Constructivist teaching methods

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Constructivist teaching is based on constructivist learning theory. This theoretical framework

holds that learning always builds upon knowledge that a student already knows; this prior
knowledge is called a schema. Because all learning is filtered through pre-existing schemata,
constructivists suggest that learning is more effective when a student is actively engaged in the
learning process rather than attempting to receive knowledge passively. A wide variety of
methods claim to be based on constructivist learning theory. Most of these methods rely on some
form of guided discovery where the teacher avoids most direct instruction and attempts to lead
the student through questions and activities to discover, discuss, appreciate and verbalize the new
knowledge.

History
Constructivist teaching methods are based on constructivistlearning theory. Along with John
Dewey, Jean Piaget researched childhood development and education. Their theories are now
encompassed in the broader movement of progressive education.

Constructivist learning theory says that all knowledge is constructed from a base of prior
knowledge. Children are not a blank slate and knowledge cannot be imparted without the child
making sense of it according to his or her current conceptions. Therefore children learn best
when they are allowed to construct a personal understanding based on experiencing things and
reflecting on those experiences.[1]

Constructivist teaching strategies

Characteristics of Constructivist Teaching

One of the primary goals of using constructivist teaching is that students learn how to learn by
giving them the training to take initiative for their own learning experiences.

According to Audrey Gray, the characteristics of a constructivist classroom are as follows:

the learners are actively involved

the environment is democratic
the activities are interactive and student-centered
the teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to be
responsible and autonomous

Examples of constructivist activities

Furthermore, in the constructivist classroom, students work primarily in groups and learning and
knowledge are interactive and dynamic. There is a great focus and emphasis on social and
communication skills, as well as collaboration and exchange of ideas.[1] This is contrary to the
traditional classroom in which students work primarily alone, learning is achieved through
repetition, and the subjects are strictly adhered to and are guided by a textbook. Some activities
encouraged in constructivist classrooms are:

Experimentation: students individually perform an experiment and then come together as

a class to discuss the results.
Research projects: students research a topic and can present their findings to the class.
Field trips. This allows students to put the concepts and ideas discussed in class in a real-
world context. Field trips would often be followed by class discussions.
Films. These provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the learning
experience.
Class discussions. This technique is used in all of the methods described above. It is one
of the most important distinctions of constructivist teaching methods.[2]

Constructivist approaches can also be used in online learning. For example, tools such as
discussion forums, wikis and blogs can enable learners to actively construct knowledge.

Because existing knowledge schemata are explicitly acknowledged as a starting point for new
learning, constructivist approaches tend to validate individual and cultural differences and
diversity

Role of teachers

In the constructivist classroom, the teachers role is to prompt and facilitate discussion. Thus, the
teachers main focus should be on guiding students by asking questions that will lead them to
develop their own conclusions on the subject.

David Jonassen identified three major roles for facilitators to support students in constructivist
learning environments:

Modeling
Coaching
Scaffolding[3]

Constructivist Learning Environments (CLEs)

Jonassen has proposed a model for developing constructivist learning environments (CLEs)
around a specific learning goal. This goal may take one of several forms, from least to most
complex:

Question or issue
Case study
Long-term Project
 Problem (multiple cases and projects integrated at the curriculum level)

Jonassen recommends making the learning goals engaging and relevant but not overly structured.

In CLEs, learning is driven by the problem to be solved; students learn content and theory in
order to solve the problem. This is different from traditional objectivist teaching where the
theory would be presented first and problems would be used afterwards to practice theory.

Depending on students' prior experiences, related cases and scaffolding may be necessary for
support. Instructors also need to provide an authentic context for tasks, plus information
resources, cognitive tools, and collaborative tools.[3]

Constructivist assessment

Traditionally, assessment in the classrooms is based on testing. In this style, it is important for
the student to produce the correct answers. However, in constructivist teaching, the process of
gaining knowledge is viewed as being just as important as the product. Thus, assessment is based
not only on tests, but also on observation of the student, the students work, and the students
points of view.[1] Some assessment strategies include:

Oral discussions. The teacher presents students with a focus question and allows an
open discussion on the topic.
KWL(H) Chart (What we know, What we want to know, What we have learned, How
we know it). This technique can be used throughout the course of study for a particular
topic, but is also a good assessment technique as it shows the teacher the progress of the
student throughout the course of study.
Mind Mapping. In this activity, students list and categorize the concepts and ideas
relating to a topic.
Hands-on activities. These encourage students to manipulate their environments or a
particular learning tool. Teachers can use a checklist and observation to assess student
success with the particular material.
Pre-testing. This allows a teacher to determine what knowledge students bring to a new
topic and thus will be helpful in directing the course of study.[2]

An example of a lesson taught with a Constructivist

background
A good example of a lesson being taught in a constructivist way, with the teacher mediating
learning rather than directly teaching the class is shown by the example of Faraday's candle.
There are various forms of this lesson, but all are developed from the Christmas lectures Faraday
gave on the functioning of candles. In open constructivist lessons using these lectures as a basis,
students are encouraged to discover for themselves how candles work. They do this first by
making simple observations, from which they later build ideas and hypotheses which they then
go on to test. The teachers acts to encourage this learning. If successful, students can use this
lesson to understand the components of combustion, an important chemistry topic.[4]
Constructivism for Adults
Constructivist philosophy has a long history of application in education programs for young
children, but is used less frequently in adult learning environments. As humans develop, there
are qualitative changes in their ability to think logically about experiences, but the processes by
which learning occur, cognitive adaptation and social mediation, are believed to be continuous or
remain the same throughout the life.[5] At the heart of constructivist philosophy is the belief that
knowledge is not given but gained through real experiences that have purpose and meaning to
the learner, and the exchange of perspectives about the experience with others [6] (Piaget &
Inhelder, 1969; Vygotsky,1978).

Learning environments for adults based on constructivist philosophy include opportunities for
students to make meaningful connections between new material and previous experience,
through discovery. One of the simplest ways to do this is asking open-ended questions. Open-
ended questions such as Tell me about a time when. or How might this information be
useful to you? causes learners to think about how new information may relate to their own
experience. Student responses to such questions are opportunities for experiencing the
perspectives of others. For these questions to be effective it is critical that instructors focus on
teaching content that is useful for participants. The importance of using these types of strategies
with adults contributes to what [7] Bain(2004 p. 4) noted as critical learning environments where
instructors embed the skills they are teaching in authentic tasks that will arouse curiosity,
challenge students to rethink assumptions and examine their mental modes of reality.

Such approaches emphasize that learning is not an "all or nothing" process but that students learn
the new information that is presented to them by building upon knowledge that they already
possess. It is therefore important that teachers constantly assess the knowledge their students
have gained to make sure that the students' perceptions of the new knowledge are what the
teacher had intended. Teachers will find that since the students build upon already existing
knowledge, when they are called upon to retrieve the new information, they may make errors. It
is known as reconstruction error when we fill in the gaps of our understanding with logical,
though incorrect, thoughts. Teachers need to catch and try to correct these errors, though it is
inevitable that some reconstruction error will continue to occur because of our innate retrieval
limitations.

In most pedagogies based on constructivism, the teacher's role is not only to observe and assess
but to also engage with the students while they are completing activities, wondering aloud and
posing questions to the students for promotion of reasoning (DeVries et al., 2002). (ex: I wonder
why the water does not spill over the edge of the full cup?) Teachers also intervene when there
are conflicts that arise; however, they simply facilitate the students' resolutions and self-
regulation[disambiguation needed], with an emphasis on the conflict being the students' and that they
must figure things out for themselves. For example, promotion of literacy is accomplished by
integrating the need to read and write throughout individual activities within print-rich
classrooms. The teacher, after reading a story, encourages the students to write or draw stories of
their own, or by having the students reenact a story that they may know well, both activities
encourage the students to conceive themselves as reader and writers.
Arguments against constructivist teaching techniques
Main article: Constructivism (learning theory)

Critics have voiced the following arguments against constructivist based teaching instruction:

A group of cognitive scientists has also questioned the central claims of constructivism,
saying that they are either misleading or contradict known findings.[8]

One possible deterrent for this teaching method is that, due to the emphasis on group
work, the ideas of the more active students may dominate the groups conclusions.[1]

While proponents of constructivism argue that constructivist students perform better than their
peers when tested on higher-order reasoning, the critics of constructivism argue that this teaching
technique forces students to "reinvent the wheel." Supporters counter that "Students do not
reinvent the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns, how it functions."[1]
Proponents argue that students especially elementary school-aged children are naturally
curious about the world, and giving them the tools to explore it in a guided manner will serve to
give them a stronger understanding of it.[1]

Mayer (2004)[9] developed a literature review spanning fifty years and concluded "The research
in this brief review shows that the formula constructivism = hands-on activity is a formula for
educational disaster." His argument is that active learning is often suggested by those subscribing
to this philosophy. In developing this instruction these educators produce materials that require
learning to be behaviorally active and not be "cognitively active."[9] That is, although they are
engaged in activity, they may not be learning (Sweller, 1988). Mayer recommends using guided
discovery, a mix of direct instruction and hands-on activity, rather than pure discovery: "In many
ways, guided discovery appears to offer the best method for promoting constructivist learning."[9]

Kirchner et al. (2006) agree with the basic premise of constructivism, that learners construct
knowledge, but are concerned with the instructional design recommendations of this theoretical
framework. "The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional
consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow." (Kirschner, Sweller, and
Clark, 2006, p. 78). Specifically, they say instructors often design unguided instruction that relies
on the learner to "discover or construct essential information for themselves" (Kirchner et al.,
2006, p75).

For this reason they state that it "is easy to agree with Mayers (2004)[9] recommendation that we
move educational reform efforts from the fuzzy and nonproductive world of ideologywhich
sometimes hides under the various banners of constructivismto the sharp and productive world
of theory- based research on how people learn (p. 18). Finally Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark
(2006) cite Mayer[9] to conclude fifty years of empirical results do not support unguided
instruction.

Another important consideration in evaluating the potential benefits/limitations of constructivist

teaching approach is to consider the large number of varied personal characteristics as well as
prevalence of learning problems in children today. For example, in a solely constructivist
approach was employed in a classroom of you children then a significant number of children, for
example say with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, might not be able to focus on their
perceptions of learning experiences long enough to build a knowledge base from the event. In
other words, constructivist theory is biased to students who desire to learn more and are capable
of focusing attention to the learning process independently. A mixed approach that incorporates
components of constructivist learning along with other approaches, including more guided
teaching strategies, would better meet the learning needs of the majority of students in a
classroom by accounting for differences between learning styles and capacities.[citation needed]

Specific approaches
Specific approaches to education that are based on constructivism include:

The embedded lists in this article may contain items that are not encyclopedic. Please help
out by removing such elements and incorporating appropriate items into the main body of the
article. (December 2010)

Constructionism
o An approach to learning developed by Seymour Papert and his colleagues at MIT
in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Papert had worked with Piaget at the latter's
Institute in Geneva. Papert eventually called his approach "constructionism." It
included everything associated with Piaget's constructivism, but went beyond it to
assert that constructivist learning happens especially well when people are
engaged in constructing a product, something external to themselves such as a
sand castle, a machine, a computer program or a book. This approach is greatly
facilitated by the ready availability of powerful 'constructing' applications on
personal computers. Promoters of the use of computers in education see an
increasing need for students to develop skills in Multimedia literacy in order to
use these tools in constructivist learning.
Reciprocal Learning
o Two teach each other.
Procedural Facilitations for Writing
Critical Exploration (Duckworth, 2006) The two components of critical exploration are
curriculum development and pedagogy. In this method teachers find ways to encourage
their students to explore the subject matter and express their thoughts on the
material(Duckworth).
Cognitively Guided Instruction
o A research and teacher professional development program in elementary
mathematics created by Thomas P. Carpenter, Elizabeth Fennema, and their
colleagues at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Its major premise is that
teachers can use students' informal strategies (i.e., strategies students construct
based on their understanding of everyday situations, such as losing marbles or
picking flowers) as a primary basis for teaching mathematics in the elementary
grades.
Inquiry-based learning
 Problem-based learning
Cognitive apprenticeships
Various methods involving collaboration or group work
Cooperative learning (reciprocal questioning, Jigsaw Classroom, structured
controversies)
Anchored Instruction (Bransford et al.)
o Problems and approaches to solutions are embedded in a narrative environment.
Cognitive Apprenticeship (Collins et al.)
o Learning is achieved by integration into a specific implicit and explicit culture of
knowledge.
Six features of cognitive apprenticeships: modeling of the performance,
support through coaching/tutoring, scaffolding, students articulate
knowledge, reflection on progress, exploration of new applications.
(Woolfolk, 2010)
Cognitive Flexibility (Sprio et al.)
o A constructivist approach to curriculum design, in which the learning activities
spelled out in the intended learning outcomes are built into the teaching methods
and assessment tasks.
The Silent Way
o A constructivist approach to foreign language teaching and learning developed by
Caleb Gattegno who worked with Piaget before WWII and in the late 1940s.

See also
learning theory
childhood development
progressive education
Constructivist epistemology
Constructivism (learning theory)
Montessori method

External links
Constructivist Teaching and Learning Models
SSTA Research Centre Report on Constructivist Teaching and Learning
Constructivist Teaching
Association for Constructivist Teaching
Constructivist Teaching Practices: Perceptions of Teachers and Students
Constructivist Learning and Teaching
Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning

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