers,
temperature applications, and is not interchangeable oxidation inhibitors, and other additives-within de-
with any other hydraulic fluid except as specified in fined limits-may be added if needed to meet specifica-
equipment Technical Manuals. It has a normal storage tion requirements.
life of 12 months. d. Uses: This hydraulic fluid is primarily for ord-
f. Custodian: U.S. Army Missile Command nance equipment such as hydrosprings and hydro -
Redstone Arsenal, Alabama 35809 pneumatic artillery recoil mechanisms. It may also
(ERR MI-56001) be used in other fluid or force damping mechanisms.
e. Limitations: This hydraulic fluid is not suitable
MIL-L-10295A :LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL for extreme temperatures; the fluid, and any of its com-
COMBUSTION ENGINE, SUBZERO ponents, must not be subjected to temperatures above
300F during blending or subsequent operation.
(NATO Symbol: None; Product Symbol: OES) f. Custodian: Army-MR
4-1 7
AMCP 706-123
MIS-10150: HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLFUM BASP, LDd TEMPETAlWFiE, CORROSION PREWNTING
PROPERTIES VAUJES
Color: Clear and Transparent

Pour Point, "F (Max): -90
Flash P o i n t , "F (Min): 200
Viscosity, cSt: -90'F (Max)
-80'F (Max). --
-65F (Max) 800
-40F (Max) 200
130'F (Min) 5
210'F (Min) 2.5
Additives: $ w t ; Antiwear ( t r i c r e s y l phosphate) 0.5 5 0.1
Oxidation I n h i b i t o r 5; 2.0
Corrosion I n h i b i t o r A s Req'd and Approved
Viscosity Improver 5 10.0
168 h r a t 2SO'F Aluminum Alloy to. 20
Max w t Chg, Magnesium Alloy 9.20
mg/cm2 Cad.-Plate 9.20
Copper k0.60
5 Visc Chg a t 130F -5 t o +20
P i t t i n g , Etch or Corr. a t 2CX None
Increase i n Neutral. No. (Max) 0.20
Insoluble Mat'l or Gumming None
Low Temperature S t a b i l i t y : 72 h r a t -6S'F NO S o l i d s , nongel
Shear S t a b i l i t y : Viscosity Chg a t 130'F (Max) < Ref. Fluid
(30 min sonic o s c i l . ) Viscosity Chg a t -40F (Max) < Ref. Fluid
Neutral. No. Chg (Max) * 0.20
Evaporation: 4 h r a t 150F Oily, nontacky
Copper S t r i p . Corr.: 72 h r a t 250F (Max) No. 2 (ASIM)
Solid P a r t i c l e Content: 5-15 Micron 2,500
(Max Parts/100 m l ) 16-25 Micron 1,000
26-50 Micron 250
51-100 Micron 25
Over 100 Micron None
Foaming: (75F) a f t e r 5.0 min blowing; m l (Max) 65
a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g ; m l (Max) None
Rubber Swell: Type "L", Vol Chg, $ 19-28
Water Content: $ (Max) 0.08
Storage S t a b i l i t y : (-8OOto 1PO'F) Months (Min) 12
Recanmended Temperature Range , OF : Low Temperature
C m p a t i b i l i t y Hyd Fluids: (Fmergency Only) None
NATO Symbol: None
Corr. Inhib. (humidity): 20 hr a t 72F ( b a r e s t e e l ) No Corrosion
Corrosivity ( b r a s s and s t e e l ) : 10 days a t 80F No Corrosion
Wear ( S t e e l ) : S h e l l 4 - b a l l ; ( 2 h r , 167'F,
40 kg 1,200 rpm) Scar Dia < 1.0 mm

--,no information.
Use: Auto-pilots, shock absorbers, brakes, f l a p - c o n t r o l mech., m i s s i l e hyd. servo-control
and other systems using s y n t h e t i c s e a l s .
4-18
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-lO295A: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE, SUB-ZERO
I PROPERTIES VALUES
Color : NR
Spec i f i c G r a v i t y : NR - Report
Pour P o i n t , OF (Max): - 65
S t a b l e Pour P o i n t , "F (Max) : -65
F l a s h P g i n t , O F (Min) : 290
V i s c o s i t y , c S t : -40'F (Min) 5.75
-210'F (Max) 8,500
Addi ti v e s : Allowed
E f f e c t o f A d d i t i v e s : I n c r e a s e i n foam None
Homogeneity Range, O F -65 t o +250
Storage S t a b i l i t y No S e p a r a t i o n
Oxid. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : ( f e r r o u s and n o n f e r r o u s
engine p a r t s ) No Corrosion
Ring S t i c k : 120 h r Engine T e s t Nonstick, Report mm Wear
Foaming: 75'F, a f t e r 5 . 0 min blowing, ml (Max) No l i m i t
75'F, a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , m l (Max) 300
200F,a f t e r 5 . 0 inin blowing, m l (Max) No l i m i t
~OO'F, a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , m l ax) 25
Repeat 75F t e s t Same a s i n i t . 75'F Test
Compatibility: A l l o i l s t o Spec.
Water Content, $, : None
Suspended Matter, $ : None
S t o r a g e Sl a b i l i t y : NR
NAlO Symbol: None
Hecoinmended Ambient Temperature Range, "F : -65 to 0
1.
Noics: NK, no r c q u i r cl iinns n l s .
Uie: L o w i r m p e r a i u r e lub for c r a n k c a s e o f i n t e r n a l combustion e n g i n e s . May be s y n t h e t i c
4-19
AMCP 706-123
MIL-X-l386fB(MR) : :cIDRAUSIC FLUID, PETROLmM BASE, A,WILLERY RECOIL, SPECIAL
PRO PERT I ES VA L'UES
Color: Green ( C l e a r )
S p c c i f i c G r a v i t y , 6 0 / 6 0 , OF: 15
Bur/Cloud P o i n t s , O F ax) : -50/-40
Flash/Fire h i c t s , OF ( M i n ) : 210/220
V i s c o s i t y , cSt: -40'F (Nax) --
-30'F (Max) 4 400
~
100F (Mix) 55
210'F (Min) 15
Additives: Oxidation I n h i b i t o r s , $ w t Approval Req'd
Corrosion I n h i b i t o r s , $ w t Approval Req'd
V i s c o s i t y Improvers, $ c 17.5
Others None
:!cu',ralization No. : mg KOH/g (Max) 3.30
P r e c i p i t a t i o n No. : (Max) 0.05
Corr. and Oxid. S t a b i l i t y : S t e e l -0.20
168 h r a t 212'F Copper -0.20
M a x w t Chg, P i t t i n g , Etch or Corr. a t 2OX None
3g/m2 V i s c o s i t y Chg a t 100F, $ -5 t o +20
N e u t r a l i z a t i o n No. i 0.50
P r e c i p i t a t i o n No. < 0.05
I m o h k l e K a t ' l o r >.x=.<cg ?;me
Copper S t r i p Corr.: 3 h r a t 212'F NR
Law Temperature S:abili:y: 72 h r a t -30'F Nongel, N 3 . Sep.
Rubber Swell: Typr "L", 168 h r a t 70"F, $ Vol Chg g 25.0
D i e l e c t r i c Strength: k V / m (Min) 15.0
Shear Stab.: (Pump); 100F, Cycles t o reduce Visc. 25% > Ref. Fluid*
Corr. R o t . ; ( b a r e s t e e l ) : 200 h r a t 77"F, lO@ R.H. NR
S a l t Water Corr. ; ( b a r e s t e e l ) : 20 h r a t 77$ NR
D i s t i l l a t i o n : lO$ Evaporation; OF (Min) ?rR
5 6 Pva.poration; OF (Min) NR
Foaming: 7 5 ' F , a f t e r 5.0 min blowing; ml (Max) NR
75'F, a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g ; ml (Max) NR
200F, a l ' t e r 5.0 min blowing, m l (Max) m
200F, af't-er 1 0 . 0 min s e t t l i n g , m l (Max) NR
Reconmended Temperature Range, O F : --
S e r v i c e P e r f . : ( O i l Gear M3), Oil Temperature O F (Max) NR
Water Coctent: --
Notes: SR, no requirements.

--, no information.
* R . I . A . Ref. O i l No. 1.
Use: Fiydr3springi and hydropneumatic a r t i l l e r y r e c o i l mechanisms.
4-20
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-13919B:HYDRAULICFLUID, PETROLEUM I : L UBRICA TING

MIL-L-I7331F(SHIPS)Amendment
U S E , FIRE-CONTROL OIL, STEAM TURBINE
(NONCORROSIVE)
(NATO Symbol: None) (NATO Symbol: 0-250; Military Symbol: 2 190-TEP)
a. General characteristics:This hydraulic fluid is a a. General characteristics: This liquid is a pe-
rust inhibiting, petroleum base liquid, containing addi- troleum base steam turbine lubricating oil which may
tives, for use at ambient temperatures above 0F. or may not contain additives. The liquid is noncorro-
ASTM color is Code No. 5 Max, bright in color and sive and has a work factor of 0.9 min.
free of haze. b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
b. Usable temperatures: The operating temperature range is not specified, but general usage is between
ture range is not specified. + 20F and 190Fwith short duration elevated temper-
c. Chemical composition: The base liquid is a re- ature use to 250F.
fined mineral oil, free of unrefined oils and other injuri- c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a
ous ingredients which may affect the proper function of homogeneous blend of virgin petroleum lubricating
the liquid. The finished liquid contains suitable rust- oil plus required additives to meet requirements of
inhibiting and other approved additives. the specification.
d. Uses:This liquid is a medium grade rust-inhibit- d. Uses: This liquid is a steam turbine lubricating
ing, ambient temperature, ordnance hydraulic fluid for oil for main turbines and gears, auxiliary turbine instal-
use in fire control systems, hydraulic variable speed lations, certain hydraulic equipment, general mechani-
gears, and in other hydraulic mechanisms where cal lubrication, and air compressors.
recommended. e. Limitations: The liquid has limited use as hy-
e. Limitations: This hydraulic fluid is not suitable draulic fluid and is not for low temperatures (minimum
for extreme temperature applications, below O"F or recommended temperature is +20"F). It is compatible
above 200F. It is not recommended or intended for use with reference oils furnished by the Government and
in aircraft. other oils to this specification.
f. Custodian: Army-MR f. Custodian: Navy-SH (Project 9 150-N029Sh).
MIL-F-I711I(NORD): FLUID, POWER TRANS- MIL-L-I 76728: LUBRICATING OIL, HYDRAULIC

MISSION AND LIGHT TURBINE, NONCOR-
ROSIVE
(NATO Symbol: H-575)
a. General characteristics: This liquid is a pe- (NATO Symbol: H-573)
troleum base, power transmission fluid suitable for use a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
in Naval ordnance systems involving mechanical or ers a multiclass mineral base hydraulic oil containing
fibrous type filters or centrifugal purification. It shall anticorrosion and antioxidation additives:
be noncorrosive to bearings and hydraulic systems, and 1. Military Symtxl 2075 T-H
shall not cause clogging of oil screens or valves. It has 2. Military Symbol 21 10 T-H
an ASTM color of Code No. 2. 3. Military Symbol 2135 T-H
b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera- b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
ture range is not specified. ture range is not specified.
' c. Chemical composition: The finished liquid is a c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a blend of
petroleum base fluid plus an antiwear agent tricresyl virgin petroleum base oils and additives to meet re-
phosphate, and other approved additives which im- quirements of this specification; including oxidation,
prove the compounded fluid with respect to viscosity- corrosion, foam and emulsion tests in addition to vis-
temperature and lubricating properties, resistance to cosity range, flash, pour point, etc.
oxidation, and corrosion protection. d. Uses:This liquid is for steam turbines, hydraulic
d. Uses: This liquid is intended for use in connec- systems, water turbines, water-wheel type generators,
tion with the hydraulic transmission of power, particu- hydraulic-turbine governors, and other applications
larly in Naval ordnance hydraulic equipment. where a high grade lubricating oil having anticorrosion
e. Limitations: Not for high temperature applica- and antioxidation properties is required.
tions since the fluid is flammable. e. Limitations: There are no storage life require-
f. Custodian: Air Force- 11 ments, but the liquid has good storage properties if
4-2 1
AMCP 706-123
NIL-H-139lf.B: HYDR4ULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASE, FIRE CONTROL
PROPEKCIES VALUES
Color: No. 5 (ASTM)

S p e c i f i c G r a v i t y , 60/60, OF: NR
Pour/Cloud P o i n t s , OF (Max): -50/NR
Flash/Fire P o i n t s , OF (Min): 225/NR
V i s c o s i t y , cSt: -40F (Max) 7,500
-30'F (Max) NR
lOOOF (Min) 30
210'F (Min) 10
Additives: Oxidation I n h i b i t o r s , $ w t Approval Req'd
Corrosion I n h i b i t o r s , % w t Approval Req'd
Viscosity Lmprovers, $ w t Apgrcval Req'?.
Others None
N e u t r a l i z a t i o n No. : mg KOH/g (Max) NR
P r e c i p i t a t i o n No.: (Max) 0.05
Corr. and Oxid. S t a b i l i t y : S t e e l -0.20
168 h r a t 212'F Copper -0.20
Max w t Chg, P i t t i n g , Etch or Corr. a t 20X S l i g h t Etch
mg/m2 V i s c o s i t y Ctg a t lCCF, % -5 t o +20
K e u t r a l i z a t i o n No. N.50
P r e c i p i t a t i o n No. < 0.05
I n s o l u b l e M a t ' l or Gumming None
Copper S t r i p Corr.: 3 h r a t 212'F No Etch o r P i t
Low Temperature S t a b i l i t y : 72 h r a t -30'F Kongel, No Sep.
Rubber Swell: Type "L", 168 k r a t 70F, $ Vol Chg L 25.0
E e 1 e c t r ; c S t r e n g t h : k V / m (Min) NR
Shear S t a b . : (Pump); 100F, Cycles t o reduce Visc. 25% > Ref. Fluid*
Corr. P r o t . ; ( b a r e s t e e l ) : 200 h r a t 77'F, 1 0 6 R.H. S l i g h t Trace
S a l t Water Corr.: ( b a r e s t e e l ) ; 20 h r a t 77% S l i g h t Trace
Distillation: 1 6 Evaporation; OF ( M i n ) 49 0
5 6 Evaporation; O F ( # i n ) 575
Foaming: 75'F, a f t e r 5.0 min blowing; m l (Max) No l i m i t
7 5 " ~ a, f t e r 10.0 m i n s e t t l i n g ; m l (MU) 4 100
200F, a f t e r 5 . 0 m i n blowing m l (Max) No l i m i t
200F, a f t e r 1 0 . 0 min s e t t l i n g , ml (Max) 25
Recommended Temperature Range, O F : Ambient > 0
Service P e r f . : ( O i l Gear M 3 ) , O i l Temperature OF (Nax) L 205
d a t e r Content: None

)t. R . I . A . Ref. O i l Na. 1.
J s e : Fire-con!r<>l h y d r a u l i c v a r i a b l e speed g e a r s and o t h e r mechanisms. Rust i n h i b i t i n g .
Not for a i r c r a f t .
4-22
AMCP 706-123
MIL-F-17111 (NORD): FLUID, POWER TRANSMISSION
I PROPEFiTIES VALUES
Color: N o . 2 (ASTM)
pour F o i n t , O F , (MU): -40
Flash/Fire Points, OF (Min): 220/235
Viscosity, cSt: -25'F (Max) 600
O O F (Max) 215
100F (Min) 27
210'F (Min) 10
Additives: Antiwear; $ w t Approval Req'd
Oxidation I n h i b i t o r , $ wt Approval Req'd
Corrosion I n h i b i t o r , % wt P-pproval Req'd
Viscosity Improver, $ wt Approval Req'd
T r i c r e s y l Phosphate, $,wt 1.0 f 0.1
P r e c i p i t a t i o n No.: 0.05
Water Content: 46 i ax) None
Low Temperature S t a b i l i t y : 72 hr a t -35'F No S o l i d s , nongel
Rust Prevention: ( b a r e s t e e l ) , 24 h r a t 140'F No Visual Evidence
Corr. and Oxid. S t a b i l i t y : copper w t l o s s ; rng/cm2 < 0.20
336 h r a t 220'F $ Vise Chg; 210'F 0 t o +25
Fluid and water $ Visc Chg; 0F 0 t o +25
N e u t r a l i z a t i o n No. (Max) 0.50
Oil-Insoluble Residue; $, w t
(Max) 0.50
Color; (ASTM) (M=) No. 5
Copper Wire Oxid.: $ Vise Chg; 210'F 0 t o +15
72 h r a t 200'F $ Vise Chg; OF 0 t o +15
F l u i d and Water N e u t r a l i z a t i o n No. (Max) s 0.50
Shear S t a b i l i t y : $ Visc Chg a t 210'F (Max) -25
5,000 cycle pump F l u i d Condition No Separation o r Sludge
100'F and 1,000 p s i N e u t r a l i z a t i o n No. (Max) 0.50
WearGear Pump: W t Loss/pUmp Gear, g 0.20 (Max)
(100 hr, 100F, 1,000 p s i ) W t Lss/Bronze Bushing, g 0.04 (Max)
W t Loss/4 Bronze Bushings, g 0.08 (Max)
Evaporation: 72 h r a t 190'F; Visc.; 210F, cSt 3,000 (Max)
Water Sludging: 24 h r a t 100'F; 46 Vise Chg a t lOO'F -2 t o +10
NATO Symbol: H-575
Recommended Temperature Range , " F : NR
Foaming : NR
Storage S t a b i l i t y : NR

Use: Fluid f o r hydraulic transmission o f power, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Naval Ord. Hyd. equipnent.
4-23
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-l7331F(SHIPS) AMENDMENT 1: LUBRICATING O I L , STEAM TURBINE (NONCORROSIVE)
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color : NR - Record
Specific Gravity: NR - Record
Pour Point, OF (Max): 20
Flash Point, OF (Max): 350
Viscosity, c S t : l O O O F 82-110
210F (Min) 8.2
Mineral Acidity: Neutral
Additives: Allowed (nonchlorine )
Corr. Prot.: ( b a r e s t e e l ) s a l t spray ( f o g ) ; 48 h r a t 95'F No Corrosion
Copper s t r i p c o r r : 3 hr a t 212'F S l i g h t Tarnish
Oxid. Test: (1,000 hr a t 95'F): N e u t r a l i z a t i o n No. (Min) 2 .o
Iron-Copper Cat., Insoluble Sludge, mg (Max) 100
a i r and water Copper or. i r o n i n o i l ; mg (Max) 100
Work Factor: (Min) 0.9 (No d e p o s i t )
Water Content: None
Ash (sulphated residue) : NR - Record
Carbon Residue: NR - Record
Compatibility : Ref. O i l s
H o m o g e n e i t y T e m p e r a t u r e R a n g e , OF: 30 t o 250
Foaming: 75'F, a f t e r 5 . 0 min blowing, m l (Max) No l i m i t
7SoF, a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , m l (Max) 300
200F, a f t e r 5.0 rnin blowing, m l (Max) No l i m i t
200F, a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , m l (Max) 25
Repeat 75F Test Same as i n i t . 75F Test
Emulsion: 130F, s e t t l i n g time; min (Max) 30
Load Carrying Ability: (Ryder Gear Machine); P.P.I. (Min) 2,200
Wear: ( 2 h r 175'F, 600 rpm, 15 kg); Scar. Dia mm (Max) 0.45
Contamination: (325 Mesh); mg/gal; (Max) 10 .o
6.0 n i l f i b e r / g a l (Max) 1.0
NATO Symbol: 0-250
Military Symbol: 2190-TEP
Storage S t a b i l i t y : --
Recommended Temperature Range, OF : --

-- , no information.
Use: Steam t u r b i n e and gears, hyd. equipment, g e n e r a l mechanical lub., and air compressors.
4-24
AMCP 706-123
PROPERTIES VALUES
I
Color: NR
Specific Gravity: NR -
Report
Bur Bint, OF (Max): MIL-Symbol 2075 T-H -20
MILSymbOl 2110 T-H -10
MIL-Symbol 2135 T-H 0
Flash Point, OF (Min): MILSymbol 2075 T-H 315
MILSymbOl 2110 T-H 325
MIL-Symbol 2135 T-H 340
Viscosity, cSt: OOF, MILSymbOl 2075 T-H 1,200(Max)
OOF, MIL-Symbol 2110 T-i 2,400 (Max)
10*F, MIL-Symbol 2135 T-H 2,800 (Max)
210F, MIL-SymbOl 2075 T-H 4.3-5.3
210F, MIL-Symbol 2110 T-H 5.3-6.7
210q MIL-Symbol 2135 T-H 6.7-7.7
Neutrality, Qualitative: Neutral
Copper Strip: 3 hr at 212'F (Max) No. 1 (ASTM)
Rust Preventative: 24 hr at 140'F No Corrosion
Water Content: $ (MW) None
Ash, Sulfated Residue :$ (Max) -
NR Report
Additives: Allowed
Homogeneity Temperature Range, OF: MIL-Symbol 2075 T-H -20 to 250
MIL-Symbol 2110 T-H -10 to 250
MIL-Symbol 2135 T-H 0 to 250
Emulsion: 130"F, 30 min settling, Max Cuff, ml 3.00
Foaming: 75'F, after 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) No limit
75'F, after 10.0 min settling, ml (Max) 300
200F, after 5.0 rnin blowing, ml (Max) No limit
200 OF, after 10.0 min settling, ml ( M a ) 25
Repeat 75'F Test Same as init. 75'F Tes
Oxid. Test: Time to reach Neut. No. 2.0 mg KOH; hr (Max) 1,000
Contamination: (325 Mesh); -/gal (Max) 10.0
6.0 ml fibers/gal (Max) 1.0
NATO Symbol: 11-573
Storage Stability: --
Recommended Temperature Range, OF: --
Compatibility: Ref. and Spec. oils

--,no information.
Use: Mineral oil and additives for steam turbines, hyd. systems, water turbines and other
systems, anticorrosion and antioxidant additives are required.
4-25
AMCP 706-123
stored in closed containers at normal temperatures. It d. Uses: This liquid is used for low temperature
shall be compatible with other reference oils furnished hydraulic systems such as missile hydraulic systems,
by the Government. Compatibility is determined by automatic pilots, shock struts and other hydraulic sys-
mixing equal portions of specification oil and reference tems using synthetic sealing material.
oil, and passing requirements of this specification. e. Limitations:This liquid is not for high tempera-
f. Custodians: Army-GL ture conditions. It is not interchangeable with Hydrau-
Navy-SH lic Fluid, Castor Oil Base, Specification MIL-H-7644
Air Force-1 1 (blue color) nor Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum Base,
Specification MIL-H-5606B.
MIL-L-2126OA: LUBRICATING OIL, INTERNAL f. Custodian: Air Force - WADC, WCRTR-1
COMB USTION ENGINE, PR E - (Preliminary Spec.: Non-release)
SER VATI VE Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio 45433
(NATO Symbol: None)
a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
ers three viscosity grade preservative lubricating oils MIL-H-27601A(USAF): HYDRA ULIC FLUID, PE-
used as lubricants in spark-ignition and compression- TROLEUM BASE, HIGH
ignition types of reciprocating internal combus- TEMPERATURE, FLIGHT
tion engines. VEHICLE
ture ranges are not specified.
(NATO Symbol: None)
c. Chemical composition: The finished oil may be
a. General characteristics:This hydraulic fluid is a
a petroleum base of a synthetically prepared product,
petroleum or synthetic hydrocarbon base fluid contain-
or a combination thereof, with or without additives.
ing specified additives. The finished fluid has good
However, no re-refined components are permitted.
thermal and electrical properties and a viscosity index
d. Uses: The oil is a crankcase oil for diesel or
of 89 (min).
spark-ignition type internal combustion engines. Al-
though intended principally as a static preservative,
ture range is-40" to 550F.
this oil may be used as an operating lubricant for short
c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe-
periods, and for some hydraulic equipment. It is com-
troleum or synthetic hydrocarbon base fluid with speci-
patible with other fluids to this specification and MIL-
fied amounts of hindered bisphenol oxidation inhibitor
L-2 104.
and tricresyl phosphate antiwear additives.
e. Limitations: This oil is not for low temperature
d. Uses:This fluid can be used in high temperature
usage and not generally for gear box applications.
hydraulic systems, principally for flight vehicles.
e. Limitations: The fluid is not suitable or recom-
Navy-SH
mended for extreme low temperature operation. Also,
Air Force-1 1
this fluid is not compatible with any other hydraulic
MIL-F-25598(USAF): OIL, HYDRA ULIC, MISSILE, fluids except those meeting this specification.
PETROLEUM BASE f. Custodian: Air Force- 1 1
(NATO Symbol: None)
a. General characteristics: This specification cov- MIL-L-45199A: L UBRICA TING OIL, INTERNAL
ers a low viscosity hydraulic oil for light or medium
COMBUSTION ENGINE, HIGH
duty applications at low temperatures. It has a pour
OUTPUT DIESEL
point of -90F and a viscosity of 600 cSt at -65F. It is
dyed purple for identification purposes. (NATO Symbol: None)
b. Usable temperatures: No specified requirement a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
but intended for temperatures -65F to +20O0F. ers a multi-grade heavy duty crankcase engine oil with
c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe- a pour point as low as-20F.
troleum base oil containing approved additives to meet b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
specification requirements for oxidation, corrosion and ture range is not specified.
wear (tricresyl phosphate, 0.5 percent by weight, an- c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a pe-
tiwear agent). No pour point depressant shall be used. troleum base oil or synthetically prepared product, or
4-26
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L21260A: LUBRICATING O I L , INTERNU COMBUSTION ENGINE, PRESERVATIVE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color : NR
Speci f i c Gravity : NR
Pour Point, OF ( M a x ) : Grade 1 -20
Grade 2 0
Grade 3 c15
Stable Pour Point, OF (Max): Grade 1 only -20
Flash Point, OF (Min): Grade 1 360
Grade 2 390
Grade 3 400
Viscosity, cSt: Grade 1 2,61415.44-7.29
(Visc, OOF ( M ~ x ) / Grade 2 43,570/9.65-12.98
Visc, 210'F) Grade 3 NR/16.83-22.75
Viscosity Index: Grade 3 only 75
V o l a t i l e Matter: (4 h r steam bath); $ w t 2.0
Additives : Allowed
Corr. R o t . : 200 h r , high-humidity; Corr. Trace Only
(Bare S t e e l , 77OF) s a l t water dip, 20 h r dry; $ Corr. Trace Only
Acid Neut.: 7iF, acid s o l . dip, 4 h r i n o i l ; $ Corr. No Corrosion
Oxid. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : ( f e r r o u s and nonferrous engine
Parts 1 Noncorrosive
Compatibility: M I L L-2104
Foaming: 75'F, a f t e r 5.0 min blowing, ml ( M a x ) NO l i m i t
75"F, a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , m l (Max) 300
200F, a f t e r 5.0 min blowing, ml ( M a x ) No l i m i t
200F, a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , m l ( M a x ) 25
?5'F, Repeat 75'F ,Test Same 85 i n i t . 75" Test
Water Content: $ -c
NATO Symbol: None

Storage S t a b i l i t y :
Recommended Temperature Range , "F :
Notes: M, no requirements.
--,no information.
Use: Light, medium, and heavy p r e s e r v a t i v e lub and p r e s e r v a t i v e o i l for r e c i p r o c a t i n g
i n t e r n a l combustion engines.
4-27
AMCP 706-1 23
flIIrF-25598( USAF): OIL, HYDRAULIC, MISSILE, PETROLEUM BASE
PROPERTIES VALUES
Color : Purple (Clear and Transparent)

Specific Gravity: NR
Pour Point, OF (Max): -90
Flash Point, OF (Min): 200
Viscosity, cSt: -65F (Max) 600
-50'F (Max) 240
-40'F (Max) 140
O'F (Max) 28
130'F (Min) 2.6
160F (Min) 2.0
210'F (Min) 1.25
Neutralization No.: mg KOE//g 0.20
P r e c i p i t a t i o n No. : 0
Additives; $ w t : Antiwear ( t r i c r e s y l phosphate) (Max) 0.05 f 0.1
Oxidation I n h i b i t o r (Max) < 2.0
Corrosion I n h i b i t o r (Max) As Req'd
Viscosity Improvers (M=) None
Others No Pour Point Dep.
Corr. and Oxid. S t a b i l i t y : S t e e l 2 0.20
168 hr a t 250'F Aluminum Alloy f 0.20
ax w t chg, mg/cm2 Magnesium Alloy f 0.20
Cad. - Plate f 0.20
Copper f 0.60
P i t t i n g , Etch and Corr. at 20X None ( s l i g h t s t a i n )
$ Visc Chg a t 130F -5 t o +20
Insoluble Mat'l or Gumming None
Low Temperature S t a b i l i t y : 72 h r at -65F No s o l i d s , nongel
Rubber Swell: Type "L", Vol, $ 19 - 26.5
Evaporation: 4 h r a t 150F O i l y , nontacky
Copper S t r i p . Corr.: 72 h r a t 2 U F No Corrosion ( s l i g h t s t a i n )
Corr. Prot.: S t e e l , 100 h r , 120F, 100% R.H. Wace of Corrosion
Solids: 250 cc, 0.047 mm f i l t e r ; Max P a r t Size 30 micron
Water Content: $ 0.005
Recommended Temperature Range, OF : --
NATO Symbol: None
Compatibility: Not Interchangeable

--, no information.
Use: Missile hyd. systems using s y n t h e t i c material.
AMCP 706-123
MIL-H-27601A(USAF) : HYDRAULIC FWID, PETROLEUM BASE, HIGH TEMPERATURE, FXIGH'J! VMICLF

-
PROPEEPPIES VALUES
Color: NR
S p e c i f i c Gravity: NR - Report
Pour Point, OF (Max) : -65
Flash Point, OF (Min) : 360
Viscosity, cSt: -65'F Report
-40'F (Max) 4,000
OF (Max) 385
210'F (Min) 3.2
550'F (Min) Report
Viscosity Index: (Min) 89
Additives, $ w t : Antiwear ( t r i c r e s y l phosphate) (Max) 1.0
Oxidation I n h i b i t o r s (bis-phenol) 0.45 -
1.0
Others Approval Re q 'd
Corr. and Oxid. S t a b i l i t y : Copper 0.60
40 h r a t 347'F Type 350 S t . S t e e l 0.20
Max w t Chg, Type 355 S t . S t e e l 0.20
w/m2 Type 440 S t . S t e e l 0.20
Silver 0.20
$ Visc. Chg. a t lOO'F -5 t o +20
Neutralization No. (Max) 2.0
Insoluble M a t ' l $ w t (Max) 0.1
Thermal S t a b i l i t y : M-10 Tool S t e e l 0.10
6 hr a t 700F, 52100 S t e e l 0.10
20 p s i g Nitrogen Naval Bronze 0.10
atmosphere, $ Visc Chg a t lOO'F (Max) 25
Neutral. No. ( M a x ) 0.40
Rubber Swell ( S y n ) : Viton A o r B; 72 h r a t 400F, $ Vol. +10.0 (Max)
Lubricity; ( S h e l l 4-Ball T e s t e r ) : 1 kg load 0.21
1.0 h r a t 600 rpm, 167OF, 10 kg load 0.30
52100 S t e e l Max Scar Dia mm 40 kg load 0.65
S o l i d P a r t i c l e s : Time t o f i l t e r 100 ml, min (Max) 10.0
( 0 . 4 5 Micron f i l t e r ) Max P a r t i c l e on f i l t e r (Micron) 100.0
Compatibility: All f l u i d s t o t h i s Spec.
Foaming: 75'F, a f t e r 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) 75
75'F, a f t e r 3 . 0 min s e t t l i n g , ml (Max) None
200F a f t e r 5.0 min blowing, ml (Max) 75
200'F a f t e r 3.0 min s e t t l i n g , ml (Max) None
Repeat 75.F Test Same a s i n i t . 75' Test
Water Content: $ ( M W ) 0.10
Trace Sediment: $ Vol (Max) 0.025
D i e l e c t r i c Strength: ( v o l t / m i l ) , 68'F; (Min) 3 00
S p e c i f i c Heat: (Btu/lb OF) a t 200'F (Min) 0.484
Thermal Cond.: (Btu/( f t 2 ) ( h r ) ( ' F ) / f t a t 400F (Min) 0.063
Thermal Expansion/"F: a t 400'F (Max) 0.00060
Bulk Mod. : (isothermal secant, 0-104 p s i , 100F), p s i > 200,000
Recommended Temperature Range, O F : -40 t o 6 5 0

Use: w d . Systems of f l i g h t v e h i c l e s .
4-29
AMCP 706-123
IL-L-45199A: LUBRICATING O I L , INTEXNAL COMBUSTION ENGIXE, HIGH OUTPUT DIESEL
P3.OPER'?IJ?S VALLT S
olor: NR
p e c i f i c Gravity: NR - Report
our Point, OF ( M a x ) : Grade 10 -20
Grade 30 0
Grade 50 NF
t a b l e Pour Point, OF (Max) : Grade 10 (only) -20
l a s h Point, OF (Min) : Grade 10 360
Grade 30 390
Grade 50 NP
i s c o s i t y , c s t : O'F; Grade 10 (MKK) 2,614
0F; Grade 30 (Max) 43,570
O'F; Grade 50 (Max) NP
210'F; Grade 10 5.44-7.29
210F; Grade 30 9.65-12.98
210F; Grade 50 NF
dditives: Allowed (No r e r e f i n e d )
xid. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : ( f e r r o u s end nonferrous engine
parts) No Corrosion
ow Temperature Deposit: 180 h r low temp Cycle NR
i n g Stick: 120 hr engine t e s t No S t i c k , Min. Wear
ight-load deposit accumulation: 120 hr engine t e s t NR
owning: 75'F, a f t e r 5.0 min blowing, m l (Max) No L i m i t
75'F, after 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , m l (Max) 300
200'F a f t e r 5.0 min blowing, m l (Max) No L i m i t
200'F a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , ml (Max) 25
Repeat 75'F Test Same as i n i t . 75'F Test
il Additive S t a b i l i t y : No Additive I n s t a b i l i t y
torage Stability: --
ompat i b i l i t y : A l l O i l s t o Spec.
ecormuended Temperature Range, OF: Above -20
AT0 symbol: None
otes: NR, no requirements.

--,no information.
Np, no product.
se: Crankcase l u b of high output d i e s e l s where temperature i s above -20'F. May be
synthetic base.
4-30
AMCP 706-123
combination thereof, with additive materials (deter- b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera-
gents, dispersants, oxidation inhibitors, etc.) necessary ture range is not specified, but the oiI or oil-water va-
to meet the requirements of this specification. No re- pors shall be capable of protecting parts from corrosion
refined components are allowed. throughout a temperature range of +W to +130"F.
d. Uses: This liquid is for crankcase lubrication of c. Chemical composition:This oil is a volatile cor-
high output supercharged and unsupercharged diesel rosion inhibited, petroleum base oil containing addi-
engines under all conditions of service at ambient tem- tives necessary to meet specification requirements. The
peratures above-20F. oil shall contain no ingredients injurious to personnel
e. Limitations: This liquid is not for use at low using reasonable safety precautions and must be free
temperature conditions. It is compatible with all oils from disagreeable or offensive odors.
qualified to this specification. d. Uses:This oil is intended for use in the preserva-
f. Custodians: Army-MR tion of enclosed systems where the volatile components
Nav y-SH will provide protection above the oil level. It is also
Air Force-67 effective as a contact preservative.
e. Limitations:The oil is not intended for use as an
MIL-H-46001A: HYDRAULICFLUID,PETROLEUM operational preservative oil and should not be used in
BASE FOR MACHINE TOOLS, applications where magnesium, cadmium-plated or
TYPES I, II, III, AND IV rubber components are' present. Generally, it should
(NATO Symbol: None) not be mixed with other oils to same specification due
a. General characteristics: This liquid is a multi- to wide product tolerances.
grade refined petroleum hydrocarbon hydraulic fluid f. Custodian: Army-MR
containing additives. It has a viscosity range of 30 to
121 cSt at l W F , and a minimum viscosity index of 80.
b. Usable temperatures: The operating tempera- MIL-H-46004(0RD):HYDRA ULIC FLUID, PETRO-
ture range is not_specified, but ambient temperatures LEUM BASE, MISSILE
should be above +20"F.
(NATO Symbol: None)
c. Chemical composition:The finished liquid shall
a. General characteristics: This specification cov-
be a petroleum base fluid containing additives neces-
ers a low viscosity liquid containing approved additives
sary to meet the requirements of this specification-i.e.,
for low temperature missile applications. It has a vis-
oxidation, corrosion, foam, flash, etc.
cosity of 300 cSt at-65"F and a pour point of-75F. The
d. Uses:This liquid is primarily for use in hydrau-
liquid is dyed yellow for identification purposes.
lic systems of metalworking machine tools. The selec-
tion of the particular type of liquid is based on fluid
ture range is not specified.
viscosity recommendations of machine tool manufac-
c. Chemical composition: This liquid is a refined
turers. The finished liquid shall be compatible with
petroleum base liquid with additives to improve oxida-
other liquids meeting this specification.
tion resistance and wear (tricresyl phosphate, 0.5 5 0.1
e. Limitations: This liquid is not suitable for low percent by weight as the antiwear agent). The finished
temperatures, and ambient temperatures should be product shall contain no pour point depressants, vis-
above +20"F. cosity index improvers, admixtures of resins, rubber,
soaps, gums, fatty oils, oxidized hydrocarbons, nor
Navy-SA
other additives not specifically approved.
Air Force-11
d. Uses: This liquid is designed for use in missile
MIL-L-46002(0RD): LUBRICATING OIL, CON- hydraulic systems applications at ambient tempera-
tures below 20F.
TACTAND VOLATILE, COR -
e. Limitations: This liquid is not for high tempera-
R OSION INHIBITED
ture or high load applications. It is not interchangeable
(NATO Symbol: None) with Hydraulic Fluid, Castor Oil Base (blue color),
a. General characteristics: This oil is a dual grade Specification MIL-H-7844. This liquid shall not be
volatile corrosion inhibited lubricating oil for preserva- mixed with, but may be substituted for, Hydraulic
tion of material in enclosed systems. Light and medium Fluid, Petroleum Base, Specification MIL-H-5606B,
viscosity oils are available with pour points of -50F for low temperature operation.
and -10F. f. Custodian: Army-MR
4-3 1
AMCP 706-123
~~ ~~
MIL-H-4600lA: HYDRAULIC F L U I D , PEl!RoLEXM BASE, FOR MACHINE TOOLS, TYPES I, 11, 111, AND I V
PROPEHPIES VALUES
Color: NR
Pour m i n t , OF (Max) : Type I +10
Type I1 +10
Type I11 +10
Type I V +2 0
Flash Foint , OF (Min) : Type I ,325
Type I1 325
Type 111 350
Type I V 375
Viscosity, cSt: lOOOF Type I 30-37
Type I1 42 -52
Type I11 62-70
Type I V 106-l21
Viscosity Index: (Min) 80
Neutralization No.: mg KOH/g (Max) 0.20
Additives: Approval Req'd
Oxidation S t a b i l i t y : Bare S t e e l S t r i p 0.20
168 h r a t 212'F Copper S t r i p 0.20
Max w t Chg, P i t t i n g , Etch and Corr. a t 20X None
w/m2 $ Visc. Chg a t LOOOF (Max) 25.0
Neutral. No. Chg (Max) +O .15
P r e c i p i t a t i o n N O . ax) 0.05
Insoluble Mat'l o r Gumming None
Compatibility : All Fluids t o This Spec,
Water Content: None
Foaming: 75'F, a f t e r 5.0 min blowing, m l ( M a x ) No l i m i t
75'F, a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , m l (Max) 100
200F,after 5.0 min blowing, m l (Max) No l i m i t
200 OF, a f t e r 10.0 min s e t t l i n g , m l (Max) 25
Repeat 75'F t e s t Same as i n i t . 75'F Test
Emulsion: After 30 min s e t t l i n g ; foam o r cuff (Max) 3.0 m l
( O i l and Water, 130F, 5 . 0 min s t i r , 30 min s e t t l i n g ) Trace
Copper Corr. : 168 h r a t 212'F No P i t o r Etch
Rust Prevention: ( b a r e s t e e l ) , 24 h r a t 130'F None
Recommended Temperature Range , F : NR
NATO Symbol: None
Use: Hydraulic systems of metal working machine t o o l s .
4-32
AMCP 706-123
MIL-L-&O@(ORD): LUBRICATING OIL, CONTACT AND VOLATILE, CORROSION ~ I B I T E D
PROPEIPCIES VALUES
Color: NR
Specific Gravity: m
our Point, "F (MU): Grade 1 -5 0
Grade 2 -10
Flash FQint, OF (Min): Grade 1 240
Grade 2 250
Viscosity, cSt: -40'F ( M a x ) Grade 1 10,000
-40'F (Max) Grade 2 NR
lOO'F (Min) Grade 1 12
100F (Min) Grade 2 95 t o 125
210F Grede 1 NR
210F Grade 2 9.65 t o 12.98
Precipitation N O . : m1/10 m l ax) 0.05
Hydrocarbon Solubility: 24 hr a t 77'F No Separation
Corrosive Protection: Humidity Cabinet, 300 h r a t 120'F No Corrosion
Vapor Phase; 6 hr a t 40'F
and 18 hr a t 130F No Corrosion
Vapor Phase Prot. a f t e r exhaustion;
6 hr a t 210F No Corrosion
Acid Neut.: 7 7 O ~ , acid sol. dip, 4 hr i n o i l ; $J C O r r . No Corrosion
Water Displacement/Stability: 1.0 hr a t 77OF No Corrosion
Corrosion Inrmersion: Aluminum 0.20
7 days a t 130'F Steel 0.50
MS w t mg; %/em2 Copper 1.50
Evaporation: $ w t Volatile matter (Max), Grade 1 15.0
(210'F) $ w t Volatile matter (Max), Grade 2 5.0
$ Vise, Chg a t 100F, Grade 1 -5 t o +20
$J Vise, Chg a t 100F, Grade 2 -5 t o +20
NATO Symbol: None
Recommended Temperature Range , OF : up t o I30

-_
, no information.
4-33
Next Page
AMCP 706-1 23
~~
uIIL-H-46004(ORD): HYDRAULIC FLUID, PETROLEUM BASE, MTSSILE
PRODERTIES VALUES
Zolor : Yellow (Clear and Transparent)

3pecif i c Gravity: Report
Pour Point, "F (Max): 7s-
Flash Point, 'F (Min): 200
iriscosity, cSt: -65'F (Max) 300
-40'F (Max) 75
lOO'F (Min) 2.8
kdditives: Antiwear ( t r i c r e s y l phosphate), $ w t 0.5 20.1
Oxid I n h i b i t o r s , '$ w t < 2.0
Pour Point Depressant, $ w t None
Viscosity Improvers, $ w t None
Others Approval Req'd
P r e c i p i t a t i o n No. : 0
q a t e r Content, $ (a): 0.015
Corr. and Oxid. S t a b i l i t y : S t e e l to. 20
168 kr a t 250F Aluminum Alloy k0.20
Max w t Chg, mg/cm2 Magnesium Alloy k0.20
Cad.-Plate f0.20
Copper i0.60
P i t t i n g , Etch and Corr a t 20X None
'$ Visc Chg a t 100F -5 t o +20
Insoluble Mat'l o r Gumming;
'$wt None
Copper Corr: 72 hr a t 212'F S l i g h t Stain; no P i t s
Low Temperature S t a b i l i t y : 72 h r a t -65OF No Solids, nongel
Rubber Swell: Type "L," Vol Chg; $I 19-26.5
Solid P a r t i c l e Content: 5-15 Microns 2,500
(Max Parts/100 m l ) 16-25 Microns ,1 000
26-50 Microns 250
51-100 Microns 25
Over 100 Microns 2
Evaporation: 4 h r a t 150'F Oily, nontacky
Corrosivity: b r a s s - s t e e l , LO days, 75'F, 5 6 R.H. No Corrosion
Recommended Temperature Range, "F: < 20
NATO Symbol: None
Water S t a b i l i t y : 1 h r a t 77'F, 5 6 R.H.
Humidity Cabinet: 8 days, 5@ R.H.
Machine Gun Test: -75'F, 25 Rounds --
Notes:
--, no information.
Use: Guided m i s s i l e hyd. systems a t low temperature. S u b s t i t u t e f o r MIL-H-5606B.
4-34
AMCP 706-123
CHAPTER 5
ADDITIVES
5- 1 GENERAL limits its useful life as well as its upper temperature

limitation. Therefore, additives or inhibitors that in-
Formally defined, an additive for hydraulic fluids crease the resistance of the fluid to the chemical
and lubricants is a compound or component that en- changes associated with oxidation are very important.
hances some property of, or imparts some new property Ultimate changes that may be encountered as a result
to, the base fluid. A base stock hydraulic fluid that of oxidative deterioration include changes in viscosity;
cannot meet requirements for operation in a given hy- the precipitation of insolubles, including lacquers and
draulic system frequently can be modified through the varnish; and an increase in acidity and corrosiveness.
use of additives in such a way that the range of satisfac- In a consideration of the oxidative stability of a hydrau-
tory operation of the base liquid can be extended to lic fluid, accompanying corrosion effects should not,
meet more severe requirements. In the formulation of and usually are not, be considered independent of oxi-
a hydraulic fluid, additive components may constitute dation. For this reason, laboratory screening of oxida-
from less than one to as much as 20 percent of the final tion inhibitors usually also considers changes in acidity
liquid composition. The more important classes of ad- of the hydraulic fluid and the corrosion of metal sam-
ditives include oxidation inhibitors, corrosion inhibi- ples in contact with the fluid.
tors, viscosity index improvers, foam inhibitors, and
lubricity additives. 5-2.1 MODE OF ACTION OF ANTIOXIDANTS
In the selection of additives and formulation of a
fluid, each additive must be compatible with the base In order to properly consider the mode of action of
stock, other additives, and system components. Exam- antioxidants, some knowledge of the mechanism of ox-
ples of problems of compatibility that can be encoun- idative degradation is necessary. Liquid phase oxida-
tered are cited throughout this chapter. Solubility of tion is considered a free radical process undergoing the
additives in the base stock is an important limitation in usual steps of initiation, propagation, and termination.
the use of some additives at low temperatures. Schematically, after the process has been initiated, the
Although general theories can be developed for the course of oxidation in petroleum oils can be represented
mode of action of different kinds of additives, an effec- as follows:
tive additive in one hydraulic fluid may not be equally
effective in another. The range of conditions that a
RH + R. + Ha
RH + 0 2 + R * + HOOe
)Initiation H = hydrogen
hydraulic fluid may encounter during storage and use 0 = oxygen

will determine the selection of additives. Therefore, the
formulation of a hydraulic fluid must take into account
molecule
a wide variety of factors, and the effectiveness of each
2R00. --* Inactive Products Termination *= an electron
additive must be verified experimentally. Several of the
common hydraulic fluid shortcomings, and the tech- Initiation reactions in lubricants are most often ther-
nology and additives developed to compensate for them mally activated but may also be induced by light, ioniz-
are discussed in the remainder of this chapter. ing radiation, or other means. Since the propagating
species (R-) can be continuously regenerated, the proc-
ess is a chain reaction. Termination occurs with
5-2 OXIDATION INHIBITORS the formation of nonradicals such as alcohols, alde-
In environments that contain even small amounts of hydes, ketones, and olefins, which are also suscep-
oxygen, the oxidation stability of a hydraulic fluid tible to oxidation and may produce acids, sludge,
5- 1
AMCP 706-123
and varnish. At elevated temperatures, the inter- Hindered phenols-such as 2,6-ditertiary-butyl-4-meth-

mediate hydroperoxide can decompose and produce ylphenol and aromatic amines such as phenyl-l-naph-
ROOH
2ROOH
-
additional radicals:
- RO- + HO.
RO- + R O O + H20
thylamine-are very effective.
5-2.2.3 Hydroperoxide Destroyers

Since the concentration of radicals present can increase
with time, oxidation is autocatalytic. Also, when acidic A variety of sulfur, selenium, and phosphorus-con-
materials are formed in a hydraulic fluid which is in taining compounds can function as hydroperoxide de-
contact with metals as a consequence of oxidation, stroyers. Effective materials include phenothiazine,
metal corrosion can occur with the formation of metal phosphorus pentasulfide-olefin reaction products, zinc
ions, which can become soluble in the fluid. These dialkyldithiophosphates,sulfurized olefins, alkyl poly-
metal ions-particularly those of iron, lead, and copper- sulfides, dialkylphosphonates, trialkyl phosphites, zinc
are catalysts in the oxidation process. The stable shelf dialkyl dithiocarbamates, alkyl trithiocarbamates, and
life under oxidative conditions of di-2-ethylhexyl seba- alkyl selenides. Phenothiazine is particularly useful at
cate at 347F (175C) in the presence of various metals higher temperatures.
illustrates this catalylic effect: no catalyst, 125 hr; cop-
per, 20 hr; copper-beryllium, 30 hr; steel, 115 hr; and
aluminum, 120 hr (Ref. 1). 5-2.2.4 Synergism
Although metal ions are pro-oxidants at lower tem-
peratures in hydrocarbon liquids, they can function as The combined effect of two or more inhibitors is
antioxidants in higher temperature fluids such as sili- often greater than the sum of the effects of the in-
cones, phenyl ethers, and fluoroesters (Ref. 2). At dividual inhibitors. This synergistic effect has led to the
higher temperatures in these fluids, the metal ions pre- common practice of employing two or more oxidation
sumably alter the course of the hydroperoxide reactions inhibitors. Not only can synergism occur through the
and produce nonradical products. reinforcement of inhibitors through their effectiveness
in different phases of the oxidation mechanism, but also
by the second inhibitor regenerating the first. For ex-
5-2.2 CLASSES OF ANTIOXIDANTS AND ample, synergistic effects observed at 150Cwhen dial-
SYNERGISM kyl phosphonates are used with sterically hindered al-
kyl phenols are attributed to the phosphonates
Antioxidants are effective in one of three ways-( 1) transferring hydrogen to the oxidized phenols (Ref. 3).
metal deactivators minimize the catalytic effect of trace
amounts of metal ions in the fluid; (2) free radical
acceptors break the chain reaction in the propagation 5-2.3 EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF
step; and (3) hydroperoxide destroyers inhibit the for- INHIBITORS IN VARIOUS FLUID
mation of free radicals in the hydroperoxide decompo- LUBRICANTS
sitions. A combination of antioxidants that may serve
several of these purposes may be used. The effectiveness of various classes of materials as
oxidation inhibitors in different kinds of hydraulic
fluids and certain problems attendant with their use
5-2.2.1 Metal Deactivators can be illustrated by the results of recent research.
Since oxidation rates increase rapidly with tempera-
The metal deactivators most commonly used are se- ture, inhibitors useful at higher temperature have
questering or chelating agents. These include N,N: received considerable attention.
disalicylidene diamine, mercaptothiadiazole, quiniza-
rin, and alizarin.
5-2.3.1 Esters
5-2.2.2 Free Radical Acceptors Ester fluids can be inhibited against oxidation to at
least 212F (100C) with 0.1 to 0.2 percent of the usual
Amines and phenols are most commonly used as free phenolic and aromatic amine antioxidants (Ref. 4)
radical acceptors and are effective in many base stocks. which are also commonly used in petroleum oils.
5-2
AMCP 706-123
A number of inhibitors have been examined for use 5-2.3.3 Silicon-containing Fluids
with esters at higher temperatures. Phenothiazine and
its derivatives are usually effective to 350F (175C) but Diarylamines are effective antioxidants in siloxanes
lacquer formation has been observed at 325F(163C). at 400F (205C) but cause sludging. At that tempera-
Phenyl- 1-naphthylamine is the most effective of the ture, phenolic antioxidants are ineffective and selenides
aromatic amines and has an upper temperature limit cause severe copper corrosion. When a sufficiently high
of 325F (16$C). n-alkyl selenides are effective at degree of nuclear alkylation is introduced into the
325F (163"C), but the analogous sulfur compounds structure of the diarylamines, sludge formation can be
have an upper temperature limit of 257F (125C). avoided (Ref. 9).
Phosphites, which are effective -to 212"-257"F(100"- Chlorophenylsilicones have been reported to be ade-
125"C), are limited by their hydrolytic susceptibility quately stabilized at 500F (2WC) against oxidation
and volatility. Except for serious copper corrosion at with iron octoate (Ref. 10). Aromatic compounds con-
325F (163"C), 4-[err-butylphenyl-2-mercaptothiazole taining three or more ring systems, for example 1,2-
provides adequate inhibition. The zinc complex of di- benzanthracene and pyrene, are also effective in retard-
butyldithiocarbamate and dibutylamine functions satis- ing the oxidation of a chlorophenylsilicone (Ref. 11).
factorily at 302 "F (150C) (Ref. 5). Silane fluids have been found to be not susceptible to
improvement with oxidation inhibitors (Ref. 11).
Phenothiazine substantially extends the induction The presence of trace metals can have a profound
period at 350"-400"F (175"-205"C)and reduces the rate effect on the oxidative stability of polydimethylsilox-
of oxidation at 500F (375C). However, at the higher anes and polymethylphenylsiloxanes (Refs. 12, 13). At
temperature, phenothiazine, as well as other amine in- 392F (200C) lead selenium and tellurium accelerate
hibitors, causes darkening and the formation of trace oxidation. Organic selenides, aromatic amines, and
dirtiness in the liquids (Ref. 1). phenothiazine prolong the life of silicone oils two to
five times, but the life of the oils can be extended to
At 425" and 500F (218" and 260"C), the most effec- eight times with the use of iron or copper chelates of
tive selenides for inhibiting oxidation are pamino- disalicylalethylenediamine or disalicylalpropylenedia-
phenyl phenyl selenide, 5-dimethylaminobenz0(2,1,3) mine, the solubilized metal acting as an inhibitor. The
selenadiazole, and diphenyl diselenide. The selenides use of this inhibitor in poorly ventilated systems under
have been found to be corrosive to copper, silver, oxygen-deficient conditions, however, leads to the
magnesium, and aluminum at selenium concentrations precipitation of the metal as the reduced metal oxide.
of 0.5 percent (Ref. 6). Cerium complexes have been found not to be subject to
5-ethyl- 10,lO- diphenylphenazasiline (5- 10- 10) is this limitation (Ref. 14). New processes have been
useful in inhibiting ester base stocks at 400"-500"F developed for modifying silicone oils with cerium com-
(205"-260C). Since a certain thermal level is required plexes that raise the stabilization temperature from 617"
to activate 5-10-10 as an antioxidant, it is best used in to 752F (325" to 400C) (Ref. 15).
combination with a low temperature antioxidant. Mix-
tures of 5-10-10 and phenyl-1-naphthylamine are effec-
tive (Ref. 7). 5-2.3.4 Ethers
Tetraphenyltin and bis(pphenoxypheny1)diphenyltin

5-2.3.2 Highly Refined Mineral Oils perform well as antioxidants for poly(pheny1 ethers) at
600"-650"F.pbis(triphenylstannoxy)benzene,metal salts
of N,N:dipheriyldithiocarbamic acid, triphenylbismuth,
Natural inhibitors in mineral oils are removed when copper oxides, metal acetylacetonates, metal dithi-
mineral oils are exhaustively hydrogenated or super- ocarbamates, and the nickel and cobalt chelates of
refined, and the oils become even more susceptible to N-phenyl-5-nitrosalicylimineswere also effective in
oxidative deterioration. On the other hand, the highly poly(pheny1 ether) systems (Refs. 16-18).
refined mineral oils show a better response to additive Tris(pentafluoropheny1)phosphine. tris(pentafluor0-
modification than the less highly purified oils. Satisfac- pheny1)-phosphine oxide, tris(4-heptafluoroto1yl)phos-
tory inhibitors at 347F (175C)are phenothiazine, phe- phine, and tris[4-(pentafluorophenoxy)tetrafluoro-
nyl-1-naphthylamine, and cadmium diamyldithiocar- phenyllphosphine are effective in eliminating the
bamate (Ref. 8). oxidative deterioration that occurs above 500F
AMCP 706-123
(260C) in fluorocarbon polyether liquids but lead to compounds are less soluble in oils but have a greater
corrosion of ferrous and titanium alloys. Solubility and tendency to adsorb on a metal surface and are, there-
volatility remain problems in the use of these additives fore, more effective as rust inhibitors. These closely
(Refs. 19-21). packed films prevent the penetration of water.
Salts or soaps of high molecular weight carboxylic
acids-such as naphthenates or sulfonic acids, particu-
5-3 CORROSION INHIBITORS larly the petroleum mahogany sulfonic acids-are useful
and inexpensive additives for lubricant compositions.
These soaps, dispersed in nonpolar solvents, form col-
5-3.1 DEFINITIONS loidal systems. The soaps are adsorbed on the metal
surfaces and are in equilibrium with low concentrations
Corrosion is the deterioration through chemical of soaps in solution, which, in turn are in equilibrium
change of a metal into one or more of its oxides, hy- with the soaps in the colloidal micelle. Although the
drated oxides, carboxylates, fluorides, carbonates, or complex equilibria are not fully understood, considera-
other compounds. The special case of the deterioration tion of the system as one in equilibrium allows the
of iron or steel by moist air (oxygen) is called rusting. explanation of some of the phenomena associated with
Rusting cannot occur in systems from which oxygen is the use of these rust inhibitors. These effects include
rigorously excluded. Corrosion of metal components in temperature range limitations in the use of the inhibi-
contact with a hydraulic fluid may occur through the tors, mechanical removal and rehealing of coated sur-
action of water and air present in the system, through faces, leaching of the inhibitor from solution with wa-
the action of lubricant decomposition products, or by ter, and depletion of the adsorbed layers by dilution
direct chemical action of the fluid on the metal surface. with hydraulic fluids not containing the inhibitor.
A corrosion inhibitor is an additive that prevents or The colloid soap micelle also serves as a sink for
decreases corrosive attack on metals. Although its corrosive acids that are formed as products of oxida-
function may be one of directly protecting the metal tion. Sequestration of corrosive acids by the soap mi-
surface, an additive may function as a corrosion inhibi- celles offers an explanation why the soaps are better
tor if it interferes with any of the processes that ulti- inhibitors than the corresponding acids. The combina-
mately culminate in corrosion. For this reason, the tion of the soap micelle with the corrosive acids may
processes of inhibiting corrosion and oxidation are inti- occur through cooperative micelle formation or
mately related. through hydrogen bonding.
Not only do oxidation products cause corrosion, but
corrosion products may promote oxidation. The inter-
dependence of oxidation and corrosion inhibitors can 5-3.3 LIMITATIONS IN THE USE OF RUST
be illustrated as follows. An antioxidant that retards INHIBITORS
the auto-oxidation of a fluid will prevent the formation Since the most effective rust inhibitors have low
of corrosive acids. Amine antioxidants can react with solubilities in the base oils, precipitation during storage
and neutralize certain acidic materials, but aromatic may occur when inhibitor concentrations exceed 0.5 to
amines do not effectively neutralize carboxylic acid, a 1.0 percent. Precipitation will be accelerated at low
common corrosive oxidation product. In many screen- temperatures because inhibitor solubility decreases
ing tests for hydraulic fluids and lubricants, oxidation with decreasing temperature. Compounded lubricants
and corrosion are considered concurrently. may suffer significant losses in their ability to inhibit
rusting after six months storage because of the precipi-
tation of the inhibitor. Inhibitor insolubility is fre-
5-3.2 MODE OF ACTION OF RUST quently evident by the development of a haze in
INHIBITORS the oils.
The varying solubility of an inhibitor in different
Rust inhibitors are effective through the formation of base fluids results in corresponding differences in in-
closely packed hydrophobic monomolecular layers on hibitor effectiveness. For example, the minimum con-
the surface of the ferrous metal to be protected (Refs. centration of undecyclic acid required for inhibiting a
22-27). Most organic molecules with an adsorbable po- petroleum fluid is 0.20 percent, while 0.75 percent of
lar group attached to a hydrophobic chain are effective the same acid is required for di-2-ethylhexyl sebacate,
rust inhibitors. The higher molecular weight polar 1.00 percent for a polyalkylene glycol, and 0.20 and
5-4
AMCP 706-1 23
0.50 percent for two silicone fluids (Ref. 22). When with maleic anhydride-are also effective rust preven-
large concentrations of an additive are required, less tive additives (Ref. 30).
soluble inhibitors should be sought in order to reduce Impurities present in an additive may have an ad-
the concentration required for minimum protection. verse effect on a hydraulic system. When concentra-
Because molecular agitation in a liquid increases as tions of inorganic salts such as calcium chloride or
temperature increases, the solubility of the additive calcium sulfate are present in concentrations as great as
and, therefore, its tendency for desorption from the 0.12 percent in a mahogany sulfonate, corrosion due to
metal surface will be increased with temperature. galvanic action may occur (Ref. 31).
Stated differently, raising the temperature of the oil When inhibitors are selected to prevent corrosion,
increases the minimum concentration of the additive the identity of the specific metal-liquid system must be
necessary to achieve adequate protection. Usually, a considered since an additive that protects iron may
temperature is reached above which a rust inhibiting itself corrode copper or silver. An example of the need
additive is not effective at any concentration. The max- for a specific inhibitor for a particular system is evident
imum temperature for the complete inhibition of rust- in recent work with fluorocarbon polyether fluids
ing for several acids in a petroleum oil increases in the which have proved corrosive to ferrous and titanium
following order: linoleic, 115'F; undecylic, 140F; my- alloys in oxidizing atmospheres at 500F. Per-
ristic, 165F;and stearic, 190F (Ref. 22). The solubili- fluoroarylphosphines and phosphine oxides used as ad-
ties of the additives in the oil decrease in the ditives prevent degradation of the fluorocarbon fluids
same order. and the consequent metal corrosion under these condi-
The adsorbed monolayers can be ruptured by abra- tions up to 650F (Refs. 20, 21).
sion or wear and leave areas vulnerable to corrosion. If Different classes of inhibitors must be used in polar
sufficient inhibitor is present in the hydraulic fluid, it fluids in which water is either a part of the composition
will be readsorbed in the scuffed location. The rate of or soluble to some extent in the fluid. For example, 0.2
repair will be greater the less viscous the oil. percent of sodium nitrite and 0.8 percent of disodium
The presence of water as a contaminant in a hydrau- phosphate dodecahydrate function as corrosion inhibi-
lic system may result in the leaching of the tors in glycerol-water hydraulic fluids containing 40
monomolecular layer from the surface of the metal or percent glycerol (Ref. 32).
the inhibitor from the hydraulic fluid. The polar nature For inhibiting corrosion of tin, steel, aluminum, cast
of most inhibitors allows some solubility in water, iron, brass, and cppper-in contact with ethylene glycol
which results in the leaching, even though the solubility and 1,Zpropylene glycol-the following combinations
may be small. have proved satisfactory: 0.5 percent borax and 0.5
Since the adsorbed monolayer is in equilibrium with percent hydroquinone; 0.5 percent triethanolamine and
the inhibitor in solution, addition of make-up fluid con- 0.5 percent potassium hydroxide; and 0.5 percent 1,5-
taining no inhibitor to a hydraulic fluid system may dihydroxynapththalene and 0.5 percent potassium hy-
ultimately result in the desorption of the monolayer droxide. The most satisfactory inhibitors for systems
and loss of rust inhibiting properties. Monolayers of containing n-butanol are 0.5 percent hydroquinone
compounds, having rust inhibiting properties, on met- with 0.5 percent potassium mercaptobenzothiazole
als can usually be removed by exhaustively washing the (Ref. 33).
surfaces with solvents.
5-3.5 VOLATILE CORROSION INHIBITORS
5-3.4 EXAMPLES OF RUST AND
CORROSION INHIBITORS The polar rust inhibiting compounds described in
par. 5-3.4 are effective only on ferrous surfaces con-
Many classes of compounds are effective as rust in- tacted by the hydraulic fluid. Corrosion and rust in
hibitors, namely: sodium and barium mahogany sul- other parts of the system can be inhibited through the
fonates; carboxylates, including sorbitan mono-oleate; use of volatile corrosion inhibitors which readily sub-
and a variety of other compounds (Ref. 22). Hydrox- lime at ordinary temperatures and deposit a monolayer
yarylstearic acids have been found to function both as on exposed metal surfaces. These inhibitors are often
oxidation and rust inhibitors (Refs. 28, 29). Nitrogen water soluble and can be washed from the surface with
compounds-such as amines or amides, certain phos- water. Although this technique of corrosion inhibition
phorus compounds (especially esters of phosphorus is most frequently used in connection with packaging
acids) and dicarboxylic acids made by reacting olefins (Ref. 34), aqueous hydraulic fluids can be inhibited in
5-5
AMCP 706-123
both the liquid and vapor phase with diisopropylam- loss, has been offered in order to differentiate the
monium nitrite (Ref. 35). effect from the same effect which may result from
thixotropic viscosity loss of mineral oils below their
cloud point (Ref. 37). Also, under high shear stress the
5-4 VISCOSITY INDEX IMPROVERS polymer chains may be ruptured with a consequent
permanent loss in viscosity of polymer-thickened oils.
This change, which is not a depolymerization, is more
5-4.1 MODE OF ACTION pronounced in blends that contain high molecular
weight, or more viscous polymers. Lower molecular
The addition of certain polymers to a hydraulic oil weight polymers are less susceptible to permanent vis-
will increase the viscosity of the oil throughout its use- cosity loss.
ful temperature range and improve its viscosity-tem- The term shear stability, encompassesboth effects,
perature relationship. The contribution of a polymer to temporary and permanent viscosity loss. Laboratory
the viscosity of a polymer-oil blend is related directly methods for producing accelerated shearing of polymer-
to the effective hydrodynamic volume of the polymer. thickened oils have included a mechanical pump
The hydrodynamic volume of the polymer, in turn, is loop in which a pump recycles the fluid through an
related to the degree of solvation of the polymer by the orifice, and a sonic oscillator test method. Since the
base oil (Ref. 36). Higher temperatures favor better latter technique offers some advantages over pump
solubility of the polymer in the oil hence better solva- loop tests, an ASTM Sonic Shear Method has been
tion and an expanded macromolecule. Lower tem- proposed (Ref. 39). In studies of the sonic shear test, it
peratures favor contraction of the macromolecule, or has been found that shear breakdown of the polyisobu-
stated differently, the formation of a convoluted spe- tylenes could be blocked by water contamination, but
cies. In this way, the effective contribution of the that the shear stability of polymethacrylates was not
polymer to the viscosity of the polymer-oil blend is significantly affected under similar conditions (Ref.
greater at higher temperatures. Not all polymers differ 40). The shear stability of polymethacrylates and
in their contribution to viscosity at different tempera- polyisobutylenes varies inversely with their ability to
tures, but nonetheless they may be referred to as V.I. improve the viscosity index (Ref. 41). The ability of an
improvers owing to the inconsistenciesof the Dean and additive to improve the viscosity index decreases with
Davis viscosity-index system (Ref. 37). applied shear stress (Ref. 42).
The thickening power of a polymer increases as the
molecular weight increases and, consequently, as its Sources of high energy other than shear can also
effective hydrodynamic volume increases. The thicken- induce degradation of polymer thickeners. These
ing power is usually proportional to the molecular sources include high temperatures, ultrasonic degrada-
weight to the 0.5 to 0.8 power (Ref. 38). tion, and gamma irradiation (Ref. 43).
A final limitation in the use of polymeric materials
is their solubility in the base fluid and the compatibility
5-4.2 LIMITATIONS of compounded fluids with possible contaminants.
Thus, the polymethacrylates have an advantage
In order to maintain a specified viscosity in a hydrau- as V. I. improvers in diester fluids in that the
lic fluid at a given temperature, a lower viscosity and additives are not precipitated when the hydraulic fluid
therefore more volatile base fluid must be compounded is accidentally contaminated by petroleum oils or the
with a polymer thickener because the effect of the addi- common volatile solvents used to clean hydraulic sys-
tive is to increase the viscosity at all temperatures. In tems (Ref. 4).
applications where low volatility and low viscosity are
required, the use of polymer thickeners will be limited.
A second limitation in the use of V.1. improvers is 5-4.3 EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE POLYMERS
their susceptibility to shear. In a hydraulic fluid-
polymer blend, the extended polymer coil may become The two classes of polymeric thickeners that have
oriented under high shear stress with a consequent loss achieved the greatest commercial importance are the
in viscosity. Since the original polymer configuration polyisobutylenes and the polymethacrylate esters (Ref.
reforms when the shear force is removed, the term 30). The effectiveness of each depends both on the na-
temporary viscosity loss has been applied to this phe- ture of the base fluid, and the particular composition
nomenon. An alternate term, orientation viscosity and molecular weight of the polymer. Another class of
5-6
AMCP 706-123
useful polymers is that of various paraffinic resins (Ref. Synthetic fluids that are a single chemical compound
44). Many classes of polymers-including cellulose es- cannot foatn because no impurities are present; how-
ters and ethers, polyvinyl alcohols, polyvinyl acetate, ever, even highly refined petroleum fluids have the in-
polyvinyl acetal, coumarone-indene resins, polysty- herent capability of foaming because they are mixtures.
renes, polybutenes, and polyacrylic esters-have been Problems with foam are more likely to arise when polar
examined as potential V.I. improvers and have been impurities are present. In addition to direct contamina-
found effective. tion, these polar impurities can come from any of sev-
In synthetic base stocks, a particular thickener must eral sources. Accumulated acidic oxidation products or
be sought which is effective with the system. The the addition of additives may cause foaming. For exam-
polymethacrylate esters are most effective with diester ple, rust inhibitors frequently contain polar groups and
fluids (Ref. 4); various polydimethylsiloxanes and are potential foam stabilizers. A secondary effect is that
polymethylphenylsiloxanes have been examined for use the possibility of inhibiting foaming may be diminished
with silicate and disiloxane fluids (Refs. 9, 45, 46); and by the presence of other additives. Thus, an antifoam
polyaryl ethers have been considered as V.I. improvers additive is less effective in a polymer-containing liquid
for aryl ether fluids, but they increase the already mar- than in one that does not contain a polymeric additive
ginally acceptable pour points (Ref. 47). (Ref. 51).
The amount of a polymer required to blend fluids of The foaming characteristics of a liquid can depend
a required viscosity, viscosity index, and mechanical on a number of operating characteristics, as well as the
stability from a particular base stock is related to the system design. Temperature, primarily because of its
polymer molecular weight (Ref. 48). Blending charts effect on viscosity, is also an important factor in foam
have been developed that allow the prediction of the stability. Since the collapse of the entrained air can
viscosity of an oil-polymer blend from the polymer depend in part on the ability of the liquid to flow into
molecular weight, polymer concentration, and the vis- the void, a lower viscosity would favor control of foam.
cosity of the base oil (Ref. 49). Although liquids decrease in viscosity with increases in
temperature, foaming at higher temperature can be a
serious problem because of the large coefficient of ther-
5-5 FOAM INHIBITORS, mal expansion of vapors relative to liquids. Thus, it is
EMULSIFIERS, AND reported that, at higher temperatures, foams are more
difficult to control in lower-viscosity mineral oils and
DEMULSIFIERS synthetic hydrocarbons than in high-viscosity materi-
als (Ref. 1).
Additives useful as foam inhibitors, emulsifiers, and Several side effects can be observed in connection
demulsifiers have in common their ability to modify with foaming. Foaming of an oxidation-susceptible
(increase or decrease) the stability of an interface be- material at a high temperature increases the gas-liquid
tween two phases in a fluid system. Foaming results contact area and time, and consequently the rate at
from the formation of stable gas bubbles in the liquid which oxidation occurs. Although foaming is usually
phase; emulsion occurs with the formation of two sta- associated with air, it may also occur when impurities
ble liquid phases, one dispersed in the other. Foams and are present and the gas phase is the vapor of the fluid,
emulsions are stabilized by the presence of an adsorbed and particularly in regions of a system where the local
film at the interface between the two phases. pressure drops to the vapor pressure of the lubricant.
Since these are the same conditions that lead to cavita-
tion, the two phenomena are related, and a foam inhibi-
tor may well serve as a cavitation inhibitor.
5-5.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF FOAMS AND
THE MODE OF FOAM INHIBITION
5-5.2 EXAMPLES OF FOAM INHIBITORS
The mechanism of foam inhibition is frequently
thought to involve changes in the interfacial tension
between the liquid and vapor through changing the Methyl silicone oils, for example those with viscosi-
concentration of polar impurities in the region of the ties in the range of 50,000 cSt at 100F (37C), are
vapor bubble. A number of other theories on the stabil- effective foam inhibitors at the remarkably low concen-
ity of foams and the inhibition of foams have been trations of 10 ppm. They are generally considered as
reviewed by Zuidema (Ref. 50). insoluble inhibitors since they must be present in an
5-7
AMCP 706-123
amount that exceeds their solubility to be effective. If 5-6 LUBRICITY

the silicones are present in an amount that does not
exceed the solubility, or if the insoluble particles are
greater in size than 100 microns, they promote foaming 5-6.1 HYDRODYNAMIC VS BOUNDARY
(Ref. 52). Other defoamers that have been claimed in LUBRICATION
the patent literature include the calcium soaps of wool
olein, sodium alkyl esters of sulfuric acid, potassium Lubricity is a measure of the ability of a lubricant to
oleate, and esters of sulfonated ricinoleic acid (Ref. 50). reduce the friction or wear between two solid surfaces
Other reportedly useful additives are halogenated com- in contact with each other. The lubricant may be called
pounds, organic sulfates, polyesters, polyhydroxy es- upon to reduce friction in one of several ways, depend-
ters, polyhydroxy alcohols, and hydroxyamines ing on the film thickness and the particular conditions
(Ref. 51). under which the system is operating. Two important
variables are temperature and pressure, which in turn
will influence the film thickness of the lubricant be-
tween the two surfaces being lubricated.
5-5.3 EMULSIFIERS AND DEMULSIFIERS When the film thickness is greater than about 25
millionths of an inch, the mode of lubrication is hydro-
dynamic. Under these conditions, the moving surfaces
Emulsions consist of two immiscible or partly misci- never come in contact with each other and the friction
ble liquid phases, a dispersed phase of small particles is largely determined by the viscosity of the lubricating
in a continuous phase. Since the lubricating properties fluid. The only additives of importance in hydrody-
of an emulsion will approximate the lubricating proper- namic lubrication are polymer additives because they
ties of the continuous phase, certain water-in-oil emul- increase the viscosity of the fluid.
sions have received attention as fire-resistant hydraulic As the pressure or temperature between the lu-
fluids (Ref. 53). These emulsions, which usually con- bricated surfaces is increased, the lubricating film can
tain about 40 percent water, are stabilized by emulsify- become sufficiently thin that metal-to-metal contact
ing agents that are characterized as molecules having occurs and boundary lubrication develops. Under these
one group of atoms that is hydrophilic and a second conditions the fluid serves as a carrier for boundary or
group of atoms that is oleophilic. A molecule so con- extreme pressure additives and as a coolant.
structed is capable of orienting itself at an oil-water
interface, decreasing the interfacial tension, and stabil-
izing the emulsion. These additives, which may fre- 5-6.2 OILINESS, ANTIWEAR, AND
quently be organic acids or soaps, can be selected from EXTREME-PRESSUREADDITIVES
known classes of nonionic, anionic, or cationic surface
active agents. Additives for boundary lubrication are divided into
three somewhat indefinite classes-oiliness agents, an-
More often in hydraulic systems, additives that in-
tiwear additives, and extreme pressure additives-the
duce demulsification are required. Impurities that
classification being made on the basis of the stringency
cause foaming can also cause emulsions if water hap-
of the temperature and pressure requirements-temper-
pens to be present in the system. If the water is emulsi-
ature being the more important of the contributing
fied and cannot be readily removed through drainage,
factors. Each of the three classes of additives is effective
lubricated parts can be damaged. Polar impurities can
insofar as it modifies a lubricated surface, reduces the
influence the development of either water-in-oil or oil-
friction, or protects the surface from damage.
in-water emulsions.
The selection of a suitable demulsifying agent will
depend in part on whether an oil-in-water or a water- 5-6.2.1 Oiliness Additives
in-oil emulsion must be counteracted. An additive that
stabilizes an oil-in-water emulsion will generally de- Oiliness additives, which are usually effective at low
stroy a water-in-oil emulsion, and vice versa. Thus, temperatures and pressures, are polar molecules that
most demulsifiers are also surface active agents. Some can form monomolecular films on a lubricated surface.
examples of specific additives are petroleum sulfonic The most frequently cited example is oleic acid. Oleic
acids, or salts; dimerized, unsaturated, aliphatic mono- acid forms an oriented film that has a relatively high
carboxylic Scids; and sulfonated castor oil (Ref. 8). energy of displacement at the interface of the lubricant
5-8
AMCP 706-123
and the metal by adsorption of the acid portion of the materials. Phosphates and phosphites, particularly
molecule on the metal surface. tricresyl phosphate, have received considerable atten-
tion as additives (Ref. 1). Acid phosphates and even
phosphoric acid show antiwear properties in the proper
5-6.2.2 Antiwear Additives concentration, but too large a concentration of phos-
phoric acid can lead to chemical erosion (Ref. 1). Phos-
Phosphorus-containing additives are usually classed phates and phosphonates containing long alkyl chains
as antiwear additives. Under higher pressures and tem- provide good lubricity and, in addition, function as
peratures, these additives are thought to be effective in antioxidants (Ref. 58). The effectiveness of tricresyl
reducing wear through their ability to form iron (11) phosphate is reduced in the presence of polar com-
phosphate and its hydrate on the metal surface (Ref. pounds such as petroleum sulfonates, which have a
54). The formation of the iron (11) phosphates has been greater affinity for metal surfaces than does tricresyl
attributed to the presence of polar impurities, perhaps phosphate (Ref. 1). Metal dithiocarbamates function as
acidic hydrolysis products, of the phosphate (Refs. 55- antiwear additives in ester fluids, but not in mineral
57). The most common example of this type of additive oils. Fluorinated esters have been found to be as suscep-
is tricresyl phosphate which is frequently used in con- tible to antiwear additives as nonfluorinated esters
junction with an oiliness agent. (Ref. 59), but many additives are not sufficiently solu-
ble to be used in the fluorinated esters.
5-6.2.3 Extreme-pressure Additives
Extreme-pressure additives are used under the most 5-6.3.2 Additives for Silicon-containing Fluids
severe conditions and are usually sulfurized or chlori-
nated organic materials. Compounds containing benzy- A great many additives that are effective in mineral
lic sulfur are particularly effective. Under conditions of oil and ester fluids are ineffective in silicones, silicates,
extreme pressure or temperature, welding of the two and siloxanes. Silicones show especially poor additive
mating surfaces can occur with consequent seizure, susceptibility for lubricating steel-on-steel. The wear
galling, or scuffing. In a lubricant containing an ex- properties can be improved in ester-siliconeblends, but
treme pressure additive, when high temperatures that such a high proportion of ester is required that the good
can produce welding are approached, the additive pre- high-temperature properties of the silicones are lost
sumably undergoes a chemical reaction with the metal (Ref. 1).
surface to form a metal chloride or sulfide film that Silicon-containing liquids are usually not susceptible
protects the surface. The sulfur-containing additives to modification by antiwear additives. There is evi-
may be used with lead naphthenate to obtain a protec- dence that the silicon reacts preferentially with the
tive lead-sulfide coating. metal to be lubricated, forming a coating on the metal
that is no longer reactive with the antiwear additive.
Silicones and silicates themselves can be used as addi-
5-6.3 CLASSES OF LUBRICITY ADDITIVES
tives in esters and mineral oils to obtain antiwear prop-
Lubricity additives function through their action at erties, a fact which suggests that a soft, inert silicon-
the surface of the metal to be lubricated; therefore, iron alloy is formed (Ref. 1). Some attempts have been
lubrication of different metal combinations may re- made to modify the chemical structures of silicones to
quire the use of different additives. All base stocks are improve their wear properties. Friction and wear
not equally susceptible to additive modification, and studies of chlorinated methylphenyl silicones show an
the effectiveness of antiwear additives can be modified improvement over nonhalogenated methylphenylsili-
by the presence of other additives. For these reasons, cones, but high friction and wear are still observed with
a very large number of compounds and materials have hard steel on soft steel and soft steel on soft steel (Ref.
been investigated as potential boundary lubricants in 60). In addition, the chlorine-modified silicones suffer
hydraulic fluids. a second limitation in being poorer lubricants for steel
on copper above 400F than are unmodified silicones
(Ref. 60). A great improvement in the lubricity of chlo-
5-6.3.1 Additives for Mineral Oils and Esters rinated phenylmethylsilicone was found when the liq-
Ester-based fluids and mineral oils are readily sus- uid was cooked with tin tetrachloride (Ref. 10).
ceptible to additive modification with a variety of. Fluorosilicone fluids are reported to have at least
5-9
AMCP 706-123
equivalent wear performance on the Shell 4-Ball a hydraulic fluid in order to more effectively seal the
Extreme Pressure Tester to di-2-ethylhexyl sebacate system. Certain fluids, however, notably the silicates
(Ref. 61). and siloxanes, are poor rubber solvents but good sol-
A final class of silicon-containingfluids, the tetraalk- vents for rubber plasticizer. The result is that the plasti-
ylsilanes, have better additive susceptibility than the cizer can be extracted from the rubber with consequent
silicones, silicates, or siloxanes. Although tetraalkylsi- shrinking and hardening.
lane base fluids exceed target wear limits, their wear The approach to solving this problem is the addition
properties can be improved with phosphates, phosph- of 5 to 15 percent of compounds to the fluids that can
ites, phosphonates, phosphorothioates, and sulfonated act as rubber plasticizers (Refs. 9, 46, 67). Esters such
petroleum derivatives (Ref. 62). as butyl oleate, di-2-ethylhexyl sebacate, and dibutyl
phthalate, and certain aromatic compounds have been
5-6.3.3 Additives for Aryl Ether Fluids most commonly used in this application. With such
large quantities, the function of the added material is
A variety of additives have proved effective in im- not so much an additive as a modification of the base
parting improved wear properties to poly(pheny1 liquid through blending. In so modifying a liquid, spe-
ethers) (Ref. 16). These additives include bis(cyc1open- cial attention must be given to changes in the physi-
tadieny1)titanium bis(trich1oroacetate)and its polysul- cal properties.
fide derivative, diphenyltin bis(trichloroacetate), bis(-
triphenylphosphine) nickel dichloride, and particularly,
trichloroacetic acid. Tricresyl phosphate at the 5 per-
cent level is also effectivein aryl ethers (Ref. 63). 5-9 HYDROLYTIC INHIBITORS
Silicate esters undergo hydrolytic degradation to

5-7 POUR POINT DEPRESSANTS produce products that are both corrosive and insoluble;
An oil that does not readily crystallize may be cooled carbocylate and phosphate esters seldom yield insolu-
to a temperature at which the viscosity becomes so ble products on hydrolysis. Chief interest in finding
great that it will not flow under the conditions of the additives that will correct these undesirable properties
pour point test. This viscosity or glassy pour point is has been in connection with silicate and disiloxane
inherent in the chemical nature of the oil and can be based fluids, although phosphates, phosphonates, and
modified only through the blending of oils or mixing carbocylates have received some attention. Properly
the oils with light diluents. inhibited, silicate fluids have been shown to have ac-
Petroleum oils that contain a small percentage of ceptable hydrolytic stabilities (Ref. 67). In designing a
wax may cease to flow at a much higher temperature hydraulic fluid, it is often preferable to modify the
owing to the formation of a network of wax crystals. chemical structure to obtain hydrolytic stability rather
Such a waxy pour point may be lowered through the than to use inhibitors.
use of additives. A number of explanations have been Without inhibitors, many silicates tarnish copper
offered for the mode of action of these additives, but and deposit some silica under conditions of hydrolysis
their effect is thought to depend on the additives ability at 2WF, but additives such as metal phenates,
to modify the crystallization process so that more and p h e n y l - a - naphthylamine (Refs. 4 5 , 68),
smaller crystals with a higher volume-to-surface area N , N- dibutyl - p - phenylenediamine (Ref. 9), and
ratio are obtained. The modified crystals do not form p,pdioctyldiphenylamine (Ref. 46) are effective at a
networks so easily (Refs. 64-65). concentration of 0.1 percent in stabilizing the fluid.
Materials that are used as commercial additives in- Since the aromatic amines are effective inhibitors in
clude the polyalkylnaphthalenes, polymethacrylates, concentrations less than those required for their use as
and alkylated polystyrenes. Other polymeric additives antioxidants, the additive can serve a dual purpose.
are also effective (Ref. 66). Diphenylamine and phenothiazine are less effective,
and phenolic inhibitors are ineffective (Ref. 68).
The inhibitors lose their effectiveness after a com-
5-8 SEAL DEGRADATION pounded hydraulic fluid is exposed to the rubber swell
RETARDANTS test, presumably as a result of the leaching of the plasti-
It is desirable that elastomeric seals swell to some cizer from the rubber (Ref. 9). The additives are not
extent (about 5 percent) when they are in contact with effective in 400F hydrolytic stability tests (Ref. 46).
5-10
AMCP 706-123
5-10 CAVITATION INHIBITORS hydraulic fluids. In general, hydraulic fluid specifica-

tions contain no requirements on inhibiting microbial
Cavitation is a poorly understood phenomenon. growth. But microbial deterioration of hydraulic fluids
There are few data available in the literature on the use can be a real problem and should be considered in the
of additives to change the cavitation resistance of hy- selection of a suitable liquid. In some instances, it will
draulic fluids. The usual procedure to avoid damage to be necessary to add an inhibitor or a biocide to pre-
structural parts of the hydraulic system from cavitation vent growth.
in the hydraulic fluid is to use materials that are resist- For a biocide to be successful and desirable, it must:
ant. Softer metals are plastically deformed; hard brittle (a) have low toxicity to the skin or upon inhalation, (b)
metals are pitted. Hard, tough metals, such as cobalt be soluble in hydraulic fluids and their additives, (c) be
chromium alloys, are very resistant to damage noncorrosive to metals, (d) be economically suitable
(Ref. 69). (inexpensive or effective in very low concentration),
There has been some development work, however, and (e) have no degrading effect on other properties of
on cavitation inhibiting additives. Studies in the litera- the liquid such as viscosity, stability, fire resistance, etc.
ture suggest that if the cavities consist of a vacuum or Although there are numerous effective inhibitors avail-
the vapor of the liquid, they will collapse with more able, none satisfy all of the above requirements. Many
energy release than if they contain some foreign gas, potential inhibitors are toxic to humans and many that
such as air (Ref. 69). The work that has been done on are effective are too expensive or require such large
cavitation inhibitors has been directed toward filling concentrations that they change the properties of
the cavities with a foreign gas. the liquid.
One of the most successful cavitation inhibitors is Because many liquids used as hydraulic fluids and all
water. Although reports are contradictory as to the jet fuels are hydrocarbons, the biocide research results
performance of water, it was used in one study at a ratio for jet fuels are, in general, applicable to hydrocarbon
of 1:200 in a hydraulic fluid to reduce cavitation ero- hydraulic fluids. Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether
sion in control valves (Ref. 70). The hydraulic fluid was (EGME) and glycerol is a water soluble additive that
a commercial phosphate ester liquid. Results indicated is effective as a biocide in jet fuel. It has been reported
almost complete elimination of the cavitation damage that as little as 0.05 percent by volume keeps micro-
that had been occurring with the unwatered hydrau- organism growth to a minimum (Ref. 73). Quaternary
lic fluid. Theoretical work on the use of water in a ammonium acetate, ethylidene diacetate, and
phosphate ester indicated that 0.5 percent water would tri-n-butyl borate are other inhibitors recommended for
increase the vapor pressure and reduce the cavity col- use in jet fuel in bulk storage tanks (Ref. 74). In some
lapse pressure (Ref. 69). instances, other additives such as antioxidants or anti-
Several reports summarized in Ref. 69 have shown icing compounds have been found to have a secondary
that some additives, as well as some contaminants, in- effect as biocides (Ref. 75).
crease the actual damage from cavitation. The consen-
sus expressed in the literature is that every property of REFERENCES
a liquid has a two-fold and opposing effect on cavita- 1. M. R. Fenske et al., Fluids, Lubricants, Fuels
tion and the resultant damage. The various effects are and Related Materials, WADC-TR-55-30,
often interactiug and complex. The limited data availa- Parts I through VIII.
ble suggest that many of the candidate additives for 2. H. Ravner, E. R. Russ, and C. 0. Timmons,
cavitation inhibition may reduce the total amount of Antioxidant Action of Metals and Metal-
cavitation present but increase the resulting cavita- Organic Salts in Fluoroesters and Polyphenyls
tion damage. Ethers, J. Chem. Eng. Data 8, 591 (1963).
3. G. G. Kanpp and H. D. Orloff, Improved Lu-
5-11 BlOClDES bricating Oil Antioxidants, Ind. Eng. Chem.
53, 65 (1961).
Biocides are additives designed to inhibit the growth 4. D. C. Atkins et al., Synthetic Lubricant Fluids
of micro-organisms in liquids. The Air Force, Army, From Branched-Chain Diesters - Part 11, Ind.
and many petroleum companies have sponsored re- Eng. Chem. 39,484 (1947).
search concerning microbial attack and growth in pe- 5. Cohen, Murphy, ORear, Ravner, and Zisman,
troleum products used as fuels (Refs. 71,72). However, Esters as Tailor-Made Lubricants, Ind. Eng.
there has been almost no work on micro-organisms in Chem. 45, 1766 (1953).
5-1 1
AMCP 706-123
6. Dueltgen, Lugasch, and Cosgrove, Or- 20. R. E. Dolle, High Temperature Corrosion Pre-
ganosilenium Compounds as High-Tempera- ventive Additives for Fluorocarbon Polyether
ture Antioxidants, Lubrication Engr. 18, 2 18 Fluids, AFML-TR-67-210 (1967).
(1962). 21. R. L. Adamczak, R. J. Benzing, and H.
7. H. W. Adams, Additive Studies in Research Schwenker, Proceedings of the AFML Hydraulic
on High-Temperature Gas-Turbine Lubri- Fluids Conference, AFML-TR-67-369, Decem-
cants, Sci. Lubrication (London) 12, No. 8, 16 ber 1967.
(1960). 22. H. R. Baker and W. A. Zisman, Polar-Type
8. Klaus, Tewksbury, and Fenske, Preparation, Rust Inhibitor - Part I, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Properties, and Some Applications of Super- 40,2338 (1948).
Refined Mineral Oils, ASLE Trans. 5, 115 23. Baker, Jones, and Zisman, Polar-Type Rust
(1962). Inhibitors - Part 11, Ind. Eng. Chem. 41, 137
9. N. W. Furby et al., The Development of High (1949).
Temperature Aircraft Hydraulic Fluids, 24. H. R. Baker and W. A. Zisman, Liquid and
WADC-TR-54-191 (1954). Vapor Corrosion Inhibitors, Lub. Eng. 7, 117
10. Brown, Holdslock, and McGuire, Silicone Fluid (1951).
Researchfor the Development of High-Tempera- 25. C. R. Singleterry and E. M. Solomon, Neutral
ture Hydraulic Fluids and Engine Oils, WADC- and Basic Sulfonates, Ind. Eng. Chem. 46,
TR-56-25, Parts I, 11, and I11 (1956). 1035 (1954).
26. S. Kaufman and C. R. Singleterry, Micelle
11. R. M. Silverstein, Synthesis and Evaluation of
Formation by Sulfonates in a Nonpolar Sol-
High-Temperature Antioxidants for Synthetic
vent, J. Colloid Chem. 10, 139 (1955).
Hydraulic Fluids and Lubricants, WADC-TR-
27. W. D. Bascom, S. Kaufman, and C. R. Single-
58-335, Parts I and I1 (1958).
terry, Colloid Aspects of the Performance of Oil-
12. Murphy, Saunders, and Smith, Thermal and Soluble Soaps as Lubricant Additives, 1959,
Oxidation Stability of Polymethylphenylsilox- Fifth World Petroleum Congress, Section VI,
anes, Ind. Eng. Chem. 42, 2462 (1950). Paper 18, New York (1959).
13. Atkins, Murphy, and Saunders, Polymethyl- 28. Gisser, Messina, and Snead, Hydroxyaryl-
siloxanes-Thermal and Oxidation Stabilities, stearic Acids as Oxidation and Rust Inhibitors
Ind. Eng. Chem. 39, 1395 (1947). in Lubricants, Ind. Eng. Chem. 48, 2001
14. H. R. Baker and C. R. Singleterry, Stabiliza- (1956).
tion of Silicon Lubricating Fluids above 200C 29. Snead, Messina, and Gisser, Structural Effects
by Iron, Copper, Cerium, and Other Metal of Arylstearic Acids as Combination Oxidation
Compounds, J. Eng. Chem. Data 6, 146 and Rust Inhibitors, Ind. Eng. Chem., Prod.
(1961). Res. Dev. 5, 222 (1966).
15. Baker, Kagarise, ORear, and Sniegoski, Sta- 30. R. Hatton, Introduction to Hydraulic Fluids,
bilization of Silicone Lubricating Fluids at 300 Reinhold Publishing Corp., N.Y., 1962.
to 400C by Soluble Cerium Complexes , J. 31. J. Messina and A. Mertwoy, Inorganic Salts in
Chem. Eng. Data 11, 110 (1965). Mahogony Sulfates and Their Effect on Pe-
troleum Hydraulic Fluids, Lub. Eng. 23, 46
16. Brown et al., Research and Development on
(1967).
High-Temperature Additives for Lubricants and
32. D. Wyllie and A. W. Morgan, Prevention of
Hydraulic Fluids, WADC-TR-59-19 1, Parts
Corrosion in Glycerol-Water Hydraulic
I-IV (1959).
Fluids, J. Appl. Chem. (London) 15, 289
17. Smith et al., Research on High- Temperature Ad- (1965); C. A. 63, 9552 (1965).
ditivesfor Lubricants, Office Tech. Serv. Report 33. C. B. Jordan, Study of Corrosion Znhibitors and
AD281, U. S. Dept. Com., 831 (1962). Antioxidants for Alcohols Found in Hydraulic
18. J. R. Stemniski et al., Antioxidants for High- Brake Fluids, Ordnance Project TB5-5010F, D.
Temperature Lubricants, ASLE Trans. 7, 43 A. Project No. 593-21-054, Engineering
(1964). Laboratories Report No. 28, Aberdeen Proving
19. R. E. Dolle and F. J. Harsacky, New High Tem- Ground, Maryland (1955).
perature Additive Systems for PR-143 Fluids, 34. H. R. Baker, Volatile Rust Inhibitors, Ind.
AFML-TR-65-349, January 1966. Eng. Chem. 46,2592 (1954).
5-12
AMCP 706-123
35. J. E. Brophy et al., Aqueous Nonflammable Chem. SOC.,Div. Petroleum Chem. Preprints 7,
Hydraulic Fluids, Ind. Eng. Chem. 43, 884 B-103 (1962).
(1961). 49. W. A. Wright and W. W. Crouse, General
36. T. W. Selby, Non-Newtonian Characteristics Relationships for Polymer-Petroleum Oil
of Lubricating Oils, ASLE Trans. 1,68 (1958). Blends, Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. and Dev.
37. T. W. Selby, The Low Temperature Viscometry 3, 153 (1964).
of Oils Containing Polyisobutylene and Poly(a1- 50. H. H. Zuidema, The Performance of Lubricat-
kyl methacry late) as Viscosity Index Improvers, ing Oil, Reinhold Publishing Corp., N.Y., 1959.
Am. Chem. SOC.,Div. Petrol. Chem., Preprints 51. Foaming characteristics of Hydraulic Fluids
2, 89 (1957); C. A. 55, 8834 (1961). and Special Lubricants, Petroleum Refining
38. W. T. Stewart and F. A. Stuart, Lubricating Laboratory Report PRL-3.48, Pennsylvania
Oil Additives, in: Kobe and Smith, Eds., Ad- State College, December 1949.
vances in Petroleum Chemistry and Refining, 52. L. T. Shearer and W. W. Akers, Foaming in
Vol. VIZ,Interscience, N.Y.,1963. Lube Oils, J. Phys. Chem. 62, 1269 (1958).
39. Proposed Method of Test for Shear Stability of 53. Fire Resistant Hydraulic Fluids, Lubrication
Polymer-Containing Oils, Committee D-2 on 48, 161 (1962).
Petroleum Products and Lubricants, 1961, Am. 54. D. Godfrey, The Lubrication Mechanism of
SOC. Testing Materials, Supplementary Preprint Tricreqyl Phosphate on Steel, ASLE Trans. 8,l
to the 1961 Report of Committee D-2 on Pe- (1965).
troleum Products and Lubricants, Appendix 55. E. E. Klaus and H. E. Bieber, Effects of
XIII, pp. 61-66. P32 Impurities on the Behavior of Tricresyl
40. C. M. Murphy and H. Raoner, Oxidation Phosphate-32 as an Antiwear Additive, ASLE
Characteristics of Some Diester Fluids, Ind. Trans. 8, 12 (1965).
Eng. Chem. 44, 1607 (1952). 56. E. E. Klaus et al., A Study of Tricresyl Phos-
41. T. W. Selby, Consideration of the Degradation of phate as an Additive for Boundary Lubrica-
Polymer Systems on the Basis of Reduced. Vis- tion, ASLE Trans. 11, 155 (1968).
cosity Loss, ASTM Special Publication 382, p. 57. F. T. Barcroft and S. G. Daniel, The Action of
58, 1964. Neutral Organic Phosphates as EP Additives,
42. R. LeMar, Factors Affecting Sonic Degrada- ASME Trans. J. Basic Eng. 87, 761 (1965).
tion of Polymer Solutions, Ind. Eng. Chem., 58. J. Messina et al., Evaluation of Long Chain
Prod. Res. Dev. 6, 19-23 (1967). Phosphorus Compounds as Lubricity Addi-
43. Klaus, Tewksbury, Jolie, Lloyd, and Manning, tives, ASLE Trans. 3, 48 (1960).
Effect of Some High Energy Sources on Polymer 59. R. C. Bowers et al., Boundary Lubrication
Thickened Lubricants, ASTM Special Publica- Studies of Typical Fluoroesters, Lubrication
tion 382, p. 54, 1964. Eng. 12, 245 (1956).
44. E. E. Klaus, R. E. Hersh, and J. M. Perez, 60. R. C. Bowers et al., Friction and Wear Studies
Paraffinic Resins Have Dual Role as High of Chlorinated Methylphenyl Silicones, Ind.
Temperature Lubricants and Viscosity Index Eng. Chem. 48, 943 (1956).
Improvers, SAE Journal 74, 76 (1966); C. A. 61. H. M. Schiefer and J. V. Dyke, Boundary Lu-
65, 19898 (1966). bricating Properties of Fluoroalkyl Silicones in
45. N. W. Furby, Development of Non-Flammable Bench and Pump Tests, ASLE Trans. 7, 32
Aircraft Hydraulic Fluids, AF-TR 6685(Suppl. I). (1 964).
62. A. W. Sawyer and T. M. Medved, Formulation
46. R. L. Peeler and S. A. Kovacich, Development
of Silane Base High- Temperature Hydraulic
of a Hydrolytically Stable High Temperature
Fluid, WADC-TR-58-407, Parts I and I1
Hydraulic Fluid, WADC -TR-57-119, Parts
(1958).
I and 11.
63. W. A. Marshal, Energy Transfer Fluid Studies,
47. Research and Development on High Tempera- ML-TDR-64-154 (1954).
ture Additives for Lubricants and Hydraulic 64. L. E. Lorensen, Pour Point Depression I;
Fluids, WADC -TR-59 -191, Parts 11, 111, Mechanism Studies, Am. Chem. SOC.,Div. of
and IV. Petroleum Chem. Preprints 7, B-61 (1962).
48. Prizer, Radtke, and White, Mechanical Break- 65. G. A. Holder and J. Winkler, Wax Crystalliza-
down of 0.1-Soluble Polymethacrylates, Am. tion From Distillate Fuels; Part I. Cloud and
5-13
AMCP 706-123
Pour Phenomena Exhibited by Solution of Bi- 70. W. Hampton, The Problem of Cavitation Ero-
nary n-parafin mixtures; Part 11, Mechanism of sion in Aircraft Hydraulic Systems, Aircraft
Pour Depression; Part 111. Effect of Wax Com- Engineering 38, 8 (1966).
position on Response to Pour Depressant and
7 1. J. Sharpley, Elementary Petroleum Microbi-
Further Development of the Mechanism of
ology, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston,
Pour Depression, J. Inst. of Petroleum 51,228,
1966.
235, and 243 (1965).
66. L. E. Lorensen and W. A. Hewett, Pour Point 72. J. Davis, Petroleum Microbiology, Elsevier Pub-
Depression 11; Structure vs. Activity, Am. lishing Company, N.Y., 1967.
Chem. SOC.,Div. of Petroleum Chem. Preprints
7, B-71, 1962. 73. D. 0. Hetzman, The Control of Bacterial and
67. R. LeMar, Development of a Wide-Temperature Fungal Growth in Jet Fuels by Use of a Fuel
Range Hydraulic Fluid, RIA Report No. 67- Additive, Developments in Industrial Mi-
2254, Rock Island Arsenal, Rock Island, 11- crobiology 6, 105 (1964).
linois (1967). 74. A. U. Churchill and W. W. Leathern, Develop-
68. N. W. Furby, Development of Non-Flammable ment of Microbiological Sludge Inhibitors,ASD-
Aircraft Hydraulic Fluids, AF-TR-6685 (ATI- TR-61-193, 1st Reprint, September 1962.
188471).
69. D. Godfrey and N. W. Furby, Cavitation of 75. G. C. Blanchard and C. R. Goucher, Mech-
Oils and Hydraulic Fluids, in: R. L. Adamc- anism of Microbiological Contamination of Jet
zak, R. J. Benzing, and H. Schwenker, Proceed- Fuel and Development of Techniquesfor Detec-
ings of the AFML Hydraulic Fluids Conference, tion of Microbiological Contamination, APL-
AFML-TR-67-369, December 1967. TDR-64-70, Part 11, February 1966.
5-14
AMCP 706-123
CHAPTER 6
STORAGE AND HANDLING
6-1 CONTAINERS Interior coatings or liners are common for hydraulic

fluid containers made for commercial use, especially
the 55-gal drums. For Military Specification fluids,
6-1.1 GENERAL however, interior coatings or liners generally are not
required. When interior coatings or liners are used,
The function of hydraulic fluid containers is simply they must be of a material that will not react with the
to contain the fluid during transport and storage. The hydraulic fluid.
container must be strong and tight enough to assure
protection of its contents, and it must preserve the
original cleanliness of the fluid. Characteristics impor- 6-1.3 CONTAINER SIZES, STORAGE, AND
tant to the design and selection of containers for a MARKING
specific hydraulic fluid include the container materials,
dimensions, and storage conditions to which the con- MIL-STD-290C (Ref. 5) includes detailed informa-
tainer will be subjected. Also of importance are stand- tion regarding required methods of packaging, packing,
ards for proper labeling, and guidelines for the purchas- and marking of hydraulic fluid containers. Table 6-1
ing and ordering of containers. and Figs. 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3 list and illustrate applicable
data regarding size.
6-1.2 CONTAINER MATERIALS

!
Industrial and military requirements for materials
for hydraulic fluids containers vary, but the usual
materials are steel or aluminum. In general, military
hydraulic fluid specificationsfor containers for one gal-
lon or less require that they be packaged in metal cans,
28 gage or lighter, conforming to Federal Specificatior,
PPP-C-96A (Ref. 1). Heavier gage steel is used for
containers of 5- and 55-gal capacities. For instance,
55-gal drums must comply with Federal Specification
PPP-D-729B (Ref. 2) and range from 12 to 18 gage;
5-gal containers must comply with Federal Specifica-
tion PPP-P-704B (Ref. 3) and range from 24 to 26 gage.
Exterior coatings for military purposes usually con-
form to Federal Specification TT-E-515 (Ref. 4) for
quick-drying enamel. Containers of one gallon or less
are generally painted red, while larger containers are
painted olive drab. Exterior coatings for commercial use
depend on the manufacturers preference and frequent-
ly incorporate a color code to distinguish the contents. Fig. 6-1. One-gal Screw Cap Can, Type V, Class 4
6- 1
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 6-1.
HYDRAULIC FLUID CONTAINER SIZES5
Eontainer Container Capacity ClaSS Cap Design Shape
Can 1-pint Screw cap, spout, or special closure Oblong
Can I-quart Screw cap, spout, or special closure Oblong
Can 1-quart Hermetically sealed Cylindrical
Can 1-gallon Screw cap, spout, or special closure Oblong
Can 1-gallon Hermetically sealed Cylindrical
Pail 5-gallon Screw cap, spout, or special closure Cylindrical
Drum 55-gallon Bung Cylindrical
agitation of the samples shall be permitted during stor-

age of the samples. The samples shall then be examined
visually to assure that they exhibit no formation of
resinous gums, sludges, or insoluble materials or sepa-
ration.
Marking instructions required on hydraulic fluid
containers for military use are given in MIL-STD-290C
(Ref. 5). References given in MIL-STD-290C (Ref. 5 )
specify the colors and types of inks (Ref. 8), lacquers
(Ref. 9), and enamels (Ref. 10) to be used for marking
containers. The information normally required on large
containers, and its proper location, is illustrated in
Fig. 6-2. One-qt Hermetically Sealed Can, Type I
Storage requirements are frequently included in hy-

draulic fluid specifications. For example, MIL-H-
5606B hydraulic fluid specification states that prior to
use in the intended equipment, the product may be
stored under conditions of sheltered or unsheltered
storage in geographic areas ranging in temperature
from-57 to + 49C (-70 to + 120F) (Ref. 6). Hy-
draulic fluid specificationsoften include storage stabil-
ity requirements which a liquid must pass to become
qualified under the specification. For example, in MIL-
H-8448B (Ref. 7), a candidate liquid must pass the
following storage test: Three 4-02 samples of the test
fluid shall be placed in separate airtight glass containers
and stored in the dark at temperatures between 65F
(18C) and 90F (32C) for a period of 12 months. No Fig. 6-3. One-pt Spout Top Can, Type V, Class 8
6-2
AMCP 706-123
Figs. 6-4 and 6-5. The numbers in parentheses on Fig. 6-2.1 SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION
6-5 refer to the letter size to be used. The abbreviations
listed in Table 6-2 are frequently used for hydraulic There are many sources of hydraulic fluid contami-
fluid container marking. nation. Some of the more common are: (1) lint and
dust, (2) moisture, and (3) additive problems.
TABLE 6-2.
RECOMMENDED ABBREVIATIONS
FQuantitative Units - 1 6-2.1.1 Contamination from Lint and Dust
Dozen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DZ Lint, dust, and other foreign matter should be the
Each . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EA least common type of fluid contaminant. Their source
Gross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GR can usually be traced to carelessness on the part of
Hundred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HD personnel who handle the fluid. Airborne dust can en-
Thousand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .MX ter the container when it is left uncapped or improperly
Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .WT sealed. Lint and other foreign matter can be traced to
Cube (cubic foot) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CU careless procedures in wiping lids, funnels, and other
Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .GA items which come into contact with the fluid.
Quart.......................Q T
Pint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PT
Ounce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OZ 6-2.1.2 Moisture Contamination During
Cubic Centimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CC Storage
b. Procurement Marking Abbreviations
Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACFT Moisture is one of the greatest enemies of hydraulic
Automotive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AUTO fluids and systems, except for aqueous type hydraulic
Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENG fluids and the systems designed to use them. In general,
Lubricating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LUBE special care should be taken to make containers water-
Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PETRO proof-especially when they are stored without protec-
Preservative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PRESERV tion from the weather. Introduction of moisture into
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TEMP waterproof containers by breathing and condensa-
Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TURB tion is a problem whenever containers are exposed to
Reciprocating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RECIP frequently and widely varying temperatures. For this
Gyroscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GYRO reason, storage conditions where such problems can
~~~~
occur should be avoided. Containers stored out-of-
ings (Ref. 11): INSTRUCTIONS: Destroy ali mark-

ings on this container when empty. DO not mix with 6-2.1.3 Contamination Accompanying
any fluid except those of MIL-H-27601 and revisions. Additives
Impurities accompanying additives are, in the strict-

6-2 CONTAMINANTS est sense, a manufacturing problem but one which may
ultimately become the headache of the hydraulic fluid
Fluids used in hydraulic systems must meet high handler. For example, it has been reported that an
standards of purity. Malfunctions in hydraulic systems additive in some MIL-H-5606B fluids has, on occasion,
frequently can be traced directly to contaminated hy- been found to contain a contaminant soluble in the
draulic fluids. Although contamination can often be additive itself but insoluble in the finished hydraulic
attributed to sources not related to the handling and fluid (Ref. 12). Some additives for hydraulic fluids can
storage of the hydraulic fluid (such as contamination cause considerable contamination problems when
particles due to system wear), many problems can be moisture accumulates in the hydraulic fluid. Hydraulic
eliminated by proper handling and storing of hydrau - fluids with corrosion inhibitors are prone to form a
lic fluids. slime with moisture contamination (Ref. 12).
6-3
r SPACE ALLOWANCE FOR CLOSURES TOP HEAD
Military Symbol , Nomenclature,

Grade, Type, C l a s s
Contractor's Name
DOMESTIC ADDRESS
CAUTION AND
USE MARKINGS
CONTRACT NO. QUAL. NO.
NETCONTENT
GROSS WEIGHT CUBE
4
(A) Top Markings (B) Side Markings
Fig. 6-4. Markings on Top and Side of 55-gal Drum

AMCP 706-123
1
~~
(NATO SYMBOL (3/4)

MILITARY SYMBOL (1) OVERSEAS ADDRESS (1)
NOMENCLATURE (1/2)
SPECIFICATION NO. (1/2)
GRADE, TYPE, CLASS (1/2) CAUTION AND USE
STOCK NO. (1/2) MARKINGS (LEGIBLE)
CONTRACTOR'S NAME (LEGIBLE)
QUALIFICATION NO. (1/2)
DATE O F MANUFACTURE (1/2)
BATCH OR LOT NO. (1/2)
CONTRACT NO. (1/2)
NET CONTENT (1/2)
GROSS WEIGHT (1/2)
CUBE (1/2)
Fig. 6-5. Markings on Sides of 5-gal Tight-head Pail
Mahogany sulfonate rust inhibitors widely used in immiscible. Solid particle contaminants are self-
finished hydraulic fluids can also be a source of con- defined. They are impurities which may either be
tamination, i.e., rusting and staining of steel in a hy- chemically reactive with hydraulic fluids or which may
draulic system. It has been found that some mahogany foul hydraulic systems.
sulfonates contain inorganic water soluble salts (such
as calcium chloride and calcium sulfate) ranging from
0.02 to 0.19 percent. Data show that the concentration 6-2.2.1 Water As a Contaminant
of inorganic salts do not appear to affect the rust pre-
vention properties of the mahogany sulfonates, but Although water was tke first liquid to be used in a
their presence does produce corrosion due to galvanic hydraulic system, it is generally a harmful contaminant
action. It was found that use of petroleum hydraulic (Ref. 14) in current sophisticated hydraulic systems.
fluids containing sulfonates with a relatively high chlo- Depending on the properties of the liquid under consid-
ride content of 0.12 percent produced system malfunc- eration, water will either form an emulsion in the hy-
tions while use of petroleum hydraulic fluids contain- draulic fluid (up to a certain percentage) or be partially
ing sulfonates with less than 0.03 percent of the salt immiscible with the hydraulic fluid with some water
permitted satisfactory operation (Ref. 13). floating on the surface of the hydraulic fluid or settling
to the bottom of the container. Immiscible or free quan-
tities of water in a hydraulic fluid are usually the result
6-2.2 TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS of careless handling and cause damage to both the
hydraulic fluid and the system. Unwanted water in a
The many impurities that can affect hydraulic fluids hydraulic fluid leads to a multitude of problems in
adversely can be classified as either solid particle or terms of hydraulic system damage and failure. The
liquid contaminants. The most common and most trou- worst threats of water contamination are the corrosive
blesome liquid contaminant is water, but liquid con- effects of water and the subsequent fluid and/or system
taminants include all foreign liquids, both miscible and contamination with corrosion particles.
6-5
AMCP 706-123
One clarification concerning water and hydraulic considered as a standard for all hydraulic fluids. In-
fluids must be made, however. In certain fire-resistant deed, if contamination levels are to be established for
hydraulic fluids, water is a welcome ingredient, making a hydraulic fluid, it is best to refer to the manufac-
up from 20-70 percent of the liquid. Such fire-resistant turers data for the most reliable indication of the con-
hydraulic fluids are formed by an emulsion of water tamination limits and to take into account the design
dispersed in a second liquid, such as oil or a glycol. In of the system(s) in which the liquid will be used.
these liquids the distinction between water as a needed Table 6-4 is an example of contamination limits for
ingredient and water as a contaminant is clear. hydraulic fluids established by one aircraft company
A distinction must be made between oil-in-water (Ref. 15). Not only is the maximum number of particles
emulsions and water-in-oil emulsions. Although a sta- specified, but the maximum weight of the contaminant
ble solution can be made by dispersing oil in water, per 100 ml of liquid is also specified. The differences in
problems with corrosion and wear are more apt to contamination limits between Tables 6-3 and 6-4 serve
occur with this type of emulsion. Inverse or water-in- to illustrate the relative nature of fluid cleanliness.
oil emulsions, on the other hand, offer the fire-resistant What may be a clean fluid in one application may not
quality of water while retaining the lubricating and be clean enough for another. The specific application
anticorrosion qualities of the oil. In inverse emul- of the fluid is always the ultimate factor in determining
sions, water is the dispersed phase while oil is the con- contamination limits.
tinuous phase. In oil-in-water emulsions, the situation
is reversed-the oil is the dispersed phase and the water
is the continuous phase.
6-2.2.3 Liquid Contaminants Other Than
Water
6-2.2.2 Solid Contaminant Particles
In addition to solid particle and water contamina-
Of all contaminants, solid particles are of most fre- tion, contamination from other liquids, both miscible
quent concern. Their measurement is usually deter- and immiscible, can occur.
mined according to size and number. The cleanliness of Liquid contaminants in hydraulic fluids often enter
a hydraulic fluid is normally reported as the relative a system as a result of mixing (accidental or inten-
solid particle cleanliness. tional) two or more hydraulic fluids. Accidental mixing
Solid particle contaminants are either of the fibrous often occurs when replacing the hydraulic fluid in a
or nonfibrous variety. Fibrous particles have a large system with another hydraulic fluid without a
length-to-diameter ratio. A fibrous particle has been thorough cleaning of the system. Liquid contamination
defined by Aircraft Industries Association as one hav- of a hydraulic fluid can also occur when transferring
ing a length-to-diameter ratio greater than 10 to 1. the liquid into unclean containers. In general, such
Nonfibrous solid particle contaminants include all par- transfers should be avoided. In some cases, however,
ticles not in the fibrous class. Their irregular shapes Military Specifications indicate that two different liq-
make it necessary to define their size by their larg- uids are compatible and may be mixed. Such a mixture
est dimension. may be considered usable in that it does not form resin-
The unit of measurement for solid particle contami- ous gums, sludges, or insoluble solid materials; how-
nation is the micron (about 39 millionths of an inch). ever, the liquids in the mixture are contaminated in the
The normal human eye can detect particles as small as sense that the liquids may no longer retain their origi-
40microns. However, contaminant particles as small as nal characteristics. Such characteristics may be critical
1/2 micron may be of concern. in certain applications that require a clean fluid.
Because of the wide variety of hydraulic fluids and Contamination of a hydraulic fluid by oils or sol-
their equally wide variety of applications, there are vents used in or on the hydraulic system is a frequent
many standards of fluid cleanliness. MIL-H-5606B re- form of contamination. This type of contamination
quires that (1) there be no particles over 100 microns reduces the effectiveness of the hydraulic fluid by
in size, and (2) the total contamination in a 100-ml changing characteristics such as viscosity, density, and
sample retained on a 0.45-micron cellulose filter be no lubricating ability or by attacking system components
more than 0.3 mg. such as seals. However, the oil or solvent may have no
Table 6-3 presents data on generalized contamina- chemical effect on the hydraulic fluid itself, particu-
tion limits for hydraulic fluids as proposed by the Air- larly in the case of petroleum base hydraulic fluids and
craft Industries Association (Ref. 15). It is not to be petroleum fraction oils or solvents (Ref. 12).
6-6
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 6-3.
AIA PARTICLE CONTAMINATION LIMlTS FOR HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Number of Particles
Particle Size, p particle Size > 100rd
Class 11-25 26-50 51-100 F1kISb Particlesb
220 20 5 2 0
530 60 10 3 1
1,530 150 15 4 1
5,530 420 40 7 3
1,650 320 25 1 OC
Notes:
a. Value to be controlled for each application.
b. Particles with length-to-width ratio greater than 10 are termed fibers; with length-to-width ratio less than
10, they are termed particles.
c. Zero particles are defined as none if one sample is taken; if an average of several samples is taken, total
particles in all samples must be less than number of samples to meet zero requirement.
d. p = 1 micron = 10-4cm
Type system Maximum Filterable Solids, Maximum Particles and Flhrs

mg/lOO ml Size,@* Number/ 100 ml
Airborne 2.0 (125 Unlimited
25- 100 250
Over 100 10
Ground 3.0 (125 Unlimited

25-100 750
Over 100 80
Chemical contamination of a hydraulic fluid is gen- 6-2.2.4 Microbiological Contaminants

erally a rare Occurrence and difficult to trace. Some
instances of chemical contamination have been ex- Micro-organisms can grow in hydraulic fluids to
plained by deposits of cleaning compounds left on sur- some extent. However, most of the problems associated
faces, or by reaction of an additive with seals or filters, with this type of contamination Occur in the handling
and other such unusual instances. However, one recur- and use of aviation fuels, and most of the research work
ring source of chemical contamination is a contaminant pertains to the effect of microbiological contamination
that is soluble in an additive but is insoluble in the of fuels. The problem deserves a discussion in relation
finished fluid (Ref. 12). to hydraulic fluids, however, because microbiological
6-7
AMCP 706-123
contamination can occur in hydraulic fluids. If suffi- Solid particles on the order of 100 microns can be
cient quantities of the organisms are allowed to grow formed from smaller ones. This effect has been espe-
unchecked, they can clog filters, restrict small orifices, cially noted in noncorrosion-preventing petroleum base
and cause poor operation of close tolerance parts. hydraulic fluids (Ref. 12). These fluids are highly die-
The growth of micro-organisms can be increased by lectric and contaminant particles retain a static charge.
the presence of other contaminants in the hydraulic The result is that when the fluid is exposed to long
fluid. Water contamination, for example, provides an periods of agitation, such as in shipping, the probability
environment, and is necessary, for the growth of living of particles colliding with one another increases and
organisms. In most cases, elimination of microbial con- particle agglomerations form. Fluids with submicronic
taminants with biocides does not solve the underlying particles have been known to form 25- to 200-micron
contaminant problems that originally contributed to particles under these conditions (Ref. 12).
growth of the micro-organisms (Ref. 16). Moisture is a contaminant which causes a slime in
some hydraulic fluids. The necessary ingredients for
6-2.3 EFFECTS OF CONTAMINATION the formation of this slime that can clog filters are
Contamination in a hydraulic system is damaging to tricresyl phosphate (an antiwear additive used in sev-
the hydraulic fluid and to the system in which it is used. eral hydraulic fluids), an alkali, and moisture (Ref. 12).
The degree of contamination usually begins at a low In a hydraulic fluid of the corrosion-preventive type,
level and increases because of the formation of con- moisture can also cause the formation of a slime resem-
taminants in the system itself (especially solid particle bling egg white. When sufficient moisture is present,
contaminants caused by system wear, oxidation, the corrosion-preventing additives can exhaust them-
and corrosion). selves by wrapping up the moisture in additive and
water dispersions (Ref. 12).
6-2.3.1 Effects of Contamination on the

Hydraulic Fluid 6-2.3.2 Effects of Contamination on the
Hydraulic System
Once a hydraulic fluid becomes contaminated, it is System damage or failure may be caused in a number
usually no longer suitable for use. The destructive ef- of ways. Solid particle contaminants may result in fric-
fects of contamination are often of a chain-reaction tion and wear, jamming, or seizing. In hydraulic mech-
nature and produce further damage to the liquid. While anisms where close-fitting parts move at relatively high
this is not always the case, it is easier to prevent damage speeds, solid particle contaminants shear the faces of
by avoiding contamination through proper handling and system components. The buildup of more and more
storage techniques than it is to make repairs that may wear particles can, therefore, result from an initially
be required as a result of using contaminated liquid. small amount of solid particle contamination. Since
There are a number of situations where contamina- moisture may also produce solid particle contaminants
tion can grow even within a closed and sealed system. due to corrosion, its ultimate effect can be the same-
One example of the chain reaction that can occur is more and more contaminant buildup. Plugging of small
the effect of moisture in hydraulic fluids without an- openings and filters may result from solid particle con-
ticorrosion additives. Corrosion particles resulting tamination or from the formation of slimes.
from moisture, in effect, act as wear particles which Hydraulic system fouling can also be caused by the
expose clean metal surfaces that subsequently succumb chemical .nteraction of hydraulic fluids with seals. It is
to corrosion (Ref. 12). a design error to use seals or other system components
It has been observed that the presence of solid parti- that would be reactive with the fluid. The result is
cle contaminants can affect the oxidation resistance of formation of gels, sludge, and abrasive particles that
hydraulic fluids. Although most hydraulic fluids con- can further damage a hydraulic system.
tain oxidation inhibitors, their intended effect can be A convincing illustration of the ill effects of hydrau-
seriously depleted when solid particles accelerate oxi- lic fluid contamination is to compare system life under
dation of the fluid and use up the inhibitor (Ref. 12). controlled contamination levels with system life under
When excessive contamination thus wears out the the best contamination free conditions allowed by pre-
oxidation inhibitor, the hydraulic fluid can easily suc- sent technology. One report examines the effect of vari-
cumb to the effects of oxidation and, consequently, the ous controlled solid particle contamination levels on
formation of corrosion products. servo-valve internal leakage. One conclusion reached,
6-8
AMCP 706-123
which is indicative of the effects of at least solid particle in general use. They are: Federal Test Method 3009
contaminants, is that normal contamination can be (Ref. 19), ASTM D -2390 -65T (Ref. 20), andAero-
controlled to the point where the life of a servo-valve nautical Recommended Practice ARP-598 (Ref. 21).
assembly can be increased by as much as 277 percent The three methods are very similar in the proce-
(Ref. 17). Table 6-5 presents data on some of the many dure and the reporting of results. In each method a
types of contaminants and their general effects on the sample of the specimen is filtered through a 0.45-
most common components in a hydraulic system. micron cellulose membrane filter. The filter is exam-
(Ref. 18). ined under a microscope and the number of solid parti-
cles in a given area of the filter is counted. The particle
counts are grouped in the following size ranges (in
6-2.4 METHODS OF DETERMINING
microns): 5 to 15, 15 to 25, 25 to 50, 50 to 100, over
CONTAMINATION
100 (length-width ratio under lO:l), over 100 (length-
width ratio over 1O:l). The total number of particles
The required cleanliness of a hydraulic system is
present is calculated by statistical methods.
relative and is dependent on the design of a particular
system. Although the criteria for cleanliness may vary (2) Automatic Counting Methods:
for different systems, the methods of contaminant The tedious nature of most particle-contaminant
measurement are basically alike. Methods of solid par- counting and weighing methods can be avoided
ticle contaminant measurement involve counting, siz- through the use of automatic particle counters. Two
ing, and/or weighing of the particles in a given volume types of automatic counters exist. Sample counters
of fluid. Methods of determining the amount of liquid measure the number of particles in a sample of hydrau-
contaminants present in hydraulic fluids usually in- lic fluid. On-stream counters record the number of con-
volve chemical or physical procedures-distillation, taminant particles in a system while it is in operation.
separation with a solvent, or isolation of the contami-
(a) Sample-type Automatic Counters:
nant by chemical reaction.
One sample-type counter* is capable of counting
solid particle contaminants and indicating their size.
6-2.4.1 Solid Particle Contamination Electrodes on each side of a small channel detect a
Measurement by Counting change in resistance whenever a contaminated sample
of hydraulic fluid passes. The fluid sample must be
(1) Microscope Methods:
Three test procedures for determining the solid parti-
cle contamination in hydraulic fluids by counting are Made by Coulter Electronics, Inc., Chicago.
TABLE 6-5.
EFFECTS OF VARIOUS CONT, IINANTS ON HYD QULICSYSTEM COMPO ENTS' *
- Scale Rubber Metal Fibers

oil X X X X
Reservoir X X X xx X X
W P X xxx X X X
Relief Valve X xx X X X
Control Valves X X X X
Actuators X X X X
Accumulators X X X X X
Pipe Fittings,
Hoses, Etc. X X X xx X
Filter X X X xx X
X-Noticeable =-Medium XXX-Strong
6-9
AMCP 706-123
made conductive before testing by mixing it with a The insoluble contamination is determined by draw-
suitable solvent. Passing contaminants cause a voltage ing a 100-ml sample of hydraulic fluid through a mem-
pulse in proportion to the size of the particle so that the brane filter disk and measuring the resultant increase
number of particles within a certain size range can be in the weight of the filter. In addition, the filter disk is
determined. Measurement may be made down to about microscopically scanned for excessively large particles,
5 microns. fibers, or other unusual conditions.
Another sample-type counter" works on an electro- Precision: Results should not be considered suspect
optical system capable of measuring and counting con- unless they differ by more than the following amount:
taminant particles on test slides. Measurement may be (a) Repeatability. 0.2 mg/100 ml
made down to 1.0 micron. Also operating as an electro- (b) Reproducibility. 0.05 mg/100 ml
optical device is a sample-type counter, which allows
a sample of the fluid on a slide to oscillate past a photo-
cell which counts and sizes the contaminant particles. 6-2.4.3 Solid Particle Contamination
(b) On-stream Automatic Counters: Measurement by Combined Counting
A second category of particle counters provides for and Weighing Methods
automatic sampling of the hydraulic fluid. On-stream
counters connect directly into an operating hydraulic Many users of hydraulic fluids prefer to rely on more
system and tap fluid from a point in the flow believed than one technique for determining contamination.
to yield samples representative of the entire flow. The testing procedure required for MIL-H-5606B fluid
One commercially available on-stream device * * is a good example. This particular fluid is considered
counts and sizes particles in the 5-250 micron range. below specification if it fails either a weight analysis or
The counter automatically draws a fluid sample from particle count test. According to weight, there must not
a hydraulic system through a narrow passage fitted be more than 0.3 mg of solid particle contaminants per
with a photoelectric detection system. The system 100 ml when the test is conducted under the provisions
makes contamination data available in terms of number of Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
of particles in various size ranges per unit volume Method 3009 (Ref. 19). According to the particle
of sample. count', the number of contaminant particles must not
Another on-stream automatic counter designtt al- exceed the values given in Table 6-6.
lows for the automatic sampling, sizing, and counting
of particles greater in size than 10 microns. Measure-
ments are accomplished by reflecting ultrasonic waves
off contaminant particles. 6-2.4.4 Liquid Contaminant Measurement
Determination of the amount of liquid contamina-

tion present in a hydraulic fluid can become a difficult
6-2.4.2 Solid Particle Contamination problem, especially if the contaminant is soluble or
Measurement by Weighing miscible in the hydraulic fluid. Since most means of
measuring liquid contaminants involve chemical reac-
Test Method: ASTM D-2387-65T (Ref. 22). tions, it is usually a prerequisite to know what kind of
This method covers the determination of insoluble contaminants are being measured so that the proper
contamination in hydraulic fluids by gravimetric anal- reagents may be used. However, the problem is some-
yses. The contamination determined includes both what simplified since the most common liquid contami-
particulate and gel-like matter, organic and inorganic, nant is water. Procedures for determining other types
which is retained on a membrane filter disk of pore of contaminants are usually specific to the chemical
diameter as required by applicable specifications (usu- nature of the hydraulic fluid.
ally 0.45 micron or 0.80 micron). If the amount of water contaminant present in a
hydraulic fluid is large, techniques such as dilution
with a solvent which will separate the water into an
* The Cintel Flying-Spot Particle Resolver, made by Cinema immiscible layer can be used. When the amount of
Television Co., London. water present is small, two procedures are generally
** Casella Automatic Particle Counter and Sizer.
HIAC Automatic Particle Counter. used. One depends upon the physical separation of wa-
ttA counter designed by Sperry Products Company for the Mar-
ter by means of an entraining nonsolvent and the other
shall Space Flight Center. on a chemical reaction.
6-10
AMCP 706-123
TABLE 6-6.
SOLID PARTICLE CONTAMINATION LIMITS IN HYDRAULIC
FLUID CORRESPONDING TO MILH-56MB
~~ ~
Particle Size Range, p* Maximum Allowable Number of Solid Particles

5-15 2,500
16-25 1,000
26-50 250
51-100 50
Over 100 None
*p = 1 micron = 1 0 - ~cm
(1) Test for Water in Petroleum and Other Bitumi- 6-3 PRECAUTIONS
nous Materials:
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 3001.8 (Ref. 23) The exercise of certain precautions in the storage and
ASTM D-95-62 (Ref. 24) handling of hydraulic fluids is vital for the safety of
These methods are used to determine the water con- personnel and for the protection of the fluid. The intro-
tent of bituminous materials by distillation with a water duction of contaminants into the hydraulic fluid and
immiscible, volatile solvent. contact with incompatible materials are both to be
The sample is heated under reflux with a water- avoided. Personal hazards from explosion,fire,skin poi-
immiscible solvent which co-distills with the water in soning, ingestive poisoning, and vapor inhalation are of
the sample. Condensed solvent and water are continu- even more concern. Anyone who stores and handles
ously separated in a trap, the water settling in the gra- hydraulic fluids should know well the hazards they face
duated section of the trap and the solvent returning to and follow all recommended safety precautions.
the still.
( 2 ) Test for Water With Karl Fischer Reagent:
Test Methods: Federal Test Method 3253 (Ref. 25) 6-3.1 HEALTH HAZARD
ASTM D-1744-64 (Ref. 26)
These methods cover the procedures for determining Skin poisoning, ingestive poisoning, and exposure to
water in the concentration of 50 to 1,OOO ppm in liquid vapors and sprays of hydraulic fluids are common
petroleum products. The procedure, referred to as the threats to hydraulic fluid handlers. Other darlgers are
Karl Fischer Method, or some variation of it, is due to the explosive or highly flammable nature of
widely used for the determination of moisture content some liquids. Most hydraulic fluids, however, do not
of many materials. Although the test standards list the pose a serious health hazard. For specific information
procedure for petroleum products only, it can be used on the hazardous nature of a particular fluid, the fluid
on most materials where the reagents will not produce manufacturer should be consulted.
reactions that give false readings.
Sufficient Karl Fischer reagent is diluted with pyri-
dine to adjust its strength to a water equivalence of 2 6-3.1.1 Precautions Against Poisoning
to 3 rng %O per ml of solution. Fifty ml of the sample
is diluted with 50 ml of methanol-chloroform (1 part to Skin poisoning or irritation caused by repeated han-
3 parts by volume). The sample is then added to the dling of a hydraulic fluid, and ingestive poisoning
adjusted solution. If water is present, the solution will caused by accidental swallowing are two hazards that
no longer be dry. A second adjustment with Karl can be easily guarded against. The swallowing of a
Fischer reagent is made until the water equivalence of hydraulic fluid is very rare. Nonetheless, poisonous
2 to 3 rng H P per rnl of solution is again reached. The hydraulic fluids should be clearly marked as such and
amount of moisture present is then determined by the an antidote or other first aid procedure should be
amount of reagent used to reach the second end point. known from the manufacturers data or fromcautionary
6-1 1
AMCP 706-123
information on the fluid container. For all hydrau - coupling)-can spray system components and surround-
lic fluids, the avoidance of extended contact with the ings that may be hot enough to cause ignition. If the
skin is recommended. Although most hydraulic fluids, liquid is conducting, the spray can also cause short
including synthetics, are not harmful to bare skin, pro- circuits in electrical systems which, in turn, can cause
longed contact should be avoided because many of the ignition. Precautions against this sort of fire hazard are
ingredients and additives may tend to dry out the skin. the responsibility of the system designer. If possible, the
However, the effect is usually not long lasting if the probable points of system failure should be situated so
exposure is not prolonged. that, should a leak occur, the hydraulic spray will not
be exposed to potential ignition sources.
6-3.1.2 Precautions Against Dangerous 6-3.3 OTHER PRECAUTIONS

Vapors and Sprays
Additional areas requiring precautions pertain to the
Vapors and mists from many hydraulic fluids are relationship of hydraulic fluids with other materials.
generally irritating and cause coughing or sneezing. All hydraulic fluids are incompatible with some
For these reasons prolonged inhalation of hydraulic materials. The designer takes this into account when
fluid vapors or sprays is to be avoided. Even when the choosing system components and a hydraulic fluid for
effects of short exposures are known to be nontoxic, the system. On occasion, however, users of a hydraulic
indirect damage to the respiratory system could occur system may desire to use a different hydraulic fluid. In
because of frequent or repeated irritations. Vapors from changing to a different fluid, one should always investi-
hydraulic fluids are most irritating when the fluid is at gate the safety of the change thoroughly. If the new
high temperatures, as the fluid may decompose and fluid is incompatible with any system component, even-
give off toxic vapors. Then, and at all times, the general tual system malfunction is probable. The fluid manu-
rule is to avoid vapors from hydraulic fluids by working facturer can supply data on compatibility of his fluid
in well ventilated areas or by wearing protective masks. with commonly used system materials.
REFERENCES
6-3.2 DANGER OF EXPLOSION AND FIRE
1. PPP-C-96A) Cans, Metals, 28 Gage and Lighter,

The danger due to explosion of hydraulic fluids is 6 October 1964.
possible during storage, handling, or use in a hydraulic 2. PPP-D-729B, Drums: Metal, SS-Gallon (For
system. The "explosive limits" of a substance are the Shipment of Noncorrosive Material), 19 August
lowest and highest concentrations of the vapors of the 1958.
substance in the atmosphere which will form a flamma- 3. PPP-P-704B, Pails, Metal: (Shipping, Steel, I
ble mixture (Ref. 27). Hydraulic fluids should not be Through 12 Gallon), 20 February 1967.
stored where the temperature may become high enough 4. TT-E-5 15, Enamel, Alkyd, Lustreless, Quick-
to ignite the fluid. A common precaution that should Drying, 2 December 1963.
be taken is to store the hydraulic fluid in an area 5 . MIL-STD-29OC, Packaging, Packing, and
removed from all possible sources of ignition and from Marking of Petroleum and Related Products, 24
areas where personnel or equipment would be endan- May 1965.
gered should the stored liquids be accidentally ignited. 6. MIL-H-5606B, Hydraulic Fluid, Petroleum
Fire and explosion precautions are even more impor- Base; Aircraft. Missile, and Ordnance, 26 June
tant in direct handling of hydraulic fluids. Pouring or 1963.
draining of fluids near sources of ignition (such as di- 7. MIL-H-8446B, Hydraulic Fluid, Nonpetroleum
rect flames or hot surfaces) is inviting disaster. Even Base, Aircraf, 12 March 1959.
fire-resistant fluids can ignite and continue to support 8. TT-1-558, Ink, Marking, Stencil, Opaque, for
flame if conditions are favorable (Ref. 28). Nonporous Surfaces (Metals, Glass, etc.), 12
Serious fire hazards can occur when a liquid is in use June 1957.
in a hydraulic system. Because of the high pressure in 9. TT-L-20, Lacquer, Camouflage, 2 July 1963.
components of the system, flammable hydraulic fluids 10. TT-E-489, Enamel, Alkyd, Gloss, (For Exterior
in the event of a system failure (broken hose, line, and Interior Surfaces), 20 September 1965.
6-12
AMCP 706-123
11. MIL-H-27601, Petroleum Base, High Tempera- November 1961, Institution of Mechanical
ture, Flight Vehicle, 23 January 1964. Engineers, London (1962).
12. T. N. Deane, The Effect of Contamination on 19. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
Fluids and the Effect of the Ingredients of the Method 3009.
Fluids on Contamination, Proceedings of 20. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2390-
Aerospace Fluid Power Systems and Equipment 65T, Part 18, p. 533, Philadelphia, American
Conference-May 1965, Society of Automotive Society for Testing Materials, 1967.
Engineers, New York, 1965. 21. Procedure for the Determination of Particulate
13. J. Messina and A. Mertwoy, Inorganic Salts Contamination of Hydraulic Fluids by the Parti-
in Mahogany Sulfonates and Their Effect on cle Count Method, Aeronautical Recommended
Petroleum Hydraulic Fluids, Lub. Eng., Practice 598, Society of Automotive Engineers,
Feb. 1967. Inc., New York, N.Y. pp. 1-6 (1960).
14. R. E. Hatton, Introduction to Hydraulic Fluids, 22. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-2387-
Reinhold Publishing Corp., N.Y., 1962. 65T, Part 18, pp. 5 10-513, Philadelphia, Ameri-
15. M. Piccone, Control of Contamination in can Society for Testing Materials, 1967.
Rocket Booster Hydraulic Systems, Proceed- 23. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
ings of Aerospace Fluid Power Systems and Method 3001.8.
Equipment Conference-May 1965, Society of 24. ASTM Standards 1967, Designation D-95-62,
Automotive Engineers, New York (1965). Part 17, p. 55, Philadelphia, American Society
16. S. A. London, Microbial Activity in Air Force for Testing Materials 1967.
Jet Fuel Systems, Developments in Industrial 25. Federal Test Method Standard No. 791a, Test
Microbiology 6, 62 (1964). Method 3253.
17. H. L. Huggett, Servo Valve Internal Leakage 26. ASTMStandards 1967, Designation D- 1744-64,
as Affected by Contamination, Proceedings of Part 17, p. 667, Philadelphia, American Society
Aerospace Fluid Power Systems and Equipment for Testing Materials, 1967.
Conference-May 1965, Society of Automotive 27. Accident Prevention Handbook, AFM 32-3, De-
Engineers, New York (1965). partment of the Air Force, 1 August 1964.
18. D. F. Denny, Cleanliness in Hydraulic Sys- 28. H. M. Shiefer, For Hydraulic Systems, Drives,
tems, Proceedings of the C mference on Oil Hy- Dashpots: Whats Hot in Fluids? Product En-
draulic Power Transmission and Control- gineer, 107, August 1964.
6-13
AMCP 706-123
GLOSSARY
accumulator A fluid pressure storage chamber in milligrams of potassium hydrox-

which fluid pressure energy may ide, required to neutralize all basic
be stored and from which it may be constituents present in one gram of
withdrawn. sample.
bladder4 ype A hydropneumatic accumulator in boiling point The temperature at which a fluid
which the liquid and gas are sepa- refluxes or distills under carefully
rated by an expandable bladder or specified conditions.
elastic bag. bulk modulus The reciprocal of compressibility. It
diaphragm- A hydropneumatic accumulator in is usually expressed in pounds per
t Y Pe which the liquid and gas are sepa- square inch.
rated by a flexible diaphragm. An alternate route which provides
bypass
nonseparator- An accumulator in which a com- passage for a liquid around a com-
tY Pe pressed gas operates directly upon ponent.
the liquid in the pressure chamber. cavitation A phenomenon of formation of
piston-type An accumulator in which a com- cavities in a liquid across which
pressed gas operates on a piston the liquid can move with high
which applies force to the stored velocity, producing a hammer ef-
liquid. fect on any object it strikes. It usu-
spring-loaded An accumulator in which the com- ally occurs where pressure is low
pression energy is supplied by a and velocity high. Cavitation gen-
spring. erally causes noise and damage to
system components.
weight-loaded An accumulator in which weights
apply force to the stored liquid. centipoise A unit of absolute viscosity.
acid number The quantity of base, expressed in centistoke A unit of kinematic viscosity.
milligrams of potassium hydrox- cloud point The temperature at which wax or
ide, that is required to neutralize other dissolved solids first precipi-
the acidic constituents in one gram tate during chilling under specified
of sample. conditions.
actuator A device to convert fluid energy coefficient of The change in weight per unit
into mechanical motion. expansion volume per 1" change of tempera-
additive A chemical compound or com- ture.
pounds added to a liquid to change compressibility The reduction in volume of a liquid
its properties. when pressure is applied. Com-
autoignition The temperature at which a liquid pressibility is usually measured in
temperature placed on a heated surface will ig- terms of the bulk modulus, which
WIT) nite spontaneously. is the reciprocal of compressibility.
base number The amount of acid, expressed in control A device used to regulate the func-
terms of the equivalent number of tions of a component or system to
G- 1
AMCP 706-123
which it is usually connected; may plunger-ty pe A cylinder in which the movable

be integral or remote. element has the same cross-sec-
automatic A control actuated in response to a tional area as the piston rod.
signal from the system; also a con- single-acting A cylinder in which the fluid pres-
trol which actuates equipment in a sure is applied in only one direc-
predetermined manner. tion.
electric A control actuated by an electrical single-end A cylinder with a rod extending
device. rod from one end.
hydraulic A control actuated by liquid pres- density The mass of a material occupying
sure. unit volume at a specified tempera-
liquid-level A device which controls the liquid ture. Its dimensions are mass per
level, such as a float switch. unit volume.
mechanical A control actuated by linkages, elastomer An elastic, rubber-like material.
cams, gears, screws, or other me- emulsion An intimate dispersion of one liquid
chanical means. within another.
pneumatic A control actuated by air or other film strength The ability of a liquid to maintain a
gas pressure. film.
Pump Controls applied to hydraulic filter A device through which a fluid is
pumps to adjust their output or di- passed to separate material held in
rection of flow. suspension. The filter medium is
servo A control actuated by a feed-back t i e material which removes the
system which compares the output solids and consists of materials
with the reference signal and such as paper, cloth, finely woven
makes corrections to reduce the screen, sintered metals, finely di-
difference. vided solids such as clay, activated
charcoal, etc.
conduction Process by which heat flows from a
region of higher temperature to a bypass A filter which receives only a por-
region of lower temperature within tion of the total fluid flow. Con-
a medium or between different tinuous mixing of the filtered and
media in direct physical contact. unfiltered fluid ensures that it is all
eventually filtered in a reasonable
convection Transference of heat by moving period of time.
masses of matter.
fire point The temperature at which a liquid
cylinder A device for converting fluid energy will burn continuously when ig-
into linear motion. It usually con- nited by a small flame under care-
sists of a movable element such as fully specified conditions.
a piston and piston rod, plunger or
ram operating within a cylindrical fire-resistant A fluid difficult to ignite and which
bore. fluid shows little tendency to propagate
flame.
double-acting A cylinder which moves in either
direction due to fluid flow and flash point The temperature at which a liquid
pressure. gives off sufficient flammable va-
pors to ignite but not continue to
double-end A cylinder with a single piston and burn when approached by a small
rod with a rod extending from each flame under carefully specified
end. conditions.
flow, laminar A flow situation in which motion
piston-ty pe A cylinder in which the movable occurs as a movement of one layer
element has a greater cross-sec- of fluid upon another. This is syn-
tional area than the piston rod. onymous with streamline flow.
6-2
AMCP 706-123
flow, steady A flow situation wherein conditions synthetic A material which, by definition, is
state such as pressure, temperature, and nonpetroleum, but which may
velocity at every point in the fluid contain nonfunctional amounts of
do not change. petroleum. Specifically, this per-
flow, streamline A flow situation in which motion mits petroleum to be used as a car-
occurs as a movement of one layer rier for a constituent, i.e., for an
of fluid upon another. This is syn- additive, etc., but excludes pe-
onymous with laminar flow. troleum used for any benefit of its
flow, turbulent A flow situation in which the liquid properties per se.
particles move in a random man- water-glycol- A fluid whose major constituents
ner. type are water and one or more glycols
flow rate The unit volume of a fluid flowing or polyglycols and which may con-
per unit of time. tain additional amounts of other
constituents.
flow velocity The rate of speed at which a volume
of fluid passes a particular point in water-oil A stabilized emulsion of water
a passage. emulsion -oil, and which may contain ad-
type ditional amounts of other constitu-
fluid A substance which yields to any ents. There are two types: (1)
pressure tending to alter its shape. oil-in-water, a conventional solu-
Fluid, by strict definition, includes ble oil in which oil is dispersed in
both liquid and gas. a continuous phase of water; and
halogenated- A fluid composed of halogenated (2) water-in-oil, a dispersion of wa-
type organic materials and which may ter in a continuous phase of oil.
contain additional amounts of fluid power Power transmitted and controlled
other constituents. through use of a pressurized fluid.
hydraulic A fluid suitable for use in hydraulic fluid power A system that transmits and con-
systems. system trols power through use of a press-
organic ester- A fluid composed of esters of car- urized fluid within an enclosed cir-
type bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and cuit.
which may contain additional foam An intimate mixture of gas and liq-
amounts of other constituents.
uid occupying much more volume
petroleum- A fluid composed of petroleum hy- than the liquid alone.
type drocarbons and which may con- freezing point The temperature at which a fluid
tain additional amounts of other changes from liquid phase to solid
constituents. phase.
phosphate A fluid composed of phosphate es- friction Resistance to motion. Fluid friction
ester -type ters and which may contain addi- is that friction due to the viscosity
tional amounts of other constitu- of the fluid.
ents.
polyalky lene A fluid composed of polyalky- heat exhanger A device for transferring heat from
glycol- lene glycols or derivatives and a hot fluid to a cold one, without
type which may contain additional a- the two coming in contact with
mounts of other constituents. each other. When used as a fluid
silicate ester- A fluid composed of organic sili- cooler in a hydraulic system, it
cates and which may contain addi- may take the form of either a nest
type
tional amounts of other constitu- of pipes in a suitable container,
ents. through which coolant flows, or a
radiator.
silicone-type A fluid composed of silicones and
which may contain additional hose A flexible conduit for conveying
amounts of other constituents. fluid.
6-3
AMCP 706-123
hydraulic power A means of energy transmission in effectiveness of sealing increases

system which a relatively incompressible with the pressure.
liquid (hydraulic fluid) is used as oxidation A chemical reaction of oxygen with
an energy-transmitting medium. a liquid, resulting in the formation
hydropneumatic The combination of hydraulic and of oxidation products, which can
pneumatic power in a unit. cause changes in properties.
inhibitor Any substance which slows, pre- packing Any material or device used to pre-
vents, or modifies chemical reac- vent leakage. Packings, seals, and
tions such as corrosion or oxida- gaskets are often considered syn-
tion. onymous.
intensifier A device which increases the work- pilot line A tube or hose which conducts con-
ing pressure over that delivered by trol fluid.
a primary source. For example, piping All pipe, tubing, hose, and fittings.
such a device is one in which a low
pressure acts on a large piston di- piston ring A sealing ring which normally fits
rectly coupled to a smaller piston in grooves in the piston head.
which then produces a higher pres- poise The standard unit of absolute vis-
sure. cosity in the centimeter-gram-
isentropic Having the same properties in all second system. It is expressed in
directions. dyne seconds per square centime-
ter.
isothermal Describing a condition of constant
temperature. port An opening at a surface of a compo-
nent, e.g., the terminus of a pas-
leaching An operation in which the soluble sage. It may be internal or exter-
component of a solid phase is dis- nal.
solved and transferred to a liquid
solvent. pour point The lowest temperature at which a
liquid will flow under specific con-
motor A device for converting fluid energy ditions.
into mechanical motion.
pressure Force per unit area. It is usually
fixed A rotary motor in which the dis- expressed in pounds per square
displacement placement per revolution is fixed. inch.
oscillatory A rotary actuator giving an angular
movement of less than 360",some- absolute The sum of atmospheric and gage
times referred to as a rotary hy- pressure.
draulic actuator. atmospheric Pressure exerted by the atmosphere
rotary A motor producing continuous ro- at any specific location. Sea level
tary motion. atmospheric pressure is approxi-
mately 14.7 psia.
variable A rotary motor in which the dis-
displacement placement per revolution is adjust- operating The pressure at which a system is
able. operated.
neutralization A measure of the acidity or basicity static The pressure that exists if there is
number of a liquid. It is defined as milli- no motion in the liquid.
grams of potassium hydroxide re- suction The pressure of the liquid at the in-
quired to neutralize the acidity in let of a pump.
one gram of fluid or the equivalent
of the basicity expressed in a simi- pressure drop The amount of pressure difference
lar manner. or the pressure required to force
O-ring An endless packing ring of circular fluid through a component.
cross section normally mounted in pressure loss The fall in pressure due to hydraulic
a groove in such a manner that the friction in a component or circuit.
6-4
AMCP 706-123
Pressure losses at full flow are body at a lower temperature when

often appreciable; there is, how- the bodies are separated in space,
ever, none when flow ceases. even when a vacuum exists be-
A device which converts mechani- tween t hem.
cal energy into fluid energy. reservoir A container for fluid from which
axial piston A pump with a fixed volumetric the fluid is withdrawn and re-
constant output and with multiple pistons turned after circulation through
volume having their axis parallel to the the system. The reservoir may be
drive shaft. open to the atmosphere, or it may
be closed and pressurized.
axial piston An axial piston pump with an
variab1e adjustable controlled volumetric Reynolds A dimensionless number used in
volume output. number considerations of fluid flow and
given by the formula: R, =
centrifugal A pump having an impeller rotating (Velocity) (pipe diameter) /
in a housing with liquid carried Kinematic viscosity. When the
around the periphery of the hous- Reynolds number is below 2,000,
ing and discharged by means of laminar flow generally exists; at
centrifugal force. higher values, flow may be either
gear A pump having two or more inter- laminar or turbulent, but the
meshing gears or lobed members higher the value the less likely the
enclosed in a suitably shaped hous- flow will be laminar.
ing.
seal A material or device designed to
radial piston A pump with a fixed volumetric prevent leakage between parts,
constant output having multiple pistons moving or static.
volume disposed radially.
servomechanism Any mechanism which uses power
radial piston A radial piston pump with an magnification and in which there
variable adjustable volumetric output. is incorporated a means of relating
volume the speed and travel of the input
reciprocating A pump having reciprocating pis- and output.
tons to pressurize fluid. solenoid An electromagnet consisting of a
screw A pump having one or more screws wire-wound coil with a moving
rotating in a housing. plunger which moves when the
electric current is switched on.
two-stage A pump with two separate pumping
elements connected in a series. The specific gravity The ratio of the weight of a given
primary stage may be used to en- volume of fluid to the weight of an
sure that the second main stage is equal volume of water.
not starved for fluid, or it may pro- specific heat The heat required to raise a unit
duce much of the pressure rise weight one degree of temperature.
through the pump.
stability Resistance to permanent changes in
vane, constant A pump having a fixed volumet- properties under normal storage
volume ric output with multiple vanes and use conditions.
within a supporting rotor, encased
hydrolytic Resistance to permanent change in
in a cam ring.
properties caused by chemical
vane, variable A vane pump having suitable means reaction with water.
volume of changing the volumetric output. oxidation Resistance to permanent changes in
pump slippage Internal leakage in a pump from properties caused by chemical
outlet to inlet side. reaction with oxygen.
radiation The process by which heat flows thermal Resistance to permanent changes in
from a high-temperature body to a properties caused solely by heat.
6-5
AMCP 706-123
stoke The standard unit of kinematic vis- gate A valve with a gate which is raised
cosity in the centimeter-gram- or lowered by the action of a screw
second system. It is expressed in or other means to close or open the
square centimeters per second. flow passage.
strainer A filter made from wire mesh and globe A valve with a plug, ball, or disc,
capable of removing the larger par- which by action of a screw or other
ticles of solids from a fluid. means, is pulled away from or low-
switch, pressure A switch operated by pressure and ered into a corresponding seat to
used for (a) controlling pressure open or close the flow passage.
between predetermined limits, (b) needle A valve with a tapered needle which
starting or stopping a sequence is pulled away from or forced into
when a certain pressure is reached, a corresponding seat. The tapered
and (c) as a safety device. needle permits gradual opening or
thermostat A device for controlling tempera- closing of the passage.
ture either by switching on and off open center A valve which in the center position
an electric current or by opening connects all ports.
and closing a valve in a liquid line. pilot A valve applied to operate another
torque Force applied through a rotary path valve or control.
of motion. pilot-operated A valve in which operating parts
vacuum A pressure which is less than the are actuated by pilot fluid.
prevailing atmospheric pressure. poppet-type A valve construction which closes
valve A device for controlling flow rate, off flow by a poppet seating against
direction of flow, or pressure of a a suitable seating material. Nor-
liquid. mally considered a dead-tight seal.
cam-operated A valve in which the spool is posi- The poppet may be a ball, a cone,
tioned mechanically by a cam. or a flat disk.
check A valve which permits flow of fluid pressure A valve which maintains a reduced
in one direction only and self reducing pressure at its outlet regardless of
closes to prevent any flow in the the higher inlet pressure.
opposite direction. relief A valve which opens when a set
pressure is reached to prevent fur-
closed center A valve which in the center position
ther rise of pressure in a system or
has all ports closed.
to keep the pressure constant. The
directional A valve whose primary function is relief valve limits pressure which
to direct or prevent flow through can be applied to that portion of
selected passages. the circuit to which it is attached.
flow control A valve whose primary function is sequence A valve which directs flow to a sec-
to control flow rate. ondary portion of a fluid circuit in
flow dividing A valve which divides the flow from sequence. Flow is directed only to
a single source into two or more that part of the circuit which is
branches. connected to the primary or inlet
port of the valve until the pressure
flow dividing, A valve which divides the flow setting of the valve is reached. At
pressure from a single source into two or this time, the valve opens and pres-
compensating more branches at constant ratio, sure in the secondary port may
type regardless of the difference in the vary from zero to near the setting
resistances of the branches. of the primary side with no varia-
four-way A valve having four controlled tion in the primary pressure.
working passages, usually ending shuttle A connective valve which selects
in four external ports. one of two or more circuits because
G-6
AMCP 706-123
flow or pressure changes between minimum. As the velocity in-

the circuits. creases at the Venturi throat, the
solenoid- A valve which is operated by one or pressure decreases appreciably.
operated more solenoids. Venturi tubes are often used as
flow meters, the difference of pres-
spool-type A valve construction using a spool sure between the entrance to the
consisting of undercuts or recesses Venturi and the throat varying as
on a cylinder of metal. The spool is the square of flow.
fitted in a bore containing annular
viscometer A device for measuring viscosity.
undercuts. Movement of the spool
in the bore connects ports uncov- viscosity A measure of the internal friction or
ered by the spool undercuts. the resistance of a fluid to flow.
three-position A valve having three positions to absolute The force required to move a plane
give three selections of flow condi- surface over another plane surface
tions. at the rate of one centimeter per
three-way A directional control valve having second when the surfaces are one
three distinctive external working centimeter square and are sepa-
connections. rated by a layer of fluid one centi-
two-position A valve having two positions to give meter in thickness. This force is
two selections of flow conditions. known as the poise.
two-way A directional control valve having kinematic The ratio of absolute viscosity to
two distinctive external working the density of a fluid. The unit of
connections. kinematic viscosity is the stoke.
unloading A valve which allows pressure to Viscosity in stokes, multipled by
build up to an adjustable setting, density at the test temperature
then bypasses the flow as long as equals the absolute viscosity in
the preset pressure is maintained poise.
on the pilot port by a remote Saybolt Saybolt Universal Second viscosity
source. Its primary function is to Universal is the time in seconds'required for
unload a pump. Seconds 60 cc of liquid to flow through a
time delay A valve in which the change of flow (SUV standard orifice at a given tem-
occurs only after a desired time in- perature.
terval has elapsed. Viscosity Index A measure of the viscosity-tempera-
vapor pressure The pressure exerted by a material (V.1.) ture characteristics of a fluid as re-
under consideration at a specified ferred to that of other fluids.
temperature. volatility The property of a fluid describing
venturi A local contraction in a pipe which the degree to which it will vaporize
is shaped so that the loss of pres- under given conditions of tempera-
sure due to friction is reduced to a ture and pressure.
6-7
INDEX
Index Terms Links
absolute viscosity 3-2

accumulators 2-21
pneumatic-loaded 2-22 2-23
spring-loaded 2-22 2-23
weight-loaded 2-22
selection considerations 2-23
accuracy 1-5
acid number
strong 3-71
total 3-71
actuators 2-9
cushioned 2-11
cylinder 2-10
kinematics of 2-11
linear 2-9
mounting configurations 2-11
noncushioned 2-11
nonrotating 2-9
piston or plunger 2-9
rod type 2-10
rotating 2-9
tandem 2-10
actuator, rotary 2-9 2-14
actuators, valve 2-31
cam 2-31
manual 2-31
pilot fluid 2-32
servomechanism 2-32
Spring 2-31
additives 3-60 5-1
antirust 3-60
antiwear 3-60 5-8 5-9
for aryl ether fluids 5-10
for mineral oils and esters 5-9
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

Index Terms Links
additives (Cont.)
for silicone fluids 5-9
hydrolytic inhibitors 5-10
pour point depressants 5-10
seal degradation retardants 5-10
AIT 3-27
alkalinity 3-70
alky aIyl phosphate ester 4-7
Almen tester 3-61
antioxidants 5-1
classes of 5-2
for esters 5-2
for ethers 5-3
for highly refined mineral oils 5-3
for silicon containing fluids 5-3
mode of action 5-1
synergistic effect 5-2
antiwear additives 3-60 5-8 5-9
API Gravity 3-40
Aroclor 4-9
ASTM Color 3-70
ASTM slope 3-9
autoignition temperature 3-27
availability 1-6
axial-piston motors 2-16
axial-piston pumps 2-6
back-pressure valve 2-27

baffles 2-19
balanced vane pump 2-6
base number 3-71
strong base number 3-71
total base number 3-71
bellows pump 2-8
bench tests 3-41
beverage bottle test 3-74
Bingham pycnometer 3-41
biocides 5-11
bladders 2-23

Index Terms Links
blends, viscosity of 3-14

boiling point 3-32
boundary lubrication 3-57 3-58 5-8
bulk modulus 1-6 3-44 3-45
estimation of 3-49
isentropic secant 3-46
isentropic tangent 3-46
isothermal secant 3-45
isothermal tangent 3-46
secant 3-45
tangent 3-46
Buna S rubber 3-85
butyl rubber 3-85
butadiene rubber 3-85
by-pass reliefs 2-19
calibration, viscometer 3-8

Cannon-Fenske viscometer 3-7 3-8
Cannon-Master viscometer 3-8
capillary viscometer 3-6 3-7
casteroils 4-6 4-10
cavitation 3-18 3-54
damage 3-81 3-82
factors causing 3-82
general 3-81 1-2
inhibitors 5-10
Cellulube (FRYQUEL) 4-8
centipoise 3-3
centistoke 3-3
centrifuge 1-7
check valves 2-6 2-28
chemical corrosion 3-75
chemical stability 3-65
chloroprene rubber 3-85
chlorosulfonated polyethylene 3-85
circuits, fluid power 1-2
circuit, rotary liquid motor 2-2
classification 4-1
chemical properties 4-1

Index Terms Links
classification (Cont.)
fire resistance 4-2
operating characteristics 4-2
physical properties 4-1
'I'ypes I-VI 4-2
viscosity 4-1
Cleveland open cup 3-22
cloud point 3-20
significance 3-22
test for 3-21
coatings, containers 6-1
coefficient of friction 3-57 3-61
coefficient of cubical expansion 3-40
coefficient, viscosity-temperature 3-11
coke 3-72
color 3-70
color-indicator titration 3-71
compatibility 1-4 2-21 3-79
test for 3-94
with additives 3-96
with metals 3-80
with other lubricants 3-93 5-1
with paints 3-93
with solid film lubricants 3-95
compressibility 1-5 3-44
compression ignition tests 3-26
conduction 2-35
Conradson test 3-72
containers 6-1
coating 6-1
liners 6-1
marking 6-1
materials 6-1
sizes 6-1
storage 6-1
contaminants 6-3
dust 6-3
lint 6-3
liquids 6-6
microbiological 6-7

Index Terms Links
contaminants (Cont.)
particles 6-6
sources 6-3
types 6-5
water 6-5
contamination 1-7
automatic counting 6-9
effect on oxidation 3-66
effects 6-8
hydraulic fluids 1-7 6-8
liquid 6-10
measurement 6-9 6-10
microbiological 6-7
sedimentation 3-56
weighing of 6-10
controls, directional 2-2
pressure 2-2
convection 2-35
conversion units, viscosity 3-3 3-8
cooling systems 2-36
air-cooled 2-37
water-cooled 2-37
corrosion 3-67 3-75 3-81
cause of metal fatigue 3-81
chemical 3-75
copper strip test 3-76
corrosion-fog cabinet test 3-76
electrochemical 3-75
metal-liquid test 3-76
oxidation-corrosion 3-72 3-74 5-1
protection-salt spray test 3-76
corrosion inhibitors 5-4
limitations of 5-4
mode of action 5-4
volatile corrosion inhibitors 5-5
couplings 2-9 2-39
crescent seal motors 2-14
crescent, seal pumps 2-4
crystdization 3-56
cushioned actuators 2-11

Index Terms Links
cylinder-type actuators 2-10
deactivators, metal 5-2

demulsifiers 5-7 5-8
density 3-35 3-36
pressure dependence 3-36
temperature dependence 3-36
di-2-ethylhexyl sebacate 5-2 5-4
diaphragm pump 2-8
dilatant fluid 3-5
diluted pour point 3-21
Dornte oxidation test 3-73
elastomers 3-83
compatibility with seals 3-79 3-83
materials 3-84
test for compatibility 3-92
electrochemical corrosion 3-75
electronic equipment coolant 4-5
emulsifiers 5-7 5-8
emulsions 1-7 3-51 3-52 4-2
4-7
energy 1-1
Engler 3-3 3-4
esters 5-2
organic acid 4-5 4-10
phosphate 4-2 4-3 47 4-10
silicate 4-2 4-5 4-10
ethers 5-9
polyphenyl 3-66 3-69 4-2 4-9
4-10
ethylene propylene rubber 3-85
evaporation 3-33 3-34 3-35 3-73
evaporation-oxidation tests 3-73
explosions 6-12
extreme pressure 3-59
additives 5-8 5-9

Index Terms Links
Falex tester 3-61

fatigue 3-81
film strength 3-59
filters 1-7 2-19
absorbent 2-20
adsorbent 2-20
cleaning and replacement 2-21
compatibility 2-21
mechanical 2-19
pressure drop 2-21
fire point 3-22 3-24
fire resistance 3-28 4-2
emulsions 3-28
synthetics 3-28
water-glycol 3-28
fittings 2-37 1-4
flammability 3-22
tests for 3-24
flapper valve 2-24
flash point 3-22 3-24
flow-dividing valves 2-24 3-31
fluids, non-Newtonian 3-4
fluid power 1-2
circuits 2-2
generation 1-2
uses 1-3
fluorocarbon rubber 3-85
fluorolube 4-9
fluorosilicone rubber 3-87
foam 3-51
foaming tendency 3-52
foam stability 3-52
test for 3-52
foam inhibitors 5-1 5-7
mode of action 5-7
types of 5-7
fog cabinet 3-76
four-ball tester 3-62
Fouriers Law 2-35

Index Terms Links
free radical acceptors 5-2

freezing point 3-20
FRYQUEL (Cellulube) 4-8
fuze, hydraulic 2-28
gas solubility 3-54

gas turbine lubricant 4-5
gear fatigue tests 3-64
gear pumps 2-3
gear motors 2-14
gelIing 3-56
gerotor motor 2-14
gerotor pump 2-4
globe valve 2-30
glossary G-1
glycols 4-5 4-10
polyalkylene 4-2 4-6
polyoxyallcylene 4-6
polyoxyethylene 4-6
polyoxypropylene 4-6
water 4-6
halogenated fluids 4-8

handling 1-6
compatibility 6-12
explosions 6-12
fire 6-12
health hazards 6-11
poisoning 6-11
precautions 6-11
heat exchangers 2-35
air-cooled 2-37
watercooled 2-37
heat transfer 2-35 3-42
conduction 2-35
convection 2-35
radiation 2-35
heat transfer coefficient 2-36

Index Terms Links
heat-transfer fluid 4-5

helical gear pumps 2-4
herringbone gear pumps 2-4
heterocyclic compounds 4-9
high-pressure spray ignition 3-24
hot manifold spray ignition 3-24
Houghto-Safe 4-8
hydraulic fluids 1-4
classification 4-1
Specification fluids
JAN-F-461 4-48 4-49
VV-B-680a 4-48 4-52 4-53
VV-L-800 4-10 4-11
VV-D-001078 4-44 4-45
MIL-L-21CMB 4-10 4-12
MIL-H-5559A 4-44 4-46
MIL-H-5606B 4-13 4-14
MIL-H-6083C 4-13
MIL-L-6085A 2-35 4-39
MIL-L-7808G 4-40 4-41
MIL-H-8446B 4-35 4-38
MIS-10137 4-13 4-16
MIS-10150 4-17 4-18
MIL-L-10295A 4-17 4-19
MIL-H-l3866B 4-17 4-20
MIL-H-l3910B 4-48 4-50 4-51
MIL-H-l3919B 4-21 4-22
MIL-F-17111 4-21 4-23 4-59 4-69
MIL-L-17331F 4-21 4-24
MIL-L-17672B 4-21 4-25
MIL-H-l9457B 4-35 4-37
MIL-L-21260A 4-26 4-27
MIL-H-22072A 4-48 4-54
MIL-L-23699A 4-40 4-42
MIL-F-25598 4-26 4-28
MIL-H-27601A 4-26 4-27 4-28
MIL-L-45199A 4-26 4-30
MIL-H-46001A 4-31 4-32
MIL-L-46002 4-31 4-33
MIL-H-46004 4-31 4-34

Index Terms Links
hydraulic fluids (Cont.)

MIL-P-46046A 4-44 4-47
MIL-H-81019 4-35 4-36
MIL-S-81087A 4-40 4-43
hydraulic fluid stability 1-5
hydraulic fluid types 4-1
hydraulic fuze 2-28
hydraulic power 1-1
hydraulic system types 4-2
hydrocarbons 4-2 4-8
hydrodynamic lubrication 3-57 5-8
hydrolytic inhibitors 5-10
hydrolytic stability 3-67 3-74
hydrometer 3-41
impurities 5-5
incendiary gun fire test 3-26
inhibitors
cavitation 5-11
corrosion 5-1 5-4 5-5 5-15
foam 5-1 5-7
hydrolytic 5-10
oxidation 5-1
insoluble material formation 1-6
instrument lubricant 4-5
intensifiers 2-17
isoprene 3-85
jet-pipe valves 2-24
Kel-F 4-8
kinematic viscosity 3-3 3-6 3-7
lacquer formation 1-6

leaching 5-5
liners, container 6-1
Lipkin pycnometer 3-40

Index Terms Links
liquid containers 6-1

liquid contamination 6-10
Karl Fischer test 6-11
test for water 6-11
liquidmetals 4-2 4-9
liquid springs 2-44
liquids, non-Newtonian 3-4
loadcarIying tests 3-64
aircraft turbine lubricant 3-64
lubricating oils 3-64 1-6
oils at 400 F 3-64
steam turbine oils 3-64
load-dividing valves 2-27
loss coefficients 2-39
low-pressure spray ignition 3-24
low-temperature stability 3-55
low-temperature properties 3-18
lubrication 3-57
boundary 3-57 3-58
extreme pressure 3-59
hydrodynamic 3-57
lubricity 1-5 3-59 5-8
lubricity additives 5-1 5-9
marking, hydraulic fluid containers 6-1

abbreviations 6-3
cautions 6-3
colors 6-2
materials 6-2
microbiological contamination 6-7
mineral oils 3-66 4-2 5-3
motors 1-3 2-2
crescent seal 2-14
gear 2-14
gerotor 2-14
piston, axial 2-16
piston, radial 2-17
piston, rotary 2-17
rotary 2-14

Index Terms Links
spur gear 2-14

vane 2-15
natural rubber 3-85

needle valves 2-30
neutralization number 3-70
by color-indicator titration 3-71
by potentiometric titration 3-71
Newtonian fluids, definition 3-4
nitrile rubber 3-85
non-Newtonian fluids 3-4
dilatant 3-5
plastic 3-4
pseudoplastic 3-4
rheopectic 3-5
thixotropic 3-5
noncushioned actuators 2-11
nonrotating actuators 2-9
oiliness 3-59
organic acid esters 4-5 4-10
organic oils 4-6
orientation viscosity loss 5-6
orifice 3-7
Ostwald viscometer 3-8
oxidation-corrosion test 3-72 3-76
oxidation inhibitors 5-1
oxidation stability 3-65 3-68 3-72 3-73
Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Tester 3-23

perfluorinated liquids 4-9
perfluoroalkylesters 4-2
petroleum base liquids 4-3 4-7 4-10
phosphateesters 4-2 4-3 4-7 4-10
phosphonitrilates 4-9
pintle 2-7 2-17

Index Terms Links
pipe cleaner evaporation test 3-27

piping 2-38
couplings 2-75
fittings 2-39
piston pumps 2-6
piston-type actuators 2-9
plastic fluid 3-4
pneumatic-loaded accumulators 2-23
pneumatic power 1-1
poise 3-3
poisoning 6-11
polar fluids 5-5
polyacrylic rubber 3-85
polyalkylene glycol 4-2 4-6
polyethers 4-6
polyglycols 4-5
polyisoprene 3-85
polyoxyalkylene glycols 4-6 4-10
polyoxyethylene glycols 4-6
polyphenyl ethers 3-66 3-69 4-2 4-9
4-10
polysiloxanes 4-5 4-8 4-10
polysulfide 3-85
polyurethane 3-85
poppet valves 2-23 2-24 2-29
port plates 2-6
position valves 2-28
positive-displacement metering valves 2-31
potentiometric titration 3-71
pour point 3-20 3-21 3-22
depressants 5-10
power transmission 1-1
precautions 6-11
pressurecompensated valves 2-30
pressure controls 1-3
pressure drop 2-38 3-6
pressure surges 2-39
pressure switch 2-28

Index Terms Links
properties
low-temperature 3-18
lubrication 3-57
physical 3-2
viscosity-pressure 3-14
viscosity-temperature 3-8
pseudoplastic fluid 3-4
pumps 2-3
axial-piston 2-6
balancedvane 2-12
bellows 2-8
crescent seal 2-4
diaphragm 2-8
external gear 2-3
gerotor 2-4
helical gear 2-4
herringbone gear 2-4
internal gear 2-4
piston 2-6
radial-piston 2-7
reciprocating 2-3
rotary 2-3
rotating piston 2-7
screw 2-8
spur gear 2-3
unbalanced vane 2-5
vane 2-5 2-15
pump tests 3-63
Pydraul 4-8
radial-piston motors 2-17

radid-piston pumps 2-7
radiation 2-36
radiation-resistance 3-68 3-74
Ramsbottom test 3-72
recoil mechanisms 3-38
Redwood viscosity 3-3
reflux tests 3-74
regulator valves 2-28

Index Terms Links
Reid vapor pressure 3-32

relief valves 2-2 2-26 2-27
reservoir 2-2 2-18
response speed 1-5
reverse flow viscometer 3-8
reyn 3-3
Reynolds number 3-6
rheopectic fluid 3-5
rod-type actuators 2-10
rotary actuator 2-19
rotary fluid motor 2-14
rotary-piston motor 2-17
rotating piston pumps 2-7
rust inhibitors 5-4
Ryder gear machine 3-64
SAE tester 3-63

Saybolt Furol viscosity 3-3
Saybolt Universal viscosity 3-3 3-7 3-9
Saybolt viscometer 3-7
scission 3-18
seal degradation retardants 5-10
seating valves 2-24
secant bulk modulus 3-45
sedimentation 3-56
separation 3-56
sequence valves 2-27
servo valves 3-68
shearing stress 3-2
shock absorbers 2-39 2-44
hydraulic 2-40
hydropneumatic 2-41
liquid spring 2-44
relevant fluid properties 2-44
shuttle valves 2-29
short tube viscometer 3-6
silicate esters 4-2 4-5 4-10
silicones 3-66 3-69 3-87 4-2
4-5 5-3

Index Terms Links
silicone rubber 3-87

Skydrol 4-8
sliding-spool valves 2-24
slope, ASTM 3-9
solid film lubricants 3-95
sohbility, gas 3-54
sonic bulk modulus 3-46 3-48
specific gravity 3-38 3-40 3-41
specific heat 3-42
spray ignition tests 3-24
spur gear pumps 2-3
spring-loaded accumulators 2-22
stability
chemical 3-65
hydrolytic 3-67 3-74
low-temperature 3-55
oxidation 3-65 3-72 3-73
thermal 3-66 3-73
stable pour point 3-21
steam turbine oxidation test 3-72
stoke 3-3
storage 1-6 6-1
streamline flow 3-4
strong acid number 3-71
suspended level viscometer 3-8
symbols 1-2 1-3
synergistic effect 5-2
tag closed cup tester 3-22

tandem actuators 2-10
tangent bulk modulus 3-46
temperature 1-4
temperature-viscosity charts 3-9
temporary viscosity loss 5-6
tertiary phosphate esters 4-7
testers, friction and wear 3-61
Amen 3-61
Falex 3-61
four-ball 3-62

Index Terms Links
testers, friction and wear (Cont.)

SAE 3-63
Timken 3-61
thermal conductivity 3-42
thermal energy 2-35
thermal expansion 3-40
thermal stability 3-66 3-73
thermal stability test 3-73
thin flim oxidation tests 3-73
thixotropic fluid 3-5
thixotropic viscosity loss 5-6
thrust cam 2-6 2-17
thrust ring 2-17
time-delay valves 2-30
Timken tester 3-61
total acid number 3-71
total base number 3-71
toxicity 1-6
transducer 2-32
transmission, fluid 2-17
trialkyl phosphate ester 4-8
triaryl phosphate ester 4-8
turbidity 3-56
turbulent flow 3-6
unbalanced vane pump 2-5

unloading valve 2-26
valves 1-2 2-24

actuation 2-31
cam 2-31
manual 2-31
pilot fluid 2-32
servomechanism 2-32
solenoid 2-31
Spring 2-31
design 2-33
directional-control 2-28

Index Terms Links
valves (Cont.)
flow-dividing 2-24
pressure-control 2-26
back-pressure 2-27
hydraulic fuze 2-28
load-dividing 2-27
pressure switch 2-28
regulator 2-28
relief 2-26
sequence 2-27
unloading 2-26
seating 2-24
sliding-spool 2-24
symbols for 1-6
volume control 2-30
vapor pressure 3-32
viscometers 3-6
calibration 3-8
Cannon-Fenske 3-7 3-8
Cannon-Master 3-8
capillary 3-6
glass 3-8
kinematic 3-8
Ostwald 3-8
reverse-flow 3-8
Saybolt 3-7
suspended-level 3-8
viscosity 1-4 3-2
absolute 3-2
blends 3-14
definition 3-2
Engler 3-3
kinematic 3-3 3-6 3-7
non-Newtonian materials 3-5
Redwood 3-3
Saybolt Furol 3-3
Saybolt Universal 3-3 3-7 3-9
significance 1-4
Viscosity Index (V.I.) 3-11 3-13

Index Terms Links
Viscosity Index improvers 5-1 5-6

mode of action 5-6
solubility 5-6
susceptibility to shear 5-6
types 5-6
viscosity loss 3-16
viscosity-pressure properties 3-14
viscosity-shear characteristics 3-16 3-18
viscosity stability, low temperature 3-56
viscosity-temperature
ASTM charts 3-9 3-13
coefficient 3.11
viscosity, unit conversions 3-3 3-8
viscour flow 3-4 3-6
volatility 3-28
volume controls 1-3
Wdther equation 3-9

water 3-51
water-base liquids 4-2
water glycols 3-28 4-6 4-10
weapon lubricant 4-5
wear, prevention 3-60
wear rate, 3-60
weight-loaded accumulators 2-22
wobble plate 2-6 2-17

Engineering Design Handbook - Hydraulic Fluids

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Engineering Design Handbook - Hydraulic Fluids

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What types of hydraulic pumps are discussed in the document?

What types of hydraulic pumps are discussed in the document?

What types of linear actuators are described?

What types of linear actuators are described?

AMC PAMPHLET A

HEAD llART ERS, U. S. ARMY MAT ER IE 1 C 0 M MA ND APRIL 1971

1-3 Graphic Symbol for a Hydraulic Oscillatory Device ................................. 1-3

2-2 Spur Gear Rotary Hydraulic Pump .............................................. 2.3

2-6 ................... 2-5

2-9 Balanced Vane Hydraulic Pump ................................................. 2.6

2-10 Axial-piston Hydraulic Pump .................................................. 2.6

2-13 Rotating Piston Hydraulic Pump ............................................... 2.7

2- 14 Two-rotor Screw Hydraulic Pump With Helical Gears............................... 2.8

2-15 TypicalBellowsPump ....................................................... 2.8

2-16 Typical Diaphragm Pump ..................................................... 2.9

2-17 Rotating Linear Actuator ..................................................... 2.9

2-18 Plunger-type Linear Actuator .................................................. 2.10

2-19 Telescoping Linear Actuator .................................................. 2.10

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (cont'd)

2-20 Double-acting Linear Actuator ................................................. 2.10

2-21 Stepped-tandem Linear Actuator ............................................... 2.11

2-22 Dual Linear Actuator ........................................................ 2.11

2-23 Cushioned Double-acting Linear Actuator ........................................ 2.11

2-24 Mounting Arrangements for Linear Actuators .................................... -2-12

2-25 Applications of Linear Actuators ............................................... 2.13

2-31 Typical Double-vane Actuator ................................................. 2.16

2-32 Helix-spline Rotary Actuator .................................................. 2.16

2-33 Piston-rack Rotary Actuator .................................................. 2.16

2-34 Diagram of a Hydraulic Intensifier Circuit ........................................ 2.18

2-35 Basic Configurations of Filter Assemblies ......................................... 2.20

2-31 Weight-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator ........................................... 2.22

2-38 Spring-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator ........................................... 2.22

2-39 Nonseparated Pneumatic-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator ............................. 2.22

240 Diaphragm-type Pneumatic-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator ........................... 2.23

2 41 Bladder-type Pneumatic-loaded Hydraulic Accumulator ............................. 2-23

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (cont'd)

2-42 Free-floating Piston, Pneumatic-loaded HydraulicAccumulator ....................... 2-23

2-43 Major Types of Sliding-spool Hydraulic Valve Configurations ......................... 2.25

2-44 Sketch of a Flapper Seating Valve .............................................. 2.25

2-45 Direct Spring-loadedPoppet-type Pressure Relief Valve .............................. 2.25

2-46 Jet-pipe Flow-dividing Valve .................................................. 2.26

2-47 Direct-acting Pressure-relief Valve .............................................. 2-26

2-48 Differential Pressure-relief Valve ............................................... 2.26

2-49 Pilot-operated Pressure-relief Valve ............................................. 2.27

2-50 Pilot-operated Unloading Valve ................................................ 2.27

2-51 Load-dividingvalve ......................................................... 2-27

2-52 Sequencevalve ............................................................ 2-27

2-53 Counterbalance Back-pressure Valve ............................................ 2.27

2-54 Pressure Reducing Valve (Constant Downstream Pressure) ............................ 2.28

2-55 Pressure Regulating Valve (Constant Pressure Differentiat) ........................... 2.28

2-56 Pressureswitch ............................................................ 2-28

2-57 Poppet-typecheckvalve ..................................................... 2.29

2-58 Pilot-operated Check Valve ................................................... 2.29

2-59 Mechanically Operated, Nonadjustable Deceleration Valve ........................... 2-29

2-60 '&ee-port Shuttle Valve ...................................................... 21-30

2-6 1 Time-delayvalve ........................................................... 2-30

2-62 Disk-type Globe Valve ....................................................... 2.30

LIST OF ILLdSTRATIONS (contd)

Fig. No. Title