Arabica Coffee Manual Myanmar

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Title:ArabicacoffeemanualforMyanmar...
Moredetails
ArabicacoffeemanualforMyanmar
Authors
EdwardWinston,JacquesOpdeLaak
TonyMarsh,HerbertLempke
OkkarAung,ThaungNyunt
KeithChapman

FAORegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacific,Bangkok
FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations
TableofContents
ArabicacoffeemanualforMyanmar
FirstpublishedAugust2005
NationalLibrary,Bangkokcataloguinginpublicationdata:
ISBN:9747946726
Includesindex
ArabicacoffeemanualforMyanmarEdwardWinston,JacquesOpdeLaak,TonyMarsh,Okkar
Aung,KeithChapman
CopyrightFAORegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacific,2005.
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Disclaimer
Thedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialinthispublicationdonotimplythe
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Government of Myanmar or the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,
territory,cityorareaofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.
Readersshouldnotethatalltheinformationcontainedinthisbookhasbeendevelopedforcoffee
growers in particular areas of Myanmar, and may not necessarily apply to other areas or other
countries.
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter1.Coffeeplant&siteselection
HistoryofcoffeeinMyanmar
Factorsaffectingyieldandquality
Genetics(Genotype)
Varietiestoplant
Environment(siteselection)
Temperature
Rainfallandwatersupply
Soiltype
Slopeandaspect(slope%anddirection)
Watersupply
Thecoffeeplantanditsmanagement
Therootsystem
Phenology(Cropcycle)
Chapter2.Nurserypractices
Startingthenursery
Selecttheseed
Keeprecords
Nurseryrecordbook
Nurserymanagementcalendar
Whentostartthenursery
Calculatetheamountofseedandthearearequired
Buildthenurseryshelterandbeds
Planttheseed
Transplantintobags
Preparepottingmixture
Nurserydiseasesandpests
Chapter3.Fieldmanagement&plantingtrees
Preparingthefield
Preparetheland
Plantwindbreaks
Establishshadetrees
Irrigation
Plantingthecoffeetrees
Whentoplant
Preparetheholes
Choosetheplants
Plantingprocedure
Fieldmanagementofyoungtrees
Protectfromfrost
Controlweedsandmulchplants
Waterplants
Chapter4.Nutrition&fertilisermanagement
Chapter5.Pruningandtreemanagement
Pruning
Desuckering
Rejuvenation(Changeofcroppingcycle)
Irrigation
Intercroppinginyoungcoffee
Chapter6.Harvestingandprocessing
Harvesting
Processingfreshcherry
Coffeeprocessingmethods
WashingprocessforArabicacoffee
Chapter7.Qualityassessment
Qualityassessment/improvement
Qualityevaluationprocess
Chapter8.Qualityandexportstandards
Understandingcoffeequalitystandards
QualityandOTAguidelines
Chapter9.Pestsanddiseases
Insectpests
Greencoffeescale
Aphids
Stemborers
Coffeeberryborer
Mealybug
Leafminer
Termites
Diseases
Nurserydiseases
Dampingoff
Cercosporaleafspot(browneyespot)
Fielddiseasesanddisorders
Cercospora(berryblotch&browneyespot)
Coffeeleafrust
Sootymould
Anthracnose
Overbearingordieback
Chapter10.NaturalenemiesandIPM
Mainpredators
Otherpredators
Chapter11.Myanmarcoffeemarketsurvey
Marketstrategyrecommendations
Coffeeproduction
Marketing
Internationalexports
Bordertrade
Coffeequalitypotential
MyanmarGovernmentStrategicCoffeeDevelopmentPlan
Chapter12.Myanmarcoffeeeconomics
ProductioncostsforArabicacoffee
Associatedinvestmentrisks
Crop/PhenologicalcycleforArabicacoffeeinMyanmar
FieldmanagementcalendarforArabicacoffeeinMyanmar
BackCover
Moredetails
Chapter1
Coffeeplant&siteselection
Doingthe'hardyards'Jacques,Tony,Keith
andTed(below)
FielddayforfarmersorganisedbyCRIETC
HistoryofcoffeeinMyanmar
MissionariesinitiatedcoffeegrowinginMyanmarin1885,asreportedbytheAgricultureBurma
Officein1940.Initially,inMergui(Myeik)andTavoy(Dawe),twocoffeeexperimentfarmswere
establishedbytheDepartmentofForestry,butthesewereterminatedwithinafewyears.Kayin
State (Nancho area) also established coffee farms at the same time. Separately, Karen
tribesmendevelopedandproducedRobustacoffee,whichstillcontinuestothepresentday.
Roman Catholic missionaries introduced Arabica coffee in 1930 to Southern Shan State,
Northern Shan State and in Pyin Oo Lwin (Maymyo). All of these areas still produce Arabica
coffeetoday.From1930to1934alarge,120acre,Arabicacoffeeplantationcalled'Chaungwe,'
was established at Naung Cho Township of Northern Shan State, and is still producing
commercial coffee to this day. By 1935/36, the total Myanmar coffee production was 268 tons
withimportsof175tons.Roastedgroundcoffeeproductionwas108tons.
From 1932 to 1936, Myanmar exported a total of 95 tons of coffee 60% was exported to the
MadrasPresidencyinIndia,31%tootherpartsofIndia,about7%totheUKandtheresttoother
countries.In1952,thesameChaungwegroupestablished60acresofArabicacoffee(mainlythe
S795variety),nearPyinOoLwininMandalayDivision.Theseplantingsremainuntilthepresent
day.
From1968to1994,IndustryMinistry1managedthecoffeestatefarms,largelytheChaungwe,
PyinOoLwin,PweDaungandBanbwefarms,whichweretakenfromtheprivatesector.In1971
thetotalcoffeeareawas6379acresandproductionwas859MT.InDecember1994thestate
coffeeindustrywashandedovertoMyanmarFarmEnterprises(MFE),whereitremainstothe
presentday.
In1987,theUnitedNationsDrugAbuseControlProgramme(UNDCP)supportedacoffeeproject
asadrugreplacementprogramme,inSouthernandNorthernShanStates.Whiletheprogramme
was largely unsuccessful, many households still have 10 to 20 coffee trees surviving today.
Again,mostareoftheS795variety.Goodqualitycoffeeisstillsourcedfromthesehouseholds
today, but yields are low and many coffee bushes suffer from coffee leaf rust and are not well
caredfor.
In collaboration with CRIETC, the FAO

Technical Cooperation Project that is
responsible for production of this manual, is
targeting some key aspects of this research,
developmentandextensionprocess.
Inthelate1980s,theGovernmentofMyanmar(GOM)commencedamajornationwidecoffee
plantingprogramme.NewvarietieswereintroducedfromCostaRica,withthreetonsofCatimor
andCatuaiseedimportedin1986.GOMincreasedthisexpansionofArabicacoffeeplantingsby
tripling annual targets to facilitate the eradication of opium poppy growing. There was a three
phasecampaignfirstphase1975to1981,thesecond1981to1986,andthethird1986to1991.
By 1984/85 the coffee growing area was about 10,000 acres with 86% consumed domestically
andthebalanceexported.During1977to1985,theaverageannualproductionwas1146MT.By
1986,productionhadrisento1417MTfrom10,100acres.
Theproductionareain2003/4totalled35,485acres.Manycoffeeplantingswerestillyoungas
coffeewaspromotedbyGOMinthepastfiveyears.In2003/4.Actualproductionwas3380MT
from15,351acres.
Northern Myanmar (Shan States, Mandalay Division, Chin State, Kachin State, Kayin State,
Bogo Division, Rakhine State, Mon State) have the potential to produce large amounts of high
qualityArabicacoffeebyvirtueoftheirgoodquality,redsoilplateausandothersuitablesoils,at
elevationsabove3300ft(1000m),withwelldistributedrainfallof59to79inches(1500to2500
mm) and a distinctive, essential dry season. Areas with these requirements are found at
approximately latitude 20 to 24N. For farmers in remote areas, coffee is an ideal crop which,
whenwellcaredfor,producesagoodincome,andbecausethecoffeeislargelynonperishable
androbust,ittransportseasilywithoutdamage.
Coffeemayalsobeplantedonslopinglandswithterracesorgrassstripsandcontourplanting.
Whengrownundershadeitissustainableoverlongperiodsevenwithlowinputs.Someofthe
earliest plantings of S 795 variety in Myanmar grown under Grevillearobusta shade trees, are
stillcapableofproducingreasonableyieldswithlowinputsafter75years.
In 2004, the GOM Heads of State laid down a strategy to extend cultivated areas of Arabica
coffeeupto100,000acres.Suitableareasof50,000acresinMandalayDivision(aroundPyinOo
Lwin) and Northern Shan State (around Naungcho) were selected. The projections were for
20,000acrestobeplantedin2004/05,40,000acresin2005/06and40,000acresin2006/07.At
the end of 2004/05, the total planting of coffee was 35,485 acres and the plan was revised in
2005 (see the table on page 80). Besides the planned areas for Northern Shan and Mandalay
Division, four large private companies plan to extend coffee planting over 30,000 acres in
SouthernShanState(YaksaukandIndaw/Kyakguareas).
Tosupporttheseprivatisationexpansions,largelybysmallholdersandlargerinvestors,GOMvia
MFEofferthefollowing:
Landsettlementconcessionsover25yearleasesatUS$18/acre.
TechnicalsupportinformationviaextensionandsupportfromthenewlyupgradedCoffee
ResearchInformationExtensionandTrainingCentre(CRIETC),establishednearPyinOo
Lwin with FAO help via a Technical Cooperation Project TCP/MYA/2903 over the period
2003to2005.
Coffeeandshadetreeseedlings.
Loanstoassistfarmestablishment.
Assistancewithlandpreparation/clearingandwatersupply.
Assistancewithfertilisersandfuelviasubsidy.
Upgrading.FAOhasassistedCRIETCwithupgradingthecentre
SomeofthelargerareasplantedinthelastthreetofouryearsdidnotfollowMFEadvice,and
have failed because low inputs were used, poor quality Catimor varieties from China and
elsewhere were planted and no established shade was provided. All coffee should be planted
undershadewithonlytherecommendedvarietiesforgivenlocations.
Myanmarisnowatacrossroadsinthecoffeeexpansionprogramme.However,withtherecent,
verysignificantinjectionofbetterproductiontechnologies,varietiesandnewprocessingmethods
wellsupportedbyresearch,informationextensionandtrainingfromCRIETCandvastlyimproved
world coffee prices, Myanmar is well placed to capitalise on the production of high quality
Arabicas for the world market. Recent support from FAO to CRIETC and assistance with
marketing,astrategicvisionfortheindustry,andstepstocreateaMyanmarCoffeeAssociation
andcoffeequalitystandardsforexport,willhelpensuresuccess.
Updated real costings for establishment of new coffee plantings and cash flows as the crop
grows are provided in this manual (see Chapter 12) to assist the development process by
providingpotentialplanterswithgooddataonwhichtobasebusinessplansforinvestment.Data
willbeoutofdateaftertwotothreeyears,butwillprovideabasisforrecalculationsasafuture
guideforcostings,cashflowsandcalculatingratesofreturnoninvestment.
Factorsaffectingyieldandquality
Therearethreefactorswhichimpactoncoffeeyieldandquality.
Genetics(genotypespeciesandvarietiestoplant)
Genetics(Genotype)
There are two main species of commercial coffee Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora
(robusta)andtwominorspeciesCoffealibericaandCoffeaexcelsa.
Arabicaisahigherqualityandhighervaluecoffeenormallygrownincooler,elevatedareasof
thetropicsandsubtropicsat3300feet(1000m)ormoreabovesealevel.Arabicaisusedinthe
roastandgroundcoffeemarketandisaddedtoblendsofRobustatoimprovequalityofinstant
coffee.BrazilandColumbiaarethemajorproducingcountries.
Robustaislowerqualityandpricesarenormallyabout30to40%lessthanArabica.Robustais
normally grown in warmer areas at lower elevations, up to approximately 3300 feet (1000 m).
Robustaisusedmainlyininstantcoffee.Vietnam,BrazilandIndonesiaarethelargestRobusta
producing countries. Compared with Arabica, Robusta is generally more vigorous, more
productiveandconsideredresistant/toleranttoleafrust.
LibericaandExcelsa are grown mainly in low, hot climate areas. Quality is poor and markets
are limited. These coffees are of local importance in a few countries and not of commercial
significanceintheinternationalcoffeemarket.
ForArabica,theimprovementofgenotypeisachievedbyproperchoiceofvariety(cultivar).The
varietyofchoiceshouldideallyhavethefollowingcharacteristics:
dwarfishorcompactgrowth
highyield
leafrustresistance
outstandingcupquality.
Varietiestoplant
Coffee is a longterm crop with a lifespan of more than 10 years, and very much longer under
goodmanagement,thusthechoiceofvariety(cultivar)isveryimportant.Asqualityofthecoffee
beanisimportant,chooseonlyvarietiesthatarerecommendedforyourarea.Thesewillbethe
bestyielding,bestqualityvarietiesthatwillgrowproductivelyinthelocalsoilsandclimate.
For Northern Shan State, Southern Shan State and Mandalay division, the recommended
Arabicavarietiesare:
Highelevation:above3300feet(1000m)S795andCatimor
Lowelevation:2600to3300feet(800to1000m)Catimor
ThereareanumberofCatimorvarietiesinMyanmar,howevermanyarenottrueCatimorsand
shouldnotbeplanted.ThepreferredCatimorselectionsatpresentare:
CostaRica(T5175andT8667lines)and
H528(redline,nottheyellowline)
Excelsia
Coffeacongensis
Caturrared
OthervarietiesarebeingtestedbyCRIETCatPyinOoLwinandBanbwe.CRIETCwilladvisein
the future which are suitable for planting after trials and cupping tests are completed. Varieties
introducedandbeingheldatCRIETCinclude:
S 795 CatimorP86
(existing
standard)
SL28 CatimorP88
SL34
CatimorP90
SL6
CatimorH306
SL14
CatimorC1669
Caturrared
CatimorLC1662
K7
Catuaired CatimorT8667
Catuaired CatimorT8667
Blue CatimorT5175
Mountain
Mundo OthervarietiesthatshouldbeconsideredareJavaandimprovedS
Novo 795(fromE.Java,Indonesia),HibridodeTimorandBourbon.
Catimor H
528
Catimor H
528/46
Catimor H
420/9
Typica
Varietydescriptions
S795
Origin: AlongestablishedvarietyinMyanmar.SelectionfromBalehonnurcoffeestationin
India. Cross between S 288 and Kent. S 288 is the first generation of S 26, a
naturalhybridbetweenC.arabicaandC.liberica.

Growth Talluprightandopen
habit:
Yield: Low
Rust Susceptible, but can be tolerant if constantly selected as has been done in
resistance: Indonesia. Tolerance comes from Liberica genes which often convey more
persistenttolerancetorustthangenesfromRobusta,asfoundinCatimors.
Cupping Excellent.
quality:
Comment: DoesnotexhibitanyLibericacharacteristics.

SL28
Origin: BourbonselectionfromKenya.Introduced2004.
Growth Tall,uprightandopen.
habit:
Yield: Moderatetogood.
Rust Verysusceptible.
resistance:
Cupping Good.
quality:
Comment: Largebeansize,droughttolerant.

SL34
Origin: Kenya a French Mission selection. Some present at Banbwe reintroduced in
2004.
habit:
resistance:
Cupping Good.
Cupping Good.
quality:
Comment: Largebeansize,droughttolerant.

SL6
Origin: Kenyaintroduced2004.
habit:
Rust ResistancetoRaceIIrust.
resistance:
Cupping Good.
quality:
Comment: Largebeansize.

SL14
Origin: Kenyaintroduced2004.
habit:
Yield: Moderate.
resistance:
Cupping Fairtogood.
quality:

Caturra
Origin: BourbonmutantfromBrazil.Introducedinthe1950stoMyanmar.
Growth Semidwarf,dense.
habit:
Yield: Good.
resistance:
Cupping Fair.
quality:
Comment: Bothredandyellowtypesexist,diebackproblemsifmanagementispoor.

K7
Origin: KenyaaFrenchMissionselection,andaderivativeofKent.Introduced2004.
Growth Tall,spreading.
habit:
Yield: Good.
Rust ReportedresistanttoRaceIIrust.
resistance:
Cupping Good.
quality:

Catuai
Origin: Introducedin2004.CrossbetweenCaturraandMundoNovo.
Growth Semidwarf,dense.
habit:
Yield: Veryhigh.
resistance:
Cupping Good.Goodbeansize.
quality:
Comment: Latermaturing.Toleratespoormanagement.

Blue
Mountain
Origin: Originally from Amsterdam progeny eventually taken to the Blue Mountains,
Jamaicain1730.
Growth Tallandopen.
habit:
resistance:
Cupping Verygood.
quality:
Comment: Suitable to higher and colder situations degree of resistance to coffee berry
disease(Colletotrichumcoffaenum).

Mundo
Novo
Origin: CrossbetweenTypica(Sumatra)andBourbonVermelho(Brazil)in1943.
Growth Veryvigoroustallandopen.
habit:
Yield: Verygood.
Rust Susceptible.
resistance:
Cupping Good.
quality:
Comment: Bold,largebeansize.

Java
Origin: Notknown.
Growth Upright,openmediumvigour.
habit:
Yield: Moderate.
Rust Medium.
resistance:
Cupping Verygood.
quality:
Comment: Verylongnarrowbean.

Hibrido de
Timor
Origin: From cross between C. arabica and C. canephora, discovered in 1927 in East
Timor.
Growth Verytallstrongrootsystem.
habit:
Yield: Lowhighlyvariablewithlargeamountofabnormalbeans.
Rust Good.
resistance:
Cupping Poor.
quality:
Comment: Hardy will tolerate drought. Resistant to coffee berry disease (Colletotrichum
coffaenum).

Bourbon
Origin: Originally from the Ethiopian highlands, it was taken to the island of Bourbon
(Reunion) in 1718. Via Latin America, the progeny reached Kenya and Uganda
about1900.
Growth Compact,uprightbranches
habit:
Yield: Mediumtohigh.
Rust Veryresistanttoallracesofleafrust.
resistance:
Cupping VerygoodbetterthanTypica.
quality:
Comment: MorehardythanTypica.

Catimor
Origin: AcrossbetweenCaturraandHybridodeTimor(HDT).HybridodeTimorisanatural
cross between Arabica and Robusta from East Timor. Catimors of various types
andoriginshavebeenintroducedtoMyanmarinrecentyears.Improvedtypeswere
introduced2004.
Growth Semidwarfcompact.
habit:
Yield: Veryhighwithcorrectmanagement.Lowyieldandwilldiewithpoormanagement,
especiallyifnoshadeispresent.
Rust Resistanttoallracesofrustprovidedcarefulselectionismaintained.
resistance:
Cupping Fair.
quality:
Comments: Since the rapid spread of coffee rust in the 1970s to 1990s, there has been a
concertedinternationalefforttodevelopCatimorduetoitsrustresistance.
Varietycollections.CRIETC(aboveandright)
Both the government and private sectors have encouraged the planting of Catimor due to
potentially high yield and rust resistance. There are already a number of Catimor 'selections'
(Costa Rica, Vietnam, Yunnan, 7963 and Laos) planted in Myanmar. The true identity of some
existing Catimors is in doubt. True Catimors do not show coffee rust, however, the Yunnan
Catimorinparticular,doeshaverust.
A disadvantage is small bean size and poorer cupping quality of the initial Catimors and the
tendencyoftheplanttooverproduceandthussufferseverediebackanddeath.
InrecentyearsanumberofcountrieshavebegunbreedingprogrammestobackcrossCatimor
to pure Arabica lines to improve cupping quality and plant growth. Not all Catimors have the
samecuppingqualityandworkiscurrentlyunderwaytodeterminethemostsuitablevarietiesfor
Myanmar.CatimorscurrentlybeingevaluatedatCRIETCincludethefollowing:
Catimor H AbackcrossbetweentheearlyCatimorHW26(CaturraxHDT832/1)andCatuai
528 Amarillo(yellow).
Catimor H SpecialselectionfromThailandprogramme.
528/46
Catimor H A backcross between the early Catimor HW 26 and Mundo Novo. Special
420/9 selectionfromThailandprogramme.
Catimor P OriginallyfromColumbia.
86
88
90
Catimor H AbackcrossbetweentheearlyCatimorHW26andSL28).
306
Catimor C (CatimorxVillaSarchi).VillaSarchiisamutantfromCostaRica.Semidwarf.
1669
Catimor LC HDT832/1xCaturrafromBrazil.
1662
Catimor T FromCostaRica.
8667
Catimor T FromCostaRica.
5175
To grow and produce good quality coffee several important environmental factors need to be
taken into account. These include elevation and temperature, rainfall and water supply, soil,
aspectandslope.
Elevation
Elevationinfluencesanumberofthesefactorsandmustbeconsideredalongwithtemperature,
rainfallandwatersupply,soil,slopeandaspectwhendeterminingwheretoplantcoffee.
Anelevationgreaterthan3300feet(1000m)abovesealevelisrequiredforArabicacoffee.Low
elevation Arabica coffee does not possess the quality required by the world markets. In
Myanmar, based on cup tests, areas above 3300 feet should be selected at the present time
whenthereisplentyofgoodlandavailable.Forpremiumcoffee,areasabove4265ft(1300m)
clearlyproducesuperiorqualitycoffee.
Highelevationimprovesthequalityofthebeanandpotentialcuppingquality.Duetoadelayin
ripening brought about by cooler weather associated with higher altitudes, the inherent
characteristicsofacidity,aromaandboldbeancandevelopfully.Boldbeanisclassifiedasbeing
between large and medium sized bean, with its width/length ratio bigger than that of a large
bean.
Temperature
Arabicacoffeeprefersacooltemperaturewithanoptimumdailytemperatureof68to75F(20
to24C).TheaveragemeantemperaturesforPyinOoLwinandBanbweinMyanmar(Figure1)
are:
PyinOoLwin 67.5F(19.7C)
Banbwe 72.3F(22.4C)1.5yearsdataonly
Temperatures greater than 86F (30C) cause plant stress leading to a cessation of
photosynthesis. Mean temperatures of less than 59F (15C), limit plant growth and are
consideredsuboptimal.AsArabicacoffeeissusceptibletofrostdamage,useofshadetreeswill
reducetheincidence.
Rainfallandwatersupply
IdealrainfallforArabicacoffeeisgreaterthan47to60inches(1200to1500mm)peryear.Both
thetotalamountandthedistributionpatternareimportant.AnnualrainfallatPyinOoLwinand
Banbwe(Figure2)is:
PyinOoLwin3600ft(1100m) 55inches(1400mm)
PyinOoLwin3600ft(1100m) 55inches(1400mm)
Banbwe2427ft(740m) 52inches(1300mm)
There is limited information for rainfall figures over a number of years and perhaps rainfall is
lower than this over a longer period. Rain should be uniformly distributed over seven to nine
months of the year. The period of good rainfall is only about six months in Pyin Oo Lwin and
Banbwe with sizeable differences between years. Both areas would benefit from supplemental
irrigationtocorrectthisdeficiency.Theyears2001to2003havehadgoodrainfallcomparedto
earlieryears.
Figure1.MeanmonthlytemperaturesinPyinOoLwinandBanbwe
Figure2.MeanmonthlyrainfallinPyinOoLwinandBanbwe
Coffeeneedsadrystressperiodwithlittleornoraintoinduceauniformflowering.Withoutthis
stress period, flowering many extend over many months making harvesting more difficult.
Myanmarcoffeeareasclearlyhaveacool,drystressperiod.
Soiltype
Forsuccessfulproduction,afreedrainingsoilwithaminimumdepthof3feet(1m)isrequired.
Coffeewillnottoleratewaterloggingor'wetfeet'.
Coffeecanbegrownonmanydifferentsoiltypes,buttheidealisafertile,volcanicredearthor
deep, sandy loam. Avoid heavy clay or poordraining soils. Many soils in Northern Shan,
SouthernShan,MandalayDivision,ChinandKachinaresuitable.
CoffeeprefersasoilwithpHof5to6.SoilscheckednearPyinOoLwinareacid(lessthanpH5)
andneedlimeordolomite.Fewsoiltestresultsexist,butindicatorplantspointtoapHlessthan
5 with low available phosphorus and thus shortages of many other nutrients. Low pH will limit
crop performance (see Figure 3). Good management includes applications of dolomite or lime
whichcanalterandimprovesoilpHandfertility.Mostsoiltypesneedextraapplicationsofmajor
and minor elements at some stage through the growth cycle these elements can be found in
naturalmanuresandcompostorfertiliser.
Figure3.EffectofsoilpHonnutrientavailability
Slopeandaspect(slope%anddirection)
Aneasterlyorsouthernfacingaspectwithaslopelessthan15%ispreferable.Steeperslopes
present a major erosion risk and require terracing or special management such as contour
furrowsorpreferablygrassstrips.MostlocationsontheMyanmarplateaushaveagentleslope
andnoextrameasuresarerequired.
Aslightslopewillimproveairdrainageandreducedamagefromfrost.Donotplantcoffeeatthe
bottomofaslopeorinshallowdipswherecoldaircanpool,asfrostdamageismorelikelyhere.
Usually it is best not to plant the bottom third of a slope as it will be colder and sometimes
waterlogged.
SeeFigure15forestablishingcontourstrips
andcontoursusinganAframeformarking
contours
Exposedaspectssubjecttostrongwindsshouldbeavoided,orwindbreakssuchasSilverOak
(Grevillearobusta)wellestablishedbeforeplantingthecoffeetrees.
Watersupply
Coffeerequiresadequatewaterduringthegrowingandcroppingperiod,howeveritalsorequires
a dry stress period followed by sufficient rain or irrigation to promote uniform flowering and a
goodfruitset.
Manyplantingssufferfrommoisturestressatthetimeofyearwhentheyneedadequatewater
forgrowthandcropping(seethephenologicalcyclepage90).Thelocalrainfallpatternindicates
thatsupplementalirrigation,especiallytoinduceuniformfloweringandgoodfruitset,wouldbe
beneficial.Unlessregularrainisreceived,youngnewlyplantedtreesshouldbeirrigated(orhand
watered at least twice a week if irrigation is not available) to ensure establishment. Locating
coffeeplantingsnearawatersupplyforpossibleirrigationaswellasforprocessingofcherryis
desirable.
Waterrequirementscanbereducedbyuseofsuitable,wellestablishedshadetreesandmulch.
Thesepracticesarediscussedinlaterchapters.
Anunderstandingofthecoffeeplant,itsmakeupandhowitgrowsisessentialtounderstanding
how to manage the coffee tree. Management, like the growing environment and the variety
planted, has a very big influence on coffee quality and yield. Much of this manual deals with
practicalmanagementofthecoffeetreefromplantingtoharvest.
Figure4.Diagramsshowingpartsofthecoffeeplant(top)andtreehabit(bottom)
The shape of the coffee plant varies depending on the species and variety. All coffee trees
consistofanuprightmainshoot(trunk)withprimary,secondaryandtertiarylateralbranches.The
planthasamaintaproot,lateralandsmallfeederroots(seeFigure4).Thecoffeetreeproduces
twodistincttypesofbranches:
Verticalororthotropic branches have nodes at a regular distance and carry opposite

leaves.Thesebranchesarecalledsuckersatthedevelopingstageandstemsatthefinal
stage. Each leaf pair is crosspositioned to the next leaf pair. In the axil of each leaf are
fourtosixserialbudsanddirectlyabovethem,oneslightlybiggerbudcalled'extraaxillary
bud' because of its relatively distant position. This extraaxillary bud develops into a
plagiotropicorlateral,horizontalbranch.
Lateralorplagiotropic branches grow almost at right angles from the main stems. No
other bud in the same axil can grow into a lateral branch, which means that if such a
branchiscutoff,nolateralregenerationcanoccuronthenodeofamainverticalstem.
Laterals are usually called primaries. Each serial bud on a primary can develop into an
inflorescence (flower) or into a secondary branch, which has a similar structure to the
primary branch with serial buds that develop either into flowers or tertiary branches. If a
secondarybranchiscutorremoved,anothersecondaryonthesameaxilcanreplaceit,
soregenerationofsecondariesonprimariesispossible.
Eachbranchhasaterminalbud.Inthenodesareafixednumberofbudsthathavethepotential
to form 40 fruits depending mainly on the species and nutritional conditions. At each leaf node
thereare5budseachwith4flowers,whichmayform20fruits(Figure5).
Figure5.Potentialofyields(leftanddiagramabove)
Thewhiteflowersappearinsmallbunchesatthenodes.Afterpollination,afruitdevelopsintoa
cherry about 3/8 to 5/8 inch (10 to 15 mm) long containing two seeds (the coffee beans).
Technically,theflowersformontheoneyearoldwoodthatisonlyslightlyhardened.Thefruits
comprisepulp(colouredskinandafleshymesocarpcalledmucilage),thenparchment,thenthe
silverskin(seedcoat)andfinallythecoffeebean(Figure6).
Figure 6. Coffee cherries from green to ripe (above) and diagram showing parts of the cherry
(right)
Therootsystem
Figure7.Rootsystem
Theroleoftherootsystemistoensurethattheplantisfirmlyanchoredinthesoilandtotakeup
asupplyofwaterandminerals.Therootsystem(Figure7)consistsof:
ashorttaproot16to23inches(40to60cm)long
vertical,coaxialrootswhichareoftenverylong(particularlyinlightsoils)lateralrootswith
numerous absorbing root hairs, particularly in the upper 12 inch (30 cm) humusbearing
layer.
It is necessary to stress the importance of growing techniques (prickingout in nurseries,

weeding, mulching, irrigation and planting layouts) on the distribution and function of the roots.
Thefirstthreeyearsarecriticalfortherootsystemdevelopmentanditisvitalthatplantsarewell
suppliedwithnitrogen,phosphorous,calcium,magnesiumandsulphur.
Phenology(Cropcycle)
Thephenologicalcycleandfieldmanagement
chartsonpages90and91indicatethetimings
forkeymanagementactivitiesforvarious
developmentstagesofthecoffeeplant
Thephenologyofthecoffeeplantreferstothephysicalandphysiologicaldevelopmentalstages
of the coffee plant throughout the year. Phenology is often referred to as the crop cycle or the
phenologicalcycleoftheplant.
Coffeelikeallplants,respondstothechangingenvironment(temperature,rainfall,drought,day
length)inwhichitgrows,asinfluencedbytheseasons.Astheseasonschange,thecoffeetree
changesfromvegetativerootandshootgrowth,toreproductivegrowthwhereitflowers,sets
andmaturesfruittoharvestthenbeginsregrowthforthenextcycle.
The phenological cycle and field management charts have excellent indicators of when to
fertilise,irrigate,withholdwater,prune,takeleafandsoilanalyses,checkforpestsanddiseases
and apply controls. Timing is very important for these practices to optimise production of the
coffeetree.

Moredetails
Chapter2
Nurserypractices
Startingthenursery
Coffee may be grown from seed or from cloned plants in the form of cuttings, grafts or tissue
cultured plants. Arabica coffee is most commonly grown from selected seed unless there are
special reasons for using clones. A number of steps are necessary for production of good
seedlings.
Selecttheseed
Keeprecords
Calculatetheamountofseedneededandthearearequired
Buildnurseryshelterandseedbeds
Planttheseed
Selecttheseed
Arabica coffee should be grown from fresh seed of the recommended varieties. Seed loses
viability within three months and should not be used after that period unless properly stored at
lowtemperatureandhighhumidity,forexample,inarefridgerator.
Selectripehealthyfruitfromtherequiredvarietyandfromplantsthathavegoodproductivity,low
ornoincidenceofrustandgoodcupquality.
Pulpcherries,fermentovernight,washclean,anddrytheparchmentslowlyinshadeonraised
platforms or trays with good air movement for two to three days. The moisture content of the
seeds should not fall below 10%, otherwise the viability will be seriously affected. The seeds
should be sorted to eliminate those that are small or abnormally shaped or are infested with
pests.
NOTE: Coffee seed that is used for planting is actually parchment with the parchment hull and
silverskinstillinplace.Itisnotgreen bean from which parchment hull and silverskin has been
removed.
Keeprecords
Itisveryimportanttokeepgoodrecordsofnurseryoperationsthesewillhelptoavoidconfusion
andproblemsarisingfrommismanagement.Thenurseryrecordbookstorestheinformationof
individualplantingsofseed.
Thecalendarfornurserymanagementformsausefulwallchart/checklistforcoffeefarmerson
nurseryactivitytimingandshouldbephotocopiedforthispurpose,alongwiththenurseryrecord
book.
Nurseryrecordbook
Recordtheinformationforeachnewplotorshadetreeplanted.Thispagecanbephotocopied
foruse.
Coffee Coffee Shadetree#
Crop
Cultivar
Scientificname
Originofmaterial
Datesown
Treatments(ifany)
Dateofseedemergence
Dateoftransplanting
Growthstageattransplanting
Otherinformation/comments
Nurserymanagementcalendar
No. Activity Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1 Select trees for * * * * *

seed
2 Collectseed ** ** *
Prepare seed
nursery
(a) Select site ** ** *

for seed
3 beds
(b) Prepare ** ** *
guards and
soil for seed
beds
4 Sowcoffeeseed ** ** ** *
Prepare seedling
nursery
(a) Establish ** **
nursery
5
canopy
(b) Prepare ** **
bags for
transplanting
6 Transplant ** ** **
seedlings
Seedling
maintenance
(a) Weeding *** *** *** *** *** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
(b) Apply foliar *** *** *** *** *** ** ** ** ** ** ** **

fertiliser
(c) Watering *** *** *** *** *** ** **

7
(d) Spray for *** *** *** *** *** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
insect &
disease
(e) Hardenoff *** *** ***

seedling
before
plantingout
(a)Yearbefore*(b)Thisyear**(c)Nextyear***
Newseedshouldbeplantedassoonaspossibleafterharvest.Thelongeritisstored,thelower
the percentage of germination and the smaller the plants will be at the time of transplanting. If
possible,coffeenurseriesshouldbestartedbysowingtheseedinDecemberinMyanmar.
Calculatetheamountofseedandthearearequired
As coffee seed rapidly looses viability, store the seed in cool moist conditions (such as the
bottom of a refrigerator). There are 1300 to 1800 seeds/lb (3000 to 4000 seeds/kg). The
recommendedplantingdensityis1360plants/acre(3360plants/ha)ataspacingof8x4ft(2.4x
1.2m).Tocalculatetheareaforanurseryyouneedtoknow:
theareatobeplanted
plantspacing
thenumberofplantsperacre(ha)
howmanyseedsperlb(kg)
thegerminationpercentageoftheseed.
Calculateareaforseedbed,forexample:Toplant1acreofcoffeeataspacingof8
4ft(2.41.2m)
Numberofplants: 1360plants/acre(43,560ft2or84ft)
Germination: 1500seeds/lbwith75%germination
Thereforeyouneed: 100136075=1800seeds
Sowseedsinbeds3ftwidewith1inchbetweenseedsand4inchesbetweenrows
(36seedsper3ftrow)
Thereforeyouneed: 1800seeds36seeds/row=50rows
Rowsare4inchesapart.Thereforeyouneed50rowsat4inchesapart.tomakea
nurserybed17ftlong(5.1m)and3ft(90cm)wide.
Figure8.Aclearplastictunnelcoveringaseedbedisusedforgerminatingcoffeeseedincold
weather.Notethattheplastichasjustbeenremovedfromthebambooframe
Buildthenurseryshelterandbeds
Selectafrostandfloodfreeareawithaccesstoasuitablewatersupply.
Completelyfencetheareatokeepoutdomesticlivestock.
Shadehouseandplastictunnels
CoffeeseedisveryslowtogerminateinDecemberandJanuary(thecoldestmonths)andclear
plastic/polyethylene should be used to accelerate germination and plant growth. Figure 10
illustratesthestagesofcoffeeseedlingdevelopment.
Construct a shade house with timber poles and a roof about 6 ft (1.8 m) high. The top of the
shade house needs to be covered with either assorted plant material such as bamboo slats or
branches,orcommercialplasticshadeclothtogiveabout50%shade.
Toachievefasterseedlinggrowthduringcoldweather,plantseedinaclearplastic/polyethylene
tunnelbeneaththeshade(Figure8).Thetunnelisthewidthofsowingbedsandabout30inches
(75cm)high.Usebamboohoopsfortheframeworktosupportthepolyethylenesheetcover.The
seedbedmustbefullyandtightlyenclosedortemperatureinsidethetunnelwillnotincrease.
Seedbeds
Use wooden planks, bricks or bamboo as sides for seed beds which should be about 8
inches (20 cm) high and 3 ft (1 m) wide. Fill beds with a soil and sand mixture of 50%
forestsoiland50%riversand.Redsoilbyitselfistoocompactforagoodseedbed.
Levelthesoiltotheheightofthesidesoftheseedbed.
Planttheseed
Watertheseedbedbeforeplanting.
Usingapointedstick,makefurrows0.5inch(12mm)deepacrossthebedand4inches
(100mm)apart.
Plantseedflatsidedown,withseeds1inch(25mm)apartwithintherow(Figure9).
Coverseedwithsoilmixturetoleveltheseedbedseedshouldbeabout0.5inch(12mm)
deepafterplanting.
Coverbedswithricestrawmulchtogiveextraheatandtoretainsoilmoisture(seeFigure
9).
Watergently.Makesuretheseedisnotexposedwhenwatering.
As germination time is highly dependent on soil temperature, it may take from 30 to 50 days
beforeshootsappear.Useofplastic/polythenetunnelstoretainheatwillspeedupgermination.
Figure9.Plantingtheseed(top)andcoveringwithmulch(bottomphotograph)
Germination
Germinationisinducedbyplacingtheseedsinasufficientlymoistenvironmenttoabsorbwater.
Depending on temperature and moisture, the cotyledon leaves develop after four to six weeks
(seeFigure10forgerminatingprocess).
Germinationisfirstseenintheappearanceoftheradicle(youngroot)threetofourweeksafter
sowing. The hypocotyl (the part between soil and cotyledons) appears 20 to 25 days later and
carries the seed which is still covered in its parchment, out of the ground. Shortly afterwards,
whenthislightcoveringisdetached,thetwocotyledonleavesopen.
These cotyledon leaves look very different from ordinary leaves they are ovalshaped with
undulatingedgesand1to2inches(25to50mm)indiameter.Atthesametime,theterminalbud
appearsandproducestwoprimaryleavestheyareoppositeandinpairs.Thecotyledonswill
nowdiehavingcompletedtheirnutritionalrole.
Therootsystemdevelopsactivelyinthefirstweeksofgerminationthetaprootpenetratesdeeply
intothesoilandformsagreatnumberofrootsandrootlets.
Figure10a.Diagramofthegerminatingprocess.Thelasttwodrawings(inthebox)indicatethat
theplantisreadyfortransplanting(aboveright)
Colyledonsshowninphotograph(left)thenewprimaryleavesappearabovethecolyledons(far
rightphotograph)
Thefirstlateralbranch(plagiotropicbranch)appearsfourtosixweeksafteremergencetheplant
will then have 5 to 11 pairs of leaves. These branches are opposite in pairs at alternate
perpendicularpointsalongthemainaxis.Theprimarybrancheshavebudsateachnodethatwill
developeitherintosecondary(plagiotropic/horizontal)branchesor,undercertainconditions,into
flowers.
Donotletthesoildryout,whenseedlingsaredeveloping.However,takecareanddonotover
waterasseedcansufferfromdiseaseproblemssuchasdampingoff(seeNurserydiseasesand
pests).Ataheightof7to12inches(20to30cm),theyoungplantsarereadytobetransplanted.
Transplantintobags
Dependingontemperature,coffeeseedlingsarereadytobetransplantedfromthenurserybed
intopolybagsabouttwotothreemonthsaftersowing.
Therearefourstepsintheprocess.
Preparethepottingmixture.
Choosetheseedlings.
Plantseedlingsinbags.
Carefortheseedlings.
Preparepottingmixture
ALWAYSprepareaNEWpottingmixture.
DONOTREUSESOILfromoldbags!!
Strongblackplastic/polyethylenebagswithdrainageholesshouldbeused.Bagsizeshouldbe
atleast4x10inches(10x25cm)whenfilledwithsoil.Amixtureoffertiletopsoilandmanureor
compostcanbeused.Allsoil,manureandcompostshouldbefinesieved.Thefollowingmixture
couldbeused:
3x4gal(18L)tinsoftopsoil
2x4galtinsofriversand
1x4galtinofgoodqualitydrycattlemanureorcompost
7oz(200g)ofrockphosphateor0:20:0N:P:Kfertilizer
7oz(200g)oflime(preferablydolomite)
Thoroughlymixtheingredientsandplaceintheblackplasticbags.
Thisamountwillfillabout40bags.
Choosetheseedlings
Transplantcoffeewhenitisatthematchstickorcotyledon(butterfly)stagebeforethetaprootis
welldeveloped(Figure11).
Usethebestseedlingswithastraighttaproot.Discardseedlingswitheitherabenttaproot
(Jroot)orthosewithfewroothairs.
Donotuselargerseedlings(withmoreleavesthanthematchstickstage)asthesewillbe
tooslowingrowing.
Donotusediseasedseedlings.
Figure11.Choosingtheseedlingsatmatchstickstage
Plantseedlingsinbags
Plantingshouldbedoneincool,cloudyweather.
Thoroughlywaterthesoilfilledbagstosettlethesoilbeforeplanting.
Lifttheseedlingsusingastickortroweltopreventbreakingtheroots.
Makeaholeabout2inches(5cm)deepusingeitherasmallstickorafinger(Figure12).
Insertseedlingintheholeandthenlifttheseedlingslightlytoopenouttheroots.
Whenplanting,makesurethatthetaprootisnotbent.
Plantseedlingstothesamedepthastheywerepreviouslyplantedintheseedbed.
Waterseedlingswell.
Makesurethebagsarewellsupportedallaroundandinbetweensotheydonotfallover.
Use a bamboo or wooden frame to contain the bags and keep them packed together
(Figure13a).
Figure12.Plantingtheseedlingsintoplasticbags
Careforseedlings
Removeweedsregularly.
Ifsoilbecomeshard,softenitbyusingatroweltobreakupbig,hardclumpsofsoilinto
smallerpieces.
Waterasrequiredtokeepthesoildamp.Don'toverwaterasthiscancausedampingoff
adiseasecausedbyafungusthatwillkilltheplants.
At three months, apply urea (46:0:0, N:P:K) at 2 oz/2 gal (56 g/10 L) of water. This is
enough for 100 seedlings. Apply every 15 days. If leaves become dark green, stop the
procedure.
Ifyoudonotuseachemicalfertiliser,applyasmallamountoffinelycrusheddrymanure
aroundtheplants.
Check seedlings every day to make sure they remain free from pests and disease.
Removebagswithdiseased,deadordamagedplants.
Continuetokeepplantsinshade.Twomonthsbeforefieldplanting,graduallyremovethe
shadetosunhardentheplants.
Astheplantsgrow,separatethepolybagssothereissufficientspaceforthedeveloping
planttospread.Ifbagsarenotseparated,theplantsgrowtallandweak(Figure13b).
Figure13a.Makesuretheplantsaresupportedandarenotcrowded
Figure13b.Healthyseedlingsthatarenowcrowded.Thebagsshouldbemovedaparttoallow
moreroomforplantgrowthandavoiddisease
Nurserydiseasesandpests
Themaindiseasesandpestproblemsoccurringinthenurseryincludedampingoff,browneye
spotandgreencoffeescale(Figure14).
Figure14.Seedlingsaffectedbydampingoff(topphotographs).Newpottingmixshouldalways
beused.
Dampingoffappearsasareasofdyingplantsandiscausedbyasoilbornefungioftenfoundin
old, diseased potting mixture. Overwatering, too much shade or not enough space between
plants as they grow can also cause this problem. Dampingoff can be avoided by proper
preparationinthenursery.Itisvitallyimportantthatnewsoilisalwaysusedinthenurserybeds.
If the disease is found, immediate drenching with either Benlate (Benomyl) or Captan can be
carried out. Always read the label on the chemical pack and follow directions (see page 68 of
Pestsanddiseases).
Cercospora(browneyespot)isafungus,whichdevelopswhenplantsareunderstresscaused
bytoomuchshade,toomuchsun,nitrogendeficiency,overwateringorovercrowding.Thiscan
beavoidedbyfollowinggoodmanagementpractices.Immediatecontrolmeasuresinvolveusing
coppersprays.Alwaysreadthelabelonthechemicalpackandfollowdirections(seepage69of
Pestsanddiseases).
Greencoffeescalecanalsobeaprobleminthenursery.Scalesseverelyaffectplanthealthas
theysuckthesapfromtheleaves.Keeptheareafreefromantsandspraywithsprayingoilsor
Carbarylorusetraditionalmethodsofcontrol.Alwaysreadthelabelonthechemicalpackand
followdirections(seepage64ofPestsanddiseases).
Greencoffeescale(below)
Plantingout.Transplantingseedlingsintobagsinthenursery

Moredetails
Chapter3
Fieldmanagement&plantingtrees
Preparingthefield
The area to be planted with coffee must be prepared at least one year beforethe small coffee
trees are planted out. A field management calendar on page 91 There are five procedures to
follow.
Preparetheland.
Plantwindbreaks.
Markouttherows.
Establishshadetrees.
Irrigation.
Preparetheland
Thelandmustbeclearedandalloldtreesandtheirrootsremoveddonotleaveoldtimberlying
aroundasthisattractspests.Withlandupto15%slope,runtherowsacrosstheslopemaking
sure there is a fall of 1 to 2% for drainage. Ground covers should be planted to avoid erosion.
Whenlandisgreaterthan15%slope,contourplantingmustbeundertaken.
Establishingacontourstrip
Coffeeisplantedinrows8ft(2.4m)apartwithplants4ft(1.2m)apartwithintherow.Tomark
theplantingholesatthisspacingonslopingland,followthestepsbelow.
ConstructasimplewoodenAframestructuremeasuring5ft(1.5m)highwithlegs4ft(1.2m)
apart. The horizontal support crosspiece is marked at the central point. A string with a weight
(stoneormetalobject)isattachedattheapexofthe'A'andallowedtohangfreely,similartoa
pendulum(Figure15).
Startingatthebottomoftheslope,'walk'theAframeacrosstheslopebyrotatingitfromoneleg
oftheframetotheother.Placeamarkerateachpointonthegroundwherethependulumlines
up with the centre mark on the AFrame crosspiece. This marker shows the planting hole for
eachplantonthatparticularrow/contour.Continueforthedesiredlengthofthecontourline.
Locate the next contour line 8 ft (2.4 m) up or down hill from the first row. Follow the same
markingprocedureuntiltheentirefieldismarkedout.
Grevillearobusta(SilverOak)shadetreesplantedwithcoffee
Figure 15. Constructing an Aframe (left). Using anAframe to find the contours in a field and
markingtheplantingholes
Figure16a.Erythrinashadetrees
Figure16b.Meliashadetrees
Plantwindbreaks
In general, permanently planted windbreaks are only recommended in sites exposed to strong
winds,andthenonlywheretheyareneededtosupplementinadequatenaturalforestsurrounds.
If required, windbreaks should be well established before planting out the coffee trees.
Windbreaks are usually located along boundaries of the coffee area. Silver Oak (Grevillea
robusta)isapreferredwindbreaktreeinMyanmar.
Markouttherows
Rowdirection.Ideallyanorth/southdirectionisbestasitmakesmostuseofsunlight.Markout
wheretherowsaretogo.
Establishshadetrees
Shadetreesneedtobewellestablishedbeforecoffeetreesareplantedout.Plantshadetrees
oneyearbeforeplantingcoffee.Donotplantshadetreesatthesametimeorafterplantingthe
coffeeseedlings.
Shadeprotectsyoungcoffeeplantsfromdroughtstressandoverexposuretosun,whichcauses
yellowing and death of leaves, tree overbearing and/or dieback in older trees. Shade also
promotes a better balance between flowering and growth resulting in better cherry production.
Legumesusedasshadetreescontributesubstantiallytosoilhealthbyprovidingorganicmatter
andnutrientsfromleaffallandprunings,andfixnitrogenfromtheairtorestoresoilfertilityand
structure.Shadetreesalsoreducetheincidenceoffrost.
Numerousspeciescanbeusedasshadetreesthepreferredtypesinclude:
Erythrina subumbrans (Dadap). Used as coffee shade and for pepper supports in many
areasofSSEAsia.Itisfastgrowingandeasilypropagatedfromcuttings(Figure16a).
Grevillearobusta(SilverOak).UsedinMyanmarformorethan70yearsandinSriLanka
forteashadesince1856.Thetreecangrowto50mifnotpruned.Goodshadeandfuel.
Gliricidia sepium (Khae Falang). Looses leaves and begins to flower in the dry season
unlessprunedinwetseasontokeepplantvegetative.Fixesnitrogenfromtheair.
Cassiasiamea(KhiLek).Doesnotfixnitrogenandcancompetewithcoffeefornutrients
andwater.
Melia azedarach (Khao Dao Sang, Neem or Bead tree). A good timber tree that may
providesomeinsectcontrol.SeedextractsareusedastheinsecticideNeem(Figure16b).
Paulowniatomentosa.Aquickgrowing,timbertree.
Shadetreespacing
SuggestedspacingforErythrina,Grevillea,GliricidiaandCassiais14x13ftor170trees/acre(5
x 5 m or 555 trees/ha), and Melia and Paulownia is 19 x 19 ft 120 trees/acre (6 x 6 m or 277
trees/ha).
Plant shade trees within the coffee rows. Remove lower limbs from young shade trees as they
grow.
Irrigation
If irrigation is to be used, it should be installed prior to planting of coffee trees. If there is no

irrigation,bothshadetreesandcoffeewillneedhandwateringforafewweeksuntilestablished.
Plantingthecoffeetrees
Therearefourprocedurestofollowwhenplantingthecoffeetrees.
Whentoplant(seedlingsizeandtime).
Preparetheholes.
Choosetheplants.
Plantingprocedure.
Whentoplant
Figure17.Idealsizeoftransplanttree
Fieldplantingcanbeginwhenthecoffeeplantsinbagshaveaminimumofsixtoeightleafpairs
(Figure17).Plantsshouldbestrongandhealthywithnosignofpestsordisease.Plantingoutin
thefieldshouldbedoneoncloudydays,inJunethroughtoAugustduringthewetseason(see
fieldmanagementchartpage91).Avoidplantingtreeswhenconditionsarewindyorhotanddry
orduringthehottestpartoftheday.
Preparetheholes
Onemonthbeforeplanting
1Marktheplantingholes.
2Digholesof2x2x2ft(60x60x60cm)(Figure18).
3Piletopsoiltoonesideofthehole,subsoiltoothersideofhole.
4Mixin4.5lb(2kg)ofdryfarmyardmanure(FYM)+3heapedsoupspoons(about
3ozsor85g)TripleSuperphosphate(TSP).
5Mixintoloosesoilatthebottomoftheholeandintothepileoftopsoil.
6 Start filling the hole with topsoil only. Then use both the subsoil and topsoil to
completefillingthehole.
7Remarkthecentreoftheholewithastick.
Figure18.Proceduretofollowwhenpreparingtheholes:2to3(topphotograph)4to6(bottom
photograph)
Atplanting(onemonthlater)
Spread1milktin(0.5lbor225g)ofdolomiteoverthesoilintheplantingholeandthen
digin.
Thesoilshouldbemoistattimeofplanting.
Choosetheplants
Figure19.Unsuitableplantwithatwistedrootsystem
Checkthatthecoffeeplants:arehealthy,withdarkgreen,wellformedfoliageandaminimumof
6to8leaveshavenostemdamageandawelldevelopedrootsystemwithataprootthatisnot
distorted. (Figure 19) are not rootbound by being in the pots for too long and have been
hardenedtofullsunbeforeplanting.
Plantingprocedure
Figure20.Plantingprocedureplanting,mulching,groundcovers
1.Beforeplanting,thoroughlywaterthetreesinthebags.
2.Removeplantsfromplasticbagsbyeithercuttingthebagorgentlyslidingtheplantoutofthe
bag.
3.DiscardplantswithJrootsorbentroots(Figure19).
4.Ifplantshavebeeninthebagsforanextendedtime,rootsmaygrowaroundinacircleinside
the bag. It is important that these roots are gently teased out by hand or they will continue to
grow in a circular manner when planted. Carefully straighten large roots and prune off badly
twistedroots.
5.Besuretoremovetheplasticbag!Donotplantcoffeeplantsstillintheplasticbag.
6. Place the seedling upright in the hole do not plant at an angle. Half fill the hole with soil,
gentlypressingthesoilintocontactwiththerootball.Fillholewithwater.Thishelpstobringthe
soil into close contact with the roots. Allow water to drain, then finish filling the hole with soil
(Figure20).
7.Firmlypresssoildownwithyourfeet.Donotstomponthesoilasthismaydamagetheyoung
roots.Keepthefinalsoillevelslightlyheapedabovethesurroundingundisturbedsoilastheitwill
settle down after watering. Do not plant coffee in large depressions, as these will trap water.
Coffeedoesnotlikewetsoilandplantscandieundertheseconditions.
8.Waterintheplantswell,with1.5to3.5pints(1to2L)ofwaterperplant.
9. To maintain soil moisture and control weeds, mulch the newly planted coffee trees with rice
straworothersuitablematerials.Keepmulchawayfromthebaseoftheplanttoreducetherisk
ofdisease.Itisespeciallyimportanttoreapplythemulchatendofwetseason.
10. Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) or other crops can provide
temporaryshadecoverforyoungplants.
11.Bladygrass(Imperatacylindrica)coverscanbeusedforfrostprotection.
12.Legumegroundcoversofpintopeanut(Arachispintoi)orgreenleafdesmodium(Desmodium
intortum),willgreatlyassistwithweedcontrolinyoungcoffee.Groundcoversaddnitrogentothe
soil, provide mulch for the shade trees and feed for cattle that could be a popular source of
alternateincome.Pruningsfromlegumeshadetreesarealsoagoodproteinfoodsupplementfor
cattle.
Fieldmanagementofyoungtrees
To achieve high yields of quality coffee, good field management practices areessential. Poorly
managedcoffeewilltakelongertoproduceagoodcropandwillsufferfromdieback.Thereare
threekeyprocedurestofollow:
Protectfromfrost
Waterplants.
(Nutritionandfertilisingarecoveredindetailinthenextchapter).
Protectfromfrost
Figure21.Newly planted coffee trees with frost protection in place (top), frost has killed these
treesinthefield(centre),frostdamagedleaves(bottom)
Good site location and use of shade trees will reduce the incidence of frost. Maintaining soil
moistureduringfrostperiodswillofferadegreeoffrostprotection.
Plantcoverslikebladygrass(Imperatacylindrica)toprotectyoungplantsfromfrost(Figure21).
In cold weather, overhead irrigation applied before ice starts to form, will prevent major frost
damage.Continuewateringuntiltemperaturehaswarmedtoabovefreezingandicemelts.
Keepingthegroundclosetoplantsfreeofweedsandgroundcoverscutshortinthefrostyperiod
willalsohelpwithfrostprotection(Figure22).Severefrostmaykillsmalltrees.However,onmost
occasions(especiallywithlargertrees),thetreebranchesdiebackandthenregrow,butoneto
twoseasonswillbelostbeforecompleterecovery.
Coffee trees are shallowrooted, which means that most feeder roots are near the surface.
Weedscompeteforbothnutrientsandwater,soitisessentialtokeeptheareaunderthecanopy
ofthetrees,weedfree.
Coffeeplantsshouldbemulchedwithricestraworotherappropriatematerialtoadepthof
2 to 3 inches (5 to 8 cm) especially at the end of the wet season, but be sure to keep
mulchmaterials2to4inches(5to10cm)awayfromthetrunkofthetree.
Mulching will reduce the amount of weeding required. Weeding should be done at least
fourtimesperyear,especiallyinthewetseason,duringwhichtwoorthreeweedingsmay
beneeded.Whenweeding,becarefulnottodamagesurfacerootsofthecoffeeplantwith
knifeorhoe.
Dead or dry weeds can be used as mulch. Fresh weeds may regrow, especially in wet
weatheriftheyarenotdriedproperlybeforebeingaddedasamulch.
Waterplants
Donotallowtheplantrootballtodryoutafterplanting.Irrigate(orhandwaterwhereirrigationis
notinstalled),twotothreetimesperweekforthefirstfewweeks.Ifplantingattherecommended
time (June toAugust), there should be a good chance of rain, so the soil moisture should be
maintained.
Figure22.Above:Pintopeanutgroundcoverwithbladygrasscoverforfrostonindividualplants
inthetopbackgroundofphotograph
Aboveright.EstablishedgroundcoverofPintopeanutincoffeeplantation
Above.Innovativeplanningforplantingdesignofshadetreesandcoffee

Moredetails
Chapter4
Nutrition&fertilisermanagement
Nutrients are recycled within the environment. A 'closed' environment such as a rainforest,
recyclesitsownnutrientsandismoreorlessselfsufficient.However,whereplantsaregrownin
a commercial situation, it is necessary to replenish the nutrients that are removed from the
system.Withoutadditionalnutrientsinsomeformoffertiliser,coffeeyieldswillremainverylow
asnutrientsareremovedwiththecoffeebeans.Unshadedplantsofdwarf,highyieldingvarieties
such as Catimor, will quickly develop dieback and die if adequate nutrients and water are not
added to the soil. Plants with mild to moderate dieback will recover with timely good fertilising,
wateringandweedmanagement.
InIndia,itwasfoundthatforevery6,000kgofripecoffeecherry(1MTofgreenbean)removed
fromtheplants,approximately40kgnitrogen(N),2.2kgphosphorus(P)and53kgpotassium
(K)mustbereplacedyearly.
Thereare16naturalelements(nutrients),thatareessentialforplantgrowth(seetablebelow).
Three elements (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) make up 94% of the plant tissues and are
obtained from air and water. The other 13 elements are obtained from the soil and are divided
intotwobroadcategories'macro'and'micro'.Thesetermsdonotrefertotheimportanceofthe
elements macronutrients are required in greater amounts than micronutrients for normal plant
growth.
Essentialmineralsandtheirroleinthecoffeeplant
Mineral/Element Mainrequirement/usebytheplant
Chemical
symbol
Macronutrients
Nitrogen N Plant growth proteins enzymes hormones
photosynthesis
Sulphur S Amino acids and proteins chlorophyll disease
resistanceseedproduction
Phosphorus P Energy compounds root development ripening
flowering
Potassium K Fruitqualitywaterbalancediseaseresistance
Calcium Ca Cellwallsrootandleafdevelopmentfruitripening
andquality
Magnesium Mg Chlorophyll(greencolour)seedgermination
Mineral/Element Chemical Mainrequirement/usebytheplant

symbol
Micronutrients
Copper Cu Chlorophyllproteinformation
Zinc Zn Hormones/enzymesplantheight
Manganese Mn Photosynthesisenzymes
Iron Fe Photosynthesis
Boron B Development/growth of new shoots and roots
flowering,fruitsetanddevelopment
Molybdenum Mo Nitrogenmetabolism
Chloride Cl Photosynthesisgasexchangewaterbalance
Soilandleafanalysis
Tohelpdeterminethebestnutritionpractices,soilandleafanalysesarerecommended.Inorder
tostandardizeproceduresbetweenfarms,yearsandpersonnelinvolved,thefollowingpractices
aresuggestedforsoilandleafanalysis.
Soilsampling
The objective of sampling is to get an

AVERAGE (representative sample) of soil in
the block, not the best or the worst. To keep
costs down, and if plantings are of the same
ageandappearance,threesamplespertwoto
four hectare block will be adequate, provided
thethreesamplesarecompositesfromthe20
sitessampled.
Removesurfacelitter(leaves,etc.)beforesampling.Donotscrapeawaysoil(Figure23).
Takesamplestoadepthof6inches(150mm)withsoilaugerorspade.
PlacesoilinaCLEANbucket.
Samplefromaminimumof20sitesacrossablockof3to10acres(2to4ha).
Thoroughlymixeachsoilsamplecollectedandthensubsampletoreducevolumeforsample
bags.
Properlylabelallsamplesandlaboratorysheets.
Cleantheaugerorspadeaftersamplingeachofthesites.
DO NOT sample after fertiliser application. Scrape away any fertiliser/lime residue from
previousapplicationsbeforetakingasample.
Donotsamplenexttoshadetrees.
Areasofdifferenttreesize,age,soiltypes,fertiliserorothermajordifferencesshouldbetreated
asseparatesamples.
Samples need to be dried before sending for analysis. If laboratory ovens are unavailable,
spreadouteachsampleonapaperbagorplainpaperanddryslowlyonraisedbenchesunder
shadeandprotectedfromrain.Samplesareusuallyairdryinfourtofivedays.
Ifpossible,soilsamplesshouldbetakenonceperyear(inFebruary)beforeflowering.
Figure 23. Remove surface litter and old fertiliser etc., from area to be sampled but do not
removesoil.Takesamplestoadepthof6"(150mm)
Leafsampling
Figure24.Leafsampling
Samplethethirdorfourthpairofleavesfromthetipofanactivelygrowingbranch.Donotcount
newleavesiftheyarenotfullyexpanded(Figure24).
Sampleatthesametime/growthstageeachyear,beforeflowering.
Sampleaminimumof40treesperblockacrossablocksizeof3to10acres(2to4ha).
Samplediagonallyacrosstheblock.
Sampleaveragetreesonly.Donotsampleobviouslysick,excessivelyhealthyorodd/unusual
coffeetrees.
Sampleinthemorningwherepossiblewhenleavesarethemostturgid(fullofwater).
UseCLEANHANDS.Donotsmokewhilesamplingandmakesurehandsarefreeoffertiliser,
soiletc.
Donotsamplewhenleavesarewetasthepapersamplebagswillbreak!
Donotsampleafteranyapplicationoffoliarfertilisersprays.
Areasofdifferenttreesize,age,soiltypes,fertiliserorothermajordifferencesshouldbetreated
asseparatesamples.
Properlylabelallsamplesandlaboratorysheets.
Samplesaretobestoredinpaper(notplastic)bags.Keepleavescoolbutdonotfreeze!
Samples need to be dried if they are not sent for analysis within one to two days. This is
normallydoneatthelaboratoryat140to149F(60to65C)untildryandbrittle.
Preflowering is preferred sampling time if only one sample is taken each year. More frequent
sampling (every four months) is highly desirable for large plantations, especially if nutritional
problemsoccur.
The objective of leaf sampling is to get an

AVERAGE (representative sample) of trees,
not the best or the worst. The 40 trees per
hectare samples can be bulked and three
composite samples made to reduce analysis
costs.Aminimumof100leavesisneededfor
eachcompositesample.
Optimumleafandsoilnutrientlevels
Once the soil and leaf samples have been taken, it is important to analyse the results and
comparethemtolevelsthathavebeendeterminedasoptimumincoffeeplantationsaroundthe
worldinordertodeviseanutritionprogrammeforthecoffee.
Optimumleafnutrientlevels
Nutrient Optimumrange Nutrient Optimumrange
N(Nitrogen) 2.53.0% Na(Sodium) <0.05%
P(Phosphorus) 0.150.2% Cu(Copper) 1620mg/kg
K(Potassium) 2.12.6% Zn(Zinc) 1530mg/kg
S(Sulphur) 0.120.30% Mn(Manganese) 50100mg/kg
Ca(Calcium) 0.751.5% Fe(Iron) 70200mg/kg
Mg(Magnesium) 0.250.40% B(Boron) 40100mg/kg
Optimumsoilnutrientlevels
Nutrient(extractionmethodinbrackets)* Suggestedoptimumsoillevels
pH(1:5soil/water) 5.56.0
Organicmatter(WalkleyBlack) 13%
Conductivity(l:5soil/water) <0.2dsm
Nitratenitrogen(1:5aqueousextract) >20mg/kg.Leaftestsmorerelevant
Phosphate(Colwellorbicarb) 6080mg/kg
Potassium(Ammoniumacetate) >0.75mg/kg
Sulphur(KCl40) >20mg/kg
Calcium(Ammoniumacetate) 35meq/100g
Magnesium(Ammoniumacetate) >1.6meq/100g
Aluminium(Potassiumchlorideextract) Unknownbutverylow
Sodium(Ammoniumacetate) <l.0meq/100g
Chloride(1:5aqueousextract) 250mg/kg
Copper(DPTA) 0.310mg/kg
Zinc(DPTA) 210mg/kg
Manganese(DPTA) <50mg/kg
Iron(DPTA) 220mg/kg
Boron(hotcalciumchloride) 0.51.0mg/kg(sandyloams)
1.02.0mg/kg(clayloams)
Cationexchangecapacity 35sandysoil
>10heavysoiltypes
Cationbalance Potassium(<10%)
Calcium(6580%
Magnesium(1520%
Sodium(<5%)
Aluminium(<1%)
Calcium:Magnesiumratio 35
* Different extraction methods would give different results and different optimum
levels.
AnalysesresultsforPyinOoLwinarea
Fresh manure or noncomposted pulp should

neverbeusedastheycanburntheplantsand
tie up nitrogen in the soil during breakdown.
TheyalsoareasourceofOrchratoxinA(OTA)
moulds.
Soil and leaf analyses surveys across 15 farms in the Pyin Oo Lwin area, with good and poor
managementhaveindicatedthatmanyfarmshavelowpH,lowP,K,Ca,Mg,andZn,whilemost
hadadequateN,Mn,Cu,Sandgenerallygoodorganicmatterlevels.Boronwasnotmeasured
butBdeficiencyhasbeenseenincoffeeandpapayaintheareas.Sodiumandchlorinepresent
noproblems,butCationExchangeCapacityislowerthanexpected.
Fertiliserprogramme
While good for the soil, manure or compost

may not supply the full range and amount of
nutrientsrequiredbythecoffeetreeandsome
mineral fertiliser or micronutrients or other
organic fertilisers may occasionally be
needed.
CoffeesoilsinMyanmararelowinanumberofessentialplantnutrientsthereforethesemustbe
suppliedtopromotehighyielding,highqualitycoffee.Manure,biofertiliser,covercrops,compost,
legumetreeleavesandshootsandchemicalfertilisersallsupplynutrients.
Manureandcompostsuchascoffeepulpandhuskshavealownutrientcontent.Whenusedas
asourceofnutrients,theymustbeusedinlargequantitiestosupplysufficientnutrientsforcoffee
plants.Manureandcomposthelpimprovesoilstructureandorganicmatter.
Chemicalfertilisersarehigherinnutrientcontentthanorganicfertilisersandareamoreeffective
methodofapplyingnutrients.Foroptimalresults,itisbesttoapplyacombinationofmanureand
compostandchemicalfertilisers.
TherehasbeenlittleornosoilandleafanalysesservicesavailableforMyanmarcoffeegrowers.
Yezin University is now able to undertake analyses and CRIETC is able to assist with
determining a fertiliser programme. When such services are used, a detailed coffee fertiliser
programme can be devised. Meanwhile the following fertiliser programme is suggested for
ArabicacoffeeinMyanmar.
Year Time Application
Year1 (Upto12monthsinthefield)
September Beforerainsfinish
1oz(30g)/treeofNPK151515
Year2 April/May(withfirstrains) 1oz(30g)/treeofNPK151515
July 1oz(30g)/treeofNPK151515
September 1oz(30g)/treeofNPK151515
1.1lbs(500g)/treeofDolomite
1.1lbs(500g)/treeofDolomite
Year5 Onwards
April/May(withfirstrains) 4oz(120g)/treeofNPK151515
Note:NPKisnitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassium
Explanation
1gN = 1,288gN(Urea)
1gCa = 1,399gcalciumoxide(quickburnlime)
= 1,780gcalciumcarbonate(limeorlimestone)
1gMg = 1,658gmagnesiumoxide
1gS = 3,750gmagnesiumsulphate
Higheryieldingcoffeeplotsmayrequire25%morefertiliser.Uselimeorpreferably,dolomite(Ca
+Mg)at1.1lbs(500g)perplanteverytwoyearsandapplybeforetheendoftherainyseason.
Use the last rains to wash the lime into the soil or water in well by hand or irrigation. The
following table shows the nutrient uptake and consumption by different parts of coffee tree
carryingacropof1MT/ha(expectedyields/ha:1000kggreenbeans).
Nutrientuptakeofacoffeetree
Figure25.Placeabandoffertiliseraroundthedripline
Elements(kg)
Partsoftree N P K Ca Mg S
Roots 15 2 25 9 2 2
Branches 14 2 20 6 3 1
Leaves 53 11 45 18 7 3
Fruits 30 3 35 3 3 3
Total 112 18 125 36 15 9
Itisobviousfromthistable,thatleavesneedthemajorpartoftheuptakemorethantheflowers
orfruits.However,nutrientsarereturnedtothesoilwhentheleavesdrop.Theearlyyearsofroot
developmentareveryimportantasbranchesandrootsstorenutrientsforalongtime.
Nutrientsaccumulatedinthefruitswillberemovedwhencherriesareharvested.Thislossneeds
tobecompensatedbytheadditionoffertilisers,organicmanures,leaffallorpruningsandleaves
fromshadetrees.Recyclingofpulptothesoilaftercompostingcanhelptoreducetheadditional
(chemical)fertiliserneeded.
Fertiliserplacement
Spread fertiliser evenly on the soil around the drip line (the outside edge of the canopy) of the
coffeetree,asthisiswheremostfeeder/hairrootsarefound(Figure25).Keepfertiliseratleast4
inches (10 cm) from the stem of the plant fertiliser applied closer than this can damage the
coffeetree.
Manure(ifnotusingfertiliser).Theminimumamountstoapplyare:
Year2 1.5lb/tree(0.7kg)
Year3 2.2lb/tree(1kg)
Year4 4.4lb/tree(2kg)
Year5 onwards5.5lb/tree(2.5kg)
Legumeshadetrees,groundcoversandsuitableintercropssupplynutrientsandorganicmatter
throughlitterandleaffallandthroughpruningsaddedasmulchtothesurfaceofthesoil.
Nutrientdeficiencysymptoms
Figure26.'BarrelAnalogy'usingnitrogenastheleastavailablenutrient
The overall rate of coffee growth and production depends on the least available plant nutrient.
Plants will grow and produce only as much as the least available nutrient will allow them to. It
doesnotmatterhowmuchoftheothernutrientsareavailabletotheplantbecauseitistheleast
available nutrient that limits growth and development. This is well illustrated in the 'Barrel
Analogy'diagram,wherethebarrelcanholdonlyasmuchwaterastheshortestplankwillallow
(Figure26).Thisisknownasthe'LawoftheMinimum'andisexplainedthus:
The level of water in the barrel represents the level of crop yield that is restricted by the most
limiting nutrient, nitrogen. When nitrogen is added, the level of crop production is controlled by
the next most limiting factor (in this example, potassium). Poor nutrition is a major cause of
coffee dieback. Plants lacking sufficient N (nitrogen) and K (potassium) suffer from dieback,
especially where there is poor shade cover and insufficient water. Low soil calcium and
phosphoruswillhinderrootdevelopmentandcontributetodieback.Diebackcauseslossofyield
andwhensevere,plantscandie,especiallyhighyielding,dwarfCatimorvarieties.Eachnutrient
has unique deficiency symptoms. These are briefly described below and can be seen in the
photographs.
Coffeenutrientdeficiencysymptoms
Symptoms originating in younger Deficient

leavesnearshoottips nutrient
C.Bronzing,mottlingordeathofyoungestleavesdiebackofterminalbuds.
Leaves bronzed along edges, calcium

cupped downward new leaves
deadeventualdiebackofshoottips.
Deficientroots(left),healthyroots
(right)
Youngestleaveslightgreen,mottled, boron
with uneven edges and asymmetric
shape new leaves with dead spots
ortips.
Young leaves die back, chlorosis copper
sets in leaves curl and roll. Shoots
are weak and restricted may be
rosetted. Not common if copper
sprays are used in nursery and for
leafrustandCercosporainfield.
Coffeenutrientdeficiencysymptoms
Symptoms originating in older Deficient

leaves or generally on the nutrient
wholeplant.
A.Uniformyellowingoverwholetreeorlightyellowingbetweentheleafveins.
Lower leaves exhibiting slight phosphorus

yellowing, young leaves
remaining darker green faint
yellowing between the veins of
older leaves at advanced stages
smalldeadspotsmaybepresent.
Early(left)advanced(right)
B.Localiseddeadtissueoryellowingbetweentheveinsonolderleaves.
Initialyellowingontheleafedges potassium
followed by development of dead
spots.Deadtissueincreasesuntil
the whole leaf edge is covered.
The veins and midrib remain
green.
Early(left)advanced(right)
magnesium
Faintyellowingonleafedgeswith
sunken, yellowbrown to light
browndeadspotsdevelopingina
wide band along leaf edges
yellowing between veins evident
in affected leaves, particularly
alongthemidrib.
Yellowing in older or middle manganese

leaves mottling, stippling
between veins necrotic spotting
alongmainvein.
Bright yellow mottling between molybdenum

veins leaves wither, curl and
marginscollapseleavesdistorted
and narrow older leaves affecter
first.Raredeficiency.
Symptoms Deficient
originating in nutrient
younger leaves
nearshoottips
A. Uniform yellowing over whole leaf or faint yellowing between leaf veins plants
withsparsevegetativegrowth.
Leaves rapidly nitrogen

becoming pale
green new leaves
uniformlypalegreen
with a dull green
sheen. Entire plant
becoming pale
green, with sparse
vegetative growth
leaves becoming
yellowgreen at
advanced stages
whitish veins may
be present in lower
leaves.
Healthyplant(left)deficientplant(right)
Leaves light green sulphur

to yellowgreen,
with faint yellowing
between veins
deficient leaves
retaining shiny
lustre. Whole plant
may show
symptoms.
Advancedsymptoms
B.Sharpyellowingbetweenveinsofyoungestleavesolderleavesunaffected.
Leaves expanding iron

normally, with vein
network remaining
green and clearly
visible against the
light green to
yellowgreen back
ground background
becoming nearly
creamy white at
acutestages.
Leaves not zinc

expandingnormally
narrow, often strap
shaped veins
visible against a
yellowgreen
background failure
of internode to
elongate properly,
giving plants a
compact
appearance.
Diagram showing nutrient deficiencies
affectingyoungandoldleaves

Producedby:RegionalOfficefor
AsiaandthePacific
Moredetails
Chapter5
Pruningandtreemanagement
Figure27.Cropleafratiobalanced(top)unbalanced(bottom)
Pruning
Arabicacoffeeshouldbegrownasasinglestemsystem.Pruningisrequiredto:
supplygoodhealthywoodforthenextseason'scrop
maintainthecorrectbalancebetweenleafareaandcrop(Figure27)
preventoverbearinganddieback
reducebiennialbearing
maintaingoodtreeshape.
Desuckering
Year1 Desuckertomaintainasinglestemsystemandavoidcompetitionfromsuckers(Figure
28).
Remove'flycrop'fruit(earlyfruitwhichcompetewithstrongplant/rootdevelopment)as
theyappear.
Year2 Desucker to remove drooping primary branches that touch the ground. Cut back to
nearestsecondarybranch.
Removesecondarybrancheswithin8inches(20cm)ofthemainstem.
Removeallfruitastheyappear(flycrop).
Year3 Treesshouldbeallowedtocropinthethirdyear.
Capthemainstembycuttingaboveasideprimaryshootatabout5ft(1.6m)fromsoil
level.
Desucker to remove drooping primary branches touching the ground. Cut back to
nearestsecondarybranch.
Removesecondarybrancheswithin8inches(20cm)ofthemainstem.
Maintain a maximum number of wellspaced secondary branches on each primary
branch.
Removealldead,weakandspindlypestordiseasedamagedbranches.
Asplantsgrow,theycanbecometoocrowdedandsufferlossofproduction.Alternatetreescanbe
stumpedbycuttingoffatkneeheightabout20inches(50cm)fromsoillevel.Whenthesetrees
areproducingagainaftertwoyears,stumptheremainingtrees(seenotesonstumping).
Figure 28. General pruning and desuckering of tree over years 1 and 2. Capping during year 3.
Newlycappedtreephoto(above)
Rejuvenation(Changeofcroppingcycle)
Aregularrejuvenationpruningisneeded(normallyatsixtosevenyearsdependingontreevigour
andyieldpattern),tomaintainasourceofnewfruitingwood.Unlesstreesarerenewed,yieldwill
declineoverthefollowingyears.
Tworejuvenationmethodsareused:
Sidepruning
Fullstumping
Sidepruning
Thisinvolvesremovingonesideofthetree,traininganewsuckerandthenremovingtheotherside
oftreetwoyearslater.Thismethodisrecommendedforallgrowers,asonly50%ofthecropislost
forthetwoyearperiod.
Twoyearsbeforestumping,removeallbranchesontheeasternsideoftreeafterharvesting.Select
anewsuckerapproximately12to18inches(30to45cm)fromthesoillevel,andtraintheshootby
thinningasdescribedforanewplanting(Stages1and2)untilbearingacrop(Stage3).
Twoyearslater,stumptheolderstemabovethenewstem.Cutata45angledonotcutstraight
(Stage4).SeeFigures29a,29b.
Figure29b.Acoffeetreeafterbeingsidepruned
Figure29a.Thefourstagesinsidepruningacoffeetree
Figure30.Diagram of full stumping procedure. Choose the strongest shoot and remove the rest
notethe45cutangle.Photographofastumpedtreeafterregrowth(left)
Fullstumping
Fullstumpinginvolvescuttingthetreebacktokneeheightabout20inches(50cm)fromsoillevel,
anddevelopinganewstemfromthestump(Figure30).Thisisnotrecommended,asthecropwill
belostforoneandmostoftentwoyears.
Irrigation
Where possible, supplementary irrigation in the dry season will help maintain plant health and
maximizeyieldpotential.Coffeehasawaterrequirementofabout1inch(20to25mm)perweek,
whichmustbesuppliedfromeitherrainorsupplementaryirrigation.Theamountofwaterrequired
per hectare for irrigation is about a third to a half less if supplied by drip or undertree micro
irrigation to the area covered by the plant leaf canopy. Remember that coffee needs to be water
stressedforaboutfourtoeightweeksbeforefloweringtogiveastronguniformflowering.Donot
watertreesduringthisperiod.
Intercroppinginyoungcoffee
Interplanting young, nonbearing coffee with vegetables, annual food and cash crops, partly
compensates for the high investment cost of coffee establishment, reduces soil temperature,
smothersweedgrowthandsuppliesthesoilwithadditionalnitrogen(legumes)andorganicmatter
whencropresiduesareturnedbackintothesoil.
Food and cash crops suitable for intercropping include cabbage, peanut, rice, mung bean,
vegetables, green beans, maize, upland rice, pigeon peas and pineapple (Figure 31). Keep a
distance of 24 inches (60 cm) between the coffee and the intercrop to avoid nutrient and water
competition.Insomeinstanceswithcoffeeatloweraltitudes,peppervinesmaybetrainedupsome
of the shade trees. Various fruit trees such as durian, guava, lychee, cinnamon (Cassia spp.),
avocado, low chill stonefruit, citrus and macadamia are sometimes substituted for legume trees.
Theseofcourse,shouldbechosentosuitthealtitude.
Figure31.Youngcoffeetreeswithanintercropoflettuce(topphotograph).Peppervinesusedas
anintercroponestablishedErythrinashadetrees(middlephotograph)withsmallcoffeetreesinthe
centreofthephotograph.
Mature,bearingcoffeedoesnotallowroomforintercropping(bottomphotograph)

Moredetails
Chapter6
Harvestingandprocessing
Harvesting
Careful selection of red cherries at harvesting is essential for good quality coffee. To make
pulpingandgradingeasier,processonlyripe,redcherriesdonotuseamixtureofred,overor
underripe cherries (Figure 32). Potential damage to coffee beans is reduced as the pulping
machinecanbebetteradjustedtotheonetypeofredcherry.
Unripecherriesdowngradecoffeequality
Harvesting for Arabica takes place from November to February (see the crop cycle and field
management charts on pages 90 and 91). Clean, washed bags should be used to collect the
harvested fruits NEVER use bags that have contained fertiliser or other chemicals. Cherries
should be processed the same day as harvesting and should not be mixed with the previous
day'sharvest.Equipmentandsortingareasshouldbecheckeddailyandkeptthoroughlywashed
clean.Anyfermentedpartofcherryfromthepreviousdaywillcontaminatethenewlyharvested
cherries and result in deterioration of the entire batch. Carefully wash and sort cherries before
startingtheprocessingtoremovetwigs,leavesorotherforeignmatter.
Processingfreshcherry
Coffeeprocessingtransformsfreshcoffeecherriesintoclean,greenbeanof12%moistureready
forexportorforroasting.Thisprocessinvolvesharvesting,pulping,fermenting,washing,drying,
hulling, cleaning, grading, sorting, storing and transporting green beans. The process can be
broadlydividedintotwomaincomponentsWetProcessing(cherrytodryparchment)andDry
Processing(dryparchmenttoexportablegreenbean).
It is important to understand that each of these steps has an influence on the final quality of
coffeeproduced.Processingisachainofactivitiesaimedatachievingacoffeeofhighquality.If
anylinkinthechainisbroken(suchasoverfermentation,mouldcontamination,taintsorodours
orphysicaldamagetothebean)thenthatlossinqualitycanneverberegained.
Coffeeprocessingmethods
Threemainprocessingmethodsarethebasisfortherangeofcoffeeprocessingtechniquesused
throughout the world natural, semiwash and fullwash (Figure 33 shows the last two
processes).
Naturalprocess
Thisisaonestepoperationwherethecoffeebeanisdriedinsidethewholecoffeefruitto12%
moisture. The dry cherry is then hulled to produce a dry green bean. This is the low cost,
traditionalsystemresultinginalowqualitycoffee,andisnotrecommended.InMyanmar,except
fortheMFEandlargerplantationswherefullwashprocessingisused,mostsmallholdercoffee
isprocessednaturally.
Fullwashprocess
Theskinofthefreshcherryisphysicallyremovedusingapulpermachinewithadditionofwater
(pulping).Thesugarcoating(mucilage)isallowedtofermentoveronetotwodaysandthenthe
parchmentiswashedthoroughlytoremovealltracesoffermentedmucilage.Theparchmentis
drieduntilthebeaninsidereaches12%moisture.Thisprocesscanproducehighqualitycoffee,
but requires large quantities of water between 0.25 to 1 gal/lb (2 to 10 L/kg) water of fresh
cherry,andrequiresverygoodmanagementofthefermentationandwashingprocesstoensure
thecoffeeflavourisnotdamagedintheprocess.
Semiwashprocess
Theskinofthefreshcherryisphysicallyremovedbyapulpermachinewithadditionofwater,as
with fullwash processing. The mucilage is then removed immediately after pulping using a
demucilager.Notablythisprocessdoesnotfermentthemucilageasitismechanicallyremoved
byademucilager.Immediatelyafterdemucilaging,thecleanparchmentisreadyfordryinguntil
thebeaninsidereaches12%moisture.
Recent studies in Myanmar and Lao have shown that pulper/demucilager units are a cost
efficient and an effective way to consistently produce high quality coffee without the need for
fermentationandwashing.Theseunitstypicallyuseonly8ozwater/lb(0.5L/kg)freshcherryand
reducetheriskofoverfermentationandqualityproblemsinthefinalcoffeeproduct.Whilethere
is an initial capital cost to purchase the pulper and demucilager units, there is no need for
fermentationtanksandwashingsystems.Pulper/demucilagerunitsarerecommendedforsemi
washwetcoffeeprocessing.TheVINACAFEmachineisthecheapestpulper/demucilagertested
andperformsjustaswellasmuchmoreexpensivemachinesfromSouthAmerica.
Figure33.Simplifieddiagramofsemiandfullwashingprocesses
Naturalprocess
Coffeecherriesarelaidoutinthesuntodry
Figure32.Unripe cherries downgrade coffee quality. Do not use a mixture of red, overripe or
underripecherries
ShedandwetprocessingequipmentsuppliedbyFAOprojecttoCRECfortrials,demonstrations
andusebyCREC
Semiwashprocess
Pulperanddemucilagerunitsproducecleanparchmentcoffeereadyfordrying.VINACAFEunit
isshowninphotographandisinexpensiveandgoodforsmallholdersandprocesses0.5MT/hrof
cherry
Demucilagingaddsbodyandcharactertocoffeeliquor
Fullwashprocess
Pulperunitremovesskin
Fullwashprocess
Cherryiswashed,fermentedandwashedagaintoremovethemucilage
Figure34.Theparchmentisdriedonaclean,flatsurfaceinfullsun
Thedryingprocess
Dryingcanbedoneinfullsunonahard,flat,cleansurfacesuchasconcreteslabs,tarpaulins,
mats,raisedtablesortrayswithameshbase(Figure34).Dryingshouldremovemoisturefrom
the coffee bean in a slow continuous process until the bean is at 12% moisture. Drying coffee
directly on soil or dirty surfaces can lead to dirty or earthy flavours in the finished coffee. Re
wettingofthecoffeeorstorageofpartiallydriedcoffeeduetorainisamajorproblemfacingsun
driedcoffee.Dryingcoffeetooslowlybyspreadingittoothicklyondryingareasisalsoamajor
problem.Eachofthesesituationscanleadtofermentedorfruityflavoursinthecoffeealongwith
mouldgrowthproducingmouldyormustyflavours.
The European Coffee Cooperative (ECC)

Guidelines on Processing and Handling of
Coffee to Minimise OTA, provide more
detailedinformation.
Figure 35. Jute bags for storing parchment coffee (top). Woven polybags (below) for green
beansinawarehousethatideallyshouldremainatlessthan65%relativehumidity.Notethelow
ventilationwindowsinthewallontherightinthephotograph
The carcinogenic toxin, Ochratoxin A (OTA)

can also be produced in mouldy coffee.
Mouldy coffee should be avoided in all
circumstances.
Controlling the drying process to ensure that coffee is not overdried is important. Overdried
coffee is easily damaged during hulling and may also result in a bland flavour in the final cup.
Drying cherry coffee may take 18 to 20 days. Parchment coffee dries in about 9 to 10 days.
During the process, coffee must be covered with polythene or plastic sheets if rain occurs and
everynighttostoprewettingthatresultsinmoulddevelopment.Coffeeisfullydrywhengreen
beanisatranslucent,jadegreencolourand12%moisturecontent.Whenbittenwiththeteeth,
thebeanisdrywhenitisbarelymarked,andoverdry(8to10%moisture)ifitbreaks.
Storageofdryparchment
Once parchment has been dried so that the green bean has reached 12% moisture, it can be
stored while the grower/processor decides when it will be sold or hulled. Mould can grow on
stored coffee if it has not been dried sufficiently before storage or if the stored coffee absorbs
moisture from the atmosphere due to humid conditions. This can lead to mouldy or musty
flavours.Storageareasmustbekeptisolatedfromstrongsmellingliquidsuchaspetrolordiesel,
or agricultural fertilisers and chemicals, as stored coffee can take on these odours that will
continuetothefinalcup.
Parchment coffee or dry cherry is stored onfarm in either jute bags (Figure 35) sometimes
covered with polyethylene covers, or in woven polyethylene sacks covered with a polyethylene
sheet, or in special polyethylene bags or silos. If not carefully managed, parchment or green
bean stored in uncovered jute sacks in a moist climate, will absorb moisture and go mouldy.
Poorly ventilated warehouses and relative humidity situations over 65% will create mould
problems.
Hullingandsortingdryparchment
Hullingdryparchmentisamechanicalprocesstoremovethedryparchmentskinandsilverskin
fromthegreenbean(Figure36).Ifthehullerissetincorrectlyorthecoffeeisoverdryandbrittle,
coffee beans can be damaged. If the coffee is too wet the beans can be crushed. There are a
range of machines that are able to clean and sort hulled coffee by colour, size, density and
aerodynamicshape(Figures36to39).Ultimatelythehumaneyeisusedasthefinalprocessto
'handsort' coffee ready for export. However, even with the wide range of machinery available,
coffeethathaspickedupoffflavoursbutotherwiselooksnormal,cannotbesorted,andisonly
identifiedinthecupwhenitistoolate.
Figure36.Hullingmachine(above)andbeanswithparchmentremovedafterhulling(right)
Storageofgreenbean
Stored,greenbeanisverysusceptibletocontaminationfromnearbychemicalsorfuels.Storage
and shipment of green bean in jute sacks that have been made on machinery lubricated with
petroleumoils,canleadtoa'baggy'or'oily'tasteinthecoffee.Useclean,jutesacksspecially
madeforcoffee.
Green bean that is stored for long periods in hot and humid conditions is liable to absorb
moisture from the atmosphere with resultant mould producing musty flavours. To ensure
minimumspoilage,beansinjutesacksorwovenpolybagsshouldbeevenlystackedinawell
ventilated area that remains at less than 65% relative humidity (Figure 35). After some time in
storage,thebeansurfacebeginstooxidiseleadingto'woody'taints.Coffeebeansshouldnotbe
storedforlongerthan12monthsasthebeansfadeandmottle.
Transport
Storage and transport pose similar risks to coffee quality. Rewetting of beans due to leaky
tarpaulins or high humidity inside hot containers standing for long periods in tropical ports, can
resultinthecoffeedevelopingmouldyormustyflavours.Specialtechniquesforhandlingbulkor
baggedgreenbeansforcontainershippingarenowwellknown.
Figure37.Catadorusedtocleancoffeebeansafterhulling
Figure38.Greenbeangradingmachine(left)
Figure39.Adensiometricsortingtable(right)
WashingprocessforArabicacoffee
The following table shows a summary of the fullwash and semiwash processes and potential
problemsforcoffee.
Processstep Factorsreducingquality Potentialproblem
Harvesting Harvestgreencherry Greenorgrassyflavour

cherry
Harvestoverripecherry Fermentedorfruityflavour
Pick fallen old cherries from Fermented or fruity flavours. Mould

theground contamination producing mouldy or
mustyflavours
Hold fresh cherry for long Fermentedorfruityflavours

periodsbeforepulping
Pulping Poor quality pulping Nippedbeanscausingstinkerbeans

cherry equipment or poorly
adjustedequipment
Fermentation Overfermentation Fermented, fruity, sour or onion

flavour
Poor hygiene in Stinkerbeansproducingfoulrottedor

fermentationtanksleavinga sourflavours
small number of extremely
overfermentedbeans
Washing Poor washing leaving Mould growth producing mouldy or

mucilageonparchment mustyflavours
Drying Contaminated by drying on Earthyflavours.Mouldcontamination

parchment the ground or dirty drying producingmouldyormustyflavours
surfaces
Stored partially dry for long Mould growth producing mouldy or

periods or rewet during mustyflavours
drying
Machine drying too fast, too Poor, mottled or faded colour, dull or
hot,oruneven blandflavour
Coffeeisoverdried Poor, faded bean colour. Damages

easilyduringhulling
Storing dried Stored dried parchment too Mould growth producing mouldy or
parchment wet mustyflavours
Stored near fuels or Contaminatedwithfoulodours

chemicals
Hulling dry Incorrecthullersetting Beandamage

parchment
Coffeetoodry Beandamage
Storing Storingtoowet Mould growth producing and mouldy

hulled green ormustyflavours
bean
Stored near fuels or Contaminatewithfoulodours
chemicals
Storedinjutebagsmadeon Contaminated with baggy or oily

machinery lubricated by taints
petroleumoils
Stored in hot humid Mould growth producing mouldy or

conditionforlongperiods musty flavours. Surface oxidation of
beans causing woody flavours.
Fadedbeancolour
Transport Rewetting of coffee due to Mould growth producing mouldy or

leaky tarpaulins or mustyflavours
containers
Stored near fuels or, Contaminatedwithfoulodoursduring

chemicals storage

Moredetails
Chapter7
Qualityassessment
Qualityassessment/improvement
Myanmar in 2003/2004 had a total production area of 35,485 acres with 15,351 acres in
productionofwhich3380MTwasgreenbean.Inthepastfiveyearsthegovernmenthasstrongly
promotedplantingofArabicacoffee,andplantingsofbothsmallholdersandlargerplantationsis
expanding.
Northern Myanmar (Shan States, Mandalay Division, Chin State, Kachin State, Kayin State,
Bogo Division, Rakhine State, Mon State) has the potential to produce large quantities of high
qualityArabicacoffeebyvirtueofitshigh,goodquality,redsoilplateausandothersuitablesoils,
atelevationsabove3300ft(1000m),withawelldistributedrainfallof59to79inches(1500to
2500mm)andadistinctive,essentialdryseason.
For farmers in remote areas, Arabica coffee when wellcared for, gives good incomes, and
because the coffee is largely nonperishable and robust, it transports easily without damage.
Coffee in Myanmar is also planted on sloping land with terraces or grass strips and contour
planting, and when grown under shade is sustainable over long periods, even with low inputs.
SomeoftheearliestplantingsofS795ArabicacoffeeinMyanmargrownunderGrevillearobusta
shadetrees,arestillcapableofproducingreasonableyields,withlowinputsafter75years.
The Government is strongly supporting private investment in coffee, and if the correct varieties
areplantedataltitudesof3300ft(1000m)andhigher,andmanagedandprocessedcorrectly,
MyanmarshouldbeabletoproducehighqualityArabicacoffee.
Currently, most smallholder Arabica coffee is processed as natural dried cherry. At sale, dry
cherry is roughly hulled and cup quality is far from ideal. Plantations of Myanmar Farm
Enterprises (MFE) and two private groups at present are the only ones doing fullwash
processing.
Manyoftheexpandedplantingsofrecentyearsareabouttocomeintosignificantproductionin
2005/2006, and farmers must decide which way these larger volumes of coffee will be
processed.Somearealreadydoingafullwashprocess,butsettingupoffermentationfacilities
andtanksisexpensiveandisverywastefulofwater.Atleast2.5gals(10L)ofwaterareusedto
process2.2lbs(1kg)ofripecherrythatishulled,fermentedandwashedbeforedrying.
Samplehuller(centre)andmoisturemeters(bottom)
Semiwashpulper/demucilagerunitsareavailable(seeChapter6).Thesemachines,especially
theVietnameseVINACAFEpulper/demucilagerunitsareinexpensive,portableanduseverylittle
waterlessthan1pt/2.2lbs(0.5L/kg)offreshcherry.Thecoffeeproducedbythesemachinesis
excellentandofequalorsuperiorqualitywithbetterbodytothatoffullwashcoffee.Semiwash
or demucilaged coffees produce consistently good quality as poorly controlled ferments that
produceoffflavoursareavoided.
Samplegradingscreens
Coffeemaker(top).Kettmoisturemeter(above).Settingupthetablefortastingandevaluating
coffee(right)
TheFAOcoffeeprojecthasbeenparticularlytimelyinemphasisingtheneedtofocuscarefullyon
varieties, location/environment (especially altitude), production, harvesting, handling and new
processing practices to produce high quality coffee. Sidebars show some photos of the
processingequipmentsuppliedbyFAO.TheFAOprojectprovidedCRIETCwithafullyequipped
coffeelaboratoryfortestingandphysicalassessmentofgreenbeansamples,includinghullers,a
Probat sample roaster, grading screens, Santos grinder, drying ovens, pH/conductivity meter,
espressomachineetc.,andfullyequippedwetprocessing(pulpersandpulper/demucilagers)and
dry processing (1 MT/hr hulling, cleaning, grading, and gravimetric table) facilities. The project
alsoprovidedthelab/officefacility,awetprocessingareawithconcretedryingpatios,shedand
storageforparchmentorgreenbeanandameteorologicalstation.
With these facilities, CRIETC is ideally placed to support all technical issues and give advice if
neededfortheemerginghighqualityArabicaindustry.
Qualityevaluationprocess
Inanefforttostandardizetheprocessofevaluatingthecupqualityofcoffeesamples,theproject
chosetousethequalityevaluationprocessdescribedintheCoffee Cuppers HandbookbyTed
Lingle (Third edition, 2001) and published by the Specialty Coffee Association of America
(SCAA).
The SCAA approach is a systematic, sensory evaluation process of a coffee. The process is
dividedintofiveevaluationstepswitheachstepscoringfrom1to10points.Asixthstepisadded
togivethecoffeeaCupper'sPointorBalancescorefrom5to+5.Forconvenience,50pointsis
thenaddedtotheresultingscoretogiveascoreoutof100.
SixstepSCAAevaluationprocess
Step Rankingon Rating Scalerange
1 Fragrance of the ground coffee + Preference 1to10 very poor to

Aromaofthecoffeeliquor outstanding
2 Acidityoftheliquor Intensity 1to10 very flat to

verybright
3 Flavouroftheliquor Preference 1to10 very poor to

verybright
4 Bodyofliquor Intensity 1to10 thintoheavy
5 Aftertasteoftheliquor Preference 1to10 very poor to

outstanding
6 CuppersPointsorBalance Taster's overall 5 to very poor to

preference +5 outstanding
As a guideline, this SCAA scoring system should correlate to the SCAA Green Coffee
ClassificationChartwhere:
Class1SpecialtyGradeshouldreceive90to100+points
Class2PremiumGradeshouldreceive80to89points
Class3ExchangeGradeshouldreceive70to79points
Class4BelowStandardGradeshouldreceive60to69points
Class5OffGradeshouldreceive50to59points
Grindingcoffee
CupqualityevaluationofMyanmarcoffees
ProjectspecialistshavethoroughlytrainedCRIETCstaffincuppingaswellasnatural,fullwash
and semiwash processing methods and all dry processing and sampling/moisture testing
methods.
The project processed a range of Arabica and Catimor varieties from various altitudes, in a
standard way and sent samples to international and local buyers and roasters for assessment.
ThecoffeesampleswerecollectedasripecherryfromfarmersandprocessedatCRIETCusing
a fullwash, wet process. Samples selected for assessment by buyers/roasters, were first
assessedbyFAOInternationalconsultantsandCRIETCstaff.
Fortysixcoffeesampleswereproducedduring2003/04seasonand61samplesduring2004/05.
It was not feasible to have all samples internationally tested, so a random selection of coffee
(processedusingthestandardfullwash)fromarangeofregionsandvarietieswasselectedfor
internationalevaluation.Tensamplesfromthe2003/04productionweretastedbyCRIETCstaff
andinternationalconsultants.Thesesampleswereofverygoodquality,butunfortunatelywere
damagedduringstorageandcouldnotbeassessedoverseasduetooffflavours.Thetableon
page56showstheresultsofCRIETCevaluationsbeforedamagetosamples.
Sevensamplesfromthe2004/05productionwereevaluatedbyinternationalcoffeebuyersand
experts. The selected samples represented coffee from high altitude 4200 to 4600 ft (1300 to
1400m),mediumaltitude3200to3600ft(1000to1100m)andloweraltitude2600ft(800m).
Thetableonpage55showstheinternationalevaluationresults.
ThemainpurposeofinternationalcupevaluationswastodetermineiftheCRIETCcuppinglab
findings correlated with international findings. International cup evaluations gave some general
valuestothevariouscoffeesinrelationtotheNewYork'C'forArabicaandcommentsongeneral
qualityandprocessing,asthesecoffeesarevirtuallyunknownoutsideMyanmar.AllInternational
evaluators used their own commercial terms to describe coffees tested, which made it more
difficult to get specific correlations with the CRIETC lab. CRIETC cupping lab results were the
combinedresultsofgroupcuppingsessionsheldwithinternationalconsultantsandkeyCRIETC
staff.
Sampleroaster(top)andmakingexpresso(bottomphotograph)
Coffeeroastingchart
ConclusionsforthecuppingresultsfromtheCRIETClabwerethat:
the CRIETC lab is proficient at recognizing taints and offflavours, and personnel
understandminimalinternationalqualityrequirementsforacleancoffee.
detection of clean coffee attributes such as acidity and body between CRIETC lab and
internationalevaluationscorrelatedreasonablywell.
CRIETC lab gave higher scores for acidity where international testers rated all coffee
samplesasquitelowonaworldcoffeeacidityscale.
international tasters indicate that some coffees approach Specialty grading while others
arealreadyataPremiumgradingofSCAA.
charactercanbearelativetermincoffeetastingwithvariouscomplexflavoursdeveloped
byuniqueprocesses.Thisoftenresultsinverydifferentinterpretations,particularlywhen
cuptastershaveacommercialinterestratherthanapurelytechnicalinterestinthecoffee.
Thus dirty or earthy aromas and flavours to one buyer, can be considered as complex,
interestingandverydesirabletoanother.
there was generally firm agreement among the international buyers of what they
consideredthebestandtheleastdesirablecoffees.
Myanmarinternationalcoffeetastingassesments2004/2005
Variety, CRIETC Golden Holland Ecom IllyCafe

Location Triangle Coffee Trading
&Altitude
A Catimor Clean 2 Excellent. 1 Low acidity. 1 Best coffee. 1 Green

528 coffee. Good Medium/good Good body.
Mogok, Very body and body. Good Not much
4265ft good flavour. prep. Good character.
acidity. Positive flavour:floral, Score:
Good acidity littledry 70/100
body
and
flavour.
Score:
79.5/100
B S795 Good 4 Good 3 Low acidity. 3 Good body. 2 Good.

Pwedaung clean coffee. Medium/good Not much More
farm 3600 coffee. More body. Good character scratched
ft 20 days Medium neutral prep. Good Score: beans
drying* acidity, and less flavour 69.1/100 than
body body. other
and Very little samples
flavour. acidity
Score:
78/100
C S795 Dirty 7 Peasy 5 Low acidity. 7 Good body. 3 No good.

Ywangan, coffee, cup.Less Medium/good Light Stinker,
4265ft+ old, body. No body. Ok citric/flowery woody
stale. acidity prep. character jutetaste
Low Flavour: Score:
acidity grassy, dirty, 68.5/100
and gritty harsh,
strange earthy
after astringent.
taste. Notgood
Score:
68/100
D S795 Good 5 Excellent. 2 Low acid. 4 Good body. 4 Woody

Pwedaung clean Good Medium/good Not much taste but
farm, coffee. body and body. Good character. good
3600 ft 12 Medium flavour. prep. Flat Score aroma
days acidity, Positive Flavour: a 68.5/100 andbody
drying* body acidity little thin, flat,
and astringent
flavour.
Score:
77/100
E Catimor Clean 3 Good 4 Low/medium 5 Good body. 6 Dirty. No

8667 coffee. coffee. acid.Medium Pleasant particular
Greenland Good More body. Good not harsh, flavour
farm, acidity, neutral prep. smoky
3600ft body and less Flavour: a character.
and body. little thin, flat, Score
flavour. Very little astringent 66/100
Score: acidity
80/100
F Catimor Clean 6 Peasy 6 Low acidity. 6 Good body. 7 Fruity

Vietnam coffee. cup.Less Good body. Curious not a
Banbwe, Medium body. No Faded prep. light defect
2821ft body, acidity Flavour: citric/flowery
low grassy gritty, character
acidity, harsh earthy Score:
flat flat 65.7/100
flavour.
Score:
75/100
G S795 Good 1 Nothing 7 Low acidity. 2 Good body, 5 Fruity

Pwedaung clean special. Good body. not much not a
farm 3600 coffee. Very Good prep. character, defect
ft 30 days Good neutral Flavour: really flat.
drying* body, good, clean Score:
acidity, strong but 66.67/100
and mellow,
flavour. pleasant
Score:
83.5/100
* indicates 3 samples (B, D, G) from the same source of coffee (Pwedaung S 795) under the
sameprocessbutwithdifferentdryingtimes12,20,30days.
+indicatescoffeenotprocessedbyCRIETC.Theoutsideprocessingwasnotwellcontrolled.
Score is the agreed consensus of CRIETC lab with FAO international consultants using the
SCAAcoffeequalityevaluationsystem.
Summarisedcommentsfrominternationalcompanies
Someofthesecoffeeswouldmakeitintothespecialitymarket.Thevalueof
the good samples (A, G) should be around minus 10 cents level NY 'C' on
basisFOB.Theothersampleswouldbeminus20cents.
Priceindicationsfromanotherbuyer:A,B8to+4,C,F6,G8,FOBbasis
againstNY'C'(cents/lb).
Anothercompanythoughtthatgenerally,therewasgoodbodythroughoutthe
coffeesbutnotmuchcharacter.
Theinternationalcompaniesconsideredthecoffeeshadlowacidity.
CRIETCevaluationswithinternationalconsultants
Sample Variety, location, CRIETCevaluations Rank

altitude
1 S795 Goodbalancedcoffee 1
Chaungue Plantation, Score:78/100
3772ft(1150m)
2 S795 Goodcoffeewithalittlelessbodythan 3
Pwedaung,3740ft(1140 No.1
m) Score:77/100
3 S795 Good coffee. Good acidity, but less 4

Ywangan, 4265 ft (1300 bodythanNo.1
m) Score:77/100
4 Catimor528 Faircoffee.MediumAcidityandbody 8
KyawAgZawAg,3608ft Score:75/100
(1100m)
5 Caturrared Mediumacidityandbody 6
Doekwin, 3608 ft (1100 Score:75/100
m)
6 SL34U Mediumacidityandbody 7
KyawSein,3608ft(1100 Score:75/100
m)
7 Catimor528 Goodcoffeewithhighacidity 2
7 Catimor528 Goodcoffeewithhighacidity 2
Mogok,4593ft(1400m) Score:78/100
8 Catimor8667 Large beans for Catimor. Medium 5

Greenland,3600ft(1100 acidityandbody
m) Score:76/100
9 CatimorLaos Fair coffee. Medium to low body and 10

SPZPyinOoLwin,3600 acidity.Lackscharacter
ft(1100m) Score:73/100
10 CatimorVietnam Fair coffee. Medium to low body and 9

SPZPyinOoLwin,3600 acidityLackscharacter
ft(1100m) Score:74/100

Moredetails
Chapter8
Qualityandexportstandards
AtpresentMyanmarhasnoofficialexportqualitystandard.Inthefuture,astandardwillneedto
beadoptedandenforcedasanationalcoffeequalityexportstandardtoassistqualitycoffeeto
be better graded, to receive higher prices than low quality coffee, and attain a reputation for
consistent,highqualitycoffee.
Eachcoffeeexportingcountryusuallyhasitownsetofstandardsdevelopedarounditsparticular
coffee industries. These standards might be unique to each country, but must also be
understandable to local and international buyers so they can base their coffee purchases on
descriptionsofcoffeefromeachcountry.Coffeestandardsusuallycoverphysicaldefects,bean
size, bean appearance and cup quality. Even with standards in place, internationally traded
coffeeisnormallysoldsubjecttothebuyerreceivingarepresentativesampleofcoffeebeforethe
contractisfinalised.
Understandingcoffeequalitystandards
A good basis for understanding coffee quality standards is the ICO (International Coffee
Organization) minimum standards for coffee as set down in ICC Resolution No. 407/02 of 1
February2002.
Resolutionnumber407ApprovedatthePlenaryMeeting,1stFebruary2002
CoffeeQualityImprovementProgrammeImplementation
WHEREAS: By Resolution number 406 the International Coffee Council established a Quality
Committee to be responsible for drafting and presenting, through the Executive Board,
recommendationstotheCouncilforaCoffeeQualityImprovementProgrammeTheCommittee
has agreed a series of recommendations contained in document EB3806/02 The Executive
Board has considered these recommendations and modified them in the light of comments
received and In the light of these recommendations as modified by the Board it is deemed
appropriate to take the necessary steps to implement the Programme, THE INTERNATIONAL
COFFEECOUNCILRESOLVES:
SequencingoftheProgramme
1.TheProgrammeshallcompriseafirststagethatshallcommenceon1October2002.Inorder
tomakeanassessmentoftheProgramme,itsprogress,costsandimpactonqualityandprices
shallbereviewedinSeptember2003.
ICC Resolution No. 407/02 1 February 2002 Original: English 2 Action from 1 October
2002
A.Minimumstandardsforexportablecoffee
2.ExportingMembersshallnotexportcoffeethat:
(a) for Arabica, has in excess of 86 defects per 300 g sample (New York green
coffee classification/Brazilian method, or equivalent) and, for Robusta, has in
excessof150defectsper300g(Vietnam,Indonesia,orequivalent)
(b) for both Arabica and Robusta, has a moisture content below 8 percent or in
excessof12.5percent,measuredusingtheISO6673method.
3.Wheremoisturepercentagesbelow12.5percentarecurrentlybeingachieved,Membersshall
endeavourtoensurethatthesearemaintainedordecreased.
4. Exceptions to the 12.5 percent maximum moisture content shall be permitted for speciality
coffees that traditionally have a high moisture content, e.g. Indian Monsooned coffees. Such
coffeesshallbeclearlyidentifiedbyaspecificgradenomenclature.
B.CertificatesofOrigin
5.ExportingMembersshallonlyissueICOCertificatesofOriginforconsignmentsofcoffeethat
meetboththeminimumdefectandmoisturestandards.
C.CooperationbyimportingMembersinverifyingcompliance
6. Importing Members shall make their best endeavours to support the objectives of the
Programme.
D.Measurestobetakenincasesofnoncompliance
7.Ifcoffeefailingtocomplywiththeabovestandardsisidentifiedthroughthenormalcourseof
trade,importingMembersshallendeavourtonotifytheICOofsuchshipments.
1Asanexampleofwhatismeantby'equivalent',20brokenbeansshallbeconsideredasequal
to1defectratherthan5brokenbeansperdefectinthecaseofcoffeescontaininglargenumbers
of broken beans arising naturally, as a feature of a particular cultivar. Such coffees shall be
clearlyidentifiedbyaspecificgradenomenclature.
E. Measures for controlling the application of the standards in exporting Member

countries
8.EachexportingMembershalldevelopandimplementnationalmeasureswhichensurethatno
exportsofgreencoffeefailtomeetexportablestandards.
9. Exporting Members shall also endeavour to ensure that substandard green coffee is not
includedinthemanufactureofprocessedcoffee(roastedandsoluble)thatisexported.
EOthermeasures
Alternativeuses
11. Members shall seek immediately to identify sources of external finance from appropriate
institutionsforstudiesandmeasuresthatsupporttheimplementationoftheProgrammeand,in
particular,effortstoidentifyandputintopracticecosteffectivealternativeusesforcoffeeofnon
exportablequality.
12. The need for a continuation of such studies and measures shall be assessed following a
reviewinSeptember2003.
Labelling
12.AllcoffeesuppliedforexportshallbelabelledtoindicatethatitiscoffeeasdefinedinArticles
2 and 36 of the International Coffee Agreement 2001. Coffee byproducts shall be labelled as
such.
Reporting
13. Members shall report to the Council on the measures they have taken to implement this
Resolution and inform the Council of any difficulties in this connection. If such be the case the
Council, if so requested by a Member, may agree to give that Member time to resolve such
difficulties.
ExcerptfromNYBOTCoffee"C"Rules
APPENDIX II: Procedures for grading coffee and issuance of certificates of grade, as
quotedinEuropeanCoffeeCooperationpublicationof11January2005entitledOTARisk
ManagementforGreenCoffeeBuying.
(f)MinimumStandards
TheminimumstandardsfordeliveryundertheCoffee"C"FuturesContractareasfollows:
(1)Thecoffeeissoundinthecup
(2)Thecoffeeisofgoodroastingquality
(3)Thecoffeeisofsuchbeansizethat(i)fiftypercent(50%)ofthecoffeesampled
screensfifteen(15)orlarger,and(ii)nomorethanfivepercent(5%)ofthecoffee
sampledscreensbelowfourteen(14)
(4)Thecoffeeisgreenishandfreeofforeignodorsand
(5)Thecoffeecontainsnomorethanfifteen(15)fullimperfectionsbelowthebasis,
except that in the case of Colombian coffee the maximum number of full
imperfectionsbelowthebasisshallbeten(10).
(g)ScheduleofImperfections
(1)Thefollowingconstituteone(1)fullimperfection:
one(1)fullblack
one(1)fullsour
one(1)podorcherry
five(5)shells
five(5)brokenorcutbeans
two (2) to five (5) partly black or partly sour beans, depending upon the extent to
whicheachbeanisdiscoloredorspoiled
five(5)floaters
three(3)stickssmallerthanonehalf(1/2)inch
one(1)stickranginginsizefromonehalf(1/2)inchtoone(1)inch
three(3)stonespassingthroughascreensizebelowtwelve(12)
one(1)stonepassingthroughascreensizenosmallerthantwelve(12)
two(2)tothree(3)hullsorhusks,dependinguponsizeand
two(2)tothree(3)parchments,dependinguponsize.
(2)Thefollowingconstitutetwo(2)fullimperfections:
one(1)stickranginginsizefromone(1)inchtotwo(2)inchesandone(1)stone
passingthroughascreensizenosmallerthansixteen(16).
(3)Thefollowingconstitutethree(3)fullimperfections:
one(1)sticklargerthantwo(2)inchesand
one(1)stonepassingthroughascreensizeovertwenty(20).
(4)Anyadditionalnoncoffeeitemshallbeone(1)fullimperfection.
(h)ScheduleofBases
Forpurposesoftheseprocedures,thebasesofvariousgrowthsofcoffeeareasfollows:
(1) Coffee of Guatemala, Salvador, Mexico, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras,

Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Venezuela, Dominican
Republic, Burundi, Ecuador, India, Rwanda and Panama eight (8) full
imperfectionsand
(2)CoffeeofColombiathirteen(13)fullimperfections.
ExcerptfromLIFFERobustaFuturesContract
5.GradesTenderable
5.01 Subject to these Contract terms, coffee of CTML standard grade shall be tenderable at
basisoratthediscountshownbelow:
Type1:upto150defectsper500gatbasis
Type2:from151to250defectsper500gatadiscountofUS$15pertonne
Type3:from251to350defectsper500gatadiscountofUS$30pertonne
or
Type4:from351to450defectsper500gatadiscountofUS$45pertonne.
5.02Defectsshallbecountedasfollows:
(a)inrespectofalotgradedpriorto1February2000:
Defect Numberof
defects
1blackbean,orpodorcherry 1
2halfblacks,sourbeans,parchmentsorlargehusks 1
1largestone(1cmdiameter) 5
1mediumstone(about5mmdiameter) 2
2smallstonesorpiecesofearth 1
1largestick(3cmlength) 5
1mediumstick(2cmlength) 2
2smallsticks(1cmlength) 1
5 broken beans, shells withered, green or unripe beans, bleached beans, 1
smallpieceshusk
1mouldybean 50
Insectdamagedbeans:
2beanshalfeatenaway 1
5beansslightlyeatenaway 1
Extraneousmatter,peritem 1
(ormoreatgraders'discretion)
(b)inrespectofalotgradedwitheffectfrom1February2000:
1blackbean,orpod,orcherry 1
2halfblacks,sourbeans,parchmentorlargehusks 1
1largestone(1cmdiameter) 5
1mediumstone(about5mmdiameter) 2
2smallstonesorpiecesofearth 1
1largestick(3cmlength) 5
1mediumstick(2cmlength) 2
2smallsticks(1cmlength) 1
5brokenbeans,shellswithered,greenor
unripebeans,bleachedbeans,smallpieceshusk 1
1partiallymouldybean(i.e.lessthan50%mould) 1/2
1fullymouldybean(i.e.50%mouldormore) 1
Insectdamagedbeans:
2beanshalfeatenaway 1
5beansslightlyeatenaway 1
Extraneousmatter,peritem 1
5.03Coffeecontainingmorethan25percentpassingthroughscreen14roundandlessthan10
percentpassingthroughscreen12roundshallbetenderableatadiscountofUS$60pertonne.
6.UntenderableCoffee
6.01Coffeeisnottenderableif:
(a)ithasmorethan450defectsper500g
(b)itisunsound,i.e.foranyreasonotherthanthosealreadylisted,asdetermined
bythegraders
(c)itcontainsmorethan10percentpassingthroughscreen12round
or
(d)inrespectofalotgradedwitheffectfrom1February2000,ithasmorethan5
fullymouldyor10partiallymouldybeansoranycombinationthereofsuchthatthe
totalexceedstheequivalentof5fullymouldybeansper500g.
ExcerptfromEuropeanCoffeeCooperationOTARiskManagement:Guidelines for green

coffeebuying.11Jan2005.
GreencoffeeDeterminationoflossinmassat105C
1Scopeandfieldofapplication
ThisInternationalStandardspecifiesamethodforthedeterminationofthelossin
mass at 105C of green coffee. It is applicable to decaffeinated and non
decaffeinatedgreencoffeeasdefinedinISO3509.Thismethodofdeterminingthe
loss in mass can be considered, by convention, as a method of determining the
water content and can be used as such by agreement between the interested
parties,butitgivesresultswhicharelowerbyabout1.0%thanthoseobtainedwith
themethodsdescribedinISO1447andISO1446(thislattermethodservesonly
asareferencemethodforcalibratingmethodsofdeterminingthewatercontent).
2References
ISO 1446, Green coffee Determination of moisture content (basic reference

method).
ISO 1447, Green coffee Determination of moisture content (routine reference
method).
ISO 3509, Coffee and its products Vocabulary. ISO 4072, Coffee in bags
Sampling.
3Definition
Lossinmassat105Cfor16hatatmosphericpressure.
4Principle
Heatingatestportionat105Cfor26hoursatatmosphericpressure.
5Apparatus
Usuallaboratoryapparatus,andinparticular:
5.1Oven,electricallyheatedfittedwithasystemofforcedventilationandcapable
ofbeingcontrolledat1051C.
5.2 Dish, made of aluminium, glass or stainless steel with a closefitting lid. The
diametershouldbeapproximately90mmandtheheight20to30mm.
5.3Analyticalbalance
5.4 Dessicator, containing an efficient desiccant, for example, anhydrous calcium,

sulphateorsilicagel.
6Sampling
SeeISO4072
Itisimportanttoproceedasrapidlyaspossiblewhensampleareexposedtotheatmosphere,in
ordertopreventanypickuporlossofmoisture.
7Procedure
7.1Preparationofthedish
Drythedishanditslidforonehourintheovencontrolledat1051C.Remove
the dish and lid from the oven and allow to cool to room temperature in the
desiccator.Weighthedishanditslidtothenearest0.1mg.
7.2Testportion
Placeatestportionofapproximately10gintothepreparationdishandspreadthe
beansuniformlyoverthebottomofthedish.Coverthedishwithitslidandweighto
thenearest0.1mg.
Note.Ifperformingaseriesoftests,preparedishesasdescribedin7.1andplace
the covered and weighed dishes in the desiccator in order to avoid and pickup of
lossofmoisture.
7.3Determination
Place the dish containing the test portion, with the lid removed but alongside or
beneaththedish,intheoven,controlledat1051C,anddryfor160.5h.
Fitthelidonthedishandplaceinthedesiccator.Allowtocooltoroomtemperature
andtheweightothenearest0.1mg.
7.4Numberofdetermination
Carryouttwodeterminationsonthesametestsample.
8Expressionofresults
Thelossinmassat105Cexpressedasapercentagebymassisequalto:
where
m0isthemass,ingramsofthedishandlid(7.1)
m1isthemass,ingramsofthedish,testportionandlidbeforedrying(7.2)
m2isthemass,ingramsofthedish,testportionandlidafterdrying(7.3)
Takeastheresultthearithmeticmeanofthetwodeterminations(7.4).
9Precision
an interlaboratory test, carried out at the international level, in which 14 laboratories, each
performing two determinations, participated, gave the statistical information (evaluated in
accordancewithISO5725[1])summarisedinthetable.
10Testreport
The test report shall show the method used and the result obtained. It shall also mention any
operatingdetailsnotspecifiedinthisInternationalStandard,orregardedasoptional,aswellas
any circumstances that may have influenced the result. The test report shall include all the
informationrequiredforcompleteidentificationofthesample(tablebelow).
Tableresultsexpressedaspercentagebymass
Sample A B C D E
Number or laboratories retained after eliminating 13.0 13.0 13.0 13.0 13.0
others
Mean 8.50 9.11 9.14 11.10 11.40
Standarddeviationofrepeatability(s1) 0.09 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.12
Coefficientofvariationofrepeatability 1.1% 0.4% 0.7% 0.8% 1.1%
Repeatability(2.83xs1) 0.25 0.11 0.17 0.25 0.34
Standarddeviationofreproducibility(sR) 0.21 0.42 0.33 0.19 0.22
Coefficientofvariationofreproducibility 2.5% 4.6% 3.6% 1.7% 1.9%
ReproducibilityRepeatability(2.83xsR) 0.59 1.19 0.93 0.54 0.62
(Excerpt from European Coffee Cooperation OTA Risk Management: Guidelines for Green
CoffeeBuying11Jan2005).
ISOInternationalStandard40721982(E)
ExcerptfromEuropeanCoffeeCooperationOTARiskManagement:Guidelinesforgreencoffee
buying11Jan2005
1Scopeandfieldofapplication
This International Standard specifies a method of sampling a consignment of green coffee,

shipped in ten bags or more, for the purpose of examination to determine whether the
consignmentcomplieswithacontractspecification.
1.2Themethodmayalsobeusedforthepreparationofasampleintended:
a)toserveasabasisforanofferforsale
b) for examination to verify that the coffee to be offered for sale satisfies the
producer'ssalesspecification
c)forexaminationtodetermineoneormoreofthecharacteristicsofthecoffeefor
technical,commercial,administrativeandarbitrationpurposes
d)forqualitycontrolorqualityinspection
e)forretentionasareferencesampleforuseifrequiredinlitigation.
1.3ThisInternationalStandardappliestogreencoffeeinbags,asdefinedinISO3509.
2References
ISO3509,CoffeeanditsproductsVocabularyISO6666,Coffeetriers[2].
3Definitions
ForthepurposeofthisInternationalStandard,thefollowingdefinitionsapply:
3.1 Consignment. The quality of green coffee in bags dispatched or received at one time and
covered by a particular contract or shipping document. It may be compressed or one or more
lots.
3.2Lot.Apartofaconsignment,oraconsignment,presumedtobeofuniformcharacteristics,
consisting of not more than 1000 bags of the same type, with the same marls and mass,
containing green coffee assumed to have common properties of reasonably uniform character
andtowhichagivenschemeorexaminationcanbeapplied.
3.3Damagedbags.Bagswhisharetorn,stained,soiledorotherwisedetectablycontaminated,
indicatingpossibledamagetothecoffeecontainedinthem.
3.4 Sample. A part of a lot, from which the properties of the lot are to be estimated by
examination.
3.5 Increment primary sample. The quantity of 30 6 g of green coffee beans taken from a
singlebagoraspecificlot.
3.6Bulksamplelotsample.Thequantityofnotlessthan1500gofgreencoffeebeansobtained
bycombiningalltheincrements(3.5)takenfromthebagsofaspecificlot.
3.7 Blended bulk sample blended lot sample. The quantity of green coffee beans obtained by
combiningandblendingalltheincrements(3.5)takenfrombagsofaspecificlot.
3.8Laboratorysamplefinalsample.Thequantityofnotlessthan300gofgreencoffeebeans
removedfromtheblendedbulksample(3.7)ofaspecificlot.
4Administrativearrangements
4.1Samplingpersonnel
Samplingshallbecarriedoutbyexperiencedsamplersorsamplersqualifiedbytraining,orshall
becarriedoutbyspecializedsamplingorganizations.
4.2 Sampling shall be carried out on each lot in a place designed to protect the samples, the
sampling apparatus and the containers and packages intended to receive the samples, from
adventitious contamination, rain, etc. Special care shall be taken to ensure that the sampling
apparatusisclean,dryandfreefromforeignodours.
Thesamplershallnoteanyevidenceofdamagedbagsorpotentialcontamination.
1)Atpresentatthestageofdraft
4.3Samplingreport
Afterpreparationofthesamples,asamplingreportshallbeprepared(seeclause11).
5Identificationandgeneralinspectionofthelotpriortosampling
Beforeanysamplesaretaken,positivelyidentifythelot.
6Principleofthemethodofsampling
The method specified follows an established scheme of an arbitrary nature, based on

experience.
7Apparatus
7.1 Coffee trier. A special device for removing coffee through the bag wall without opening the
bag,asspecifiedinISO6666.
8Samplecontainersandpackages
The containers and packages mentioned in 4.2, together with their closure systems, shall be
clean and dry and shall be made from materials which will not affect the odour, flavour or
composition of the samples. They shall be sufficiently robust to withstand hazards during
transportbythechosenmethodandshallhavetheabilitytopreservethesamplesunchangedfor
theappropriateperiod.
9Procedure
9.1Takingincrements
9.1.1 Unless there is a stipulation to the contrary in the contract, the number of bags selected
fromalotforthepurposesoftakingincrementsof306g(see3.5)shallbenotlessthan10if
thereare10to100bagsinthelot,andshallbenotlessthan10%ofthetotaliftherearemore
than100bagsinthelot.
9.1.2 The increments shall be taken at random from individual bags from different locations on
the pile, using the coffee trier (7.1). Each bag should preferably be sampled at three different
points.
NOTES
1 Damaged bags should be separated from the remainder of the lot. They may be sampled
separatelyandincrementskeptseparate(see9.2.1).
2Inordertoobtainabulksampleof1500g(see3.6),itmaybenecessarytotakemorethan
threeincrementsfromeachbag.
9.2Preparationofsamples
9.2.1Bulksample
Examinetheincrementsastheyaretaken.Iftheyareevidentlyhomogeneous,combinethemin
a container. Label the bulk sample obtained (see clause 10). If there is a noticeable lack of
uniformity among any of the increments, keep them separate and report this condition in the
samplingreport(seeclause11).Samplestakenfromdamagedbagsshallnotbeincludedinthe
bulksample(seenote1to9.1.2)
9.2.2Blendedbulksample
Removethebulksample(9.2.1)fromitscontainerandthoroughlymixit.
9.2.3Laboratorysamples
Prepareeachlaboratorysamplebyremovingaquantityofnotlessthan300gfromtheblended
bulksample(9.2.2).Packandlabeleachlaboratorysampleobtained(see33clause10).
10Packingandmarketingofsamples
10.1Precautionstobetakenwhenpackingsamples.Samplesintendedforthedeterminationof
moisture content, or for any other test liable to be influenced by an alteration of the moisture
content,shallbepackedinmoistureproofcontainersfittedwithairtightclosures.Thecontainers,
in the case, shall be completely filled with green coffee and the closures shall be sealed to
preventlossoralterationofthecontainers.
NOTE For the examination of quality characteristic that are not liable to be influenced by an
alterationofthemoisturecontent,separatesamplesshouldbetakenandplacedinappropriate
containerswhichallowaccessofair.
10.2Marketing
The sample s shall be identified by recording the following information on the container or
package,oronalabelaffixedtothecontainerorpackage,unlessotherwisespecified:
1)Dateofsampling
2)Nameofsamplerandemployer
3)Shippingdocumentorcontractnumber
4)Ship(orothertransportvehicle)
5)Locationofcoffee
6)Identifyingmarksandnumbers(includingtheoriginofthecoffee)
7)Numberofbagsinthelot
8)Massofthesample
11Samplingreport
Thesamplingreportshallgiveallinformationrelevanttothemethodofsamplingandshallrefer
tothepresenceofdamagedbags,thetype(s)ofdamageandapproximatenumberofdamaged
bagsinthelot.Anyotherpertinentobservationconcerningtheconditionofthelotshallalsobe
included.
The report shall refer to the conditions in the location of the lot, especially with regard to any
potentiallycontaminatingmaterialinthevicinity.
12Precautionsduringstorageandtransport
12.1 Laboratory samples shall be dispatched to the place of examination as soon as possible
after preparation and only in exceptional circumstances, more than 48 hours after preparation,
nonbusiness days excluded.A copy of the sampling report (see clause 11) shall be sent with
them.
12.2Aftertakingthelaboratorysamples,therestoftheblendedbulksamplefromeachlotshall
be retained in a container labelled in accordance with 10.2 for further use if necessary
(inspection,etc.),untilfinalacceptanceoftheconsignmentbythepurchaser.
QualityandOTAguidelines
Myanmarisencouragedtosetupitsownstandardsforcoffeequalityforexportusingtheabove
excerptsasguidelinesinconsultationwiththeInternationalCoffeeOrganizationStandardsand
GuidelinesonCoffeeQuality.
Mould and Ochratoxin A (OTA) minimisation through good handling practices should also be
consulted.NationalmaximumlimitsforOTAinpartsperbillionarequotedfromECCGuidelines.
Myanmar needs to carefully take note of ways to minimise OTA in coffee (see page 54 for the
excerpt,OTARiskManagement:GuidelinesforGreenCoffeeBuying11January2005.
The carcinogenic toxin, Ochratoxin A (OTA) can be produced in mouldy coffee. All necessary
stepsshouldbetakentoavoidthisproblem(seepage44fordetails)
NationalmaximumlimitsforOchratoxinA
Green Roasted Instant
CzechRepublic 10 10 10
Finland 5 5 5
Germany 3 6
Greece 20
Hungary 15 10 10
Italy 8 4 4
Netherlands 10 10
Portugal 8 4 4
Spain 8 4 4
Switzerland 5 5 5
[1] ISO 5725, Precision of test methods Determination of repeatability and reproducibility by
interlaboratorytests.
[2]Atpresentatthedraftstage

Moredetails
Chapter9
Pestsanddiseases
Insectpests
Greencoffeescale
Greencoffeescale(Coccusviridis)isacommonandseriousproblem.Scalessucktheplantsap
resultinginreducedgrowthandcropyield.Sootymould(ablack,loose,sootylikecover)often
developsonleaves.Itgrowsonthesweetexudatefromthescales(honeydew)thatalsoattracts
ants. There are two species of green coffee scale in Myanmar. Both species are similar in
appearance but occur at different altitudes. C. viridus (more common) is found below 4000 ft
(1200m)andC.alpinusabovethatlevel.
Scale. Green coffee scale on leaf (above) ants, black sooty mould and scale (top left) and
severeinfestationonbranch(left)
Symptoms
Greenovalshapedscalesabout2to3mmlong.Oftenfoundconcentratedonleafveinsandtips
ofnewshoots.Infestationsthenproducespotsofhoneydew,whichbecomecoveredwithablack
sootymould.Defoliationofbadlyaffectedtreescanoccur.
Control
Preventative:
Thereareanumberofnaturalpredatorsofcoffeescalesuchaswasps,ladybugsandVerticillium
fungus.Inmanyinstances,thesewillreducethelevelofscaleinfestation.
Chemical:
Mineral spraying oils at 7 floz/4 gal (200 ml/18 L) water applied as a spray to affected plants.
Onlysprayif10ormoreleavesareinfestedwithoneormorescales.Thespraymustcompletely
wetandcoverthescales.Donotuseautomotiveoil!
Carbaryl85%wettablepowderat2/3oz/2gal(20g/9L)waterappliedasaspray.Applyweekly
untilscalesdisappear.
Traditional:
2.2lbs(1kg)strongtobaccoper0.5gal(2.3L)water.Soakfor2nights.Thenremovetobacco.
Add 1 lb (455 g) of washing powder and make up to 4 gal (18 L). Spray weekly until scales
disappear.
Aphids
Aphids (Toxoptera aurantii) can occur in large numbers on new shoots in the rainy season.
Aphidssucksapfromyoungshootsandcausedamagetothesedevelopingshoots.
Symptoms
Large numbers of small black aphids (2 to 3 mm long) concentrated on new growth. Often
associatedwithblacksootymould.
Control
Generallynotwarranted.
Chemical:
Mix0.3to0.6floz(10to20ml)Neemoil,plus2teasp(7g)soft,finelygratedlaundrysoapin
about 35 oz (1 L) water. Spray the plant taking care to cover all the underside of leaves and
developingshoots.
Stemborers
Stemborerdamage.Redstemborer(top),whitestemborer(centre),generalseveredamageina
field(bottom)
TherearetwospeciesofstemborerpresentinMyanmar.
Red stemborer (Zeuzera coffeae). The adult has white and black spotted wings. The red
colouredlarvaetunnelthroughthecoffeebranches,normallyintheupperpartofthecoffeetrees.
Branchesandthetoppartofthemainstemeasilybreakoff,butthetreeusuallysurvives.
Whitestemborer(Xylotrechusquadripes).Theadultisablackandwhitebandedbeetle(about1
to2cmlong)theheadofthemalebeetlehasdistinctiveraisedblackridges.Adultsareactive
during daylight. Damage is caused by the white larvae, which hatch from eggs deposited in
cracks and under loose scaly bark of the main stem and thick primary branches, especially on
plantsexposedtosunlight.Younglarvaefeedonthecorkytissuejustunderthebark,whichsplits
making the stem appear ridged. Later, larvae enter the heartwood and tunnel in all directions,
evenintoroots.
Symptoms
Wilting of leaves and dead trees or branches. Affected branches are easily broken off. When
treesarefirstinfestedtheremaybeevidenceoffrass(sawdustlikeresidues)ontheground.The
trunkmayberingbarked.
The lifecycle of both pests is completed during the rainy season, but often damage is more
evidentduringthedryseason.
Larvae remain inside the tree and are normally not seen. Usually damage is not economically
important,althoughindividualtreescanbelost.
Control
Preventative:
Lessdamageoccursunderconditionsofgoodshade.
Higheraltitude,above3300ft(1000m)seemstoreducetheincidenceofinfestation.
Burnaffectedtreesorbrancheswithborersinside.
Do not plant trees with twisted taproots. These deformed roots result in weak trees that have
beenshowntohaveahighincidenceofstemborerinfestation.
Chemical:
Noeffectivechemicalcontrolknown.
Biologicalcontrolisnotknownatthistime.
Whitestemborer.Adult(above)andlarva(left)
Redstemborer.Adultmothandlarva
Coffeeberryborer
Coffeebearerborer.Beetleonabean(top),damagetoberries(centre)beetles(bottom)
Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) is a relativity new, but very serious problem in
neighbouringcountries.ThispesthasnotyetbeenfoundinMyanmar,butisincludedhere
sofarmerscanrecognizetheproblem.Itcausessignificantdamage,withperhapsashighas
50%yieldloss.Theadultisasmallblackbeetle(about2.5mmlong)andcoveredinthickhairs.
Thefemalebeetleboresintocherriesthroughthenavelregion.Cherriesareattackedinvarious
stagesbuttunnellingandlayingofabout15eggsoccursonlyinhardbeans.Theeggshatchin
about 10 days and the larvae feed on the beans making small tunnels. Beetles in the cherries
eitherontheplantorontheground,cansurviveformorethanfivemonths.
Symptoms
Fruit drop of young, green cherries. A small hole is evident in the cherry. Cherries that do not
dropoftenhavedefective,damagedbeans.
Control
Orchardhygiene(keepingtheareaclean,removingdroppedcherries,removingcarryoverfruit
from coffee bushes are suggested), but it is reported to have limited impact and can be
expensive.Cherriesonthegroundandoldberriesremainingonthetreesareasourceofnew
infection.
Therearefewnaturalenemiesoftheborer.Onewasp(Phymastichuscoffea)hasshownpromise
inColumbia,butitseffectivenessandthatofotherwaspsisnotyetfullyknown.Thewaspmay
makeacontributioninanIPMsystem.Thisandothereffectiveparasitoidscanbeprocuredfrom
CenicafeinColombia.
Interestisnowfocusedonthecommonlyfoundfungus,Beauveriabassiana.ResearchinSouth
Americahasshownpromisingresults,butitisnotacheapalternativetochemicalsandhastobe
reapplied.
Researchisrequiredtodevelopthebestmeansofbiocontrol.
Chemical control is difficult as the borer spends most of its life cycle deep inside the coffee
cherry.Endosulfan35ECatarateof0.3floz/gal(6ml/4.5L)ofwaterappliedatearlyfruitset(2
mmcherrysize)andlater120to150daysafterfruitsetifrequired.CypermetrinandDeltametrin,
pyrethroids(0.01%)at1floz/3.3gal(26ml/15L)ofwaterareanalternative,orChlorpyrifosused
atrecommendedrateonlabel.
Quarantine. The pest cannot migrate any distance on its own. Do not allow cherries or coffee
bags from other farms onto the farm property. Crop bags should be fumigated before being
transportedtoothercoffeegrowingareas.
Ethyl alcohol and methyl alcohol at a rate of 1:1 is effective in trapping CBB and can be used
mosteffectivelyatprocessing/washingplacestopreventreinfestation.Placemanytrapsinthe
firstfiverowsofcoffeegrowingneartheprocessingarea.
Coating pieces of plastic with axle grease and engine oil and attaching these to pulpers and
machinesinthecoffeeprocessingareacanalsobeusedtocaptureCBB.
Careful drying of coffee cherry or parchment reduces reproduction of the pest as they cannot
surviveincoffeebeansthatareproperlydriedto12%moisture.
Coffeeberryborertrap.Therearemanywaystomakethesesimpletraps
Mealybug
Mealybugs(Planococcusspp.)aresmallsuckinginsects(about3mmlong)coveredwithawhite
mealy wax that feed on young shoots and young roots. There are several species similar in
appearance to the naked eye. They are generally more of a problem in the dry season when
water is lacking. However, serious infestations of mealybug are often found where there has
been use of insecticide sprays, especially highly toxic organophosphate sprays. These kill
almostallinsects,includingnaturalenemiesofmealybug.
Symptoms
Whitewaxycoloniesareusuallyfoundontheundersideoftenderleavesandinsoftstemareas
aroundcherries.Also,theyarefoundonyoungrootsnearthemainroot,especiallywheresoilis
loosearoundthetrunk.Mealybugsareoftenassociatedwithaheavyinfestationofsootymould.
Control
Biological:
Normally sufficient. In other countries, the most important predator is the mealybug ladybird
(Cryptolaemus montrouzieri). The adults are reddish brown with black wings and about 4 mm
long.Aparasiticwasp(Leptmastixdactylopii)andlacewingssuchasOligochrysaluteaarealso
effectivepredatorsofmealybug.
Chemical:
SprayChlorpyrifosonthesoilaroundthetreetokillants.Antsdisruptthenaturalenemiesofthe
mealybug. Malathion and Carbaryl sprays can also be effective. Apply according to label
recommendations.
Mealybug.Largewhitemealybug
Mealybug.Cherryinfestation
Sootymould.Theblackmouldisoftenpresentwithmealybugs
Cryptolaemusmontrouzieri.Mealybugladybirdadultfeedingonscale
Leafminer
Leafminer(Leucopteracoffeina)isoftenpresent,especiallyinshadedcoffee.
Symptoms
Transparentareasintheleaflarvaearepresentontheundersideofthecoffeeleaf.Fullygrown
larvaeareabout6mmlong.
Control
Normallyaminorproblemwithnocontrolwarranted.
Leafminer.Leafisalsodistorted
Termites
Termites(Macrotermesspp.)canbeaproblemonoldercoffeeandshadetreeswithdeadwood
wheretermitesbreed.
Control
Plantcoffeeincleangroundwherealltreeparts,includingrootshavebeenremoved.Termites
cannotsurviveasthereisnodeadwoodonwhichtofeed.
Effective pruning of dead wood on coffee trees. Remove all dead wood from the coffee
plantation.
Permetrin, at the rate of 2 to 3 oz/1.7 pt (60 to 80 g/L) sprayed on the ground and on base of
coffeetreesafterplantingwillassist.
Termiteattack.Deadwoodencouragestermitestobuildnests
Diseases
A number of diseases can affect coffee plants in the nursery as seedlings, in the field while
youngandlaterasbearingtrees.
Nurserydiseases
Coffee seedlings are susceptible to two main diseases in the nursery Dampingoff and
Cercosporaleafspot(browneyespot).
Dampingoff
This disease occurs on young coffee seedlings in the germination bed, after germination and
beforetransplanting.ItiscausedbyaPythiumspp.fungus.
Symptoms
Patchesofcoffeediequickly.
Coffeestemissoftandrotten.
Causes:
Soilbornefungi.
Soiltoowet.
Toomuchshade(insufficientdryingofsoil).
Highplantingdensity(toomanyplantsinasmallarea).
Dampingoff.Notethebrown,rottingstems
Control
Preventative:
Don't use old soil from nursery beds or bags as disease is soil borne and can be carried over.
Usenewsoilfornurserybedsandpottingup.Avoidoverwatering.
Donotplantseedtoocloseseedsshouldbeplantedwithaspacingof1inch(2.5cm)inrows4
inches(10cm)apart.
Chemicalcontrol:
Soil drenches of either Benlate (Benomyl) or Captan (Follow label directions as formulations
differ).
Seedplanting.Donotplantseedtooclose
Cercosporaleafspot(browneyespot)
Cercosporaleafspotisafungusthatoccursonleaveswhenplantsareunderstress.Thefungus
candevelopbothinseedbedsandafterplantshavebeentransplantedintobags.Itisthemost
commonnurserydiseaseandasignofpoormanagement.
Symptoms
Brownspotsonleavesgraduallyexpandingwithreddishbrownmargin.
Spotsonbothsidesoftheleaf.
Whentherearemanyspots,leavesappeartohavebeenburnt.
Causes
Soiltoowet.
Toomuchshadeortoomuchsun.
Lackofairmovement.
Lackofnitrogenandpotassium.
Control
Preventative:
Avoidoverwatering.
Maintain50%shadecover.
Spaceplantbagstoallowairmovement.
Properfertiliserapplication(refersectiononnurserymanagement).
Chemical:
Coppersprayssuchasthefollowingwillgivecontrol:
CopperCupravit(85%WP) 3oz/4gal(80g/20L)water
Copperoxychloride 3oz/4gal(80g/20L)water
Copperhydroxide 1.5oz/4gal(40g/20L)water
Closeup.PlantsaffectedwithCercospora
Fielddiseasesanddisorders
There are several field diseases and disorders affecting leaves and berries. Diseases include
Cercosporaleafspot(allagesofcoffee)coffeeleafrust(allagesbutmoreonbearingcoffee)
black sooty mould (all ages) and Anthracnose (more prevalent on bearing coffee). The severe
disorder,overbearingdieback,occursonbearingcoffee.
Cercospora(berryblotch&browneyespot)
Thisoccursontheleafbutcanalsooccuronberrieswhereitisknownasberryblotch.
Symptoms
Brownspotsonleavesgraduallyexpandingwithreddishbrownmargin.
Spotsonbothsidesoftheleaf.Brownsunkenlesionongreenberriessurroundedbyabrightred
ring(berryblotch).
Causes
Lowleafnitrogenandpotassium.
Insufficientshade.
Stressfromdrought,sunexposure,poorfertilisermanagement,excessiveweedcompetition.
Control
Preventative:
Maintainwellfertilisedplantswith50%shadecover.
Cercospora.Affectedberries(top)andleaves(bottom)
Chemical:
Shouldnotbeneededwithgoodmanagement.
Coppersprayssuchasthefollowingwillgivecontrolinseverecasesonisolatedplants:
CopperCupravit(85%WP) 3oz/4gal(80g/20L)water
Copperoxychloride 3oz/4gal(80g/20L)water
Copperhydroxide 1.5oz/4gal(40g/20L)water
Coffeeleafrust
Coffeeleafrust(Hemileiavatatrix)occursonleavesandcancauseleafdropifsevere.
Symptoms
Thefirstsymptomistheformationofpaleyellowspotsupto3mmindiameterontheunderside
oftheleaves.
As the spots expand, they become powdery and yellow to orange in colour and may reach 20
mmindiameter.Occasionallythewholeleafbecomescoveredwithrustspots.
Olderrustsporesbecomebrownatthecentresurroundedbypowderyorangespots.
Leafdropoccurs,whichifsevere,canleadtodiebackandcherrylossandalossofbothyield
andquality.
Cherriestendtobeverysmall,notfullyripeandturnblack.
Rustspots.Symptomsonupperleaf(top)advanceddiseaseonundersurface(bottom)
Causes
Variety: Catimor is rust resistant. Java, Typica and many other Arabicas are susceptible under
poorlyshadedconditionsandataltitudesoflessthan3300ft(1000m).
Planthealth:Healthyplantsarelesssusceptible.
Leafrust.Advancedsymptom
Control
Preventive:
Plant Catimor selections or other more tolerant varieties such as good selections of S 795.
Followtherecommendednutritionprogramme.
PlantpureArabicaathighelevationonlyandalwaysusegoodshade.
Chemical:
Monthlycoppersprays(MaytoOctober).Seelabeldirectionsforrates.
Sootymould
Sooty mould (Capnodium spp.) develops when the plant is infested with scale, mealybugs,
aphidsorothersuckinginsects.
Symptoms
Leavescoveredwithblack,powderysoot.
Thefungusgrowsonhoneydewproducedbygreencoffeescaleandsuckinginsects.Antscare
forthescalesandspreadthesootymould.
Control
Preventative:
Reduce levels of coffee scale, aphids and mealybugs by using recommended control
procedures.
Chemical:
Notneededifsuckinginsectsarecontrolled.Controltheinsects,notthedisease.
Anthracnose
Anthracnose(ColletotrichumgloeosporioidesPenz.)isaminorflower,twigandcherrydisease.It
can cause three different coffee diseases twig dieback, brown blight of ripening cherries and
leafnecrosis.
Twigdieback.Notethebrownstems
Symptoms
Twigdiebackyellowingandblightofaffectedleaves.Twigswilt,defoliateanddieatthetips.
Brownblightbrownsunkenlesionsonfullydevelopedcherrieswhichturnblackandhard(can
beconfusedwithCercospora).
Leafnecrosisroundbrownnecroticspotsupto25mmdiameter.Worseonsunburntorinjured
leaves.
Control
Maintainhealthycoffeeplants.
Othercontrolmeasuresarenotwarranted.
Brownblight.Notethebrownsunkenlesionsonberries
Overbearingordieback
Notatruediseasebutaphysiologicalproblem.
Symptoms
Severeleaflossandbranchdieback.
Rootdieback.
Cherriesripenprematurelyandbecomehardandblack.
Diebackcausesalternatingbearing(heavycroponeyearandpoorcropthenext).
Plantsdeclineandeventuallydieiftheproblemisnotcorrectedinearlystages.
Overbearing.Plantcannotsupporttheextremelyheavycrop
Dieback.Notethediebackintipsandlackofleavesonstems
Note
Coffeeneedsoneleafpairtosupportfivetosixberriesthroughtomaturity.
If there are too many cherries and not enough leaves, all the food goes from the leaf to the
developing cherry. Leaves then drop off, causing dieback. Some varieties, especially dwarf
Catimors, are more susceptible to this condition. Loss of leaf depletes plant carbohydrate
reservesresultinginweakenedplants.
Rootsalsodieback,thenthetreecannottakeupenoughnutrientsandwater,thusmoreleaves
arelostandcherryqualityisreduced.
Plant health decline continues and if plants are not well cared for with adequate watering and
nutrients,theplantswillsuccumbanddie.
Causes
Insufficientnutrition.
Insufficientshade.Insufficientirrigation.
Variety
DwarfCatimorsaremuchmoresusceptible.
Control
Preventative:
Oncetheproblemexistsitisveryhardtobreakthecycleifitislefttoolong.Maintaingoodplant
health.Maintaingoodshade(50%).Plantonlyrecommendedvarieties.
Use a wellbalanced fertiliser programme and apply adequate nitrogen and potassium as
recommendedearlier.
Dieback.Wholeplantaffectedincludingtherootshealthyplant(left)plantwithdieback(right)

Moredetails
Chapter10
NaturalenemiesandIPM
NaturalenemiesandIPM
Integrated pest management (IPM) uses natural predator insects and or diseases to control
many problem insects. The full range and degree of activity of predators is not yet known.
Preliminarysurveyshaveindicatedthepresenceofanumberofpredatorswithspidersbeingthe
mostcommon.
ThereisnosetprocedureforIPM,butacriticalfirststepisswitchingfromscheduledspraysto
strategicspraysbasedoncropmonitoringresults.IPMcanappeartobeahigherriskandmore
complexwayofmanagingpestsanddiseases.However,ifdonewell,itcaneffectivelycutcosts
andreducedamagetotheenvironmentandbiodiversitybyoveruseofchemicals
Mainpredators
Spiders
Wolfspiders
Lynxspider
Wolf spiders (Lycosa spp.) are common soil predators, whereas flower spiders, lynx spiders
(Oxyopesspp.), jumping spiders, orb weavers (Agriope calenulta) and many others are active
predatorsinplantcanopies.Spiderswillpreyonmostinsectsincludingmothandbutterflyeggs,
smallandlargecaterpillarsandaphids.Itiscommonforacropgrownwithminimalornosprays
tohaveaspider'swebonalmosteveryplant.Dwarfspider(Atpenaspp.)Dwarfspidersaredark
colouredandtiny(lessthan2mmlong),preyonmitesandsmallinsects.Theyareactiveduring
the day and make sheet or dome shaped webs on leaf and soil surfaces. Harvestmen
(Phalangida)isaspiderlikeinsect.
Tachinidfly
Tachinidflies(Argyrophylaxnigrotibialis)aregreyblackandslightlybiggerthanahousefly.They
lay their eggs either on foliage on which caterpillars feed, or directly into the body of the
caterpillar. The fly larva bores into the caterpillar and attaches to the skin, leaving a breathing
hole. The larva then grows inside the caterpillar, eventually killing it and forming a brown, oval
pupalcasefromwhichtheadultflyemerges.
Tachinidfly.Adultattackingacaterpillar
Braconidwasp
Apanteles.Cocoonsattachedtodeadhost
Braconidwasps(Apantelesspp.)growupto12mminlength.Theyparasitizeabroadrangeof
hosts:caterpillars,flies,wasps,beetlesandaphids.Afterafemaleinjectsaneggintoahost,the
larvafeedsslowlyonthatsinglehost.Whenthehostdies,thefullygrownlarvapupatesinsideor
nearthedeadhost,sometimesinasilkencocoon,toemergelaterasanadultwasp.
Otherpredators
Thesepredatorsareseeninsmallnumbers.
Prayingmantis
TheCarolinamantid(Stagmomantiscarolina)growstoabout40to70mminlengthwithalarge
headandabdomen.Thebodycolorisatannishbrownwithlightgreenwings.Theyhaveapair
oflargeforelegsthatareserratedandspinyandfoldedbacklikeapocketknife.
Lacewings
Lacewing(Chrysopaspp.) species include the brown (Micromus spp.) and the green (Mallada
spp.) lacewings The larvae are predators especially of aphids. The brown lacewing adult has
brown wings and larvae are brown with white markings. Eggs are laid singly on leaves. Green
lacewingadultsareslightlylargerthanbrownlacewingadults.Eggsarelaidonstalksattachedto
theplant.Greenlacewinglarvaearesquatandpalebrownandtheycamouflagethemselveswith
thecarcassesoftheirprey.
Damselbug
The damsel bug (Nabis kinbergii), preys on softbodied insects such as aphids, jassids,
caterpillarsandmothandbutterflyeggs.Damselbugsarebrown,thinandupto10mmlong.
Stickinsect
Walkingstickinsects(Pseudophasmaspp.)areamongthelargestinsectsintheworldreaching
over30cmlong.Moststickinsectsaretropicalandnocturnal.Duringtheday,manyofthemlie
dormantsurroundedbythesticksandleavestheyresemble.
Damselbugadult
Brownlacewing.Adultlacewing(top),larva(left)andaphids
Greenlacewingeggs
Greenlacewing.Larvacamouflagedwithfrass(left)andadult(below)

Moredetails
Chapter11
Myanmarcoffeemarketsurvey
A study of Myanmar coffee marketing, conducted by the FAO project during the 2003 to 2005
seasons, gathered information on coffee production and existing coffee market channels. This
informationhashelpedtooutlinekeyelementsofastrategyforimprovedinternationalmarketing
ofhighqualityArabicacoffeefromMyanmar.
Summary
Production. Government sources estimate the present coffee production of Myanmar at 3615
tonsforthe2004/05coffeeseason,comprising2611tonsArabicaand1004tonsofRobusta(see
Tables11.1and11.2).Thisequatesto0.05%ofworldproduction.
Markets.BasedonofficialfiguresinTables11.2to11.5,mostcoffeeisexportedviabordertrade
toneighbouringcountries,withyearlyvariationinexportvolume.Thethreeyearsofbordertrade
data show a large export of Robusta in 2002/03 that appears to be at least double Robusta
productionwhichisunexplained,exceptperhapsbyreexportsofimportedRobusta.International
exportsviaYangonforthetwoyearsofdataprovidedwere95%Robusta,whichmayindicatethe
ease of transport of Robusta to Yangon from the southern production areas while Arabica is
mostlyproducedintheNorthandissoldasbordertrade.
Quality.Itisestimated,thatover80%ofMyanmarcoffeeisproducedbysmallholdersusingthe
most rudimentary methods of processing. Typically, the coffee is dried in the cherry to produce
'natural' coffee and is then hulled by pounding. The small amount of coffee that has reached
internationalmarketstodatehascreatedanimageofgenerallylowqualitycoffeefromMyanmar.
ThiscoffeeprojectassessedawiderangeofMyanmarArabicacoffeeandhadarangeofwell
processedcoffeesamplesfromMyanmarsenttointernationalbuyersfortastingandevaluation.
The general consensus was that these coffees have potential in the Premium and Specialty
coffeemarketasdefinedbytheSpecialtyCoffeeAssociationofAmerica(SCAA).SeeChapter7
forqualityassessmentdetails.
Plans.TheMyanmarGovernmenthasplansforfurtherextensivecoffeeplantingsasdescribed
in Table 11.6. This information was extracted from the document, Strategic Vision for
DevelopmentoftheCoffeeIndustryofMyanmar,presentedbyMyanmarFarmEnterprises(MFE)
attheFAOCoffeeTCPwrapupseminarinMay2005.Theplanswillrequireclearactionsand
strategytoensureproducerscaneffectivelytransport,processandmarkettheirproduct.
Productionandmarketing.Exportsandbordertradefiguresvarymarkedlyoverthethreeyears
ofavailabledatanoreasonisgivenforthewidevariation.Figuresoftotalproductionagainst
consumption and exports do not balance. This may mean that either production is much lower
than estimated or there are unrecorded exports, or that local consumption is much higher than
estimatedorcoffeeisbeingimportedandreexported.
Conclusions.While every indication points to Myanmar as a likely Specialty or Premium high

qualitycoffeeproducer,investorandsmallholderplantingswillbegovernedbyriskwithrespect
to investment costs and political stability and this may slow development. The benefit/cost
studies and cash flows found in Chapter 12 indicate good profitability and returns for Arabica
coffeeinMyanmarprovidedthatstabilityprevailsinthecountryandtheeconomy.
Table11.1.Production/exportsofMyanmarcoffee(tons)
Year Totalproduction Local Border Exportsvia

(Arabica&Robusta) consumption trade Yangonport
estimate
2002/03 2417.57 750 1807.7 Nodata

2003/04 3012.00 750 473.31 186.35
2004/05 3615.98 750 372.3 372.3
Marketstrategyrecommendations
TheMyanmarcoffeeindustryisinitsinfancy.Thereisanopportunityforittogrowintoaviable
component of the agriculture sector in Myanmar and to benefit farmers. Private investors are
taking the lead role in driving the coffee industry by planting new coffee farms. However,
individual investors have limited knowledge of coffee marketing and need assistance. The
MyanmarGovernmenthasakeyresponsibilityinprovidingtheenablingenvironmenttodevelop
thecoffeeindustryandensuretherearemarketingchannelsforinvestorstotransport,process,
marketandexporttheirproduce.Itisverydifficulttodevelopamarketingstrategyuntilthereis
sufficient quality of coffee to market. It is recommended that future Myanmar Government
marketingstrategiesconsiderthefollowingpoints:
Quality issues. The Myanmar Government should investigate developing and implementing
coffeeexportstandardsandqualitycertificationtogiveconsistencytothecoffeeexportedfrom
Myanmar.Consistencyisasvitalasqualitytomostinternationalbuyers.
Processing facilities. The Myanmar Government should actively assist producers to process,
market and export high quality coffee. This will boost world positive market awareness of the
Myanmar coffee industry. Assistance with facilitation of machinery importation procedures and
advicefromCRIETCtoproducersandprocessors.
Marketfocus.The Myanmar coffee industry must strive to understand Specialty coffee market
requirements. The Myanmar Government must help develop a 'market driven' coffee industry,
whichprovidescoffeethatmeetsthedemandsofthismarket.
Market information. The Myanmar Government should investigate methods to improve

communicationabouttheworldcoffeemarketpricesforallMyanmarcoffeegrowers,toensure
fairpricesarepaidtothegrowers.
Minimumcoffeevolumes.Avolumeof500tonsofhighqualitycoffeeisconsideredaminimum
requirement for beginning a credible program to market new Specialty coffee. Coordination of
coffeeexportswillbeneededtoachievetheseminimumvolumes,whichinitiallywillbederived
fromarangeofgrowers.
MyanmarCoffeeAssociation.TheMyanmarGovernmentshouldconsiderformingaMyanmar
CoffeeAssociationasamechanismtocreatedialoguewiththecoffeeindustry.Participantscould
includeproducers,exportersandgovernmentdepartments.
Coffeeproduction
Coffeeproduction is spread over a large number of States and Divisions in Myanmar. Arabica
tendstobeproducedintheuplandsinthenorthwhileRobustaispredominantlyproducedinthe
lowlandsouthernareas.Smallholders(averageholdingislessthanoneacre),produce80%with
theremainderfromlargercoffeeestates,publicandprivate,aswellaslargersmallholderswitha
few acres. This proportion is changing as a large area of coffee has been planted under the
Myanmar Government coffee development strategy. Arabica production is approximately 66%
whileRobustaisabout33%oftotalproduction.Myanmar'sproductionof3600tonsequatesto
about0.05%ofworldproduction.
Map of Myanmar showing Arabica and
Robustacoffeeproductionareas
(Source:MyanmarDepartmentofStatistics)
Production data provided by MFE, gathered from the Myanmar Department of

Statistics.
Productiondatafor2002/03season:CombinedArabicaandRobusta2417tons.
Productiondatafor2003/04season:CombinedArabicaandRobusta3012tons.
Table11.2CoffeeproductioninMyanmarfor2004/2005
State/Division Cultivated Harvested Yieldper Production Coffee

(acre) (acre) acre(ton) (ton) type
KachinState 1604 723 0.21 153.18 Arabica

KayarState 596 509 0.22 116.57 Robusta
KayinState 6923 2806 0.29 838.84 Robusta
ChinState 1165 826 0.16 135.86 Arabica
Sagaing 517 492 0.22 135.28 Arabica
Division
Tanintharyi 116 18 0.16 2.95 Robusta
Division
Bago Division 787 135 0.24 34.84 Robusta
(East)
Bago Division 495 41 0.22 9.41 Robusta
(West)
Magwe 259 94 0.09 8.65 Arabica
Division
Mandalay 8134 1926 0.22 436.28 Arabica
Division
MonState 69 18 0.09 1.75 Robusta
Shan State 5975 4511 0.18 837.26 Arabica
(South)
(North)
(East)
Ayeyarwaddy 75 Robusta
Division
TOTAL 35750 16016 0.22 3615.98

2611.00 Arabica
1004.98 Robusta
Marketing
Coffeeproductionismarketedviathreemainchannels:1)domesticconsumption,2)exportsto
neighbouringcountriescommonlycalled'BorderTrade'and3)exportsthroughthemainportof
Yangonwhichiscommonlycalled'Internationalexports'.
Domesticconsumption.DiscussionswithleadingroastersinMyanmar,estimatethatdomestic
consumption is a maximum of 750 tons per year but there is no central database to verify this
information. The three largest producers of roast and ground coffee (Premier, Maha and MFE)
produced about 350 tons of coffee in 2004/05 for local consumption. There are a number of
unregulatedsmallroasterswhoprocessupto10tonsbutnofiguresareavailableforthese.
Exports.ExportfigureshavebeengatheredfromtheMinistryofCommerceandtheDepartment
ofBordertrade.SeasonsrefertotheMyanmarfinancialyear,whichrunsfrom1Mayto31April.
Internationalexports
In 2003/04, 186.35 tons of coffee was exported as green bean by five different companies in
sevenshipmentsrangingfrom0.35to54tons.AllcoffeeexportedwasRobusta.
In 2004/05, 373.6 tons of coffee was exported as green bean by eight different exporters in
elevenshipmentsrangingfrom1.2to54tons(24.2tonsofArabicaand349.4tonsofRobusta).
Table11.3CoffeeexportsviaportofYangon(2003/2004)
Date Company Product Price/ton Qty Value Buyer

name (ton) US$
20/5/2003 Forever Winner Robusta 470 36 17,640 Penabh Co.

Ltd Ltd
1/7/2003 Forever Winner Robusta 475 54 25,650 Penabh Co.

Ltd Ltd
22/10/2003 Sky Marketing Robusta 550 20 11,000 Ulra
IndustryLtd Advance
Ltd
4/11/2003 Forever Winner Robusta 490 30 14,700 Penggerang

Ltd PtyLtd
9/5/2004 Chan Brothers Robusta 600 0.35 210 Sannata

Co.Ltd Int'LCo.Ltd
16/3/2004 Soe Htet Tun Robusta 550 45 24,750 Handan

TradingCo.Ltd Markeing
PtyLtd
22/3/2004 Huah Tarn Robusta 700 1 700 Hsien Chun

TradingCo.Ltd Import
Export Co.
Ltd
Total 186.35 94,650
(Source:MinistryofCommerce)
Table11.4CoffeeExportsViaPortofYangon(20042005)
Date Company Product Price/ton Qty Value Buyer

name (tons) US$ name
4/5/2004 Chan Brothers Robusta 550 10 5,500 YaHong

Co.Ltd

Ltd PtyLtd

PtyLtd
5/11/2004 Naing Yu Robusta 510 18 9,180 YoungIn

TradingCo.Ltd Traders Pty
Ltd

PtyLtd

Ltd PtyLtd
6/17/2004 Naing Yu Robusta 500 19.2 9,600 YoungIn

Ltd
6/25/2004 Kyar Kabar Robusta 550 54 29,700 MIG

TradingCo.Ltd (S'pore)
Enterprise
7/6/2004 Naing Yu Robusta 500 19.2 9,600 YoungIn

Ltd
8/26/2004 Myo Mahar Robusta 525 36 18,900 Mr. Jean

MyintCo.Ltd Yues
Banchand.
Tropico
Enterprise
8/31/2004 Tin Family Tdg Arabica 1100 23 25,300 FAC

Co.Ltd System Pty
Ltd
10/22/2004 Arabica 1100 1.2 1,320

Myo Mahar Vogerfreicht
MyintCo.Ltd. Int.Ltd
Total 373.6 211,810
(Source:MyanmarDepartmentofStatistics)
Bordertrade
In2002/03,1807.70tonsofcoffeewereexportedbyninedifferentcompaniesinnineshipments
ranging from 31 to 702.3 tons (200.6 tons Arabica and 1607.10 tons Robusta). In 2003/04,
473.31tonsofcoffeewereexportedbysixdifferentexportersinsixshipmentsrangingfrom1.2
to54tons(349tonsArabicaand124.31tonsRobusta).
In 2004/05, 121.92 tons of coffee was exported by eight different exporters in eight shipments
rangingfrom7to33tons.AllexportedcoffeewasArabica.
Table11.5BordertradefromMyanmartoThailandandChina
Date CompanyName Product Price/ton Qty(tons) ValueUS$
ThroughTachilek(ShanState(East)toThailand)2002/2003
NayMinTrading Arabica 31.60 22120
ShweUDaungTrading Arabica 114.00 79800
ShweYeKanTrading Arabica 55.00 38500
Total 200.60 140420
ThroughKawkThaung(TaninTharyitoThailand)2002/2003
AungTrading Robusta 702.30 316035
WaizinTrading Robusta 50.00 22500
EverConquerorTrading Robusta 230.00 103500
ForeverWinnerTrading Robusta 470.00 211500
GoldenLionTrading Robusta 44.80 20160
Star(KyeiSin)Trading Robusta 110.00 49500
Total 1607.10 723195
NayMinTrading Arabica 44.00 30800
ShweYeKanTrading Arabica 14.00 9800
UniversalCompany Arabica 123.00 86100
Total 349.00 244300
ThroughKawkThaung(TaninTharyitoThailand)2003/2004
AungTrading Robusta 109.31 46190
SunDrewTrading Robusta 15.00 6750
Total 124.31 52940
OakKyawTrading Arabica 11.00 7700
ShweYe'KanTrading Arabica 10.00 7000
YadanaZeyaTrading Arabica 25.00 17500

YadanaZeyaTrading Arabica 25.00 17500
Total 79.00 55860

ThroughMuse(ShanState(North)toChina)2004/2005
ShweThanlwinTrading Arabica 11.74 8802
WhiteStarTrading Arabica 10.18 7638
KaungMonOoTrading Arabica 14.00 10500
MyanmarPadaukTrading Arabica 7.00 2800
ShweThanlwinTrading Arabica 42.92 29740
Total 85.84 59480
(Source:DepartmentofBorderTrade)
Coffeequalitypotential
Trials/coffeeevaluationinMyanmar
ArangeofcoffeetrialswasconductedbyFAOandCRIETCstaffoverthe2003/04and2004/05
seasons.Coffeewascollectedfrommanyareasandprocessedinanumberofstandardwaysin
order to determine which processes were most suitable for large scale and small farmer
processing.Controlledprocessingofsamplesensuredthatclean,taintfreebeanswereusedby
thetasterssothatthetruepotentialofthecoffeecouldbeevaluated.Thiscontrolwasimportant
as previous samples were often poorly processed and prepared, resulting in taints and off
flavours, making it impossible to determine the potential quality. CRIETC staff and international
consultantsselectedabout10ofthe100availablesamplesforassessment.
Assessment indicated that Myanmar coffee has potential in the Premium and Speciality coffee
marketasdefinedbyMyanmarSpecialityCoffeeAssociationofAmerica(seeChapter7forfull
details).
Whilestandardparametersareusedtoassesscoffeequalitysuchasacidity,body,flavourand
character, the actual value of coffee is ultimately up to the buyer who also has individual
preferences. International trade restrictions against Myanmar also influence potential prices for
Myanmarcoffee.
CRIETC now has a fully equipped cupping laboratory as well as fully equipped wet and dry
processingfacilitiesthatcanwetprocesscommercialcoffeeat0.5MTcherry/hranddryprocess
at1MT/hrofparchment.Extensivetastingandtestingofcoffeewasconductedoverthelasttwo
yearssothatCRIETCstaffcannowassesscoffeequalitytointernationalstandards.
MyanmarGovernmentStrategicCoffeeDevelopmentPlan
In2002,theGovernmentembarkedonaplantoplant100,000acresofcoffee.Withassistance
fromFAOconsultants,thisplanhasbeenrevisedwithmoredetail,butitisstilloverlyoptimisticin
projectionsfortheareatobeplantedandtotalcoffeeproduction.Privateinvestmenthastodrive
the expansion and when the rate of investment slowed, investors discovered the real costs
involvedwhenworldcoffeepricesarelow.Realisticcost/benefitstudiesprovidedbytheproject
(seeChapter12)shouldassist,aswilltherapidincrease(doubling)inArabicacoffeepricesover
2004/05.
Table11.6Governmentplantingprogrammeplanin2005
Plan Planted Areatobeextended Total Harvest Yield Total

period (area) (acres) area area (ton) production
(acres) (acres) (ton)
Beforeplan
200405 35,750 35,750 16,016 0.22 3,615
Period
2005 35,750 10,000 45,750 17,000 0.23 3,910
2006
2006 45,750 10,000 55,750 18,000 0.23 4,140
2006 45,750 10,000 55,750 18,000 0.23 4,140
2007
2007 55,750 20,0 55,750 19,000 0.24 4,560

2008
2008 75,750 20,0 9 246,600 0.24 6,600
2009 75,750
2009 95,750 20,0 115,750 36,000 0.25 9,000
2010
2010 115,750 20,0 135,750 50 0.3 15,600
2011 20,000
2011 135,750 20,0 155,750 68,000 0.4 27,200
2012
2012 155,750 20,0 175,750 84,000 0.5 42,000
2013
2013 175,750 30,0 175,750 50 0.5 50,000
2014 30,000
2014 205,750 30,000 235,750 116,000 0.5 58,000
2015
Total 200,000
(Source:StrategicVisionforCoffeeDevelopmentinMyanmar)

Producedby:RegionalOfficeforAsia
andthePacific
Moredetails
Chapter12
Myanmarcoffeeeconomics
The Government of Myanmar (GOM) is offering low cost, 25year land leases for coffee planting. Coffee is a
perennial crop that requires substantial investment. Farmers and investors require realistic guidelines on
calculatingcostsandreturns,cashflowsetc.,tomakedecisionsonwhethertogrowcoffee.Thischapterprovides
theessentialdatatomakesuchdecisions.
Conclusions
Amodelfora50acrecoffeefarmhasbeendeveloped,andbasedonkeyassumptions,thefollowingconclusions
canbedrawn(seeTable12.1).
EstablishmentcostperacrewillbeUS$3000(incurredover3years).
Apositivecashflowwillbegininyear4.
Atyear9,theventurewillbegintomakenetprofits(i.e.,profitafterallestablishmentandothercostshave
beentakenintoaccount).
Atyear10andonwards,netprofitforeachacrewillbeUS$760.
Modelassumptions
This model is based on a 55acre plot of land leased from the GOM for a period of 25 years with 50 producing
acresofcoffee.
5acresareforroads,waterways,farmbuildingsandfarmuse.
Thelandrequiresclearingoflowbushandnotheavyforest.
Thelandisgentlyundulatingslopewithnomajordifficultiestodevelop.
Soilisagoodquality,redearthorredloam,waterisobtainedfromboresontheland,andthelandiswithin
onemileofagoodroad.
Theinvestordoesnothavetoborrowmoneytodevelopthefarm.Nointerestcostisincluded.
Goodmanagementandtechnicalexpertiseareapplied.
Keyassumptions
Coststoproducecoffee.Allcostsarebasedonpresentday(2005)costsofexistingcoffeefarmsinMyanmar.
Aninflationfactorhasnotbeenincluded.SeeTables12.3to12.9onpages85to89fordetails.
Coffeeproduction/yields. Yields will average 650 kg of green bean per acre. However, it is possible that this
couldrangebetween500kgto1000kg(seeTable12.2).
Coffeesaleprice.GreenbeanFOBsalepricereceivedbythegrowerattheportofYangon,netofallbrokerage
costs,isestimatedatUS112cents/lb(US$2464/MT).
ProductioncostsforArabicacoffee
Allcosts,includingcapitalcostsareaccountedforwhentheyareincurred.Atablesummarisingtheactualcash
flow (profit and loss) for each year clearly indicates the years in which income exceeds costs. This model
separatescostsintofourmajorcategories:
Direct field costs (years 1 to 3). Includes establishment and maintenance costs such as land
clearing,planting,establishingandmaintainingthecoffeeuntilfruitbearing(Tables12.3to12.5).
Directfieldcosts(year4to10).Includesmaintaining,harvesting,processingcoffee(Table12.6).
Capital investment (years 1 to 3). Includes staff housing, sheds, farm equipment, fencing, roads
anddrainage(Table12.7).
Annual overhead. Includes management salaries, health and welfare, fuel and lubricants (Table
12.8).
Green bean processing and export (yearly for years 4 to 10). Includes dry processing fees,
exportcostsandtaxes(Table12.9).
Productionassumptions
Plantingdensityofthecoffeeis1360trees/acreandshadetreesareplantedat122trees/acre.
Coffeebeginsbearinginyear4(fromseedlingsplantedinthefield)andreachesfullproductionatyear6.
Fullproductionyieldis650kgofcleangreenbeanperacreachievedinyear6afterplanting.
Freshcherrycoffeeiswetprocessedtodryparchmentonthefarm.
Parchmentcoffeeisprocessedtoexportablegreenbeanbycontractprocessingatalargercoffeemill.
Coffeeissoldasahighqualitycoffee(CommercialorSpecialitygrade)totheinternationalcoffeemarket.
Noothercommercialcropsareproducedontheland.
Thefarmownerprovidessubstantialmanagementsupervisionandtechnicalassistancealongwithofffarm
coordinationandpurchasingofinputs.Thistimeisnotcosted.Dailyoperationsarecarriedoutbyafarm
managerandsupervisorystaff.
Costsarebasedonpresentvalues(May2005).
1000KyatisassumedtoequalUS$1.
Thedailylabourrateformenandwomenis1000Kyat/day.
Costs are calculated for a single acre. This allows for calculation of larger or smaller farm sizes and for
comparisonwithothercropsandothercoffeeoperations.
Summaryofcashflowmodel(seeTable12.1)
Goodcleanparchmentcoffee
Coffeesalepriceassumptions
Sellingpriceisakeyvariableindeterminingprofitability.
This model assumes that the growers will access the international market with sale of green bean to an
internationalbuyerthroughalocalbroker.
In the past there has been a substantial cross border trade of coffee to China and Thailand. However,
evidenceshowsthatthesepricestendtobelowerthantheinternationalmarketprice.
Selling fresh cherry or parchment at farm gate to local traders is possible, but is unlikely to provide
maximumreturntothegrower.
Productionofconsistentlyhighqualitycoffeeandmarketaccesstointernationalbuyersthroughtheportof
Yangonareassumedpossible.
InternationalpricesforArabicacoffeehavevariedwidelyoverthelast10yearsfrom50c/lbto150c/lb.In
thelastthreeyearspriceshaveincreasedfromNY'C'pricesof70c/lbto125c/lb.Itispredictedthatwith
thecontinuedstronggrowthincoffeeconsumptionandthecontinuingdemandforgoodqualitycoffee,that
pricesshouldstayrelativelyconstantforthemediumterm.
Goodquality,wellpreparedcoffeefromMyanmarhasapotentialsalepriceofbetweenminus15toplus5
oftheNY'C'valueFOB.Thiswilldependonthevariety,growinglocationandqualityofprocessing.This
assumptionisbasedonrecentFAOstudiesinMyanmarandinternationalbuyerassessmentofMyanmar
coffee.
Fairtradeorganizationsconsiderthatafairandviablepriceforcoffeeis120to130c/lbFOB.
Thegrower'ssalepriceforcoffeeinthismodelisassumedtobe112c/lbFOB,Yangon.Thisisbasedonan
internationalbuyerpriceof120c/lbforbestqualitycoffee.However,itisassumedthat90%ofthecoffee
willbepurchasedatthispricebut10%willbelowerqualityandsoldintheinternationalmarketat80%of
thispricethusgivinganaveragepriceof118c/lb.Asgrowerswillbeunlikelytofindtheirowninternational
markets,theywillhavetouseabroker/exporterwithinternationalmarketingexperience.Itisassumedthat
thebroker/exporterfeewillbe5%oftheFOBpricethusgivinganFOBpricetothegrower,forthismodel,of
112c/lb.
Associatedinvestmentrisks
ArabicacoffeehasbeengrowninMyanmarforover75yearsmainlyasalowyielding,backyardcrop.However,
Myanmar is not an established large scale, high production country and there are many associated risks with
coffee production. Good management should anticipate these risks and lessen major problems by appropriate
planning.
From a small coffee plant to a well organised and
profitableplantation
Keyrisks
Climatic.Frost,droughtandwindcanseverelyaffectArabicacoffeegrowing.Frostisoneofthemajorrisksinthis
region.However,climaticchangeoverthelast30yearshasreducedtheincidenceoffrostandhasallowedcoffee
tobegrowninawiderrangeoflocations.
Technical. Good knowledge of coffee physiology, agronomy and pest and disease problems are essential to
successfulproduction.Selectionofsuitablelandandvarietiestobeplantedarecriticaltominimisetherisk.The
abilityofinvestorstoprocessandmarkettheirgreenbeanisessentialforfarmprofitability.CRIETCnowhasthe
abilitytoprovidegoodtechnicalsupporttocoffeedevelopmentinMyanmar.
Market.Worldcoffeepricesarealwaysbeenvolatile.Whilethiscanbeexpecteditisgenerallyacceptedthatgood
qualityArabicashouldbeabletomaintainpricesaroundthepresentlevelsforthemediumterm,atleast.
Political.TheGOMisprovidingsignificantfinancialincentivesintheformoflowcostleasedland.Thereisarisk
thatoncecoffeeproductionbecomesprofitable,theseincentivescouldberemoved.
Table12.1Cashflowprofitandlossforgrowing1acreofcoffee*
Assumptions:After10yearsproductionisconstantat0.65MT/acre.PricesinUS$
Growing Green Direct Capital Overhead Total Export/MT Gross Gross Annual Cumulative
Year bean field costs/acre costs/acre field costs/acre sale/MT profit Profit/loss
MT/acre costs/acre cost/acre
Year1 0.00 560.86 1,142.80 197.72 1,901.38 0.00 1,901.38 0.00 1,901.38 1,901.38
Year2 0.00 275.36 0.00 197.72 473.08 0.00 473.08 0.00 473.08 2,374.46
Year3 0.00 268.94 234.00 197.72 700.66 0.00 700.66 0.00 700.66 3,075.12
Year4 0.25 292.55 0.00 197.72 490.27 92.83 583.10 616.00 32.90 3,042.22
Year5 0.40 331.55 0.00 197.72 529.27 148.53 677.80 985.60 307.80 2,734.41
Year6 0.65 396.55 0.00 197.72 594.27 241.36 835.63 1,601.60 765.97 1,968.44
Year7 0.65 396.55 0.00 197.72 594.27 241.36 835.63 1,601.60 765.97 1,202.47
Year8 0.65 396.55 0.00 197.72 594.27 241.36 835.63 1,601.60 765.97 436.50
Year9 0.65 396.55 0.00 197.72 594.27 241.36 835.63 1,601.60 765.97 329.47
Year10 0.65 396.55 0.00 197.72 594.27 241.36 835.63 1,601.60 765.97 1,095.45
Exportcost/MT=US$371.32Saleprice/MT=US$2464
*figuresarebasedon1acrefroma50acrefarm
Table12.2Productionscheduleyieldperacreprojections
Year Plantno. Years Cherry Green

planted Yield/acre (kg) bean
(MT)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Plantno. 1360
Yield/ac
2 Plantno. 300 1060
Yield/ac
3 Plantno. 300 1060
Yield/ac
4 Plantno. 300 1060
Yield/ac 1625 1625 0.25
5 Plantno. 300 1060
Yield/ac 2600 2600 0.40
6 Plantno. 1360
Yield/ac 4225 4225 0.65
7 Plantno. 1360
Yield/ac 4225 4225 0.65
8 Plantno. 1360
Yield/ac 4225 4225 0.65
9 Plantno. 1360
Yield/ac 4225 4225 0.65
10 Plantno. 1360
Yield/ac 4225 4225 0.65
Ratiocherry:greenbean6.5:1
Assumptions:Replant300coffeetreesinyear2creatingproductionlag
Table12.3Directfieldcosttforestablishingoneacreofcoffee(year1)
Activity Costfor1acre(US$)
Unit Amount Cost/unit Total
Labourcost
LandPreparation(Handlabourclearingvegetation) acre 1 50.00 50.00
Landlevelling(Handlabour) acre 1 12.00 12.00
Ploughing(60hptractorfor2hours) acre 1 13.00 13.00
Harrowing(60hptractorfor1hour) acre 1 6.50 6.50
Linepeggingforcoffee peg 1360 0.00 2.72
Linepeggingforshade peg 212 0.00 0.42
Diggingtheplantingholes(forshade)(2'x2'x2') hole 212 0.04 8.48
Diggingtheplantingholes(forcoffee)(2'x2'x2') hole 1360 0.04 54.40
Refillingtheplantingholeswithsoil&manure hole 1572 0.01 15.72
Transport,plant&firmstickstocoffeeandshade plant 1572 0.01 15.72
Weedthewholefarm(MaytoDecember) acre 8 7.00 56.00
Watering(4timesx5months@2gal/tree/) acre 20 3.00 60.00
Fertilizerapplication(3timesperyear)(3x1360) plant 4080 0.00 12.24
Circleweedingcoffeeplants(3timesperyear)(3x1360) plant 4080 0.00 12.24
Makingfrost/heatcanopy(includeslocalmaterial) plant 1360 0.04 54.40
Sprayinginsecticide,fungicide&foliar(4x1360) plant 5440 0.00 5.44
LabourcostYear1 379.28
Materialcosts
Cattlemanure(10tonforholefilling) 1 80.00 80.00
Urea(50kgbag) bag 1 16.00 16.00
Triplesuperphosphate(50kgbag) bag 1 8.00 8.00
Potash(50kgbag) bag 1 8.00 8.00
Pegstofirmcoffeeplant&shadetrees peg. 3144 0.00 9.43
Insecticide Litre 1 2.00 2.00
Fungicide kg 1 3.20 3.20
Foliarspray kg 1 1.70 1.70
Casterwaste(soilinoculum) kg 100 0.15 15.00
Silveroakseedlings plant 42 0.02 0.84
Dadapseedlings plant 170 0.02 3.40
Coffeeplantseedlings plant 1360 0.03 34.00
MaterialcostsYear1 181.57
Totalfieldcost/acreYear1 560.86
Table12.4Directfieldcostsformaintaining1acreofcoffee(year2)
LabourCosts
Weedingwholefarm(8/year) acre 8 7.00 56.00
Fertilizerapplication(3/yearx1360) plant 4080 0.00 12.24
Sprayinginsecticide,fungicidefoliar(4/year) plant 5440 0.00 5.44
Casterwastecompostapplication(1/year) plant 1360 0.00 2.72
Watering(3mdx4x5months@2galplant) acre 20 3.00 60.00
Mulching(usingcutweeds) plant 1360 0.00 2.72
CircleHandweeding plant 1360 0.00 2.72
Makingfrostandheatcover plant 1360 0.04 54.40
Removingfrostcover plant 1360 0.00 2.72
Replantingthemissingplants plant 300 0.01 3.00
TotallabourcostYear2 201.96
Materialcost
Urea:110lb(50kg)bag bag 1 16.00 16.00
TSuper:110lb(50kg)bag bag 1 8.00 8.00
Potash:110lb(50kg)bag bag 1 8.00 8.00
Insecticide litre 1 2.00 2.00
Fungicide kilo 1 3.20 3.20
Foliarspray kilo 1 1.70 1.70
Casterwastecompost kilo 100 0.15 15.00
Diesel(tractor/trailerfielduse) gal 5 2.40 12.00
Coffeeplant plant 300 0.03 7.50
Totalmaterialcosts 73.40
TotalfieldcostsperacreYear2 275.36
Table12.5Directfieldcostsformaintaining1acreofcoffee(year3)
Labourcost
Weedingthewholefarm(7mdx8/year) ac 8 7.00 56.00
Fertilizerapplication(3/year) plant 4080 0.00 8.16
Sprayinginsecticide,fungicide,foliar(4/year) plant 5440 0.00 5.44
Compostfertilizerapplication(1/year) plant 1360 0.00 1.36
Watering(3mdx4x5months@2gal/plant) ac 20 3.00 60.00
Mulching(1peryear) ac 1360 0.00 2.72
Circlehandweeding(3/year) plant 4080 0.00 8.16
Makingfrostcover plant 1360 0.04 54.40
Removingfrostcover plant 1360 0.00 2.72
Pickingyoungberry plant 1360 0.00 2.72
Topping&desuckering plant 1360 0.00 1.36
TotallabourcostsYear3 203.04
Materialcost
Urea(50kgbag) bag 1 16.00 16.00
TSuper(50kgbag) bag 1 8.00 8.00
Compostedcasterwaste kilo 100 0.15 15.00
Diesel gal 5 2.40 12.00
Totalmaterialcosts 65.90
TotalfieldcostsperacreYear3 268.94
Table12.6Directfieldcostsforproduction(years4to10)
Labourcost
Weeding1acre(8/year) ac 8 7.00 56.00
Circleweeding plant 2720 0.00 5.44
Fertilizerapplication(4/year) plant 5440 0.00 10.88
Sprayfungicide,insecticidefoliar(4/year) plant 5440 0.00 5.44
Irrigation(3mdx2x5months) ac 10 3.00 30.00
Topping&desuckering plant 1360 0.00 2.72
Firebreak(farmperimeter) ac 0.3 6.00 1.80
Mulching plant 1360 0.00 2.72 Year Year
5 6
Harvest(ripecoffee) kg 1625 0.02 32.50 52.00 84.50
Harvest(dry&fallencoffeeforfarmsanitation) kg 100 0.06 6.00
Process cherry to dry parchment (pulp, dry, kg 1625 0.02 32.50 52.00 84.50
store)
TotallabourcostYear4 186.00
Materialcost
Urea(50kgbag) bag 3 16.00 48.00
TSuper(50kgbag) bag 1 8.00 8.00
CoffeeSeeding plant 150 0.03 3.75
Bamboomats(harvestsorting) 10 0.15 1.50
Bags(polypropylene)forharvest 20 0.12 2.40
Diesel gal 5 2.40 12.00
TotalmaterialcostsYear4 106.55
Totaldirectfieldcosts/acreYear4 292.55
Totaldirectfieldcosts/acreYear5 331.55
Total direct field costs year/acre Year 6 and 396.55

beyond
a) Costs for year 5 production increase to 2600 kg cherry/acre. Harvest and processing cost
increasesto0.04/kgx2600=$104.Allothercoststhesameasforyear4.
b) Cost for year 6 production increase to 4225 kg cherry/acre. Harvest and processing cost to
0.04/kgx4225=$169.Allothercoststhesameasforyear4.
Table12.7Capitalcostsforestablishinga50acrecoffeeplantation*
Detail Size Units Price/unit Total Cost

cost year
Costofleasingland
Lease to Govt (10,000 kyat/acre for 25 year 1acre 55 10 550 1
lease)
Legalcoststoestablishlease 200 1
Watersupply
Tubewellwithengineandpump(200ftdeep) 4inch 2 3,000 6,000 1
Largewaterstoragetank20,000gal 20'x20'x8' 1 2,000 2,000 1
Smallwatertanks 8'x6'x4' 4 120 4,800 1
Pipelinestosupplyfields(2miles) 2inch 2,500 2,500 1
Farmbuildings
Farmoffice(incl.electrics&water) 20'x15' 1 3,500 3,500 1
Managershouse(incl.electrics&water) 20'x27' 1 5,000 5,000 1
Houseandofficefurniture 1,000 1,000 1
Labourhousing(50men.Incl.electrics&water) 60'x15' 2 3,000 6,000 1
Store(fertiliser,chemicalequipment) 20'x40' 1 3,200 3,200 1
Store(drycoffee) 20'x40' 1 3,200 3,200 3
Wet coffee processing house (incl. electrics & 1 2,500 2,500 3
water)
Dryingpatio(800sqm.Incl.fence&lights) 1 4,000 4,000 3
Accessroads
Mainfarmaccessroad(gravel) 1mile 3,000 1
Internalfarmroads(formedsoil) 4miles 3,000 1
Fencing
6'fencingaroundfarm(concretepost,barb) 1.5miles 1.5 3,000 4,500 1
Farmmachineryandequipment
2inchwaterpumpanddieselengine 1 500 500 1
Farmtransporterwith1tonnetrailer 2 3,000 6,000 1
500kg/hrpulperdemucilager 1 1,000 1,000 3
Electricalgenerator10kvaandelectrics 1 700 700 1
Electricalwiringbetweenbuildings 1 500 500 1
Motorbikesformanagerandsupervisorsx5 5 500 2,500 1
Motorbikesformanagerandsupervisorsx5 5 500 2,500 1

Walkietalkie(communications) 4 60 240 1
Knapsacksprayers 5 10 50 1
Generalfarmtools(estimate) 500 1
Scales 100kg 4 100 400 1
Flexibleirrigationhoses+fittings(100meach) 1.5inch 10 50 500 1
Unforeseencosts
Add1000(estimate) 1,000 3
Totalcost 68,840
Totalcostperacre=divideby50 1,377
CostperacrerequiredinYear1 1,143
CostperacrerequiredinYear3 234
*US$1=1000Kyat
Table12.8Annualoverheadcostsfora50acrecoffeeplantation(years1to10)
Detail Units Cost/unitUS$ CostUS$
Salaries
ManagerSalary(BAg)(12x100000) 12 100.00 1,200.00
Fieldsupervisors4persons(DipAg)(12x70,000) 48 70.00 3,360.00
Nightsecurity(2xday&2xnight)1000k/day 1460 1.00 1,460.00
Overheadconsumables
Petrol(motorbikes)20gal/month 240 2.40 576.00
Diesel(tractors,pumpsgensets)50gal/month 600 2.40 1,440.00
Lubricants 100.00
Tarpaulins,sacks 200.00
Telephone/fax/communication 300.00
Officesupplies/admin 350.00
Labourwelfare/health 200.00
Roadmaintenance 300.00
Machinerymaintenance(lumpsumestimate) 200.00
Technicalandprofessional
Technicaladviceonsoil,leafpest 200.00
Totalcostsofannualoperationaloverheads 9,886.00
Overheadcostperacre=divideby50 197.72
Note:Nocostsincludedforowner'stime,traveloraccommodation
Table12.9Greenbeanprocessingandexportcosts
Activity Cost/tonUS$
Costofprocessingtogreenbean
Transporttofactory 10.00
Processtogreenbean(hullcatadorgrade) 50.00
Handsorttospecialitygrade(10defects/300g) 15.00
Packinexportjutebags,readyforexport 20.00
Totaldryprocessingcost 95.00
CostofexportthroughYangonport
TransportPyinOoLwintoYangonport 20.00
Porttransport 3.50
Inspectioncargo 0.45
Warehousinginport(1month) 0.24
Labourforcontainerstuffing 1.50
Weighingandbilloflading 0.23
Portcostsanddocumentation 4.00
Totalcostfortransportandport 29.92
Governmentexporttax
Taxcalculatedat10%FOBcontractprice$2464 246.40
Totalcost/tonforprocessing,transport,portandGovtax 371.32
Assumptions:Grossexportsalepriceiscalculatedatanaverageof112c/lborUS$2464/MT

Moredetails
Crop/PhenologicalcycleforArabicacoffeeinMyanmar

Moredetails
1 Surveysite *
2 Preparesite *
3 Terrace or grass *
strip & hole
digging
4 Plant cover *
crops
5 Plant coffee * * *
trees
6 Intercropping: A* A* A* A* A* A* A*
Annual/Perennial
P# P# P# P# P# P# P#
7 Field
maintenance
(a) controlweeds # # # #
(b) applysoilfertiliser # * #
(c) applyleaffertiliser ** * *
(d) water ** ** ** * *
(e) sprayinsecticide& # # # # # # #
fungicide
(f) mulch # *atplanting #
(h) makefrostcanopy *
**
(i) pruning ***
8 Harvest *** *** *** ***
Year Year Year 3 All A* Annual P# Perennial intercrop (eg. fruit

1* 2** *** years# intercrop trees,pepper)

Moredetails
1 Surveysite *
2 Preparesite *
3 Terrace or grass *
strip & hole
digging
4 Plant cover *
crops
5 Plant coffee * * *
trees
6 Intercropping: A* A* A* A* A* A* A*
Annual/Perennial
P# P# P# P# P# P# P#
7 Field
maintenance
(a) controlweeds # # # #
(b) applysoilfertiliser # * #
(c) applyleaffertiliser ** * *
(d) water ** ** ** * *
(e) sprayinsecticide& # # # # # # #
fungicide
(f) mulch # *atplanting #
(h) makefrostcanopy *
**
(i) pruning ***
8 Harvest *** *** *** ***
Year Year Year 3 All A* Annual P# Perennial intercrop (eg. fruit

1* 2** *** years# intercrop trees,pepper)

Moredetails
BackCover
CoffeeisnowanimportantindustryinMyanmar.
Currentlythereare35,500acresplanted.Withaverysuitableclimate,abundantlandresources
and farmers who are eager for a viable cash crop, the country has the potential to grow large
amounts of high qualityArabica coffee. Myanmar has identified over 200,000 acres with soils,
altitudeandclimateforproducingPremiumandSpecialityArabicacoffee.TheCoffeeResearch
InformationandTrainingCentre(CRIETC)isthekeyagencyforcoffeeinMyanmar.
Thismanualisproducedasabasisfortrainingextensionpersonelandfarmersingrowingand
processing coffee. It is also a valuable resource for researchers, entrepreneurs, investors and
policymakers.
PublishedbytheFoodandAgriculture
OrganisationRegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacific,Bangkok,Thailand

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What is the purpose of the manual?

What is the purpose of the manual?

What factors affect coffee yield and quality?

What factors affect coffee yield and quality?

Producedby:RegionalOffice

In collaboration with CRIETC, the FAO

Verticalororthotropic branches have nodes at a regular distance and carry opposite

It is necessary to stress the importance of growing techniques (prickingout in nurseries,

Coffee Coffee Shadetree#

1 Select trees for * * * * *

(a) Select site ** ** *

(a) Weeding *** *** *** *** *** ** ** ** ** ** ** **

(b) Apply foliar *** *** *** *** *** ** ** ** ** ** ** **

(c) Watering *** *** *** *** *** ** **

(e) Hardenoff *** *** ***

If irrigation is to be used, it should be installed prior to planting of coffee trees. If there is no

Mineral/Element Chemical Mainrequirement/usebytheplant

The objective of sampling is to get an

The objective of leaf sampling is to get an

Fresh manure or noncomposted pulp should

While good for the soil, manure or compost

Total 112 18 125 36 15 9

Symptoms originating in younger Deficient

Leaves bronzed along edges, calcium

Symptoms originating in older Deficient

Lower leaves exhibiting slight phosphorus

Yellowing in older or middle manganese

Bright yellow mottling between molybdenum

Leaves rapidly nitrogen

Leaves light green sulphur

Leaves expanding iron

Leaves not zinc

The European Coffee Cooperative (ECC)

The carcinogenic toxin, Ochratoxin A (OTA)

Harvesting Harvestgreencherry Greenorgrassyflavour

Pick fallen old cherries from Fermented or fruity flavours. Mould

Hold fresh cherry for long Fermentedorfruityflavours

Pulping Poor quality pulping Nippedbeanscausingstinkerbeans

Fermentation Overfermentation Fermented, fruity, sour or onion

Poor hygiene in Stinkerbeansproducingfoulrottedor

Washing Poor washing leaving Mould growth producing mouldy or

Drying Contaminated by drying on Earthyflavours.Mouldcontamination

Stored partially dry for long Mould growth producing mouldy or

Coffeeisoverdried Poor, faded bean colour. Damages

Stored near fuels or Contaminatedwithfoulodours

Hulling dry Incorrecthullersetting Beandamage

Storing Storingtoowet Mould growth producing and mouldy

Storedinjutebagsmadeon Contaminated with baggy or oily

Stored in hot humid Mould growth producing mouldy or

Transport Rewetting of coffee due to Mould growth producing mouldy or

Stored near fuels or, Contaminatedwithfoulodoursduring

Step Rankingon Rating Scalerange

1 Fragrance of the ground coffee + Preference 1to10 very poor to

2 Acidityoftheliquor Intensity 1to10 very flat to

3 Flavouroftheliquor Preference 1to10 very poor to

4 Bodyofliquor Intensity 1to10 thintoheavy

5 Aftertasteoftheliquor Preference 1to10 very poor to

6 CuppersPointsorBalance Taster's overall 5 to very poor to

Variety, CRIETC Golden Holland Ecom IllyCafe

A Catimor Clean 2 Excellent. 1 Low acidity. 1 Best coffee. 1 Green

(a) Select site *

(a) Weeding * * * * *

(b) Apply foliar * * * * *

(c) Watering * * * * * **

(e) Hardenoff * * ***