UNIT - III DISTRESS MEASUREMENT & CONTROL

3 Basic symptoms of distress in a concrete structure are Cracking, Spalling and

Disintegration. Reasons for their development may be poor materials, poor design, poor
construction practice, poor supervision or a combination Repair of cracks usually does not
involve strengthening. Repair of a structure showing spalling and disintegration, it is usual to
find that there have been substantial losses of section and/or pronounced corrosion of the
reinforcement
Classification of Cracks
Cracks can be broadly classified as either active or dormant. Active cracks show some
change in direction, width or depth over a measured period of time while dormant cracks
remain unchanged. If left unrepaired, both active and dormant cracks provide channels for
moisture penetration, which can lead to future damage.
The severity of a crack can be characterized in terms of its direction, width, and depth; cracks
may be longitudinal, transverse, vertical, diagonal or random. Different risks for cracking
exist for cured versus uncured concrete, and for reinforced concrete. Breakages occur through
thermal, chemical or mechanical processes causing shrinkage, expansion or flexural stress.
Below is a list of types of concrete cracks, and some of their possible causes:
A. Plastic-shrinkage cracking: Cracks that run to the mid-depth of the concrete, are
distributed across the surface unevenly, and are usually short in length.
Most often occurs while concrete is curing, due to the surface of the concrete
drying too rapidly relative to the concrete below.
B. Crazing/Map cracking/Checking: A web of fine, shallow cracks across the surface of
the concrete.
Also occur during curing due to the surface of concrete drying faster than the
interior concrete, but the surface drying occurs at a lesser depth.
Because this type of cracking is limited to the surface, it does not usually pose
serious structural problems.
C. Hairline cracking: Very thin but deep cracks.
Due to settlement of the concrete while it is curing.
Due to their depth, these cracks can allow for more serious cracking once the
concrete is hardened.
D. Pop-Outs: Conical depressions in the concrete surface
Occurs when a piece of aggregate near the concrete surface is particularly
absorbent, causing it to expand and pop out of the surface of the concrete.
E. Scaling: Small pock marks in the concrete surface, exposing aggregate underneath.
Once cured, if concrete does have an adequate finish to prevent water
penetration, water that seeps into the concrete will expand when it freezes,
pushing off pieces of the concrete surface.
 Scaling can also be caused by delamination, which occurs when too much
water (due to insufficient curing) or air (due to insufficient vibrating) remains
in the concrete when it is finished. The water and air rise to the top and form
pockets below the surface. These pockets may form blisters or which may
break open to create scaling.
F. Spalling: Surface depressions that are larger and deeper than scaling, often linear
when following the length of a rebar.
Also caused by pressure from under the surface of the concrete.
Most often occur due to improperly constructed joints or the corrosion of rebar
in the concrete
Corrosion creates pressure as rust forms, which can push away large chunks of
concrete, and expose the corroded metal below.
Spalling that exposes corroded metal can be particularly problematic because
the corrosion is likely to accelerate due to exposure to air and water.
G. D-Cracking: Cracks that runs roughly parallel or stem from a concrete joint and are
deeper than surface cracks.
Due to moisture infiltration at the joint.
H. Offset cracking: Cracks where the concrete on one side of the crack is lower than the
concrete on the other side.
Due to uneven surfaces below the concrete, such as subgrade settlement or
pressure from objects such as tree roots, previously-placed concrete, or rebar.
I. Diagonal corner cracking: Cracks that run from one joint to its perpendicular joint at
the corner of a slab
The corners of concrete slabs can be prone to curling (due to differences in
temperature at different depths in the curing concrete) or warping (due to
differences in moisture evaporation at different depths in the curing concrete).
The dryer or colder level of concrete will shrink more and create cracks as the
concrete dries.
Because the warped or curled-up corners often have some empty space below
them, they are also prone to cracking after curing due to weight overload
causing the corner to snap downward into the empty space.
Causes of Cracking
1. Overloading
The cross section of concrete is designed with both calculated and estimated loads,
determined from building codes. Design includes such factors as the strength of the concrete,
the number, sizing, and placement of reinforcing bars, and size and shape of the concrete
cross section. When a structure is overloaded to the extent not covered in safety factors,
concrete may be damaged or fail. Overloading may be in shear, flexure, or tension, or may be
a result of fatigue or cyclic loading. Each of these has a different cracking pattern to look for
2. Corrosion

Figure 2: Process of carbonation

Figure 1: Process of chloride penetration

Corrosion of the reinforcing steel in concrete can be a major structural issue. Under normal
conditions, the pH level of concrete is high (above 12.5). The high pH of concrete allows an
inactive layer of ferric oxide to form around the reinforcement, preventing rust
There are two major causes of corrosion in the reinforcing steel: chloride penetration and
carbonation. Chloride penetration reduces the pH level of the concrete when oxygen,
chlorides, and moisture all penetrate the concrete Chlorides can be found in potable water,
which should never be used to mix concrete. They are also an environmental factor that may
add up over the lifespan of a structure. For instance, buildings exposed to salt water or de-
icing salts may experience faster chloride build up from the salts The chloride penetration
process can be viewed in Figure 1.
Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide and moisture infiltrate the concrete, reducing the
pH level of the concrete This process can be seen illustrated in Figure 2.

Both causes of corrosion end similarly. The pH level is the concretes last barrier against
corrosion, so the reinforcement begins to rust Rust expands the steel to 10 times the volume,
which can cause major problems in the structure

3. Freeze/Thaw
Freezing and thawing cycles can be very detrimental to concrete over time. Unless a
protective coating is applied to the concrete, each cycle allows more moisture to penetrate
into the concrete. The stress of the moisture freezing inside the concrete causes larger defects
with each cycle. Air-entrained concrete can be used to help alleviate some of the expansive
stresses of harsh temperature changes. However, not all freeze/thaw effects can be assuaged
in this way and many structures may succumb to cracking either caused or worsened by these
cycles. Manufacturers of crack repair kits suggest that cracks less than 1/16" in thickness can
be repaired without professional contractors ("Types" 2012). However, tolerable crack widths
may be significantly less than this (0.016" and less depending on the environment) because
cracks may allow deteriorating chemicals to damage the concrete in other ways

4. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR)

AAR refers to chemical reactions taking place within the concrete mix. Certain
aggregates inside the concrete may react with alkalis, causing concrete expansion. The alkalis
may be also be from within the concrete mix, or may be from outside sources like sea or
ground water, or deicing salts. Depending on the type of aggregate, AAR also goes by other
names. In siliceous aggregates, the reactions are called "alklali silica reactivity" (ASR). In
dolomitic carbonate rocks, the reactions are called "alkali-carbonate reactivity" (ACR) When
these types of reactions occur, they create a gel-like substance that swells when moisture
reaches it. The stresses from the swelling create internal tensile forces, which may crack the
concrete from within

5. Shrinkage
Concrete shrinkage may occur throughout a structures life cycle for different reasons with
the majority occurring within the first few months or years after casting. There are two
primary categories of shrinkage: plastic (before hardening), and drying (after hardening).
Immediately after concrete is poured, there can be settlement shrinkage, construction
movement (e.g. formwork movement or removal), and drying shrinkage. After the concrete
has fully hardened, a structure will undergo temperature, volume and chemical changes
throughout the years. Each of these may also cause concrete shrinkage.
Shrinkage is an expected phenomenon in a concrete structure, and can often be controlled
with stress-relieving joints and properly placed reinforcing steel.

6. Poor Workmanship
Concrete itself is so variable that properly constructing a concrete structure can be difficult.
Some issues related to workmanship are as follows: over/under consolidated aggregates,
improper location of rebar, over watering for workability, finishing surface before bleeding
occurs. Each of these may end up not mattering overall, or may contribute to a structural
failure.
Types of Cracks
Concrete cracking and defect patterns can often indicate its cause or causes and can help to
define whether the crack is architectural (affecting aesthetics only) or structural (may affect
the load carrying capacity). Some of the main types of cracking are described below.

1. Crazing
Crazing is a web-like series of fine cracks, usually at the surface of the concrete. These can
be caused by surface shrinkage, which can occur in low humidity, hot air or sun, and wind
Since these cracks occur on the surface and do not penetrate deeper into the concrete, they do
not indicate a deeper structural issue. A general pattern of crazing can be seen below in
Figure 3.
Figure 3: Crazing pattern

2. Disintegration
Concrete disintegration can be a result of freeze/thaw cycles on the surface. Moisture enters
concrete pores and expands. The expansions can cause microcracking or they may force off a
small amount of the surface. Figures 4 and 5 depict disintegration on concrete surfaces. When
tiny pieces of the surface come off, it is called disintigration

Figure 4: Concrete disintegration around column base [Photo Credit: Robert Pirro]
Figure 5: Sidewalk disintegration
3. Plastic Cracks
Plastic cracks occur before the concrete has hardened. They are caused by rapid loss of water
during curing or settlement in the concrete itself). Hot, dry air and excessive water in the mix
may both cause cracking. Hairline cracks may occur in as little as a few hours after a concrete
pour, depending on the weather. The thin lines may be misleading; although they may be
very thin, these hairline cracks may extend through the entire thickness of the slab. This kind
of cracking mostly affects slabs and other large flat surfaces, whose surface area is high
relative to the volume of the concrete. This allows the water to evaporate quicker than it can
bleed to the surface, causing the cracking These kinds of cracks may initiate other cracking
issues because the plastic cracks sometimes are initiation points for drying shrinkage

Figure 6: Plastic cracks

Hardened Cracks
Hardened cracks occur after the concrete has hardened, and are generally caused by drying
shrinkage, settlement of the structure below grade, and thermal contraction effects. The
cracks form because while the concrete is drying, its volume is being reduced. The condition
of the concrete is restrained, so instead of just shortening the slab or member length, cracks
form throughout to allow the reduction in volume (Emmons 1993, p. 30). This kind of crack
is depicted below in Figure 7. Drying shrinkage is the shrinking (or reduction in volume) of
the concrete due to loss of water (evaporation through the concrete surface) (Barth 2001, p.
2). These kinds of cracks may indicate improperly spaced joints (PCA 2001, p. 2).

Figure 7: Hardened cracks [Photo Credit: Robert Pirro]

Scaling
Scaling appears as small divets in the concrete surface in which aggregate may be exposed.
Scaling is often caused by freeze/thaw cycles Because scaling is a surface defect, it does not
generally indicate a more serious structural issue.

Delamination
Delamination occurs when the surface of a slab is finished prematurely. When concrete cures,
it is necessary for the excess water to escape to the surface (a process called bleeding). If a
slab is finished before bleeding has occurred, it can trap the water below the surface. When
the water does escape, it leaves hollow patches just below the surface. These patches may
break open, resembling shattering, to expose the aggregate below as seen in Figure
Figure 8: Delamination of concrete caused by premature finishing [Photo Credit: Robert
Pirro]

Overloading Cracks
Overloading a concrete member may cause several types of cracks. Depending on the
direction and location of the crack (vertical, diagonal, top, bottom, etc), the type of loading
stress can be identified. For example, vertical cracks at the bottom of a simply supported
beam and in the center indicate positive flexural cracks. Negative flexural cracks show up
over the supports on the top of the beam, also as vertical cracks It should be noted that
flexural cracks may be related to longitudinal splitting cracks. This relationship is based on
splitting cracks allowing moisture to reach the steel pieces in the concrete and corrode them,
reducing their ability to resist flexure cracks. Reduction in resistance may cause additional
flexural cracks Shear cracks may appear as diagonal cracks at quarter points along the beam
member See the diagram below in Figure 9 for better understanding of locations of cracking.
These cracks can indicate a deeper structural issue if the crack width or lateral displacement
exceeds 1/4"

Figure 9: Diagram of locations and directions of overloading

Spalling
Spalling is primarily a result from the corrosion of the reinforcing steel and/or embedded
objects such as clips, chairs, anchors, etc. When the steel corrodes, the rust expands to 10
times the original volume, creating internal tension forces in the concrete . Concrete is unable
to handle the tension forces, and the pieces between the corroded steel and the nearest surface
will break off, called "spalling"
Even just a small spall can indicate a much larger issue for two main reasons. First, a small
spall can expose the steel, leaving it ultra-vulnerable to more corrosive elements. This can
been seen in Figure 10. If the steel corrodes more, there will be more spalling,

Figure 10: Small spall area caused by

corrosion of reinforcement

Figure 11: Large spall area

Figure 12: Large spall area on all balconies of building
[Photo Credit: Robert Pirro

Crack Measurement
In order to determine whether the cracks are active or dormant, periodic observations are
done utilizing various types of telltales by placing a mark at the end of the crack .A pin or a
toothpick is lightly wedged into the crack and it falls out if there is any extension of the
defect. A strip of notched tape
works similarly :Movement is
indicated by tearing of the tape.
The device using a typical vernier
caliper is the most satisfactory of
all. Both extension and
compression are indicated. If more
accurate readings are desired,
extensometers can be used .Where
extreme accuracy is required
resistance strain gauges can be
glued across the crack
Types of cracks
active cracks and dormant
cracks the proper
differentiation between
active and dormant cracks
is one of magnitude of movement, and the telltales are a measure of the difference
If the magnitude of the movement, measured over a reasonable period of time (say 6
months or 1 year), is sufficient to displace or show significantly on the telltales, we
can treat the crack as an active one.
If the movements are smaller, the crack may be considered as dormant.
Cracks can also be divided into solitary or isolated cracks and pattern cracks
 Generally, a solitary crack is due to a positive overstressing of the concrete either due
to load or shrinkage
Overload cracks are fairly easily identified because they follow the lines demonstrated
in laboratory load tests
In a long retaining wall or long channel, the regular formation of cracks indicates
faults in the design rather than the construction, but an irregular distribution of
solitary cracks may indicate poor construction as well as poor design
Regular patterns of cracks may occur in the surfacing of concrete and in thin slabs.
These are called pattern cracks
Methods of repairing cracks
1. Bonding with epoxies
Cracks in concrete may be bonded by the injection of epoxy bonding compounds
under pressure
Usual practice is to drill into the crack from the face of the concrete at several
locations inject water or a solvent to flush out the defect. Then allow the surface
to dry surface-seal the cracks between the injection points inject the epoxy until it
flows out of the adjacent sections of the crack or begins to bulge out the surface
seals.
Usually the epoxy is injected through holes of about inch in diameter and
inch deep at 6 to 12 inches centers Smaller spacing is used for finer cracks
The limitation of this method is that unless the crack is dormant or the cause of
cracking is removed and thereby the crack is made dormant, it will probably recur,
possibly somewhere else in the structure
Also, this technique is not applicable if the defects are actively leaking to the
extent that they cannot be dried out, or where the cracks are numerous
2. Routing and sealing
This method involves enlarging the crack along its exposed face and filling and
sealing it with a suitable material
The routing operation placing the sealant
This is a method where thorough water tightness of the joint is not required and
where appearance is not important
3. Stitching
Concrete can be stitched by iron or
steel dogs
A series of stitches of different
lengths should be used
bend bars into the shape of a broad
flat bottomed letter U between 1 foot
and 3 feet long and with ends about 6
inches long
The stitching should be on the side,
which is opening up first
if necessary, strengthen adjacent
areas of the construction to take the
additional stress
the stitching dogs should be of variable length and/or orientation and so located that
the tension transmitted across the crack does not devolve on a single plane of the
section, but is spread out over an area
In order to resist shear along the crack, it is necessary to use diagonal stitching
The lengths of dogs are random so that the anchor points do not form a plane of
weakness
4. External stressing
cracks can be closed by
inducing a compressive
force, sufficient to
overcome the tension
and to provide a residual
compression
The principle is very
similar to stitching,
except that the stitches
are tensioned; rather
than plain bar dogs
which apply no closing
force to the crack
Some form of abutment
is needed for providing
 an anchorage for the prestressing wires or rods

5. Grouting
same manner as the injection of an
epoxy
cleaning the concrete along the crack
installing built-up seats at intervals
along the crack
sealing the crack between the seats with
a cement paint or grout
flushing the crack to clean it and test the
seal; and then grouting the whole
6. Blanketing
similar to routing and sealing
applicable for sealing active as well as
dormant cracks
Preparing the chase is the first step
Usually the chase is cut square
The bottom should be chipped as smooth to facilitate breaking the bond between
sealant and concrete
The sides of the chase should be prepared to provide a good bond with the sealant
material
The first consideration in the selection of sealant materials is the amount of movement
anticipated
and the extremes of temperature at which such movements will occur
elastic sealants
mastic sealants
mortar-plugged joints
7. Use of overlays
Sealing of an active crack by use
of an overlay requires that the
overlay be extensible and not
flexible alone
Accordingly, an overlay which is
 flexible but not extensible, ie. can be bent but cannot be stretched, will not seal a
crack that is active.
Gravel is typically used for roofs
concrete or brick are used where fill is to be placed against the overlay
An asphalt block pavement also works well where the area is subjected to heavy
traffic

Repairing spalling and disintegration

In the repair of a structure showing spalling and disintegration, it is usual to find that
there have been substantial losses of section and/or pronounced corrosion of the
reinforcement
Both are matters of concern from a structural viewpoint, and repair generally involves
some urgency and some requirement for restoration of lost strength.
Jacketing
1. primarily applicable to the repair of deteriorated columns, piers and piles
2. Jacketing consists of restoring or increasing the section of an existing member,
principally a compression member, by encasement in new concrete
3. The form for the jacket should be provided with spacers to assure clearance between it
and the existing concrete surface
4. The form may be temporary or permanent and may consist of timber, wrought iron,
precast concrete or gauge metal, depending on the purpose and exposure
5. Timber, Wrought iron Gauge metal and other temporary forms can be used under
certain conditions
6. Filling up the forms can be done by pumping the grout, by using prepacked concrete,
by using a tremie, or, for subaqueous works, by dewatering the form and placing the
concrete in the dry.
7. The use of a grout having a cement-sand ratio by volume, between 1:2 and 1:3 , is
recommended
8. The richer grout is preferred for thinner sections and the leaner mixture for heavier
sections
9. The forms should be filled to overflowing, the grout allowed to settle for about 20
minutes, and the forms refilled to overflowing
10. The outside of the forms should be vibrated during placing of the grout
Guniting
1. Gunite is also known as shotcrete or pneumatically applied mortar
 2. It can be used on vertical and overhead, as well as on horizontal surfaces and is
particularly useful for restoring surfaces spalled due to corrosion of reinforcement
3. Gunite is a mixture of Portland cement, sand and water, shot into the place by
compressed air
4. Sand and cement are mixed dry in a mixing chamber, and the dry mixture is then
transferred by air pressure along a pipe or hose to a nozzle, where it is forcibly
projected on to the surface to be coated
5. Water is added to the mixture by passing it through a spray injected at the nozzle
6. The flow of water at the nozzle can be controlled to give a mix of desired stiffness,
which will adhere to the surface against which it is projected
Prepacked concrete
1. This method is particularly useful for carrying out the repair under water and
elsewhere where accessibility is a problem.
2. Prepacked concrete is made by filling forms with coarse aggregate and then filling the
voids of the aggregate by pumping in a sand-cement grout
3. Prepacked concrete is used for refacing of structures, jacketing, filling of cavities in
and under structures, and underpinning and enlarging piers, abutments, retaining walls
and footings
4. Pumping of mortar should commence at the lowest point and proceed upward
5. Placing of grout should be a smooth, uninterrupted operation
Drypack
1. Dry packing is the hand placement of a very dry mortar and the subsequent tamping
of the mortar into place, producing an intimate contact between the new and existing
works
2. Because of the low water-cement ratio of the material, there is little shrinkage, and the
patch remains tight. The usual mortar mix is 1:2.5 to 1:3
Replacement of concrete
1. This method consists of replacing the defective concrete with new concrete of
conventional proportions, placed in a conventional manner
2. This method is a satisfactory and economical solution where the repair occurs in
depth (at least beyond the reinforcement), and where the area to be repaired is
accessible
3. This method is particularly indicated where a water-tight construction is required and
where the deterioration extends completely through the original concrete section.
Conclusions
1. When repairing cracks, do not fill the crack with new concrete or mortar
 2. A brittle overlay should not be used to seal an active crack
3. The restraints causing the cracks should be relieved, or otherwise the repair must be
capable of accommodating future movements
4. Cracks should not be surface-sealed over corroded reinforcement, without encasing
the bars
5. The methods adopted for repairing spalling and disintegration must be capable of
restoring the lost strength

Half cell potential

Corrosion of reinforcing steel is an electro-chemical process and the behaviour of the steel
can be characterised by measuring its half-cell potential. The greater the potential the higher
the risk that corrosion is taking place. An electrode forms one half of the cell and the
reinforcing steel in the concrete the other. The preferred reference electrode for site use is
silver/silver chloride in potassium chloride solution although the copper/copper sulphate
electrode is still widely used.
The survey procedure is firstly to locate the steel and determine the bar spacing using a
covermeter. The cover concrete is removed locally over a suitable bar and an electrical
connection made to the steel. It is necessary to check that the steel is electrically continuous
by measuring the resistance between two widely separated points. The reinforcing bar is
connected to the half-cell via a digital voltmeter, see diagram. Readings of half-cell potential
are taken over a regular grid of points (say m apart) to give a potential map of the area.
Contour lines may be plotted between points of equal potential to indicate those areas that
have the greatest risk of corrosion. Locally exposing and inspecting the reinforcement in
areas where both high and low risks of corrosion are indicated can be used to approximately
calibrate the potential readings for the structure with respect to its present corrosion and the
need for further investigation or repair.
HALF-CELL ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL METHOD
The method of half-cell potential measurements normally involves measuring the
potential of an embedded reinforcing bar relative to a reference half-cell placed on the
concrete surface. The half-cell is usually a copper/copper sulphate or silver/silver chloride
cell but other combinations are used. The concrete functions as an electrolyte and the risk of
corrosion of the reinforcement in the immediate region of the test location may be related
empirically to the measured potential difference. In some circumstances, useful
measurements can be obtained between two half-cells on the concrete surface. ASTM C876 -
91 gives a Standard Test Method for Half-Cell Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in
Concrete.
EQUIPMENTS

Half-cell: The cell consists of a rigid

tube or container composed of dielectric
material that is non-reactive with
copper or copper sulphate, a porous
wooden or plastic plug that remains wet
by capillary action, and a copper rod
that is immersed within the tube in a
saturated solution of copper sulphate.
The solution is prepared using reagent
grade copper sulphate dissolved to
saturation in a distilled or deionized
water.
Equipotential Contour Map: On a
suitably scaled plan view of the member
the locations of the half-cell potential values are plotted and contours of equal potential
drawn through the points of equal or interpolated equal values. The maximum contour
interval should be 0.10 V.
Applications
This technique is most likely to be used for assessment of the durability of reinforced
concrete members where reinforcement corrosion is suspected. Reported uses include the
location of areas of high reinforcement corrosion risk in marine structures, bridge decks and
abutments. Used in conjunction with other tests, it has been found helpful when investigating
concrete contaminated by salts.
REINFORCEMENT CORROSION-CAUSES & PREVENTION
The corrosion of steel reinforcement is complex, but basically it is an electro-chemical
reaction similar to that of a simple battery. The composition of mild steel varies along its
length and potential anodic (more negatively charged) and cathodic (positively charged) sites
can be set up at various points.
Concrete is capable of conducting and electric current and acts as the electrolyte with the
circuit being completed by the bar through which the electrons can flow. However the highly
alkaline environment (pH about 12.8) provided by good quality concrete produces a
protective layer around the steel preventing the flow of current. This is known
as Passivation.
The corrosion reaction can only occur when the following conditions prevail.
There is a breakdown of the passivating layer (de-passivation) brought about by
a) A lowering of the alkalinity of the concrete below a critical pH of about 10.5, caused
normally by the ingress of carbon dioxide (carbonation).
b) The ingress of chlorides
2. Oxygen and water are present.
With the above conditions prevailing the ferrous ions (Fe++) released from the anode
combine with the hydroxyl ions (OH-) from the cathode, in the presence of water and oxygen
to produce rust (ferric hydroxide). This is an expansive reaction leading to eventual spalling
of concrete cover and reduction in the area of the steel at the anodic site.
THE MECHANISM OF REINFORCEMENT CORROSION:
Carbonation:
Acidic gases like corbon dioxide react with any free alkali that may be present, which can
lead to a drop in the alkalinity of the concrete. This process, which starts at the surface of the
concrete, slowly penetrates deeper and deeper. The penetration is nearly proportional to
square root of time.
.

Fig: Carbonation leads to the general corrosion along the full length of the bar.
 First outward signs of general corrosion taking place is
surface cracking of the concrete along the line of the
steel.

Fig. shows that as the corrosion proceeds, the

concrete will spall away completely to expose the
steel.

Chlorides:
Chlorides are generally acidic in nature and can come from a number of different sources, the
most common being, de-icing salts, use of unwashed marine aggregates, sea water spray, and
certain accelerating admixtures (their use is now prohibited).
In the presence of chlorides localized pitting corrosion occurs which does not always have
associated with it the early warning signs of surface cracking.
Chlorides induced corrosion is potentially more dangerous than that resulting from
carbonation. Like most of the aspects of concrete durability, deterioration due to corrosion of
the reinforcement can take place years (5 to 20) to manifest itselt.
Minimising the risk of corrosion:
The quality and depth of concrete in the cover zone are all important in minimizing the risk
of corrosion as shown in fig. below.
 1. Quality: Quality is controlled largely by minimizing permeability.
2. Depth: Recommendations for minimum depths of cover are given in the codes of
practice and are based on exposure conditions and minimum cement contents. Higher
cement contents infer lower water cement rations leading to permitted reductions in
cover.
At no time should the normal cover be less than the maximum size of aggregates+5mm.
Blended cements made from combinations of PC/PFA and PC/GGBS can lead to significant
reduction in chloride penetration. However, in situations where these materials are not cured
properly there is a risk of increased carbonation. Care must be taken that all aggregates and
admixtures contain limited amount of chlorides.
Demolition by controlled blasting
Demolition by controlled blasting technique is based on rupture of critical elements of the
structure that produce the same imbalance and as a result his downfall in a predetermined
direction. This report provides the most outstanding aspects of this technique.
To produce the rupture of the structural elements considered critical apply small explosive
charges placed in boreholes drilled along the structural element to break; a proper sequence
of the order of detonation of charges will contribute to building collapse in the selected
direction.
This system of demolition is application mainly to slender structures built by structure pillars,
beams and walls of buildings whose structure has been constructed through load of brick or
reinforced concrete.
The withdrawal of the elements that can be projected during the overturning of the structure
such as refrigeration, deck machinery equipment, antennas, joinery of facades, glass
At this same stage of implementation the "rigid bodies" of the structure, such as stairs and
elevator cores, these areas of the buildings to be not removed may cause unwanted turns of
the structure during its turnaround, so the fall deviates from the projected direction.
Figure Removal from the structure rigid bodies.
Set the direction of the most appropriate fall depending on the characteristics of the building
and the immediate surroundings, will be the drilling of the structural elements shall apply
where the explosive charges formed the so-called 'broken wedge'.
The 'breaking wedge' is the section of the structural elements of the construction that we
should remove so that the center of mass of the building moves from its equilibrium position
and resulted in the overturning of the set.
The more open section of the wedge of rupture will coincide with the direction towards
which must address the collapse of the building, while on the opposite side will be the focus
of abatement.
In the case of buildings made up of structures of pillars and beams, the wedge of breakage
will indicate the height that we must break in each of the pillars of the structure; to this end,
there will be boreholes in the marked section to subsequently accommodated therein the
explosive.

Figure :Wedge of rupture.

Figure: Drilling of boreholes.
Then the firing sequence shall be established so that the breakdown of the material to fly to
progress from the area of strain or more section open wedge of breakage to the axis of
abatement, thus increases the effect of rotation about the axis of fall. The firing sequence is
achieved through the use of detonators of micro - slow, putting those in times of delay of the
same progression according to the sequence of shot.
In recent years was becoming the use of non-electric detonators; This type of fuzes allow a
larger sequence and time of shooting, and greater security front presence of erratic currents
and electromagnetic fields.
As means to produce the fragmentation of concrete or brick factory will be used the
explosive, the premise of this type of work is the use of small explosive charges, which
hardly reach a few hundred grams, located in different boreholes drilled on the pillars.
In commercial explosives which are better adapted to this type of work are the tires, thanks to
its great power of breakage, small arms of detonation and the possibility of cutting cartridges
to form the necessary burdens.
Finally, you must install
elements of protection from the
projections that must play a
double role, allowing the output
of the gases of the blasting and
retain fragments that can be
projected. Galvanized metal
mesh and canvases that fact
elements to fly will be installed
for this purpose.
Sequence of the demolition of a chimney by controlled blasting.