Airplane Flying Handbook

2016

U.S. Department of Transportation

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
Flight Standards Service
ii
Preface
The Airplane Flying Handbook provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This handbook introduces basic pilot
skills and knowledge that are essential for piloting airplanes. It provides information on transition to other airplanes and the
operation of various airplane systems. It is developed by the Flight Standards Service, Airman Testing Standards Branch, in
cooperation with various aviation educators and industry. This handbook is developed to assist student pilots learning
to fly airplanes. It is also beneficial to pilots who wish to improve their flying proficiency and aeronautical knowledge,
those pilots preparing for additional certificates or ratings, and flight instructors engaged in the instruction of both student
and certificated pilots. It introduces the future pilot to the realm of flight and provides information and guidance in the
performance of procedures and maneuvers required for pilot certification. Topics such as navigation and communication,
meteorology, use of flight information publications, regulations, and aeronautical decision making are available in other
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) publications.

Occasionally the word must or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language
is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).

It is essential for persons using this handbook to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). The AIM is available online at www.faa.gov. The current Flight Standards
Service airman training and testing material and learning statements for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained
from www.faa.gov.

This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-3A, Airplane Flying Handbook, dated 2004.

This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman
Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.

Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address:

[email protected]
#(5EQOOGPVU"HCCIQX

John S. Duncan
Director, Flight Standards Service

iii
iv
Acknowledgments
The Airplane Flying Handbook was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with the assistance of Safety
Research Corporation of America. The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors:

Mr. Shane Torgerson for imagery of the Sedona Airport (Chapter 1)

Mr. Robert Frola for imagery of an Evektor-Aerotechnik EV-97 SportStar Max (Chapter 16)

Additional appreciation is extended to the General Aviation Joint Steering Committee (GA JSC) and the Aviation Rulemaking
Advisory Committees (ARAC) Airman Certification Standards (ACS) Working Group for their technical support and input.

v
vi
Table of Contents

Preface....................................................................iii Risk Mitigation .....................................................2-10

Resource Management..........................................2-11
Acknowledgments..................................................v Ground Operations.......................................................2-11
Engine Starting.............................................................2-12
Table of Contents .................................................vii Hand Propping .............................................................2-13
Taxiing .........................................................................2-14
Chapter 1 Before-Takeoff Check .................................................2-17
Introduction to Flight Training ...........................1-1 Takeoff Checks ............................................................2-18
Introduction....................................................................1-1 After-Landing ..............................................................2-18
Role of the FAA.............................................................1-2 Clear of Runway and Stopped .....................................2-18
Flight Standards Service ................................................1-5 Parking .........................................................................2-19
Role of the Pilot Examiner.............................................1-6 Engine Shutdown .........................................................2-19
Role of the Flight Instructor...........................................1-7 Post-Flight....................................................................2-19
Sources of Flight Training .............................................1-8 Securing and Servicing.............................................2-19
Practical Test Standards (PTS) and Airman Chapter Summary ........................................................2-19
Certification Standards (ACS)..................................1-10
Safety of Flight Practices .........................................1-11 Chapter 3
Collision Avoidance .............................................1-11 Basic Flight Maneuvers ......................................3-1
Runway Incursion Avoidance...............................1-12 Introduction....................................................................3-1
Stall Awareness ....................................................1-12 The Four Fundamentals .................................................3-2
Use of Checklists ..................................................1-13 Effect and Use of the Flight Controls ............................3-2
Positive Transfer of Controls................................1-15 Feel of the Airplane....................................................3-4
Chapter Summary ........................................................1-15 Attitude Flying ...............................................................3-4
Integrated Flight Instruction ..........................................3-5
Chapter 2 Straight-and-Level Flight...............................................3-6
Ground Operations..............................................2-1 Straight Flight.............................................................3-7
Introduction....................................................................2-1 Level Flight ................................................................3-8
Preflight Assessment of the Aircraft..............................2-2 Trim Control ................................................................3-10
Visual Preflight Assessment.......................................2-3 Level Turns ..................................................................3-10
Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section .......................2-5 Turn Radius ..............................................................3-12
Fuel and Oil................................................................2-6 Establishing a Turn...................................................3-13
Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes................................2-8 Climbs and Climbing Turns.........................................3-16
Engine and Propeller ..................................................2-9 Establishing a Climb ................................................3-17
Risk and Resource Management....................................2-9 Climbing Turns ........................................................3-18
Risk Management.....................................................2-10 Descents and Descending Turns ..................................3-19
Identifying the Hazard ..........................................2-10 Glides ...........................................................................3-20
Risk .......................................................................2-10 Gliding Turns ...........................................................3-21
Risk Assessment ...................................................2-10 Chapter Summary ........................................................3-23
Risk Identification ................................................2-10

vii
Chapter 4 Academic Material (Knowledge and
Maintaining Aircraft Control: Upset Risk Management) ...................................................4-20
Prevention and Recovery Training ....................4-1 Prevention Through ADM and
Introduction....................................................................4-1 Risk Management .................................................4-21
Defining an Airplane Upset........................................4-2 Prevention through Proportional
Coordinated Flight......................................................4-2 Counter-Response.................................................4-21
Angle of Attack ..........................................................4-2 Recovery ...............................................................4-22
Slow Flight.....................................................................4-3 Common Errors ........................................................4-22
Performing the Slow Flight Maneuver.......................4-4 Roles of FSTDs and Airplanes in UPRT .................4-22
Stalls...............................................................................4-5 Airplane-Based UPRT..............................................4-22
Stall Recognition ........................................................4-5 All-Attitude/All-Envelope Flight
Angle of Attack Indicators .....................................4-6 Training Methods .....................................................4-23
Stall Characteristics....................................................4-6 FSTDbased UPRT..................................................4-23
Fundamentals of Stall Recovery.................................4-7 Spiral Dive................................................................4-23
Stall Training..............................................................4-8 UPRT Summary .......................................................4-24
Approaches to Stalls (Impending Stalls), Chapter Summary ........................................................4-24
Power-On or Power-Off .............................................4-8
Full Stalls, Power-Off ................................................4-8 Chapter 5
Full Stalls, Power-On .................................................4-9 Takeoffs and Departure Climbs .........................5-1
Secondary Stall.........................................................4-10 Introduction....................................................................5-1
Accelerated Stalls .....................................................4-10 Terms and Definitions ................................................5-2
Cross-Control Stall...................................................4-11 Prior to Takeoff..............................................................5-2
Elevator Trim Stall ...................................................4-12 Normal Takeoff..............................................................5-3
Common Errors ........................................................4-13 Takeoff Roll ...............................................................5-3
Spin Awareness ........................................................4-13 Lift-Off .......................................................................5-4
Spin Procedures........................................................4-14 Initial Climb ...............................................................5-5
Entry Phase ...........................................................4-14 Crosswind Takeoff.........................................................5-6
Incipient Phase......................................................4-14 Takeoff Roll ...............................................................5-6
Developed Phase...................................................4-15 Lift-Off .......................................................................5-8
Recovery Phase.....................................................4-15 Initial Climb ...............................................................5-8
Intentional Spins.......................................................4-16 Ground Effect on Takeoff..............................................5-9
Weight and Balance Requirements Related Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum
to Spins.....................................................................4-17 Performance Climb ......................................................5-10
Common Errors ........................................................4-17 Takeoff Roll .............................................................5-10
Upset Prevention and Recovery ..................................4-17 Lift-Off .....................................................................5-10
Unusual Attitudes Versus Upsets .............................4-17 Initial Climb .............................................................5-11
Environmental Factors .............................................4-18 Soft/Rough-Field Takeoff and Climb ..........................5-11
Mechanical Factors...................................................4-18 Takeoff Roll .............................................................5-12
Human Factors .........................................................4-18 Lift-Off .....................................................................5-12
VMC to IMC.........................................................4-18 Initial Climb .............................................................5-12
IMC.......................................................................4-18 Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure .................................5-12
Diversion of Attention ..........................................4-18 Noise Abatement..........................................................5-13
Task Saturation .....................................................4-18 Chapter Summary ........................................................5-13
Sensory Overload/Deprivation .............................4-18
Chapter 6
Spatial Disorientation ...........................................4-19
Ground Reference Maneuvers ...........................6-1
Startle Response....................................................4-19 Introduction....................................................................6-1
Surprise Response.................................................4-19 Maneuvering by Reference to Ground Objects .............6-2
Upset Prevention and Recovery Training (UPRT)...4-19 Drift and Ground Track Control ....................................6-3
UPRT Core Concepts ...............................................4-20 Correcting Drift During Straight-and-Level Flight ....6-3

viii
 Constant Radius During Turning Flight.....................6-4 360 Power-Off Approach .......................................8-25
Tracking Over and Parallel to a Straight Line............6-6 Emergency Approaches and Landings (Simulated).....8-26
Rectangular Course........................................................6-6 Faulty Approaches and Landings ................................8-27
Turns Around a Point.....................................................6-8 Low Final Approach.................................................8-27
S-Turns.........................................................................6-10 High Final Approach ................................................8-28
Elementary Eights........................................................6-11 Slow Final Approach................................................8-28
Eights Along a Road ................................................6-11 Use of Power ............................................................8-29
Eights Across A Road ..............................................6-13 High Round Out .......................................................8-29
Eights Around Pylons...............................................6-13 Late or Rapid Round Out .........................................8-30
Eights-on-Pylons ......................................................6-14 Floating During Round Out......................................8-30
Chapter Summary ........................................................6-18 Ballooning During Round Out .................................8-30
Bouncing During Touchdown ..................................8-31
Chapter 7 Porpoising.................................................................8-32
Airport Traffic Patterns .......................................7-1 Wheel Barrowing .....................................................8-33
Introduction....................................................................7-1 Hard Landing............................................................8-33
Airport Traffic Patterns and Operations ........................7-2 Touchdown in a Drift or Crab ..................................8-34
Standard Airport Traffic Patterns...................................7-2 Ground Loop ............................................................8-34
Non-Towered Airports...................................................7-5 Wing Rising After Touchdown ................................8-35
Safety Considerations ....................................................7-5 Hydroplaning ...............................................................8-35
Chapter Summary ..........................................................7-6 Dynamic Hydroplaning ............................................8-35
Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning................................8-35
Chapter 8 Viscous Hydroplaning..............................................8-36
Approaches and Landings .................................8-1 Chapter Summary ........................................................8-36
Introduction....................................................................8-1
Normal Approach and Landing .....................................8-2 Chapter 9
Base Leg .....................................................................8-2 Performance Maneuvers.....................................9-1
Final Approach ...........................................................8-3 Introduction....................................................................9-1
Use of Flaps................................................................8-4 Steep Turns ....................................................................9-2
Estimating Height and Movement..............................8-5 Steep Spiral ....................................................................9-4
Round Out (Flare) ......................................................8-6 Chandelle .......................................................................9-5
Touchdown.................................................................8-7 Lazy Eight......................................................................9-6
After-Landing Roll .....................................................8-8 Chapter Summary ..........................................................9-8
Stabilized Approach Concept.....................................8-9
Intentional Slips ...........................................................8-11 Chapter 10
Go-Arounds (Rejected Landings) ................................8-12 Night Operations ...............................................10-1
Power........................................................................8-13 Introduction..................................................................10-1
Attitude.....................................................................8-13 Night Vision.................................................................10-2
Configuration ...........................................................8-13 Night Illusions..............................................................10-3
Ground Effect...............................................................8-14 Pilot Equipment ...........................................................10-4
Crosswind Approach and Landing...............................8-14 Airplane Equipment and Lighting ...............................10-4
Crosswind Final Approach.......................................8-14 Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids.........................10-5
Crosswind Round Out (Flare) ..................................8-15 Training for Night Flight .............................................10-6
Crosswind Touchdown.............................................8-15 Preparation and Preflight .............................................10-6
Crosswind After-Landing Roll.................................8-16 Starting, Taxiing, and Runup .......................................10-6
Maximum Safe Crosswind Velocities......................8-17 Takeoff and Climb .......................................................10-7
Turbulent Air Approach and Landing..........................8-18 Orientation and Navigation..........................................10-7
Short-Field Approach and Landing .............................8-18 Approaches and Landings............................................10-8
Soft-Field Approach and Landing ...............................8-21 Night Emergencies ...................................................10-9
Power-Off Accuracy Approaches ................................8-22 Chapter Summary ........................................................10-9
90 Power-Off Approach .........................................8-22
180 Power-Off Approach .......................................8-23

ix
Chapter 11 Normal Approach and Landing .................................12-14
Transition to Complex Airplanes .....................11-1 Crosswind Approach and Landing.............................12-16
Introduction..................................................................11-1 Short-Field Takeoff and Climb..................................12-17
Function of Flaps......................................................11-2 Short-Field Approach and Landing ...........................12-17
Flap Effectiveness ....................................................11-3 Go-Around .................................................................12-18
Operational Procedures ............................................11-3 Rejected Takeoff........................................................12-19
Controllable-Pitch Propeller ........................................11-4 Engine Failure After Lift-Off.....................................12-19
Constant-Speed Propeller .........................................11-4 Landing Gear Down ...............................................12-19
Takeoff, Climb, and Cruise ......................................11-6 Landing Gear Control Selected Up, Single-
Blade Angle Control.................................................11-7 Engine Climb Performance Inadequate .................12-20
Governing Range......................................................11-7 Landing Gear Control Selected Up, Single-
Constant-Speed Propeller Operation ........................11-7 Engine Climb Performance Adequate....................12-20
Turbocharging..............................................................11-8 Control ................................................................12-20
Ground Boosting Versus Altitude Turbocharging ...11-9 Configuration......................................................12-21
Operating Characteristics .........................................11-9 Climb ..................................................................12-21
Heat Management...................................................11-10 Checklist .............................................................12-21
Turbocharger Failure..............................................11-10 Engine Failure During Flight .....................................12-22
Over-Boost Condition.........................................11-10 Engine Inoperative Approach and Landing ...............12-23
Low Manifold Pressure.......................................11-11 Engine Inoperative Flight Principles .........................12-23
Retractable Landing Gear ..........................................11-11 Slow Flight.................................................................12-26
Landing Gear Systems............................................11-11 Stalls...........................................................................12-26
Controls and Position Indicators ............................11-11 Power-Off Approach to Stall (Approach
Landing Gear Safety Devices.................................11-11 and Landing)...........................................................12-26
Emergency Gear Extension Systems......................11-12 Power-On Approach to Stall (Takeoff
Operational Procedures ..........................................11-12 and Departure)........................................................12-27
Preflight ..............................................................11-12 Full Stall .................................................................12-27
Takeoff and Climb..............................................11-13 Accelerated Approach to Stall................................12-27
Approach and Landing .......................................11-15 Spin Awareness ......................................................12-28
Transition Training ....................................................11-16
Chapter Summary ......................................................11-16 Chapter 13
Transition to Tailwheel Airplanes ....................13-1
Chapter 12 Introduction..................................................................13-1
Transition to Multiengine Airplanes ................12-1 Landing Gear ...............................................................13-2
Introduction..................................................................12-1 Instability..................................................................13-2
General.........................................................................12-2 Angle of Attack............................................................13-2
Terms and Definitions..................................................12-2 Taxiing .........................................................................13-2
Operation of Systems...................................................12-3 Weathervaning .............................................................13-3
Propellers..................................................................12-3 Visibility ......................................................................13-3
Propeller Synchronization ........................................12-6 Directional Control ......................................................13-3
Fuel Crossfeed..........................................................12-6 Normal Takeoff Roll....................................................13-3
Combustion Heater...................................................12-6 Liftoff...........................................................................13-4
Flight Director/Autopilot..........................................12-6 Crosswind Takeoff.......................................................13-4
Yaw Damper.............................................................12-7 Short-Field Takeoff......................................................13-4
Alternator/Generator ................................................12-7 Soft-Field Takeoff........................................................13-4
Nose Baggage Compartment....................................12-7 Landing ........................................................................13-5
Anti-Icing/Deicing....................................................12-8 Touchdown ..................................................................13-5
Performance and Limitations.......................................12-9 Three-Point Landing.................................................13-5
Weight and Balance ...................................................12-11 Wheel Landing .........................................................13-6
Ground Operation ......................................................12-12 Crosswinds ...............................................................13-6
Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb ...............12-13 After-Landing Roll.......................................................13-6
Level Off and Cruise..................................................12-14 Crosswind After-Landing Roll ....................................13-7

x
Short-Field Landing .....................................................13-7 Takeoff Roll ...........................................................15-21
Soft-Field Landing .......................................................13-8 Rejected Takeoff ....................................................15-22
Ground Loop................................................................13-8 Rotation and Lift-Off..............................................15-24
Chapter Summary ........................................................13-8 Initial Climb ...........................................................15-24
Jet Airplane Approach and Landing ..........................15-25
Chapter 14 Landing Requirements ...........................................15-25
Transition to Turbopropeller- Landing Speeds ......................................................15-25
Powered Airplanes ............................................14-1 Significant Differences...........................................15-26
Introduction..................................................................14-1 Stabilized Approach ...............................................15-27
Gas Turbine Engine .....................................................14-2 Approach Speed .....................................................15-27
Turboprop Engines.......................................................14-2 Glidepath Control ...................................................15-28
Turboprop Engine Types .............................................14-3 The Flare.................................................................15-28
Fixed Shaft ...............................................................14-3 Touchdown and Rollout .........................................15-29
Split Shaft/ Free Turbine Engine .............................14-5 Key Points..................................................................15-30
Reverse Thrust and Beta Range Operations ................14-7 Chapter Summary ......................................................15-31
Turboprop Airplane Electrical Systems.......................14-8
Operational Considerations..........................................14-9 Chapter 16
Training Considerations.............................................14-11 Transition to Light Sport Airplanes (LSA).......16-1
Ground Training .....................................................14-12 Introduction..................................................................16-1
Flight Training........................................................14-12 Light Sport Airplane (LSA) Background ....................16-2
Chapter Summary ......................................................14-13 LSA Synopsis...............................................................16-3
Sport Pilot Certificate ..................................................16-3
Chapter 15 Transition Training Considerations .............................16-4
Transition to Jet-Powered Airplanes ...............15-1 Flight School ............................................................16-4
Introduction..................................................................15-1 Flight Instructors ......................................................16-4
Jet Engine Basics .........................................................15-2 LSA Maintenance ........................................................16-5
Operating the Jet Engine..............................................15-3 Airframe and Systems..................................................16-5
Jet Engine Ignition....................................................15-4 Construction .............................................................16-5
Continuous Ignition..................................................15-4 Engines .....................................................................16-6
Fuel Heaters..............................................................15-4 Instrumentation.........................................................16-6
Setting Power ...........................................................15-4 Weather Considerations ...............................................16-6
Thrust To Thrust Lever Relationship .......................15-5 Flight Environment ......................................................16-7
Variation of Thrust with RPM .................................15-5 Preflight....................................................................16-7
Slow Acceleration of the Jet Engine ........................15-6 Inside of the Airplane ...............................................16-8
Jet Engine Efficiency ...................................................15-6 Outside of the Airplane ............................................16-9
Absence of Propeller Effect .........................................15-6 Before Start and Starting Engine............................16-10
Absence of Propeller Slipstream..................................15-6 Taxi.........................................................................16-10
Absence of Propeller Drag...........................................15-7 Takeoff and Climb..................................................16-11
Speed Margins .............................................................15-7 Cruise .....................................................................16-11
Recovery From Overspeed Conditions........................15-9 Approach and Landing ..........................................16-12
Mach Buffet Boundaries ..............................................15-9 Emergencies ...........................................................16-12
Low Speed Flight.......................................................15-10 Postflight ................................................................16-12
Stalls...........................................................................15-11 Key Points..................................................................16-12
Drag Devices..............................................................15-14 Chapter Summary ......................................................16-13
Thrust Reversers ........................................................15-15
Pilot Sensations in Jet Flying.....................................15-17 Chapter 17
Jet Airplane Takeoff and Climb.................................15-18 Emergency Procedures ....................................17-1
Minimum Equipment List and Configuration Emergency Situations ..................................................17-1
Deviation List ........................................................15-18 Emergency Landings ...................................................17-2
V-Speeds ................................................................15-20 Types of Emergency Landings.................................17-2
Pre-Takeoff Procedures..........................................15-20 Psychological Hazards .............................................17-2

xi
Basic Safety Concepts..................................................17-2
General .....................................................................17-2
Attitude and Sink Rate Control ................................17-4
Terrain Selection ......................................................17-4
Airplane Configuration.............................................17-4
Approach ..................................................................17-5
Terrain Types ...............................................................17-5
Confined Areas.........................................................17-5
Trees (Forest) ...........................................................17-5
Water (Ditching) and Snow......................................17-6
Engine Failure After Takeoff (Single-Engine) ............17-6
Emergency Descents....................................................17-6
In-Flight Fire................................................................17-7
Engine Fire ...............................................................17-8
Electrical Fires..........................................................17-8
Cabin Fire.................................................................17-8
Flight Control Malfunction/Failure..............................17-9
Total Flap Failure .....................................................17-9
Asymmetric (Split) Flap...........................................17-9
Loss of Elevator Control ..........................................17-9
Landing Gear Malfunction .....................................17-10
Systems Malfunctions................................................17-11
Electrical System....................................................17-11
Pitot-Static System .................................................17-12
Abnormal Engine Instrument Indication ...................17-13
Door Opening In-Flight .............................................17-13
Inadvertent VFR Flight Into IMC .............................17-15
Recognition ............................................................17-15
Maintaining Airplane Control ................................17-15
Attitude Control......................................................17-16
Turns.......................................................................17-16
Climbs ....................................................................17-17
Descents..................................................................17-17
Combined Maneuvers.............................................17-17
Transition to Visual Flight .....................................17-18
Chapter Summary ......................................................17-18

Glossary ..............................................................G-1

Index ......................................................................I-1

xii
Chapter 1

Introduction to Flight Training

Introduction
The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight
training, as outlined in this handbook, is the acquisition and
honing of basic airmanship skills. [Figure 1-1] Airmanship
is a broad term that includes a sound knowledge of and
experience with the principles of flight, the knowledge,
experience, and ability to operate an airplane with
competence and precision both on the ground and in the air,
and the application of sound judgment that results in optimal
operational safety and efficiency. [Figure 1-2] Learning to
fly an airplane has often been likened to learning to drive an
automobile. This analogy is misleading. Since an airplane
operates in a three-dimensional environment, it requires a
depth of knowledge and type of motor skill development
that is more sensitive to this situation, such as:
Coordinationthe ability to use the hands and feet
together subconsciously and in the proper relationship
to produce desired results in the airplane.
Timingthe application of muscular coordination at
the proper instant to make flight, and all maneuvers,
a constant, smooth process.
Control touchthe ability to sense the action of the
airplane and knowledge to determine its probable
actions immediately regarding attitude and speed
variations by sensing the varying pressures and
resistance of the control surfaces transmitted through
the flight controls.
Speed sensethe ability to sense and react to
reasonable variations of airspeed.

1-1
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in the United States and for American airmen and aircraft Each FSDO is staffed by Aviation Safety Inspectors (ASIs)
around the world. The AFS is headquartered in Washington, whose specialties include operations, maintenance, and
D.C., and is broadly organized into divisions based on work avionics. General Aviation ASIs are highly qualified and
function (Air Transportation, Aircraft Maintenance, Flight experienced aviators. Once accepted for the position, an
Technology, Training, Certification and Surveillance, a inspector must satisfactorily complete indoctrination training
Regulatory Support Division based in Oklahoma City, OK, conducted at the FAA Academy that includes airman
and a General Aviation and Commercial Division). Regional evaluation and pilot testing techniques and procedures.
Flight Standards division managers, one at each of the FAAs Thereafter, the inspector must complete recurrent training
nine regional offices, coordinate AFS activities within their on a regular basis. Among other duties, the FSDO inspector
respective regions. is responsible for administering FAA practical tests for pilot
and flight instructor certificates and associated ratings. All
The interface between AFS and the aviation community/ questions concerning pilot certification (and/or requests for
general public is the local Flight Standards District Office other aviation information or services) should be directed to
(FSDO). The approximately ninety FSDOs are strategically the FSDO having jurisdiction in the particular geographic
located across the United States, each office having area. For specific FSDO locations and telephone numbers,
jurisdiction over a specific geographic area. [Figure 1-6] The refer to www.faa.gov.
individual FSDO is responsible for all air activity occurring
within its geographic boundaries. The individual FSDOs Role of the Pilot Examiner
are responsible for the certification and surveillance of air Pilot and flight instructor certificates are issued by the
carriers, air operators, flight schools/training centers, airmen FAA upon satisfactory completion of required knowledge
(pilots, flight instructors, mechanics and other certificate and practical tests. The administration of these tests is an
holders). Additional duties that are tasked to FSDO inspectors FAA responsibility that the issuance of pilot and instructor
is accident investigation and enforcement actions. NOTE: certificates can be carried out at the FSDO level. In order
Accident investigation and enforcement actions are a smaller to satisfy the public need for pilot testing and certification
part of a field inspectors job than surveillance and certification. services, the FAA delegates certain responsibilities, as

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CALIFORNIA M I S S O U R I K E N T U C K Y

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Figure 1-6. Flight Standards District Office locations across the United States.

1-6
the need arises, to private individuals who are not FAA A pilot training program is dependent on the quality of the
employees. A Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) is a ground and flight instruction the student pilot receives. A good
private citizen who is designated as a representative of the flight instructor has a thorough understanding of the learning
FAA Administrator to perform specific (but limited) pilot process, knowledge of the fundamentals of instruction, and
certification tasks on behalf of the FAA and may charge a the ability to communicate effectively with the student pilot.
reasonable fee for doing so. Generally, a DPEs authority is
limited to accepting applications and conducting practical A good flight instructor uses a syllabus and insists on correct
tests leading to the issuance of specific pilot certificates techniques and procedures from the beginning of training
and/or ratings. A DPE operates under the direct supervision so that the student will develop proper habit patterns. The
of the FSDO that holds the examiners designation file. syllabus should embody the building block method of
A FSDO inspector is assigned to monitor the DPEs instruction in which the student progresses from the known
certification activities. Normally, the DPE is authorized to to the unknown. The course of instruction should be laid
conduct these activities only within the designating FSDOs out so that each new maneuver embodies the principles
jurisdictional area. involved in the performance of those previously undertaken.
Consequently, through each new subject introduced, the
The FAA selects only highly qualified individuals to be DPEs. student not only learns a new principle or technique, but
These individuals must have good industry reputations for broadens his or her application of those previously learned
professionalism, high integrity, a demonstrated willingness to and has his or her deficiencies in the previous maneuvers
serve the public, and adhere to FAA policies and procedures emphasized and made obvious. [Figure 1-8]
in certification matters. A DPE is expected to administer
practical tests with the same degree of professionalism, The flying habits of the flight instructor, both during flight
using the same methods, procedures, and standards as an instruction and as observed by students when conducting
FAA ASI. It should be remembered, however, that a DPE is other pilot operations, have a vital effect on safety. Students
not an FAA ASI. A DPE cannot initiate enforcement action, consider their flight instructor to be a paragon of flying
investigate accidents, or perform surveillance activities on proficiency whose flying habits they, consciously or
behalf of the FAA. However, the majority of FAA practical unconsciously, attempt to imitate. For this reason, a good
tests at the recreational, private, and commercial pilot level flight instructor meticulously observes the safety practices
are administered by FAA DPEs. taught to the students. Additionally, a good flight instructor
carefully observes all regulations and recognized safety
Role of the Flight Instructor practices during all flight operations.
The flight instructor is the cornerstone of aviation safety. The
FAA has adopted an operational training concept that places
the full responsibility for student training on the authorized
flight instructor. In this role, the instructor assumes the
total responsibility for training the student pilot in all the
knowledge areas and skills necessary to operate safely and
competently as a certificated pilot in the National Airspace
System (NAS). This training includes airmanship skills,
pilot judgment and decision-making, hazard identification,
risk analysis, and good operating practices. (See Risk
Management Handbook, FAA-H-8083-2). [Figure 1-7]

An FAA Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI) has to meet

broad flying experience requirements, pass rigid knowledge
and practical tests, and demonstrate the ability to apply
recommended teaching techniques before being certificated.
In addition, the flight instructors certificate must be
renewed every 24 months by showing continued success
in training pilots or by satisfactorily completing a flight
instructors refresher course or a practical test designed
to upgrade aeronautical knowledge, pilot proficiency, and
teaching techniques. Figure 1-7. The flight instructor is responsible for teaching and
training students to become safe and competent certificated pilots.

1-7
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1
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Figure 1-9. FAA Form 8000-4, Air Agency Certificate.

1-9
without further testing by the FAA. A list of FAA-certificated Practical Test Standards (PTS) and Airman
pilot schools and their training courses can be found at http:// Bdqshb`shnmRs`mc`qcr'@BR(
av-info.faa.gov/pilotschool.asp. Practical tests for FAA pilot certificates and associated ratings
are administered by FAA inspectors and DPEs in accordance
FAA-approved training centers are certificated under 14 CFR with FAA-developed Practical Test Standards (PTS) and
part 142. Training centers, like certificated pilot schools, Airman Certification Standards (ACS). [Figure 1-10]
operate in a structured environment with approved courses 14 CFR part 61 specifies the areas of operation in which
and curricula and stringent standards for personnel, equipment, knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the applicant.
facilities, operating procedures, and record keeping. Training The CFRs provide the flexibility to permit the FAA to publish
centers certificated under 14 CFR part 142, however, specialize PTS and ACS containing the areas of operation and specific
in the use of flight simulation (flight simulators and flight tasks in which competence must be demonstrated. The FAA
training devices) in their training courses. requires that all practical tests be conducted in accordance
with the appropriate PTS and ACS and the policies set forth
There are a number of flying schools in the United States in the introduction section of the PTS and ACS.
that are not certificated by the FAA. These schools operate
under the provisions of 14 CFR part 61. Many of these non- It must be emphasized that the PTS and ACS are testing
certificated flying schools offer excellent training and meet documents rather than teaching documents. Although the
or exceed the standards required of FAA-approved pilot pilot applicant should be familiar with these books and
schools. Flight instructors employed by non-certificated refer to the standards it contains during training, the PTS
flying schools, as well as independent flight instructors, and ACS is not intended to be used as a training syllabus.
must meet the same basic 14 CFR part 61 flight instructor It contains the standards to which maneuvers/procedures
requirements for certification and renewal as those flight on FAA practical tests must be performed and the FAA
instructors employed by FAA-certificated pilot schools. In policies governing the administration of practical tests.
the end, any training program is dependent upon the quality An appropriately rated flight instructor is responsible for
of the ground and flight instruction a student pilot receives. training a pilot applicant to acceptable standards in all subject
matter areas, procedures, and maneuvers included in, and

FAA-S-ACS-8
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FAA-S-A S-X
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Figure 1-10. Airman Certification Standards (ACS) developed by the FAA.

1-10
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1
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psychological and physiological conditions, such as fatigue, creates a collision hazard or results in a loss of separation
boredom, illness, anxiety, or preoccupation. with an aircraft taking off, landing, or intending to land.
The three major areas contributing to runway incursions
Effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, are communications, airport knowledge, and flightdeck
regularly-spaced eye movements that bring successive areas procedures for maintaining orientation. [Figure 1-13]
of the sky into the central visual field. Each movement
should not exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be Taxi operations require constant vigilance by the entire flight
observed for at least 1 second to enable detection. Although crew, not just the pilot taxiing the airplane. During flight
horizontal back-and-forth eye movements seem preferred training, the instructor should emphasize the importance
by most pilots, each pilot should develop a scanning pattern of vigilance during taxi operations. Both the student pilot
that is most comfortable to them and adhere to it to assure and the flight instructor need to be continually aware of the
optimum scanning. movement and location of other aircraft and ground vehicles
on the airport movement area. Many flight training activities
Peripheral vision can be most useful in spotting collision are conducted at non-tower controlled airports. The absence
threats from other aircraft. Each time a scan is stopped and of an operating airport control tower creates a need for
the eyes are refocused, the peripheral vision takes on more increased vigilance on the part of pilots operating at those
importance because it is through this element that movement airports. [Figure 1-14]
is detected. Apparent movement is almost always the first
perception of a collision threat and probably the most important Planning, clear communications, and enhanced situational
because it is the discovery of a threat that triggers the events awareness during airport surface operations reduces the
leading to proper evasive action. It is essential to remember, potential for surface incidents. Safe aircraft operations can be
however, that if another aircraft appears to have no relative accomplished and incidents eliminated if the pilot is properly
motion, it is likely to be on a collision course with you. If trained early on and throughout their flying career on standard
the other aircraft shows no lateral or vertical motion, but is taxi operating procedures and practices. This requires the
increasing in size, take immediate evasive action. development of the formalized teaching of safe operating
practices during taxi operations. The flight instructor is
The importance of, and the proper techniques for, visual the key to this teaching. The flight instructor should instill
scanning should be taught to a student pilot at the very in the student an awareness of the potential for runway
beginning of flight training. The competent flight instructor incursion, and should emphasize the runway incursion
should be familiar with the visual scanning and collision avoidance procedures. For more detailed information and a
avoidance information contained in AC 90-48, Pilots Role list of additional references, refer to Chapter 14 of the Pilots
in Collision Avoidance, and the Aeronautical Information Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.
Manual (AIM).
Stall Awareness
There are many different types of clearing procedures. Most 14 CFR part 61 requires that a student pilot receive and
are centered around the use of clearing turns. The essential log flight training in stalls and stall recoveries prior to solo
idea of the clearing turn is to be certain that the next maneuver flight. [Figure 1-15] During this training, the flight instructor
is not going to proceed into another airplanes flightpath. should emphasize that the direct cause of every stall is an
Some pilot training programs have hard and fast rules, such excessive angle of attack (AOA). The student pilot should
as requiring two 90 turns in opposite directions before fully understand that there are several flight maneuvers that
executing any training maneuver. Other types of clearing may produce an increase in the wings AOA, but the stall
procedures may be developed by individual flight instructors. does not occur until the AOA becomes excessive. This critical
Whatever the preferred method, the flight instructor should AOA varies from 1620 depending on the airplane design.
teach the beginning student an effective clearing procedure [Figure 1-16]
and insist on its use. The student pilot should execute the
appropriate clearing procedure before all turns and before The flight instructor must emphasize that low speed is not
executing any training maneuver. Proper clearing procedures, necessary to produce a stall. The wing can be brought to an
combined with proper visual scanning techniques, are the excessive AOA at any speed. High pitch attitude is not an
most effective strategy for collision avoidance. absolute indication of proximity to a stall. Some airplanes
are capable of vertical flight with a corresponding low AOA.
Runway Incursion Avoidance Most airplanes are quite capable of stalling at a level or near
A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport involving level pitch attitude.
an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that

1-12
Figure 1-13. Three major areas contributing to runway incursions are communications with air traffic control (ATC), airport knowledge,
and flight deck procedures.

The key to stall awareness is the pilots ability to visualize The pilot must understand and appreciate factors such as
the wings AOA in any particular circumstance, and thereby airspeed, pitch attitude, load factor, relative wind, power
be able to estimate his or her margin of safety above stall. setting, and aircraft configuration in order to develop a
This is a learned skill that must be acquired early in flight reasonably accurate mental picture of the wings AOA at any
training and carried through the pilots entire flying career. particular time. It is essential to safety of flight that pilots
take into consideration this visualization of the wings AOA
prior to entering any flight maneuver. Chapter 3, Basic Flight
Maneuvers, discusses stalls in greater detail.

Use of Checklists
Checklists have been the foundation of pilot standardization
and flight deck safety for years. [Figure 1-17] The checklist
is a memory aid and helps to ensure that critical items
necessary for the safe operation of aircraft are not overlooked
or forgotten. Checklists need not be do lists. In other words,
the proper actions can be accomplished, and then the checklist
used to quickly ensure all necessary tasks or actions have been
Figure 1-14. Sedona Airport is one of the many airports that operate completed. Emphasis on the check in checklist. However,
without a control tower.

1-13
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1
-14
Figure 1-18. A sample before landing checklist used by pilots.

Positive Transfer of Controls stay on the controls until the instructor says: I have the
During flight training, there must always be a clear flight controls. There should never be any doubt as to who is
understanding between the student and flight instructor of flying the airplane at any one time. Numerous accidents have
who has control of the aircraft. Prior to any flight, a briefing occurred due to a lack of communication or misunderstanding
should be conducted that includes the procedures for the as to who actually had control of the aircraft, particularly
exchange of flight controls. The following three-step process between students and flight instructors. Establishing the
for the exchange of flight controls is highly recommended. above procedure during initial training ensures the formation
of a very beneficial habit pattern.
When a flight instructor wishes the student to take control
of the aircraft, he or she should say to the student, You Chapter Summary
have the flight controls. The student should acknowledge This chapter discussed some of the concepts and goals of
immediately by saying, I have the flight controls. The flight primary and intermediate flight training. It identified and
instructor should then confirm by again saying, You have provided an explanation of regulatory requirements and
the flight controls. Part of the procedure should be a visual the roles of the various entities involved. It also offered
check to ensure that the other person actually has the flight recommended techniques to be practiced and refined to
controls. When returning the controls to the flight instructor, develop the knowledge, proficiency, and safe habits of a
the student should follow the same procedure the instructor competent pilot.
used when giving control to the student. The student should

1-15
1-16
Chapter 2

Ground Operations
Introduction
d i
All pilots must ensure that they place a strong emphasis on
ground operations as this is where safe flight begins and
ends. At no time should a pilot hastily consider ground
operations without proper and effective thoroughness. This
phase of flight provides the first opportunity for a pilot to
safely assess the various factors of flight operations including
the regulatory requirements, an evaluation of the airplanes
condition, and the pilots readiness for their pilot in command
(PIC) responsibilities.

2-1
2-1
2-
Flying an airplane presents many new responsibilities that are
not required for other forms of transportation. Focus is often
overly placed on the flying portion itself with less emphasis
placed on ground operations; it must be stressed that a pilot
should allow themselves adequate time to properly prepare
for flight and maintain effective situational awareness at all
times until the airplane is safely and securely returned to its
tie-down or hangar.

This chapter covers the essential elements for the regulatory

basis of flight including an airplanes airworthiness
requirements, important inspection items when conducting a Figure 2-2. A visual inspection of the aircraft before flight is an
preflight visual inspection, managing risk and resources, and important step in mitigating airplane flight hazards.
proper and effective airplane surface movements including
the use of the Airplane Flight Manual/Pilots Operating
Handbook (AFM/POH) and airplane checklists. be kept accurate and secure but available for inspection.
Airplane logbooks are not required, nor is it advisable, to be
Preflight Assessment of the Aircraft kept in the airplane. It should be a matter of procedure by
the pilot to inspect the airplane logbooks or a summary of
The visual preflight assessment is an important step in the airworthy status prior to flight to ensure that the airplane
mitigating airplane flight hazards. The purpose of the records of maintenance, alteration, and inspections are current
preflight assessment is to ensure that the airplane meets and correct. [Figure 2-4] The following is required:
regulatory airworthiness standards and is in a safe mechanical
condition prior to flight. The term airworthy means that Annual inspection within the preceding 12-calendar
the aircraft and its component parts meet the airplanes type months (Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
design or is in a properly altered configuration and is in a (14 CFR) part 91, section 91.409(a))
condition for safe operation. The inspection has two parts 100-hour inspection, if the aircraft is operated for hire
and involves the pilot inspecting the airplanes airworthiness (14 CFR part 91, section 91.409(b))
status and a visual preflight inspection of the airplane
Transponder certification within the preceding
following the AFM/POH to determine the required items for
24-calendar months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.413)
inspection. [Figures 2-1 through 2-3] The owner/operator is
primarily responsible for maintenance, but the pilot is (solely) Static system and encoder certification, within the
responsible for determining the airworthiness (and/or safety) preceding 24-calendar months, required for instrument
of the airplane for flight. flight rules (IFR) flight in controlled airspace (14 CFR
part 91, section 91.411)
Each airplane has a set of logbooks that include airframe 30-day VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) equipment
and engine and, in some cases, propeller and appliance check required for IFR flight (14 CFR part 91, section
logbooks, which are used to record maintenance, alteration, 91.171)
and inspections performed on a specific airframe, engine,
Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) inspection
propeller, or appliance. It is important that the logbooks
within the last 12 months (14 CFR part 91, section
91.207(d))
ELT battery due (14 CFR part 91, section 91.207(c))
Current status of life limited parts per Type Certificate
Data Sheets (TCDS) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417)
Status, compliance, logbook entries for airworthiness
directives (ADs) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417(a)
(2)(v))
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Form 337,
Major Repair or Alteration (14 CFR part 91, section
91.417)
Figure 2-1. Pilots must view the aircrafts maintenance logbook Inoperative equipment (14 CFR part 91, section
prior to flight to ensure the aircraft is safe to fly. 91.213)

2-2
 Visual Preflight Assessment
The inspection should start with the cabin door. If the door
is hard to open or close, does not fit snugly, or the door
latches do not engage or disengage smoothly, the surrounding
structure, such as the door post, should be inspected for
misalignment which could indicate structural damage. The
visual preflight inspection should continue to the interior of
the cabin or cockpit where carpeting should be inspected
to ensure that it is serviceable, dry, and properly affixed;
seats belts and shoulder harnesses should be inspected to
ensure that they are free from fraying, latch properly, and
are securely attached to their mounting fittings; seats should
be inspected to ensure that the seats properly latch into the
Figure 2-3. Airplane Flight Manuals (AFM) and the Pilot Operating seat rails through the seat lock pins and that seat rail holes
Handbook (POH) for each individual aircraft explain the required are not abnormally worn to an oval shape; [Figure 2-5] the
items for inspection. windshield and windows should be inspected to ensure that
they are clean and free from cracks, and crazing. A dirty,
A review determines if the required maintenance and scratched, and/or a severely crazed window can result in
inspections have been performed on the airplane. Any near zero visibility due to light refraction at certain angles
discrepancies must be addressed prior to flight. Once the pilot from the sun.
has determined that the airplanes logbooks provide factual
assurance that the aircraft meets its airworthy requirements, AFM/POH must be the reference for conducting the visual
it is appropriate to visually inspect the airplane. The visual preflight inspection, and each manufacturer has a specified
preflight inspection of the airplane should begin while sequence for conducting the actions. In general, the following
approaching the airplane on the ramp. The pilot should make items are likely to be included in the AFM/POH preflight
note of the general appearance of the airplane, looking for inspection:
discrepancies such as misalignment of the landing gear and Master, alternator, and magneto switches are OFF
airplane structure. The pilot should also take note of any Control column locks are REMOVED
distortions of the wings, fuselage, and tail, as well as skin
damage and any staining, dripping, or puddles of fuel or oils. Landing gear control is DOWN
Fuel selectors should be checked for proper operation
It must be determined by the pilot that the following in all positions, including the OFF position. Stiff fuel
documents are, as appropriate, on board, attached, or affixed to selectors or where the tank position is not legible or
the airplane: lacking detents are unacceptable.
Original Airworthiness Certificate (14 CFR part 91, Trim wheels, which include elevator and may include
section 91.203) rudder and aileron, are set for takeoff position.
Original Registration Certificate (14 CFR part 91, Avionics master OFF
section 91.203)
Circuit breakers checked IN
Radio station license for flights outside the United
Flight instruments must read correctly. Airspeed zero;
States or airplanes greater than 12,500 pounds (Federal
altimeter when properly set to the current barometric
Communications Commission (FCC) rule)
setting should indicate the field elevation within 75
Operating limitations, which may be in the form of feet for IFR flight; the magnetic compass should
an FAA-approved AFM/POH, placards, instrument indicate the airplanes direction accurately; and
markings, or any combination thereof (14 CFR part the compass correction card should be legible and
91, section 91.9) complete. For conventional wet magnetic compasses,
Official weight and balance the instrument face must be clear and the instrument
case full of fluid. A cloudy instrument face, bubbles in
Compass deviation card (14 CFR part 23, section the fluid, or a partially filled case renders the compass
23.1547) unusable. The vertical speed indictor (VSI) should
External data plate (14 CFR part 45, section 45.11) read zero. If the VSI does not show a zero reading, a
small screwdriver can be used to zero the instrument.

2-3
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2
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deck reference guide is in the aircraft and assessable, system
driven removal of Xs over engine indicators, pitot/static
and attitude displays, testing of low level alarms, annunciator
panels, setting of fuel levels, and verification that the avionics
cooling fans, if equipped, are functional. [Figure 2-6] The
AFM/POH specifies how these preflight inspections are to
take place. Since an advanced avionics aircraft preflight
checklist may be extensive, pilots should allow extra time for
these aircraft to ensure that all items are properly addressed.
Figure 2-7. Example of rivet heads where black oxide film has
Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section formed due to the rivet becoming loose in its hole.
Generally, the AFM/POH specifies a sequence for the pilot
to inspect the aircraft which may sequence from the cabin these areas as load-related stresses are concentrated along
entry access opening and then in a counterclockwise direction spar lines and attach points. Spar lines are lateral rivet lines
until the aircraft has been completely inspected. Besides the that extend from one side of the wing to the other, horizontal
AFM/POH preflight assessment, the pilot must also develop stabilizer, or vertical stabilizer. Pilots should pay close
awareness for potential areas of concern, such as signs of attention to spar lines looking for distortion, ripples, bubbles,
deterioration or distortion of the structure, whether metal dents, creases, or waves as any structural deformity may be
or composite, as well as loose or missing rivets or screws. an indication of internal damage or failure. Inspect around
rivet heads looking for cracked paint or a black-oxide film
Besides all items specified in the AFM/POH that must that forms when a rivet works free in its hole. [Figure 2-7]
be inspected, the pilot should also develop an awareness
for critical areas, such as spar lines, wing, horizontal, and Additional areas that should be scrutinized are the leading
vertical attach points including wing struts and landing gear edges of the wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizer. These
attachment areas. The airplane skin should be inspected in areas may be impact damaged by rocks, ice, birds, and or

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Figure 2-6. Ground-based inspections include verification that Xs on the instrument display are displayed until the sensor activates.

2-5
hangar rash incidentsdents and dings may render the is sometimes difficult to identify unless a fuel sample is held
structure unairworthy. Some leading edge surfaces have up against a white background in reasonable white lighting.
aerodynamic devices, such as stall fences, slots, or vortex
generators, and deicing equipment, such as weeping wings Aircraft piston engines certificated for grade 80/87 run
and boots. If these items exist on the airplane which the pilot satisfactorily on 100LL if approved as an alternate. The
intends to fly, knowledge of an acceptable level of proper reverse is not true. Fuel of a lower grade should never be
condition must be gained so that an adequate preflight substituted for a required higher grade. Detonation will
inspection may take place. severely damage the engine in a very short period of time.
Detonation, as the name suggests, is an explosion of the
On metal airplanes, wingtips, fairings, and non-structural fuel-air mixture inside the cylinder. During detonation, the
covers may be fabricated out of thin fiberglass or plastic. fuel/air charge (or pockets within the charge) explodes rather
These items are frequently affected by cracks radiating from than burning smoothly. Because of this explosion, the charge
screw holes or concentrated radiuses. Often, if any of these exerts a much higher force on the piston and cylinder, leading
items are cracked, it is practice to stop-drill the crack to to increased noise, vibration, and cylinder head temperatures.
prevent crack progression. [Figure 2-8] Extra care should be The violence of detonation also causes a reduction in
exercised to ensure that these devices are in good condition power. Mild detonation may increase engine wear, though
without cracks that may render them unairworthy. Cracks some engines can operate with mild detonation regularly.
that have continued beyond a stop drilled location or any new However, severe detonation can cause engine failure in
adjacent cracks that have formed may lead to in-flight failure. minutes. Because of the noise that it makes, detonation is
called "engine knock" or "pinging" in cars.
Inspecting composite airplanes can be more challenging as
the airplanes generally have no rivets or screws to aid the pilot When approved for the specific airplane to be flown,
in identifying spar lines and wing attach points; however, automobile gasoline is sometimes used as a substitute fuel
delamination of spar to skin or other structural problems may in certain airplanes. Its use is acceptable only when the
be identified by bubbles, fine hair-line cracks, or changes in particular airplane has been issued a Supplemental Type
sound when gently tapping on the structure with a fingertip. Certificate (STC) to both the airframe and engine.
Anything out of place should be addressed by discussing the
issue with a properly rated aircraft mechanic. Jet fuel is a kerosene-based fuel for turbine engines and a
new generation of diesel-powered airplanes. Jet fuel has a
Fuel and Oil stubborn, distinctive, non-gasoline odor and is oily to the
While there are various formulations of aviation gasoline touch. Jet fuel is clear or straw colored, although it may
(AVGAS), only three grades are conventional: 80/87, appear dyed when mixed with AVGAS. Jet fuel has disastrous
100LL, and 100/130. 100LL is the most widely available consequences when introduced into AVGAS burning
in the United States. AVGAS is dyed with a faint color reciprocating airplane engines. A reciprocating engine
for grade identification: 80/87 is dyed red; 100LL is dyed operating on jet fuel may start, run, and power the airplane
blue; and 100/130 is dyed green. All AVGAS grades have a for a time long enough for the airplane to become airborne
familiar gasoline scent and texture. 100LL with its blue dye only to have the engine fail catastrophically after takeoff.

Jet fuel refueling trucks and dispensing equipment are marked

with JET-A placards in white characters on a black background.
Because of the dire consequences associated with misfueling,
fuel nozzles are specific to the type of fuel. AVGAS fuel filler
nozzles are straight with a constant diameter. [Figure 2-9]
However, jet fuel filler nozzles are flared at the end to prevent
insertion into AVGAS fuel tanks. [Figure 2-10]

Using the proper, approved grade of fuel is critical for safe,

reliable engine operation. Without the proper fuel quantity,
grade, and quality, the engine(s) will likely cease to operate.
Therefore, it is imperative that the pilot visually verify that
the airplane has the correct quantity for the intended flight
Figure 2-8. Cracks radiating from screw holes that have been stop- plus adequate and legal reserves, as well as inspect that the
drilled to prevent crack progression. fuel is of the proper grade and that the quality of the fuel is

2-6
Figure 2-9. An AVGAS fuel filler nozzle is straight with a constant
diameter.
Figure 2-11. Evidence of fuel leakage can be found along rivet lines.
acceptable. The pilot should always ensure that the fuel caps
have been securely replaced following each fueling. fuel system from deteriorated gas cap seals exposed to rain
or from the suppliers storage tanks and delivery vehicles.
Many airplanes are very sensitive to its attitude when Sediment contamination can arise from dust and dirt entering
attempting to fuel for maximum capacity. Nosewheel or main the tanks during refueling or from deteriorating rubber fuel
landing gear strut extension, both high as well as low, and tanks or tank sealant. Deteriorating rubber from seals and
the slope of the ramp can significantly alter the attitude of sealant may show up in the fuel sample as small dark specks.
the aircraft and therefore the fuel capacity. Always positively
confirm the fuel quantity indicated on the fuel gauges by The best preventive measure is to minimize the opportunity
visually inspecting the level of each tank. for water to condense in the tanks. If possible, the fuel tanks
should be completely filled with the proper grade of fuel
The pilot should be aware that fuel stains anywhere on the after each flight, or at least filled after the last flight of the
wing or any location where a fuel tank is mounted warrants day. The more fuel that is in the tanks, the less room inside
further investigationno matter how old the stains appear the tank exists for condensation to occur. Keeping fuel tanks
to be. Fuel stains are a sign of probable fuel leakage. On filled is also the best way to slow the aging of rubber fuel
airplanes equipped with wet-wing fuel tanks, evidence of tanks and tank sealant.
fuel leakage can be found along rivet lines. [Figure 2-11]
Sufficient fuel should be drained from the fuel strainer quick
Checking for water and other sediment contamination is a key drain and from each fuel tank sump to check for fuel grade/
preflight item. Water tends to accumulate in fuel tanks from color, water, dirt, and odor. If water is present, it is usually
condensation, particularly in partially filled tanks. Because in bubble or bead-like droplets, different in color (usually
water is heavier than fuel, it tends to collect in the low points clear, sometimes muddy yellow to brown with specks of
of the fuel system. Water can also be introduced into the dirt), in the bottom of the sample jar. In extreme water
contamination cases, consider the possibility that the entire
fuel sample, particularly if a small sample was taken, is water.
If water is found in the first fuel sample, continue sampling
until no water and contamination appears. Significant and/
or consistent water, sediment or contaminations are grounds
for further investigation by qualified maintenance personnel.
Each fuel tank sump should be drained during preflight and
after refueling. The order of sumping the fuel system is often
very important. Check the AFM/POH for specific procedures
and order to be followed.

Checking the fuel tank vent is an important part of a preflight

assessment. If outside air is unable to enter the tank as fuel is
Figure 2-10. A jet fuel filler nozzle is flared at the end to prevent
drawn into the engine, the eventual result is fuel starvation
an inadvertent insertion into an AVGAS fuel tank.

2-7
and engine failure. During the preflight assessment, the pilot environment in a precise and controlled manner. The landing
should look for signs of vent damage and blockage. Some gear, tires, and brakes must be inspected to ensure that the
airplanes utilize vented fuel caps, fuel vent tubes, or recessed airplane can be positively controlled on the ground. Landing
areas under the wings where vents are located. The pilot gear on airplanes varies from simple fixed gear to complex
should use a flashlight to look at the fuel vent to ensure that retractable gear systems.
it is free from damage and clear of obstructions. If there is a
rush of air when the fuel tank cap is cracked, there could be Fixed landing gear is a gear system in which the landing
a serious problem with the vent system. gear struts, tires, and brakes are exposed and lend themselves
to relatively simple inspection. However, more complex
Aviation oils are available in various single/multi-grades airplanes may have retractable landing gear with multiple
and mineral/synthetic-based formulations. It is important to tires per landing gear strut, landing gear doors, over-center
always use the approved and recommended oil for the engine. locks, springs, and electrical squat switches. Regardless of
The oil not only acts as a lubricant but also as a medium to the system, it is imperative that the pilot follow the AFM/
transfer heat as a result of engine operation and to suspend POH in inspecting that the landing gear is ready for operation.
dirt, combustion byproducts, and wear particles between
oil changes. Therefore, the proper level of oil is required to On many fixed-gear airplanes, inspection of the landing gear
ensure lubrication, effective heat transfer, and the suspension system can be hindered by wheel pants, which are covers used
of various contaminators. The oil level should be checked to reduce aerodynamic drag. It is still the pilots responsibility
during each preflight, rechecked with each refueling, and to inspect the airplane properly. A flashlight helps the pilot in
maintained to not have the oil level fall below the minimum peering into covered areas. On low-wing airplanes, covered
required during engine operation. or retraceable landing gear presents additional effort required
to crouch below the wing to properly inspect the landing gear.
During the preflight assessment, if the engine is cold, oil
levels on the oil dipstick show higher levels than if the The following provides guidelines for inspecting the landing
engine was warm and recently shutdown after a flight. When gear system; however, the AFM/POH must be the pilots
removing the oil dipstick, care should be taken to keep the reference for the appropriate procedures.
dipstick from coming in contact with dirty or grimy areas. The The pilot, when approaching the airplane, should look
dipstick should be inspected to verify the oil level. Typically, at the landing gear struts and the adjacent ground for
piston airplane engines have oil reservoirs with capacities leaking hydraulic fluid that may be coming from struts,
between four and eight quarts, with six quarts being common. hydraulic lines from landing gear retraction pumps,
Besides the level of oil, the oils color provides an insight or from the braking system. Landing gear should be
as to its operating condition. Oils darken in color as the oil relatively free from grease, oil, and fluid without
operating hours increasethis is common and expected any undue amounts. Any amount of leaking fluid is
as the oil traps contaminators; however, oils that rapidly unacceptable. In addition, an overview of the landing
darken in the first few hours of use after an oil change may gear provides an opportunity to verify landing gear
indicate engine cylinder problems. Piston airplane engines alignment and height consistency.
consume a small amount of oil during normal operation. The
amount of consumption varies on many factors; however, All landing gear shock struts should also be checked
if consumption increases or suddenly changes, qualified to ensure that they are properly inflated, clean, and
maintenance personnel should investigate. free from hydraulic fluid and damage. All axles,
links, collars, over-center locks, push rods, forks, and
It is suggested that the critical aspect of fuel and oil not be fasteners should be inspected to ensure that they are
left to line service personnel without oversight of the pilot free from cracks, corrosion, rust, and determined to
responsible for flight. While line personnel are aviation be airworthy.
professionals, it is the pilot who is responsible for the safe Tires should be inspected for proper inflation, an
outcome of their flight. During refueling or when oil is added acceptable level of remaining tread, and normal wear
to an engine, the pilot must monitor and ensure that the correct pattern. Abnormal wear patterns, sidewall cracks,
quantity, quality, and grade of fuel and oil is added and that and damage, such as cuts, bulges, imbedded foreign
all fuel and oil caps have been securely replaced. objects, and visible cords, render the tire unairworthy.
Wheel hubs should be inspected to ensure that they are
Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes
free from cracks, corrosion, and rust, that all fasteners
The landing gear, tires, and brakes allow the airplane to are secure, and that the air valve stem is straight,
maneuver from and return to the ramp, taxiway, and runway capped, and in good condition.

2-8
 Brakes and brake systems should be checked to ensure rivets and other fasteners as this may be a sign of a lack of
that they are free from rust and corrosion and that security. Any cowling security issues must be referred to a
all fasteners and safety wires are secure. Brake pads competent and rated airplane maintenance mechanic.
should have a proper amount of material remaining
and should be secure. All brake lines should be secure, From the cowling, a general inspection of the propeller
dry, and free of signs of hydraulic leaks, and devoid spinner, if so equipped, should be completed. Not all airplane/
of abrasions and deep cracking. propeller combinations have a spinner, so adherence to the
On tricycle gear airplanes, a shimmy damper is used AFM/POH checklist is required. Spinners are subjected to
to damp oscillations of the nose gear and must be great stresses and should be inspected to be free from dents,
inspected to ensure that they are securely attached, cracks, corrosion, and in proper alignment. Cracks may not
are free of hydraulic fluid leaks, and are in overall only occur at locations where fasteners are used but also on
good condition. Some shimmy dampeners do not the rear facing spinner plate. In conditions where ice or snow
use hydraulic fluid and instead use an elastomeric may have entered the spinner around the propeller openings,
compound as the dampening medium. Nose gear links, the pilot should inspect the area to ensure that the spinner
collars, steering rods, and forks should be inspected is internally free from ice. The engine/propeller/spinner is
to ensure the security of fasteners, minimal free play balanced around the crankshaft and a small amount of ice
between torque links, crack-free components, and for or snow can produce damaging vibrations. Cracks, missing
proper servicing and general condition. fasteners, or dents results in a spinner that is unairworthy.

On some conventional gear airplanes, those airplanes The propeller should be checked for blade erosion, nicks,
with a tailwheel or skid, the main landing gear may cracks, pitting, corrosion, and security. On controllable pitch
have bungee cords to help in absorbing landing loads propellers, the propeller hub should be checked for oil leaks
and shocks. The bungee cords must be inspected for that tend to stream directionally from the propeller hub toward
security and condition. the tip. On airplanes so equipped, the alternator/generator drive
Where the landing gear transitions into the airplanes belts should be checked for proper tension and signs of wear.
structure, the pilot should inspect the attachment
points and the airplane skin in the adjacent areathe When inspecting inside the cowling, the pilot should look for
pilot needs to inspect for wrinkled or other damaged signs of fuel dye, which may indicate a fuel leak. The pilot
skin, loose bolts, and rivets and verify that the area is should check for oil leaks, deterioration of oil and hydraulic
free from corrosion. lines, and to make certain that the oil cap, filter, oil cooler,
and drain plug are secure. This may be difficult to inspect
Engine and Propeller without the aid of a flashlight, so even during day operations,
Properly managing the risks associated with flying requires a flashlight is handy when peering into the cowling. The
that the pilot of the airplane identify and mitigate any inside of the cowling should be inspected for oil or fuel stains.
potential hazards prior to flight to prevent, to the furthest The pilot should also check for loose or foreign objects inside
extent possible, a hazard becoming a realized risk. The the cowling, such as bird nests, shop rags, and/or tools. All
engine and propeller make up the propulsion system of the visible wires and lines should be checked for security and
airplanefailure of this critical system requires a well- condition. The exhaust system should be checked for white
trained and competent pilot to respond with significant time stains caused by exhaust leaks at the cylinder head or cracks
constraints to what is likely to become a major emergency. in the exhaust stacks. The heat muffs, which provide cabin
heating on some airplanes, should also be checked for general
The pilot must ensure that the engine, propeller, and associated condition and signs of cracks or leaks.
systems are functioning properly prior to operation. This starts
with an overview of the cowling that surrounds the airplanes The air filter should be checked to ensure that it is free from
engines looking for loose, worn, missing, or damaged substantial dirt or restrictions, such as bugs, birds, or other
fasteners, rivets, and latches that secure the cowling around causes of airflow restrictions. In addition, air filters elements
the engine and to the airframe. The pilot should be vigilant as are made from various materials and, in all cases, the element
fasteners and rivets can be numerous and surround the cowling should be free from decomposition and properly serviced.
requiring a visual inspection from above, the sides, and the
bottom to ensure that all areas have been inspected. Like other Risk and Resource Management
areas on the airframe, rivets should be closely inspected for Ground operations also include the pilots assessment of the
looseness by looking for signs of a black oxide film around risk factors that contribute to safety of flight and the pilots
the rivet head. Pay attention to chipped or flaking paint around management of the resources, which may be leveraged to

2-9
maximize the flights successes. The Risk Management may encounter inadvertent instrument conditions, loss
Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2) should be reviewed for a of airplane control may result.
comprehensive discussion of this topic, but presented below If the pilots lack of training is not properly assessed,
are a summary of key points. the pilot may be placed in flight regimes that exceed
the pilots stick and rudder capability.
Approximately 85 percent of all aviation accidents have been
determined by the National Transportation Safety Board
Risk Assessment
(NTSB) to have been caused by failure of the pilot to...
Risk assessment determines the degree of risk and whether
As such, a reduction of these failures is the fundamental
the degree of risk is worth the outcome of the planned activity.
cornerstone to risk and resource management. The risks
Once the planned activity is started, the pilot must consider
involved with flying an airplane are very different from
whether or not to continue. A pilot must always have viable
those experienced in daily activities, such as driving to
alternatives available in the event the original flight plan
work. Managing risks and resources requires a conscious
cannot be accomplished. Thus, hazard and risk are the two
effort that goes beyond the stick and rudder skills required
defining elements of risk management. A hazard can be a real
to pilot the airplane.
or perceived condition, event, or circumstance that a pilot
Risk Management encounters. Risk assessment is a quantitative value weighted
to a task, action, or event. When armed with the predicted
Risk management is a formalized structured process for
risk assessment of an activity, pilots are able to manage and
identifying and mitigating hazards and assessing the
mitigate their risk.
consequences and benefits of the accepted risk. A hazard is
a condition, event, object, or circumstance that could lead to
In the example where marginal weather is the identified
or contribute to an unplanned or undesired event, such as an
hazard, it is relatively simple to understand that the risk
incident or accident. It is a source of potential danger. Some
associated with flight and that the consequences of loss
examples of hazards are:
of control in inadvertent meteorological conditions (IMC)
Marginal weather or environmental conditions are likely to be severe for a pilot without certification,
Lack of pilot qualification, currency, or proficiency proficiency, competency, and currency in instrument flight.
for the intended flight A risk assessment in this example would determine that
the risk is unacceptable and as a result, mitigation of the
Identifying the Hazard risk is required. Proper risk mitigation would require that
flight be cancelled or delayed until weather conditions
Hazard identification is the critical first step of the risk
were not conducive for inadvertent flight into instrument
management process. If pilots do not recognize and properly
meteorological conditions.
identify a hazard and choose to continue, the consequences
of the risk involved is not managed or mitigated. In the
previous examples, the hazard identification process results 4KUM+FGPVKECVKQP
in the following assessment: Identifying hazards and associated risk is key to preventing
risk and accidents. If a pilot fails to search for risk, it is likely
Marginal weather or environmental conditions is
that he or she will neither see it nor appreciate it for what
an identified hazard because it may result in the
it represents. Unfortunately, in aviation, pilots seldom have
pilot having a skill level that is not adequate for
the opportunity to learn from their small errors in judgment
managing the weather conditions or requiring airplane
because even small mistakes in aviation are often fatal. In
performance that is unavailable.
order to identify risk, the use of standard procedures is of
The lack of pilot training is an identified hazard great assistance. Several procedures are discussed in detail
because the pilot does not have experience to either in the Risk Management Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2).
meet the legal requirements or the minimum necessary
skills to safely conduct the flight. Risk Mitigation
Risk assessment is only part of the equation. After
Risk determining the level of risk, the pilot needs to mitigate the
Risk is the future impact of a hazard that is not controlled risk. For example, the VFR pilot flying from point A to point
or eliminated. It can be viewed as future uncertainty created B (50 miles) in marginal flight conditions has several ways
by the hazard. to reduce risk:
If the weather or environmental conditions are not Wait for the weather to improve to good VFR
properly assessed, such as in a case where an airplane conditions.

2-10
 Take a pilot who is more experienced or who is thereby reducing situational awareness and leading to
certified as an instrument flight rules (IFR) pilot. complacency. Information from these systems needs to be
Delay the flight. continually monitored to ensure proper situational awareness.
It is essential that pilots be aware not only of equipment
Cancel the flight. capabilities, but also equipment limitations in order to
Drive. manage those systems effectively and safely.

Resource Management Information workloads and automated systems, such as

autopilots, need to be properly managed to ensure a safe
Crew resource management (CRM) and single-pilot resource
flight. The pilot who effectively manages his or her workload
management (SRM) is the ability for the crew or pilot to
completes as many of these tasks as early as possible to
manage all available resources effectively to ensure that the
preclude the possibility of becoming overloaded by last
outcome of the flight is successful. In general aviation, SRM
minute changes and communication priorities in the later,
is more often than CRM. The focus of SRM is on the single-
more critical stages of the approach. Routine tasks delayed
pilot operation. SRM integrates the following:
until the last minute can contribute to the pilot becoming
Situational Awareness overloaded and stressed, resulting in erosion of performance.
Human Resource Management By planning ahead, a pilot can effectively reduce workload
during critical phases of flight.
Task Management
Aeronautical Decision-making (ADM) Task Management
Pilots have a limited capacity for information. Once
Situational Awareness information flow exceeds the pilots ability to mentally
Situational awareness is the accurate perception of process the information, any additional information becomes
operational and environmental factors that affect the flight. unattended or displaces other tasks and information already
It is a logical analysis based upon the airplane, external being processed. For example, do not become distracted
support, environment, and the pilot. It is awareness on what and fixate on an instrument light failure. This unnecessary
is happening in and around the flight. focus displaces capability and prevents the pilots ability to
appreciate tasks of greater importance.
Human Resource Management
Human Resource Management requires an effective use of Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM)
all available resources: human, equipment, and information. Flying safely requires the effective integration of three
separate sets of skills: stick-and rudder skills needed to
Human resources include the essential personnel routinely control the airplane; skills related to proficient operation
working with the pilot to ensure safety of flight. These of aircraft systems; and ADM skills. The ADM process
people include, but are not limited to: weather briefers, addresses all aspects of decision-making in the flight deck
flight line personnel, maintenance personnel, crew members, and identifies the steps involved in good decision-making.
pilots, and air traffic personnel. Pilots need to effectively While the ADM process does not eliminate errors, it helps
communicate with these people. This is accomplished by the pilot recognize errors and enables the pilot to manage the
using the key components of the communication process: error to minimize its effects. These steps are:
inquiry, advocacy, and assertion. Pilots must recognize the
Identifying personal attitudes hazardous to safe flight;
need to seek enough information from these resources to
make a valid decision. After the necessary information has Learning behavior modification techniques;
been gathered, the pilots decision must be passed on to those Learning how to recognize and cope with stress;
concerned, such as air traffic controllers, crew members, and
Developing risk assessment skills;
passengers. The pilot may have to request assistance from
others and be assertive to safely resolve some situations. Using all resources; and
Evaluating the effectiveness of ones own personal
Equipment in many of todays aircraft includes automated ADM skills.
flight and navigation systems. These automatic systems,
while providing relief from many routine cabin or cockpit
Ground Operations
tasks, present a different set of problems for pilots. The
automation intended to reduce pilot workload essentially The airport ramp can be a complex environment with airport
removes the pilot from the process of managing the aircraft, personnel, passengers, trucks and other vehicles, airplanes,

2-11
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2
-12
the position (navigation) lights should also be on. Finally, necessary to hand prop an aircraft for starting. Hand
just prior to starter engagement, the pilot should always call propping an aircraft is a hazardous procedure when done
CLEAR out of the side window and wait for a response perfectly. The consequences of not mitigating the hazards
from anyone who may be nearby before engaging the starter. associated with hand propping can lead to serious injury,
fatalities, and runaway airplanes. All alternatives must be
When activating the starter, the wheel brakes must be depressed considered prior to hand propping an aircraft and, when a
and one hand is to be kept on the throttle to manage the initial decision is made to do so, the procedure must be carried
starting engine speed. Ensuring that properly operating brakes out only by competent persons who have been trained to
are engaged prior to starter engagement prevents the airplane accomplish the procedure, understand how to mitigate the
from rapidly lunging forward. After engine start, the pilot hazards, and take all the necessary precautions.
manipulates the throttle to set the engine revolutions per
minute (rpm) at the AFM/POH prescribed setting. In general, Even though today most airplanes are equipped with
1,000 rpm is recommended following engine start to allow electric starters, it is still helpful if a pilot is familiar with
oil pressure to rise and minimize undue engine wear due to the procedures and dangers involved in starting an aircraft
insufficient lubrication at high rpm. It is important in low engine by turning the propeller by hand; however, a person
temperatures that an airplane engine use the proper grade of unfamiliar with the controls must never be allowed to occupy
oil for the operating temperature range and engine preheat the pilots seat when hand propping.
when temperatures approach and descend below freezing.
It is critical that the procedure never be attempted alone. Hand
The oil pressure must be monitored after engine start to ensure propping should only be attempted when two properly trained
that pressure is increasing toward the AFM/POH specified people, both familiar and experienced with the airplane
value. The AFM/POH specifies an oil pressure range for and hand propping techniques, are available to perform the
the engine, if the limits are not reached and maintained, procedure. The first person is responsible for directing the
serious internal engine damage is likely. In most conditions, procedure including pulling the propeller blades through.
oil pressure should rise to at least the lower limit within 30 The second person must be seated in the airplane to ensure
seconds. To prevent damage, the engine should be shut down that the brakes are set, and controls are properly exercised,
immediately if the oil pressure does not rise to the AFM/POH and to follow direction of the person pulling the propeller.
values within the required time.
When hand propping is necessary, the ground surface near the
Engine starters are electric motors designed to produce rapid propeller should be stable and free of debrisloose gravel,
rotation of the engine crankshaft for starting. These electric wet grass, mud, oil, ice, or snow might cause the person
motors are not designed for continuous duty and should the pulling the propeller through to slip into the rotating blades as
engine not start readily, avoid continuous starter operation for the engine starts. Unless a firm footing is available, relocate
periods longer than 30 seconds without a cool down period the airplane to mitigate this dire consequences hazard.
of at least 30 seconds to 1 minute (some AFM/POH specify
times greater than these given). Engine starter motors service Both participants should discuss the procedure and agree on
life is drastically shortened from high heat through overuse. voice commands and expected action. To begin the procedure,
the fuel system and engine controls (tank selector, primer,
Although quite rare, the starter motor may remain electrically pump, throttle, and mixture) are set for a normal start. The
and mechanically engaged after engine start. This can be ignition/magneto switch should be checked to be sure that it
detected by a continuous and very high current draw on the is OFF. Then the descending propeller blade should be rotated
ammeter. Some airplanes also have a starter engaged warning so that it assumes a position slightly above the horizontal. The
light specifically for this purpose. The engine should be shut person doing the hand propping should face the descending
down immediately if this occurs. blade squarely and stand slightly less than one arms length
from the blade. If a stance too far away were assumed,
The pilot should be attentive for sounds, vibrations, smell, it would be necessary to lean forward in an unbalanced
or smoke that are not consistent with normal operational condition to reach the blade, which may cause the person to
experience. Any concerns should lead to a shutdown and fall forward into the rotating blades when the engine starts.
further investigation.
The procedure and commands for hand propping are:
Hand Propping Person out front says, GAS ON, SWITCH OFF,
A spinning propeller can be lethal should it strike someone. THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET.
Historically, when aircraft lacked electrical systems, it was

2-13
 Pilot seat occupant, after making sure the fuel is ON, An essential requirement in conducting safe taxi operations
mixture is RICH, magneto switch is OFF, throttle is where the pilot maintains situational awareness of the
is CLOSED, and brakes are SET, says, GAS ON, ramp, parking areas, taxiways, runway environment, and
SWITCH OFF, THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES the persons, equipment and aircraft at all times. Without
SET. such awareness, safety may be compromised. Depending on
Person out front, after pulling the propeller through to the airport, parking, ramp, and taxiways may or may not be
prime the engine says, BRAKES AND CONTACT. controlled. As such, it is important that the pilot completely
understand the environment in which they are operating. At
Pilot seat occupant checks the brakes SET and turns small, rural airports these areas may be desolate with few
the magnetos switch ON, then says, BRAKES AND aircraft which limits the potential hazards; however, as the
CONTACT. complexity of the airport increases so does the potential
for hazards. Regardless of the complexity, some generally
The propeller is swung by forcing the blade downward accepted procedures are appropriate.
rapidly, pushing with the palms of both hands. If the blade
is gripped tightly with the fingers, the persons body may be The pilot should make themselves familiar with the
drawn into the propeller blades should the engine misfire and parking, ramp, and taxi environment. This can be done
rotate momentarily in the opposite direction. As the blade is by having an airport diagram, if available, out and in
pushed down, the person should step backward, away from view at all times. [Figure 2-13]
the propeller. If the engine does not start, the propeller should The pilot must be vigilant of the entire area around
not be repositioned for another attempt until it is verified that the airplane to ensure that the airplane clears all
the magneto switch is turned OFF. obstructions. If, at any time, there is doubt about a
safe clearance from an object, the pilot should stop the
The words CONTACT (magnetos ON) and SWITCH OFF airplane and check the clearance. It may be necessary
(magnetos OFF) are used because they are significantly to have the airplane towed or physically moved by a
different from each other. Under noisy conditions or high ground crew.
winds, the words CONTACT and SWITCH OFF are less likely When taxiing, the pilots eyes should be looking
to be misunderstood than SWITCH ON and SWITCH OFF. outside the airplane scanning from side to side while
looking both near and far to assess routing and
When removing the wheel chocks or untying the tail after the potential conflicts.
engine starts, it is critical that everyone involved remember
that the propeller is nearly invisible. Serious injuries and A safe taxiing speed must be maintained. The primary
fatalities have occurred when people who have just started requirements for safe taxiing are positive control, the
an engine walk or reach into the propeller arc to remove the ability to recognize any potential hazards in time to
chocks, reach the cabin, or in an attempt to reach the tail avoid them, and the ability to stop or turn where and
of the airplane. Before the wheel chocks are removed, the when desired, without undue reliance on the brakes.
throttle should be set to idle and the chocks approached only Pilots should proceed at a cautious speed on congested
from the rear of the propeller. One should never approach or busy ramps. Normally, the speed should be at the
the wheel chocks from the front or the side. rate where movement of the airplane is dependent on
the throttle. That is, slow enough so when the throttle
The procedures for hand propping should always be in is closed, the airplane can be stopped promptly.
accordance with the AFM/POH and only accomplished The pilot should accurately place the aircraft centered
if no alternatives are available, and then only by persons on the taxiway at all times. Some taxiways have above
who are competent with hand propping procedures. The ground taxi lights and signage that could impact the
consequences of the hazards associated with hand propping airplane or propellers if the pilot does not exercise
are serious to fatal. accurate control. When yellow taxiway centerline
stripes are marked, this is more easily accomplished
Taxiing by the pilot visually placing the centerline stripe so it
Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its is under the center of the airplane fuselage.
own power while on the surface. Since an airplane is moved When taxiing, the pilot must slow down before
under its own power between a parking area and the runway, attempting a turn. Sharp high-speed turns place
the pilot must thoroughly understand and be proficient in undesirable side loads on the landing gear and may
taxi procedures.

2-14
 SW-2, 12 JAN 2012 to 09 FEB 2012

SW-2, 12 JAN 2012 to 09 FEB 2012

Figure 2-13. Airport Diagram of Monterey Peninsula (MRY), Monterey, California.

2-15
 result in tire damage or an uncontrollable swerve
or a ground loop. Swerves are most likely to occur W
in d
when turning from a downwind heading toward an d in
W
upwind heading. In moderate to high-wind conditions,
the airplane may weathervane increasing the
swerving tendency. Use up aileron on Use up aileron on
left-hand wing and right-hand wing and
neutral elevator neutral elevator
Steering is accomplished with rudder pedals and brakes. To
turn the airplane on the ground, the pilot should apply the
rudder in the desired direction of turn and use the appropriate
power or brake to control the taxi speed. The rudder pedal Use down aileron Use down aileron
should be held in the direction of the turn until just short of on left-hand wing on right-hand wing
the point where the turn is to be stopped. Rudder pressure and down elevator and down elevator
is then released or opposite pressure is applied as needed.
W
in

d
d

in
More engine power may be required to start the airplane

W
moving forward, or to start a turn, than is required to keep it
moving in any given direction. When using additional power,
the throttle should immediately be retarded once the airplane Figure 2-14. Control positions of the nosewheel airplane.
begins moving to prevent excessive acceleration.
sharp turns at low speed, the throttle should always be at
The brakes should be tested for proper operation as soon as idle before the brakes are applied. It is a common error to
the airplane is put in motion. Applying power to start the taxi with a power setting that requires controlling taxi speed
airplane moving forward slowly, then retarding the throttle with the brakes.
and simultaneously applying just enough pressure to one
side, then the other to confirm proper function and reaction When taxiing with a quartering headwind, the wing on the
of both brakes. This is best if the airplane has individual left/ upwind side (the side that the wind is coming from) tends to
right brakes to stop the airplane. If braking performance is be lifted by the wind unless the aileron control is held in that
unsatisfactory, the engine should be shut down immediately. direction (upwind aileron UP). Moving the aileron into the UP
position reduces the effect of the wind striking that wing, thus
When taxiing at appropriate speeds in no-wind conditions, the reducing the lifting action. This control movement also causes
aileron and elevator control surfaces have little or no effect the downwind aileron to be placed in the DOWN position,
on directional control of the airplane. These controls should thus a small amount of lift and drag on the downwind wing,
not be considered steering devices and should be held in a further reducing the tendency of the upwind wing to rise.
neutral position. [Figure 2-14]
When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, the elevator should
The presence of moderate to strong headwinds and/or a strong be held in the DOWN position, and the upwind aileron,
propeller slipstream makes the use of the elevator necessary DOWN. Since the wind is striking the airplane from behind,
to maintain control of the pitch attitude while taxiing. This these control positions reduce the tendency of the wind to
becomes apparent when considering the lifting action that get under the tail and the wing and to nose the airplane over.
may be created on the horizontal tail surfaces by either of The application of these crosswind taxi corrections helps to
those two factors. The elevator control in nosewheel-type minimize the weathervaning tendency and ultimately results
airplanes should be held in the neutral position, while in in making the airplane easier to steer.
tailwheel-type airplanes, it should be held in the full aft
position to hold the tail down. Normally, all turns should be started using the rudder pedal
to steer the nosewheel. To tighten the turn after full pedal
Downwind taxiing usually requires less engine power after deflection is reached, the brake may be applied as needed.
the initial ground roll is begun, since the wind is pushing When stopping the airplane, it is advisable to always stop
the airplane forward. To avoid overheating the brakes and with the nosewheel straight ahead to relieve any side load on
controlling the airplanes speed when taxiing downwind, the nosewheel and to make it easier to start moving ahead.
the pilot must keep engine power to a minimum. Rather
than continuously riding the brakes to control speed, it is During crosswind taxiing, even the nosewheel-type
appropriate to apply brakes only occasionally. Other than airplane has some tendency to weathervane. However,

2-16
the weathervaning tendency is less than in tailwheel-type roll forward slightly to ensure that the nosewheel or tailwheel
airplanes because the main wheels are located behind the is in alignment with the longitudinal axis of the airplane.
airplanes center of gravity, and the nosewheels ground
friction helps to resist the tendency. The nosewheel linkage While performing the before-takeoff checklist in accordance
from the rudder pedals provides adequate steering control for with the airplanes AFM/POH, the pilot must divide their
safe and efficient ground handling, and normally, only rudder attention between the inside and outside of the airplane. If
pressure is necessary to correct for a crosswind. the parking brake slips, or if application of the toe brakes
is inadequate for the amount of power applied, the airplane
Taxiing checklists are sometimes specified by the AFM/POH, could rapidly move forward and go unnoticed if pilot attention
and the pilot must accomplish any items that are required. If is fixed only inside the airplane. A good operational practice
there are no specific checklist items, taxiing still provides an is to split attention from one item inside to a look outside.
opportunity to verify the operation and cross-check of the
flight instruments. In general, the flight instruments should Air-cooled engines generally are tightly cowled and equipped
indicate properly with the airspeed at or near zero (depending with baffles that direct the flow of air to the engine in
on taxi speed, wind speed and direction, and lower limit sufficient volumes for cooling while in flight; however,
sensitivity); the attitude indictor should indicate pitch and on the ground, much less air is forced through the cowling
roll level (depending on airplane attitude) with no flags; the and around the baffling. Prolonged ground operations may
altimeter should indicate the proper elevation within prescribed cause cylinder overheating long before there is an indication
limits; the turn indictor should show the correct direction of of rising oil temperature. To minimize overheating during
turn with the ball movement toward the outside of the turn engine run-up, it is recommended that the airplane be
with no flags; the directional gyro should be set and crossed headed as nearly as possible into the wind and, if equipped,
checked to the magnetic compass and verified accurate to the engine instruments that indicate cylinder head temperatures
direction of taxi; and the vertical speed indictor (VSI) should should be monitored. Cowl flaps, if available, should be set
read zero. These checks can be accomplished on conventional according to the AFM/POH.
mechanical instrumented aircraft or glass cockpits.
Each airplane has different features and equipment and the
Before-Takeoff Check before-takeoff checklist provided in airplanes AFM/POH
The before-takeoff check is the systematic AFM/POH must be used to perform the run-up. Many critical systems
procedure for checking the engine, controls, systems, are checked and set during the before-takeoff checklist. Most
instruments, and avionics prior to flight. Normally, the airplanes have at least the following systems checked and set:
before-takeoff checklist is performed after taxiing to a run-up Fuel Systemset per the AFM/POH and verified ON
position near the takeoff end of the runway. Many engines and the proper and correct fuel tanks selected.
require that the oil temperature reach a minimum value as
Trimset for takeoff position which includes the
stated in the AFM/POH before takeoff power is applied.
elevator and may also include rudder and aileron trim.
Taxiing to the run-up position usually allows sufficient time
for the engine to warm up to at least minimum operating Flight Controlschecked throughout their entire
temperatures; however, the pilot verifies that temperatures are operating range. This includes full aileron, elevator,
in their proper range prior to the application of high power. and rudder deflection in all directions. Often, pilots
do not exercise a full range of movement of the flight
A suitable location for run-up should be firm (a smooth, paved controls, which is not acceptable.
or turf surface if possible) and free of debris. Otherwise, the Engine Operationchecked to ensure that temperatures
propeller may pick up pebbles, dirt, mud, sand, or other loose and pressures are in their normal ranges; magneto or
objects and hurl them backwards. This damages the propeller Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)
and may damage the tail of the airplane. Small chips in the operation on single or dual ignition are acceptable
leading edge of the propeller form stress risers or high stress and within limits; and, if equipped, carburetor heat is
concentrations. These are highly undesirable and may lead functioning. If the airplane is equipped with a constant
to cracks and possible propeller blade failure. The airplane speed or feathering propeller, that its operation is
should also be positioned clear of other aircraft and the acceptable; and at minimum idle, the engine rpm
taxiway. There should not be anything behind the airplane that continues to run smoothly.
might be damaged by the propeller airflow blasting rearward.
Electrical Systemverified to ensure voltages are
within operating range and that the system shows the
Before beginning the before-takeoff check, after the airplane
battery system charging.
is properly positioned for the run-up, it should be allowed to

2-17
 Vacuum Systemmust show an acceptable level of Engine instruments normal and in green ranges?
vacuum, which is typically between 4.8 and 5.2 inches Doors latched and windows closed as required?
of mercury ("Hg) at 2,000 rpm. Refer to the AFM/POH
for the manufacturers values. It is important to ensure Controls held so rudder is used to keep airplane
that mechanical gyroscopic instruments have adequate parallel to centerline and ailerons are used to keep
time to spool up to acceptable rpm in order for them to airplane on centerline?
indicate properly. A hasty and quick taxi and run-up
does not allow mechanical gyroscopic instruments After-Landing
to indicate properly and a departure into instrument During the after-landing roll, while maintaining airplane
meteorological conditions (IMC) is unadvisable. track over runway centerline with ailerons and heading down
Flight Instrumentsrechecked and set for the runway with rudder pedals, the airplane should be gradually
departure. Verify that the directional gyro and the slowed to normal taxi speed with normal brake pressure before
magnetic compass are in agreement. If the directional turning off of the landing runway. Any significant degree of
gyro has a heading bug, it may be set to the runway turn at faster speeds could result in subsequent damage to the
heading that is in use or as assigned by air traffic landing gear, tires, brakes, or the airplane structure.
control (ATC).
To give full attention to controlling the airplane during the
Avionicsset with the appropriate frequencies,
landing roll, the after-landing checklist should be performed
initial navigation sources and courses, autopilot
only after the airplane is brought to a complete stop beyond
preselects, transponder codes, and other settings and
the runway holding position markings. There have been many
configurations based on the airplanes equipment and
cases where a pilot has mistakenly manipulated the wrong
flight requirements.
handle and retracted the landing gear, instead of the flaps,
Takeoff Briefingmade out loud by the pilot even due to improper division of attention while the airplane was
when no other person is there to listen. A sample moving. However, this procedure may be modified if the
takeoff briefing may be the following: manufacturer recommends that specific after-landing items
This will be normal takeoff (use normal, short, or soft be accomplished during landing rollout. For example, when
as appropriate) from runway (use runway assigned), performing a short-field landing, the manufacturer may
wind is from the (direction and speed), rotation speed recommend retracting the flaps on rollout to improve braking.
is (use the specified or calculated manufacturers In this situation, the pilot should make a positive identification
takeoff or rotation speed (VR)), an initial turn to (use of the flap control handle before retracting the flaps.
planned heading) and climb to (use initial altitude in
feet). The takeoff will be rejected for engine failure Clear of Runway and Stopped
below VR, applying appropriate braking, stopping Because of different configurations and equipment in various
ahead. Engine failure after VR and with runway airplanes, the after-landing checklist within the AFM/POH
remaining, I will lower pitch to best glide speed, must be used. Some of the items may include:
land, and apply appropriate braking, stopping straight Powerset to the AFM/POH values such as throttle
ahead. Engine failure after VR and with no runway 1,000 rpm, propeller full forward, mixture leaned.
remaining, I will lower pitch to best glide speed, no
turns will be made prior to (insert appropriate altitude), Fuelmay require switching tanks and fuel pumps
land in the most suitable area, and apply appropriate switched off.
braking, avoiding hazards on the ground as much Flapsset to the retracted position.
possible. If time permits, fuel, ignition, and electrical
Cowl flapsmay be opened or closed depending on
systems will be switched off.
temperature conditions.
Takeoff Checks: Trimreset to neutral or takeoff position.
Runway numbers on paved runways agree with magnetic Lightsmay be switched off if not needed, such as
compass and heading indicators before beginning takeoff strobe lights.
roll. The last check on engines as power is brought to full Avionicsmay be switched off or to standby,
takeoff power includes: such as the transponder and frequencies changed to
Is power correct? contact ground control or Common Traffic Advisory
Frequency (CTAF), as required.
RPM normal?
Engine smooth?

2-18
 Install chocks and release parking brake in accordance Oil levels should be checked and quantities brought to AFM/
with AFM/POH. POH levels. Fuel should be added based on the immediate
use of the airplane. If the airplane is going to be inactive, it
Parking is a good operating practice to fill the fuel tanks to prevent
water condensation from forming inside the tank. If another
Unless parking in a designated, supervised area, the pilot
flight is planned, the fuel tanks should be filled based on the
should select a location and heading that prevents propeller
flight planning requirements for that flight.
or jet blast of other airplanes from striking the airplane
unnecessarily. Whenever possible, the airplane should be
The aircraft should be hangared or tied down, flight controls
parked headed into the existing or forecast wind. Often
secured, and security locks in place. The type of tie downs
airports have airplane tie downs located on ramp areas
may vary significantly from chains to well-worn ropes.
which may or may not be aligned with the wind or provide
Chains are not flexible and as such should not be made taught
a significant choice in parking location. After stopping in
as to allow the airplane some movement and prevent airframe
the desired direction, the airplane should be allowed to roll
structural damage. Tie down ropes are flexible and may be
straight ahead enough to straighten the nosewheel or tailwheel.
reasonably cinched to the airplanes tie down rings. Consider
Engine Shutdown utilizing pitot tube covers, cowling inlet covers, rudder gust
locks, window sunscreens, and propeller security locks to
The pilot should always use the procedures in the airplanes further enhance the safety and security of the airplane.
AFM/POH shutdown checklist for shutting down the engine
and securing the airplane. Important items may include: Hangaring is not without hazards to the airplane. The pilot
Parking Brakeset to ON. should ensure that enough space is allocated to the airplane
so it is free from any impact to the hangar, another aircraft,
Throttleset to IDLE or 1,000 rpm. If turbocharged,
or vehicle. The airplane should be inspected after hangaring
observe the manufacturers spool down procedure.
to ensure that no damage was imparted on the airplane.
Magneto Switch Testturn momentarily OFF then
quickly ON again at idle rpm to check for proper Chapter Summary
operation of switch in the OFF position.
In this chapter emphasis was placed on determining the
Propellerset to FULL INCREASE, if equipped. airworthiness of the airplane, preflight visual inspection,
Avionicsturn OFF. managing risk and pilot-available resources, safe surface-
based operations, and the adherence to and proper use of the
Alternatorturn OFF.
AFM/POH and checklists. To maximize the safety of flight
Mixtureset to IDLE CUTOFF. operations, a pilot must recognize that flight safety begins by
Magneto Switchturn ignition switch to OFF when properly preparing for flight and by managing the airplane,
engine stops. environment, resources, and themselves until the airplane is
returned to its tie-down or hangar at the termination of flight.
Master Switchturn to OFF. This is accomplished by the pilot ensuring that the airplane
Secureinstall control locks and anti-theft security is in a safe condition for flight and it meets all the regulatory
locks. requirements of 14 CFR part 91 by an effective and continuous
assessment of the risks and utilization of resources, and by the
Post-Flight pilot honestly evaluating and determining their preparedness
A flight is not complete until the engine is shut down and the and continuation for acting as PIC.
airplane is secured. A pilot should consider this an essential
part of any flight.

Securing and Servicing

After engine shutdown and deplaning passengers, the pilot
should accomplish a post-flight inspection. This includes a
walk around to inspect the general condition of the aircraft.
Inspect near and around the cowling for signs of oil or fuel
streaks and around the oil breather for excessive oil discharge.
Inspect under wings and other fuel tank locations for fuel stains.
Inspect landing gear and tires for damage and brakes for any
leaking hydraulic fluid. Inspect cowling inlets for obstructions.

2-19
2-20
Chapter 3

Basic Flight Maneuvers

Introduction
Airplanes operate in an environment that is unlike an
automobile. Drivers tend to drive with a fairly narrow field
of view and focus primarily on forward motion. Beginning
pilots tend to practice the same. Flight instructors face
the challenge of teaching beginning pilots about attitude
awareness, which requires understanding the motions of
flight. An airplane rotates in bank, pitch, and yaw while
also moving horizontally, vertically, and laterally. The four
fundamentals (straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and
descents) are the principle maneuvers that control the airplane
through the six motions of flight.

3-1
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ev a
tor
ontheco ckpi
tf loorwithth eb a
llo fe achfoo ttouchingthe
c
ontrol
so rtherigh
td ef
lec
tionofth econ
trols
tickor
indiv
idualrud derpeda
l s
.T he
legsa n dfe e
tsho u
ldber e
laxed
.
s
idestickc on
tro
lle
r,theairp
lanesrigh
tw ingb ank
s
Whenu s
ingth erudd erp ed a
ls
,p ressu reshouldb eapp l
ied
(
rol
ls)low erinrelat
iontoth epilot.Thinko fthi
s
smoothlyandev enlybyp ress
ingw ithth eb a
llofon efoot
.
m
ovem entfromthepil
otshea
dt o
th epi
lot
srig
hthip.
Sinc
eth erudd erpedalsa reinte
r conn ectedthroughsp r
ings
Wh
e nle
ftpres
sureisa pp
liedtotheai
leroncon
tro
l, oradirec
tm e chanica
llink ageanda ctinoppo s
itedi
r ec
tion
s,
w
hichisac oun
terc
l ockwis
er o
tat
ionofai
leronand whenpressurei sappl
iedtoon erudd erp eda
l,footpr e
ssure
e
leva
t o
rcont
rolsorthel e
ftdefl
ect
ionofthecont
rol ontheop po
siter udde
rp edalm us
tb er elaxedpr opo
rt
i ona
tel
y.
s
ti
cko rsi
desti
ckc ontro
lle
r,theai
rpl
ane
sl e
ftwing Remem ber,
th eb a
llofeac hfootm ustr e
stc omfortab
lyo nthe
b
anks(ro
ll
s)lower
i nre
l a
tion
tothepi
lot
.Thinkof
this rudderpedalss otha
tev ensligh
tp ress u
r echangesca nbefe
lt
.
m
ovem en
tfromthep i
lot
sh ea
dtothepi
lot
sle
fthip
.
Ins umm a
r y
,duringfl
i gh
t,i
tispressu
rethepilo
te x
e r
tsonthe
W
ithth
epi
lot
sf
eet
: ai
lerona ndelevato
rc ontro
lsandr ud
derp eda
lstha
tc au
sesthe
Whenforw a
rdpres
sureisappl
iedtother
ightrudde
r ai
rplane tomov eabou ttherol
l(longi
tudinal
),pi
tch(late
ral)
,
peda
l,theairpl
ane
sno s
e moves(yaws)totherigh
t andy aw(v er
tica
l)ax es. Whenacon trolsurf
acei s moved
inrelat
iontothepi
lot
.Thinkofthismovem en
tfrom outofitsstreamlin
e dp os
it
ion(e v
enslight
ly)
,theairflowing
thepilot
slef
tshou
ldertothepi
lot
srigh
tshoulder
. acrossth esurf
a c
eex e
rtsaforceag a
instthatsur
fa c
eandi t
tr
i e
stor etu
rnittoi tsstreaml
inedpo si
tion
.Itisthisforce
Wh
enforw
ardpr
essu
reisapp
liedtothelef
trudde
r
thatthep ilo
tfe e
lsa sresis
tanceonth eaile
ronande leva
tor
p
edal
,th
eai
rpl
ane
snosemoves(yaws)toth
elef
tin
control
sandth erudd e
rp edal
s.

3
-3
Fee lo ftheA i rplane Inab ankedtu rn,thep ilotisfo rceddownw ardin to
Th eab ilitytos enseaf l
ightcond ition,su cha ss tra
ight- theseatdu eto th eresultantloadf ac
tor.Th eincreased
and -lev elf l
igh to rad ive,w ithou tr elyingonco ckpi
t Gforceo fatu rnf ee
l sth esam ea sthepu llupf rom
in strum entat
ioni so f
t enc alled feelingth ea irplane. adive,andth ed ecreasedGfo rc efroml evel
ingou t
Ex amp le softhi sfe e
lm ayb esound so fthea i
rflowa c
ross fee
lst he sam e aslo we r
in gthe nose out o
f acl
i mb.
th ea i
rfram e
,v ibrat
ion sf e
ltthrough th econ trols
,eng ineand
pro pel
l erso undsa ndv ibrat
io nsatv a
rio usflightatt
itud e
s,and Sou r
ce sofactu a
l feel arev eryimpo rtanttoth epi
lot.Th is
th es ensationsf el
tb ythep il
ot th
r oug hp hysicalac ce
lerat
ions. a
ctualfeelisth eresulto fac celera
tion,wh ichi ssimplyhow
f
astv e
lo c
ityi schang ing .A ccelerat
iond e
scribestherateo f
Hum anss ense fe e
l th
ro ughk inesthesis(thea b
il
ityt osense chang einbo thth em agn i
tud eandth ed irect
iono fv e
lo c
ity.
mo vem e ntthrou ghtheb od y
)a ndp ropr
i oception (unconscious The s
ea cce
ler a
tionsimp ar
tfo rc e
sonth eairplaneandi t s
per ceptiono f mov em entandsp atialo rient a
tion).Th ese occup antsdu ringfligh t.Th ep ilotc ans enseth eseforc es
st
im ulia redete c
t edb yn erv
e san db yt hesem icircularcanal
s t
hr o
u ghpress ur
esint o orout oftheseat;ors h
iftthepi
l o
tfro m
ofth einn erear. Wh enp roperlyd ev e
lop ed,k inesthesiscan s
idet osidein theirse at a
st he a
irplane sl
ips or sk
ids.T hese
prov ideth ep i
lo tw ithcritica
lin form ationabou tch angesin forcesn eedno tb estrong ,on lyp e
r c
eptibleby thepilottob e
th ea i
rpl anesd irec
tionandsp eedofmo tion;how ev er
,there u
seful
.Ana ccomp lish edpilotwhoh asex ce
llentfeelfo r
arel imit sink in es
th et
ics enseandwh enr e
li eduponso lly th
e ea i
rp l
an eisabletod e
tectev enthesm al
lesta cce
lera
tion s
.
wi
thou tv isualin form ation,a s wh enf lyinginin s
trum ent
met eoro logic alcond it
ion s( IMC ),u ltim at e
lyl e adsto Af lightins
truct o
rs houl ddirecttheb eg
i nnerpilottobeaw are
disorient at
ionandlo sso fai
r cra
ftcon tro l
. o
ft h
eses ensesa ndt eac hanaw arenessof the
irm ean
inga n d
t
heirr e
lat
i onshipt ot hev ariousc ondit
i onso ffligh
t.T od o
De velopi ngthis fee
l takestim ea nde xp o
s u
r einap arti
c u
lar t
his effec
tively,the fli gh
t instructo
r mu s
t fu
ll yunderst
a nd
airplan ea ndo nlyc om esw i
thd edicatedp ract
i ceatthev ari
ous thed ifferenceb etw e enp erc e
ivingandr eac
tingtosound ,
fl
igh tcond it
ion ssoth atap ilotss en sesaret rainedbyth e vibrat
io ns
,a ndf orcesv er
susm erelyn ot
i c
ingt hem.Ap i
l ot
sound s
,v ibration s
,andfo rcesprodu c edby th eairplane.The wh odev e
lopsa feelf ortheairplanee a
rly inf
lig h
ttra
iningis
follow inga r
esom eimpo r
tantex ampl es: l
ikelytoh avel e
ssdiffi cul
tya d vanc
in ginthei
rf li
g h
ttra
inin g
.
Ru
shingairpas
taco ckpitcrea
tesad i
st
in c
tivenoi
se
A
tt
itudeF
lying
pat
ternandasth elevelo fsoundincreases
,itlik
ely
indica
testhatthea i
rplan e
sairspeedisin c
reas
ing Ana i
r plane
sa t
ti
tudeisd e
terminedbythea ngula
rdiffe
rence
andth a
tth epitchat t
itudei sd e
creasing.A sthe betw eenasp e c
if
icairp
lan e
saxisandth en a
tura
lho r
izon
.A
noi
sed ec
reases
,theairplanespi
tchatt
itudeislik
ely falseh or
iz oncanocc u
rw h
e nthenatu
ralh or
izonisobscured
incr
e a
singanditsa
i r
sp eeddecreas
ing. orn o
tr eadilyappar
e nt
.T hi
s i
sa nimpor
t antconceptbeca
u se
itreq ui
resth epi
lot
t ode v
elopap ic
tor
ials en
seofthisnatur
al
Thesoundofth eengineincrui
sefl
ightisdiffe
ren
t
ho r
izon .P i
tcha t
ti
tud eisth eanglefo rm edb e
tw eenth e
fromth a
tinac limbandd i
ffe
rentaga
in wh enina
airplaneslongitud
in a
lax is
, whichext endsfromth eno se
dive.Infix
ed -p
itchp rope
lle
rairpl
anes, whenthe
toth etai
lo fth eairplane
,andth enaturalhorizon.B ank
airpl
anesp
itchatt
itudeincr
eases
,theenginesound
att
itud eisth eangleform edbyth ea i
rp l
an e
slater
alaxis,
de c
reas
esanda spitchat
ti
tudedecre
ase
s,theengine
whichex tendsfrom w ingtipto wingtip,andth en atu
r a
l
noiseinc
rea
ses.
horizon.[F igures3-3Aand3 -3B]Angu lardif
ferenceabout

A B
i

F
igu
re3
-3.(A
)Pi
tcha
tt
itud
eisth
eang
lefo
rmedb
etw
eenth
eai
rplan
eslong
itud
ina
lax
is
.(B
)Ban
kat
ti
tud
eisth
eang
lefo
rmedb
yth
e
a
irp
lan
esla
tera
lax
is
.

3
-4
the airplanes vertical axis (yaw) is an attitude relative to the Power controlin most general aviation (GA)
airplanes direction of flight but not relative to the natural airplanes is controlled by the throttle and is used when
horizon. the flight situation requires a specific thrust setting or
for a change in thrust to meet a specific objective.
Controlling an airplane requires one of two methods to Trim controlused to relieve the control pressures
determine the airplanes attitude in reference to the horizon. held by the pilot on the flight controls after a desired
When flying visually in visual meteorological conditions attitude has been attained.
(VMC), a pilot uses their eyes and visually references the
airplanes wings and cowling to establish the airplanes Note: Yaw control is used to cancel out the effects of yaw
attitude to the natural horizon (a visible horizon). If no visible induced changes, such as adverse yaw and effects of the
horizon can be seen due to whiteouts, haze over the ocean, propeller.
night over a dark ocean, etc., it is IMC for practical and
safety purposes. [Figure 3-4] When flying in IMC or when Integrated Flight Instruction
cross-checking the visual references, the airplanes attitude is
controlled by the pilot referencing the airplanes mechanical When introducing basic flight maneuvers to a beginning
or electronically generated instruments to determine the pilot, it is recommended that the Integrated or Composite
airplanes attitude in relationship to the natural horizon. method of flight instruction be used. This means the use of
outside references and flight instruments to establish and
Airplane attitude control is composed of four components: maintain desired flight attitudes and airplane performance.
pitch control, bank (roll) control, power control, and trim. [Figure 3-5] When beginning pilots use this technique, they
achieve a more precise and competent overall piloting ability.
Pitch controlcontrolling of the airplanes pitch Although this method of airplane control may become second
attitude about the lateral axis by using the elevator nature with experience, the beginning pilot must make a
to raise and lower the nose in relation to the natural determined effort to master the technique.
horizon or to the airplanes flight instrumentation.
Bank controlcontrolling of the airplane about the As the beginner pilot develops a competent skill in visual
airplanes longitudinal axis by use of the ailerons to reference flying, the flight instructor should further develop
attain a desired bank angle in relation to the natural the beginner pilots effectiveness through the use of
horizon or to the airplanes instrumentation. integrated flight instruction; however, it is important that the
beginner pilots visual skills be sufficiently developed for
long-term, safe, and effective aircraft control. [Figure 3-5]
Pitch control
The basic elements of integrated flight instruction are as
follows:
The pilot visually controls the airplanes attitude in
reference outside to the natural horizon. At least 90
percent of the pilots attention should be devoted to
outside visual references and scanning for airborne
traffic. The process of visually evaluating pitch and
bank attitude is nearly an imperceptible continuous
stream of attitude information. If the attitude is found
Bank control to be other than desired, the pilot should make precise,
smooth, and accurate flight control corrections to
return the airplane to the desired attitude. Continuous
visual checks of the outside references and immediate
corrections made by the pilot minimize the chance
for the airplane to deviate from the desired heading,
altitude, and flightpath.
The airplanes attitude is validated by referring to
flight instruments and confirming performance. If
the flight instruments display that the airplanes
Figure 3-4. Airplane attitude is based on relative positions of the performance is in need of correction, the required
nose and wings on the natural horizon. correction must be determined and then precisely,

3-5
 N
AV11
08.
00 1
13.
00 WPT______DIS__._N M D TK___ T
RK 3
60 1
34.
000 1
18.
000COM1
N
AV21
08.
00 1
10.
60 MAP-NAVIGATIONMAP 1
23.
800 1
18.
000COM2

3
000
1
30 33
00
2

1
20 3
200

1
1
10 3
100
1 6
0
1
00 3
4
00
00
00
9 2
0
9
0 2
900
1

8
0 2
800
270 2

T
A
7
S1
0
0
0K
T
2
300

H
DGU
P
A
212
I
V
OR1
90

10
D
195
I D
212
I
1
0NM X
PDR 5
537 I
DNT L
CL2
3:0
0:3
4

N 3
33

30

6
GS

E
24

12
NAV
15
OBS
21 S

N 3
33

30

6
W

E
i i i i i

24

12
15

i i ii i
OBS
21 S

N 3
33

F
igu
re3
-5.In
teg
rat
edf
ligh
tin
stru
ctiont
each
esp
ilo
tstou
sebo
the
xte
rna
landco
ckp
ita
tt
itud
ere
fer
enc
es.

smoothly
,anda ccurate
lyapp li
ed withreference o
finstru
ction
,flightins
truc
torsm aychoosetousefligh
t
tothen a
tura
lhor
i zon.Th eairp
lane
sa t
ti
tudeand i
nst
rum en
tc ove
r stodevelo
pab eginn
ingpi
l o
tssk
il
lo rto
pe
rformancea
rethenrecheckedbyrefe
rringtof
light c
orr
ectapi
l o
t
sp oorhab
itof
fixa
tin
go ni
nst
rum e
ntsbyf
orcin
g
ins
trument
s.Thep i
lotthen main
tain
sth ecorr
e c
ted t
hemt ouseo u
ts
i devi
sualre
fer
encesfora
irc
raf
tc o
ntro
l.
at
ti
tudebyrefe
ren
c etothen a
tura
lhor
izon.
Thepi
lotshou ld mon i
tortheairplanesp e
rformance Theu seo fin tegratedf l
ightinst
ru ct
iondo esno t,andi sno t
bym akingqu icksnap -
shotsoftheflightinst
rum ent
s. intend edtop rep a
rep ilot
sfo rflightininstrum entw e
ath e
r
Nom oreth an10p e
rce n
tofthep i
lot
sattentionshoul
d cond it
ion s.Th emo stcommone rrorm adebyth eb eginn ing
beins
id etheco ckp
it.Th epi
lotmu std eveloptheski
ll stud enti sto m akep itcho rb ankco rrec
t ions wh i
les til
l
toquicklyfo cusonth eappropria
teflightinstrument
s look ingin sid eth eco ckpi
t.Con trolpressurei sapp lied
,bu t
andthenimm ed
iatelyreturntoth ev isualou t
side theb eginn ingp ilot
,no tbeingf amili
arw ithth ein tr
i c
a cie
s
refe
rence stocontroltheairplane
sa t
titude. offl
igh tbyr e
f erence stoin s
trum ents
,includingsu chthing s
asin st
rum en t
l agandgy roscopicprecess
ion ,w i
ll invariably
Thep ilotshou ldb ecom ef amil
iarw i
thth er elat
ion shm
ipakeex cessiv eatti
tud ecorrect
ion sandendup ch a
sing the
be
tw eenou tsidevi sualreferen c
estoth en a
tur alhori in
zonand strum en ts.A i
rpl an eat
titudebyr e
feren cetoth en a
tu ra
l
thecorr e
s pondingflighti n
strum en
tin d
ications.F orexam pho
le
,rizon,how ev er
,i simm edi a
teinitsindications,a ccur a
t e
,
apitcha tt
itudead justm entm ayrequirea mov em ento andp
fthe resent ed m anyt im eslargerthananyin st
rum entcou ld
pi
lot
sr efe
r encepo into fs evera
lin chesinr elat
iontoth be
e.A lso,th eb eginn ingp ilo
t mu stb em adeaw areth at
na
turalho rizonbu tco rrespondtoas eem inglyin signif
ic a
ann
tytim e,f orw h a
t e
ve r reas
o n
,airplaneat
ti
t udeb yr ef
e r
e n
c eto
movem ento fth er eferen ceb aronth ea irplan e
sa tt
itudth
e en a
tur alho rizonc annotb ees
t abl
ishedand /orm a
int a
in ed
,
indi
c ator.Sim i
larly,ad evi
ationfromad esi
r edb ankang th
le
,es ituationshou ldb econ side
redabon afid eem ergency.
whi
ch iso bviousw henreferencingthea i
rpla n
e swi ngt
ipsor
cowlin grela
tiveto then a
t ura
lh or
izon,m a ybe im perceptib
le S
traigh t-and -Leve lFligh t
onthea irplanesatti
tud eind i
c a
tortoth eb eginn e
rp i
lot. S
tra
ight
-and-
level
flig
ht i
sfl
ightinwhichheadinga ndal
ti
tude
a
recon s
tant
ly m a
intained
.Th efourfund am entalsarein
Them ostc omm one rrorm adeb yth eb egin nerpilotist o e
ssenceaderi
vationofstra
ight
-and-
levelfl
ight
.A ssuch
,the
makepit chorb ankc orrectionsw hi
les t
il
ll ooki nginsidethe needtoformp rop
eran deffe
ctiv
eski
llsinfly
ings trai
ghtand
cockpit
.It i
sa lsoc omm onforb eginn
e rpi
l o
t stofix a
teo nthe l
evelshouldnotbeu nders
tat
ed.Prec
isem ast
er yo fs
tra
ight
-
fl
ighti ns
trum ents ac o nsc
i ousef
fortisr equ
i redb ythemt o a
nd-le
velf
ligh
tistheresu
ltofrepe
ti
tio
n andeff
ective p
ract
ice
.
re
turnt oo utsi
dev isualre f
eren ce
s.Fort hefir
s tsev e
ralh ou
rs P
erf
ect
i o
ninstr
aight
-an d
-leve
lfl
igh
tc om e
so n
lya sa r
esu
ltof

3
-6
t
hepilo
tund e
rs
ta n
dingth
eeffec
tanduseofthef
lightcon
trol
s, conf
igura
tion
s.Theh orizonrefe
rencepoin
tisalwaysbeing
p
roper
lyusi
n gthevi
sualou
tsi
deref
erence
s,andtheuti
liz
at
ion thesame,nom a
tte
rw hatal
titude
,sinc
ethepoin
tisalwayson
o
fsnap-
shotsfromthefl
ight
inst
rum e
ntsinacont
in uou
sloop thehor
izon
,alth
ough thedi
stanceto
thehor
izonwil
lb efu
rth
er
o
finfo
rm a
tiongathe
ring
.Ap i
lotmustmakeeffe
ctive,
timely
, asal
ti
tudeinc
rease
s.T herearem u
ltip
lehor
izont
alrefe
rence
a
ndp rop
ort
i on
alc o
rrec
tio
nsfordevia
tionsinth
ea irp
lane
s l
i n
esd u
etothepitchat
tituderequ
irement
softhem aneuve
r;
d
ire
ct
ionandalt
itudefr
omu nin
ten
tiona
lsl
ig h
ttu
rns,descen
ts
, however
,thesetea
chin gaidsaregenera
llyneededforonly
a
ndclimbstom aste
rstra
ight
-and-
leve
lfl
i gh
t. ashortper
iodoftim eu n
ti
lt hebeg
inningpi
lotun d
ers
tands
wher
ea ndw h
entolo okduringthevar
iousm an
euv e
rs
.
S
tra
ig h
t-an
d-lev
elfl
ightisam at
terofc on
scious
l yf
i x
ingthe
r
elat
ionshi
po far e
ferencepoin
to nt heairp
lanei nre
latio
n St
raigh tF l
igh t
t
ot hen a
tura
lh or
izon.[Figure3-6]T heestabl
ishm e
nto f Ma
i n
tainingac onstantdi
rect
iono rh ead
ingisaccom pl
ished
r
eferencepoint
sshouldb einit
i a
tedonth egrounda sth e byv isua
llych eck ingthelatera
ll ev e
lrela
tionshipofth e
r
eferencepointsdependsonth epilot
ss ea
tingpo si
tion, ai
rplanesw ingtipstoth en a
turalho ri
zon.D ependingon
h
eight
,a ndm an
nerofsit
ting
.Itisimp or
tanttha
tt hepi
lotsi
t whetherth
ea i
rplane i
sahighw ingor lowwing,bothwingtip
s
i
nan ormalm anne
rw iththeseatp os
it
iona djust
e d
,w hich shouldbele v
elan de q
ual
lyabo v
eo rbelowthenatura
lh o
rizon
.
a
llowsf o
rth epi
lottos eeadequate
l yoverthei nst
rum en
t Anyn ecessaryb an kcorr
ect
io n
sa rem adewiththep i
l o
ts
p
anelw hi
leb e
inga b
letof u
llydepresstherudderp eda
lsto coordina
tedu seo faile
ronsa ndr udder
.[F igure3-7] The
t
heirm ax
im umforwardpos
it
ionw i
tho u
tst
raini
n gorreac
hing. pi
lots hou
ldu nde rst
andthata n
ytim ethew i
n g
sa reban k
ed,
theairplaneturns.T heobj
ect
i v
eo fstra
ightfl
ightistod e
tec
t
W
ithbeginn
erpi
lots
,afligh
tinstr
uctorwil
llike
lyu seadry sm a
lld ev
iation
sa ss oonastheyo ccur
,therebynecess
itat
ing
e
rasem a
rkerorrem ovab
letapetom akerefer
enceline
so n only minorf l
igh tcon t
rolcorrections
.Th eb anka tt
itude
t
hew indsh
ie
ldorcow l
ingtohelpthebegi
n ne
rpilo
test
abl
ish inform a
tionc anal sobeo b
tainedf romaq uicks canofthe
v
isualref
erencepoint
s.V er
tica
lr efe
rencelinesarebest at
tit
u deind
i ca
tor(w h
ichshow s
th ep os
it
ionoftheairpl
a ne
s
e
stab
lish
edo n
theground,su
cha swh e
ntheairp
laneisp
laced wi
n gsre
lat
iv et
ot heh o
rizon
)an d
th eheadingind
icator
(w hic
h
o
nam a
rkedcen
ter
line
,witht
heb eg
innerpi
lotsea
tedinp
roper indicat
esw hethe
r f
lightcont
rolpressure
isnecess
arytoch ang
e
p
osit
ion
.H or
izont
alrefe
rencel
inesarebestes
tabli
shedwith theb ankatti
tudet oretu
rntostra
i ghtfl
ight
).
t
hea i
rplan
einfligh
t,suchasd ur
ingslowf l
ightandcrui
se

i i i i

i i

T______DS__.
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i i i i

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33
N 3 N
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N 3 H
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P
33 A
212
I

F
igu
re3
-6.No
ser
efe
ren
cefo
rst
raigh
t-and
-le
velf
ligh
t.

3
-7
 i i i i i

N
AV11
08.
00 1
13.
00 WPT______DIS__._N M D TK___ T
RK 3
60 1
34.
000 1
18.
000COM1
N
AV21
08.
00 1
10.
60 MAP-NAVIGATIONMAP 1
23.
800 1
18.
000COM2

3
000
1
30 33
00
2

1
20 3
200

1
1
10 3
100
1 6
0
1
00 3
4
00
00
00
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0
9
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900
1

8
0 2
800
270 2

T
A
7
S1
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0
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T
2
300

H
DGU
P
A
212
I
V
OR1

D
195
I D
212
I
1
0NM X
PDR 5
537 I
DNT L
CL2
3:0
0:3
4

F
igu
re3
-7.W
ing
tipr
efe
ren
cefo
rst
raigh
t-and
-le
velf
ligh
t.

Itispo ss
ibletom a
intai
nstra
i gh
tflightb ysim plyexert
ingthe Leve lF light
necessaryp res
s urewiththeail
eronso rr ud d
erindepe nden
tly Inl earn ingtocon t
rolth ea i
rplaneinl evelflight,i tis
inth ed es
iredd ire
ctionofco r
rect
ion.How ev e
r,thep ra
cti
ce impo rtantth atth epilo
tb etaughtto m ainta
inal ighttou ch
ofusing theaileronsandrudd erindep end en
tlyisnotco rr
ect onth eflightcon t
rolsusingfingersra
th erthanthecommon
andm akesp r
eciseco n
tro
loft h
eairplan ediff
i c
ult
.T hecorre
ct problemo fat ight-
fistedp a
lm w rappeda roundth ef light
bankflig h
tc ont
r o
lm ovementrequi
r e
s th eco o
rdina
te duseof controls.Th ep ilo
tshou ldexertonlyenoughp ressureon the
ai
lero nsan drudder.Stra
ight
- and-
le v
elf ligh
tr equ
iresalm o
st fl
ightcon t
rols toprodu cethedesi
redresult.Thepilotshou ld
noapp licat
iono ffl
ightcontrolp ressur e
si ftheairplaneis learntoa ssociatetheapp a
rent movem entofther eferen c
es
properlytrimm edandth eairissmoo th.Fo rthatr ea
son, wi
th thec ontrolp r
essuresw hic
hp roduceatt
itudem ovem ent
.
thep ilot mustno tformth eh abi
to funn ec e
ssar
ily moving Asar esult
,th ep ilo
tc and eveloptheab il
itytoad justth e
theflightcon trols
.Th epilot mustle arntor ecognizewh en chang ed esiredinth eairplane
sa t
ti
tudebyth eamoun tand
correctionsaren ecessa
rya n
d thentom a keam easuredfl
i g
ht dir
ectio nofpr essure
sa ppl
iedtothefl
ightc ont
rolswithout the
controlrespon sepre c
ise
ly,smoo thly
,anda ccura
tely. pi
lote xce s
sivel yref
erringtoins
trum en
to routs
ider e
fere nces
fore achm inorco rrect
ion.
P
ilo
tsm aytendtolooko u
ttoo nesidecontinual
ly,gene
r a
lly
t
ot h
el e
ftd uet
othep i
lot
sleftsea
tp os
it
iona ndco n
sequent
ly Thepitcha t
ti
tudefo rlevelfl
igh tisfirstobtainedby thepilot
f
ocusattent
ionintha
td i
rect
io n
.T h
isn o
to n
lyg i
vesares
trict
ed be
in gpro pe
rlyse a
ted,selectingap ointtow a
r dtheair p
la ne
s
a
nglefr omw h
ichthepilo
ti stoo bserv
eb utalsocausesthe noseasar eferen
c e
,a ndthe nk eepin gtha
tref er
e n
cep oin
t ina
p
ilo
tt oe xer
tu n
c on
sciouspr es
s u
reo nthefl
i gh
tc on
trolsin fi
xe dpositi
o nre
lativ
e tothen aturalh or
izon
.[F igur e3- 8
]T he
t
hatdirect
i on
.Itisalsoim port
a n
tthatthepilotnotfix
atein pr
incipleso fat
titudeflyingr equ ireth a
tther efe
r en cepoin t
a
nyo ned irec
tionandc on
tin ua
llyscano u
tsidetheairp
l ane
, toth en aturalho r
izonpo sitionshou ldb ec ross- check ed
n
oto n
l ytoe nsu
reth a
ttheair p
lanesat
ti
tud eiscorre
ct
,b ut aga
i ns
tth efl
ightinst
rum e n
tst od etermineift h
epitc hatt
itud e
a
lsotoe ns
urethat
thepilot
isc onside
ringotherfac
torsfo
rs a
fe isco r
rect.Ifno t,sucha strend ingaw ayf romth ed esi
r ed
f
ligh
t.C o
ntinua
llyo bs
ervingb othw ing
tip
sh a
sa dvan
ta ge
s al
ti
tud e
,th ep i
tcha t
titudeshou ldb ereadjustedinr ela
tion
o
ther
t hanb e
ingtheonlypos
itivec h
eck f
orlevel
ingthewi ngs
. tothen aturalhorizonandth enth ef l
ightin st
rum en tscross-
T
hisincludeslookingforai
rcr a
fttr
affic
,ter
rainan dweather checkedtod ete
rm ineifa lt
itud eisnowb eingco rr ect
edo r
i
nfluences,andm ain
tainingo ver
al
ls i
tuat
ion a
law ar
eness. ma
intained.Inl evelflightm aneuv ers,thet erms in cr
e a
s e

3
-8
 thebackpre
ssureorin
crea
sepit
cha t
ti
tudeimp
lie
srais
ing
i i i theai
rplanesnoseinr e
lat
iontoth en a
tur
alhori
zonand
thete
rm sdecrea
singthepi
tchat
titudeordec
reasepit
ch
at
ti
tudem eanslower
ingthenoseinr e
lat
iontothenatura
l
hor
izon
.T hepilo
tspr
im a
ryref
erenceisth
enatur
alhor
i z
on.
F
ixed
Fora l
lp racti
calpu rposes
,thea irplan e
sa ir
sp eedrem a
ins
con s
tantins tr
aigh t
-and-l
evelflighti fth epow ers e
tt
ingis
33
al
socon stant
.In ten
tionalai
rsp eedch anges,byin c
reas
ing

30
ord ecreasingth eeng inepow er
,p rovid epro f
iciencyin

W
maintainings traight-and-
levelf ligh ta sthea i
rplane
s

24
NAV

OBS
21

ai
r speedi sch anging.P i
tching mom entsm aya l
sob e
gen e
ratedbyex ten s
ionandretractiono fflaps
,l andinggea
r,
33

30
ando therdragpr oducingdev
ices,s ucha ss po
ilers
.E xposu
re

W
24
toth eeffectofthev ar
iousconfigu r
ationsshou ldb ecover
ed
OBS
21

33 inanysp ecif
ica i
rplanecheckou t
.

W30
Acommone rroro fab eginnerp i
loti
sa t
temp tingtoho ld

24
21

i i
th ewingsl evelbyon lyob s
ervingtheairp
lane sno se.U s
ing
thism ethod ,theno sesshortho r
izon
talreferen celinec an
causeslightd evia
tion stogounno t
iced
;how ev er,d evia
tion s
froml ev elf l
ighta r ee as
ilyr ecogni
zable wh enth ep ilot
referencesth ewing tipsand,a sar e
sul
t,thew ing t
ip sshou ld
beth epilot
sprim aryr efe
ren ceform a
inta
iningl evelb ank
F
ixed
att
itude
.T h
i stechniq uealsoh e
lpselimina
tethep o
t ent
ialf or
flyingtheair p
lanew i
t honew in gl
owa ndcorrectin ghea d
i ng
errorswithth epilotho ldingoppo si
terudder
.Ap ilotwitha
badh abitofd raggingon ew inglowandcomp en s
atingw ith
oppo s
it
erudd erp ressur ewillh avedif
ficu
ltyin m as
tering
33
30

otherfl
ightm aneuv ers.
W
24

NAV

OBS
21

33
Commonerro
rsinth
epe
rfo
rman
ceo
fst
raigh
t-and
-lev
el
fl
igh
tar
e:
30
W

A
tt
emptingtouseimprop
erpi
tchandbankr
efe
ren
ce
24

OBS
21

po
intsontheai
rplan
etoestab
li
shat
ti
tude
.
i i Forge
tt
i ng
t h
eloc
at
ionofp
res
ele
cte
dre
fer
enc
epo
int
s
onsubsequen
tfl
ight
s.
At
tempt
ingtoest
abl
ishorcorr
ectai
rpl
aneat
ti
tud
e
u
sin
gfl
igh
tins
trumen
tsr
ath
ert
hanthena
tur
alh
ori
zon
.
Chas
ing
thefl
ight
inst
rumentsr
ath
erth
anadh
ering
toth
eprin
cip
lesofat
ti
tudef
lying
.
F
ixed
Me
ch an
ical
lypushi
ngorpu
ll
ingont
hef
lig
htcon
tro
ls
r
atherthanexer
tingac
cur
ateandsmoo
thpre
ssu
reto
a
ffec
tch ange
.
33
No
tsc ann
ingoutsidetheco
ckpi
ttolookforoth
er
ai
rcr
afttra
ffic,weathe
randter
raininf
luen
ces
,and
30
W

notmainta
inings
ituat
iona
lawar
en e
ss.
24

NAV

OBS
21

Atightp a
lmg r
iponth efl
ightcont
rolsr
esul
tingin
adesensi
ti
zedfee
lingofthehandandfinge
rs
,wh ich
33
30

re
sul
t sinove
rcont
rol
lingtheai
rplan
e.
F
igu
re3
-8.No
ser
efe
ren
cefo
rle
velf
ligh
t.

3
-9
 Habi
tu a
llyfly
ingwi
thonewingloworm a
int
ain
ing
d
ire
ctionalcon
tro
lus
ingon
lytherudd
ercont
rol
.
Fa
ilur
eto m ak
etime
lyand measu
redcon
tro
linpu
ts
whendevi
ation
sfromst
raigh
t-and-
lev
elfl
ightar
e
de
tec
ted.
In
adequa
tea
tten
tiontos
enso
ryinpu
tsind
eve
lop
ing
fe
elfo
rthea
irpl
ane.

T
rimCon
tro
l
Propertr
imt e
chniqueisanimpo r
t antandof
tenov e
rlooked
basicfly
ingski
ll.Animp roper
lytrimm edai
rplanerequi
res
con s
tantf
ligh
tcon t
rolpr es
suresf romthepilo
t,produces i
tensionandf a
tigue
,dist
r ac
tsthep ilo
tfromou t
sidevisua
l
scanning,andcon t
ribut
e stoab ruptande r
r a
ticairp
lane
at
titudecont
rolinpu
ts.
iii

Tr
imc ontro
ls ur
facesa rer
eq u
iredtooffseta n
yc ons
tantflig h
t
cont
ro lp r
essureinpu tsprovidedbyth epilot
.Fo rexamp le
,
elev
at ort
rim isaty p
i ca
ltr
im inl
ig h
tGAa irplanesandisu sed
tonu llthep ressureex er
tedbyth ep ilotonth ep i
tchf l
igh t
cont
ro l
,wh i chisb eingheldtop roduc ethetaildownfo r c
e
requiredforasp ecif
icangleo fatt
a ck(AOA ).[Figur e3 -9]
Thi
sr elievesthep ilotfromho ld
ingacon st
antp re
ssureon
thef l
igh tcon t
rolsto m a
inta
inap a
rticularpitcha t
titud e
andp rovidesanoppo rtuni
tyforth epilottod iver
tattention
tooth ertask s
,su cha sevalua
tingth ea irpl
an e
satt
itud ein
rel
ationtoth enatur a
lhorizon
,s canningfo ra i
rcra
fttraffic,
andm aint
ainingsitu a
tiona
law a
reness. F
igu
re3
-9.E
leva
tort
rimi
sus
edina
irp
lan
estonu
llth
epr
essu
re
e
xer
tedb
yth
epi
lotonth
epi
tchf
ligh
tcon
tro
l.
Becauseofth e
irrela
tivelylowpow er,speed
,andco s
t
const
raint
s,nota l
llighta irplanesh aveacomp leteset Ap roper
l y
trimm eda i
rpla nei
sa nindica
tiono fg oodpilot
in g
(e
levato
r,rudde
r,anda
ileron)tr
imc ontrol
stha
tar
ea dju
sta
ble skil
ls
. Anycon trolfo rcesthatth epilotfeelsshou ldb ea
frominsi
dethecockp
it
.N earlyal
l l
ightai
rpla
nesa
r eequ
ipped resul
to fdelib e
rateflightcon t
rolp ressureinpu tsduringa
wi
thatleas
tac ockp
itadjustabl
ee le
vatortr
im.Asa i
rplan
es plannedch ang eina i
rp l
an eatt
itude,no tar esultoffo rce s
incre
aseinpower,wei
g h
t,a n
dc om p
le x
ity
,cockp
itadju
stab
le beingapp l
iedbyth ea irplane
.Acommont rimcon trolerro r
tr
ims yst
em sfo
rt h
eru d
d eranda i
leronm aybea va
il
able
. isthet enden cyforth epilottoov ercont
rolth eairp
lan ew ith
tr
imad justm ents.A ttemp t
ingtof lyth ea i
rp lanew i
thth e
Ina irplan es wh e
re mu l
tiplet rimax esa reav a
il able
,th e tr
im isacommonf aultinb as
icflyingtechniqu eevenamong
rudd ershou ldb etrimm edf irst
.Rudd er,elevatorandth en experiencedp ilots
.Th ea irp
laneatti
tud emu s
tb ees
tablished
ai
leronshou ldb etr
imm edn ex tins equ ence;how ever,if fi
r s
tandh eldw i
thth eapp ropr
i a
tef l
ightcon trolpressures,
thea irsp eedi sv a
rying,con tinuou sa ttemptstot rimth e andth enth ef ligh
tcon trolpressurestrimm edou tsoth at
rudd eranda ileronproduc esunn ecessarypilotwo rkloadand theairplanem a
intainsth edesi
reda tt
itudew ithoutthep ilot
di
straction.A ttemptstotrimth eruddera tvaryinga ir
sp eeds exert
ingf l
igh tcontrolp ressure
.
areimp ract
ic a
lin m anyp ropellerairplanesb ecaus eofth e
buil
t-incomp ensat
ionfo rth ee f
fecto fap ropellersl e
ft Leve
lTu
rns
turningt end encies
.Th eco rr
e ctprocedu reiswh enth ep ilo
t
Aturnisiniti
atedbyb ankingthew ing
sinth ed es
ired
hase stablishedacon st
anta irspeedandp i
tcha t
titud e
,th e
d
irec
tionoft hetu
rnthroughthepi
lotsuseoftheaile
ron
pi
lotshou ldth enho ldthew ing slevelw itha i
leronf light
f
lightcont
rol
s.Lef
tai
leronfl
ightco
ntrolp
ressu
recausesth
e
controlp ressure whilerudd ercon trolp res
surei st r
imm ed
le
ftw in
g to
low e
rinre
la
ti o
n to
thepi
l o
t.Righ
tail
eronfl
ight
out
.F in al
ly,a i
lerontrimshou ldth enb eadjustedtor elieve
con
trolpres
surecau
sestherigh
twingtolowerinre
lat
ionto
anya i
l eronflightcon t
rolpr e
ssu re.
th
ep ilo
t.Inotherword
s,tot u
rnle
ft,lowerle
ftw i
ngw it
h

3
-10
aileron by left stick. To turn right, lower right wing with right straight ahead. The vertical fins purpose is to keep
stick. Depending on bank angle and airplane engineering, at the aft end of the airplane behind the front end.
many bank angles, the airplane will continue to turn with The throttle provides thrust which may be used for
ailerons neutralized. So the sequence should be like the airspeed to tighten the turn.
following: (1) bank airplane, adding either enough power or
pitching up to compensate for the loss of lift (change in vector The pilot uses the rudder to offset any adverse yaw
angle of lift); (2) neutralize controls as necessary to stop bank developed by wings differential lift and the engine/
from increasing and hold desired bank angle; (3) use the propeller. The rudder does not turn the airplane. The
opposite stick (aileron) to return airplane to level; (4) then take rudder is used to maintain coordinated flight.
that control out to again neutralize the ailerons (along with
either power or pitch reduction) for level flight. [Figure 3-10] For purposes of this discussion, turns are divided into three
classes: shallow, medium, and steep.
A turn is the result of the following: Shallow turnsbank angle is approximately 20 or
The ailerons bank the wings and so determine the rate less. This shallow bank is such that the inherent lateral
of turn for a given airspeed. Lift is divided into both stability of the airplane slowly levels the wings unless
vertical and horizontal lift components as a result of aileron pressure in the desired direction of bank is held
the bank. The horizontal component of lift moves the by the pilot to maintain the bank angle.
airplane toward the banked direction. Medium turnsresult from a degree of bank between
The elevator pitches the nose of the airplane up or approximately 20 to 45. At medium bank angles, the
down in relation to the pilot and perpendicular to airplanes inherent lateral stability does not return the
the wings. If the pilot does not add power, and there wings to level flight. As a result, the airplane tends
is sufficient airspeed margin, the pilot must slightly to remain at a constant bank angle without any flight
increase the pitch to increase wing lift enough to control pressure held by the pilot. The pilot neutralizes
replace the wing lift being diverted into turning force the aileron flight control pressure to maintain the bank.
so as to maintain the current altitude. Steep turnsresult from a degree of bank of
The vertical fin on an airplane does not produce lift. approximately 45 or more. The airplane continues
Rather the vertical fin on an airplane is a stabilizing in the direction of the bank even with neutral flight
surface and produces no lift if the airplane is flying controls unless the pilot provides opposite flight
control aileron pressure to prevent the airplane from
overbanking. The amount of opposite flight control
pressures is dependent on various factors, such as bank
angle and airspeed. In general, a noticeable level of
opposite aileron flight control pressure is required by
the pilot to prevent overbanking.

When an airplane is flying straight and level, the total lift is

acting perpendicular to the wings and to the Earth. As the
airplane is banked into a turn, total lift is the resultant of
two components: vertical and horizontal. [Figure 3-11] The
vertical lift component continues to act perpendicular to the
Earth and opposes gravity. The horizontal lift component
acts parallel to the Earths surface opposing centrifugal force.
N
33
W30

These two lift components act at right angles to each other,

24

NAV

OBS
21 S

causing the resultant total lifting force to act perpendicular

N
33
W30

to the banked wing of the airplane. It is the horizontal lift

24

OBS
21 S

N
33
NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _ TRK 360 134.000 118.000 COM1

component that begins to turn the airplane and not the rudder.
108.00
0 110.60 MAP - NAVIGATION MAP 123.800 118.000
30

NAV2 COM2
W

3000
130
130 3300
24

2 21
3200
S
120 HDG

1
110
10 3100
1 60
100 43000
000
9 20
90 2900

In constant altitude, constant airspeed turns, it is necessary

1

80 2800
270 2

70
TAS 100KT
2300

to increase the AOA of the wing when rolling into the

A212IHDG UP
A212I
212
VOR 1

turn by increasing back pressure on the elevator, as well

D195I
D
D19
1
195
5I D212I
212I
212
10 NM XPDR 5537 IDNT
T LCL23:00:34

as the addition of power to counter the loss of speed due

to increased drag. This is required because total lift has
Figure 3-10. Level turn to the left.

3-11
 i S
teep
lybankedtu
rn

i
i

i
i

i i

i
F
igu
re3 .W
-11 h
enth
eai
rplan
eisban
kedin
toatu
rn,to
tall
if
tisth
ere
sul
tan
toftwocompon
ent
s:v
ert
ica
landho
rizon
tal
.

dividedintov ert
icalandhorizont
alcompon entsofl
ift
.In thea irplan e.S ituation sc and evelop wh enap iloti sflying
orderto m a
intainalt
itude
,thetota
ll i
ft(s
incetota
lli
ftact
s inun coo rdin atedf lightandd ep endingonth efligh tcon tro
l
perpendicul
a rtoth ewing) mustbein c
reas
edto m ee
tthe defle c
tion s,m ays up por
tp ro -s
pi nflightc o ntrolin puts.T h
isis
verti
calcompon en
to fli
ftrequi
rem ent
s(tobalanceweigh
t esp eciallyh azardo usw heno p
er at
i ngat lowa lt
itu des,s uchas
andlo adfactor
)fo rleve
lfl
ight
. whe no pe
r ating int hea i
r po
rt trafficp a
tt ern.P ilo
tsm ustlea
r n
tofl yw ithc oor dina
t edc ontr o
li nputst op re ventu nint e
ntiona
l
Thepu rposeo ftherudd erinatu rnistocoo rdinatethetu rn. losso fcon t rolwh enm aneuv eringinc ert ainsituation s
.
Aslif
tin creases,sodo esd rag. Wh enthepilotd eflectsthe
ail
eronstob ank theairplane,bothliftanddr agare inc
r eased Duringun coo rdinatedf light,th ep ilo
tm ayf ee
lth atth eyar e
onth erising w ingand ,simu l
t aneously,l
iftandd raga re beingpu sh eds idew aystow ardth eou tsid eo rin sid eofth e
decreasedon thelow er
ingw ing.[Fi gure3-12]T his i
ncrea s
ed turn .[F igu r e3 -13] Ask idi s wh enth ep ilotm ayf ee
lth a
t
dragonth erisingw ingandd ecreas eddragonth elow er
ing th eya r eb eingp re ssedtow a
rdth eou tsid eo fth etu rnand
wingr e
sultsinth eai
rp l
an eyawingoppo si
teto thed i
re c
tion tow ardth ein sid eo fth etu rndu ringas lip.Th eab il
ityto
ofturn.Tocoun t
eractthisadv ersey aw,rudd erp res
su reis sen seask ido rs l
ipi sd evelop edov ert im eanda sth ef ee
l
appliedsimu l
t aneouslyw i
tha i
leroninth ed esir
edd irection offl y
i ngd e velo ps
,ap il
ots h ou
l db ecom eh ig hl
ys e nsit
ive toa
ofturn.Thisa ctioni
sr equir
e dtopro duceac oordinatedturn. sl
ipo rsk idw ithoutundu er e
lian ceon thef lightin strum ents
.
Coordinatedflighti simpo rtantto m ainta
iningcon t
ro lo f
Tu rnRad ius
Tound er
st andth er e
l at
ion shipb e
tw e ena ir speed,b ank,and
i radiu so ftu rn,i tshou ldb eno tedth atth er ateo ftu rnatany
give ntr u
ea i rspe edd epe ndso nt heh oriz ont a
llif
tc om ponent
.
Theho ri
zon tall i
ftcompon entv ari
esinp ropo r
tiontoth e
am o u n
to fb ank.T her efore
, ther ateof tur na tag ive na i
rspeed
ii incr eas e
sa s th ean g
l eofb a nkis increa sed.O nt heo th e
rh and
,
i i whenatu rni sm ad ea tah igh era irsp eeda tag iv enb ank
angl e,the in ertiaisg reaterand theho ri zon tall
iftcompon ent
requ iredfo rth eturni sg r eater
,c ausingth eturningr ateto
i becom eslow er.[F igu re3 -14] Th erefo re,a tag iv enang l
e
ofb ank,ah igh erai rspeed m ak esth er ad iuso ftu rnl arger
bec aus eth ea irplanetu rnsa tas low err ate.

A
stheradiusofth eturnbe comessm al
ler
,as igni
ficant
d
if
fer
encedevelopsbetweentheair
speedoftheins
idew ing
a
ndthea
irspee
do ftheout
sidew in
g.Thew in
go ntheou
tside
o
fthetu
rntrav e
lsalong e
rp aththantheins
idew ing
,y et
F
igu
re3 .T
-12 h
erudd
eroppo
sesad
ver
seyawtoh
elpcoo
rdina
te
b
othcomple
tethei
rrespec
tivep a
thsint
hesam euni
toftim e
.
th
etu
rn.

3
-12
 Sk
id Coo
rdina
tedTu
rn S
lip

D
.C. D
.C. D
.C.
ELEC. ELEC. ELEC.

TURN COORD
INATOR TURN COORD
INATOR TURN COORD
INATOR

L R L R L R
2M
IN. 2M
IN. 2M
IN.
NO PITCH NO PITCH NO PITCH
INFORMATION INFORMATION INFORMATION

a
l
Ba
ll
ltt u
t
oou
ts
si
idd
eeft
o
f u
tu
rr
nn Ba
llcen
tered Ba
lltoins
ideo
ftu
rn

P
ilo
tfee
lssidewaysforce P
ilo
tfeelsfo
rcestra
igh
t Pi
lotfeelssideways
toouts
ideofturn downintoseat fo
rcee
tt
oo
iin
ns
s
ii
dd
eeo
o
ff
tt
uu
r
rn
n

F
igu
re3 .I
-13 nd
ica
tion
sofas
lipands
kid
.

Ther
efore
,th eou t
sidew ingtrav el
sataf a
ste
ra ir
sp eedthan EstablishingaTu rn
theins
idew ingand,a sar esult
,itd eve
lops morelift
.Th i
s On mo s
tlightsingle
- engineai
rplanes,thetopsu rf
a ceo f
crea
tesanov erbankingt enden cythat mus
tb econ t
rol
led theeng inecowlingisf a
irlyfl
at,anditshorizont
alsu r
fa c
e
bytheuseo foppo si
tea i
leronwh enthed e
siredb ankangle toth en a
tur
alho r
izonp rovide
sar e
asonableindi
c a
tionfor
isreached.[F igure3 -15]B ecausetheou tboard wingis ini
tial
lys e
tt
ingthed egreeofbankang le
.[Figure3-16]Th e
deve
loping mo reli
ft
,ita lsop roduces mor
ed rag
.Th edrag pi
lotshouldthencross-checkthefl
ightins
trum en
tstov e
rify
cause
sas l
igh tsl
ipdu r
ings teepturnsthatmustbeco rrec
ted thatthecorrec
tb ankang lehasb eenachieved
.Inform a
tion
byuseofth erudd e
r.

i i i

i i i
i i i
i

F
igu
re3 .A
-14 ng
leo
fban
kanda
irsp
eedr
egu
lat
era
teandrad
iuso
ftu
rn.

3
-13
 Beg
inningpilot
sshou ldnotu sel a
rg eai
leronandrudd e
r
Ove
rbank
ingT
endency
con
tro
linputs.Thisisbecauselargecontro
linpu t
sproduce
i i rap
idrollra
tesandallowsli
tt
le t
im eforthepilot
toevalua
te
i and makecorrec
tions.Sm a
llerfligh
tcon t
rolinputsresu
lt
i
ins
low erro
llratesandprovidefo r mor
etim etoaccu
rate
ly
compl
e t
ethen ece
ssarypi
tchandb ankcorrect
ions.

Someadd
it
ion
alcon
sid
era
tion
sfo
rin
it
ia
tingtu
rnsa
reth
e
fo
llow
ing
:
I
ftheai
rplane
snos
esta
rt
sto mov
eb e
for
eth
ebank
s
tar
ts
,therudde
risbe
ingapp
li
edtoosoon
.
Ifthebanksta
rtsbe
for
etheno
ses
t a
rt
stu
rningo
rthe
nose movesintheoppos
it
edi
rec
tion
,therudd
eri
s
i i beingapp
liedtool
ate
.
i Ifthenos
e movesupordownwhenen
ter
ingabank
,
excess
iveorinsuf
fic
ien
telev
ato
rbackpre
ssu
reis
F
igu
re3 .O
-15 v
erban
kingt
end
enc
y. beingapp
li
ed.

obta
in edfromth ea tti
tud eind icatorshow sth eangleo fth e Af
tertheb ankh asbeene s
t ab
li
shed,al
lfl
i ghtco nt
rolpress ures
winginr el
a t
iontoth eho rizon . appl
iedt otheaileronsa ndrudder mayb erelaxed oradj us
t ed
,
dependingon th ee s
tablishedbankang le,tocomp ens atefor
Thep i
lo t
ss eatingpo s
itioninth ea irp l
an ei simpo rtanta s theairplanesinh erentstabi
li
tyo rov erbankingt end encies
.
itaffectsth ein terpr e
t a
tiono fou tsidev isu alreferences.A T heairp
l anesh ouldrem ainatth
ed esi
redb a nkanglew ith the
commonp roblem is thatap ilotm ay l eanaw ayfrom th eturn prope
rapp licationo faileronpressures
.I fth edesiredb ank
inana t
temp ttor em a
ininanup r
igh tpo s
itioninr elaionto ang
t leissh a
llow ,thepilotn e
edstom a
in ta
inasm allamoun t
theh orizon.T h
i ss ho uldb ec or
re c
t ed imm e diate
lyifth epilt o
o fai
leronp res
s ureintothedirec
tionofb a n
k includ
i ngr udder
istop roperlyl earntou sev isua
lr eference s
.[F igure3 -17] tocomp ensatefo ry awe f
fec
ts.Fo rm ediumb ankang les
,
theaileronsandrudd ershouldb en eutrali
z ed
.S t e
epb ank
Because mo sta irpl an e
sh aves id e-by-sides eat
ing,ap ilot angle
sr equireoppo si
t eaile
ronandrudd ertop r eventth e
doesno ts itonth ea irplan eslong itudin alax is
, wh ichi s bankfroms t eepening.
whereth eairplan ero tatesinro l
l.Th ep ilots i
tsslight
lyo f
f
toon eside,typi cally theleft,o fthe longitud inalaxis.Du eto Backp res
s u
reo nt heelevato
rs houldn otb er e
laxe da st he
para
llaxe rror,thism akesth eno seo fthea irplaneapp e rto v
a er
tic
alc om pone n
to fl
if
tm us
tbem aint
ai nedi
fa l
ti
t udeist obe
risew henm akin ga leftturn( due top ilotlow e
ringinr e
l a
tion main
ta
i ned.T h
r ougho u
tth e
turn
,thep i
lots hou
l dre
f e
r encet h
e
tothelong itudin alax is)andth eno seo fth ea i
rplaneapp er n
a atu
ralhorizon,scan fo
raircra
ftt
raff
ic,an docca s
ionallycr os
s-
tod escendwh en m akingr ighttu rns(du etop i
lotelev a
ting checkthefl
i gh
t ins
tru mentstove
ri
f yperfor mance
. A reduction
inrelationtoth elong i
tudin alax is)
.[F igu re3 -18] inair
s peedist heresul
to fincrea
s eddra gb u
tisg enerallyn o
t
sign
if
i can
t fo
rs hal
l owb ankangle
s.Inste eperturn
s,a ddit
i ona
l

N 3 1
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F
igu
re3 .V
-16 i
sua
lre
fer
enc
efo
rang
leo
fban
k.

3
-14
F
igu
re3 .C
-17 o
rre
ctandin
cor
rec
tpo
stu
rewh
iles
eat
edinth
eai
rplan
e.

p
ow e
rm ayberequ
ired
tom ain
ta
i nai
rspeed
.Ifa
lt
itud
eisno
t per
forman c
ec anb eimprovedbyanappropr
iat
eappl
i c
ation
b
eingmain
ta
i n
edd u
ringth
eturn
,t h
epitcha
tt
itu
deshouldb
e ofpow ertoov ercom etheincr
easeindragandtrimm ing
c
orre
cte
dinrela
tio
ntothenat
uralhor
izonandcros
s-ch
ecke
d addi
tionalelevatorbackp re
ssureasthebankanglego es
w
itht
hefl
igh
tinst
rum e
ntstover
ifyperf
ormance
. beyond30
.Th istendstoreducethed emandsforlarge
cont
rolinput
sf romth epi
lotdur
ingtheturn
.
St
e e
p turnsr eq u
ireac cura
te,sm ooth,a ndt
im elyfl
ightc on
trol
inputs.M i norc o
rrectio n
sf o
rpitcha tt
itudea reaccom pli
s hed Sinceth eairp
lanecon t
inu esturn
inga slonga sth e
reisany
wi
thp roportion a
lele vatorbackp re
s surew hi
let h
eb anka ngle ba nk
,ther o
llou
tfr om the tu
r nm u
stb estartedb e
forereaching
ish eldcon s
t antw ithth eailerons. How ev er
,du r
ings t eep th edesiredheading.Th eamoun to fl eadr equir
edtoro l
lout
turns,itisno tun commonfo rap ilottoallowth eno setog et onth ed esi
redhe adingd ependsonth ed egreeofb anku sed
excessivelylowr e
su lt
inginas ignifican
tlo ssinalt
itud ein inth eturn.Aru leo fthumbi stoleadbyon e-halftheang l
e
av e
rysho rtp er
iodo ftime.Th ere coverys equencerequire s ofb ank.Fo rexamp le,ifth ebankis30 ,leadth erol
loutby
thatthep ilotfirs
tr edu cetheang leo fbankw ithcoord inated 15
.T her o
llou
tfroma tu rniss
im i
lart ot herol
l-inexceptthe
useofo p
p osi
tea i
ler ona ndrudd e
ra n dthenincreasethepitc h flightcontrol
sareapp l
i edintheoppo si
t edirect
ion.Aileron
at
ti
tu deb yin c
r ea
sin gelevatorbackp ressu
r e
. I
f r
ecovery f
r om an drudderareapplied i
n t h
ed i
rec
tiono f therolloutort
ow ard
anex cessivelyno s
e -
low ,steepb ankcond i
tionisattemp ted th ehighw ing.A sth eang leofb ankd ecreases
,th eeleva
tor
byu seo fth ee levato ronly,iton lyc ausesas teepeningo f pressureshouldb erelax eda snecessarytom aint
ainalt
itud e
.
theb ankandunn ece s
sarystressonth eairplane
.S teeptu rn As th
ew in g
sb e
com e level,thef
lightc ontrolpressure
ssh o
ul d

i i i i i i i

i i i
i

N
AV11
08.
00 1
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_NM DTK___ T
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F
igu
re3 .P
-18 a
ral
laxv
iew
.

3
-15
be smoothly relaxed so that the controls are neutralized as the Insufficient feel for the airplane as evidenced by the
airplane returns to straight-and-level flight. If trim was used, inability to detect slips or skids without reference to
such as during a steep turn, forward elevator pressure may flight instruments.
be required until the trim can be adjusted. As the rollout is Attempting to maintain a constant bank angle by
being completed, attention should be given to outside visual referencing only the airplanes nose.
references, as well as the flight instruments to determine that
the wings are being leveled and the turn stopped. Making skidding flat turns to avoid banking the
airplane.
For outside references, select the horizon and another point Holding excessive rudder in the direction of turn.
ahead. If those two points stay in alignment, the airplane
Gaining proficiency in turns in only one direction.
is tracking to that point as long as there is not a crosswind
requiring a crab angle. It would also be a good idea to include Failure to coordinate the controls.
VFR references for heading as well and pitch. A pilot holds
course in VFR by tracking to a point in front of the compass, Climbs and Climbing Turns
with only glances at the compass to ensure he or she is still When an airplane enters a climb, it changes its flightpath from
on course. This reliance on a surface point does not work level flight to a climb attitude. In a climb, weight no longer
when flying over water or flat snow covered surfaces. In acts in a direction solely perpendicular to the flightpath. When
these conditions, the pilot must rely on the compass or gyro- an airplane enters a climb, excess lift must be developed to
heading indicator. overcome the weight or gravity. This requirement to develop
more lift results in more induced drag, which either results
Because the elevator and ailerons are on one control, practice in decreased airspeed and/or an increased power setting to
is required to ensure that only the intended pressure is applied maintain a minimum airspeed in the climb. An airplane can
to the intended flight control. For example, a beginner pilot only sustain a climb when there is sufficient thrust to offset
is likely to unintentionally add pressure to the pitch control increased drag; therefore, climb rate is limited by the excess
when the only bank was intended. This cross-coupling may be thrust available.
diminished or enhanced by the design of the flight controls;
however, practice is the appropriate measure for smooth, The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural
precise, and accurate flight control inputs. For example, horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that
diving when turning right and climbing when turning left in produce the following types of climb:
airplanes is common with stick controls, because the arm tends
to rotate from the elbow joint, which induces a secondary arc Normal climbperformed at an airspeed recommended by
control motion if the pilot is not extremely careful. Likewise, the airplane manufacturer. Normal climb speed is generally
lowering the nose is likely to induce a right turn, and raising higher than the airplanes best rate of climb. The additional
the nose to climb tends to induce a left turn. These actions airspeed provides for better engine cooling, greater control
would apply for a pilot using the right hand to move the stick. authority, and better visibility over the nose of the airplane.
Airplanes with a control wheel may be less prone to these Normal climb is sometimes referred to as cruise climb.
inadvertent actions, depending on control positions and pilot
seating. In any case, the pilot must retain the proper sight Best rate of climb (VY)produces the most altitude gained
picture of the nose following the horizon, whether up, down, over a given amount of time. This airspeed is typically used
left or right and isolate undesired motion. It is essential that when initially departing a runway without obstructions until it
flight control coordination be developed because it is the very is safe to transition to a normal or cruise climb configuration.
basis of all fundamental flight maneuvers. Best angle of climb (VX)performed at an airspeed that
produces the most altitude gain over a given horizontal
Common errors in level turns are: distance. The best angle of climb results in a steeper climb,
Failure to adequately clear in the direction of turn for although the airplane takes more time to reach the same
aircraft traffic. altitude than it would at best rate of climb airspeed. The best
angle of climb is used to clear obstacles, such as a strand of
Gaining or losing altitude during the turn. trees, after takeoff. [Figure 3-19]
Not holding the desired bank angle constant.
Attempting to execute the turn solely by instrument It should be noted that as altitude increases, the airspeed
reference. for best angle of climb increases and the airspeed for best
rate of climb decreases. Performance charts contained in
Leaning away from the direction of the turn while the Airplane Flight Manual or Pilots Operating Handbook
seated.

3-16
 i i
i i ii
i i

i i
i i i
i i

F
igu
re3 .B
-19 e
stang
leo
fcl
imbv
ers
esb
estra
teo
fcl
imb
.

(AFM /POH ) mus

tb econ su
ltedtoen suretha
ttheco rr
e c
t Th epowershouldbeadv an c
edtoth erecomm endedc limb
ai
rspeedisu s
edfo rthed e
sir
edc limbp ro
fi
leattheg iven pow er. Onairplanesequ ipped withanind epend ently
envi
ronm ent
alcondit
ions.Thereisapointatwhichthebest control
labl
e-pit
chp ropel
le r
,thisrequiresadv ancingth e
angl
eo fclimbai
rsp eedandtheb estr
ateofclimbairspeed propel
lercontro
lp r
iortoin creas
ingeng inepow er
.Som e
int
ersect
.Th i
so ccursattheab so
luteceil
ingat whi
chth e airpl
anesm ayb eequ ipped withcow lflapstof a c
ili
tate
ai
rplaneisinc
apableo fc
limbinganyh igher
.[Figure3-20] effec
tiveenginecooling.Th epo si
tiono fthecow lflaps
shouldb ese
ttoen surecylinde
rh eadtemp er
aturesr emain
EstablishingaC l
imb wi
thinthem anufac
ture
rssp ec
if
i c
at
ions.
As t
raightc limbi sen teredbyg entlyin creasingb ack
pres
sur eonth eelev a
to rfl
ightcon troltoth epitcha tt
itude Engine
sthata reno rm al
lyaspira
tedexperiencear eduction
refe
ren c
ingth eairplanesno setoth en atu
r a
lho r
i zonwh ile ofpow era sa lt
itud eisgained
.A sa l
ti
tud ein c
reases,a ir
simul
t aneouslyincreasingeng in epow ertothec l
imbpow e
r densi
tyd e
c reas e
s, whichresul
tsinar edu c
tiono fpow er.
set
ting.T hewi ng
tipssh ou
ldb er efe
r e
nc edinm a
i n
t ain
ingt h
e Theindic
ation sshowar educ
tioninrevolut
ionsp erm inute
cl
imba tti
tudewh ilecro ss
-check ingtheflightinst
rum entsto (rpm)fora irplan e
sw ithfixedpitchprop e
llers
;a i
rplan es
ver
ifyp er
f o
rm ance
.I nm a
nya i
r planes
,a spow er
i sincreas
e d
, thatareequ ipp ed withcon t
rol
lablep ropeller
sshowa
anincreaseinslips
treamo vertheh ori
zo nta
lstab
iliz e
rca u
s e
s decre
asein m anifo
ldp res
sure.Thep i
lotshou ldreferen ce
theairplanespit
cha tt
itudetoin crea
seg reate
rth and es
ired. theenginein strum ent
stoen su
rethatcl
imbpow e
ri sb eing
Thepilotshou ldbep rep a
redfo rs l
ipst
r eame f
fe c
tsbu talso
forthee ffec
to fchanginga i
rsp eedandch angesinl i
ft
.Th e
pi
lotshou ldb eprep aredtou s eth erequiredflightcon t
rol i
i
pres
sur e
stoa chieveth ed e
siredp itchatti
tude.
i i
i

Ifaclimb isstar
tedfromc rui
sefl
ight
,th eairsp eedgr adu a
lly
decr
e as
e sasth eairp
lan eent
ersastabi
li zedc l
imba ttitude.
Thethrustrequiredtom a
inta
instr
aight
- and-
l ev e
lfligh tata
i

givenai
r speedisnotsuffic
ien
ttom ain
tai nthes am eairs pe
e d
i

inac l
imb .Increasedraginaclimbstem sfrom increas edlif
t
i

demand sm adeuponthew ingtoincre

asea lt
itud e.Climb ing
requ
i re
sa ne xce
sso fl
if
to ver
thatneces
s arytom aintainlevel
fl
ight.Incre a
sedliftwillgener
ate moreindu c edd rag.Th at
increaseinindu ceddragi swhy morepow eri sn eed edand
whyasu stainedclimbr equi
resanex c
esso fth rust
.

Fo
rp ract
icalpu rpos
esg ravi
tyo rw e
ightisacon stant
.
Evenusingav ec
tordiag
ramtoshow wh ere mor
el i
ftis
ne
c e
ssa
ryb ecausethe
lif
tve c
torfrom thewingsi
snolong e
r i i
pe
r p
endicu
lar
t othewings
,theref
or em o
rel
ifti
sneededfrom
thewingswhi chrequ
iresmoreth rus
tfromthepow e
rplant
. F
igu
re3 .A
-20 b
solu
tec
eil
ing
.

3
-17
 NAV1 108 00
108.00 113.00
113 00
0 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS
S _ _ ._
DIS ._ NNMM DTK _ _ _ TRK
TR
RK 36
360
60 134.000
134.
134
1 4.000
000
00 118
118.00
118.000
000 COM1
NAV2 108.00 110.60
110.60 123.
123.800
23.800
.800 118.000
118.0
118.
11 000 COM2

4000
130 4300
2
+500
120 4200
1
110 4100
1 60
100 44000
000
9 20
90 3900
1

80 3800
HDG 270 CRS 2

70 4300
TAS 106KT H3
OAT 7C X8

VOR 1

12.3NM
PD2
NAV2
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL 10:12:34
ALERTS

Figure 3-21. Climb indications.

maintained and that pressures and temperatures are within altitude. Level-off should begin at approximately 10 percent
the manufacturers limits. As power decreases in the climb, of the rate of climb. For example, if the airplane is climbing
the pilot must continually advance the throttle or power lever at 500 feet per minute (fpm), leveling off should begin 50 feet
to maintain specified climb settings. prior to reaching the desired altitude. The pitch attitude must
be decreased smoothly and slowly to allow for the airspeed
The propeller effects during a climb and high power settings to increase; otherwise, a loss of altitude results if the pitch
must be understood by the pilot. The propeller in most attitude is changed too rapidly without allowing the airspeed
airplanes rotates clockwise when seen from the pilots to increase proportionately.
position. As pitch attitude is increased, the center of thrust from
the propeller moves to the right and becomes asymmetrical. After the airplane is established in level flight at a constant
This asymmetric condition is often called P-factor. This is altitude, climb power should be retained temporarily so
the result of the increased AOA of the descending propeller that the airplane accelerates to the cruise airspeed. When
blade, which is the right side of the propeller disc when seen the airspeed reaches the desired cruise airspeed, the throttle
from the cockpit. As the center of propeller thrust moves to setting and the propeller control, if equipped, should be set
the right, a left turning yawing moment moves the nose of the to the cruise power setting and the airplane re-trimmed.
airplane to the left. This is compensated by the pilot through
right rudder pressure. In addition, torque that acts opposite to Climbing Turns
the direction of propeller rotation causes the airplane to roll In the performance of climbing turns, the following factors
to the left. Under these conditions, torque and P-factor cause should be considered.
the airplane to roll and yaw to the left. To counteract this, With a constant power setting, the same pitch attitude
right rudder and aileron flight control pressures must be used. and airspeed cannot be maintained in a bank as
During the initial practice of climbs, this may initially seem in a straight climb due to the increase in the total
awkward; however, after some experience the correction for lift required.
propeller effects becomes instinctive.
The degree of bank should not be too steep. A steep
As the airspeed decreases during the climbs establishment, bank significantly decreases the rate of climb. The
the airplanes pitch attitude tends to lower unless the pilot bank should always remain constant.
increases the elevator flight control pressure. Nose-up elevator It is necessary to maintain a constant airspeed and
trim should be used so that the pitch attitude can be maintained constant rate of turn in both right and left turns. The
without the pilot holding back elevator pressure. Throughout coordination of all flight controls is a primary factor.
the climb, since the power should be fixed at the climb power
At a constant power setting, the airplane climbs at a
setting, airspeed is controlled by the use of elevator pressure.
slightly shallower climb angle because some of the
The pitch attitude to the natural horizon determines if the
lift is being used to turn the airplane.
pitch attitude is correct and should be cross-checked to the
flight instruments to verify climb performance. [Figure 3-21]
All the factors that affect the airplane during level constant altitude
turns affect the airplane during climbing turns. Compensation
To return to straight-and-level flight from a climb, it is
for the inherent stability of the airplane, overbanking tendencies,
necessary to begin leveling-off prior to reaching the desired

3-18
adverse yaw, propeller effects, reduction of the vertical Improper coordination resulting in a slip that
component of lift, and increased drag must be managed by the counteracts the rate of climb, resulting in little or no
pilot through the manipulation of the flight controls. altitude gain.
Inability to keep pitch and bank attitude constant
Climbing turns may be established by entering the climb during climbing turns.
first and then banking into the turn or climbing and turning
simultaneously. During climbing turns, as in any turn, the loss Attempting to exceed the airplanes climb capability.
of vertical lift must be compensated by an increase in pitch Applying forward elevator pressure too aggressively
attitude. When a turn is coupled with a climb, the additional drag during level-off resulting in a loss of altitude or
and reduction in the vertical component of lift must be further G-force substantially less than one G.
compensated for by an additional increase in elevator back
pressure. When turns are simultaneous with a climb, it is most Descents and Descending Turns
effective to limit the turns to shallow bank angles. This provides When an airplane enters a descent, it changes its flightpath
for an efficient rate of climb. If a medium or steep banked turn from level flight to a descent attitude. [Figure 3-22] In a
is used, climb performance is degraded or possibly non-existent. descent, weight no longer acts solely perpendicular to the
flightpath. Since induced drag is decreased as lift is reduced in
Common errors in the performance of climbs and climbing order to descend, excess thrust will provide higher airspeeds.
turns are: The weight/gravity force is about the same. This causes an
Attempting to establish climb pitch attitude by increase in total thrust and a power reduction is required to
primarily referencing the airspeed indicator resulting balance the forces if airspeed is to be maintained.
in the pilot chasing the airspeed.
Applying elevator pressure too aggressively resulting The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural
in an excessive climb angle. horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that
produce the following types of descents:
Inadequate or inappropriate rudder pressure during
climbing turns. Partial power descentthe normal method of losing altitude
Allowing the airplane to yaw during climbs usually is to descend with partial power. This is often termed
due to inadequate right rudder pressure. cruise or en route descent. The airspeed and power setting
recommended by the AFM/POH for prolonged descent
Fixation on the airplanes nose during straight climbs,
should be used. The target descent rate should be 500 fpm.
resulting in climbing with one wing low.
The desired airspeed, pitch attitude, and power combination
Failure to properly initiate a climbing turn with a should be preselected and kept constant.
coordinated use of the flight controls, resulting in no
turn but rather a climb with one wing low. Descent at minimum safe airspeeda nose-high, power-
assisted descent condition principally used for clearing

NAV1 108.00 113.00

113.
13.00
00
0 WPT
T _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS
I _ _ ._ NM
DIS DTK
DTK _ _ _ TRK 360
360 134.000
134.000
34. 118.000 COM
COM1
NAV2 108.00 110.60
60 123.800
12 118.000 COM
COM2

4000
130 4300
2

120 4200
1
110 4100
1 60
100 44000
000
9 20
90 3900
1

80 3800 -500

HDG 270 CRS 2

70 4300
TAS 106KT H3
OAT 7C X8

VOR 1

12.3NM
PD2
NAV2
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL 10:12:34
ALERTS

Figure 3-22. Descent indications.

3-19
obs
ta c
lesdu r
ingal and
ingapp ro
achtoasho rtrunway.Th e a
irspe
edre
sul
tsi
nap r
opor
tion
alch
angein
thedi
stan
ceflown
.
ai
rspeedu sedfo rthisdes
c entcondi
tionisrecomm endedby [Fig
ure3-
24]A st
hegli
deair
spee
disin
crea
sedordec
reas
ed
theAFM /POHa n
disnorm al
l ynogreat
erthan1.3VSO.Som e fr
omt hebe
stgl
ideai
rspee
d,theg
lid
erat
ioisl
essene
d.
char
a c
teris
ticso fthem inimums af
ea i
rspeedd es
centarea
st
eep e
r-than-norm aldescentangle
,and theexcess
ivepow er V
aria
tionsinw e
ightdon otaff
ecttheglidea ng
lepro v
ided
tha
tm ayb erequiredtoprodu ceacce
l e
rat
iona t
lowairspeed t
hep i
lotusesth
eproperai
rspeed
.S ince
itistheL/Dratio
that
shouldmu shingand/oranex c
essiverat
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eterminesthedis
tancetheair
planec anglid
e,w e
ightd oe
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al
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lop. n
ota f
fectthedist
anceflow n
;h ow e
ver,ah eav
ierairpl
ane
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ustflyatah igh
erair
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edtoo bta
int hesamegliderat
io.
Em ergencyd escent som ea i
rplanesh av easp ecif
ic F
ore xam p
le
,iftwoairplan
eshavingthes ameL/Dr a
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t
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rr apid
lylosin galt
itude
.T heAFM /POHs p
eci
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s d
if
ferentw ei
ghtssta
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ti
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,the
th eproc ed
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rgencydescen
tp rocedu
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eavierairp
laneglid
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ivesatthe
highd rag
,h igha irspeedp roceduresrequi
ringasp ec
ifi
c s
am etouchdownp o
intinashor
tertime.B o
thair
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r
airplanecon figurat
ion( su chaspow e
rtoid le,propel
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,o n
lythel
ighte
rairp
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akesalon
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time.
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rd,landingg e a
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icem erg encyd esc enta i
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.Em ergencyd e
scent Since
theh igh
estgl
iderat
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iderat
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enfordragproduc
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ts
oftheairpl
ane,suchasflaps
,landinggear
,andcow lf
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Glides Whend ragincrease
s,aco rr
espondingd ec
r e
aseinpitch
Ag lidei sab asicm aneuv erin whichthea irpl
aneloses at
titud
e isrequiredto main
tain a
irspe
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itchis
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ll
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ath s
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is
tanc et
rave
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alon gani nc
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oducingcom p
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iminated
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romap a
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rm inu
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therbecauseofth ehigherg round speed
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b
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ingthenosetostopd
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ly,withah eadwind
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idea s
t
om ai
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inair
speed
. farbec auseoftheslowergroundspeed
.Th isisimpo rtantfor
ap i
lottound ers
tandandm anagewh end ea
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-
A
lthoug
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esaredir
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iesandanysub sequentforcedl anding.
o
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ailu
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f the p
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r
m
oresubcon
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lythanoth
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em os
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tre am, com pensa
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t o
r int he airplane
s
t
hetimed u
ringthe
irexecu
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,thepi
lotwillbegiv
ingful
l design
, andthe ef
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o
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it
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i

T
heglidera
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planeisthedis
tan
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rplan
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t
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lat
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itud
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es.Fo
re xample
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0 00fee
tforwardwhi
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i

f
eet
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i

Theb e
stg l
ideairspeedisu sedto m aximizethed i
stanc
e
fl
ow n.T h
isair
speedisim por
tantw henap i
lotisat
tem pt
ing
toflyduringanen g
inef a
ilu
re.T h
eb estai
rspeedforglid
ing
ison eat whichthea irp
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estforward
di
stanceforag ivenlo ssofalt
itudeins ti
llair
.Th isbest
gl
ideairspeedoccursatthehighestli
ft-
to-dragra
tio(L/D). i
[Figure3-23]W h e
ng l
i d
ingatairspeeda b
ov eorbelowthe
bes
tglideai
rspeed
,d raginc
reases
.A nyc hangeinthegl
iding F
igu
re3 .L
-23 /DMAX.

3
-20
 andairspee d
.S pee ds houldb eallow edt odiss
i pat
eb ef
or et h
e
pi
tchatt
itu deisd ec
r eased.T hisp oin
tisp ar
ticularlyim port an
t
i forfas
tai rplanesa sth eydono tr e
adilylo setheirairspe ed
anysligh
td evia
tiono ft heairpla ne
sn osed ow nw ardsre sult
s
inanimm ediat
ein creaseina irspeed.On ceth eairspeedh as

14
di
ssipat
ed tob estglid esp eed,th epi
tcha tt
itud eshou ldb es e
t
tom ain
tai nthatairs peed.T hiss hou
ldb ed o new i
t hrefere nce
F
igure3 .B
-24 es
tgli
des p
eedpro
videsthegrea
tes
tforwarddi
stance
tothen a
tu ralhorizonandw ithaqu ickr eferen cetothef light
foragivenlossofal
ti
tude.
inst
rum ents. Wh enth eairsp eedh asstabilized,th eairpl ane
shouldb etrimm edtoe l
im inateanyf lightcon trolp ressu re
s
atslowsp eeds.W ithth eabsentp ropel
lereffectsandth e he
l dbyth epilot
.P re c
ision isreq ui
redinm aintain
i ngtheb es
t
subsequentcom pensat
ionfor
t heseeffec
ts
,w hic h
isdesigned gl
ideairsp eedifth eb en e
fitsa retob er ea
lized.
intom anyairplanes
,itisl
ike
ly that,dur
ingglid e
s,sl
ightlef
t
rudd e
rp r
essureisr equi
redto m ainta
incoordin a
tedfligh
t. Astabil
ized ,pow er-offd es centatth eb estg lidesp eedi s
Inadd i
tion,thed eflec
tionofth ef l
ightcontrolstoe ffe
ct of
tenr e
ferred toa sno rm alglide.Th eb eginningp ilotshou ld
changeisg rea
terdu etothere
lativelyslowairflowov e
rth e memo r
izeth ea irplane satt
itud eandsp eed w ithr efe
r en ce
contro
lsurfaces. toth enatu ra
lho r
i zonandno tingth esound sm adebyth e
ai
rp a
ssingoverthea i
rplanesstructure,for c
esonth efl ight
Minimums inksp eedisu sedto maximizeth etim eth a
tthe cont
rols
,andth efeelofth eairplane.Initial
ly,theb eginn er
airplaner emainsinf light
.Itr e
sul
tsinth ea irplanelo s
ing pi
lotm aybeunabletorec ogn
iz esli
g htva r
iationsinair
s p eed
alti
tudea tthelow estrate
.M inimums inkspe edo ccursatan andangleo fbankbyv isiono rbyth ep ressurerequiredon
airspeedl es
sth anth eb es
tg l
idespeed.Itisimpo rtan
tth a
t thefl
ightcontrols
.Th ein st
ru c
torshou ldpo intoutth atan
pilotsreal
izethatfligh
ta ttheminimums inka irspeedresul
ts incr
easeinsoundl ev e
lsd enotesin creasingsp eed, whilea
inl essd i
stancetrav e
l ed
.M inimums inksp e edisu sefu
lin dec
reaseinsoundl evelsindicatesd ecreasingsp eed. Wh en
flightsituat
ionswh er
et imeinfl
ightismo reimpo rt
antthan asoundl eve
lchang eisp e
rceived,ab eginningp ilo
tshou ld
distanceflown . Anex amp leisdi
tchingana irplaneats e
a. cro
ss-checkth
evisualan dpressurereferences.T hebegin ning
Minimums inksp eedisno tano f
tenpublisheda irspeedbut pi
lot mustuseallthreeairspeedr eferen ce
s( sound,vi sual,
gen era
llyisaf ewkno t sles
sthanbestg l
idesp eed
. andpressur
e)consci
o us
lyu nt
ile xper
ie nceisg a
ine d
,and t hen
mus
trem ainal
erttoanyv a
ria
tion inatti
tud e,feel
,o rsound .
Inanem ergen cy
,su cha saneng inef ai
lure,a t
temp tingto
applyelev atorb ackp ressuretos t
retchag l
id eb acktoth e Af
terasolidcomp rehens
ionofth eno rmalg
lideisat
tained,
runw ayisl ikelytol eadthea i
rp l
anel andingsho rtand m ay thebeginningp i
lotshouldbein s
truc
tedinthed i
ffe
r ences
evenl e
adtolo sso fcontrolifth eai
rpl anestal
l s
.Th isl e
ads be
tw eenno rmalandabno rmalglides.Abnorm a
lglidesa re
toac ardinalru leofairplaneflyingth a
tas tud entpilotmu s
t thoseglidescondu c
tedatsp eedso the
rthantheb es
tg lide
underst
andandapp r
eciate:Th epilo
t mu stn everattemp tto speed
.G lidea
irspeedsth
atareto oslowortoofas
tm ayr e
s u
lt
s
tretchag lid ebyapp lyingb ack-elevatorp ressureand intheairplanenotbeingableto m aketheint
endedland ing
reducingth eairspeedb e
low thea i
rplanesrecomm en d
e dbes
t spo
t,flatapproaches
,h a
rdtou chdown s
,float
ing,overruns,
gl
idesp eed.Th epurpo seofp i
tchcontro lduringth eglideis andpo s
siblysta
llsandana c
cid ent
.
to m a
intainth em aximumL /D, wh i
ch m ayrequ i
refo reor
af
tflightcon trolpressuretom ainta
inb e
stglidea i
rsp eed
. G
lidingTu rns
T
h eabsenceo f
t heprope
lle
rslip
st
ream, l
o s
so fef
fec
tiven
ess
Toen terag lid e
,th ep i
lotshou ldclos eth eth rottleand ,
o
ft hevariousfl
ig h
tco n
tro
ls u
rfa
cesatlow erai
rspeed
s,and
ifequ ipp ed,adv anceth eprop el
lerlev erfo rw a
rd .W ith
d
esig ned
-inaerod y
nam i
ccorrec
tion
sc om p
licat
esthet
askof
backp re ssur eonth ee leva
to rf lightcon trol,th ep ilot
f
lightcont
rolco o
r d
ina
tionincompar
isontop owered
fli
ghtfo
r
should m aintaina lt
itudeuntilth eairsp eedd ecreasesto
t
h einexpe
riencedpilo
t.Thesepr
inc
iplesshouldbetho
roughl
y
ther ecomm endedb es
tglidesp eed.In mo sta irplanes
,a s
e
x pl
ai n
edb yt hefl
ightins
truc
torsot ha
tt hebeginn
erpilo
t
poweri sr edu ced,p rope
llerslip st
reamd ecr easesov erth e
m
a yb eawareo fthenecess
arydif
ferencesinc oo
rdin
atio
n.
hor
izon t
als t
abilizer, wh
ichd ec reasesth et a
il-downfo rc e
,
andthea irplan e
sno setendsto low erimm ediately.Tok eep
Th
reeelemen
tsing l
idingturnstha
ttendtofo
rcethenose
pi
tcha t
titud econ stantaf
terapow erch ang e
,th ep ilot must
downandinc
r e
aseglidespeedare:
counteractth ep i
t chdown w ithas imultan eousin cr e
asein
el
evatorb ackp ressure
.Ifth ep itcha t
titud eisa llow edto D e
cre
aseinli
ftduetothedirec
tio
nofth
eli
ft
ingforc
e
decr
e asedu r
ingg lideentry,ex ce s
sairsp eedi sc ar
riedin to Ex ces
siverudderinput
sa saresu
ltofr
educedf
ligh
t
theglideandr etardstheatta
inm entoftheco rre c
tg l
id eang l
e con
tro
lp r
essure
s

3
-21
 The normal stability and inherent characteristics of The level-off from a glide must be started before reaching the
the airplane to nose-down with the power off desired altitude because of the airplanes downward inertia.
The amount of lead depends on the rate of descent and what
These three factors make it necessary to use more back airspeed is desired upon completion of the level off. For
pressure on the elevator than is required for a straight example, assume the aircraft is in a 500 fpm rate of descent,
glide or a level turn; and therefore, have a greater effect on and the desired final airspeed is higher than the glide speed.
control coordination. In rolling in or out of a gliding turn, The altitude lead should begin at approximately 100 feet
the rudder is required to compensate for yawing tendencies; above the target altitude and at the lead point, power should
however, the required rudder pedal pressures are reduced as be increased to the appropriate level flight cruise power
result of the reduced forces acting on the control surfaces. setting when the desired final airspeed is higher than the glide
Because the rudder forces are reduced, the pilot may apply speed. At the lead point, power should be increased to the
excessive rudder pedal pressures based on their experience appropriate level flight cruise power setting. The airplanes
with powered flight and overcontrol the aircraft causing slips nose tends to rise as airspeed and power increases and the
and skids rather than coordinated flight. This may result in a pilot must smoothly control the pitch attitude so that the
much greater deflection of the rudder resulting in potentially level-off is completed at the desired altitude and airspeed.
hazardous flight control conditions. When recovery is being made from a gliding turn, the back
pressure on the elevator control, which was applied during
Some examples of this hazard: the turn, must be decreased or the airplanes nose will pitch
A low-level gliding steep turn during an engine failure up excessively high resulting in a rapid loss of airspeed. This
emergency. If the rudder is excessively deflected in error requires considerable attention and conscious control
the direction of the bank while the pilot is increasing adjustment before the normal glide can be resumed.
elevator back pressure in an attempt to retain altitude,
the situation can rapidly turn into an unrecoverable spin. Common errors in the performance of descents and
descending turns are:
During a power-off landing approach. The pilot
depresses the rudder pedal with excessive pressure that Failure to adequately clear for aircraft traffic in the
leads to increased lift on the outside wing, banking turn direction or descent.
the airplane in the direction of the rudder deflection. Inadequate elevator back pressure during glide entry
The pilot may improperly apply the opposite aileron resulting in an overly steep glide.
to prevent the bank from increasing while applying Failure to slow the airplane to approximate glide speed
elevator back pressure. If allowed to progress, this prior to lowering pitch attitude.
situation may result in a fully developed cross-control
condition. A stall in this situation almost certainly Attempting to establish/maintain a normal glide solely
results in a rapid and unrecoverable spin. by reference to flight instruments.
Inability to sense changes in airspeed through sound
Level-off from a glide is really two different maneuvers and feel.
depending on the type of glide:
Inability to stabilize the glide (chasing the airspeed
1. In the event of a complete power failure, the best glide indicator).
speed should be held until necessary to reconfigure for
Attempting to stretch the glide by applying back-
the landing, with planning for a steeper approach than
elevator pressure.
usual when partial power is used for the approach to
landing. A 10 percent lead (100 feet if the decent rate is Skidding or slipping during gliding turns due to
1,000 feet per minute) factor should be sufficient. That inadequate appreciation of the difference in rudder
is what is given in the Instrument flying Handbook, forces as compared to turns with power.
so that should be the general rule of thumb for all Failure to lower pitch attitude during gliding turn entry
publications. resulting in a decrease in airspeed.
2. In the case of a quicker descent or simulated power Excessive rudder pressure during recovery from
failure training, power should be applied as the 10% gliding turns.
lead value appears on the altimeter to allow a slow
Inadequate pitch control during recovery from straight
but positive power application to maintain or increase
glide.
airspeed while raising the nose to stop the descent.
Retrim as necessary.

3-22
 Cross-controlling during gliding turns near the ground.
Failure to maintain constant bank angle during gliding
turns.

Chapter Summary
The four fundamental maneuvers of straight-and-level
flight, turns, climbs, and descents are the foundation of basic
airmanship. Effort and continued practice are required to
master the fundamentals. It is important that a pilot consider
the six motions of flight: bank, pitch, yaw and horizontal,
vertical, and lateral displacement. In order for an airplane to
fly from one location to another, it pitches, banks, and yaws
while it moves over and above, in relationship to the ground,
to reach its destination. The airplane must be treated as an
aerodynamic vehicle that is subject to rigid aerodynamic
laws. A pilot must understand and apply the principles of
flight in order to control an airplane with the greatest margin
of mastery and safety.

3-23
3-24
Chapter 4

Maintaining Aircraft Control:

Upset Prevention and
Recovery Training
Introduction
A pilots fundamental responsibility is to prevent a loss
of control (LOC). Loss of control in-flight (LOC-I) is the
leading cause of fatal general aviation accidents in the U.S.
and commercial aviation worldwide. LOC-I is defined
as a significant deviation of an aircraft from the intended
flightpath and it often results from an airplane upset.
Maneuvering is the most common phase of flight for general
aviation LOC-I accidents to occur; however, LOC-I accidents
occur in all phases of flight.

To prevent LOC-I accidents, it is important for pilots to

recognize and maintain a heightened awareness of situations
that increase the risk of loss of control. Those situations
include: uncoordinated flight, equipment malfunctions,
pilot complacency, distraction, turbulence, and poor
risk management like attempting to fly in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) when the pilot is not
qualified or proficient. Sadly, there are also LOC-I accidents
resulting from intentional disregard or recklessness.

41
4-
4-1
Tomain
tainairc
raf
tcontro
lw henf a
cedw i
ththes
eo roth
er
co
ntr
ibu
tingfac
tor
s,th
epilo
tm us
tb eawar
eofsi
tuat
ionswher
e
LOC-
Ic anoccur
,recogn
izew he
na nair
planei
sa pp
roach
ing
as
tal
l,hasst
al
led,ori
sina nupse
tc ond
it
ion,andunder
sta
nd
andexe
cutethecor
rec
tp ro
c e
durestoreco
vertheai
rcra
ft
.

Cdmhm f `m@hqok `mdTo rds

IN.

N
RM H
IO
M
FO ITC
AT
IN O P
2
N
Thet e
rmup s e
tw asformal
lyin t
rodu cedbyanindu s
try
workgroupin2004inth ePilot Gu ideto A irpl
ane Upset i
Recovery, wh ichison ep a
rto fth eA i
rp lane Upset
RecoveryTrainingA id.Thewo rkingg roupw aspr
im ar
ily
focusedonl argetranspor
tairplan esandsough ttocom eup
wi
thon etermtod escr
ibeanunu su a
la t
titude orlos
so f

i
contro
l,forex amp le,andtog en era
llyd e
s cr
ibesp e
cifi
c
pa
r amete
rsasp ar
tof i
tsdef
i n
it
io n
.C ons
iste n
tw ithth
eG uide
,
theFAAh asd e
fineda nupse
ta sa ne ve
nt tha
tu n
int
enti
onally
exceedsthep a
ram eter
sno rmallyexp eri
en cedinf l
ightor
tra
ining.Thes eparam e
tersare
:
P
itcha
tt
itud
egr
eat
erth
an25
,no
seup F
igu
re4
-1.Coo
rdina
tedf
ligh
tinatu
rn.

P
itcha
tt
itud
egr
eat
erth
an10
,no
sedown
isnotsl
ippingorskidding.Aco rr
e c
tionshou
ldbem adeby
B
ankang
leg
rea
terth
an45
apply
ingrudderpressu
r eonthesidetow a
rdwhichonefeel
s
With
intheabov
eparam
ete
r s
,butf
lyinga
tai
rsp
eed
s alean
ing s
e ns
ation
. Th
i s w
il
l bethes amesid
eto whi
c hth
e
in
approp
ria
tefo
rth
econdi
tions
. ba
llinthesl
ip/sk
idindicato
rh asslewed(i
.e.
,theoldsay
ing
s
teponth eball
).
Th er ef
eren ceto inapp rop riateairsp eedsd e sc
ribesanumb e
r
ofund esi
r eda irc
r a
fts tates,in c
lud ings tall s
.How ev e
r,stalls Angleo fA ttack
ared irectlyr elat
edtoang l eofa ttack(AOA )
,no ta irspeed. Theangleof at
tack(AOA )istheang lea twh ich thecho rdo f
thewingm eet
sth erel
ativew ind.Th echo rd isastr a
ight l
ine
Tod evelo pt hecru cials k
illst op rev entLOC -I
,ap ilotm us
t fromt h
el e
a ding edgetot hetr
ailing ed ge
. Atlo w angles o
f
re ce
i veu ps e
tpr eventiona n dreco verytrai ni ng(UPRT ),w hich at
tack
,th eairf
lowov erthetopo fthew ingflow ssmoo thly
sh ouldi nclude:slow fl
i gh
t,stalls
,s p
i ns
,a ndu nusu alatti
tudes. andproducesliftw i
thar elat
ivelysm allamoun tofd rag.A s
theAOAin crease s
,li
ftasw el
la sd ragin creases;how ever
,
Up sett rainingh asp lac ed mo r efo cusonp rev ention abov eaw ingscritica
lAOA ,th eflowo fa i
rs eparate
sf rom
und erstand ingwh atc anl eadtoanup setsoap ilotdo esno t theupp e
rsu rfaceandb ackf
ills
,bu rbl esandedd ies, which
findh ims elfo rh e
r selfinsu chas ituation .Ifanup setdo es reduceslif
t and i n
creases drag. Th
is condit
i on isa s
tall
,
oc cur,how ever,ups ettra
i ningals oreinfo rce sproper recov e
r y whichcanlea dtolossof contro
l ifthe A O Ais no
t redu ced
.
te chniqu es.Amo red e
t a
iledd is cussiono fUPRTtoin c
lud e
itsco recon cepts
,wh atthe tr
ainingshou ld in c
lud e,andwh at Iti
sim po
rtantforthepilo
tt ounderstand thatastal
lis th
e resul
t
airplan eso rkind so fsimu lat
ionc anb eu s edforth et ra
ining o fexceedingthec ri
ticalAOA ,n otofi n s
u f
fic
i en
ta irspeed.
canb efoundl a
terinth isch apter. Thetermstall
ings peedc anbem is
le ading,as th
iss pee dis
of
tendiscus
se dw henassum ing1G f
lightatap artic
ul a
rw eight
Coo rdina tedF ligh t andcon f
igur a
tion.In creasedlo adf a ctord i
r ec
tlya ffects
Coo rdinatedf lighto ccurswh en everth ep ilotisp roa ct
ively sta
llspeed(as wellas doot he
r factor
s s uch as g
ros sw eight
,
co rrect
ingfo ry awe ffec
t sa ssociated w ithpow e r( engine/ cent
er o
f gravi
ty, andflap set
ting). Th ere
f o
re, i
tis pos s
ible
pr opell
ere ffects)
,a i
l eroni nputs,h owa na ir p
laner eactsw h
e n tosta
llthew inga tanyairspeed,a tan yflightatt
itu d
e,a ndat
tu rning,anda irplan erigging.Th eairplan eisincoo rdinated any p
o wersett
ing. Forexa mple
,if a p
il ot main
t a
in sai
rs peed
flight wh enth ea irplan esno s
ei sy aw edd irectlyin toth e androll
si n
toac oordina
te d
,level6 0b ankedt urn,thel oad
rel a
tivew i nda ndth eb al
li sce n
te redi nth es l
ip/sk
i di ndicato
r. fac
toris2G s,an dtheairplanew illstallatas p eedthatis4 0
[F igu r
e4 -1] perc
enthighertha nthestraight
-a nd-
le velstal
ls pee d
.I nthat
2Gl e
v e
lturn,thep ilo
th a
st oi ncreaseAOAt oincreaset he
Ap ilotsh ouldd evel opas e nsi
tivity tosid e loa d
sth atin d
ic a
te li
ftrequi
red to m a
inta
i na
ltitude
. Atthis c o
n d
ition,the pi
l o
t
th eno sei snoty aw edinto ther elativew ind ,and th eairplane is c
loserto the cri
tic
al A OA tha nd uring level f
light and

4
-2
t
here
foreclo
sertotheh
ighersp
ee d
thatth
eairp
lanewil
lsta
ll fee
lsatth eslow erairsp eedsa id
sth ep ilotinl ea
rningthat
a
t.Becaus
estal
lingsp
eedisnotac o
nstan
tnum b
er,pi
lot
s asair
spe edde c
r e
ases,con trole f
fectiv en e
s sd ec
reases
.Fo r
m
ustunder
standtheunde
rlyi
ngfacto
rstha
taffe
cti
tinorder ins
tance,redu c
inga i
rsp eedfrom30kno tsto20kno tsabove
t
om ain
taina
ircra
ftcon
trolina
llcir
cum s
tance
s. thesta
ll
ingsp eedw il
lr esultinac ertain lossofe f
fect
iven e
ss
offl
ightcon trolinpu tsb e causeo fl es sairflowov e
rth e
S
lowF
ligh
t cont
rolsu r
faces.A sairspe edisfurthe rr educed,thecontrol
Slowfl
i gh
tisw hent heai
rplaneAOAi sjustundertheAOA ef
fect
ive nes
sisf u
rtherre du c
e dandt her e ducedair
flowo ver
whichwil
lc au
sea na erod
y namicb u
ffe
to raw arnin
gfroma thecontrolsu rfacesr esultsinl arge rcon t
rol mov em en
ts
sta
llwarningdeviceifequippedw i
tho ne
.Asm al
lincre
asein bei
ngreq ui
red tocrea
te thes am erespo ns e
.P il
otssom et
im es
AOAm ayresu
ltinanim pendingsta
ll
,w hich
i nc
rease
stheri
sk refe
rtoth efeelofthisr edu cedeffectiv enessa ss
loppy or
ofanactua
lsta
ll
.I nm ostnorm a
lfligh
to pe
ration
stheairp
lane mushycon trols
.
wouldnotbeflow nclosetothesta
ll-warn
ingAOAo rc r
it
ica
l
AOA ,butbecausetheairp
la neisf
low nathig h
erAOA s
,and Wh enf lyingabov em inimumd ragsp eed(L /DMAX) ,ev en
thusreduceds peedsint hetakeoff
/depar
turea ndapproach
/ asm allin c
rea s
einpow erw i
llin creaseth esp eedo fth e
landingphase
so ffl
ight,l
earningtoflyatreducedai
rspeed
sis airplan e.W h
e nfly
i nga ts peedsb e
lowL /D MAX , a
l soreferred
esse
nti
al.
Inthesep h
asesoffl
ig h
t
, t
heairp
lanescl
oseprox
imity toa sf lyingonth eb acks ideo fth epow ercu rve,l arg e
r
toth eground wou ld m akelo ssofcon trolcatas
trophi
c; inpu tsinpow ero rredu cingth e AOA w illb er equiredfo r
there
fore
,thepilotm ustbepr o
fic
ientinslowfligh
t. th eairp lanetob eab l
e toa cc
elerate
.S inces lowf l
igh tw illbe
perform edw ellb e
lowL /DMAX,th ep ilotmu stb eaw areth a
t
Theob j
e c
tiveo fmaneuv e
ring inslowflightis
tound ers
tand larg epow e
rinpu tso rar eductioninAOAw illb er equired
thefligh
tc harac
ter
ist
icsa ndhow th
eairplan
esfl
i ghtcont
rols top rev entthea ir
c ra
ftf romd e ce
lerating.Iti simpo rtan tto
feeln earitsa e
rodyn amicbu f
f e
tors tal
l-warning.I talso not eth at whenf lyingonth eb acksideo fth epow ercu rve,
helpstod evelopthepilot
sre cognit
iono fhowth eairpl
an e asth e AOAin cre asestow a
rdth ec ri
tical AOAandth e
feels
,sound s,andlook s wh enas tal
li simp ending.Th ese airplan essp eedcon tinu estod ec
r ease,sm allch ang esin
charact
eristi
csinclude,degrad edresponsetocon trolinputs th epit chcon t
rolr esultind isproportionally larg ech ang esin
an ddi
ff
i cu
ltym ain
tainingal
ti
t ud e
.Prac
ticingslowf l
ig h
twill indu c edd ragandth erefor echang e
sina i
r spe ed.A sar esult
,
helppilo
tsr ecogn
izea nimm in en
tsta
lln o
to n
lyfr om thefeel pitchb ecom esa mo r ee ffect
iv econ t
ro lo fa irsp eed wh en
ofthecon tro
ls,butalsofromv isua
lcu es
,au r
alind ica
tions, flyingb e
lowL /DMAX a ndpow erisane ffe c
tiv econ t
ro lof
andin s
trum entindi
cations
. th ealtitud eprofi
le( i
. e
.,c limbs,d e
s cents,o rl evelflight)

Fo
rpi
lottra
iningandt es
tingpu rpose
s,slowf ligh
tincludes Itisalsoimpo r
tan
ttono teth atanairplanef
lyingb elow
twomainelem ents
: L/DMAX,e xhi
bit
sacharac
terist
icknownas s
peedins
ta b
il
ity

andtheairspe
edw i
llcont
inu etodecayw i
thoutappropria
te
1. Slowingto ,m aneuv er
inga t
,andr e
cov e
ringfrom p i
lotaction.Forexample,i ftheairp
laneisd i
sturbedby
ana i
rspe edat whichthea i
rplanei sst
illcapableof turbu
len ceandtheairspeedd ecre
a s
es,theairspeed may
maint
ainingcontrol
l edfl
ightw ithouta ct
iva
tingthe con t
inuetod ec
reas
ew i
thou ttheappropri
atepi
lotactionof
stal
lw arning5 to10kno tsabov ethe1Gs ta
llspeed reduc
ingth eAOAo raddingpow e
r.[Figure4-2]
isagoodt arge
t;and
2
. Per
formingslowfl
igh
tinconf
igu
rat
ion
sappropr
ia
te
totakeo
f f
s,cl
imbs
,desc
ents
,app
roach
estoland
ing
, Sepa
rat
ion
s
tal
l
andgo-around
s.
CLMA
L
/DMA
Slowf lightshou ldb eintrodu ced w i
thth ea irspeed
suff
icient
lyabov ethestal
ltop e
rm i
ts a
fem aneuvering,but ii i
i

i
closeenoughtoth es
t a
llw arningforthepilo
ttoexp e
rience
ii

i
thech ara
cte
ris
ticsoffligh
ta tav erylowairspeed
.On ew ay
tod e
terminethetarge
ta ir
sp e
ed istoslowtheairplanetothe ii
sta
llw arn
ingwh eninth ed es
iredslowf l
ightconfigurat
ion,
pit
chth enosedowns light
lytoe limin a
tethestal
lw a
rning,
addpow e
rtom ainta
ina l
ti
tud eandno tetheai
rspe ed
. i

W
henpra
ct
icin
gslowfl
igh
t,api
lot
lea
rnstod
ivi
deat
ten
tio
n F
igu
re4
-2.Ang
le-o
f-a
tta
ckind
egr
ees
.
b
etwe
enair
cra
ftc
o n
tro
landot
herdeman
ds.Howth
eair
plan
e

4
-3
Pe rform ingtheS lowF l
igh t Maneuve r
Slowf ligh tshou ldb ep ract icedins traigh t-and -l evel i
flight,straight- ah eadc limb sandc limbing m edium -bank ed
(a pproxim at e
l y2 0d e
gr ees
) tur ns
,a ndstraig ht-ahea dp ow e
r-
offg lid
ingd escen tsandd esc endingtu rnstor epr esentth e
tak eoffandl and ingph ase so fflight.S lowf lightt raining
shou ldin c
lud eslow ingth ea irplanesmoo thlyandp romp tly
fr omc ruis
i n gtoa pproa chs pee dswith o
utc h an gesinaltitude i
orh eading ,andund erstand ingth erequ ir edpow erand i
trims e
tting sto m aintains lowf l
ight.Itshou lda lsoin clude i i
i
con figurat
ionch ang e
s,su cha sex tendingth el andingg ear
andadd ingf laps, wh ilem aint a
iningh eadinganda l
titude. F
igure4 .S
-3 lowfl
igh
t lowai
rsp
eed
,highang
leo
fat
tac
k,h
igh
Slowf l
ightinas ing le-engin ea i
rplaneshou ldb econdu ct
ed pow
e r
,andcons
tan
talt
itude
.
soth em an euv erc anb ecomp letednolow erth an1 ,500f eet
AGL ,o rh igh er,i fr ecomm end edbyth em anuf a
ctu rer
.In
lef
ty aw, wh
ichrequ
iresrigh
trudd erinputto ma
inta
in
allc ases
,p racticings lowf ligh tshou ldb econdu cteda tan
coord
ina
tedfl
igh
t.Theclose
rtheai
rplaneistothe1Gsta
ll
,
ad equ a
teh eightabov eth eg roundfo rr ecov eryshou ldth e
thegrea
terth
eamountofrigh
trudderpres
surerequ
ired
.
airplanein adv erten tlystall
.
Maneuve ringinS lowF ligh t
Tob eginth eslowf lightm aneuv e
r,c le
a rth ear e
aand Wh enth ed es
iredp itcha tt
itud eanda irspeedh aveb een
gradua
llyr educethru stfromc ruisepow erandad justthe establ
ish edins tr a
ight-and-
l evelslowflight
,th epilot must
pi
tchtoa llowth ea ir
sp eedtod ecre as
e wh i
l em a
in t
aining mainta
inaw arene s
so fou ts
id er e
ferencesandcon tinually
al
titud
e.A sthespe e
do fth eairpl
a ned ec
reases,n o
teac hange cross-che ckth ea i
rplanesin s
trum ent
sto m aint
aincontrol.
inthesoundo fth eair
flowa round theairplane.A sthesp e
ed Th epi
l o
ts h ou
ldn o
tethef ee
lo fthefligh
tc o
ntrols
,especial
ly
approachesthetargetslowf lightsp eed,which i
sana irspeed th eairsp eedch angesc ausedbysm al
lp i
tchad justmen ts
,
justabov ethes tal
lw arninginth ed es
iredcon figurat
ion andth ea lti
tudech ang e
sc au sedbypow e
rch ang es
.Th e
(i
.e.
,app roximately510kno t
sabov eth es t
allsp eedfor pilotshou ldp ra c
ticetu rnstod etermineth ea i
rplan es
thatfl
ightcond i
tion),add it
ion alpow erwillb erequiredto con t
rollabili
tych a
racteri
sti
c satthislowsp e ed
.Du ringth e
ma
i n
tainal
titude
.D uri
n gth e
s echan gingfl
ig h
tc ondit
ions,i
t turns,itw illb en ecessarytoin crea
sepow erto m a
intain
isim po
rtanttot
rim thea i
r pl
a netoc om pensateforchan ges
in al
titude. Ab rupto rroughcon t
rol mov ementsdu r
ings low
contr
olpressure
s.Ifthea i
r p
la nerem ainst
rimm edforcruis
ing fl
igh tm ayr esultinas tal
l.Fo rinstance
,abrup t
lyrais
ingth e
speed(alow e
rAOA )
,s tronga ft(b ack)controlpr e
ssureis flapswh i
l einslowf lightcanc ausetheplanetostall
.
neededon theelevator
,w hichm a k
e spreci
sec ontro
ld i
fficul
t
unles
sthea irp
lanei sretr
imm ed
. Th ep ilotshou lda l sop ractic
ec limb sandd escentsby
adju s
tingth epow e
r wh enstabi
lizedins traight
-and-level
Slowf l
igh tistypica
llyp erform edandev a
luatedinth e slowf light
.Th ep ilotshou ldno teth ein c
re a
sedy aw ing
landingcon figura
tion.Th erefor e
,bo thth elandingg e a
r tend en cyath ighpow e
rs et
tingsandcoun t e
ritw i
thrudd e
r
andth eflapsshouldb eex tendedtoth el andingpo si
tion . inpu ta sn eeded.
Itisr ecomm endedth epr e
s c
rib edb efore-landingch ecks
becomp l
etedtocon figu
reth ea irplane.Th eextensiono f Toex itth eslowflightm aneuver
,follow thesam eprocedu re
gearandf lap
stypical
lyo ccurson cec ruis
epow e
rh asb een a sfo rr ecov e
ryfromas tal
l:applyforw ardcon t
rolpressure
redu c
edanda tappropri
atea i
rsp eedstoen surelimita
tion s tor edu ceth eAOA ,m ainta
inc oord
in a
tedflightandlevelthe
forextendingthosedevicesareno tex ceeded.P r
a c
tic
ing this wing s
,andapp lypow era snecessa
ry toreturntothed es
ired
maneuverinoth e
rconfigurat
ion s
,su cha sac leanortak eoff f lightpath.A sai
r speedin creases
,cl e
anupth eairplaneby
configura
tion
,i salsogoodt rainingand m ayb eevalu a
t ed retract
ingf l apsandl andingg ea
rifth ey w e
r eextended.A
onth epract
icalte
st
. pilotsh oulda n
tic
i pa
t ethec hanges
to theAOAa sth
e land
i ng
ge
arandflapsarere
trac
tedtoavoidasta
ll
.
Wi
than AOAju s
tund erthe AOA wh ich maycausean
aerodynami
cbu ffe
to rsta
llw arning,thefligh
tcontrols Commonerrorsintheper
form an
ceofslowfl
igh
tare
:
ar
el es
seffe
ctiv
e.[Figure4-3] Theelev a
torcon
troli
sl e
ss
respons
iveandlarge
rcon t
rol mov ementsarenece
ssryto F
a a
iluretoadequat
elyclea
rthearea
re
t a
incont
roloftheai
rplane
.Inp ropell
er-dr
ivenai
rplane
s, I nad e
q ua
teback
-eleva
torp
ress
ureaspowe
ris
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ced
,
torque
,sl
ips
treameffec
t,andP-factorm ayproduc
eastrong r
esult
inginalt
itudelos
s

4
-4
 Excessive back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, uncommanded rolling motion. For airplanes equipped
resulting in a climb followed by a rapid reduction in with stick pushers, its activation is also a full stall
airspeed indication.
Insufficient right rudder to compensate for left yaw
Although it depends on the degree to which a stall has
Fixation on the flight instruments progressed, some loss of altitude is expected during recovery.
Failure to anticipate changes in AOA as flaps are The longer it takes for the pilot to recognize an impending
extended or retracted stall, the more likely it is that a full stall will result. Intentional
stalls should therefore be performed at an altitude that
Inadequate power management
provides adequate height above the ground for recovery and
Inability to adequately divide attention between return to normal level flight.
airplane control and orientation
Failure to properly trim the airplane Stall Recognition
A pilot must recognize the flight conditions that are
Failure to respond to a stall warning
conducive to stalls and know how to apply the necessary
corrective action. This level of proficiency requires learning
Stalls
to recognize an impending stall by sight, sound, and feel.
A stall is an aerodynamic condition which occurs when
smooth airflow over the airplanes wings is disrupted, Stalls are usually accompanied by a continuous stall warning
resulting in loss of lift. Specifically, a stall occurs when the for airplanes equipped with stall warning devices. These
AOAthe angle between the chord line of the wing and the devices may include an aural alert, lights, or a stick shaker
relative windexceeds the wings critical AOA. It is possible all which alert the pilot when approaching the critical AOA.
to exceed the critical AOA at any airspeed, at any attitude, Certification standards permit manufacturers to provide
and at any power setting. [Figure 4-4] the required stall warning either through the inherent
aerodynamic qualities of the airplane or through a stall
For these reasons, it is important to understand factors and warning device that gives a clear indication of the impending
situations that can lead to a stall, and develop proficiency in stall. However, most vintage airplanes, and many types of
stall recognition and recovery. Performing intentional stalls light sport and experimental airplanes, do not have stall
will familiarize the pilot with the conditions that result in a warning devices installed.
stall, assist in recognition of an impending stall, and develop
the proper corrective response if a stall occurs. Stalls are Other sensory cues for the pilot include:
practiced to two different levels:
Feelthe pilot will feel control pressures change as
Impending Stallan impending stall occurs when the speed is reduced. With progressively less resistance on
AOA causes a stall warning, but has not yet reached the control surfaces, the pilot must use larger control
the critical AOA. Indications of an impending stall movements to get the desired airplane response. The
can include buffeting, stick shaker, or aural warning. pilot will notice the airplanes reaction time to control
Full Stalla full stall occurs when the critical AOA movement increases. Just before the stall occurs,
is exceeded. Indications of a full stall are typically buffeting, uncommanded rolling, or vibrations may
that an uncommanded nose-down pitch cannot be begin to occur.
readily arrested, and this may be accompanied by an

A B C

Figure 4-4. Critical angle of attack and stall.

4-5
 V
ision sin ceth eairplanec anb estal
l edinany o rcontac
tthem a
n u
facture
rf orspe c
if
icl
im i
tationsap pl
icabl
e
at
titud e,v isioni sno tafoo lproo find ic a
toro f toth atindicato
rtype.
animp end ings tal
l. How ever,m ainta
in ingp itch
awar enessisimpo r
tant
. Stal
lCha rac teris
tics
H ear
ing assp e
edd ecre
a ses
,thep i
lotshou ldno t
i c
e Dif
ferent ai
r pl
a nede s
ign sc anr esultind ifferents ta
ll
ach angeinsound m adebyth eairflowinga longth e chara
cter
isti
c s
. Thepi
lot s
h ouldk nowthestallchar
a c
t e
ris
tics
ai
rplan estructure. ofth eairpl aneb e
ingf lownandth em anufa cturer
s
recomm end edrecoveryp rocedur e
s.Fa c
torsth a
tc ana f
fect
Kin esthesia thephy sicals ensat
ion( som e
tim e
s th estal
lch arac
teri
st
icso fana i
rplaneincludeitsg eom et
ry,
ref
err edtoa sseatofthepa n
tssensation
s)o fc hange
s CG ,w ingd e
sign,andh igh-li
ftd evice
s.Eng ineer
ingd es
ign
indir ec
tiono rspeedisanimpo r
t antindi
c atortoth e var
iat
i on
sm a kei
tim possib
l e
t osp e
cif
ical
lyd escr
ibet hest
al
l
tra
in edandexp e
riencedp i
lotinv isualfl
igh t.Ifthis chara
cter
isticsforal
la irp
l anes;how ever
,th ereareenough
sensi
tivityisp roper
lyd eveloped,i
tc anw arn thepilo
t s imi
lari
tiesinsm al
lg eneralaviationtr
aining-typeairplanes
ofanimp end ingsta
ll. toofferbroadgu ide
lines.

Pi
lots
intr
aini
ngm u
strem
embert
hata
lev
el-
fl
igh
t1Gs
ta
ll
ing M
ostt
rain
ingair
pla
nesarede
sig
nedsothatt
hew in
gssta
ll
speedisva
lidon
ly: p
rogr
essi
vel
yo u
twardfromt
hewingroo
ts(w h
ereth
ew i
ng
Inun a
cce
ler
ated1Gf
ligh
t a
tt
achestothefus
elag
e)tothewing
tip
s.Som ewingsare
Incoo
rdin
atedf
ligh
t(s
lip
-sk
idind
ica
torc
ent
ered
)
A
ton
ewe
igh
t(typ
ica
llym
aximumg
ros
swe
igh
t) A B

Atap a
rt
icul
arc en
tero
fgr
avi
ty(CG
)(typ
ica
lly
m
aximumforwardCG)

Ang
leo
fAt
tackInd
ica
tor
s
Lea
r n
ingtorecognizesta
llsw i
tho u
trely
ingo nstallwarning
devic
esisim por
tant.H ow ever
,a irp
lanesc anb eequipped
w
ithAOAi ndica
torsthatc anprovideav i
s ualin d
icat
iono f
theai
rplane
sproximitytothecri
ticalAOA .T herearese v
eral
d
iffer
entkindsofAOAi ndica
torsw i
thv a
r y
i ngm e
thodsf o
r C A B C

cal
cula
tingAOA ,therefo
r eproperins
tal
lat
io na ndtra
iningon
theuseofthes
ed ev
icesisim por
tant.AOA i ndicator
sm easure
severa
lp a
ram e
terss imultaneously
,d ete
rm in ethecu rren
t
AOA,a n
dprovideavisualimageoft h
eproximit y
t othec
rit
ical
AOA .[Figure4-5]S om eAOAi n d
icat
orsals opr o
videaural
indic
at
ions,whichca nprovideaw ar
enesstoac ha ngei
nAOA
tha
tistre
ndingtoward s
thec r
it
icalAOAp r
i o
r toinsta
lledsta
ll
warn
ingsystems
.Itsim portan
tt onotetha
ts om eindi
cators
takefl
app os
it
ionintoc onsider
at
i on
,b u
tn otalld o. B C

Understa
n d
in gw hat
ty peofAOA in d
icato
risi ns
talledo nan
i

airp
lane,h owt hepart
icularde v
iced ete
rm in
esAOA ,w hatthe
A
disp
layi sindicatingandwh enth ec ri
tica
lAOAi sr e
a ched,
ii

and wh a
tth eapp ropr
iater espons eistotho seind ications
areallimpo rtantcompon entstoAOAind icatortrain
ing .It
isalsoen couragedtocondu c
tin -f
lighttra
iningtos e ethe
indicationsthroughoutv ariousm aneuvers
,lik eslowf light
,
stal
ls
, takeoffs
,and landing s
,and top ract
iceth eapprop ri
ate
respons es
t othoseindica
tio n
s.Itisalsoim po
rta n
tt onote th
at i
som eitem sm ay l
imitthee ff
e c
tiven es
so fanAOA indi ca
tor
(e.g
.,c al
ibrat
iont echniques,w ingcon tamination,unh e a
ted F
igure4 .Ac
-5 oncep
tua
lrepre
sen
tat
ionofanAOAindica
to r
.It
probes/vanes)
.P i
lotsflyingana irplaneequipp ed withan i simpo r
tanttobecomefami
lia
rwiththeequ
ipm
entin
sta
lledina
AOA i ndic
atorsh oul
drefertot hepi
l othandboo kin
f ormation sp e
cif
icairp
lane.

4
-6
manufactured with a certain amount of twist, known as [Figure 4-6] However, a pilot should always follow the
washout, resulting in the outboard portion of the wings having aircraft-specific manufacturers recommended procedures
a slightly lower AOA than the wing roots. This design feature if published and current.
causes the wingtips to have a smaller AOA during flight than
the wing roots. Thus, the wing roots of an airplane exceed the The recovery actions should be made in a procedural manner;
critical AOA before the wingtips, meaning the wing roots stall they can be summarized in Figure 4-6. The following
first. Therefore, when the airplane is in a stalled condition, discussion explains each of the six steps:
the ailerons should still have a degree of control effectiveness 1. Disconnect the wing leveler or autopilot (if equipped).
until/unless stalled airflow migrates outward along the wings. Manual control is essential to recovery in all
Although airflow may still be attached at the wingtips, a situations. Disconnecting this equipment should be
pilot should exercise caution using the ailerons prior to the done immediately and allow the pilot to move to the
reduction of the AOA because it can exacerbate the stalled next crucial step quickly. Leaving the wing leveler or
condition. For example, if the airplane rolls left at the stall autopilot connected may result in inadvertent changes
(rolls-off), and the pilot applies right aileron to try to level or adjustments to the flight controls or trim that may
the wing, the downward-deflected aileron on the left wing not be easily recognized or appropriate, especially
produces a greater AOA (and more induced drag), and a more during high workload situations.
complete stall at the tip as the critical AOA is exceeded. This
can cause the wing to roll even more to the left, which is why 2. a) Pitch nose-down control. Reducing the AOA is
it is important to first reduce the AOA before attempting to crucial for all stall recoveries. Push forward on the
roll the airplane. flight controls to reduce the AOA below the critical
AOA until the impending stall indications are
The pilot must also understand how the factors that affect eliminated before proceeding to the next step.
stalls are interrelated. In a power-off stall, for instance, the b) Trim nose-down pitch. If the elevator does not
cues (buffeting, shaking) are less noticeable than in the provide the needed response, pitch trim may be
power-on stall. In the power-off, 1G stall, the predominant necessary. However, excessive use of pitch trim may
cue may be the elevator control position (full up elevator aggravate the condition, or may result in loss of control
against the stops) and a high descent rate. or high structural loads.
3. Roll wings level. This orients the lift vector properly
Fundamentals of Stall Recovery
for an effective recovery. It is important not to be
Depending on the complexity of the airplane, stall recovery
tempted to control the bank angle prior to reducing
could consist of as many as six steps. Even so, the pilot should
AOA. Both roll stability and roll control will improve
remember the most important action to an impending stall or
considerably after getting the wings flying again. It is
a full stall is to reduce the AOA. There have been numerous
also imperative for the pilot to proactively cancel yaw
situations where pilots did not first reduce AOA, and instead
with proper use of the rudder to prevent a stall from
prioritized power and maintaining altitude, which resulted
progressing into a spin.
in a loss of control. This section provides a generic stall
recovery procedure for light general aviation aircraft adapted 4. Add thrust/power. Power should be added as needed,
from a template developed by major airplane manufacturers as stalls can occur at high power or low power settings,
and can be adjusted appropriately for the aircraft used. or at high airspeeds or low airspeeds. Advance the

Stall Recovery Template

1. Wing leveler or autopilot 1. Disconnect

2. a) Pitch nose-down 2. a) Apply until impending stall indications are eliminated

b) Trim nose-down pitch b) As needed

3. Bank 3. Wings Level

4. Thrust/Power 4. As needed

5. Speed brakes/spoilers 5. Retract

6. Return to the desired flight path

Figure 4-6. Stall recovery template.

4-7
 throttle promptly, but smoothly, as needed while the pilots awareness of what could happen if the controls
using rudder and elevator controls to stop any yawing are improperly used during a turn from the base leg to the
motion and prevent any undesirable pitching motion. final approach. The power-off straight-ahead stall simulates
Adding power typically reduces the loss of altitude the stall that could occur when trying to stretch a glide after
during a stall recovery, but it does not eliminate a stall. the engine has failed, or if low on the approach to landing.
The reduction in AOA is imperative. For propeller-
driven airplanes, power application increases the As in all maneuvers that involve significant changes in altitude
airflow around the wing, assisting in stall recovery. or direction, the pilot must ensure that the area is clear of other
5. Retract speedbrakes/spoilers (if equipped). This will air traffic at and below their altitude and that sufficient altitude
improve lift and the stall margin. is available for a recovery before executing the maneuver. It is
recommended that stalls be practiced at an altitude that allows
6. Return to the desired flightpath. Apply smooth and recovery no lower than 1,500 feet AGL for single-engine
coordinated flight control movements to return the airplanes, or higher if recommended by the AFM/POH. Losing
airplane to the desired flightpath being careful to altitude during recovery from a stall is to be expected.
avoid a secondary stall. The pilot should, however, be
situationally aware of the proximity to terrain during Approaches to Stalls (Impending Stalls), Power-On
the recovery and take the necessary flight control or Power-Off
action to avoid contact with it. An impending stall occurs when the airplane is approaching,
but does not exceed the critical AOA. The purpose of practicing
The above procedure can be adapted for the type of aircraft impending stalls is to learn to retain or regain full control of
flown. For example, a single-engine training airplane without the airplane immediately upon recognizing that it is nearing a
an autopilot would likely only use four of the six steps. The stall, or that a stall is likely to occur if the pilot does not take
first step is not needed therefore reduction of the AOA until appropriate action. Pilot training should emphasize teaching
the stall warning is eliminated is first. Use of pitch trim is the same recovery technique for impending stalls and full stalls.
less of a concern because most pilots can overpower the trim
in these airplanes and any mistrim can be corrected when The practice of impending stalls is of particular value in
returning to the desired flightpath. The next step is rolling developing the pilots sense of feel for executing maneuvers
the wings level followed by the addition of power as needed in which maximum airplane performance is required. These
all while maintaining coordinated flight. The airplane is not maneuvers require flight in which the airplane approaches
equipped with speedbrakes or spoilers therefore this step can a stall, but the pilot initiates recovery at the first indication,
be skipped and the recovery will conclude with returning to such as by a stall warning device activation.
the desired flightpath.
Impending stalls may be entered and performed in the
Similarly, a glider pilot does not have an autopilot therefore same attitudes and configurations as the full stalls or other
the first step is the reduction of AOA until the stall warning maneuvers described in this chapter. However, instead of
is eliminated. The pilot would then roll wings level while allowing the airplane to reach the critical AOA, the pilot
maintaining coordinated flight. There is no power to add must immediately reduce AOA once the stall warning
therefore this step would not apply. Retracting speedbrakes device goes off, if installed, or recognizes other cues such
or spoilers would be the next step for a glider pilot followed as buffeting. Hold the nose down control input as required
by returning to the desired flightpath. to eliminate the stall warning. Then level the wings maintain
coordinated flight, and then apply whatever additional power
Stall Training is necessary to return to the desired flightpath. The pilot
Practice in both power-on and power-off stalls is important will have recovered once the airplane has returned to the
because it simulates stall conditions that could occur desired flightpath with sufficient airspeed and adequate flight
during normal flight maneuvers. It is important for pilots to control effectiveness and no stall warning. Performance of
understand the possible flight scenarios in which a stall could the impending stall maneuver is unsatisfactory if a full stall
occur. Stall accidents usually result from an inadvertent stall occurs, if an excessively low pitch attitude is attained, or if the
at a low altitude, with the recovery not completed prior to pilot fails to take timely action to avoid excessive airspeed,
ground contact. For example, power-on stalls are practiced excessive loss of altitude, or a spin.
to develop the pilots awareness of what could happen if
the airplane is pitched to an excessively nose-high attitude Full Stalls, Power-Off
immediately after takeoff, during a climbing turn, or when The practice of power-off stalls is usually performed with
trying to clear an obstacle. Power-off turning stalls develop normal landing approach conditions to simulate an accidental

4-8
st
al
loccur
ringdu
ringapproacht oland
ing.H ow ev
er,power- oftheses tall
s,takecar etoen sur ethatth eairplan erem ains
of
fstal
lsshou
ldb eprac
ticedata llfl
aps et
tingstoen sur
e coordin at
edandth etu rncon t
inu esatacon st antb ankang le
fami
lia
ri
tyw i
thhandl
inga r
isingf rom m e
ch an
icalfa
ilure
s, unt
ilth efullsta
lloccurs.Iftheair planeisallow ed tod eve
l op
ic
ing,orothe
rabnorm a
lsituations.Airspeedinex cessof aslip
,th eou te
rw ing m aystallf i
rstand mov edownw ard
thenorma
lapproachspeedshou ldnotbec a
rriedintoasta
ll abruptly.Th erecoveryp ro
c edu reisth es am e,r egardless
en
trysi
ncei
tcoul
dr e
sul
tina nab no
rm a
llyn o
se -
highat
ti
tude. ofwh eth e
ron ewingro llsofffirst.Th ep i
lot mu stapp lya s
muchno sedowncon trolinpu tasn ecessarytoe lim inatethe
Tos etupth een tryfo ras traight-ah e adpow er-of fs tal
l, sta
llw a rn
ing, l
evelthew ing
sw itha i
lerons,coo rdin a
tew ith
ai
rp lanesequ ipp ed w ithf lap so rr etra ctabl el and ingg e arrudder,andaddpow era sneeded .Inth ep racticeo fturning
shou ldb einth el andingcon f
igu rat
ion .A fterex tend ingth esta
lls
,noa ttemptshou ldbem ad etos tal
lo rr ecoverth e
land ingg ear,app lyingc arbu retorh e a
t( ifapp l
i cable ),and ai
r p
lan eo nap r
e d
etermi nedh eadi ng
.H ow eve r,
t osim ula
t ea
retardingth eth rott
l etoid le(o rno rm alapp ro achpow er),turnfr omb a
setofina
la pproach,t hesta
lln orm al
l ys houldbe
hold theairplan ea tacon s
t antaltitude in lev elfligh tun tilth emadetoo ccurwith
inah eadingc ha ngeofa pp
r o x
im ately9 0
.
ai
rsp eedd ec e
l eratestono rm alapp ro achsp eed .Th ea irplan e
shou ldthenb esmoo th lyp itch eddown toano rm alapp roach Fu l
lS talls ,Powe r -On
at
titud eto m aintainth ata irsp eed.W ingf lap sshou ldb e Pow er-ons t al
lr e cov eriesarep ractic edf roms traigh tclimb s
exte ndeda ndp itcha tti
t u dea djusted tom ai nta
i n thea irs peed. an dclim bi ng turn s(1 5t o20b ank) toh el pthepil o
t reco g
nize
th ep otenti a
lf ora na ccide n
talstal
ld urin g takeoff,g oar ound
,
Whe nthea ppr oac hattitu dea ndai r
s pee dh av est abilize d
, the c lim b,orw hentr yin gt ocleara nob stacle.A i
rplan ese quipped
pi
lotshou ldsmoo thlyr aise thea irplan esno se toana ttitud e withf lapso rretr actab lelandingg earshou ldno rm allyb ein
that inducesas t al
l.D i
r ectio nalc ontrols h oul db em aint a
in ed th et akeo ffcon figu ration;how ev er
,pow er
-ons tal
lsshou ld
andw ingsh eldl ev elbycoo rdin a
tedu seo fth ea ileron sand a lsob ep ra cti
c edw ithth eairplan einac l e
ancon figur a
tion
rudd er.On c eth ea irpl aner each esana tti
tud eth atw illle ad (flap sandg earr etra c
t ed)toen surep ractic ewitha llpo ss
ible
toas tal
l,th ep itcha ttitud ei sm aintain edw ithth ee l evator tak eo f
fandc limbcon f
igurations.Pow erforp r act
i c
ingth e
unti
lth est a
llo ccu rs.Th es tallisr ecogn i zedbyth efu ll-stall tak eo f
fs tallr ecov eryshou ldb em aximumpow er
,a l
though
cuesp reviou slyd escrib ed. fo rsom ea irplan esi tm ayb er edu cedtoas et
tingth atw il
l
prev entanex ce ssiv elyh ighp itcha ttitud e.
Recov eryf romth es talli sa ccomp l
i sh edbyr edu cingth e
AOA ,applyin ga sm uc hn os e-dow nco ntr o
l in puta sr eq uir
e d Tos e
tup th een tryfo rpow er
-ons t a
lls,e st ab
lishth ea i
rp l
an e
toelim inatet hestallw ar n
i ng,le vel
in gt hew ing s
,m ai n
t ain
i ng inth etak eoffo rc l
imbcon figu ra
tion .S lowth ea i
rpl aneto
coor dina
te dflight,a n dt he na pplyingp ow era sn ee ded.R ig ht no rm allift-o f
fsp eed wh i
lecon tinu ingtoc learth ea reao f
rudd erp ressurem ayb en ec essarytoov er com eth eeng in e oth ertraffi c
. Uponr e achingth ed esiredsp eed,s ett akeoff
torqu ee f
f ec
t sa spow e risadv ancedandth eno sei sb e
ing pow ero rth ere comm endedc limbpow e rforth epow er-on
low er
ed.[F igu re4 -7 ]I fsimu lat
inganin adv ertents tallon s tall( o
fte nr efe
rr e dtoa sad e par
t u
r est al
l)w hi
lee stabli
s hinga
appro achtol and ing,th ep ilotshou ldin itiateago -around c lim ba t
titu d e
.T hep urposeo fredu cin gth eairspee dtolift
- o
ff
bye s
tablishingapo sitiv er ateo fc l
imb . On c einac limb , airsp eedb efore th eth rott
leisadv anc ed to there comm end ed
thef lapsandl and ingg earshou ldb er etra cteda sn ec essary. settingi stoavo idanex cessivelys te epno se
-upa tt
itud efor
alongp eriodb efo reth eairplanes talls.
Reco veryfromp ow er-of fstallss houlda ls ob ep ra c
tic edf rom
shallowb ank edtu rn stos imu lateanin adv er
t ents talldu r
ing A ftere stablis h
i ng th ec l
im battitude,sm oot h
lyr a
i set h
en o se
atu rnfromb asel egtof in a
lapp roa ch.Du r
ingth ep r act
ic e to in crease t h
eAOA ,a ndh oldt h
ata ttitu deu n
tilt hefullstal
l

Powe
r-O
ffS
tal
landRecove
ry

i i i i i
i i i i i i i
i i i i i i

F
igu
re4
-7.Pow
er-o
ffs
tal
landr
eco
ver
y.

4
-9
 Powe
r-OnS
tal
landRecove
ry

i i i i i
i i i i i i
i i i i i i i

F
igu
re4
-8.Pow
er-ons
tal
l.

o
ccur
s.Asd e
scrib
edinconnec
tionwi
ththesta
llcharac
ter
is
tic
s qui
cklyandthecr
iti
calAOAi sexceededasecondtime.It
d
iscu
ssion
,c ont
inua
la d
justment
sm ustb em adetoaile
ron canalsooccu
r whenthepi
lotdoesnotsuf
fic
ientlyreduce
p
res
sure
,el e
vatorpr
essure
,andr udd
erpressur
et om ai
nta
in theAOAbylow e
ringthep
itcha
tt
itudeorat
temptstobreak
c
oordin
atedfl
ightwhi
leh o
ldingt
heatt
itudeunt
ilthefu
llst
al
l thesta
llbyus
ingpow eron
ly.[F
igure4-9]
o
ccurs
.Inm ostai
rpl
a ne
s,astheai
rspeeddecrea
s e
sthepilo
t
m
ustm ovetheeleva
torc on
tro
lp rog
ress
ivelyfurthe
rb ack Whenas econdarystalloccurs
,t hepil
otshouldaga
inp erf
orm
w
hil
esim ul
taneous
lya dd
ingrightrudderandm a
i n
ta
ining thesta
llrecov er
yp roc e
duresb yap p
lyingnose
-dow nelevato
r
t
heclimbatt
itudeunt
ilreach
ingthefu
llstal
l. pre
ssurea sr equiredtoe l
imin atethestal
lw arning,level
thew ingswitha ilerons,coordinatew i
thrudder
,andad jus
t
Thepilotm u
stp rom ptly r
e co gn
izew hent
hestallhaso ccu
rredpow e
ra sneed ed
. Wh entheairplaneisnolongerinas ta
lled
and t
ak eaction top rev entap rolongedst
all
edcond ition.Th e
condi
tionth ep ilo
tc anr e
turnth ea i
rplanetoth ed e
sired
pi
lotshou ldr ecov erfromth esta
llbyimm ediatelyr edu c
ingfl
ightpath
.F orpilo
tc ert
ifica
tion,thi
sisad emons
trat
i on
-o n
ly
th eAOAandapp ly inga smu chno se
-downcon trolinpu tas
maneuver;onlyflightin s
truc
to rapplic
antsm ayber equ
ired
requiredtoe lim inateth es tal
lw arn
ing,levelthew ingsw ith
top e
rformitonap racti
c a
ltest.
ai
l e
rons,coo rd ina
t ew ithrudd er
,andsmoo thlyadv anceth e
pow erasn eed ed
.S in ceth eth ro
ttl
eisalreadya tth eclimb Acce leratedS talls
pow ers e
tting,th iss tep m aysimply m e
ancon firm ingth e Theobject
iv esofd emon str
at
ingana cce
leratedst a
llareto
properpow ers et
ting.[F igu re4-8] det
ermin e
th esta
llc hara c
ter
ist
icsoftheairpl
a ne,experi
e nce
sta
ll
satsp eedsg reaterthanthe+1Gs tal
lsp eed,andd evelop
Thefinalstep istor e
t u
r nt heairpl
anetothede s
iredfli ght
p a
th th eabi
lityto ins
tin c
tivelyrecoverattheon s
eto fsuchstalls
.
(e.g.
,straightandl ev elo rd epar
ture
/cl
imba tt
itud e).W ith Thi
sisam an euvero n
l yc omm e
rcia
lpilotandflightins
truc
t or
suffic
ienta ir speedandcon t
role f
fect
iven ess
,r eturnth e appl
icantsm ayb erequ ir
edtop er
formo rd emon stra
teona
throt
tletoth eapp ropri a
t epow e
rsett
ing
. prac
ti
caltest
.How ever,allpi
lot
sshou ldbefam ili
arw i
thth e
si
tuat
ionsthatc ancau seana c
cele
rate
ds ta
ll
,h ow torecognize
Seconda ryS tal
l it
,andth eapp ropria
t er e
coveryact
ionshou ldon eoccur
.
As ec
o nda
r ystalliss on am edb ecausei
toccursafterr ecovery
fromap r
e cedi ngstall
.I tist yp
ical
lycausedb yabr uptc on
trol Atthes am eg ro ssw eight
,a i
rplanecon figu ra
tion, CG
inputso ra t
t emp t
ingtor eturntoth edesi
redf l
igh tp a
thtoo lo cat
ion,pow e
rs e
tting,andenv i
ronm entalcond it
ion s
,

Seconda
ryS
tal
l

ii i

F
igu
re4
-9.S
econda
rys
tal
l.

4
-10
a given airplane consistently stalls at the same indicated An airplane typically stalls during a level, coordinated turn
airspeed provided the airplane is at +1G (i.e., steady-state similar to the way it does in wings level flight, except that
unaccelerated flight). However, the airplane can also stall at the stall buffet can be sharper. If the turn is coordinated at
a higher indicated airspeed when the airplane is subject to an the time of the stall, the airplanes nose pitches away from
acceleration greater than +1G, such as when turning, pulling the pilot just as it does in a wings level stall since both wings
up, or other abrupt changes in flightpath. Stalls encountered will tend to stall nearly simultaneously. If the airplane is not
any time the G-load exceeds +1G are called accelerated properly coordinated at the time of stall, the stall behavior
maneuver stalls. The accelerated stall would most frequently may include a change in bank angle until the AOA has been
occur inadvertently during improperly executed turns, stall reduced. It is important to take recovery action at the first
and spin recoveries, pullouts from steep dives, or when indication of a stall (if impending stall training/checking) or
overshooting a base to final turn. An accelerated stall is immediately after the stall has fully developed (if full stall
typically demonstrated during steep turns. training/checking) by applying forward elevator pressure
as required to reduce the AOA and to eliminate the stall
A pilot should never practice accelerated stalls with wing warning, level the wings using ailerons, coordinate with
flaps in the extended position due to the lower design G-load rudder, and adjust power as necessary. Stalls that result
limitations in that configuration. Accelerated stalls should be from abrupt maneuvers tend to be more aggressive than
performed with a bank of approximately 45, and in no case at unaccelerated, +1G stalls. Because they occur at higher-
a speed greater than the airplane manufacturers recommended than-normal airspeeds or may occur at lower-than-anticipated
airspeed or the specified design maneuvering speed (VA). pitch attitudes, they can surprise an inexperienced pilot. A
prolonged accelerated stall should never be allowed. Failure
It is important to be familiar with VA, how it relates to to take immediate steps toward recovery may result in a spin
accelerated stalls, and how it changes depending on the or other departure from controlled flight.
airplanes weight. VA is the maximum speed at which the
maximum positive design load limit can be imposed either Cross-Control Stall
by gusts or full one-sided deflection with one control surface The objective of the cross-control stall demonstration is to
without causing structural damage. Performing accelerated show the effects of uncoordinated flight on stall behavior
stalls at or below VA allows the airplane to reach the critical and to emphasize the importance of maintaining coordinated
AOA, which unloads the wing before it reaches the load flight while making turns. This is a demonstration-only
limit. At speeds above VA, the wing can reach the design load maneuver; only flight instructor applicants may be required
limit at an AOA less than the critical AOA. This means it is to perform it on a practical test. However, all pilots should
possible to damage the airplane before reaching the critical be familiar with the situations that can lead to a cross-control
AOA and an accelerated stall. Knowing what VA is for the stall, how to recognize it, and the appropriate recovery action
weight of the airplane being flown is critical to prevent should one occur.
exceeding the load limit of the airplane during the maneuver.
The aerodynamic effects of the uncoordinated, cross-control
There are two methods for performing an accelerated stall. stall can surprise the unwary pilot because it can occur with
The most common accelerated stall procedure starts from very little warning and can be deadly if it occurs close to
straight-and-level flight at an airspeed at or below V A. the ground. The nose may pitch down, the bank angle may
Roll the airplane into a coordinated, level-flight 45 turn suddenly change, and the airplane may continue to roll to an
and then smoothly, firmly, and progressively increase the inverted position, which is usually the beginning of a spin. It
AOA through back elevator pressure until a stall occurs. is therefore essential for the pilot to follow the stall recovery
Alternatively, roll the airplane into a coordinated, level- procedure by reducing the AOA until the stall warning has been
flight 45 turn at an airspeed above VA. After the airspeed eliminated, then roll wings level using ailerons, and coordinate
reaches VA, or at an airspeed 5 to 10 percent faster than the with rudder inputs before the airplane enters a spiral or spin.
unaccelerated stall speed, progressively increase the AOA
through back elevator pressure until a stall occurs. The A cross-control stall occurs when the critical AOA is exceeded
increased back elevator pressure increases the AOA, which with aileron pressure applied in one direction and rudder
increases the lift and thus the G load. The G load pushes pressure in the opposite direction, causing uncoordinated
the pilots body down in the seat. The increased lift also flight. A skidding cross-control stall is most likely to occur
increases drag, which may cause the airspeed to decrease. in the traffic pattern during a poorly planned and executed
It is recommended that you know the published stall speed base-to-final approach turn in which the airplane overshoots
for 45 of bank, flaps up, before performing the maneuver. the runway centerline and the pilot attempts to correct back
This speed is typically published in the AFM.

4-11
toc enter
linebyin creasingth eb ankangl e,in c
r e
asingb a
ck E
levatorTrimS tall
elev atorpressure,andapp lyingrudd e
rinth ed irec
tiono fthe T
heeleva
tort
rimstal
ldem ons
trat
ionsh owsw ha
tc a
nh app
en
turn( i.e
.,insideo rbo ttomrudd erpressure) tobring theno s
e w
henthep i
lotappl
iesf u
llpow e
rf o
rag o-arou
n dwithou
t
aroundfu rthertoa ligni tw iththerunw ay.Th edifference m
ain
ta
i n
ingposi
tiv
ec o
ntro
loftheai
rpla
n e
.[F igure4-1
0]Thi
s
inl iftb e
tw e enth ein s id eandou ts
id ew ing w il
lin crease
, i
sad emon s
trat
ion-only maneuver
;on lyfligh
tin s
truc
tor
resultinginanunw anted increaseinb ankang l e
.A tthes ame a
ppl
icantsmayb erequir
edtop e
rformi tonap rac
tica
ltes
t.
tim e,th eno seo fth ea irp laneslicesdownw ardthroughth e H
owever,a
llpil
otsshou
l dbefami
lia
rw iththesi
tuat
ionstha
t
horizon .Th en aturalr e actiontoth ism ayb efo rthep ilotto c
ancauseanelevato
rtrimstal
l,howt orecogniz
eit,andthe
pullb acko nth eele vatorc ontro
l,increas
in gt heAOA t
ow ard a
ppropr
iat
erecoveryactio
ns hou
ldo n
eo c
cur
.
criti
c al
.Shou ldas tallb een counteredw i
thth eseinputs,the
airplan em ayr apid lyen terasp in.Th es afe s
ta ct
ionfo ran Thissituat
i o
nm ayoccurd u
ringag o
-aroundp rocedurefrom
ov ershoo t
i stop e r
fo rmago -around.At th erela
tiv e
lylow ano rm allandingapp roachoras imu la
ted,forced-landing
al
titud eo fab ase-to-fin alapp ro a
chtu rn
,ap i
lotshou ldb e ap p
roa ch
,o rimm edia
telyaft
eratake o
ff,withthet
rims etfor
relu ctanttou seang l e
so fb ankb eyond30d egreestoco rrec
t an orm al
l and
i n
ga pproachgl
ideatidlep ower.Theo bjec
tive
ba cktorunw ayc enterlin e. ofth ed emon s
tra
tionistoshowth eimpo rtanceofm aking
smoo thpow erapplic
ations
,ov e
rcom ingstrongtrimfo rces
,
Bef o
rep erform i ngthi
ss tall
,e sta bl
ishas afea lt
itud ef o
re n
try mainta
i n
in gposi
tivecontro
loftheairplanetoh o
ldsafefl
i gh
t
an drec ove
r y int h
ee vento fas pi n
,an dcl earthea reao fo th
er at
titudes,andu s
ingp roperandt im e
lyt r
imt echniques.It
trafficwh i
l es lowlyr etarding th ethrott
l e.Th en exts tep is
to alsod evelopsthep i
lotsabi
li
tytoavo ida ct
ionsth a
tcou ld
low erth el and ingg ear( ifequ ipped w ithr etractableg ea
r)
, resultinthissta
ll
, torecogniz
ewh enane lev a
tort
rims talli
s
closeth eth ro tt
le,and m aintaina l
titud eun tilth ea i
r speed ap p
roa ch
i ng
,a ndtotakeprompta n
dc orre
cta c
tiontoprev en
t
ap proachest hen orm a
lg lid esp ee d
.T oa void thep ossib
ilityof afullstal
lcond i
tion.I
t isimpera
tivetoavoid theoccurrence
exc eedingth ea irplaneslim i
tations,dono tex tend thef laps
. ofane levatortr
ims tal
ldu r
ingana ctualgo-aroundfroman
Whileth egl
i di ngatt
itudea n dairs p
eeda reb ein gestablish ed
, appro achtolanding.
thea irplanes h oul
db er et
rimm ed.O ncet heg lideisst a
bilized
,
thea irplaneshou ldb ero ll edin toa m edium -bank edtu rnto Atas a
fea lt
itudeanda fteren sur
ingth a
tth ea reai sc learo f
simu lateafin a
lapp roa ch turn th a
tov ershoo tsth ec enterl
ine otherairtraff
ic,thep i
lotshou lds low lyr etardth eth rott
le
ofth erunw ay. andex tendth e
l and
ingg e a
r(ifth eairplanei sequ ipp edw ith
retr
actableg ear
).Th en extstepi stoex t
endth ef lap stoth e
Duringth etu rn ,smoo thlyapp lyex cessiv erudd erp res sure one-hal
fo rfullpo s
it
ion ,clo s
eth eth rot
tle,and m a
intain
inth ed irectiono fth etu rnbu tho ldth eb ankcon s
tan tby alt
itudeu nt
iltheair
s p
eeda ppr oache sthenorm alg lid espe ed
.
ap p
l y
in gop p osi
teailero npr essur e
.At thes am etim e,incr ea
se
bac kelevatorp res
su r
e tok e ept hen o
s efr om low ering.A llof Whenth eno rmalg l
ideise stabl
ish ed,th epilotshou ldt r
im
the sec on
trolp res
s ur
ess ho uldb eincreas edu nti
lt heair plan
e theairplaneno se-upforth eno rm allandingapp ro achg lide
.
stall
s.W hen t hesta
llo cc urs,re coverb ya p ply
i ngn ose-d own Duringthissimulatedf
inala pproac hg l
id e
,the th
r ott
le isth en
elevatorp res suretor edu ceth eAOAun ti
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left. With the throttle fully advanced, the pitch attitude increases Spin Awareness
above the normal climbing attitude. When it is apparent the A spin is an aggravated stall that typically occurs from a full
airplane is approaching a stall, the pilot must apply sufficient stall occurring with the airplane in a yawed state and results
forward elevator pressure to reduce the AOA and eliminate in the airplane following a downward corkscrew path. As the
the stall warning before returning the airplane to the normal airplane rotates around a vertical axis, the outboard wing is less
climbing attitude. The pilot will need to adjust trim to relieve stalled than the inboard wing, which creates a rolling, yawing,
the heavy control pressures and then complete the normal go- and pitching motion. The airplane is basically descending
around procedures and return to the desired flightpath. If taken due to gravity, rolling, yawing, and pitching in a spiral path.
to the full stall, recovery will require a significant nose-down [Figure 4-11] The rotation results from an unequal AOA on the
attitude to reduce the AOA below its critical AOA, along with airplanes wings. The less-stalled rising wing has a decreasing
a corresponding significant loss of altitude. AOA, where the relative lift increases and the drag decreases.
Meanwhile, the descending wing has an increasing AOA,
Common Errors which results in decreasing relative lift and increasing drag.
Common errors in the performance of intentional stalls are:
Failure to adequately clear the area A spin occurs when the airplanes wings exceed their critical
AOA (stall) with a sideslip or yaw acting on the airplane at, or
Over-reliance on the airspeed indicator and slip-skid beyond, the actual stall. An airplane will yaw not only because
indicator while excluding other cues of incorrect rudder application but because of adverse yaw
Inadvertent accelerated stall by pulling too fast on the created by aileron deflection; engine/prop effects, including
controls during a power-off or power on stall entry p-factor, torque, spiraling slipstream, and gyroscopic
Inability to recognize an impending stall condition precession; and wind shear, including wake turbulence. If
the yaw had been created by the pilot because of incorrect
Failure to take timely action to prevent a full stall
during the conduct of impending stalls
Failure to maintain a constant bank angle during
turning stalls
Failure to maintain proper coordination with the rudder
throughout the stall and recovery
Recovering before reaching the critical AOA when
practicing the full stall maneuver
Not disconnecting the wing leveler or autopilot, if
equipped, prior to reducing AOA
Recovery is attempted without recognizing the
importance of pitch control and AOA
Not maintaining a nose down control input until the
stall warning is eliminated
Pilot attempts to level the wings before reducing AOA
Pilot attempts to recover with power before reducing
AOA
Failure to roll wings level after AOA reduction and
stall warning is eliminated
Inadvertent secondary stall during recovery
Excessive forward-elevator pressure during recovery
resulting in low or negative G load
Excessive airspeed buildup during recovery
Losing situational awareness and failing to return to
desired flightpath or follow ATC instructions after
recovery.
Figure 4-11. Spinan aggravated stall and autorotation.

4-13
rudder use, the pilot may not be aware that a critical AOA has Prior to beginning spin training, clear the flight area above
been exceeded until the airplane yaws out of control toward and below the airplane for other traffic. This task may be
the lowering wing. A stall that occurs while the airplane is accomplished while slowing the airplane for the spin entry.
in a slipping or skidding turn can result in a spin entry and In addition, all spin training should be initiated at an altitude
rotation in the direction of rudder application, regardless of high enough to complete recovery at or above 1,500 feet AGL.
which wingtip is raised. If the pilot does not immediately
initiate stall recovery, the airplane may enter a spin. It may be appropriate to introduce spin training by first
practicing both power-on and power-off stalls in a clean
Maintaining directional control and not allowing the nose to configuration. This practice helps familiarize the pilot with
yaw before stall recovery is initiated is key to averting a spin. the airplanes specific stall and recovery characteristics. In all
The pilot must apply the correct amount of rudder to keep the phases of training, the pilot should take care with handling of
nose from yawing and the wings from banking. the power (throttle), and apply carburetor heat, if equipped,
according to the manufacturers recommendations.
Modern airplanes tend to be more reluctant to spin compared
to older designs, however it is not impossible for them to There are four phases of a spin: entry, incipient, developed,
spin. Mishandling the controls in turns, stalls, and flight and recovery. [Figure 4-12]
at minimum controllable airspeeds can put even the most
reluctant airplanes into an accidental spin. Proficiency in Entry Phase
avoiding conditions that could lead to an accidental stall/spin In the entry phase, the pilot intentionally or accidentally
situation, and in promptly taking the correct actions to recover provides the necessary elements for the spin. The entry
to normal flight, is essential. An airplane must be stalled and procedure for demonstrating a spin is similar to a power-off
yawed in order to enter a spin; therefore, continued practice in stall. During the entry, the pilot should slowly reduce power to
stall recognition and recovery helps the pilot develop a more idle, while simultaneously raising the nose to a pitch attitude
instinctive and prompt reaction in recognizing an approaching that ensures a stall. As the airplane approaches a stall, smoothly
spin. Upon recognition of a spin or approaching spin, the apply full rudder in the direction of the desired spin rotation
pilot should immediately execute spin recovery procedures. while applying full back (up) elevator to the limit of travel.
Always maintain the ailerons in the neutral position during
Spin Procedures the spin procedure unless AFM/POH specifies otherwise.
The first rule for spin demonstration is to ensure that the
airplane is approved for spins. Please note that this discussion Incipient Phase
addresses generic spin procedures; it does not cover special The incipient phase occurs from the time the airplane stalls
spin procedures or techniques required for a particular and starts rotating until the spin has fully developed. This
airplane. Safety dictates careful review of the AFM/POH phase may take two to four turns for most airplanes. In this
and regulations before attempting spins in any airplane. The phase, the aerodynamic and inertial forces have not achieved
review should include the following items: a balance. As the incipient phase develops, the indicated
The airplanes AFM/POH limitations section, airspeed will generally stabilize at a low and constant airspeed
placards, or type certification data to determine if the and the symbolic airplane of the turn indicator should indicate
airplane is approved for spins the direction of the spin. The slip/skid ball is unreliable when
Weight and balance limitations spinning.

Recommended entry and recovery procedures The pilot should initiate incipient spin recovery procedures
The current 14 CFR Part 91 parachute requirements prior to completing 360 of rotation. The pilot should apply
full rudder opposite the direction of rotation. The turn
Also essential is a thorough airplane preflight inspection, with indicator shows a deflection in the direction of rotation if
special emphasis on excess or loose items that may affect the disoriented.
weight, center of gravity, and controllability of the airplane.
It is also important to ensure that the airplane is within any Incipient spins that are not allowed to develop into a steady-
CG limitations as determined by the manufacturer. Slack state spin are the most commonly used maneuver in initial
or loose control cables (particularly rudder and elevator) spin training and recovery techniques.
could prevent full anti-spin control deflections and delay or
preclude recovery in some airplanes.

4-14
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-15
 Spin Recovery Template

1. Reduce the power (throttle) to idle

2. Position the ailerons to neutral

3. Apply full opposite rudder against the rotation

4. Apply positive, brisk, and straight forward elevator (forward of neutral)

5. Neutralize the rudder after spin rotation stops

6. Apply back elevator pressure to return to level flight

Figure 4-13. Spin recovery template.

The following discussion explains each of the six steps: 5. Neutralize the Rudder After Spin Rotation Stops.
1. Reduce the Power (Throttle) to Idle. Power aggravates Failure to neutralize the rudder at this time, when
spin characteristics. It can result in a flatter spin airspeed is increasing, causes a yawing or sideslipping
attitude and usually increases the rate of rotation. effect.

2. Position the Ailerons to Neutral. Ailerons may have 6. Apply Back Elevator Pressure to Return to Level
an adverse effect on spin recovery. Aileron control Flight. Be careful not to apply excessive back elevator
in the direction of the spin may accelerate the rate pressure after the rotation stops and the rudder has
of rotation, steepen the spin attitude and delay the been neutralized. Excessive back elevator pressure
recovery. Aileron control opposite the direction of can cause a secondary stall and may result in another
the spin may cause flattening of the spin attitude and spin. The pilot must also avoid exceeding the G-load
delayed recovery; or may even be responsible for limits and airspeed limitations during the pull out.
causing an unrecoverable spin. The best procedure is
to ensure that the ailerons are neutral. Again, it is important to remember that the spin recovery
procedures and techniques described above are recommended
3. Apply Full Opposite Rudder against the Rotation. for use only in the absence of the manufacturers procedures.
Apply and hold full opposite rudder until rotation The pilot must always be familiar with the manufacturers
stops. Rudder tends to be the most important control procedures for spin recovery.
for recovery in typical, single-engine airplanes, and
its application should be brisk and full opposite to the Intentional Spins
direction of rotation. Avoid slow and overly cautious If the manufacturer does not specifically approve an airplane
opposite rudder movement during spin recovery, for spins, intentional spins are not authorized by the CFRs
which can allow the airplane to spin indefinitely, even or by this handbook. The official sources for determining
with anti-spin inputs. A brisk and positive technique whether the spin maneuver is approved are:
results in a more positive spin recovery.
Type Certificate Data Sheets or the Aircraft
4. Apply Positive, Brisk, and Straight Forward Elevator Specifications
(Forward of Neutral). This step should be taken
immediately after full rudder application. Do not wait The limitation section of the FAA-approved AFM/
for the rotation to stop before performing this step. POH. The limitation section may provide additional
The forceful movement of the elevator decreases the specific requirements for spin authorization, such as
AOA and drives the airplane toward unstalled flight. In limiting gross weight, CG range, and amount of fuel.
some cases, full forward elevator may be required for On a placard located in clear view of the pilot in the
recovery. Hold the controls firmly in these positions airplane (e.g., NO ACROBATIC MANEUVERS
until the spinning stops. (Note: If the airspeed is INCLUDING SPINS APPROVED). In airplanes
increasing, the airplane is no longer in a spin. In a placarded against spins, there is no assurance that
spin, the airplane is stalled, and the indicated airspeed recovery from a fully developed spin is possible.
should therefore be relatively low and constant and
not be accelerating.)

4-16
Unfortunately, accident records show occurrences in which Failure to apply sufficient forward-elevator during
pilots intentionally ignored spin restrictions. Despite the recovery
installation of placards prohibiting intentional spins in Waiting for rotation to stop before applying forward
these airplanes, some pilots and even some flight instructors elevator
attempt to justify the maneuver, rationalizing that the spin
restriction results from a technicality in the airworthiness Failure to neutralize the rudder after rotation stops,
standards. They believe that if the airplane was spin tested possibly resulting in a secondary spin
during its certification process, no problem should result Slow and overly cautious control movements during
from demonstrating or practicing spins. recovery
Excessive back elevator pressure after rotation stops,
Such pilots overlook the fact that certification of a normal
possibly resulting in secondary stall
category airplane only requires the airplane to recover from
a one-turn spin in not more than one additional turn or Insufficient back elevator pressure during recovery
three seconds, whichever takes longer. In other words, the resulting in excessive airspeed
airplane may never be in a fully developed spin. Therefore,
in airplanes placarded against spins, there is absolutely Upset Prevention and Recovery
no assurance that recovery from a fully developed spin is Unusual Attitudes Versus Upsets
possible under any circumstances. The pilot of an airplane An unusual attitude is commonly referenced as an unintended
placarded against intentional spins should assume that the or unexpected attitude in instrument flight. These unusual
airplane could become uncontrollable in a spin. attitudes are introduced to a pilot during student pilot training
as part of basic attitude instrument flying and continue to be
Weight and Balance Requirements Related to Spins trained and tested as part of certification for an instrument
In airplanes that are approved for spins, compliance with rating, aircraft type rating, and an airline transport pilot
weight and balance requirements is important for safe certificate. A pilot is taught the conditions or situations
performance and recovery from the spin maneuver. Pilots that could cause an unusual attitude, with focus on how to
must be aware that even minor weight or balance changes recognize one, and how to recover from one.
can affect the airplanes spin recovery characteristics. Such
changes can either degrade or enhance the spin maneuver As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, the term upset
and/or recovery characteristics. For example, the addition of is inclusive of unusual attitudes. An upset is defined as an
weight in the aft baggage compartment, or additional fuel, event that unintentionally exceeds the parameters normally
may still permit the airplane to be operated within CG, but experienced in flight or training. These parameters are:
could seriously affect the spin and recovery characteristics.
Pitch attitude greater than 25, nose up
An airplane that may be difficult to spin intentionally in the
utility category (restricted aft CG and reduced weight) could Pitch attitude greater than 10, nose down
have less resistance to spin entry in the normal category Bank angle greater than 45
(less restricted aft CG and increased weight). This situation
Within the above parameters, but flying at airspeeds
arises from the airplanes ability to generate a higher AOA.
inappropriate for the conditions.
An airplane that is approved for spins in the utility category
but loaded in accordance with the normal category may not
(Note: The reference to inappropriate airspeeds describes
recover from a spin that is allowed to progress beyond one turn.
a number of undesired aircraft states, including stalls.
However, stalls are directly related to AOA, not airspeed.)
Common Errors
Common errors in the performance of intentional spins are:
Given the upset definition, there are a few key distinctions
Failure to apply full rudder pressure (to the stops) in between an unusual attitude and an upset. First, an upset
the desired spin direction during spin entry includes stall events where unusual attitude training typically
Failure to apply and maintain full up-elevator pressure does not. Second, an upset can include overspeeds or other
during spin entry, resulting in a spiral inappropriate speeds for a given flight condition, which is
also not considered part of unusual attitude training. Finally,
Failure to achieve a fully-stalled condition prior to
an upset has defined parameters; an unusual attitude does not.
spin entry
For example, for training purposes an instructor could place
Failure to apply full rudder (to the stops) briskly the airplane in a 30 bank with a nose up pitch attitude of 15
against the spin during recovery and ask the student to recover and that would be considered

4-17
an unusual attitude, but would not meet the upset parameters. Human Factors
While the information that follows in this section could apply VMC to IMC
to unusual attitudes, the focus will be on UPRT. Unfortunately, accident reports indicate that continued VFR
flight from visual meteorological conditions (VMC) into
The top four causal and contributing factors that have led to marginal VMC and IMC is a factor contributing to LOC
an upset and resulted in LOC-I accidents are: I. A loss of the natural horizon substantially increases the
1. Environmental factors chances of encountering vertigo or spatial disorientation,
which can lead to upset.
2. Mechanical factors
3. Human factors IMC
4. Stall-related factors When operating in IMC, maintain awareness of conditions
and use the fundamental instrument skillscross-check,
With the exception of stall-related factors, which were covered interpretation, and controlto prevent an upset.
in the previous section, the remaining causal and contributing
factors to LOC-I accidents will be discussed further below. Diversion of Attention
In addition to its direct impact, an inflight anomaly or
Environmental Factors malfunction can also lead to an upset if it diverts the pilots
Turbulence, or a large variation in wind velocity over a short attention from basic airplane control responsibilities. Failing
distance, can cause upset and LOC-I. Maintain awareness of to monitor the automated systems, over-reliance on those
conditions that can lead to various types of turbulence, such systems, or incomplete knowledge and experience with
as clear air turbulence, mountain waves, wind shear, and those systems can lead to an upset. Diversion of attention
thunderstorms or microbursts. In addition to environmentally- can also occur simply from the pilots efforts to set avionics
induced turbulence, wake turbulence from other aircraft can or navigation equipment while flying the airplane.
lead to upset and LOC-I.
Task Saturation
Icing can destroy the smooth flow of air over the airfoil and
The margin of safety is the difference between task
increase drag while decreasing the ability of the airfoil to
requirements and pilot capabilities. An upset and eventual
create lift. Therefore, it can significantly degrade airplane
LOC-I can occur whenever requirements exceed capabilities.
performance, resulting in a stall if not handled correctly.
For example, an airplane upset event that requires rolling
an airplane from a near-inverted to an upright attitude
Mechanical Factors
may demand piloting skills beyond those learned during
Modern airplanes and equipment are very reliable, but primary training. In another example, a fatigued pilot who
anomalies do occur. Some of these mechanical failures inadvertently encounters IMC at night coupled with a vacuum
can directly cause a departure from normal flight, such as pump failure, or a pilot fails to engage pitot heat while flying
asymmetrical flaps, malfunctioning or binding flight controls, in IMC, could become disoriented and lose control of the
and runaway trim. airplane due to the demands of extendedand unpracticed
partial panel flight. Additionally, unnecessary low-altitude
Upsets can also occur if there is a malfunction or misuse of flying and impromptu demonstrations for friends or others
the autoflight system. Advanced automation may tend to on the ground often lead pilots to exceed their capabilities,
mask the cause of the anomaly. Disengaging the autopilot with fatal results.
and the autothrottles allows the pilot to directly control the
airplane and possibly eliminate the cause of the problem. For
Sensory Overload/Deprivation
these reasons the pilot must maintain proficiency to manually
A pilots ability to adequately correlate warnings,
fly the airplane in all flight conditions without the use of the
annunciations, instrument indications, and other cues from
autopilot/autothrottles.
the airplane during an upset can be limited. Pilots faced with
upset situations can be rapidly confronted with multiple
Although these and other inflight anomalies may not
or simultaneous visual, auditory, and tactile warnings.
be preventable, knowledge of systems and AFM/POH
Conversely, sometimes expected warnings are not provided
recommended procedures helps the pilot minimize their
when they should be; this situation can distract a pilot as
impact and prevent an upset. In the case of instrument
much as multiple warnings can.
failures, avoiding an upset and subsequent LOC-I may
depend on the pilots proficiency in the use of secondary
instrumentation and partial panel operations.

4-18
The ability to separate time-critical information from Startle Response
distractions takes practice, experience and knowledge of the Startle is an uncontrollable, automatic muscle reflex, raised
airplane and its systems. Cross-checks are necessary not only heart rate, blood pressure, etc., elicited by exposure to a
to corroborate other information that has been presented, but sudden, intense event that violates a pilots expectations.
also to determine if information might be missing or invalid.
For example, a stall warning system may fail and therefore Surprise Response
not warn a pilot of close proximity to a stall, other cues
Surprise is an unexpected event that violates a pilots
must be used to avert a stall and possible LOC-I. These cues
expectations and can affect the mental processes used to
include aerodynamic buffet, loss of roll authority, or inability
respond to the event.
to arrest a descent.
This human response to unexpected events has traditionally
Spatial Disorientation been underestimated or even ignored during flight training.
Spatial disorientation has been a significant factor in The reality is that untrained pilots often experience a state
many airplane upset accidents. Accident data from 2008 of surprise or a startle response to an airplane upset event.
to 2013 shows nearly 200 accidents associated with spatial Startle may or may not lead to surprise. Pilots can protect
disorientation with more than 70% of those being fatal. All themselves against a debilitating surprise reaction or startle
pilots are susceptible to false sensory illusions while flying response through scenario-based training, and in such
at night or in certain weather conditions. These illusions training, instructors can incorporate realistic distractions to
can lead to a conflict between actual attitude indications help provoke startle or surprise. To be effective the controlled
and what the pilot senses is the correct attitude. Disoriented training scenarios must have a perception of risk or threat
pilots may not always be aware of their orientation error. of consequences sufficient to elevate the pilots stress
Many airplane upsets occur while the pilot is engaged levels. Such scenarios can help prepare a pilot to mitigate
in some task that takes attention away from the flight psychological/physiological reactions to an actual upset.
instruments or outside references. Others perceive a conflict
between bodily senses and the flight instruments, and allow Upset Prevention and Recovery Training (UPRT)
the airplane to divert from the desired flightpath because Upsets are not intentional flight maneuvers, except
they cannot resolve the conflict. in maneuver-based training; therefore, they are often
unexpected. The reaction of an inexperienced or inadequately
A pilot may experience spatial disorientation or perceive the trained pilot to an unexpected abnormal flight attitude is
situation in one of three ways: usually instinctive rather than intelligent and deliberate. Such
1. Recognized spatial disorientation: the pilot recognizes a pilot often reacts with abrupt muscular effort, which is
the developing upset or the upset condition and is able without purpose and even hazardous in turbulent conditions,
to safely correct the situation. at excessive speeds, or at low altitudes.
2. Unrecognized spatial disorientation: the pilot is
Without proper upset recovery training on interpretation and
unaware that an upset event is developing, or has
airplane control, the pilot can quickly aggravate an abnormal
occurred, and fails to make essential decisions or take
flight attitude into a potentially fatal LOC-I accident.
any corrective action to prevent LOC-I.
Consequently, UPRT is intended to focus education and
3. Incapacitating spatial disorientation: the pilot is unable training on the prevention of upsets, and on recovering from
to affect a recovery due to some combination of: (a) these events if they occur. [Figure 4-14]
not understanding the events as they are unfolding,
Upset prevention refers to pilot actions to avoid a
(b) lacking the skills required to alleviate or correct
divergence from the desired airplane state. Awareness
the situation, or (c) exceeding psychological or
and prevention training serve to avoid incidents;
physiological ability to cope with what is happening.
early recognition of an upset scenario coupled with
appropriate preventive action often can mitigate a
For detailed information regarding causal factors of
situation that could otherwise escalate into a LOC-I
spatial disorientation, refer to Aerospace Medicine
accident.
Spatial Disorientation and Aerospace Medicine Reference
Collection, which provides spatial disorientation videos.
This collection can be found online at: www.faa.gov/about/
office_org/ headquarters_offices/avs/offices/aam/cami/
library/online_libraries/aerospace_medicine/sd/videos/.

4-19
 for pilots to reduce surprise and it mitigates confusion
during unexpected upsets. The goal is to equip the pilot to
promptly recognize an escalating threat pattern or sensory
overload and quickly identify and correct an impending
upset.

UPRT stresses that the first step is recognizing any time

the airplane begins to diverge from the intended flightpath
or airspeed. Pilots must identify and determine what, if
any, action must be taken. As a general rule, any time
visual cues or instrument indications differ from basic
flight maneuver expectations, the pilot should assume an
upset and cross-check to confirm the attitude, instrument
error or instrument malfunction.

To achieve maximum effect, it is crucial for UPRT

concepts to be conveyed accurately and in a non-
threatening manner. Reinforcing concepts through
positive experiences significantly improves a pilots
depth of understanding, retention of skills, and desire for
continued training. Also, training in a carefully structured
environment allows for exposure to these events and can
help the pilot react more quickly, decisively, and calmly
when the unexpected occurs during flight. However, like
many other skills, the skills needed for upset prevention
and recovery are perishable and thus require continuous
Figure 4-14. Maneuvers that better prepare a pilot for understanding reinforcement through training.
unusual attitudes and situations are representative of upset training.
UPRT in the airplane and flight simulation training
device (FSTD) should be conducted in both visual and
Recovery refers to pilot actions that return an airplane simulated instrument conditions to allow pilots to practice
that is diverging in altitude, airspeed, or attitude to a recognition and recovery under both situations. UPRT
desired state from a developing or fully developed should allow them to experience and recognize some of the
upset. Learn to initiate recovery to a normal flight physiological factors related to each, such as the confusion
mode immediately upon recognition of the developing and disorientation that can result from visual cues in an
upset condition. Ensure that control inputs and power upset event. Training that includes recovery from bank
adjustments applied to counter an upset are in direct angles exceeding 90 degrees could further add to a pilots
proportion to the amount and rates of change of roll, overall knowledge and skills for upset recognition and
yaw, pitch, or airspeed so as to avoid overstressing the recovery. For such training, additional measures should be
airplane unless ground contact is imminent. Recovery taken to ensure the suitability of the airplane or FSTD and
training serves to reduce accidents as a result of an that instructors are appropriately qualified.
unavoidable or inadvertently encountered upset event.
Upset prevention and recovery training is different from
UPRT Core Concepts aerobatic training. [Figure 4-15] In aerobatic training, the
Airplane upsets are by nature time-critical events; they can pilot knows and expects the maneuver, so effects of startle or
also place pilots in unusual and unfamiliar attitudes that surprise are missing. The main goal of aerobatic training is
sometimes require counterintuitive control movements. to teach pilots how to intentionally and precisely maneuver
Upsets have the potential to put a pilot into a life-threatening an aerobatic-capable airplane in three dimensions. The
situation compounded by panic, diminished mental capacity, primary goal of UPRT is to help pilots overcome sudden
and potentially incapacitating spatial disorientation. Because onsets of stress to avoid, prevent, and recover from unplanned
real-world upset situations often provide very little time to excursions that could lead to LOC-I.
react, exposure to such events during training is essential

4-20
 Ae
roba
ticsvs
.UPRTF
ligh
tTra
ining Me
thods

ASPECT OFTRA
INING AEROBAT
ICS UPSETPREVENT
IONANDRECOVERYTRA
INING

P
rima
ry Ob
jec
tive ii i i
i i i

Seconda
ry Ou
tcome i i i i i i

Ae
roba
tic Maneuve
ring i ii i ii

Academ
ics i

T
rain
ingResou
rcesU
ti
lized i i i i i

F
igu
re4 .S
-15 om
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etw
eena
eroba
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rain
ingandup
setp
rev
ent
ionandr
eco
ver
ytra
ining
.

Compreh en
siveUPRTbu ildsonth r
ee mutua
llysupportive P
rev
ent
ionTh
roughADMandR
isk Manag
emen
t
compon en
ts:a cadem ic
s,a irpl ane-basedtrainingand , Thise lem ento fp rev entionrou tinelyo ccu r
sinat im e-
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tcatego rytyp e
-ra
tingtra
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so rhou r s,r evo lvinga roundth econ cept
useofFSTD s.E achh asun iqu eb enefi
tsandl imit
ations ofe f
f e
ctiv e ADMandr isk m anag em entth roughan alysis,
but
, wh enimp l
em entedcoh esive lyandcomp reh en
siv e
ly aw areness,r e
sou r c
em anag em ent
,and int e
rrupting thee rror
throughoutap i
lotsc are
e r,th ecompon entsc ano ffer ch a
inthroughb asica irm ansh ipsk ill
sandsoundjudgm en t
.
maximump reparat
ionfo rup se taw a
reness
,p revent
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tan c e
,im agineas i tuationin wh i chap i
lota sse s
s es
recogni
tion,andr e
cov e
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tp riortod escen tandr ecogn izes
tho second it
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Academ ic Ma terial(Know ledgeandR isk airpl
an e
.U s
ings ituationalaw aren es
stoav er
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Managemen t) threateningf lightcond i
tioni sanex amp leo fpr eventiono f
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tion throughe ffe ct
iv eriskm anag em ent
.P ilots
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ituat
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ll
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t an c
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pr
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illdevelopment,academicprepa
ra
tionshou
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elofm it
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thre
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sbes
ta ch
ievedw h
en orincreas edlo adf actors
.
appl
ieda ndcor
r e
latedw i
t hprac
ti
calh and
s-onexper
ience
.
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Th ea cadem icm ate
rialn eed stobu i
ldaw aren essinth e orS ingleP ilo
tR esourceM an agem ent(SRM ). Bothare
pi
lo tbyp rovidingth econ cepts,princip
les,techn iques,and relev anttoth e UPRTenv i
ronm en t
. Wh enav a
ilable,a
proc eduresforund e
rstandingup s e
th aza
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tedcrewr esponsetopoten
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set
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strategies
. Aw arenesso fth er e
lationsh
ipb etw een AOA , canp rovideaddedb enefi
tssu chasin cr
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G-load,lif
t,en ergy m anagem ent,andth econ s equen cesof aw aren e
s s
, mutualsuppo rt
,andanimp rov ed m arginof
th e
irm i
sm an agem ent,ise ssentialfora ssessingh azards
, safety.S inceanun t
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mi
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ingt h
er isk
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iringa ndem p
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ial UPRT
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rsshou ldb edesign edtop rovide forc rewop e
rat
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lyb e
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.A
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tu a
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env i
ronm entthatcanl eadtoanup se
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Tran
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itu
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allyaw
are
Thea cad
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soadd
ressthe c
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and
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Maki
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counte
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4
-21
Prevention through Proportional Counter-Response Failure to disconnect the wing leveler or autopilot
In simple terms, proportional counter response is the timely Failure to unload the airplane, if necessary
manipulation of flight controls and thrust, either as the
Failure to roll in the correct direction
sole pilot or crew as the situation dictates, to manage an
airplane flight attitude or flight envelope excursion that was Inappropriate management of the airspeed during the
unintended or not commanded by the pilot. recovery

The time-scale of this element of prevention typically occurs Roles of FSTDs and Airplanes in UPRT
on the order of seconds or fractions of seconds, with the Training devices range from aviation training devices
goal being able to recognize a developing upset and take (e.g., basic and advanced) to FSTDs (e.g., flight training
proportionally appropriate avoidance actions to preclude devices (FTD) and full flight simulators (FFS)) and have
the airplane entering a fully developed upset. Due to the a broad range of capabilities. While all of these devices
sudden, surprising nature of this level of developing upset, have limitations relative to actual flight, only the higher
there exists a high risk for panic and overreaction to ensue fidelity devices (i.e., Level C and D FFS) are a satisfactory
and aggravate the situation. substitution for developing UPRT skills in the actual
aircraft. Except for these higher fidelity devices, initial skill
Recovery development should be accomplished in a suitable airplane,
Last but not least, the academics portion lays the foundation and the accompanying training device should be used to build
for development of UPRT skills by instilling the knowledge, upon these skills. [Figure 4-17]
procedures, and techniques required to accomplish a safe
recovery. The airplane and FSTD-based training elements Airplane-Based UPRT
presented below serve to translate the academic material Ultimately, the more realistic the training scenario, the more
into structured practice. This can start with classroom indelible the learning experience. Although creating a visual
visualization of recovery procedures and continue with scene of a 110 banked attitude with the nose 30 below
repetitive skill practiced in an airplane, and then potentially the horizon may not be technically difficult in a modern
further developed in the simulated environment. simulator, the learning achieved while viewing that scene
from the security of the simulator is not as complete as when
In the event looking outside does not provide enough viewing the same scene in an airplane. Maximum learning
situational awareness of the airplane attitude, a pilot can use is achieved when the pilot is placed in the controlled, yet
the flight instruments to recognize and recover from an upset. adrenaline-enhanced, environment of upsets experienced
To recover from nose-high and nose-low attitudes, the pilot
should follow the procedures recommended in the AFM/
POH. In general, upset recovery procedures are summarized
in Figure 4-16.

Upset Recovery Template

1. Disconnect the wing leveler or autopilot

2. Apply forward column or stick pressure to unload the airplane

3. Aggressively roll the wings to the nearest horizon

4. Adjust power as necessary by monitoring airspeed

5. Return to level flight

Figure 4-16. Upset recovery template.

Common Errors
Common errors associated with upset recoveries include
the following:
Incorrect assessment of what kind of upset the airplane
is in Figure 4-17. A Level D full-flight simulator could be used for UPRT.

4-22
while in flight. For these reasons, airplane-based UPRT results from a botched turn. In a spiral dive, the airplane
improves a pilots ability to overcome fear in an airplane is flying very tight circles, in a nearly vertical attitude and
upset event. will be accelerating because it is no longer stalled. Pilots
typically get into a spiral dive during an inadvertent IMC
However, airplane-based UPRT does have limitations. encounter, most often when the pilot relies on kinesthetic
The level of upset training possible may be limited by the sensations rather than on the flight instruments. A pilot
maneuvers approved for the particular airplane, as well as by distracted by other sensations can easily enter a slightly
the flight instructors own UPRT capabilities. For instance, nose low, wing low, descending turn and, at least initially,
UPRT conducted in the normal category by a typical CFI fail to recognize this error. Especially in IMC, it may be
will necessarily be different from UPRT conducted in the only the sound of increasing speed that makes the pilot
aerobatic category by a CFI with expertise in aerobatics. aware of the rapidly developing situation. Upon recognizing
the steep nose down attitude and steep bank, the startled
When considering upset training conducted in an aerobatic- pilot may react by pulling back rapidly on the yoke while
capable airplane in particular, the importance of employing simultaneously rolling to wings level. This response can
instructors with specialized UPRT experience in those create aerodynamic loads capable of causing airframe
airplanes cannot be overemphasized. Just as instrument or structural damage and /or failure.
tailwheel instruction requires specific skill sets for those 1. Reduce Power (Throttle) to Idle
operations, UPRT demands that instructors possess the
competence to oversee trainee progress, and the ability to 2. Apply Some Forward Elevator
intervene as necessary with consistency and professionalism. 3. Roll Wings Level
As in any area of training, the improper delivery of stall, spin
4. Gently Raise the Nose to Level Flight
and upset recovery training often results in negative learning,
which could have severe consequences not only during the 5. Increase Power to Climb Power
training itself, but in the skills and mindset pilots take with
them into the cockpits of airplanes where the lives of others The following discussion explains each of the five steps:
may be at stake. 1. Reduce Power (Throttle) to Idle. Immediately reduce
power to idle to slow the rate of acceleration.
All-Attitude/All-Envelope Flight Training Methods
2. Apply Some Forward Elevator. Prior to rolling the
Sound UPRT encompasses operation in a wide range of
wings level, it is important to unload the G-load on
possible flight attitudes and covers the airplanes limit flight
the airplane (unload the wing). This is accomplished
envelope. This training is essential to prepare pilots for
by applying some forward elevator pressure to return
unexpected upsets. As stated at the outset, the primary focus
to about +1G. Apply just enough forward elevator to
of a comprehensive UPRT program is the avoidance of, and
ensure that you are not aggravating the spiral with aft
safe recovery from, upsets. Much like basic instrument skills,
elevator. While generally a small input, this push has
which can be applied to flying a vast array of airplanes, the
several benefits prior to rolling the wings level in the
majority of skills and techniques required for upset recovery
next step the push reduces the AOA, reduces the
are not airplane specific. Just as basic instrument skills learned
G-load, and slows the turn rate while increasing the
in lighter and lower performing airplanes are applied to more
turn radius, and prevents a rolling pullout. The design
advanced airplanes, basic upset recovery techniques provide
limit of the airplane is lower during a rolling pullout, so
lessons that remain with pilots throughout their flying careers.
failure to reduce the G-load prior to rolling the wings
level could result in structural damage or failure.
FSTDbased UPRT
UPRT can be effective in high fidelity devices (i.e. Level C 3. Roll Wings Level. Roll to wings level using
and D FFS), however instructors and pilots must be mindful coordinated aileron and rudder inputs. Even though
of the technical and physiological boundaries when using the airplane is in a nose-low attitude, continue the
a particular FSTD for upset training. The FSTD must be roll until the wings are completely level again before
qualified by the FAA National Simulator Program for UPRT; performing step four.
and, if the training is required for pilots by regulation, the 4. Gently Raise the Nose to Level Flight. It is possible that
course must also be FAA approved. the airplane in a spiral dive might be at or even beyond
VNE (never exceed speed) speed. Therefore, the pilot
Spiral Dive must make all control inputs slowly and gently at this
A spiral dive, a nose low upset, is a descending turn during point to prevent structural failure. Raise the nose to a
which airspeed and G-load can increase rapidly and often climb attitude only after speed decreases to safe levels.

4-23
 Chap
terSumma
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4
-24
Chapter 5

Takeoffs and Departure Climbs

Introduction
d i
A review of aircraft accident data shows that about twenty
percent of all general aviation (GA) accidents occur during
takeoff and departure climbs. Further breakdown of the data
indicates that more than half of those accidents were the
result of some sort of failure of the pilot, and twenty percent
of the mishaps are the result of loss in control of the airplane.
When compared to the entire profile of a normal flight, this
phase of a flight is relatively short, but the pilot workload is
greatest. This chapter discusses takeoffs and departure climbs
in airplanes under normal conditions and under conditions
that require maximum performance.

5-1
5
5--1
Thoughi tm ays eemr elat
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ated
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5
-3
the rudder pedals so that the toes or balls of the feet are on The situation may be aggravated by the sluggish reaction of
the rudder portions, not on the brake. At all times, monitor the airplane to these movements. The flight instructor must
the engine instruments for indications of a malfunction during help the student learn proper response to control actions and
the takeoff roll. airplane reactions. The instructor should always stress using
the proper outside reference to judge airplane motion. For
In nose-wheel type airplanes, pressures on the elevator takeoff, the student should always be looking far down the
control are not necessary beyond those needed to steady it. runway at two points aligned with the runway. The flight
Applying unnecessary pressure only aggravates the takeoff instructor should have the student pilot follow through lightly
and prevents the pilot from recognizing when elevator control on the controls, feel for resistance, and point out the outside
pressure is actually needed to establish the takeoff attitude. references that provide the clues for how much control
movement is needed and how the pressure and response
As the airplane gains speed, the elevator control tends to changes as airspeed increases. With practice, the student
assume a neutral position if the airplane is correctly trimmed. pilot should become familiar with the airplanes response to
At the same time, the rudder pedals are used to keep the nose acceleration to lift off speed, corrective control movements
of the airplane pointed down the runway and parallel to the needed, and the outside references necessary to accomplish
centerline. The effects of engine torque and P-factor at the the takeoff maneuver.
initial speeds tend to pull the nose to the left (Torque and
P-Factor will be discussed in greater detail in later chapter). Lift-Off
The pilot must use whatever rudder pressure is needed to Since a good takeoff depends on the proper takeoff attitude,
correct for these effects or winds. Use aileron controls into it is important to know how this attitude appears and how it
any crosswind to keep the airplane centered on the runway is attained. The ideal takeoff attitude requires only minimum
centerline. The pilot should avoid using the brakes for pitch adjustments shortly after the airplane lifts off to attain
steering purposes as this will slow acceleration, lengthen the speed for the best rate of climb (VY). [Figure 5-3] The
the takeoff distance, and possibly result in severe swerving. pitch attitude necessary for the airplane to accelerate to
VY speed should be demonstrated by the instructor and
As the speed of the takeoff roll increases, more and more memorized by the student. Flight instructors should be aware
pressure will be felt on the flight controls, particularly the that initially, the student pilot may have a tendency to hold
elevators and rudder. If the tail surfaces are affected by the excessive back-elevator pressure just after lift-off, resulting
propeller slipstream, they become effective first. As the speed in an abrupt pitch-up.
continues to increase, all of the flight controls will gradually
become effective enough to maneuver the airplane about its
A Initial roll
three axes. At this point, the airplane is being flown more
than it is being taxied. As this occurs, progressively smaller
rudder deflections are needed to maintain direction.

The feel of resistance to the movement of the controls and

the airplanes reaction to such movements are the only
real indicators of the degree of control attained. This feel
of resistance is not a measure of the airplanes speed, but
rather of its controllability. To determine the degree of
controllability, the pilot must be conscious of the reaction
B Takeoff attitude
of the airplane to the control pressures and immediately
adjust the pressures as needed to control the airplane. The
pilot must wait for the reaction of the airplane to the applied
control pressures and attempt to sense the control resistance
to pressure rather than attempt to control the airplane by
movement of the controls.

A student pilot does not normally have a full appreciation

of the variations of control pressures with the speed of the
airplane. The student may tend to move the controls through
Figure 5-3. Initial roll and takeoff attitude.
wide ranges seeking the pressures that are familiar and
expected and, as a consequence, overcontrol the airplane.

5-4
Each type of airplane has a best pitch attitude for normal lift- indicator and neglect bank control of the airplane. Torque
off; however, varying conditions may make a difference in the from the engine tends to impart a rolling force that is most
required takeoff technique. A rough field, a smooth field, a evident as the landing gear is leaving the surface.
hard surface runway, or a short or soft, muddy field all call for
a slightly different technique, as will smooth air in contrast to During takeoffs in a strong, gusty wind, it is advisable that
a strong, gusty wind. The different techniques for those other- an extra margin of speed be obtained before the airplane is
than-normal conditions are discussed later in this chapter. allowed to leave the ground. A takeoff at the normal takeoff
speed may result in a lack of positive control, or a stall, when
When all the flight controls become effective during the the airplane encounters a sudden lull in strong, gusty wind, or
takeoff roll in a nose-wheel type airplane, the pilot should other turbulent air currents. In this case, the pilot should allow
gradually apply back-elevator pressure to raise the nose- the airplane to stay on the ground longer to attain more speed;
wheel slightly off the runway, thus establishing the takeoff then make a smooth, positive rotation to leave the ground.
or lift-off attitude. This is the rotation for lift off and climb.
As the airplane lifts off the surface, the pitch attitude to hold Initial Climb
the climb airspeed should be held with elevator control and Upon lift-off, the airplane should be flying at approximately
trimmed to maintain that pitch attitude without excessive the pitch attitude that allows it to accelerate to VY. This is
control pressures. The wings should be leveled after lift-off the speed at which the airplane gains the most altitude in the
and the rudder used to ensure coordinated flight. shortest period of time.

After rotation, the slightly nose-high pitch attitude should If the airplane has been properly trimmed, some back-elevator
be held until the airplane lifts off. Rudder control should be pressure may be required to hold this attitude until the proper
used to maintain the track of the airplane along the runway climb speed is established. Relaxation of any back-elevator
centerline until any required crab angle in level flight is pressure before this time may result in the airplane settling,
established. Forcing it into the air by applying excessive even to the extent that it contacts the runway.
back-elevator pressure would only result in an excessively
high-pitch attitude and may delay the takeoff. As discussed The airplanes speed will increase rapidly after it becomes
earlier, excessive and rapid changes in pitch attitude result in airborne. Once a positive rate of climb is established, the
proportionate changes in the effects of torque, thus making pilot should retract the flaps and landing gear (if equipped).
the airplane more difficult to control. It is recommended that takeoff power be maintained until
reaching an altitude of at least 500 feet above the surrounding
Although the airplane can be forced into the air, this is terrain or obstacles. The combination of VY and takeoff power
considered an unsafe practice and should be avoided under assures the maximum altitude gained in a minimum amount
normal circumstances. If the airplane is forced to leave the of time. This gives the pilot more altitude from which the
ground by using too much back-elevator pressure before airplane can be safely maneuvered in case of an engine failure
adequate flying speed is attained, the wings AOA may or other emergency. A pilot should also consider flying at
become excessive, causing the airplane to settle back to the Vy versus a lower pitch for a cruise climb requires much
runway or even to stall. On the other hand, if sufficient back- quicker pilot response in the event of a powerplant failure
elevator pressure is not held to maintain the correct takeoff to preclude a stall.
attitude after becoming airborne, or the nose is allowed to
lower excessively, the airplane may also settle back to the Since the power on the initial climb is set at the takeoff power
runway. This would occur because the AOA is decreased setting, the airspeed must be controlled by making slight pitch
and lift diminished to the degree where it will not support adjustments using the elevators. However, the pilot should
the airplane. It is important, then, to hold the correct attitude not fixate on the airspeed indicator when making these pitch
constant after rotation or lift-off. changes, but should continue to scan outside to adjust the
airplanes attitude in relation to the horizon. In accordance
As the airplane leaves the ground, the pilot must keep the with the principles of attitude flying, the pilot should first
wings in a level attitude and hold the proper pitch attitude. make the necessary pitch change with reference to the natural
Outside visual scans must be intensified at this critical point horizon and hold the new attitude momentarily, and then
to attain/maintain proper airplane pitch and bank attitude. glance at the airspeed indicator to verify if the new attitude
Due to the minimum airspeed, the flight controls are not as is correct. Due to inertia, the airplane will not accelerate or
responsive, requiring more control movement to achieve decelerate immediately as the pitch is changed. It takes a little
an expected response. A novice pilot often has a tendency time for the airspeed to change. If the pitch attitude has been
to fixate on the airplanes pitch attitude and/or the airspeed over or under corrected, the airspeed indicator will show a

5-5
speed that is higher or lower than that desired. When this Failure to check engine instruments for signs of
occurs, the cross-checking and appropriate pitch-changing malfunction after applying takeoff power.
process must be repeated until the desired climbing attitude Failure to anticipate the airplanes left turning
is established. Pilots must remember the climb pitch will be tendency on initial acceleration.
lower when the airplane is heavily loaded, or power is limited
by density altitude. Overcorrecting for left turning tendency.
Relying solely on the airspeed indicator rather than
When the correct pitch attitude has been attained, the pilot developing an understanding of visual references and
should hold it constant while cross-checking it against the tracking clues of airplane airspeed and controllability
horizon and other outside visual references. The airspeed during acceleration and lift-off.
indicator should be used only as a check to determine if the
Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude.
attitude is correct.
Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factor during
After the recommended climb airspeed has been established initial climb resulting in a sideslip.
and a safe maneuvering altitude has been reached, the pilot Overcontrol of elevators during initial climb-out and
should adjust the power to the recommended climb setting lack of elevator trimming.
and trim the airplane to relieve the control pressures. This
Limiting scan to areas directly ahead of the airplane
makes it easier to hold a constant attitude and airspeed.
(pitch attitude and direction), causing a wing (usually
the left) to drop immediately after lift-off.
During initial climb, it is important that the takeoff path
remain aligned with the runway to avoid drifting into Failure to attain/maintain best rate-of-climb airspeed
obstructions or into the path of another aircraft that may be (VY) or desired climb airspeed.
taking off from a parallel runway. A flight instructor should Failure to employ the principles of attitude flying
help the student identify two points inline ahead of the runway during climb-out, resulting in chasing the airspeed
to use as a tracking reference. As long as those two points are indicator.
inline, the airplane is remaining on the desired track. Proper
scanning techniques are essential to a safe takeoff and climb, Crosswind Takeoff
not only for maintaining attitude and direction, but also for
While it is usually preferable to take off directly into the
avoiding collisions near the airport.
wind whenever possible or practical, there are many instances
when circumstances or judgment indicate otherwise.
When the student pilot nears the solo stage of flight training,
Therefore, the pilot must be familiar with the principles and
it should be explained that the airplanes takeoff performance
techniques involved in crosswind takeoffs, as well as those
will be much different when the instructor is not in the
for normal takeoffs. A crosswind affects the airplane during
airplane. Due to decreased load, the airplane will become
takeoff much as it does during taxiing. With this in mind, the
airborne earlier and climb more rapidly. The pitch attitude
pilot should be aware that the technique used for crosswind
that the student has learned to associate with initial climb may
correction during takeoffs closely parallels the crosswind
also differ due to decreased weight, and the flight controls
correction techniques used for taxiing.
may seem more sensitive. If the situation is unexpected,
it may result in increased tension that may remain until
Takeoff Roll
after the landing. Frequently, the existence of this tension
The technique used during the initial takeoff roll in a
and the uncertainty that develops due to the perception of
crosswind is generally the same as the technique used in a
an abnormal takeoff results in poor performance on the
normal takeoff roll, except that the pilot must apply aileron
subsequent landing.
pressure into the crosswind. This raises the aileron on the
upwind wing, imposing a downward force on the wing
Common errors in the performance of normal takeoffs and
to counteract the lifting force of the crosswind; and thus
departure climbs are:
preventing the wing from rising. The pilot must remember
Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts that since the ailerons and rudder are deflected, drag will
prior to takeoff. increase; therefore, less initial takeoff performance should
Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing be expected until the airplane is wings-level in coordinated
into position on the active runway. flight in the climb.
Abrupt use of the throttle.

5-6
 i i i
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5
-7
This skipping is usually indicated by a series of very small simultaneous rudder input to maintain runway alignment.
bounces caused by the airplane attempting to fly and then This will initially result in the aircraft to sideslip. However,
settling back onto the runway. During these bounces, the as the aircraft establishes its climb, the nose should be turned
crosswind also tends to move the airplane sideways, and into the wind to offset the crosswind, wings brought to level,
these bounces develop into side-skipping. This side-skipping and rudder input adjusted to maintain runway alignment
imposes severe side stresses on the landing gear and may (crabbing). [Figure 5-6] Firm and positive use of the rudder
result in structural failure. may be required to keep the airplane pointed down the
runway or parallel to the centerline. Unlike landing, the
During a crosswind takeoff roll, it is important that the pilot runway alignment (staying over the runway and its extended
hold sufficient aileron pressure into the wind not only to keep centerline) is paramount to keeping the aircraft parallel to the
the upwind wing from rising but to hold that wing down so centerline. The pilot must then apply rudder pressure firmly
that the airplane sideslips into the wind enough to counteract and aggressively to keep the airplane headed straight down the
drift immediately after lift-off. runway. However, because the force of a crosswind may vary
markedly within a few hundred feet of the ground, the pilot
Lift-Off should check the ground track frequently and adjust the wind
As the nose-wheel raises off of the runway, the pilot should correction angle, as necessary. The remainder of the climb
hold aileron pressure into the wind. This may cause the technique is the same used for normal takeoffs and climbs.
downwind wing to rise and the downwind main wheel to lift
off the runway first, with the remainder of the takeoff roll The most common errors made while performing crosswind
being made on that one main wheel. This is acceptable and takeoffs include the following:
is preferable to side-skipping. Failure to review AFM/POH performance and charts
prior to takeoff.
If a significant crosswind exists, the pilot should hold the main
wheels on the ground slightly longer than in a normal takeoff Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing
so that a smooth but very definite lift-off can be made. This onto the active runway.
allows the airplane to leave the ground under more positive
control and helps it remain airborne while the pilot establishes
the proper amount of wind correction. More importantly,
this procedure avoids imposing excessive side-loads on the
landing gear and prevents possible damage that would result
from the airplane settling back to the runway while drifting.

As both main wheels leave the runway, the airplane begins to

drift sideways with the wind as ground friction is no longer
a factor in preventing lateral movement. To minimize this
lateral movement and to keep the upwind wing from rising,
the pilot must establish and maintain the proper amount of Wind
crosswind correction prior to lift-off by applying aileron
pressure into the wind. The pilot must also apply rudder
pressure, as needed, to prevent weathervaning. 18
18
Initial Climb
If a proper crosswind correction is applied, the aircraft will
maintain alignment with the runway while accelerating to
takeoff speed and then maintain that alignment once airborne.
As takeoff acceleration occurs, the efficiency of the up-aileron
will increase with aircraft speed causing the upwind wing to
produce greater downward force and, as a result, counteract
the effect of the crosswind. The yoke, having been initially
turned into the wind, can be relaxed to the extent necessary
to keep the aircraft aligned with the runway. As the aircraft
becomes flyable and airborne, the wing that is upwind will
have a tendency to be lower relative the other wing requiring
Figure 5-6. Crosswind climb flightpath.

5-8
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offanda cceleratestoclimbsp eed,anddu ringth elanding gros sw e
ight,th ea i
rplanem ayb eabletol if
to ffbu tw i
ll
flarebeforetou chdown). beun abletoc limbou tofg rounde f
fe c
t.Con sequen t
ly,th e
airplanem ayn otbea bletocl e
arobstruct
ions.Lifto f
fb efore
Whenth ewing isundertheinf
luenceo fgrounde f
f ect
,the
r e at
t ainingr ecomm end edflightairspeedin curs mo red rag,
isar educt
ioninupw a
sh,downw ash,andw ingtipvo r
tices
. whichr equires mor epow ertoov ercom e.Sin ceth einit
i a
l
Asare sul
to ftheredu c
edw ingt
ipvo rt
ices,induc eddragis tak eoffandc l
imbi sb a
sedon m aximumpow er,r educing
reduced. Wh enth ewingisatah eightequ alto14 thespan, dra gistheo nlyo pt
i on
.T ored uc
edr ag
,pitchm ustb ere du
c ed
theredu ct
ioninindu cedd r
agisabou t25p er
c ent
. Wh en whic hm e anslo
sin galt
itude.Pilo
tsm ustremem bert hatm any
thew ingi satah e
ightequ a
lto110 thesp an,ther educ
tion airplane scannots afelytakeoffatm aximumg rossw eightat
inindu cedd ragisabou t50p e
rcent
.A th ighsp e ed
swh ere certainaltitude
sa nd tem p
erature
s,d u
et o
lacko fperform ance.
para
si
t edragdom inate
s,induceddragi sasm a
llp ar
tofth e Th erefore,un d
erm argina
lc ondit
ions,it
isim portantt ha
tt h
e
tota
ld rag.Con sequent
ly,groundeffectisag reaterconcern airplanet akeso ffa tthesp eedr e
comm endedfo rad equate
dur
ingt akeoffandl anding
. initialclimbp er
fo rm ance
.

Att
akeof
f,th
etak
eoffro
ll
,li
ft-o
ff
,andthebeginn
ingo
fthe G roundef
fecti
simport
anttonorma
lfl
igh
toper
ation
s.I
fthe
ini
tia
lcl
imbareac
complish
edw i
thin
thegroundef
fec
tar
ea. runw ay
islongenoughor
i fnoob
sta
cle
sexi
st
,groundef
fec
t

T
akeo
ffin G
roundE
ffec
tArea
i ii
i i i

i i i i
i
i ii i

F
igu
re5
-7.Ta
keo
ffin
-grounde
ffe
cta
rea
.

5
-9
canb eu sedtoth ep i
lotsadv an tag ebyu singth ereduced Takeo ffRo l
l
dragtoimp rov einitia
la ccelerat
ion . Tak
i ngofffromas hor
tfieldr equ
irestheta keofftob estarted
from theveryb eg
inningof thetakeoffarea.A tthisp o
i nt,the
Wh ent akingo f
ff romanun satisfa c
torysu rfa ce
,thep i
lot a i
rplaneisal
ignedw i
ththeintendedtakeoffp at
h.Iftheair p
la n
e
shou ldapp lya smu chw eigh ttoth ew ing saspo ssibl
edu r
ing m anufactu
rerrecomm endst heuseofflaps,t heyaree xt
e n d
e d
th eg roundrunandl ifto ff
,u singg rounde ffec
ta sana id, thep roperam ou n
tb efo
reb eg
in n
in gthet ak eo
ffr ol
l.T h
is
priortoa ttainingt rueflyingsp eed .Th epilotshou ldreduc e al
low sthepi
l o
ttod e
votefullatte
ntiontoth epr ope
rte chniq ue
AOAtoa ttainno rm a
la i
rsp eedb e foreattemp tingtoflyou t a ndt heai
rplane
sp er
form ancethrou ghoutt h
et akeoff
.
ofth eg rounde ffectareas.
Thep i
lotshou ldapp lyt akeoffpow ersmoo thlyand
Sho rt-F ie ldTakeo ffand Max imum continuous
ly,w i
thouth esit
ation,toa cceleratethea irplan e
Pe rfo rmanceC limb asrapidlyaspo s
sible
.Som ep i
lotsprefertoho ldth eb rak es
Wh enp erform ing takeoffsandc limb sfromf i e
ldswh erethe u nt
ilthem axim umo b
t a
ina b
lee nginerevol u
tionsp e
rm i nut
e
tak eoffa r
e aissho rtorth eav ai
lab le t
ak eoffar e
aisrest
ric
t ed (rpm )areachievedbeforeallowingth ea irplanetob eg inits
byob st
ru c
tion s,th epilotshou ldop e
rateth ea i
rplaneatth e takeoffrun. How eve
r,ith asno tb eene stabli
shedth atthis
max imuml im ito fitstak eof
fp erform an cec apabil
it
ie.To p
s rocedureresul
tsinasho rtertakeoffrunina lllight
,s ingl e
-
dep artfromsu chana re asafely ,th ep i
lo t mu s
tex erc
is e enginea i
rplanes
.Th eairplanei sallow edtoro llw ithi t
s
po s
itiveandp re ci
s econtrolofa irpl aneatt
itud eanda i
rspeed ful
l we
i gh
t onthe main whe e
lsa nd ac
cele ra
tet othelift-off
soth a
tt akeoffandc limbp erform ancer esul
tinth eshortest spee d
. Asthe takeo
ff ro
ll progress
e s
,th e pi
l o
t m ust adjust
gro undr ol
la n dt h
es te
e pestan g
leo fclim b
.[F igure5-8]T he thea i
rplane
spitchat
ti
tud ea ndAOA toattainm inim umd rag
pi
l ots houldc ons u
lta n
df ollow thep er
form an cesect
ionofth e andm ax
im uma cce
lera
tion.Inn ose
-w heelt ypeair
pla n
e s,this
AFM /POH too bt a
in thep owers ettin g
,flaps et
ting,ai
rspeed, invo lvesli
ttleuseofth eelev a
torcon t
rols inceth eairp lane
andp rocedu resp rescr
ib edbyth ea irplanesm anufac
ture. i
r salreadyinalowd ragatti
tud e
.

Thepi
lot musthaveadequateknow ledgeinth euseand Lift
-O ff
ef
fec
tiven
esso ftheb e
stangle-of-c
limbsp eed(V X)and As VX app ro a
ch es,th ep i
lotshou ldapp lyb ack- e
levator
thebes
tra
te-of-c
limbspeed(VY) fo
rth espec
if
icm akeand pressureun t
ilr eaching th eapp ropriateV X at
titudet oensure
mode
lofai
rplanebeingf
lownino rdertosaf
elyaccompli
sh asmoo thandf irml ift-off
,o rrot a
tion.S inc ethea irp
lane
atak
eoffa
tm ax
imump erfo
rman ce. ac c
elerates mo rer apidlya fterlift-off
,th ep ilot mustapply
ad d
itionalba ck-e
l evat orpress ur
e toh oldac ons
tantairspeed
.
VXi st hespeedatw hich
th eairp
lan each
ieves
th egreat
estg ain Afte
rb ecominga irbo rne,th ep i
lo tw il
lm aintaina w ings-
ina lt
itud eforag ivendistanceov ertheground.Itisu su a
lly lev e
lc l
imba tV X u ntilallob staclesh aveb e
enc learedor;if
slightlyl es
sth anV Y, whi chisth egrea
tes
tg ainina ltitude noob s
taclesa repre sent,un t
ilr eachingana lt
itudeo fatleas
t
perun ito ftim e
.Th esp e
cificsp eedstobeu sedforag iven 50f eetabov eth et akeo ffsurf ace
.Th ereafter
,th epilotm ay
airplan eares ta
tedinth eFAA -approved AFM /POH .Th e low erth epi
t chattitud eslightlyandcon tinu etheclimba tVY
pilotshou ldb eaw a
r etha
t,insom eairp
lanes
,ad evia
tiono f unti
lr eachingas afem an euv e
ringa lti
tud e.Th ep i
lot mu s
t
5kno t sfromth er ecomm endedsp e
ed m ayr esultina alw aysrem emb e
rth a
tana ttemp ttopu llth eairpl
an eo f
fthe
significantr educ
tioninc limbp erformance
;th e
refo
r e,th e groundp rem ature
ly ,o rtoc limbtoos teeply ,m ayc ausethe
pilotmu stm a
inta
inp reci
secon troloftheair
sp eedtoen sur e airplanetos e
ttleb acktoth erunw ayo rm ak econtactw i
th
th em aneuverisexe cut
eds a
felyandsu cce
ssfully
. ob s
tacles.Ev eni fth ea i
rp l
an er em ainsa irborne
,un t
ilthe
pi
lotr each e
sV X, the i n
itial cl
i m b wil
l re mainflat, which

F
igu
re5
-8.Sho
rt-
fi
eldta
keo
ff
.

5
-10
d
imin
ishe
sthepi
lot
'sab
il
itytosucc
ess
ful
lyp
erfo
rmth
e H
olding
theai
rpla
neonth
egrou
ndunne
ces
sar
ilyw
ith
c
limband
/orc
lea
robs
tac
les
.[Figu
re5-9
] exce
ssiv
eforward
-el
eva
torp
res
sur
e.
Inadequa
tero
ta
tionr
esu
lt
ing
inex
ces
siv
esp
eeda
fte
r
Theobje c
tiveistorotatetoth eappropr
iat
ep itchatt
itud eat li
ft-o
ff.
(ornear)V X. The pi
lot shou
ld bea wa
reth atsome ai
r planes
havean aturaltendencytol if
to f
fw el
lbefo r
er ea
chingVX. In
abi
li
tytoa
tt
ain
/ma
int
a X.
inV
Inthesea i
rplanes,itm ayb enecessa
rytoallowth eai rpl
ane F
ixa
tio
non
thea
ir
spe
edi
ndi
cat
ord
uri
ngi
nit
ia
lcl
imb
.
tolif
t-offing roundeff ec
tandth enreducep i
tcha t
titudeto
P
rem
atu
rer
etr
act
iono
fla
ndi
ngg
eara
nd/
orw
ingf
lap
s.
leveluntilth eairp
lanea c c
elera
testo VX w i
thth e wh eel
s
justclearofth erunw aysu r
face.Thism e
thodi sp referabl
e So
ft
/Rough
-Fie
ldTakeo
ffandC
limb
toforci
n gtheairplanetorem ainonthegrou ndwithforw ard
-
eleva
torp re
ssu reunti
lV i
s at
tained
. Ho
l dingthe airplan
e Takeoff sandc l
imb sf romso ftfieldsr equ ireth eu s
eo f
X
ontheg roundunn ece
ss a
ri
lypu tsexces
sivep res
sureonth e opera
tion altechn iquesfo rg ett
ingth ea irplan ea i
rbo rneas
nose-wh ee
land m ayr esul
tinwh ee
lb a
r rowing.I talso quick
l ya spossible t
oe l
im ina
tet hedragc a usedb yt a
llgrass
,
hinder
sbo tha cce
l e
rat
ionandov era
llai
rplanep e
rform ance
. sof
ts and,mud ,andsnowandm ayrequir eclimb ingov eran
obs
tacl e
.T h
e t
e ch n
iqu em a
kes judic
i o
u su seofg ro undeffec
t
Init
ialC l
imb tore du celandin g gear drag and requires an understanding
Onsho rt
-fieldt akeo ffs
,th el and ingg e arandf l
apsshou ld ofthe airplanes slo ws peed character
istics a nd responses
.
remainint akeo f
fpo sitionun tilth ea irplanei sc learof Theses am etechni quesarea l
s ous e
fulo nar ou ghfieldw he
re
obs
tacl e
s(o ra sr e
comm end edbyth em anu fac
turer)andV the p
il ots hou
l d gett he ai
rplane offt he gro und as soo nas
Y
hasbe ene stabl
i shed.Un ti
la l
lob staclesh aveb eenc l
eared, poss
i b
l eto avoid d ama gingt helanding g ear
.
thepilotmu stm a
int a
info cu sou tsideth eairplaneinsteadof
reach
i ngfo rlandin gg earorflapc ont
r o
lso rlookingi ns
idethe Tak
in go fffromas of
ts urfaceorthro ughs of
ts urfacesor long
,
ai
rplanef ora nyr e
a son.W hen thea irpl
a neisstabi
lizedatV wetgras sreduces the airplanesa b
ili
ty to acc ele
r a
t ed u
ring
Y,
thelan d
i ngg ear(ifretractable)a n dflapss houldber e
tracte. t
d heta keoffrol
la ndm ayp reventt heairplan efromr eaching
It
isus uallya dvisable toraiseth eflapsi nincrem entstoav o
id adequat etakeoff speed ifth epilot applies n o
r m a
l takeof
f
suddenlo sso fliftands ett
lingo fth eairplane.N ext
,r educe techniq ues
.T hep i
lotm ustbeaw arethatt hec orrectt a
k e
off
thepow ertoth eno rm a
lc l
imbs ett
ingo ra srecomm ended procedure fors oftfieldsi sq u
ite dif
fere n
t fro m the takeof
f
bythea i
rpl an em anu facturer. proceduresu sedf ors hortfieldsw ithfirm,sm oo
t hsurfaces
.
Tom inim izetheh azardsa ssocia
t edwit hta keoffsfroms of
t
Commone rrorsinth ep er
form anc eofsho r
t-f
i e
ldt akeofs o
f rrou ghf ie
lds,t hep i
lots ho u
ldt ransfert hes up por
to fthe
andm aximump erform an ceclimb sare: ai
rplan e
s weight asra pidlyas p o
ssible fro m th
e whee
lsto
thew i ngsa sth et akeoffr o
llp roceedsb ye stablishinga nd
F ai
lur etor eviewAFM /POHandp er
form ancech ar
ts mai
ntainin garelat
i ve
l yhig hAOAo rnose- h
i ghpitc hat
titude
priortot akeo ff. asear
l yasp oss
i b
l e
.T hep i
l o
ts houldlow erthew ingflapsprio
r
F ai
lur etoad equ a
t e
lyc learth ea rea. tostar
ti ngtheta keoff(ifr e
c omm endedb yt hem a nufactur
er)
F ai
lur etou ti
li z
ea llav ailablerunw ay/t
ak eoffarea. topro vide add
itio na
l l
ifta ndtotr a
nsfert heair p
lan e
s we
ight
fromt h ew heelst othew ingsase arlya sp ossible.T hep i
lot
F ai
lur etoh av eth eai
rp lan eprop er
ly tr
imm edpriorto shouldm ainta
inac ont
i nuousm ot
i onw iths uffi
cie n
tp ow er
tak eoff. whi
lel iningupfo rth et akeoffrolla ss topp ingonaso ft
P r em aturelift-offresultinginh ighd rag. sur
fac e,su c
ha sm udo rs now,m ightb ogt hea i
rpla ned own.

E
ffec
tofP
rema
tureL
if
t-o
ff
i
i i i i i
i i
i i
i i

F
igu
re5
-9.E
ffe
cto
fpr
ema
tur
eli
ft
-of
f.

5
-11
Takeo f
fRo ll re
tractedimm ediate
lysoth a
tany w etsnowo rslushtob e
Astheairplaneisal
igned wi
ththetakeof
fp ath
,thepilot ai
r-d
ried.Inth eev entanob stacle mus
tb ecl ea
reda f
t e
ra
shouldapplytakeof
fpow e
rsmoothlyanda srapid
lyasthe sof
t-
fieldtak eof
f,th ep i
lotshouldp e
rfo
rmth ecl
imb -outat
powerplantcana cc
eptw i
thoutf
alte
ring
.A stheairp
lane VX untilth
eob s
t ac
leh asb e
encl e
ared.Thepilotshouldthen
acce
l e
rate
s,th epi
lotshouldapp
lyenoughb ack-e
leva
tor ad
justthepit chatti
tud etoV Ya ndret
racttheg ea
randf laps
.
pre
ssuretoest
a b
li
shap o
si
tiveAOAa ndtoreduceth
ew e
i g
ht Thepow erc anth enb ereducedtothenorm a
lclimbs e
tting
.
support
edbyth enose-wheel
. Thepilotm ayth enr educepow ertonorm alcl
imbs ett
ing.

Whenthea i
rplane i
sh eldatano se
-h ighatt
itude throughout C ommone rr
orsintheper
f o
rm anceofso
ft
/roug
hfi
eldtak
eoff
thetakeoffrun,th ewing sincr
eas
ing lyrel
i evethewh e
elsof andc
limb sare
:
thea i
rplanesw eighta sspeedinc rease
sandl if
td evelops
, F ailu
retoreviewAFM /POHandp e
rform
an c
echar
ts
therebym in
im izingth edragcausedbysu rfacei r
regular
itie
s p
riortotakeoff
.
oradh es
ion.I fthisattitudeisac curate
ly m aintained
,th e
ai
rplanev irtual
lyf liesi t
selfoffth eground ,b ecom ing F ailu
retoad equa
t e
lyclearthear
ea.
ai
rbornebu tatana i
rsp eedslowerth anas a
fec l
imbsp eed In suff
icientb a
ck -e
levatorpres
sureduringini
tia
l
becauseofg rounde f
fe ct
.[F igur
e5 -10] t
ak eof
frollresu
ltingininadequa
teAOA .
F a
ilu retoc ro s
s-ch eckeng inein strum en t
sfo r
Li
ft-O ff indicationso fproperop erat
iona f
terapp lyingpow er
.
Af
t e
rth ea irplaneb ecom e
sa irborn e
,th ep i
lotshou ldg ently
low erth eno sew i
thth ewh eelsclearo fth esurfacetoa llow Poo rd i
re c
tionalcontrol.
thea irplan etoa cceleratetoV Y,o rVXi fob s
ta c
le s mustb e C l
imb ingtooh ighafterlift-offandno tl ev elingoff
clea
r ed.Imm ediatelya fte
rth eairplan eb ecom esa irbo rne lowenoughtom a
intaing rounde ffectalti
tud e.
andw hi
l eitac celer
ates,thep ilotshouldb eaw a
r ethat
,w hile Ab rup tand /orex ce ssivee lev a
torcon trol wh ile
transit
ion ingou to fth egrounde ffec
ta r ea
,th eairplan ew il
l att
emp t
ingtol eveloffanda c cel
erateafterliftoff
.
haveat end encytos et
tleb ackon toth esu rface
.Ana t
t emp t
toclimbp rem aturelyo rtoos teeply m ayc auseth ea irplane A l
low ing theairpl
ane tomu sh orsett
ler esultingin
tos e
ttleb acktoth esu rfacea sar esul
to fthelo s
so fg round anin adve r
tenttouchdowna ft e
rlif
t-off.
ef
f e
ct.D uringt hetransi
tiono utoftheg ro undeffectare a
, the A t
temp t
ingtoc limbou to fg rounde ffec
ta r eab e
fore
pi
lotshou ldno tattemp ttoclimbou tofg rounde f
f ec
tb e
fo re att
ainingsu ffic
ientcl
imbsp eed.
reachi n
g th esuff
i c
ie n
tclim bairs p
e e
d,a sthism ayre su
lt i
n the
F a
iluretoan t
icipa
teanin c
r easeinp it
cha tt
itud eas
ai
rplan eb eingun abletoc l
imbfu rthe
r,ev enw i
thfu llpow er
thea irplaneclimbsou to fgrounde ffec
t.
applied.Th erefore,iti sess entia
lth atth eairplan er em ain
ing rounde f
fectun tilatlea stV isre ached. This requ ire
s
X Rejec tedTakeo f
f/Eng ineFa ilure
agoodund ers
t andingo fth econ trolp ressures,a ircr a
ft
respon ses,v isualclu es
,anda ccelera
tionch arac
t er
isticso f Emergencyora b normalsi
tuatio n
sc ano ccurd u
ri nga takeof
f
thatp ar
ti cularairplan e
. th
at requ
ire apilotto re
ject the ta k
e of
f whi
le stil
l onthe
ru
nw ay.Circ umstancessucha sam a
lfu nc
tioningp ow erp
lant
,
Init
ia lC limb in
ad equa
t ea ccelerat
ion,runw ayin curs
ion,o ra i
rt raff
ic
Af
t e
rapo sitiver a
teo fclimb i sestabl
ish ed,and thea i
rp lane conf
lic
t may bereasons fo
r a rej
e c
t edtakeoff.
hasa
cce
lera
t e
dtoV Y,thep
ilo
tshou
l dr
etr
act
t h
elandingge
ar
andf
laps
,ifequipp
ed.Ifdepa
rt
ingfromanairs
tripwithwet P
rio
rtotakeo
ff
,thepi
lotshou
ldid
ent
ifyapoin
talongth
e
snoworslushonthetakeo
ffsur
fac
e,thegearshouldnotbe runwayat wh
ichth
e a
irpl
aneshou
ld beai
rbo
rne.Ifth
at

So
ft
-f
ieldT
akeo
ff

i
i i
i i

F
igu
re5 .S
-10 o
ft
-f
ie
ldta
keo
ff
.

5
-12
point is reached and the airplane is not airborne, immediate At airports that use noise abatement procedures, reminder
action should be taken to discontinue the takeoff. Properly signs may be installed at the taxiway hold positions for
planned and executed, the airplane can be stopped on the applicable runways to remind pilots to use and comply with
remaining runway without using extraordinary measures, noise abatement procedures on departure. Pilots who are not
such as excessive braking that may result in loss of directional familiar with these procedures should ask the tower or air
control, airplane damage, and/or personal injury. traffic facility for the recommended procedures. In any case,
pilots should be considerate of the surrounding community
In the event a takeoff is rejected, the power is reduced to idle while operating their airplane to and from such an airport.
and maximum braking applied while maintaining directional This includes operating as quietly, and safely as possible.
control. If it is necessary to shut down the engine due to
a fire, the mixture control should be brought to the idle Chapter Summary
cutoff position and the magnetos turned off. In all cases, the The takeoff and initial climb are relatively short phases
manufacturers emergency procedure should be followed. required for every flight and are often taken for granted,
yet 1 out of 5 accidents occur during this phase and half the
Urgency characterizes all power loss or engine failure mishaps are the result of pilot error. Becoming proficient in
occurrences after lift-off. In most instances, the pilot has only and applying the techniques and principles discussed in this
a few seconds after an engine failure to decide what course chapter help pilots reduce their susceptibility to becoming
of action to take and to execute it. a mishap statistic. The POH/AFM ground roll distances for
take-off and landing added together provide a good estimate
In the event of an engine failure on initial climb-out, the of the total runway needed to accelerate and then stop.
pilots first responsibility is to maintain aircraft control. At a
climb pitch attitude without power, the airplane is at or near a
stalling AOA. At the same time, the pilot may still be holding
right rudder. The pilot must immediately lower the nose to
prevent a stall while moving the rudder to ensure coordinated
flight. Attempting to turn back to the takeoff runway should
not be attempted. The pilot should establish a controlled glide
toward a plausible landing area, preferably straight ahead.

Noise Abatement
Aircraft noise problems are a major concern at many
airports throughout the country. Many local communities
have pressured airports into developing specific operational
procedures that help limit aircraft noise while operating
over nearby areas. As a result, noise abatement procedures
have been developed for many of these airports that include
standardized profiles and procedures to achieve these lower
noise goals.

Airports that have noise abatement procedures provide

information to pilots, operators, air carriers, air traffic
facilities, and other special groups that are applicable to
their airport. These procedures are available to the aviation
community by various means. Most of this information comes
from the Chart Supplements, local and regional publications,
printed handouts, operator bulletin boards, safety briefings,
and local air traffic facilities.

5-13
5-14
Chapter 6

Ground Reference Maneuvers

Introduction
Initial pilot training requires that a pilot understand the
relationship of the various flight controls pressure inputs to
the resulting attitudes of the airplane. This allows a pilot to
develop a sense of feel and understand the various indications
of airplane performance, such as pitch, roll, and yaw attitudes.
With sufficient competency in this environment, the pilot is
ready to apply these skills and place the airplane, not only
in the correct attitude and power configuration, but also in
orientation to specific ground-based references. These skills
are the basis for traffic patterns, survey, photographic, sight-
seeing, aerial application (crop dusting) and various other
flight profiles requiring specific flightpaths referenced to
points on the surface.

6-1
6-1
6-
A pilot must develop the proper coordination, timing, and references to make almost imperceptible adjustments to the
attention to accurately and safely maneuver the airplane with amount of deflection on the steering wheel, as well as the
regard to the required attitudes and ground references. Ground pressure on the accelerator pedal to smoothly join the lane
reference maneuvers are the principle flight maneuvers that into which they are turning. In the same manner, multiple
combine the four fundamentals (straight-and-level, turns, references are required to precisely control the airplane in
climbs, and descents) into a set of integrated skills that the reference to the ground.
pilot uses in their everyday flight activity. A pilot must develop
the skills necessary to accurately control, through the effect Not all ground-based references are visually equal and some
and use of the flight controls, the flightpath of the airplane understanding of those differences is important for their
in relationship to the ground. From every takeoff to every selection and use. For example, larger objects or references
landing, a pilot exercises these skills in controlling the airplane. may appear closer than they actually are when compared to
smaller objects or references. Also, prevailing visibility has a
The pilot should be introduced by their instructor to ground significant effect on the pilots perception of the distance to a
reference maneuvers as soon as the pilot shows proficiency reference. Excellent visibilities with clear skies tend to make
in the four fundamentals. Accomplishing the ground an object or reference appear closer than when compared
reference maneuvers requires that the pilot competently to a hazy day with poor visibility. Another example is that
manipulate the flight controls without any undue attention rain can alter the visual image in a manner that an illusion
to mechanical flight control inputsthe pilot applies the of being at a higher altitude may be perceived, and brighter
necessary flight control pressures to affect the airplanes objects or references may appear closer than dimmer objects.
attitude and position by using the outside natural horizon Being aware of typical visual illusions helps a pilot select the
and ground-based references with brief periods of scanning best references for ground reference maneuvers. It is best,
the flight instruments. however sometimes impracticable, to find ground-based
references that are similar in size and proportion.
Maneuvering by Reference to Ground
Objects Ground-based references can be numerous. Excellent
The purpose of ground reference maneuvers is to train pilots examples are breakwaters, canals, fence lines, field
to accurately place the airplane in relationship to specific boundaries, highways, railroad tracks, roads, pipe lines,
references and maintain a desired ground track. Such power lines, water-tanks, and others; however, choices can be
precision requires that a pilot simultaneously evaluate the limited by geography, population density, infrastructure, or
airplanes attitude, reference points along the desired path, structures. Selecting a ground-based reference requires prior
and the natural horizon. Vision is the most utilized sense consideration, such as the type of maneuver being performed,
in maneuvering in orientation to ground-based references; altitude at which the maneuver will be performed, emergency
however, all senses are actively involved at different levels. landing requirements, density of structures, wind direction,
For example, touch provides tactile feedback as to the visibility, and the type of airspace.
required flight control pressures to overcome flight control
surface forces that indirectly indicate the airplanes airspeed Division of attention is an important skill that a pilot must
and aerodynamic load. develop. A pilot must be able to fly the airplane affecting
the flight controls in a manner they will place the airplane
It is a common error for beginning pilots to fixate on a specific in the needed attitude while tracking a specific path over
reference, such as a single location on the ground or the the ground. In addition, the pilot must be able to scan for
natural horizon. To be effective, the pilot must scan between hazards such as other aircraft, be immediately prepared for an
several visual references to determine relative motion and to emergency landing should the need arise, and scan the flight
determine if the airplane is maintaining, or drifting to or from, and engine instruments at regular intervals to ensure that a
the desired ground track. A pilot fixating on any one reference pending situation, such as decreasing oil pressure, does not
eliminates the ability to determine rate, which significantly turn into an unexpected incident.
degrades a pilots performance. Visual scanning across
several references allows the pilot to develop the important Safety is paramount in all aspects of flying. Awareness and
skill of determining the rate of closure to a specific point. practice of safety-enhancing procedures must be constantly
Consider a skilled automobile driver in a simple intersection exercised. Ground reference maneuvers place the airplane in
turn; the driver does not merely turn the steering wheel some an environment where heightened awareness is needed. Pilots
degree and hope that it will work out. The skilled driver should be looking for other aircraft, including helicopters,
picks out several references, such as an island to their side, radio towers, and assessing locations for emergency
a painted lane line, or the opposing curb, and they use those landings. Pilots should always clear the area with two 90

6-2
clearing turns looking to the left and the right, as well as Correcting Drift During Straight-and-Level Flight
above and below the airplane. The maneuver area should When flying straight and level and following a selected
not cause disturbances and be well away from groups of straight-line direct ground track, the preferred method of
people, livestock, or communities. Before performing any correcting for wind drift is to angle the airplane sufficiently
maneuver, the pilot should complete the required checklist into the wind to cancel the effect of the sideways drift caused
items, make any radio announcements (such as on a practice by the wind. The winds speed, the angle between the wind
area frequency), and safety clearing turns. As a general note, direction and the airplanes longitudinal axis, and the airspeed
a ground reference maneuver should not exceed a bank angle of the airplane determines the required wind correction angle.
of 45 or an airspeed greater than maneuvering speed. As For example, an airplane with an airspeed of 100 knots, a 20
part of preflight planning, the pilot should determine the knot wind at 90 to the airplanes longitudinal axis, and a 12
predicted (POH/AFM) stall speed at 50 or the highest bank angle into the wind is required to cancel the airplanes drift.
angle planned plus some margin for error in maneuvering If the wind in the above example is only 10 knots, the wind
correction angle required to cancel the drift is six degrees.
Drift and Ground Track Control When the drift has been neutralized by heading the airplane into
Wind direction and velocity variations are the primary the wind, the airplane will fly the direct straight ground track.
effects requiring corrections of the flightpath during ground
reference maneuvers. Unlike an automobile, but similar to a To further illustrate this point, if a boat is crossing a river
boat or ship, wind directly influences the path that the airplane and the rivers current is completely still, the boat could head
travels in reference to the ground. Whenever the airplane is directly to a point on the opposite shore on a straight course
in flight, the movement of the air directly affects the actual to that opposite point without any drift; however, rivers tend
ground track of the airplane. to have a downstream current that must be considered if the
captain wants the boat to arrive at the opposite shore using
For example, an airplane is traveling at 90 knots (90 nautical a direct straight path. Any downstream current pushes the
miles per hour) and the wind is blowing from right to left at boat sideways and downstream at the speed of the current.
10 knots. The airplane continues forward at 90 knots but also To counteract this downstream movement, the boat must
travels left 10 nautical miles for every hour of flight time. If move upstream at the same speed as the river is moving the
the airplane, in this example doubles its speed to 180 knots, boat downstream. This is accomplished by angling the boat
it still drifts laterally to the left 10 nautical miles every hour. upstream sufficiently to counteract the downstream flow. If
The airplane travels within an often moving body of air, so this is done, the boat follows a direct straight track across
traveling to a point on the surface requires compensation for the river to the intended destination point. The amount of
the movement of the air mass. angle required is dependent on the forward speed of the boat
and the speed of the current. The slower the forward speed
Ground reference maneuvers are generally flown at altitudes of the boat and/or the faster speed of the current, the greater
between 600 and 1,000 feet above ground level (AGL). the angle must be to counteract the drift. The converse is
The pilot must consider the following when selecting the also true. [Figure 6-1]
maneuvering altitude:
As soon as an airplane lifts off the surface and levels the
The lower the maneuvering altitude, the faster the
wings, if there is any crosswind, the airplane will begin
airplane appears to travel in relation to the ground.
tracking sideways with the wind. Any wind not directly on
Drift should be easily recognizable from both sides the nose or tail of the airplane will drift the airplane sideways
of the airplane. at a speed up to the speed of the wind. A wind that is directly
The altitude should provide obstruction clearance of to the right or the left (at a 90 angle) drifts the airplane
no less than 500 feet vertically above the obstruction sideways at the speed of the wind; when the wind is halfway
and 2,000 feet horizontally. between the side and the nose of the airplane (at a 45 angle),
it drifts the airplane sideways at just over 70 percent of the
In case of an engine failure, the pilot must plan, speed of the wind. It should be understood that pilots do
consider, and be alert for forced landing areas while not calculate the required drift correction angles for ground
understanding that the lower the airplanes altitude, reference maneuvers; they merely use the references and
the less time there is to configure the airplane for an adjust the airplanes relationship to those references to cancel
emergency landing and the shorter the glide distance. any drift. The groundspeed of the airplane is also affected
Any specific altitude required by test standards.

6-3
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6
-5
headed downwind, the turn bank angle must be steepest; Maintaining a specific relationship between the
where groundspeed is the slowest, such as when the airplane airplane and the ground.
is headed upwind, the turn bank angle must be shallow. It is Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-
necessary to increase or decrease the angle of bank, which based references, manipulating the flight controls,
increases or decreases the rate of turn, to achieve the desired and scanning for outside hazards and instrument
constant radius track over the ground. indications.

Ground reference maneuvers should always be entered from Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for
a downwind position. This allows the pilot to establish the groundspeed changes in order to maintain constant
steepest bank angle required to maintain a constant radius radius turns.
ground track. If the bank is too steep, the pilot should Rolling out from a turn with the required wind
immediately exit the maneuver and re-establish a lateral correction angle to compensate for any drift cause by
position that is further from the ground reference. The pilot the wind.
should avoid bank angles in excess of 45due to the increased
Establishing and correcting the wind correction angle
stalling speed.
in order to maintain the track over the ground.
Tracking Over and Parallel to a Straight Line Preparing the pilot for the airport traffic pattern and
The pilot should first be introduced to ground reference subsequent landing pattern practice.
maneuvers by correcting for the effects of a crosswind over a
straight-line ground reference, such as road or railroad tracks. First, a square, rectangular field, or an area with suitable
If a straight road or railroad track is unavailable, the pilot will ground references on all four sides, as previously mentioned
choose multiple references (three minimum) which, when should be selected consistent with safe practices. The
an imaginary visual reference line is extended, represents airplane should be flown parallel to and at an equal distance
a straight line. The reference should be suitably long so the between one-half to three-fourths of a mile away from
pilot has sufficient time to understand the concepts of wind the field boundaries or selected ground references. The
correction and practice the maneuver. Initially, the maneuver flightpath should be positioned outside the field boundaries
should be flown directly over the ground reference with the or selected ground references so that the references may be
pilot angling the airplanes longitudinal axis into the wind easily observed from either pilot seat. It is not practicable
sufficiently such as to cancel the effect of drift. The pilot to fly directly above the field boundaries or selected
should scan between far ahead and close to the airplane to ground references. The pilot should avoid flying close to
practice tracking multiple references. the references, as this will require the pilot to turn using
very steep bank angles, thereby increasing aerodynamic
When proficiency has been demonstrated by flying directly load factor and the airplanes stall speed, especially in the
over the ground reference line, the pilot should then practice downwind to crosswind turn.
flying a straight parallel path that is offset from the ground
reference. The offset parallel path should not be more than The entry into the maneuver should be accomplished
three-fourths of a mile from the reference line. The maneuver downwind. This places the wind on the tail of the airplane
should be flown offset from the ground references with the and results in an increased groundspeed. There should be no
pilot angling the airplanes longitudinal axis into the wind wind correction angle if the wind is directly on the tail of
sufficiently to cancel the effect of drift while maintaining a the airplane; however, a real-world situation results in some
parallel track. drift correction. The turn from the downwind leg onto the
base leg is entered with a relatively steep bank angle. The
Rectangular Course pilot should roll the airplane into a steep bank with rapid, but
not excessive, coordinated aileron and rudder pressures. As
A principle ground reference maneuver is the rectangular
the airplane turns onto the following base leg, the tailwind
course. [Figure 6-4] The rectangular course is a training
lessens and becomes a crosswind; the bank angle is reduced
maneuver in which the airplane maintains an equal distance
gradually with coordinated aileron and rudder pressures. The
from all sides of the selected rectangular references. The
pilot should be prepared for the lateral drift and compensate
maneuver is accomplished to replicate the airport traffic
by turning more than 90 angling toward the inside of the
pattern that an airplane typically maneuvers while landing.
rectangular course.
While performing the rectangular course maneuver, the pilot
should maintain a constant altitude, airspeed, and distance
The next leg is where the airplane turns from a base leg
from the ground references. The maneuver assists the pilot
position to the upwind leg. Ideally, the wind is directly on
in practicing the following:

6-6
 i i
Downw
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andb ecom esac rossw ind.A sthe turnn earscomp letion
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6
-7
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ficr e
l a
tion shipb etweenth e
init
ial
lyandth roughou tthem aneuv er
.
airplaneandth eground .
F a
iluretoe stabli
shacon stant
,levelalti
tud epr
iorto
D ividinga tten
tionb e
tw eenth ef l
igh tpath,ground-
enter
ingth em aneuv e
r.
basedr eferences,m anipula
tingo fth eflightcontro
ls
,
F a
iluretom ainta
ina l
ti
tud eduringth em aneuver
. ands c
ann ingfo rou ts
ideh azardsandin st
rum en
t
F a
iluretop rop e
rlya s
se sswindd i
rection
. i nd
i cat
i ons
.

Fai
luretoe
stab
li
shth
eapp
rop
ria
tew
indco
rre
ct
ion Adju
stingthebankangledu
ringtu
rnstocor
rec
tfor
ang
le. g
roundspeedchang
esinorde
rtom a
inta
inacons
tant
r
adiusturn;st
eepe
rb ankangle
sforhigh
erground
Fa
ilur
etoapp lycoo
rdina
tedai
leronandrudd
er s
peeds,sha
llowbankangl
esfo
rslowe
rground
speed
s.
p
res
sure
,re
sul
tingins
lip
sandsk
ids
.
Improvingcompe
tencyin m
anag
ingth
equ
ick
ly
Fai
lureto man
ipu
lat
ethef
ligh
tcon
tro
lsinasmoo
th ch
angingbankang
les
.
andcont
inuousmanner
.
E
stab
li
shingandad
jus
tingth
ewindcor
rec
tionang
le
Fa
ilu
retop
roper
lydiv
idea
tt
ent
ionbe
tweencont
rol
ling inorde
rtom ain
ta
inth
et r
ackov
erth
eground.
th
eairp
laneand ma
int
ain
ingprop
eror
ient
ationwith
th
egroundre
feren
ces
. D
eve
lop
ingtheabi
litytocomp
ens
atefo
rdr
if
tin
qu
ick
lychang
ingo
rient
at
ion
s.
F
ailu
retoex
ecu
tetu
rnsw
itha
ccu
rat
etim
ing
.
Dev
elop
ingfurt
herawaren
essth
att
her
adi
uso
fat
urn
i
scor
rel
atedtothebankangl
e.
i

ndhal
wi
fofci
rcl
Up e

Do e
wn r
icl
wi fofc
ndhal

F
igu
re6
-5.Tu
rnsa
roundapo
int
.

6
-8
Top er
formatu rna roundapo int,thep i
lo t mu s
tcomp let e Upone n
teringthem aneuver
,dep end
ingo nt hewin d
sspeed,
atleaston e360 tu rn;how ev er,top rop er
lya ss e
s sw ind itmayb en ece
s sarytorollin
to theini
tialb ankatarapidrate
di
rect
ion,v elo c
ity,b ankr equired,ando th erfacto rsr el
ated sotha
t theste
ep estb ankisse
tq uick
lyt opre ven
tt h
eairplane
toturnsin w ind ,th ep i
lotshou ldcomp letetwoo r mo re fromd r
ift
ingou tsid eofthedesiredturnr adius
.Th isisbest
turns
.A sino t h
e rgr oundreferenc ema neuvers,w henw indis accom p
lishedb yre pea
tedprac
ti c
ea ndasses s
ingtherequired
pre
s en
t,thepil o
tm u s
tac onst
a nt
l yadjus
tt heairpl anesb an k rol
linrate
.T hereafter,
thepilo
ts houldgrad ual
lyd ec
reasethe
andw indco r
r ectionang letom a
in ta
inacon st
antr adiusturn angl
eo fb ankun tiltheairpl
an eish eadedd ire
ctlyupw ind
.
aroundap oint.Inc o n
trasttothegr oundreferencem ane uvers Astheupw indb ecom e
sac rosswindandth enadownw ind,
dis
cus s
edp reviou slyin wh ichtu rnsw er eapp roxim a
tely thepilotshouldg radual
lysteepenth eb anktoth es t
eep e
st
limitedtoe ither90 o r180
,tu rnsa roundapo inta re angl
euponr eachingth eini
tia
lpo intofen try.
consecut
iv e360 turnswh ere
, throughout them an euv er
,th e
pi
lotmu stcon stantlyad jus
ttheb ankangleand th ere sul
ting Duringth edownw indh alfofth eturn,th ep i
lotshou ld
rat
eo fturninp ropo r
tiontoth eg roundspe edasth ea irp
lan e prog ress
iv elyad ju s
tth eairplanesh eadingtow ardth e
sequencesth roughth ev a
riousw indd i
re ct
ion s.Th ep ilot insid eofth eturn.Du ringtheupw indh alf,th epilotshou ld
should m aketh esead justmen tsbyapp lyingcoo rdin a
t ed prog ress
iv elyad ju s
tth eairplanesh eadingtow ardth e
ai
leronandrudd erp re
ssurethroughou tth eturn. outsideo fth eturn.R eca
llfromth epreviou sd iscussionon
windco rrect
ionang lethattheairpl
anesh ead ingshou ldb e
Whenp erfo rm ingatu rna roundapo int
,th ep i
lotshou ld aheado fi tspo s
itionov erthegrounddu ringth edownw ind
selectap rom inent,g round -basedr eferen cethatise a si
ly halfo fthetu rnb ehinditspo s
it
iondu r
ingth eupw indh alf.
dis
tingu i sh abley e
tsm al
lenoughtop res en
tap re cise Rem emb erth atth ego a
li sto m akeacon s
t antradiustu rn
referen c
e.[F igure6 -6]Th ep i
lotshoulden t e
r them aneuv er overth eg roundand ,becausetheairp
lan ei sflyingth rough
downw ind , wh ereth eg round speedi sati tsf a
stest
,a tth e amov inga i
rm ass,thepilotmustconstantlyad justtheb ank
approp ri
at er adiuso ftu rnandd i
stan cefromth es elected angl etoa chieveth i
sgo a
l.
ground -ba sedr eferenc epo in
t.Inah igh-w ingairplane,th e
low e
redw ing m ayb lo ckth ev iewo fth eg roundr eference T
hefo
llowingaret
hem os
tcomm one
rro
rsin
theper
form
a n
ce
point,esp eciallyinair p
l an esw i
thside- b
y-sides e
atingd ur
i ng o
ftu
rnsaroundapo int:
aleftturn( assumi ngth att hepilo
tisflyingfr om thelef
ts eat)
. F a
ilu
r etoad equate
lycle
artheareaabove
,below,
Top revent t h
is,thepilotm a yneedtoc hange them an e
uveri ng andone ithe
rs ideofth
eairp
lanefo
rsafe
tyhaz
ards,
al
titudeo rth ed esiredtu rnr ad
iu s
.Th epilotshou lden sure ini
tia
llyandth roughou
tthemaneuve
r.
thatth ere feren c
epo in tisv i
sibleatalltim esthroughou tthe
man euver
,ev enw ithth ew inglow eredinab ank.

i
3

4
i

F
igu
re6
-6.S
-tu
rns
.

6
-9
 Failure to establish a constant, level altitude prior to angle for drift effects and changes in groundspeed, again re-
entering the maneuver. crossing the straight-line ground reference as the second 180
Failure to maintain altitude during the maneuver. constant radius turn is completed. If the straight-line ground
reference is of sufficient length, the pilot may complete as
Failure to properly assess wind direction. many as can be safely accomplished.
Failure to properly execute constant radius turns.
In the same manner as the rectangular course, it is standard
Failure to manipulate the flight controls in a smooth
practice to enter ground-based maneuvers downwind where
and continuous manner.
groundspeed is greatest. As such, the roll into the turn must
Failure to establish the appropriate wind correction be rapid, but not aggressive, and the angle of bank must be
angle. steepest when initiating the turn. As the turn progresses,
Failure to apply coordinated aileron and rudder the bank angle and the rate of rollout must be decreased as
pressure, resulting in slips or skids. the groundspeed decreases to ensure that the turns radius
is constant. During the first turn, when the airplane is at the
90 point, it will be directly crosswind. In addition to the rate
S-Turns
of rollout and bank angle, the pilot must control the wind
S-turns is a ground reference maneuver in which the correction angle throughout the turn.
airplanes ground track resembles two opposite but equal
half-circles on each side of a selected ground-based straight- Controlling the wind correction angle during a turn can be
line reference. [Figure 6-6] This ground reference maneuver complex to understand. The concept is best understood by
presents a practical application for the correction of wind comprehending the difference between the number of degrees
during a turn. The objectives of S-turns across a road are that the airplane has turned over the ground verses the number
as follows: of degrees that the airplane has turned in the air. For example,
Maintaining a specific relationship between the if the airplane is exactly crosswind, meaning directly at a
airplane and the ground. point that is 90 to the straight-lined ground reference. If the
wind, in this example, requires a 10 wind correction angle
Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-
(for this example, this is a left turn with the crosswind from
based references, manipulating the flight controls,
the left) the airplane would be at a heading that is 10 ahead
and scanning for outside hazards and instrument
when directly over the 90 ground reference point. In other
indications.
words, the first 90 track over the ground would result in a
Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for heading change of 100 and the last 90 track over the ground
groundspeed changes in order to maintain a constant would result in 80 of heading change.
radius turnsteeper bank angles for higher ground
speeds, shallow bank angles for slower groundspeeds. As the turn progresses from a downwind position to an
Rolling out from a turn with the required wind upwind position, the pilot must gradually decrease the bank
correction angle to compensate for any drift cause by angle with coordinated aileron and rudder pressure. The pilot
the wind. should reference the airplanes nose, wingtips, and the ground
references and adjust the rollout timing so that the airplane
Establishing and correcting the wind correction angle
crosses the straight-line ground reference with the wings
in order to maintain the track over the ground.
level, and at the proper heading, altitude, and airspeed. As
Developing the ability to compensate for drift in the airplane re-crosses the straight-lined ground reference,
quickly changing orientations. the pilot should immediately begin the opposite turnthere
Arriving at specific points on required headings. should be no delay in rolling out from one turn and rolling
into the next turn. Because the airplane is now upwind, the
With the airplane in the downwind position, the maneuver roll in should be smooth and gentle and the initial bank angle
consists of crossing a straight-line ground reference at a 90 should be shallow. As the turn progresses, the wind changes
angle and immediately beginning a 180 constant radius from upwind, to crosswind, to downwind. In a similar manner
turn. The pilot will then adjust the roll rate and bank angle described above, the pilot should adjust the bank angle to
for drift effects and changes in groundspeed, and re-cross the correct for changes in groundspeed. As the groundspeed
straight-line ground reference in the opposite direction just increases, the pilot should increase the bank angle to maintain
as the first 180 constant radius turn is completed. The pilot a constant radius turn. At the 90 crosswind position, the
will then immediately begin a second 180 constant radius airplane should also have the correct wind correction angle.
turn in the opposite direction, adjusting the roll rate and bank As the airplane turns downwind, the groundspeed increases;

6-10
the bank angle should be increased so that the rate of turn is Developing the pilots skills to visualize each specific
used to maintain a constant radius turn. segment of the maneuver and the maneuver as a whole,
prior to execution.
The following are the most common errors made while Developing a pilots ability to intuitively manipulate
performing S-turns across a road: flight controls to adjust the bank angle during turns to
Failure to adequately clear the area above, below, correct for groundspeed changes in order to maintain
and on either side of the airplane for safety hazards, constant radius turns and proper ground track between
initially and throughout the maneuver. ground references.
Failure to establish a constant, level altitude prior to
entering the maneuver. Eights Along a Road
Eights along a road is a ground reference maneuver in which
Failure to maintain altitude during the maneuver. the ground track consists of two opposite 360 adjacent turns
Failure to properly assess wind direction. with the center of each 360 turn and the adjacent turn point
Failure to properly execute constant radius turns. perpendicular or parallel to the straight-line ground reference
(road, railroad tracks, fence line, pipeline right-of-way, etc.).
Failure to manipulate the flight controls in a smooth [Figure 6-7] Like the other ground reference maneuvers, its
and continuous manner when transitioning into turns. objective is to further develop division of attention while
Failure to establish the appropriate wind correction compensating for drift, maintaining orientation with ground
angle. references, and maintaining a constant altitude.
Failure to apply coordinated aileron and rudder
Although eights along a road may be performed with the
pressure, resulting in slips or skids.
wind blowing parallel or perpendicular to the straight-line
ground reference, only the perpendicular wind situation is
Elementary Eights
explained since the principles involved are common to each.
Elementary eights are a family of maneuvers in which each The pilot should select a straight-line ground reference that is
individual maneuver is one that the airplane tracks a path over perpendicular to the wind and position the airplane parallel
the ground similar to the shape of a figure eight. There are to and directly above the straight-line ground reference.
various types of eights, progressing from the elementary types Since this places the airplane in a crosswind position, the
to very difficult types in the advanced maneuvers. Each eight pilot must compensate for the wind drift with an appropriate
is intended to develop a pilots flight control coordination wind correction angle.
skills, strengthen their awareness relative to the selected
ground references, and enhance division of attention so that The following description is illustrated in Figure 6-7. The
flying becomes more instinctive than mechanical. Eights airplane is initially in a crosswind position, perpendicular to
require a greater degree of focused attention to the selected the wind, and over the ground-based reference. The first turn
ground references; however, the real significance of eights should be a left turn toward a downwind position starting
is that pilot must strive for flight precision. with a steeping bank. When the entry is made into the turn, it
requires that the turn begin with a medium bank and gradually
Elementary eights include eights along a road, eights across a steepen to its maximum bank angle when the airplane is
road, and eights around pylons. Each of these maneuvers is a directly downwind. As the airplane turns from downwind
variation of a turn around a point. Each eight uses two ground to crosswind, the bank angle needs to be gradually reduced
reference points about which the airplane turns first in one since groundspeed is decreasing; however, the groundspeed
direction and then the opposite directionlike a figure eight. only decreases by 12 of its velocity during the first 23 of the
turn from downwind to crosswind.
Eights maneuvers are designed for the following purposes:
Further development of the pilots skill in maintaining The pilot must control the bank angle as well as the rate at
a specific relationship between the airplane and the which the bank angle is reduced so that the wind correction
ground references. angle is correct. Assuming that the wind is coming from
the right side of the airplane, the airplane heading should
Improving the pilots ability to divide attention
be slightly ahead of its position over the ground. When the
between the flightpath and ground-based references,
airplane completes the first 180 of ground track, it is directly
manipulation of the flight controls, and scanning for
crosswind, and the airplane should be at the maximum wind
outside hazards and instrument indications during both
correction angle.
turning and straight-line flight.

6-11
 WI
N
D
i i i

F
igu
re6
-7.E
igh
tsa
longaroad
.

Astheturni scon t
inuedtow a
rdth eupw ind,th ea i
rplane
s pi
lotshou ldrol
lthea irplan eintoam ediumb ankturninth e
groundspeedisd ec
reasing
,w hichr equirest hepilottoreduce oppo s
it edirect
iontob eginth e360 turnon theupw indsid e
theb ankang l
etos lowth era
t eoftu rn.Ifth epilotdoesnot oftheg r o
u ndref
erenc e
.T hew indw i
lld ecrea
s etheairplanes
reduceth ebankang l
e,thecontinu edh ighr ateof tu
rnwou ld ground spe edandd r
i f
tth eairplaneb acktow a
rdth eg round
causethetu rntob ecomp letedp rem aturely . Anotherw ay referen ce
; ther
efore
, th epilotmu std e
cr e
a setheb ankslow ly
toexp la
inth iseffec
ti sthew indi sd ri
f tingth eairpl
ane during thef i
rs
t90 of th eupw ind tu
rn ino rdertoe s
tablisha
downw inda tthes ametim eitsg round spe ediss lowing;if con s
tan tradius
.Du ring th enext90 of turn,
th epilotshou ld
theairplaneh asasteeperthanr equiredb ankang le
,itsra
te increa seth ebankan g
l e,since thegrou ndspeedisi ncr
e a
si ng
,
ofturn willbetoof astandth ea irp
l anew illcomp letethe to m aintainacon stantr adiusande stab l
ishth eprop erw ind
turnb e
foreith ashadtimetor e
tu rntoth eg roundr e
ference
. correctionang lebefor er eachingthe180 upw indpo sit
ion .

Whenthea i
rplan eisd irec
tlyupw ind,wh ichisat270 into Asther em a
ining180 ofturncon t
inu es,th ewindb ecom es
thefirstturn,th eb ankang l
eshou ldb esh a
llow w i
thno atai
lw indandth enac rossw ind.Con si s
t entwi
thp revious
windcorrec
tion.A sth eai
rplan eturn sc rosswindag a
in,the downw inda ndc rosswindd e
s crip
tion s
,t hep ilo
tm ustincrease
airp
lanesgrou ndspe edbegins
i n cr
easi ng;therefo
re,t hepilo
t theb a
n ka ng
l east heai
r p
laner e
ach esth ed ownwindp osit
ion
shouldadjustth eb ankang leandco rrespond ingrateo fturn andd ecre as
eth eb ankang l ea sth ea i rplanere achesth e
propor
tionate
ly ino rd e
rtor ea
ch theg roundr eferencea tthe cros
sw indpo sition.Further,th er a
t eo fro llinandro l
lou t
comp le
tiono fth e360 groundt rack.Th ep i
lotm ayv ary shouldb econ sis
tentw i
thhowf astth eg round sp
e edch anges
theb ankang letoco rrec
tfo ranyp reviou serro
r sm adein dur
in gtheturn.R em em ber
,w h enturnin gf roma nupw in dor
judgingther e
tu rn
ingr a
teandc losurer ate.Th epilotshould dow nwi n
dp ositiontoac rossw indp osit
i o n,theg
r ound speed
timetherolloutso th at
theairplan eisstr a
igh t
-and-levelov e
r changesb y12 d ur
i ngthefi
rst2
3o
ft he9 0 tur n
.Thefi n
al12 of
thestar
tingpo intw ithenoughd rif
tco rrectiontoho lditov e
r thegro undspe edc hangesinth elas
t 1
3o f the t
urn
.I nco nt
r a
st
,
thestra
ight-l
in egroundr efer
en ce
.A ssum ingthatth ew ind whentu rningf romac rossw indpo sit
iontoanupw indo r
isnowf romth eleft,theairplan eshou ldb ebankeda tal ef
t downw indpo si
tion,theg round spe edch ang esby12 du r
ing
windcorrec
tionang l e. thefirst3 o
1
fth e90 turn.Th efin a
l2o
1
ftheground sp eed
changesinth el ast23 ofthetu rn.
A
fter momenta
rilyfly
ingstraigh
t-and-lev
elw i
ththe
e
stab
li
shedwindcorr
ect
ion
,alongthegroundre
fer
ence
,th
e

6
-12
Tosuc ce
ssful
lyp e
rforme ight
salongag roundref
erence
, T
hep att
ernin volvesfly
ingd ownwin dbetw eenthep yl
ons
thepi
l o
tm u
stbeabletosm ooth
lya n
da c
cura
tel
yc o
ordin
ate a
ndu pwindo uts
ideo fthep y
lons.Itm ayi ncludeas hort
changesinbanka ng
letom a
int
ainac o
nst
a n
trad
iustu
rna n
d p
eriodo fs traight-and-lev e
lf l
igh t whilep roceeding
coun
teractdri
ft
.T hespeedi nw h
ichthepi
lotcanan
tic
ipat
e d
iagonal
lyfr omo nepylont otheother.T hep y
lonss hou
ld
thes
ec orrec
tion
sdirec
tlyaffec
tstheaccura
cyoftheovera
ll b
eo na l
ineperp endicu
lar
t othew ind
.T hem a neuve
rs hou
ld
maneuverandtheam ounto fat
tent
ionthatcanbedirec
ted b
est a
rtedw i
tht hea i
rplaneo nad ow nwin dhe a
dingw h
en
towardscann
ingforout
sidehazard
sandins
trumen
tind
ica
tion
s. p
assinge qu
allyb etweenth ep y
lons.T hedistancebetw e
en
t
hep ylonsandt hew i
ndv e
l oci
tyd e
terminest h
e in
it
iala ng
le
EightsAc rossARoad o
fb ankrequi
r edtom ain
tainac on
stantturnradiusfr
omt h
e
Thism aneuv e
ri sav a
ria
tionofeightsalongaroadand p
ylonsd u
ringea c
h tur
n.Thes teepe
stb an
ksa reneces
saryjust
involvesthes amep r
inc
iplesandtechn
iqu e
s.Thepr
imary a
fte
re achtu
rne nt
r yandjus
tb e
foretherol
loutfrome achturn
dif
ferencei
s thata
tthecomplet
ionofeachloopo
fthef
igure w
heretheairp
la neisheadedd ow nwindandt hegroundspeed
eigh
t,theairplaneshou
ldcrossaninte
rse
ctiono
faspeci
fic i
sh ighes
t;th esh a
llowestb anksa r
e wh enth eairplaneis
groundrefe
r encepoin
t.[Figur
e6-8] h
ead eddi
rect
l yu pwindan dtheg r
o undspeedislow e
st.

Theloopsshouldbeacrosstheroadandthewindshouldb e Asino therg roundr ef e

ren cem aneuv e
rs,therateatwh i ch
pe
r pend
icu
lartothe
l o
ops.E acht
imethere
feren
ceisc
r o
ssed, theb ankang lemu stch ang edepend sonth ewindvelocity.If
thecross
ingangleshouldb ethesame,andthewingsofthe theai rplan ep roc eed sdiagon a
llyfromon eturntotheo th e
r,
ai
rplaneshou
ldb eleve
l.Th eeight
sm ayalsobeper
form ed thero lloutf rome a chtu rn mu s
tb ecomp l
etedonth eprop er
byroll
ingfromon ebankimm edi
ate
lytotheothe
r,dire
ct
ly headingw i thsu ffi
ci entw indco rr
e c
tionang l
etoen sureth a
t
overthere
ference
. af
t e
rb ri e
fs traight-an d -
levelfl
ight,theairpl
a n
earrive
sa tt he
pointwh er eatu rno fth es am eradiusc anb em adearound
E
igh tsA roundPy lons theo th erpy lon.Th es tra
igh t
-and-levelf
lightsegm en
tsmu st
E
igh tsa roundpy lonsisaground-r
eferencem aneuverw ith b etang enttobo thc ir cu
larp at
terns.
thes am ep r
inc
iplesan d
techn
iquesofcorrec
tingforwi nddri
ft
asu sedintu rnsa roundapointandth es ameob je
ctivesas C omm one rror s
i nth ep er
f ormanceo felem en
taryeigh
tsa r e
:
o
th erg roundtrackm aneuver
s.Eight
saroundpy lonsu t
il
izes F ailur etoad equatelyclearth ea reaabove,b elow ,
twog roundr ef
er encepoin
tscal
ledpy lons.
Tu rnsaround andone ithers ideo ftheairplaneforsafetyhaz ards
,
eachp yl onarem adeinoppos
itedi
rect
ion stofo
llowag round initi a
llyandth roughoutth em aneuv e
r.
t
ra ckinth efo
rmo fafigur
e8.[Figure6 -9]
Poo rs el
e ct
iono fg roundref e
renc e
s.
i

F
igu
re6
-8.E
igh
tsa
cro
ssaroad
.

6
-13
 i

F
igu
re6
-9.E
igh
tsa
roundp
ylon
s.

Fa
ilur etoe s
tabli
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6
-15
airplane flies a prescribed path over the ground and the pilot pilot continues the descent below the pivotal altitude, the
attempts to maintain the track by correcting for the wind. projected visual reference line with respect to the pylon will
With eights-on-pylons, the pilot maintains lateral orientation begin to move forward.
to a specific spot on the ground. This develops the pilots
ability to maneuver the airplane accurately while dividing The altitude at which the visual reference line ceases to
attention between the flightpath and the selected pylons on move across the ground is the pivotal altitude. If the airplane
the ground. descends below the pivotal altitude, the pilot should increase
power to maintain airspeed while regaining altitude to the
An explanation of the pivotal altitude is also essential. First, point at which the projected reference line moves neither
a good rule of thumb for estimating the pivotal altitude is to backward nor forward but actually pivots on the pylon. In this
square the groundspeed, then divide by 15 (if the groundspeed way, the pilot can determine the pivotal altitude of the airplane.
is in miles per hour) or divide by 11.3 (if the groundspeed is
in knots), and then add the mean sea level (MSL) altitude of The pivotal altitude is critical and changes with variations
the ground reference. The pivotal altitude is the altitude at in groundspeed. Since the headings throughout turns
which, for a given groundspeed, the projection of the visual continuously vary from downwind to upwind, the groundspeed
reference line to the pylon appears to pivot. [Figure 6-12] The constantly changes. This results in the proper pivotal altitude
pivotal altitude does not vary with the angle of bank unless varying slightly throughout the turn. The pilot should adjust
the bank is steep enough to affect the groundspeed. for this by climbing or descending, as necessary, to hold the
visual reference line on the pylons. This change in altitude
Distance from the pylon affects the angle of bank. At any is dependent on the groundspeed.
altitude above that pivotal altitude, the projected reference
line appears to move rearward in a circular path in relation to Selecting proper pylon is an important factor of successfully
the pylon. Conversely, when the airplane is below the pivotal performing eights-on-pylons. They should be sufficiently
altitude, the projected reference line appears to move forward prominent so the pilot can view them when completing the
in a circular path. [Figure 6-13] To demonstrate this, the pilot turn around one pylon and heading for the next. They should
will fly at maneuvering speed and at an altitude below the also be adequately spaced to provide time for planning the
pivotal altitude, and then placed in a medium-banked turn. turns but not spaced so far apart that they cause unnecessary
The projected visual reference line appears to move forward straight-and-level flight between the pylons. The selected
along the ground (pylon moves back) as the airplane turns. pylons should also be at the same elevation, since differences
The pilot then executes a climb to an altitude well above the of over few feet necessitate climbing or descending between
pivotal altitude. When the airplane is again at maneuvering each turn. The pilot should select two pylons along a line that
speed, it is placed in a medium-banked turn. At the higher lies perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The distance
altitude, the projected visual reference line appears to move between the pylons should allow for the straight-and-level
backward across the ground (pylon moves forward). flight segment to last from 3 to 5 seconds.

After demonstrating the maneuver at a high altitude, the pilot The pilot should estimate the pivotal altitude during preflight
should reduce power and begin a descent at maneuvering planning. Weather reports and consultation with other pilots
speed in a continuing medium bank turn around the pylon. flying in the area may provide both the wind direction and
The apparent backward movement of the projected visual velocity. If the references are previously known (many
reference line with respect to the pylon will slow down as flight instructors already have these ground-based reference
altitude is lost and will eventually stop for an instant. If the selected), the sectional chart will provide the MSL of the
references, the Pilots Operating Handbook (POH) provides
the range of maneuvering airspeeds (based on weight), and
Groundspeed Approximate the wind direction and velocity can be estimated to calculate
Knots MPH Pivotal Altitude the appropriate pivotal altitudes. The pilot should calculate
87 100 670 the pivotal altitude for each position: upwind, downwind,
91 105 735 and crosswind.
96 110 810
100 115 885 The pilot should begin the eight-on-pylons maneuver by
104 120 960 flying diagonally crosswind between the pylons to a point
109 125 1050 downwind from the first pylon so that the first turn can be
113 130 1130 made into the wind. As the airplane approaches a position
where the pylon appears to be just ahead of the wingtip, the
Figure 6-12. Speed versus pivotal altitude.

6-16
 Too high

Pivotal altitude

Too low

Figure 6-13. Effect of different altitudes on pivotal altitude.

pilot should begin the turn by lowering the upwind wing so that the airplane arrives at a point downwind from the
to the point where the visual reference line aligns with the second pylon that is equal in distance from the pylon as the
pylon. The reference line should appear to pivot on the pylon. corresponding point was from the first pylon at the beginning
As the airplane heads upwind, the groundspeed decreases, of the maneuver.
which lowers the pivotal altitude. As a result, the pilot must
descend to hold the visual reference line on the pylon. As At this point, the pilot should begin a turn in the opposite
the turn progresses on the upwind side of the pylon, the wind direction by lowering the upwind wing to the point where the
becomes more of a crosswind. Since this maneuver does not visual reference line aligns with the pylon. The pilot should
require the turn to be completed at a constant radius, the pilot then continue the turn the same way the corresponding turn was
does not need to apply drift correction to complete the turn. performed around the first pylon but in the opposite direction.

If the visual reference line appears to move ahead of the With prompt correction, and a very fine control pressures,
pylon, the pilot should increase altitude. If the visual reference it is possible to hold the visual reference line directly on the
line appears to move behind the pylon, the pilot should pylon even in strong winds. The pilot may make corrections
decrease altitude. Deflecting the rudder to yaw the airplane for temporary variations, such as those caused by gusts
and force the wing and reference line forward or backward to or inattention by reducing the bank angle slightly to fly
the pylon places the airplane in uncoordinated flight, at low relatively straight to bring forward a lagging visual reference
altitude, with steep bank angles and must not be attempted. line or by increasing the bank angle temporarily to turn back
a visual reference line that has moved ahead. With practice,
As the airplane turns toward a downwind heading, the pilot these corrections may become slight enough to be barely
should rollout from the turn to allow the airplane to proceed noticeable. It is important to understand that variations in
diagonally to a point tangent on the downwind side of the pylon position are according to the apparent movement of the
second pylon. The pilot should complete the rollout with visual reference line. Attempting to correct pivotal altitude
the proper wind correction angle to correct for wind drift, by the use of the altimeter is ineffective.

6-17
Eights-on-pylons are performed at bank angles ranging from Failure to properly execute constant radius turns.
shallow to steep. [Figure 6-14] The pilot should understand Failure to manipulate the flight controls in a smooth
that the bank chosen does not alter the pivotal altitude. As and continuous manner.
proficiency is gained, the instructor should increase the
complexity of the maneuver by directing the student to enter Failure to establish the appropriate wind correction
at a distance from the pylon that results in a specific bank angles.
angle at the steepest point in the pylon turn. Failure to apply coordinated aileron and rudder
pressure, resulting in slips or skids.
The most common error in attempting to hold a pylon is
Failure to maintain orientation as the maneuver
incorrect use of the rudder. When the projection of the visual
progresses.
reference line moves forward with respect to the pylon, many
pilots tend to apply inside rudder pressure to yaw the wing Chapter Summary
backward. When the reference line moves behind the pylon,
they tend to apply outside rudder pressure to yaw the wing At the completion of ground reference maneuvers, the pilot
forward. The pilot should use the rudder only for coordination. should not only be able to command the airplane to specific
pitch, roll, and yaw attitudes but, while correcting for the
Other common errors in the performance of eights-on- effects of wind drift, also control the airplanes orientation in
pylons are: relation to ground-based references. It should be reinforced
that safety is paramount in all aspects of flying. Ground
Failure to adequately clear the area above, below, reference maneuvers require planning and high levels of
and on either side of the airplane for safety hazards, vigilance to ensure that the practice and performance of these
initially and throughout the maneuver. maneuvers are executed where the safety to groups of people,
Poor selection of ground references. livestock, communities, and the pilot is not compromised.
Failure to establish a constant, level altitude prior to To master ground reference maneuvers, a pilot must develop
entering the maneuver. coordination, timing, and division of attention to accurately
maneuver the airplane in reference to flight attitudes and
Failure to maintain adequate altitude control during specific ground references. With these enhanced skills, the
the maneuver. pilot significantly strengthens their competency in everyday
Failure to properly assess wind direction. flight maneuvers, such as straight-and-level, turns, climbs,
and descents.

60
45
30
Pivotal altitude

Figure 6-14. Bank angle versus pivotal altitude.

6-18
Chapter 7

$LUSRUW7UDIF3DWWHUQV
Introduction
d i
Airport traffic patterns are developed to ensure that air traffic
is flown into and out of an airport safely. Each airport traffic
pattern is established based on the local conditions, including
the direction and placement of the pattern, the altitude at
which it is to be flown, and the procedures for entering and
exiting the pattern. It is imperative that pilots are taught correct
traffic pattern procedures and exercise constant vigilance in
the vicinity of airports when entering and exiting the traffic
pattern. Information regarding the procedures for a specific
airport can be found in the Chart Supplements. Additional
information on airport operations and traffic patterns can be
found in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).

7-1
7-1
7-
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A pilot is not expected to have extensive knowledge of
all traffic patterns at all airports, but if the pilot is familiar
Just as roads and streets are essential for operating
with the basic rectangular pattern, it is easy to make proper
automobiles, airports or airstrips are essential for operating
approaches and departures from most airports, regardless
airplanes. Every flight begins and ends at an airport or other
of whether or not they have control towers. At airports with
suitable landing field; therefore, it is essential that pilots learn
operating control towers, the tower operator can instruct
the traffic rules, traffic procedures, and traffic pattern layouts
pilots to enter the traffic pattern at any point or to make a
that may be in use at various airports.
straight-in approach without flying the usual rectangular
pattern. Many other deviations are possible if the tower
When an automobile is driven on congested city streets, it
operator and the pilot work together in an effort to keep traffic
can be brought to a stop to give way to conflicting traffic;
moving smoothly. Jets or heavy airplanes will frequently
however, an airplane can only speed up, climb, descend, and be
fly wider and/or higher patterns than lighter airplanes, and
slowed down. Consequently, traffic patterns and traffic control
in many cases, will make a straight-in approach for landing.
procedures have been established for use at airports. Traffic
patterns provide procedures for takeoffs, departures, arrivals,
Compliance with the basic rectangular traffic pattern reduces
and landings. The exact nature of each airport traffic pattern
the possibility of conflicts at airports without an operating
is dependent on the runway in use, wind conditions (which
control tower. It is imperative that a pilot form the habit of
determine the runway in use), obstructions, and other factors.
exercising constant vigilance in the vicinity of airports even
when the air traffic appears to be light. Midair collisions
Control towers and radar facilities provide a means of
usually occur on clear days with unlimited visibility. Never
adjusting the flow of arriving and departing aircraft and
assume you have found all of the air traffic and stop scanning.
render assistance to pilots in busy terminal areas. Airport
lighting and runway marking systems are used frequently to
Figure 7-1 shows a standard rectangular traffic pattern.
alert pilots to abnormal conditions and hazards so arrivals
The traffic pattern altitude is usually 1,000 feet above the
and departures can be made safely.
elevation of the airport surface. The use of a common altitude
at a given airport is the key factor in minimizing the risk of
Airports vary in complexity from small grass or sod strips
collisions at airports without operating control towers.
to major terminals with paved runways and taxiways.
Regardless of the type of airport, a pilot must know and abide
When operating in the traffic pattern at an airport without an
by the rules and general operating procedures applicable to
operating control tower, the pilot should maintain an airspeed
the airport being used. The objective is to keep air traffic
of no more than 200 knots (230 miles per hour (mph)) as
moving with maximum safety and efficiency. Information
required by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14
on traffic patterns and operating procedures for an airport
CFR) part 91. In any case, the pilot should adjust the airspeed,
is documented in the Chart Supplements, as well as visual
when necessary, so that it is compatible with the airspeed of
markings on the airport itself. The use of any traffic
the other airplanes in the pattern.
pattern, service, or procedure does not diminish the pilots
responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft during flight.
When entering the traffic pattern at an airport without an
operating control tower, inbound pilots are expected to
Rs`mc`qc@hqonqsSq`ebO`ssdqmr
observe other aircraft already in the pattern and to conform to
To assure that air traffic flows into and out of an airport in an the traffic pattern in use. If there are no other aircraft present,
orderly manner, an airport traffic pattern is established based the pilot should check traffic indicators on the ground and
on the local conditions, to include the direction and altitude wind indicators to determine which runway and traffic pattern
of the pattern and the procedures for entering and leaving the direction to use. [Figure 7-2] Many airports have L-shaped
pattern. Unless the airport displays approved visual markings traffic pattern indicators displayed with a segmented circle
indicating that turns should be made to the right, the pilot adjacent to the runway. The short member of the L shows
should make all turns in the pattern to the left. the direction in which the traffic pattern turns are made
when using the runway parallel to the long member. The
When operating at an airport with an operating control tower, pilot should check the indicators from a distance or altitude
the pilot receives a clearance to approach or depart, as well well away from any other airplanes that may be flying in the
as pertinent information about the traffic pattern by radio. If traffic pattern. Upon identifying the proper traffic pattern,
there is not a control tower, it is the pilots responsibility to the pilot should enter into the traffic pattern at a point well
determine the direction of the traffic pattern, to comply with clear of the other airplanes.
the appropriate traffic rules, and to display common courtesy
toward other pilots operating in the area.

7-2
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7
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such as doorposts and wings. High-wing airplanes have The following are some important procedures that all pilots
restricted visibility above while low-wing airplanes have should be follow when flying in a traffic pattern or in the
limited visibility below. The worst-case scenario is a low- vicinity of an airport.
wing airplane flying above a high-wing airplane. Banking Tune and verify radio frequencies before entering the
from time to time can uncover blind spots. The pilot should airport traffic area.
also occasionally look to the rear of the airplane to check
for other aircraft. Figure 7-5 depicts the greatest threat area Report your position 10 miles out and listen for reports
for mid-air collisions in the traffic pattern. Listed below are from other inbound traffic.
important facts regarding mid-air collisions: Report when you are entering downwind, turning
Mid-air collisions generally occur during daylight downwind to base, and base to final. This is a good
hours; 56 percent of the accidents occur in the practice at a non-towered airport.
afternoon, 32 percent occur in the morning, and 2 Descend to traffic pattern altitude before entering the
percent occur at night, dusk, or dawn. pattern.
Most mid-air collisions occur under good visibility. Maintain a constant visual scan for other aircraft.
A mid-air collision is most likely to occur between Tune and monitor the correct Common Traffic
two aircraft going in the same direction. Advisory Frequency (CTAF) frequency.
The majority of pilots involved in mid-air collisions Be aware that there may be aircraft in the pattern
are not on a flight plan. without radios.
Nearly all accidents occur at or near uncontrolled Use exterior lights to improve the chances of being
airports and at altitudes below 1,000 feet. seen.
Pilots of all experience levels are involved in mid-air
collisions. Chapter Summary
The volume of traffic at an airport can create a hazardous
Distribution of Mid-Air Collisions environment. Airport traffic patterns are procedures that
in the Airport Traffic Pattern improve the flow of traffic at an airport and when properly
executed enhance safety. Most reported mid-air collisions
occur during the final or short final approach leg of the airport
34 34 traffic pattern.
30

20

16 16

10
Downwind

Short final

Runway
Final

Figure 7-5. Location distribution of mid-air collisions in the airport

traffic pattern.

7-6
Chapter 8

Approaches and Landings

Introduction
t d ti
There is a saying that while takeoff is optional, landing is
mandatory. Unfortunately, a review of accident statistics
indicates that over 45 percent of all general aviation accidents
occur during the approach and landing phases of a flight.
A closer look shows that the cause of over 90 percent of
those cases was pilot related and loss of control was also a
major contributing factor in 33 percent of the cases. While
the requirement to maneuver close to the ground cannot
be eliminated, pilots can develop the skills and follow
established procedures to reduce the likelihood of an accident
or mishap. This chapter focuses on the approach to landing,
factors that affect landings, types of landings, and aspects
of faulty landings.

8-1
8-1
Normal Approach and Landing It must be remembered that the manufacturers recommended
procedures, including airplane configuration and airspeeds,
A normal approach and landing involves the use of procedures
and other information relevant to approaches and landings in a
for what is considered a normal situation; that is, when engine
specific make and model airplane are contained in the Federal
power is available, the wind is light, or the final approach is
Aviation Administration (FAA)-approved Airplane Flight
made directly into the wind, the final approach path has no
Manual and/or Pilots Operating Handbook (AFM/POH)
obstacles and the landing surface is firm and of ample length
for that airplane. If any of the information in this chapter
to gradually bring the airplane to a stop. The selected landing
differs from the airplane manufacturers recommendations
point is normally beyond the runways approach threshold
as contained in the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturers
but within the first 13 portion of the runway.
recommendations take precedence.
The factors involved and the procedures described for the
Base Leg
normal approach and landing also have applications to the
The placement of the base leg is one of the more important
other-than-normal approaches and landings and are discussed
judgments made by the pilot in any landing approach.
later in this chapter. This being the case, the principles of
[Figure 8-1] The pilot must accurately judge the altitude
normal operations are explained first and must be understood
and distance from which a gradual, stabilized descent results
before proceeding to the more complex operations. To help
in landing at the desired spot. The distance depends on the
the pilot better understand the factors that influence judgment
altitude of the base leg, the effect of wind, and the amount
and procedures, the last part of the approach pattern and the
of wing flaps used. When there is a strong wind on final
actual landing is divided into five phases:
approach or the flaps are used to produce a steep angle
1. the base leg of descent, the base leg must be positioned closer to the
2. the final approach approach end of the runway than would be required with a
light wind or no flaps. Normally, the landing gear is extended
3. the round out (flare)
and the before-landing check completed prior to reaching
4. the touchdown the base leg.
5. the after-landing roll
After turning onto the base leg, start the descent with reduced
power and airspeed of approximately 1.4 VSO, which is the

18

36

Figure 8-1. Base leg and final approach.

8-2
stalling speed with power off, landing gear and flaps down. of the runway or landing surface so that drift (if any) is
For example, if VSO is 60 knots, the speed should be 1.4 times recognized immediately. On a normal approach, with no
60 or 84 knots. Landing flaps may be partially lowered, if wind drift, the longitudinal axis is kept aligned with the
desired, at this time. Full flaps are not recommended until the runway centerline throughout the approach and landing. (The
final approach is established. A drift correction is established proper way to correct for a crosswind is explained under the
and maintained to follow a ground track perpendicular to section, Crosswind Approach and Landing. For now, only
the extension of the centerline of the runway on which the an approach and landing where the wind is straight down the
landing is to be made. Since the final approach and landing runway are discussed.)
are normally made into the wind, there is somewhat of a
crosswind during the base leg. This requires that the airplane After aligning the airplane with the runway centerline, the
be angled sufficiently into the wind to prevent drifting farther final flap setting is completed and the pitch attitude adjusted
away from the intended landing spot. as required for the desired rate of descent. Slight adjustments
in pitch and power may be necessary to maintain the descent
The base leg is continued to the point where a medium to attitude and the desired approach airspeed. In the absence of
shallow-banked turn aligns the airplanes path directly with the manufacturers recommended airspeed, a speed equal to
the centerline of the landing runway. This descending turn is 1.3 VSO should be used. If VSO is 60 knots, the speed should
completed at a safe altitude and dependent upon the height be 78 knots. When the pitch attitude and airspeed have been
of the terrain and any obstructions along the ground track. stabilized, the airplane is re-trimmed to relieve the pressures
The turn to the final approach is sufficiently above the airport being held on the controls.
elevation to permit a final approach long enough to accurately
estimate the resultant point of touchdown while maintaining A stabilized descent angle is controlled throughout the
the proper approach airspeed. This requires careful planning approach so that the airplane lands in the center of the first
as to the starting point and the radius of the turn. Normally, it third of the runway. The descent angle is affected by all four
is recommended that the angle of bank not exceed a medium fundamental forces that act on an airplane (lift, drag, thrust,
bank because the steeper the angle of bank, the higher the and weight). If all the forces are constant, the descent angle
airspeed at which the airplane stalls. Since the base-to-final is constant in a no-wind condition. The pilot controls these
turn is made at a relatively low altitude, it is important that forces by adjusting the airspeed, attitude, power, and drag
a stall not occur at this point. If an extremely steep bank is (flaps or forward slip). The wind also plays a prominent part
needed to prevent overshooting the proper final approach in the gliding distance over the ground [Figure 8-2]; the
path, it is advisable to discontinue the approach, go around, pilot does not have control over the wind but corrects for
and plan to start the turn earlier on the next approach rather its effect on the airplanes descent by appropriate pitch and
than risk a hazardous situation. power adjustments.

Final Approach Considering the factors that affect the descent angle on the
After the base-to-final approach turn is completed, the final approach, for all practical purposes at a given pitch
longitudinal axis of the airplane is aligned with the centerline attitude there is only one power setting for one airspeed, one

ng
Stro he a d wind
th
pa
ht
flig
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airs
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sed al
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Inc No
344

Figure 8-2. Effect of headwind on final approach.

8-3
flap setting, and one wind condition. A change in any one of Producing greater drag, permitting a steeper descent
these variables requires an appropriate coordinated change angle without airspeed increase, and
in the other controllable variables. For example, if the pitch Reducing the length of the landing roll.
attitude is raised too high without an increase of power, the
airplane settles very rapidly and touches down short of the Flap extension has a definite effect on the airplanes pitch
desired spot. For this reason, never try to stretch a glide by behavior. The increased camber from flap deflection
applying back-elevator pressure alone to reach the desired produces lift primarily on the rear portion of the wing. This
landing spot. This shortens the gliding distance if power is produces a nose-down pitching moment; however, the change
not added simultaneously. The proper angle of descent and in tail loads from the downwash deflected by the flaps over
airspeed is maintained by coordinating pitch attitude changes the horizontal tail has a significant influence on the pitching
and power changes. moment. Consequently, pitch behavior depends on the design
features of the particular airplane.
The objective of a good, stabilized final approach is to
descend at an angle and airspeed that permits the airplane to Flap deflection of up to 15 primarily produces lift with
reach the desired touchdown point at an airspeed that results minimal drag. The airplane has a tendency to balloon up with
in minimum floating just before touchdown; in essence, a initial flap deflection because of the lift increase. The nose-
semi-stalled condition. To accomplish this, it is essential down pitching moment, however, tends to offset the balloon.
that both the descent angle and the airspeed be accurately Flap deflection beyond 15 produces a large increase in drag.
controlled. Since on a normal approach the power setting is Also, deflection beyond 15 produces a significant nose-up
not fixed as in a power-off approach, the power and pitch pitching moment in high-wing airplanes because the resulting
attitude are adjusted simultaneously as necessary to control downwash increases the airflow over the horizontal tail.
the airspeed and the descent angle, or to attain the desired
altitudes along the approach path. By lowering the nose and The time of flap extension and the degree of deflection
reducing power to keep approach airspeed constant, a descent are related. Large flap deflections at one single point in
at a higher rate can be made to correct for being too high in the landing pattern produce large lift changes that require
the approach. This is one reason for performing approaches significant pitch and power changes in order to maintain
with partial power; if the approach is too high, merely lower airspeed and descent angle. Consequently, there is an
the nose and reduce the power. When the approach is too advantage to extending flaps in increments while in the
low, add power and raise the nose. landing pattern. Incremental deflection of flaps on downwind,
base leg, and final approach allow smaller adjustments of
Use of Flaps pitch and power compared to extension of full flaps all at
The lift/drag factors are varied by the pilot to adjust the descent one time.
through the use of landing flaps. [Figures 8-3 and 8-4] Flap
extension during landings provides several advantages by: When the flaps are lowered, the airspeed decreases unless
Producing greater lift and permitting lower landing the power is increased or the pitch attitude lowered. On final
speed, approach, the pilot must estimate where the airplane lands

with: constant airspeed

constant power

Full
flap
s

Half No fla
flaps ps
34

Figure 8-3. Effect of flaps on the landing point.

8-4
 No flap Half Ful
s; flatte flaps l fla
r desce
nt ang ps;
le stee
pe
rd
es
ce
nt
with: constant airspeed an
gle
constant power

34
Figure 8-4. Effect of flaps on the approach angle.

through judgment of the descent angle. If it appears that the requires that the vision be focused properly in order that the
airplane is going to overshoot the desired landing spot, more important objects stand out as clearly as possible.
flaps are used, if not fully extended, or the power reduced
further and the pitch attitude lowered. This results in a steeper Speed blurs objects at close range. For example, most
approach. If the desired landing spot is being undershot and a everyone has noted this in an automobile moving at high
shallower approach is needed, both power and pitch attitude speed. Nearby objects seem to merge together in a blur,
are increased to readjust the descent angle. Never retract while objects farther away stand out clearly. The driver
the flaps to correct for undershooting since that suddenly subconsciously focuses the eyes sufficiently far ahead of the
decreases the lift and causes the airplane to sink rapidly. automobile to see objects distinctly.

The airplane must be re-trimmed on the final approach to The distance at which the pilots vision is focused should be
compensate for the change in aerodynamic forces. With proportionate to the speed at which the airplane is traveling
the reduced power and with a slower airspeed, the airflow over the ground. Thus, as speed is reduced during the round
produces less lift on the wings and less downward force on out, the distance ahead of the airplane at which it is possible
the horizontal stabilizer resulting in a significant nose-down to focus is brought closer accordingly.
tendency. The elevator must then be trimmed more nose-up.
If the pilot attempts to focus on a reference that is too close
The round out, touchdown, and landing roll are much easier or looks directly down, the reference becomes blurred,
to accomplish when they are preceded by a proper final [Figure 8-5] and the reaction is either too abrupt or too late.
approach consisting of precise control of airspeed, attitude, In this case, the pilots tendency is to over-control, round
power, and drag resulting in a stabilized descent angle. out high, and make full-stall, drop-in landings. If the pilot
focuses too far ahead, accuracy in judging the closeness of
Estimating Height and Movement the ground is lost and the consequent reaction is too slow
During the approach, round out, and touchdown; vision is since there does not appear to be a necessity for action. This
of prime importance. To provide a wide scope of vision and results in the airplane flying into the ground nose first. The
to foster good judgment of height and movement, the pilots change of visual focus from a long distance to a short distance
head should assume a natural, straight-ahead position. Visual requires a definite time interval and, even though the time
focus is not fixed on any one side or any one spot ahead of is brief, the airplanes speed during this interval is such that
the airplane. Instead, it is changed slowly from a point just the airplane travels an appreciable distance, both forward
over the airplanes nose to the desired touchdown zone and and downward toward the ground.
back again. This is done while maintaining a deliberate
awareness of distance from either side of the runway using If the focus is changed gradually, being brought progressively
your peripheral field of vision. closer as speed is reduced, the time interval and the pilots
reaction are reduced and the whole landing process smoothed out.
Accurate estimation of distance is, besides being a matter
of practice, dependent upon how clearly objects are seen. It

8-5
 Whe ntheAOA is i
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graduallyd ecreases
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creasingtheAOA .
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8
-6
 10 to 15

277
Figure 8-7. To obtain necessary visual cues, the pilot should look toward the runway at a shallow angle.

the runway to move progressively rearward as the airplane Touchdown

loses altitude. This is an important visual cue in assessing the The touchdown is the gentle settling of the airplane onto the
rate of altitude loss. Conversely, forward movement of the landing surface. The round out and touchdown are normally
visual interception point indicates an increase in altitude and made with the engine idling and the airplane at minimum
means that the pitch angle was increased too rapidly, resulting controllable airspeed so that the airplane touches down on
in an over flare. Location of the visual interception point the main gear at approximately stalling speed. As the airplane
in conjunction with assessment of flow velocity of nearby settles, the proper landing attitude is attained by application
off-runway terrain, as well as the similarity of appearance of of whatever back-elevator pressure is necessary.
height above the runway ahead of the airplane (in comparison
to the way it looked when the airplane was taxied prior to Some pilots try to force or fly the airplane onto the ground
takeoff), is also used to judge when the wheels are just a few without establishing the proper landing attitude. The airplane
inches above the runway. should never be flown on the runway with excessive speed.
A common technique to making a smooth touchdown is to
The pitch attitude of the airplane in a full-flap approach is actually focus on holding the wheels of the aircraft a few
considerably lower than in a no-flap approach. To attain inches off the ground as long as possible using the elevators
the proper landing attitude before touching down, the nose while the power is smoothly reduced to idle. In most cases,
must travel through a greater pitch change when flaps are when the wheels are within 2 or 3 feet off the ground, the
fully extended. Since the round out is usually started at airplane is still settling too fast for a gentle touchdown;
approximately the same height above the ground regardless of therefore, this descent must be retarded by increasing back-
the degree of flaps used, the pitch attitude must be increased elevator pressure. Since the airplane is already close to
at a faster rate when full flaps are used; however, the round its stalling speed and is settling, this added back-elevator
out is still be executed at a rate proportionate to the airplanes pressure only slows the settling instead of stopping it. At
downward motion. the same time, it results in the airplane touching the ground
in the proper landing attitude and the main wheels touching
Once the actual process of rounding out is started, do not down first so that little or no weight is on the nose wheel.
push the elevator control forward. If too much back-elevator [Figure 8-8]
pressure was exerted, this pressure is either slightly relaxed or
held constant, depending on the degree of the error. In some After the main wheels make initial contact with the ground,
cases, it may be necessary to advance the throttle slightly to back-elevator pressure is held to maintain a positive AOA
prevent an excessive rate of sink or a stall, either of which for aerodynamic braking and to hold the nose wheel off
results in a hard, drop-in type landing. the ground until the airplane decelerates. As the airplanes
momentum decreases, back-elevator pressure is gradually
It is recommended that a pilot form the habit of keeping one relaxed to allow the nose wheel to gently settle onto the
hand on the throttle throughout the approach and landing runway. This permits steering with the nose wheel. At the
should a sudden and unexpected hazardous situation require same time, it decreases the AOA and reduces lift on the wings
an immediate application of power.

8-7
 15fee
t

2to3fee
t
1foo
t

F
igu
re8
-8.Aw
el
l-e
xecu
tedroundou
tre
sul
tsina
tta
iningth
eprop
erland
inga
tt
itud
e.

topr
eventf
loat
ingorsk
ipp
inganda
llowsth
efullwe
ightof w
h enmor
epo
sit
ivec
ont
rol
isrequ
ire
dth
anco
uldb
eob
ta
ine
d
thea
irp
lanetores
tonthewhee
lsfo
rbet
terbrak
inga
ction
. withrudd
ero
rnosewhee
lste
eringa
lone
.

Itisextrem e
lyimpo rtanttha
tthetouchdowno ccurwiththe Tousebrakes,onanai
rplaneequippedw i
thto ebrakes
,the
airpl
an e
slongitudina
lax isexact
lypara
lleltothedi
re c
tion pi
lotsl
idesthetoe
sorfee
tupf romth erudderp edal
stothe
in whi chtheairplaneis movingalongtherunw ay
.F ai
lure brakepedal
s.Ifrudde
rp ressu
reisb einghelda tthetime
toa ccomp l
ishthisimpo sessever
esideloadsonthelanding brak
ingacti
on i
sneed
ed,thatpre
ssureisnot
t oberelea
sedas
ge a
r.Toavo idthesesides t
resse
s,donotallowtheairplane thefee
torto e
sarebe
ingsliduptoth ebrakeped a
lsbecau
se
totou chdownwh ileturnedintothewindo rdr
if
ting
. cont
rolm aybelos
tbefor
eb rakescanb eappli
ed.

After-Land ingRo ll Putt

i ngm axim umw eighto nthew hee
l saftertou chdow nisa n
The l
a ndingproces
sm ustne verbeconsi
d e
redcom ple
teu n
ti
l im p or
ta ntfact ori no btainingo ptim umb r akingp erform ance
.
th eairplanedecel
erate
stoth eno rmaltaxispe
eddu ringthe Duringth ee arlyp arto frollout
,som eli f
tcon t
inu estob e
lan d
in grol
lorh a
sbe e
nb rou g
httoacom ple
test
o pw hencl
ear gen eratedbyth ew ing.A ftertou chdown ,th eno se wh eel
ofth el and
inga re
a. Num erousa cc
identsoccurasar e
sul
t islow eredtoth erunw ayto m aintaind ire c
tionalcon trol
.
ofp i
lotsab andon
ingth e
irv igi
lanceandf a
il
ingto m ain
ta
in Duringd ec e
ler a
tion ,th eno sem ayp itchdownbyb raking
posit
iv econtrola
fterget
tingth eai
rplaneontheg round. andth ew e
igh ttr ansf erredtoth eno s ewh ee
lf romth em ain
whe e
ls.Th isdo esno taid inb rak
inga ction,sob ackp res
su re
Ap ilot mustb ea l ertfo rd irection alcon trold if
ficult
i s i
e sapp liedtoth econ trolsw ithoutliftingth eno sewh eelo f
f
imm edia
telyuponanda ftertou chdowndu etoth eg round therunw ay.Th isen abl esdirec
tion a
lcon trolwh i
lek eeping
fr
i c
tiononth ewh eels.Lo sso fd irection alcontrolm aylead weightonth em ainwh eels.
toanagg rava
t ed,un con t
rolled,tigh ttu rnonth eground ,or
ag roundloop.Th ecomb inationo fc entrifug a
lfo rcea c
ting Carefulapp licat
iono fth eb rakesi sin i
tiateda fterth eno se
onth ec ente
ro fg r avi
ty(CG )andg roundf r
ictiono fth e whe e
l ison th eg roundandd i
r ec
tion a
lcon t
rol i
se stabli
sh ed.
mainwh ee
lsresistingi tdu ringth eg roundloop m ayc ause M axim umb r akee ffe ct
i ven e
ssisj us
ts h or
to fthep ointw here
thea irp
lanetot ipo rleanenoughfo rth eou tsidew ingtipto skid d
i ngo ccurs. Ifth ebr akesarea ppl
i eds oh ardthatskidding
co n
t ac
tthegro un d
.T hisim pose sas id ew ardf o
rce tha
tc ould tak esplac e
,b ra kin gb ec om e
s in
e f
f ec
ti ve
.S kiddi ngisstop p
ed
collapsetheland ingg ear. byr eleasing th eb rak ep ressure.B rakinge ffectiveness i
sno t
enh ancedbya ltern atelyapp lying,r e
l easing,andr eapplying
Therudd e
rs erve sth es am epu rpo s eonth egrounda sit brak epr essure.Th eb r akesa reapp l
iedf irm lyandsmoo thly
doesinth eair itcon trolsth ey aw ingo fth eairplane.Th e asn ec e
s sary.
ef
f ect
i v
enessof ther ud derisd epen de n
to ntheairflow,w hich
dep endsonthesp eedo f theairplan e.A sthesp eedd ecreases Durin gtheg ro un dr oll
, theairplan e
sd irect
i ono fm o vem ent
andth enose wh eelh a sb eenlow eredtoth eg round,th e canb ech ang edbyc ar eful
lyapp lyingp ressureonon eb rake
steerablenosep rov idesmo repo s
itiv ed irec
tionalcon trol. o run ev enp re ssur esone achb rakeinth ed esiredd irec
tion.
Caution mu stb eex e rcised wh enapp ly ingb rak esto
Theb rakesofana i
rp lanes erveth es am ep r
im arypu rposea s av o
i d overc ontrollin g.
theb rakesofa na utom o bi
le tor edu ces pee don thegr ound
.
Ina irp
lanes,
th eya rea l
s ou seda sa nai di ndirect
io na
lc ontro
l

8
-8
Theaileronss ervethes amepu rposeonth eg roundasth ey touchesdownbecausesom efl
o a
toccur
sd u
ringtheroundout
dointh ea i
r th eych angeth eli
ftandd ragcompon entsof (f
lare)
.[Figure8-9]Neitherisi
tthespottow a
rdwh ichthe
thewi ngs
.D ur
i ngthea f
t e
r-
l a
n d
ingr o
ll
,th eyareusedt okeep ai
rplane
snoseispoint
edb ecausetheai
rplaneisfly
ingata
thewing slevel inmu ch thesam ew aytheya reusedinfligh
t. fa
irlyhighAOA ,andthecompon en
toflif
tex e
rtedparal
lel
Ifaw ings ta
rtstor i
se,a i
leroncontrolisapp l
iedtow ardthat totheE a
rth
ssur
facebyt h
ew ingste
n d
stoc a
rrytheai
r p
lane
wingtolow erit.Th eamoun tr equir
edd ependsonsp eed forwardhor
izonta
lly
.
becausea sthefo rwardsp eedofthea i
rplaned ecreas
e s
,the
ail
eronsb ecom e le
sseff ec
tive
.P roceduresforusingaileron
s Thep ointt ow a
r dw hic h
th eairp
l ane i
sp r ogressing isterm ed
incrosswi ndc ondit
ion sareex p
lainedfur
t herinthi
sc hapte
r, the a
im ingpo int
. [Figure8 -9]I tisth epointon theg round
intheC ro s
sw indApp ro a
chandL andings ec
tion. atwh ich,ifth eairpl anem aintainsacon stantg lidep a
thand
wasno tflar edforl anding,itwou ldstrik eth eg round .Toa
Aftertheairplan eison theground,b ack-elevatorp ressureis pi
l o
tm ovin gstra
i ghta he
a dtow arda no bject,i
ta ppears tobe
gradu al
lyrelax edtop lacew eighton th eno sewh ee
ltoa idin stat
ion a
ry .Itdo esno tapp eartomov eund erth eno seo fthe
bette
rs tee
ring .Ifav a
ilablerunw ayp ermits
, thesp eedo fthe airc
raftanddo esnotapp e artomov efo rw ardaw ayf rom the
airplaneisa llow edtod i
ssipateinano rm alm anner. Once airc
raft
.T hisish ow theaim ingp o
i ntca nb edist
i nguis hed i
t
th eairp
lan eh asslow edsu f
ficientlyandh asturn edon tothe doesno tmov e.How ever
,ob jectsinf ronto fandb eyond the
taxiw ayands topped,r e
tractthefl apsandp er
fo rm thea f
ter
- aimingp o
i ntd oap peartom oveas thed istance iscl o
s ed,and
landingch ecklis
t.M anya cc
id en
t sh aveo ccurreda sar esul
t theya ppe artom ovei nopp o
sitedirections.D u
rin ginstructio
n
oft h
ep i
lotu nintent
i onal
lyo perat
i ngthe landingg e
arc ont
rol inl anding s,on eo fth e mo stimpo r
t antsk il
lsap i
lot mu st
andr etrac
tingth eg e
a rins
t e
ado fth ef lapcon trolwh enthe acquireishow tou sev i
su a
lcu estoa c curatelyd eterm inethe
airplanew ass ti
llroll
ing.Th eh abito fpo si
tivelyid enti
fying trueaim ingpo intfromanyd i
stan ceou tonf in a
lapp roach
.
botho fthe
s ec ontrols
,b efo
rea ctuatingth em,m ustbef o
rm ed Fromth is,th epilotisno ton lyabl etod eterm inei fth eglide
fromth ev e
ryb eginningo fflightt r
ainingandcon tinuedin pathresult sine i
th eranund ero rov ershoo tbu t
,t akingin to
al
lfu tureflyinga ctiv
ities
. accountflo a
tdu r
ingroundou t,
th ep i
lo tisab l
e top redi c
tthe
touchdownpo inttow i
thinaf ewf ee
t.
Stabi
lizedApp roachConcep t
Astab
ilizedapp roachi
son einwh ichthep i
lotes
tab
li Fo
shracon
e
s stan
tang leg lidepath
,thed is
tanceb etweenth e
and m aintainsacon stan
tang l eglidep athtow a ho
rd r
saizonandth eaim ingpo in
trem ain sconstant
.Ifaf inal
prede
termin edpointonthelandingrunw ay.Iti
sb a
s app
edonr oachdesce n
tisestabl
ishedandth edis
t a
nc ebe
tw eenthe
thepilo
tsjudgm en
tofcer
t a
invisualclu
e sanddependperc
soneivedaim ingpoin tandthehorizonapp earstoincrease
them a
inten an
ceo faconstantfinaldescentai
rspe (aim
edand ingpo int movingdownaw ayf romth eho r
izon),then
conf
iguration. thet ruea imingpo int,andsub sequ enttouchdownpo int
,
isf arthe
rdownth erunw ay
.Ifth ed istanceb e
tweenth e
Anairp
lanedesc
endingonfina
lapproachatacon
stantr
ate perceivedaimingpo intandth ehori
zond ecrease
s,m eaning
andair
spe
e di
strave
lin
ginast
raig
htlin
e t
ow a
rdaspotonte th
h atth eaimingpo intis movinguptow ardth ehor
izon,the
groundah
e ad
.Thisspo
tisnot
thespotonwh i
chth
ea i
rpl
ane truea imingpo in
tisc lose
rthanp e
rc eived
.

ii i i
34

D
istancet
rave
ledinf
lare

F
igu
re8
-9.S
tab
il
izedapp
roa
ch.

8
-9
 i i
i

F
igu
re8 .R
-10 unwa
yshap
edu
rings
tab
il
izedapp
roa
ch.

Whe nt hea i
r pl an
e ise s
tablish edo nfi nala ppro
ac h
, thesha pe ou tonf in a
lapp ro a
ch ,adju stthepitcha t
t i
tud eandpow erso
ofth erunw ayim ag ealsop r esen
t sc lu e
sa stowh at mustb e thatth ea irp
lan eisd escend ingdirectlytow ardth eaim ing
don etom ain ta
inas tabi
li zedapp ro a chtoas afel anding. pointatth eappr o pr
iateair speed,inthe landin gc onfigura
ti o n
,
andt rimm edfo rh andso fffl
ight.W ithth eapp roachs e
t
Obviou s
ly ,runw ayi sno rm a
llysh ap edinth efo rmo fan upinth i sm ann er
,th epiloti sfreetod evo tefu llattention
elong atedr ec t
ang le
. Wh env iew edf romth eairdu ringth e tow ardou ts
id er eferenc es. Dono ts t a
r ea tanyon ep l ace,
appro a ch,th eph enom enonknowna sp erspect
iv ecau s
es the butr a
the rs c
anf romon epo inttoano the r
,su cha sfromth e
runw aytoa ssum ethesh apeo fat r apezoidw ithth efarend a imingpo inttoth eho r
i zon,toth et reesandbu shesa long
look ingn arrow erth anth eapp ro achendandth eedg elines therunw ay,toana re aw ellshortofth erunw ay,andb ackto
conv erg ingah ead . thea imingpo in t.Th ism ake si
teasiertop erceivead eviation
fromth ed esi
r edg lid ep athandd e
term in eifth ea irplan eis
Asana i rplan econ tinuesdownth eg l
id ep a
tha tacon s
tant p roc e
edingd ire ctlytow ardth eaimingpo in t
.
angl e(st abil
i zed),th eim age thep ilots eesisst
illtrapezoidal
buto fp ropo rt
ion ate
lyl a rgerd im en sions.Ino th e
r wo rds, Ifth e
rei sany ind ication thattheaim ingpo inton therunw ay
duringas t ab i
lizedapp ro ach,th erunw aysh apedo esno t isn otw hered esire d
,a na dju s
tm en
tm ustb em ade totheg li d
e
chang e
.[F igu re8 -10 ] path.Th isintu rn mov esth eaimingpo int.Fo rin stanc e,if
thea im ingpo inti ssho rto fthed e si
redtou chdownpo int
Ifth eapp ro achb ecom essh al
low ,th erunw ayapp e
arsto andr esultsinanund ershoo t,anin creas einp i
t cha t
titud e
sho rtenandb ecom ew id er. Conv ersely,ifth eapp ro ach andeng in epow eri sw a rranted. Acon stanta irspeed mu s
t
iss te ep ened ,th erunw ayapp ea rstob ecom elong erand b em aintained .Th ep i
t chandpow erch ang e,th erefo r e
,
narrow er.[F igure8 -11] mustb em adesmoo thlyands imultan eou s
ly.Th isresultsin
ash al
low ingo f th eglidep athw i
thth eaim ingpo intmov ing
Theob j ec
tiv eo fas tab il
i zedapp roachi stos e
lectan tow ardsth ed esiredtou chdownpo in t
. Conv e
rs e
ly,i fth e
app rop riatetou chdownpo intonth erunw ay,andad just aimingpo inti sf arth e
rdownth erunw ayth anth ed esi red
theg l
id ep athsoth atth etru eaim ingpo intandth ed e
sired tou chdownpo in tr esult
inginanov ershoo t,th eg l
id ep athi s
tou ch dow np oin
tb as
i c
allyc oincid e
. Imm edia
te
l yafterro
lling steepenedbyas imu ltan eou sdecreas einp i
tcha tti
tud eand

T
ooh
igh P
rope
rdescen
tang
le T
oolow

F
igu
re8 .C
-11 hang
einrunwa
yshap
eifapp
roa
chb
ecom
esna
rrowo
rst
eep
.

8
-10
power. Once again, the airspeed must be held constant. It A slip is a combination of forward movement and sideward
is essential that deviations from the desired glide path be (with respect to the longitudinal axis of the airplane)
detected early so that only slight and infrequent adjustments movement, the lateral axis being inclined and the sideward
to glide path are required. movement being toward the low end of this axis (low wing).
An airplane in a slip is in fact flying sideways, which results
The closer the airplane gets to the runway, the larger and in a change in the direction that the relative wind strikes the
more frequent the required corrections become, resulting in airplane. Slips are characterized by a marked increase in drag
an unstable approach. Common errors in the performance of and corresponding decrease in airplane climb, cruise, and
normal approaches and landings are: glide performance. It is the increase in drag, however, that
Inadequate wind drift correction on the base leg. makes it possible for an airplane in a slip to descend rapidly
without an increase in airspeed.
Overshooting or undershooting the turn onto final
approach resulting in too steep or too shallow a turn Most airplanes exhibit the characteristic of positive static
onto final approach. directional stability and, therefore, have a natural tendency
Flat or skidding turns from base leg to final approach to compensate for slipping. An intentional slip, therefore,
as a result of overshooting/inadequate wind drift requires deliberate cross-controlling ailerons and rudder
correction. throughout the maneuver.
Poor coordination during turn from base to final
A sideslip is entered by lowering a wing and applying just
approach.
enough opposite rudder to prevent a turn. In a sideslip, the
Failure to complete the landing checklist in a timely airplanes longitudinal axis remains parallel to the original
manner. flightpath, but the airplane no longer flies straight ahead.
Unstable approach. Instead, the horizontal component of wing lift forces the
airplane also to move somewhat sideways toward the low
Failure to adequately compensate for flap extension.
wing. [Figure 8-12] The amount of slip, and therefore the
Poor trim technique on final approach.
Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway

Direction of movement
using elevator alone.
Re
lat

Focusing too close to the airplane resulting in a too

ive

high round out.

win

Focusing too far from the airplane resulting in a too

d

low round out.

Touching down prior to attaining proper landing
attitude.
Failure to hold sufficient back-elevator pressure after
touchdown.
Excessive braking after touchdown.
Loss of aircraft control during touchdown and roll out.

Intentional Slips
A slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is too steep
for the existing rate of turn. Unintentional slips are most
often the result of uncoordinated rudder/aileron application.
Intentional slips, however, are used to dissipate altitude
without increasing airspeed and/or to adjust airplane ground
track during a crosswind. Intentional slips are especially
useful in forced landings and in situations where obstacles
must be cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slip
can also be used as an emergency means of rapidly reducing Sideslip
airspeed in situations where wing flaps are inoperative or
not installed. Figure 8-12. Sideslip.

8-11
rate of sideward movement, is determined by the bank is required to maintain heading even though the ailerons
angle. The steeper the bank is, the greater the degree of are capable of further steepening the bank angle. This is
slip. As bank angle is increased additional opposite rudder the practical slip limit because any additional bank would
is required to prevent turning. Sideslips are frequently used cause the airplane to turn even though full opposite rudder
when landing with a crosswind to keep the aircraft aligned is being applied. If there is a need to descend more rapidly,
with the runway centerline while stopping any drift left or even though the practical slip limit has been reached,
right of the centerline. lowering the nose not only increases the sink rate but also
increases airspeed. The increase in airspeed increases rudder
A forward slip is one in which the airplanes direction effectiveness permitting a steeper slip. Conversely, when the
of motion continues the same as before the slip was begun. nose is raised, rudder effectiveness decreases and the bank
Assuming the airplane is originally in straight flight, the angle must be reduced.
wing on the side toward which the slip is to be made should
be lowered by use of the ailerons. Simultaneously, the Discontinuing a slip is accomplished by leveling the wings
airplanes nose must be yawed in the opposite direction by and simultaneously releasing the rudder pressure while
applying opposite rudder so that the airplanes longitudinal readjusting the pitch attitude to the normal glide attitude.
axis is at an angle to its original flightpath. [Figure 8-13] The If the pressure on the rudder is released abruptly, the nose
degree to which the nose is yawed in the opposite direction swings too quickly into line and the airplane tends to acquire
from the bank should be such that the original ground track excess speed. Because of the location of the pitot tube and
is maintained. In a forward slip, the amount of slip, and static vents, airspeed indicators in some airplanes may have
therefore the sink rate, is determined by the bank angle. The considerable error when the airplane is in a slip. The pilot
steeper the bank is, the steeper the descent. must be aware of this possibility and recognize a properly
performed slip by the attitude of the airplane, the sound of
In most light airplanes, the steepness of a slip is limited by the airflow, and the feel of the flight controls. Unlike skids,
the amount of rudder travel available. In both sideslips and however, if an airplane in a slip is made to stall, it displays
forward slips, the point may be reached where full rudder very little of the yawing tendency that causes a skidding stall
to develop into a spin. The airplane in a slip may do little
more than tend to roll into a wings level attitude. In fact, in
Direction of movement

some airplanes stall characteristics may even be improved.

Relative wind

Go-Arounds (Rejected Landings)

Whenever landing conditions are not satisfactory, a go-
around is warranted. There are many factors that can
contribute to unsatisfactory landing conditions. Situations
such as air traffic control (ATC) requirements, unexpected
appearance of hazards on the runway, overtaking another
airplane, wind shear, wake turbulence, mechanical failure,
and/or an unstable approach are all examples of reasons to
discontinue a landing approach and make another approach
under more favorable conditions. The assumption that an
aborted landing is invariably the consequence of a poor
approach, which in turn is due to insufficient experience or
skill, is a fallacy. The go-around is not strictly an emergency
procedure. It is a normal maneuver that is also used in an
emergency situation. Like any other normal maneuver,
the go-around must be practiced and perfected. The flight
instructor needs to emphasize early on, and the pilot must
be made to understand, that the go-around maneuver is an
alternative to any approach and/or landing.

Although the need to discontinue a landing may arise at any

Forward slip point in the landing process, the most critical go-around
is one started when very close to the ground. The earlier a
Figure 8-13. Forward slip. condition that warrants a go-around is recognized, the safer

8-12
thego- around/re
j ec
tedl andingis.Th ego -aroundm aneuver asta
llfromwh ichtheairpl
an ecouldnotb er ecoveredifthe
isnotinh e
rentlyd ang e
rou sini
t sel
f.Itbe com esd angerous go-a
roundi sp e
rform edatalowa l
ti
tude
.
on
lywh end elayedundu lyo rexe cutedimp roper
ly.D e
layin
in
iti
atingth ego -aroundno rmal
lys tem sfromtwosou r ces
: Acon c e
rnfo rquicklyrega
ininga l
ti
tudedur ingago - a
round
1
. L a ndi
n gex pec
ta ncyorset thea n
ti
ci pa
toryb el
ieftha
t produces a na
tural tenden
c yt opullthe n ose up. A pi
lot
cond i
tionsa renota sthreateningasth eyar eandth at execu
ting ago-
a round mus
t acceptthefact thatan ai
rplane
th eapproa chissurelyterm inatedw i
thas afelanding, cannot c
li mbuntilitcan f
ly, anditcan notfly b
elo wsta
ll
speed
.Insom ecircum s
tances,itisdesirabletolow erthe
2
. P ride them is t
ak enb e
li efth a
tth eacto fgo ing no seb r
ieflytog aina i
rspeed.A ssoona sth eapp ropr
iate
aroundi sanadm issionoff ai
lur ef a
ilur
etoex ecute cl
imba irspeedandp itchat
titudeareatt
ain ed,rought r
im
th eapproachp rop e
rly.Th eimp roperexecutiono fthe theairplanetor e
lieveanyadv e
rsecontro
lp ressures
. More
go- a
roundm an euverstemsf romal ackoffam il
iari
ty p re
cisetr
ima d
justm ent
scanb em adew henf l
ig h
tc ondi
tions
wi
thth ethreec ardinalprin c
ipleso fthep rocedure: h avestabil
ized.
pow er
,a tt
itude,andcon f
igu rat
ion.
Bnm f
tq`shnm
Powe r Afterestabl
ishingth ep roperc limba tti
tud eandpow e r
Poweristhepilot
sfirs
tc on
cern.T he i
nstantapilotde
ci de
sto sett
ings,becon cernedfirstwithf lapsands econd lyw ithth e
goarou nd
,ful
lo rm axim umallow abletakeof
fp ow e
rm us
tbe landingg ear(i
fr etr
actable). Wh enth ed ecisioni sm ad eto
appl
iedsm oo
thlya ndw i
thouthesitationandh e
l dunt
ilflyi
ng performago -around,tak eoffpow e risappli edimm ed iately
speedandcon tro
llabil
ityarerestored.App lyingonlyp art
ial andth ep i
tcha tt
itudech angedsoa stos lowo rs topth e
pow e
rinago -around isneverapp ropri
at e
.Th epilo
tmu stbe descent.Afterth ed e
s centh asb e enstopp ed,th el anding
awareo fthedegreeo finer
tiathatmu s
tb eov ercomeb efor
e flapsarepartia
llyr e
trac
t edo rplac edinth et akeoffpo sition
anairplaneth a
ti ss e
tt
lingtow ard stheg roundc anr ega
in asrecomm end edby them anufacturer.C au
tionmu s
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ficientai
rspeed tobecom efullycon trol
lableandc apable inr e
tract
ingth eflaps
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ofclimbingo rturnings af
ely.Th eapplicat
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ap sin term i
ttentlyin
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ive
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ise d
.As udd ena ndc om plete
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tionofth eflapscou ldc ausealo s sofl iftresultingin
thea i
rplanes e
tt
lingintoth eg round .[Figur e8 -14]
At
titude
At
ti
tude i
sa lwa
y sc r
iti
calw henc lo
setotheground
,andw he n Un
l essoth e
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ly
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tee ffor
tonth ep a
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tth efl
apsber e
trac
ted(atleas
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ly)
isrequiredtok eepth eno sef rompitch
ingupp rem aturely
. be
fo reretrac
tingthelandinggearfortwor e
asons
.F irs
t,on
Theairplaneexe cutingago -around mustb em a
inta
in edin mostairp
l anesful
lflapsprodu
cemo redragthanthelanding
anatt
itud etha
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irableto
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isingtheno setooe a
rlycouldresultin

i i
ii
ii
i ii i
i
i i
i i i
i i i

F
igu
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-14 o
-aroundp
roc
edu
re.

8
-13
have the landing gear in the down-and-locked position. effect when initiating a go-around close to the ground. An
After a positive rate of climb is established, the landing gear attempt to climb prematurely may result in the airplane not
is retracted. being able to climb or even maintain altitude at full power.

When takeoff power is applied, it is usually necessary to Common errors in the performance of go-arounds (rejected
hold considerable pressure on the controls to maintain landings) are:
straight flight and a safe climb attitude. Since the airplane Failure to recognize a condition that warrants a
is trimmed for the approach (a low power and low airspeed rejected landing
condition), application of maximum allowable power requires
considerable control pressure to maintain a climb pitch Indecision
attitude. The addition of power tends to raise the airplanes Delay in initiating a go-around
nose suddenly and veer to the left. Forward elevator pressure Failure to apply maximum allowable power in a timely
must be anticipated and applied to hold the nose in a safe manner
climb attitude. Right rudder pressure must be increased to
counteract torque and P-factor and to keep the nose straight. Abrupt power application
The airplane must be held in the proper flight attitude Improper pitch attitude
regardless of the amount of control pressure that is required.
Failure to configure the airplane appropriately
Trim is applied to relieve adverse control pressures and assist
in maintaining a proper pitch attitude. On airplanes that Attempting to climb out of ground effect prematurely
produce high control pressures when using maximum power Failure to adequately compensate for torque/P factor
on go-arounds, use caution when reaching for the flap handle.
Loss of aircraft control
Airplane control is critical during this high-workload phase.
Crosswind Approach and Landing
The landing gear is retracted only after the initial or rough trim
is accomplished and when it is certain the airplane will remain Many runways or landing areas are such that landings must be
airborne. During the initial part of an extremely low go- made while the wind is blowing across rather than parallel to
around, it is possible for the airplane to settle onto the runway the landing direction. All pilots must be prepared to cope with
and bounce. This situation is not particularly dangerous these situations when they arise. The same basic principles
provided the airplane is kept straight and a constant, safe pitch and factors involved in a normal approach and landing apply
attitude is maintained. With the application of power, the to a crosswind approach and landing; therefore, only the
airplane attains a safe flying speed rapidly and the advanced additional procedures required for correcting for wind drift
power cushions any secondary touchdown. are discussed here.

If the pitch attitude is increased excessively in an effort Crosswind landings are a little more difficult to perform
to keep the airplane from contacting the runway, it may than crosswind takeoffs, mainly due to different problems
cause the airplane to stall. This is likely to occur if no trim involved in maintaining accurate control of the airplane while
correction is made and the flaps remain fully extended. Do its speed is decreasing rather than increasing as on takeoff.
not attempt to retract the landing gear until after a rough trim
is accomplished and a positive rate of climb is established. There are two usual methods of accomplishing a crosswind
approach and landingthe crab method and the wing-low
Ground Effect (sideslip) method. Although the crab method may be easier
for the pilot to maintain during final approach, it requires a
Ground effect is a factor in every landing and every takeoff
high degree of judgment and timing in removing the crab
in fixed-wing airplanes. Ground effect can also be an
immediately prior to touchdown. The wing-low method is
important factor in go-arounds. If the go-around is made
recommended in most cases, although a combination of both
close to the ground, the airplane may be in the ground effect
methods may be used.
area. Pilots are often lulled into a sense of false security by
the apparent cushion of air under the wings that initially
Crosswind Final Approach
assists in the transition from an approach descent to a climb.
The crab method is executed by establishing a heading (crab)
This cushion of air, however, is imaginary. The apparent
toward the wind with the wings level so that the airplanes
increase in airplane performance is, in fact, due to a reduction
ground track remains aligned with the centerline of the
in induced drag in the ground effect area. It is borrowed
runway. [Figure 8-15] This crab angle is maintained until
performance that must be repaid when the airplane climbs
just prior to touchdown, when the longitudinal axis of the
out of the ground effect area. The pilot must factor in ground

8-14
 long
itudin
alaxisa
lign e
dw iththerunway.Inothe
rw o
r d
s,th
e
dr
if
tisc on
tro
lledwitha i
lerona ndtheh ea
dingw i
thrudder
.
Theai
rpla
neisnowsi desl
ippingintoth
ew indj
ustenought
hat
bo
t h
theresul
tantf
lightpathan dthegroundt
rackareal
igned
wi
ththerunway.If
th ecrosswindd imin
ishes
,thi
scrosswind
cor
rect
ionisr educeda ccordingly
,o rtheairpl
aneb eg
ins
sl
ippingawayfromt hedesire
da p p
roachpath
.[Figur
e8 -1
7]

D
N
WI
Toco rr
ectfo rs t
rongc ro ssw ind,th es lipintoth ew indi s
in c
r easedbylow e
ringth eupw ind w ingacon sid e
r able
amoun t
.A sacon sequenc e
, thisr esultsinag reatertend en cy
ofth eairp lanetotu rn.S in cetu rn ingi sno td esired ,
consid e
rabl eoppo si
terudd er mu stb eapp l
i edtok eepth e
airp
l anes
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.I ns om e
F
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airp
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ai
rplan emustbeal
ignedw i
ththerunw aytoavoidsideward steepb ank .Ifth erequiredb anki ssu chth atfu l
loppo site
cont
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elswi
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.Ifalongfi
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roach rudd erdo e snotp reventatu rn,th ew indistoos trongto
isbeingflown,oneopt
ionistousethecrabm e
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and th eai
rplaneon thatp articularrunw ayw i
th tho se
befo
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thew ing-
lowm e
thodfortheremainderofthelanding. itisimp erativethattheland ingb em adeonamo refavo rable
runw ayeitheratth a
tairpo rto ratana lterna
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.
T
hew ing-
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a ckandlong itudina
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abi
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c
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ee x
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ane
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ouc h
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ter
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isp r
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la n
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ity
.
f
romtou chingdowninas idew a
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am agings ideloadsonth elandingg ea
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Gen era
lly,th eroundou ti sm ad elikeano rm a
llanding
T
ou sethew i
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,aligntheairpla
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,notetherateanddi
rect
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ting
.
o
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if
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t
heu pwindwing.[Figure8-16]Theam ountthewingm us
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Sinc e
th eairspeeddecre
asesa s
th eroundoutprogres
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b
elow ereddependsonth erateofd r
ift
. Wh enthewing
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adual
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th ecro sswindco r
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ldb ecomesinadequ a
te
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c
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Wh enusing thewing-
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th eprop eramoun tofdri
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Dono tlevelthew ingsandk eeptheupw ind wingdown

th roughoutth eroundou t
.I fthew ingsa r
el eve
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,the
airplaneb egin
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iftingandth etouchdowno ccur
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drift
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airplanew i
thoutsubj ec
tingittoanys ideloadstha
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fromtou ch
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ledrift
ing.
D
N
WI

Crossw indTouchdown
Ifthecrabm e
thodofdri
ftco
rrec
tionisusedthroughoutthe
finalapproachandroundout
,thec r
abmu s
tb eremov edthe
in s
tantbeforetouchdownbyapp ly
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airpl
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Th i
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F
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8
-15
 ND
WI
3
4

Figure 8-17. Crosswind approach and landing.

accomplish this results in severe side loads being imposed of rudder or nose-wheel steering, while keeping the upwind
on the landing gear. wing from rising by the use of aileron. When an airplane
is airborne, it moves with the air mass in which it is flying
If the wing-low method is used, the crosswind correction regardless of the airplanes heading and speed. When an
(aileron into the wind and opposite rudder) is maintained airplane is on the ground, it is unable to move with the air
throughout the round out, and the touchdown made on the mass (crosswind) because of the resistance created by ground
upwind main wheel. During gusty or high wind conditions, friction on the wheels.
prompt adjustments must be made in the crosswind correction
to assure that the airplane does not drift as the airplane Characteristically, an airplane has a greater profile or side
touches down. As the forward momentum decreases after area behind the main landing gear than forward of the gear.
initial contact, the weight of the airplane causes the downwind With the main wheels acting as a pivot point and the greater
main wheel to gradually settle onto the runway. surface area exposed to the crosswind behind that pivot point,
the airplane tends to turn or weathervane into the wind.
In those airplanes having nose-wheel steering interconnected
with the rudder, the nose wheel is not aligned with the runway Wind acting on an airplane during crosswind landings is the
as the wheels touch down because opposite rudder is being result of two factors. One is the natural wind, which acts
held in the crosswind correction. To prevent swerving in in the direction the air mass is traveling, while the other
the direction the nose wheel is offset, the corrective rudder is induced by the forward movement of the airplane and
pressure must be promptly relaxed just as the nose wheel acts parallel to the direction of movement. Consequently,
touches down. a crosswind has a headwind component acting along the
airplanes ground track and a crosswind component acting
Crosswind After-Landing Roll 90 to its track. The resultant or relative wind is somewhere
Particularly during the after-landing roll, special attention between the two components. As the airplanes forward
must be given to maintaining directional control by the use speed decreases during the after landing roll, the headwind

8-16
componentdecrea
sesandtherel
ativewindh a
s mo
reofa
cr
osswi
n dcom p
one n
t.Theg
rea
ter
th ecr
osswi
ndc om
pon
ent
,
60
themoredif
ficul
titistopr
even
tw eathe
rvan
ing.

Ma
inta
in ingcon t
rolonth egroundi
sac r
it
ic a
lp a
rtofth e
af
ter
-land ingrollbec auseofth eweathe
rv an
inge ff
e c
tof 50
thewindonth eai
rpl ane
. Addi
tion
ally,t
iresideloadfrom Dange
rZone
runwa yc ont
actw h
il
ed r
if
tingfr
equen
tl yg
enerate
sroll
- o
vers
intr
icy cle-ge
aredairplanes
.Th ebas
i cfac
torsinvolvedare
40

)
corn
eringang leands ideload.

ty(mph
Corner
i nga ngleis
t hea ngu
l a
rdiff
er encebetw ee ntheh ead
in g

i
loc
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tspath. Wh eneveralo adb e
aring tiresp a
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indVe
30

headingd iv e
rg e
,as ideload i
sc r
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.Itisa ccomp aniedby

W
ti
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s
anda irp re s
sures
,i ti scomp letelyind epend ento fsp eed, 20
andthroughacon siderablerange,isdirect
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tionalto
theco rneringang leandth ew eightsuppo rtedbyth etire
.A s
li
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10
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;a f
ter20 ,thesid elo addo e
sno t
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increasew ithincreasingcorneringa ng
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g h
-wi ng
,
tr
icy c
l e
-g earedairplane,thereisaco rneringang leatwh ich
rol
l-ov erisin ev
itable.Th eroll
-ov eraxisisth elinelinking 0
theno seand m a
in wh ee
ls.A tle sse
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-ov e
r 20 40 60 80 100
mayb eavo idedbyu seo faile
rons,rudd e
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indAng
le(deg
rees
)

wheelbu tno tbrake s

.
F
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ssw
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rt
.
Whil
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-landing
roll
, moreand mo reaile
ronisapp l
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epth eupw ind demons
tra
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rossw
indvelo
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tybein
cludedonap
lac
ard
wingfromrising.Sincetheai
rpl aneisslowingdown ,ther
e inai
rpl
anesce
rt
if
ica
teda
fterMay3
,1962.
islessairf
lowa roundtheaileron sandth eyb ecom ele
ss
effe
ctiv
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im e
,ther ela
tivew indbecom esmo re Theheadwindcompon entand th
ecro s
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ofac ros
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rt
ingag rea
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ingforceonth e agivensi
tu a
tionisdete
rm inedbyr e
ferencetoac ro
sswind
upwind wing. Wh entheairplan eiscom ingtoas top ,the componentch ar
t.[Figu
re8 -19]Itisimp e
rat
ivetha
tp i
lot
s
ail
eroncontrolmu stbeheldfullytow ardthew ind
. de
termineth em ax
imumc rosswindcompon entofe ach
ai
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aneth eyflyandavo idop er
ationsin windcondit
ions
MaximumSa feC rossw indVe locities tha
tex c
eedth ecapabi
li
tyo ftheai
rplane.
Takeoffsandl anding sinc er
tainc rossw indcond itionsa re
inad v
isableorevend an gerous.[Fig u
re8 -18]Ift hecrosswind C
omm onerrorsintheperformanc eofcrosswi n
da pp
roaches
isg reatenoughto w arrantanex trem ed ri
ftco rrect
ion ,a andl
an d
i ngsare:
hazardou slandingcond it
ion m ayr esult.Th erefore,th e A t
temp t
ingtol andinc rosswindsth atexceedthe
takeoffandl andingc ap abil
it
iesw i
thr especttoth erepo r
ted airplane s maximumdemon stratedc rosswind
surfacew indconditionsand theav ail
abl elandingd ire
ctions compon ent
mustb econsider
ed.
In ad equ a
tecomp ensationfo rw indd ri
ftonth e
turnf romb as
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Beforeana i
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Adm inis
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andl andingg ea
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ion sr equireth a
tth e

8
-17
 One procedure is to use the normal approach speed plus
0 10
70
20
one-half of the wind gust factors. If the normal speed is
70 knots, and the wind gusts are 15 knots, an increase of
30
60 airspeed to 77 knots is appropriate. In any case, the airspeed
Win
d ve
40 and the number of flaps used should conform to airplane
loc
i ty manufacturer recommendations in the AFM/POH.
Headwind Component

50
50

40 Use an adequate amount of power to maintain the proper

60
airspeed and descent path throughout the approach, and
30 retard the throttle to idling position only after the main
70 wheels contact the landing surface. Care must be exercised
20 in closing the throttle before the pilot is ready for touchdown.
80 In turbulent conditions, the sudden or premature closing of
10 the throttle may cause a sudden increase in the descent rate
that results in a hard landing.
90
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 When landing from power approaches in turbulence, the
Crosswind Component touchdown is made with the airplane in approximately level
flight attitude. The pitch attitude at touchdown would be only
Figure 8-19. Crosswind component chart.
enough to prevent the nose wheel from contacting the surface
before the main wheels have touched the surface. After
Failure to compensate for increased drag during touchdown, avoid the tendency to apply forward pressure on
sideslip resulting in excessive sink rate and/or too low the yoke, as this may result in wheel barrowing and possible
an airspeed loss of control. Allow the airplane to decelerate normally,
Touchdown while drifting assisted by careful use of wheel brakes. Avoid heavy braking
until the wings are devoid of lift and the airplanes full weight
Excessive airspeed on touchdown is resting on the landing gear.
Failure to apply appropriate flight control inputs
during rollout Short-Field Approach and Landing
Failure to maintain direction control on rollout Short-field approaches and landings require the use of
procedures for approaches and landings at fields with
Excessive braking
a relatively short landing area or where an approach is
Loss of aircraft control made over obstacles that limit the available landing area.
[Figures 8-20 and 8-21] As in short-field takeoffs, it is one
Turbulent Air Approach and Landing of the most critical of the maximum performance operations.
For landing in turbulent conditions, use a power-on approach Short field operations require the pilot fly the airplane at
at an airspeed slightly above the normal approach speed. This one of its crucial performance capabilities while close to the
provides for more positive control of the airplane when strong ground in order to safely land within confined areas. This
horizontal wind gusts, or up and down drafts, are experienced. low-speed type of power-on approach is closely related to
Like other power-on approaches, a coordinated combination the performance of flight at minimum controllable airspeeds.
of both pitch and power adjustments is usually required. As in
most other landing approaches, the proper approach attitude To land within a short-field or a confined area, the pilot
and airspeed require a minimum round out and should result must have precise, positive control of the rate of descent and
in little or no floating during the landing. airspeed to produce an approach that clears any obstacles,
result in little or no floating during the round out, and permit
To maintain control during an approach in turbulent air the airplane to be stopped in the shortest possible distance.
with gusty crosswind, use partial wing flaps. With less than
full flaps, the airplane is in a higher pitch attitude. Thus, it The procedures for landing in a short-field or for landing
requires less of a pitch change to establish the landing attitude approaches over obstacles as recommended in the AFM/
and touchdown at a higher airspeed to ensure more positive POH should be used. A stabilized approach is essential.
control. Excessive speed causes the airplane to float past the [Figures 8-22 and 8-23] These procedures generally involve
desired landing area. the use of full flaps and the final approach started from an

8-18
 34
Obs
tac
lec
lea
rance E
ffec
tiverunwayleng
th

F
igu
re8 .L
-20 and
ingo
veranob
sta
cle
.

34

Non
-obs
tac
lec
ll
ee
ar
a
ra
aa
n
nn
c
cc
e
e E
ffec
tiverunwayleng
th

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 34
Unstabilized

Figure 8-23. Unstabilized approach.

altitude of at least 500 feet higher than the touchdown area. A to as operating in the region of reversed command or operating
wider than normal pattern is normally used so that the airplane on the back side of the power curve. When there is doubt
can be properly configured and trimmed. In the absence of regarding the outcome of the approach, make a go around and
the manufacturers recommended approach speed, a speed try again or divert to a more suitable landing area.
of not more than 1.3 VSO is used. For example, in an airplane
that stalls at 60 knots with power off, and flaps and landing Because the final approach over obstacles is made at a
gear extended, an approach speed no higher than 78 knots relatively steep approach angle and close to the airplanes
is used. In gusty air, no more than one-half the gust factor stalling speed, the initiation of the round out or flare must be
is added. An excessive amount of airspeed could result in judged accurately to avoid flying into the ground or stalling
a touchdown too far from the runway threshold or an after- prematurely and sinking rapidly. A lack of floating during
landing roll that exceeds the available landing area. the flare with sufficient control to touch down properly is
verification that the approach speed was correct.
After the landing gear and full flaps have been extended,
simultaneously adjust the power and the pitch attitude to Touchdown should occur at the minimum controllable
establish and maintain the proper descent angle and airspeed. A airspeed with the airplane in approximately the pitch attitude
coordinated combination of both pitch and power adjustments that results in a power-off stall when the throttle is closed.
is required. When this is done properly, very little change in Care must be exercised to avoid closing the throttle too
the airplanes pitch attitude and power setting is necessary to rapidly, as closing the throttle may result in an immediate
make corrections in the angle of descent and airspeed. increase in the rate of descent and a hard landing.

The short-field approach and landing is in reality an accuracy Upon touchdown, the airplane is held in this positive pitch
approach to a spot landing. The procedures previously outlined attitude as long as the elevators remain effective. This
in the section on the stabilized approach concept are used. If it provides aerodynamic braking to assist in deceleration.
appears that the obstacle clearance is excessive and touchdown Immediately upon touchdown and closing the throttle,
occurs well beyond the desired spot leaving insufficient room appropriate braking is applied to minimize the after-landing
to stop, power is reduced while lowering the pitch attitude to roll. The airplane is normally stopped within the shortest
steepen the descent path and increase the rate of descent. If it possible distance consistent with safety and controllability. If
appears that the descent angle does not ensure safe clearance the proper approach speed has been maintained, resulting in
of obstacles, power is increased while simultaneously raising minimum float during the round out and the touchdown made
the pitch attitude to shallow the descent path and decrease the at minimum control speed, minimum braking is required.
rate of descent. Care must be taken to avoid an excessively
low airspeed. If the speed is allowed to become too slow, an Common errors in the performance of short-field approaches
increase in pitch and application of full power may only result and landings are:
in a further rate of descent. This occurs when the AOA is so Failure to allow enough room on final to set up the
great and creating so much drag that the maximum available approach, necessitating an overly steep approach and
power is insufficient to overcome it. This is generally referred high sink rate

8-20
 Unstable approach The use of flaps during soft-field landings aids in touching
Undue delay in initiating glide path corrections down at minimum speed and is recommended whenever
practical. In low-wing airplanes, the flaps may suffer damage
Too low an airspeed on final resulting in inability to from mud, stones, or slush thrown up by the wheels. If flaps
flare properly and landing hard are used, it is generally inadvisable to retract them during the
Too high an airspeed resulting in floating on round out after-landing roll because the need for flap retraction is less
Prematurely reducing power to idle on round out important than the need for total concentration on maintaining
resulting in hard landing full control of the airplane.

Touchdown with excessive airspeed The final-approach airspeed used for short-field landings is
Excessive and/or unnecessary braking after touchdown equally appropriate to soft-field landings. The use of higher
approach speeds may result in excessive float in ground
Failure to maintain directional control
effect, and floating makes a smooth, controlled touchdown
Failure to recognize and abort a poor approach that even more difficult. There is no reason for a steep angle of
cannot be completed safely descent unless obstacles are present in the approach path.

Soft-Field Approach and Landing Touchdown on a soft or rough field is made at the lowest
Landing on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces, such possible airspeed with the airplane in a nose-high pitch
as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass, require unique procedures. attitude. In nose-wheel type airplanes, after the main wheels
When landing on such surfaces, the objective is to touch down touch the surface, hold sufficient back-elevator pressure to
as smooth as possible and at the slowest possible landing keep the nose wheel off the surface. Using back-elevator
speed. A pilot must control the airplane in a manner that the pressure and engine power, the pilot can control the rate
wings support the weight of the airplane as long as practical at which the weight of the airplane is transferred from the
to minimize drag and stresses imposed on the landing gear wings to the wheels.
by the rough or soft surface.
Field conditions may warrant that the pilot maintain a flight
The approach for the soft-field landing is similar to the normal condition in which the main wheels are just touching the
approach used for operating into long, firm landing areas. surface but the weight of the airplane is still being supported
The major difference between the two is that during the soft- by the wings until a suitable taxi surface is reached. At any
field landing, the airplane is held 1 to 2 feet off the surface in time during this transition phase, before the weight of the
ground effect as long as possible. This permits a more gradual airplane is being supported by the wheels, and before the
dissipation of forward speed to allow the wheels to touch nose wheel is on the surface, the ability is retained to apply
down gently at minimum speed. This technique minimizes full power and perform a safe takeoff (obstacle clearance
the nose-over forces that suddenly affect the airplane at the and field length permitting) should the pilot elect to abandon
moment of touchdown. Power is used throughout the level-off the landing. Once committed to a landing, the pilot should
and touchdown to ensure touchdown at the slowest possible gently lower the nose wheel to the surface. A slight addition
airspeed, and the airplane is flown onto the ground with the of power usually aids in easing the nose wheel down.
weight fully supported by the wings. [Figure 8-24]

Transition area
Ground effect

Figure 8-24. Soft/rough field approach and landing.

8-21
The use of brakes on a soft field is not needed and should the approximate spot along a given ground path at which the
be avoided as this may tend to impose a heavy load on the airplane lands, regardless of altitude. A pilot who also has the
nose gear due to premature or hard contact with the landing ability to accurately estimate altitude, can judge how much
surface, causing the nose wheel to dig in. The soft or rough maneuvering is possible during the glide, which is important
surface itself provides sufficient reduction in the airplanes to the choice of landing areas in an actual emergency.
forward speed. Often upon landing on a very soft field, an
increase in power is required to keep the airplane moving The objective of a good final approach is to descend at an
and from becoming stuck in the soft surface. angle that permits the airplane to reach the desired landing
area and at an airspeed that results in minimum floating just
Common errors in the performance of soft-field approaches before touchdown. To accomplish this, it is essential that both
and landings are: the descent angle and the airspeed be accurately controlled.
Excessive descent rate on final approach
Unlike a normal approach when the power setting is variable,
Excessive airspeed on final approach on a power-off approach the power is fixed at the idle setting.
Unstable approach Pitch attitude is adjusted to control the airspeed. This also
changes the glide or descent angle. By lowering the nose
Round out too high above the runway surface
to keep the approach airspeed constant, the descent angle
Poor power management during round out and steepens. If the airspeed is too high, raise the nose, and when
touchdown the airspeed is too low, lower the nose. If the pitch attitude
Hard touchdown is raised too high, the airplane settles rapidly due to a slow
airspeed and insufficient lift. For this reason, never try to
Inadequate control of the airplane weight transfer from
stretch a glide to reach the desired landing spot.
wings to wheels after touchdown
Allowing the nose wheel to fall to the runway after Uniform approach patterns, such as the 90, 180, or 360
touchdown rather than controlling its descent power-off approaches are described further in this chapter.
Practice in these approaches provides a pilot with a basis
Power-Off Accuracy Approaches on which to develop judgment in gliding distance and in
Power-off accuracy approaches are approaches and landings planning an approach.
made by gliding with the engine idling, through a specific
pattern to a touchdown beyond and within 200 feet of a The basic procedure in these approaches involves closing
designated line or mark on the runway. The objective is to the throttle at a given altitude and gliding to a key position.
instill in the pilot the judgment and procedures necessary for This position, like the pattern itself, must not be allowed
accurately flying the airplane, without power, to a safe landing. to become the primary objective; it is merely a convenient
point in the air from which the pilot can judge whether the
The ability to estimate the distance an airplane glides to a glide safely terminates at the desired spot. The selected key
landing is the real basis of all power-off accuracy approaches position should be one that is appropriate for the available
and landings. This largely determines the amount of altitude and the wind condition. From the key position, the
maneuvering that may be done from a given altitude. In pilot must constantly evaluate the situation.
addition to the ability to estimate distance, it requires the ability
to maintain the proper glide while maneuvering the airplane. It must be emphasized that, although accurate spot
touchdowns are important, safe and properly executed
With experience and practice, altitudes up to approximately approaches and landings are vital. A pilot must never sacrifice
1,000 feet can be estimated with fair accuracy; while above a good approach or landing just to land on the desired spot.
this level the accuracy in judgment of height above the ground
decreases, since all features tend to merge. The best aid in 90 Power-Off Approach
perfecting the ability to judge height above this altitude is The 90 power-off approach is made from a base leg and
through the indications of the altimeter and associating them requires only a 90 turn onto the final approach. The approach
with the general appearance of the Earth. path may be varied by positioning the base leg closer to or
farther out from the approach end of the runway according
The judgment of altitude in feet, hundreds of feet, or thousands to wind conditions. [Figure 8-25] The glide from the key
of feet is not as important as the ability to estimate gliding angle position on the base leg through the 90 turn to the final
and its resultant distance. A pilot who knows the normal glide approach is the final part of all accuracy landing maneuvers.
angle of the airplane can estimate with reasonable accuracy, The 90 power-off approach usually begins from a

8-22
 1

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but full flaps are not used until established on the final landing area. From the key point on, the approach is a normal
approach. The angle of bank is varied as needed throughout power-off approach. [Figure 8-29]
the pattern to correct for wind conditions and to align the
airplane with the final approach. The turn-to-final should be With the greater choice of fields afforded by higher altitudes,
completed at a minimum altitude of 300 feet above the terrain. the inexperienced pilot may be inclined to delay making
a decision, and with considerable altitude in which to
Common errors in the performance of power-off accuracy maneuver, errors in maneuvering and estimation of glide
approaches are: distance may develop.
Downwind leg is too far from the runway/landing area
All pilots must learn to determine the wind direction and
Overextension of downwind leg resulting from a estimate its speed from the windsock at the airport, smoke
tailwind from factories or houses, dust, brush fires, and windmills.
Inadequate compensation for wind drift on base leg
Once a field has been selected, a pilot should always
Skidding turns in an effort to increase gliding distance
be required to indicate the proposed landing area to the
Failure to lower landing gear in retractable gear instructor. Normally, the pilot should be required to plan
airplanes and fly a pattern for landing on the field first elected until
Attempting to stretch the glide during an undershoot the instructor terminates the simulated emergency landing.
This provides the instructor an opportunity to explain and
Premature flap extension/landing gear extension
correct any errors; it also gives the pilot an opportunity to
Use of throttle to increase the glide instead of merely see the results of the errors. However, if the pilot realizes
clearing the engine during the approach that a poor field has been selectedone
Forcing the airplane onto the runway in order to avoid that would obviously result in disaster if a landing were to be
overshooting the designated landing spot madeand there is a more advantageous field within gliding
distance, a change to the better field should be permitted.
Emergency Approaches and Landings The hazards involved in these last-minute decisions, such
(Simulated) as excessive maneuvering at very low altitudes, must be
thoroughly explained by the instructor.
During dual training flights, the instructor should give
simulated emergency landings by retarding the throttle and
Instructors must stress slipping the airplane, using flaps,
calling simulated emergency landing. The objective of
varying the position of the base leg, and varying the turn
these simulated emergency landings is to develop a pilots
onto final approach as ways of correcting for misjudgment
accuracy, judgment, planning, procedures, and confidence
of altitude and glide angle.
when little or no power is available. A simulated emergency
landing may be given with the airplane in any configuration.
Eagerness to get down is one of the most common faults of
When the instructor calls simulated emergency landing,
inexperienced pilots during simulated emergency landings.
immediately establish a glide attitude and ensure that the
They forget about speed and arrive at the edge of the field
flaps and landing gear are in the proper configuration for the
with too much speed to permit a safe landing. Too much
existing situation. When the proper glide speed is attained,
speed is just as dangerous as too little; it results in excessive
the nose can then be lowered and the airplane trimmed to
floating and overshooting the desired landing spot. Instructors
maintain that speed.
must stress during their instruction that pilots cannot dive at
a field and expect to land on it.
A constant gliding speed is maintained because variations of
During all simulated emergency landings, keep the engine
gliding speed nullify all attempts at accuracy in judgment of
warm and cleared. During a simulated emergency landing,
gliding distance and the landing spot. The many variables,
either the instructor or the pilot should have complete
such as altitude, obstruction, wind direction, landing
control of the throttle. There must be no doubt as to who has
direction, landing surface and gradient, and landing distance
control since many near accidents have occurred from such
requirements of the airplane, determines the pattern and
misunderstandings.
approach procedures to use.
Every simulated emergency landing approach is terminated
Use any combination of normal gliding maneuvers, from
as soon as it can be determined whether a safe landing could
wings level to spirals to eventually arrive at the normal key
have been made. In no case should it be continued to a point
position at a normal traffic pattern altitude for the selected

8-26
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lu res
.
proc eduresandp l ann ingandf lyingth eapp ro ach ar e Otherem erg en ciesa s
so cia
ted w ithth eop er a
tiono fth e
di
fficultdu ringth ee arlyt r a
ininginem erg en cylanding s. airp
laneshou ldb eexp lained,d emon s
trated ,andp racticed
ifp rac
ticabl e. Amongth eseem e
rg enciesa ref ir
einf light
,
Therea red efinites t epsandp ro cedurestob efo llow ed e lect
ricalo rhyd raulicsy s
tem m alfun ction s,un exp ected
inas imu l atedem erg en cyl and ing.A lthoughth ey m ay sev e
rew eath ercond i
tions,eng ineov erh eating,imm in en
t
dif
fe rsom ewh a
tf romth ep ro cedu resu s edinana ctu al fu e
lexh au s
tion ,andth eem ergen cyop erationo fa irplane
em ergency ,th ey mu stb el e
a rn edtho rough lyande achs tep sy s
temsandequ ipm ent
.
cal
ledou t to th einstru ctor.Th eu seo fach e cklis
tiss trongly
recomm end ed. Mo sta irplan em anu factu rersp rov idea F aultyApp roachesandLand ings
check l
isto fth eapp rop riateit em s.[F igure8 -30 ] LowF inalApp roach
Whentheb asel
egistoolow ,in suf
fici
entpow eri
su sed,
Cr
itica
li t
em stob ech eckedinc
ludeth epo s
it
iono fthe land
ingflapsar
eextendedprem ature
lyortheveloc
ityofthe
fueltankselec
tor,thequ an
ti
tyoffuelinthetankse
l ec
ted, wind
i smis
judged
,suf
fici
enta
ltitudeislos
t,whic
hc aus
esthe
thefu elpre
ssur
eg augetoseeiftheelec
tricfue
lpumpi s ai
rplanetobew e
llbelowthep roperfina
lapproachpath
.In
needed,theposi
tiono fthemixtu
recontro
l,theposi
tiono f suchas i
tua
tion
,thepilo
twou ldh avetoapplyconside
rable
them agne
toswitch,andth euseofc a
rbure
torheat
.M any

8
-27
 i

ii i
i
i
)
ROCEDURES
RE DURINGFI
L GHT(RESTARTP
ILU
INEFA
ENG
i

i i
i
ii i
i

INGS
FORCEDLAND INEPOWER
ITHOUTENG
GW
GENCYLANDIN
EMER
i

ii i
i
i

INEPOWER
ITHENG
ING W
AUTIONA RYL AND
PREC
F
igu
re8 .S
-30 amp
leem
erg
encych
eckl
is
t.

pow ert ofly th eairplane(ata nexc ess

i v
elylowa lt
itu de)up to whi
l e
l owering
t hen os
esim u
lt
a n eo
u s
l ytom a
intai
na pp
r o
a ch
therunw ay thr eshold
. Wh en itisr ea
lizedtherunw ayc annot air
s p
e edandsteepe ntheap p
ro achp a
t h.[F igure8-32]W he
n
ber e
a ch edun l essapp ropr
i at
ea ct
ion istaken,pow ermu stb e thep roperapproachp athisin tercepted,ad ju
stthepow eras
applied imm ediatelytom a
int a
inth eairspeedwh ileth epitch requiredtom ainta
i nastabil
ize dap p
r oach.W henst
eep en
ing
att
itud eisr ais edtoin creaseliftands topth ed escent
. Wh en theapp roachp a
th,c are mustb etak enth atthed e
scentdo e
s
thep rop e
rapp roachp athh a sb eenintercepted,th eco r
r ec
t notre su
ltinanex c e
ssivelyh ighs inkr at e
.I fahighs ink
appro acha tti
tud eisr ees
t abl
ish edandth epow err edu ced rateiscontinuedc losetoth esu rface,itm ayb edi
fficu
ltto
andas tabiliz edapp ro ach m aintained.[F igu r
e8 -31 ] Do slowtoap roperratep r
iortog roundcon t act
.Anys inkr a
te
notin creas eth ep itchatt
itud ew ithoutin c
reasingth epow er inex c e
ssof8001 ,000f eetp erm inut e(fpm )isconsider
ed
becaus et heair planede ce
leratesra p
idlya ndm aya pproac hthe excessive. Ago-aroundshou ldb ein it
i a
tedi fthesinkr a
te
cri
ticalAOAands tal
l.Dono tretracttheflaps;thi
ssudd enly becom e
sex c
essive
.
decreas esliftandc aus es
th eairplan etosinkmo r
er apidly.If
thereisa nyd ou b
ta boutthea ppro achbein S
gslowF
afel ina
yc omlApp
pletroach
ed
,
itisadv i sabl etoex e
cuteanimm ediat
ego -a
Onround
thef .
inalappro
a ch
,wh entheai
rplan
eisflowna taslow e
r
thanno rmalai
rspeed,thep i
lot
sjudgmentoftherateofsink
HighFinalApproach (descent
)andth eh e
ighto froundoutisdi
fficul
t.Du r
ingan
Whenthefin
alapproachistoohigh
,lowe
rth
eflapsas ex ces
siv e
lyslowapp ro ach,thewingisop e
r a
tingn earthe
requ
ired
.Fu r
the
rr educ
tioninpowermaybene
c e
ssa
ry, cri
ti
calAOAand ,d ep endingonthepitchatt
itudech anges

8
-28
 i
th
a
i achp
ro
pp
mla
a
r
No 1
2

i ii i i

34
i i i

F
igu
re8 .R
-31 igh
tandw
rongm
ethod
sofco
rre
ctionfo
rlowf
ina
lapp
roa
ch.

andcont
rolusage,th
eairp
lan
em ays
tal
lors
inkr
apid
ly, thro
tt
lesoth
eaddi
tion
althru
standl
if
tar
eremov
edandth
e
con
tac
tingth
eg roundwi
thahardimpa
ct. ai
rpl
aneremain
sontheground
.

Wheneveraslowsp e
edapproachisno
t ed
,applypow erto HighRound Ou t
acce
lerate
theairp
laneandin
creas
ethel
i f
ttoreduce
t h
esink Som etim es whenth eairpl
an eapp earstot empo rar
ilystop
ra
teandtop reventasta
ll
.Thisisdonewh i
lesti
llatahigh movingdownw ard,theroundou th asb eenm ade toorapidly
enoughalt
itudetoree
stab
li
shthecor
rectapproachair
speed andth ea irp
lan eisflyinglev el
,tooh ighabov eth erunw ay.
andatt
itude
.Iftooslowandtoolow,itisb e
sttoexecutea Continuingth eroundou tfu rtherr edu c
esth eairspeedand
go-a
round. in c
re a
se stheAOAtoth ec ri
ticalang le.Thisr esult
sinth e
airplanes ta
llingandd ropp ingh a rdon toth erunw ay
.To
Useo fPowe r preventth is
,th ep i
tcha tt
itud eish eldcon stantun ti
lth e
Pow e
rc anbeu sedeff
ectivelyduringth ea pp
r o
ac handroun d airplaned ece
l e
r a
tesenoughtoag ains ta
rtd e
s cending.Th en
outtocomp ensatefore r
rorsinjudgm ent
.Pow erisadd ed th eroundou ti scontinuedtoe stablishthep rop erlanding
toa c
c ele
rat
eth eairp
lan etoincreasel i
ftw i
thou tincr
e a
sing at
titude.Th ispro cedureison lyu sedwh enthereisad equate
the AOAandth ed escentslow edtoana ccep
t abl
er at
e.If airspeed.Itm ayb en ece
s s
ary toad das l
ig h
tam o untofp ower
thep roperlandingattitudeisa tt
ain edandth ea i
rplaneis tok eept hea
ir speedfromd ecr ea
sin ge xces
sivelya ndtoa v
oid
onlyslight
lyh igh
,thel andingatti
tud ei sheldcon s
tantand lo s
inglifttoor apidly.
suff
icientpow e
rappliedtoh elpe aseth eairplaneontoth e
ground.A fterth eai
rpl aneh astou cheddown ,closeth e

S
tee
pe
rd
esc
en
ta
ng
le
34

F
igu
re8 .C
-32 hang
eing
lid
epa
thandin
crea
seind
esc
entra
tefo
rhighf
ina
lapp
roa
ch.

8
-29
Although back-elevator pressure may be relaxed slightly, If the round out is late, the nose wheel may strike the runway
the nose should not be lowered to make the airplane descend first, causing the nose to bounce upward. Do not attempt to
when fairly close to the runway unless some power is added force the airplane back onto the ground; execute a go-around
momentarily. The momentary decrease in lift that results from immediately.
lowering the nose and decreasing the AOA might cause the
airplane to contact the ground with the nose wheel first and Floating During Round Out
result in the nose wheel collapsing. If the airspeed on final approach is excessive, it usually results
in the airplane floating. [Figure 8-34] Before touchdown can
When the proper landing attitude is attained, the airplane is be made, the airplane may be well past the desired landing
approaching a stall because the airspeed is decreasing and point and the available runway may be insufficient. When
the critical AOA is being approached, even though the pitch diving the airplane on final approach to land at the proper
attitude is no longer being increased. [Figure 8-33] point, there is an appreciable increase in airspeed. The proper
touchdown attitude cannot be established without producing
It is recommended that a go-around be executed any time it an excessive AOA and lift. This causes the airplane to gain
appears the nose must be lowered significantly or that the altitude or balloon.
landing is in any other way uncertain.
Any time the airplane floats, judgment of speed, height,
Late or Rapid Round Out and rate of sink must be especially acute. The pilot must
Starting the round out too late or pulling the elevator control smoothly and gradually adjust the pitch attitude as the
back too rapidly to prevent the airplane from touching down airplane decelerates to touchdown speed and starts to settle,
prematurely can impose a heavy load factor on the wing and so the proper landing attitude is attained at the moment of
cause an accelerated stall. touchdown. The slightest error in judgment and timing results
in either ballooning or bouncing.
Suddenly increasing the AOA and stalling the airplane during
a round out is a dangerous situation since it may cause the The recovery from floating is dependent upon the amount of
airplane to land extremely hard on the main landing gear floating and the effect of any crosswind, as well as the amount
and then bounce back into the air. As the airplane contacts of runway remaining. Since prolonged floating utilizes
the ground, the tail is forced down very rapidly by the back- considerable runway length, it must be avoided especially on
elevator pressure and by inertia acting downward on the tail. short runways or in strong crosswinds. If a landing cannot be
made on the first third of the runway, or the airplane drifts
Recovery from this situation requires prompt and positive sideways, execute a go-around.
application of power prior to occurrence of the stall. This
may be followed by a normal landing if sufficient runway Ballooning During Round Out
is availableotherwise the pilot should execute a go- If the pilot misjudges the rate of sink during a landing and
around immediately. thinks the airplane is descending faster than it should, there is
a tendency to increase the pitch attitude and AOA too rapidly.
3344

Figure 8-33. Rounding out too high.

8-30
 34
F
igu
re8 .F
-34 loa
tingdu
ringroundou
t.

Thi
sn o
to nlystopsthedesce
nt,buta
ctual
lysta
rts
t h
ea i
rplan
e Powe
r mus
tbeapp
li
edb
efo
reth
eai
rpl
aneen
ter
sas
tal
led
cl
imb ing.Th i
sc l
imbingdu r
ingtheroundou tisknowna s cond
it
ion
.
bal
loon ing.[F igure8-35]B a
lloon
ingisdangerousb ec
ause
theh eightabov ethegroundisincr
easingandtheairpl
aneis Thepilot mu s
tb eex t
rem elyc aut
iousofb al
loon ing when
rapidlyapp roachingastal
ledcondi
tion.Thealt
itudeg a
ined thereisacrosswin dpr
es e
ntb ecausethecro
sswi ndc o
rrec
tion
ine achin s
t ancedependsonth eai
rspeedorthesp eedwith maybe inadver
tentlyreleasedor i
tm aybecom ein adequa
te.
whichth epitcha t
ti
tudeisinc
r ea
sed
. Becauseofthelow erai
rspee daf
terbal
l oon
ing
,t hec ro
sswind
affe
ctstheairplanemo re.Con sequently
,thew ingh astobe
Depe n
din go ntheseveri
tyo fbal
loo n
ing,
theu seoft h
rot
tlei
s low e
re devenfurthertocom p
en sa
teforthe
incr e
as eddr
if
t.It
helpfu
li nc ush
io n
i n
g the
l anding
.B ya dd
ingp ow er
,thrus
tis isim pera
tivethatthepi
l o
tm akescer
taintha
tthea pp
ropr
iate
increased tok e
ep theair
sp eedfromd ece
lerat
ing toorapid
ly wingisdownand thatdirec
tionalcontrol
ism aintainedwith
andth ew ing sfromsudd enlylos
ingl i
ft
,bu tthro t
tl
e must opposi
t erudder
.Ifth ereisanydoub t,orthea i
rpl anes
tart
s
bec losedimm ed
i a
telyaft e
rtou chdown.R em emb erthat todrif
t,ex ecu
teago -
around .
torquei sc r
e a
teda spow erisapplied,anditisn ecessa
ryto
userudd erpr e
ssuretok eepth eai
rplanest
raighta si
ts e
tt
les BouncingDu ringTouchdown
ontotherunw ay. Whenth
ea i
rplanecon
t a
ctst
hegroundwithasha
rp impactas
there
sultofanim p
ro p
erat
ti
tudeoranexcess
iverateofsink
,
Whenb allooningi sex cess
iv e
,itisb es
ttoex ecuteago - i t
tendstobo u
ncebackintoth
eai
r.Thoughtheai
r p
lane
stir
es
aroundimm edi
ately;dono tattempttosalvageth eland
ing. andshockstru
tsprovidesomespr
ingingact
ion
, theai
rplane
34

F
igu
re8 .B
-35 a
lloon
ingdu
ringroundou
t.

8
-31
doesno tbouncelik earubb erba
ll.Inste ad
,i treboundsinto co r
r ect
ion. Wh enon em a
in wh eelo fth ea i
rplanestrikes
thea irb ec
auseth ew ing s AOA w asab ruptlyin cr
e a
sed, therunw ay,theo ther wh eeltou chesdownimm ediat
ely
produ c
ingasudd enadd it
iono fl
ift.[F igur e8-36 ] af
terw ards
,andth ew ing sb ecom esl evel.Th en,w i
thno
crosswindcorrect
ionas theairplaneb ounces,thew indcauses
Theab ruptchangeinAOAi stheresulto fin er
tiainstant
ly t hea i
rplanetor o
llw i
t ht hewin d
,t huse xpo s
inge venm o
re
forc
ingth eairpl
an esta
ildownw ardwh enth em a
inwh eels sur
f acetoth
ec ros
sw i
n da nddri
ft
i ngtheairplanem orerapid
l y
.
conta c
tth egroundsh arply.Th es everityo fth eboun ce
depend sonth eai
r speeda tthe mom en tofcon tac
tandth e Wh enaboun ceissevere,th esafestproc edureistoex ecute
degreetowh ichth eAOAo rpi
tcha t
titud ew a
sin c
reased. ago -aroundimm ediately. Dono ta ttemp ttos alvageth e
landing.A pplyfu
llp ow erw hi
lesim ultaneo us
lym aint
ai n
ing
Sinceaboun ceoccu rswh entheai
rp l
an em akescon t
a c
tw i
th d i
re c
tionalcontrolandlow e
ringth eno setoas afeclimb
theg roundbeforeth eprop e
rtouchdowna ttitudeisatta
ined, at
ti
tud e.Thego -a
roundp rocedureshou ldb econtinuedev en
itisa lmostinvariablya ccompaniedbyth eapp l
icat
iono f tho ughtheairp
lanem a yd escenda nda notherbou n
cem aybe
excessiveback-elevatorpr e
ssur
e.Th isi su suallyther e
sul
t e ncou n
tered
.Itisextrem elyfool
is htoattem ptalandingfrom
ofthep ilo
treali
zingtool at
ethatth ea i
rpl anei snotinthe ab adboun cesinceairsp eeddim inishesv eryrapidlyinth e
properatt
itud
ea ndattem p
tingtoestabl
is hitjustasthesecond n ose-highat
titude
,a ndas tal
lm ayo c c
urb eforeas ubsequent
touchdowno ccur
s. touchdowncou ldb em ad e
.

Theco rrect
ivea ct
ionforaboun cei sthes amea sfo r Porpoising
ba
lloon ingands imi
lar
lyd ependsoni
tss eve
ri
ty. Whenitis Inabo uncedla
ndingth
ati
sim prop
erlyre
covered
, t
hea i
rpl
ane
verys l
ightandth e
reisnoex tremechangeintheairplane
s comesinno sefi
rstin
it
iat
ingas e
riesofmotionsthatimita
te
pi
t cha t
titude
,afo llow-upl and
ing m ayb eexecutedby thej
um p sanddiveso
fap o
r p
oise
.[Figu
re8-37]T h
ep rob
lem
app lyingsu ff
i c
ientpow e
rtocu shionth esub sequent isimprop e
rai
rplanea
tt
itudeat
touchdow n
,som e
tim escau
sed
tou chdownandsmoo th
lyad just
ingthep i
tchtothep rope
r byinattent
ion,no tknowing wheretheg roundi s,m i
ss-
tou chdowna tt
itude
. tr
imm ingo rfor
cingtheai
rplaneontotherunw ay
.

Intheeventav e
rys
lightbounceisencou
nte
redw h
ile
landing Groundeff
ectdecr
e a
seseleva
torcont
rolef
fec
tivene
ssand
wi
thac rosswind,crosswindcorr
e c
tionmustbem a
inta
ined increa
sestheef
fortrequ
iredtorai
sethenose. No
tenough
whi
leth en exttouchdowni sm ade.Rem embertha
tsince eleva
tororstab
il
atortr
imc anresu
ltinano s
elowcontact
thesubsequ enttouchdownism adeataslowerai
rspe
ed,the wi
ththerunwayandapo rpois
ed ev
elops
.
upwindw ingh a
stob eloweredevenfur
thertocompensat
e
fordri
ft. Porpoi
singcanal
sob ecausedbyimproperai
rspeedcon trol
.
Usual
ly,i
fanapproachi
s toofas
t,th
eairpl
anefloatsandth e
E
xtr
emecaut
ionanda
ler
tnes
sm us
tb eexe
rci
sedanyt
imea p i
lottr
iestoforcei
tonth erunway whentheairplanes t
il
l
b
ounceoccu
rs
,butpa
rt
icula
rlyw h
enther
eisac r
osswi
nd. wants
tofly.Agusto
fw ind,abump intherunway,o revena
I
nexpe
rie
ncedp
ilo
tsa
lm o
stinv
ari
ablyr
elea
sethec
rossw
ind sl
ighttugonthecon
trolwh eels
endstheai
rplanealoftagain
.

ii i
34

F
igu
re8 .B
-36 oun
cingdu
ringtou
chdown
.

8
-32
 i i

ii i ii i

34
F
igu
re8 .P
-37 o
rpo
is
ing
.

Thecorrec
tiveact
ionforapo rpoiseisthes amea sfora thep rop e
rsp e
ed,andg ent
lylow e
rsth enose whee
l wh i
le
bounceandsimi
lar
lydependson i
tssever
ity
.W heni
tisvery losingsp eedonro llou
t.Ifthep i
lotdecide
stos tayonth e
sl
ightandther
eisnoextremech angeintheairp
lanespi
tch groundr a
therthana tt
emp tago -aroundorifd ire
ctional
at
ti
tude,afol
low-uplanding mayb eexecutedbyapp ly
ing controlislos
t,clo
s ethethro
ttleandadjus
tthepi
t chat
titude
suf
fic
ientpow e
rtocushionthesubsequenttouchdownand smoo thlybutfi
rm lytoth eprope
rlandingat
ti
tud e
.
smoothlyad
jus
tingth
epi
t cht
othep r
o p
ertouchdownatt
itude
.
HardLand ing
Whenapo rpoiseiss eve
r e
,thesafes
tp roc edurei
s toex e cute Whenthea i
rplanecontac
t stheg rounddur
ingl andings
,its
ago-aroundimm e d
i a
te
l y
.Inas eve
r ep o
r pois
e,thea irpla n
es ver
tic
alsp e
ed is
inst
antlyr educedtozero
.Unlessp rov
isions
pi
tcho sc
illa
tionsc anb ecom eprogre s
siv e
lywo rs eun ti
lth e aremad etoslowthisv e
rticalspeedandcushionth eimpact
ai
rplanestr
ik e
s therunw ayno sefi
rstw ithsuff
icien tfor ceto oftouchdown,theforceo fcon tac
tw i
ththeground m ayb e
col
lapsetheno seg ear.Attemptstoco r
r ectasever epo rpoise sogreatitcouldcausestru c
tura
ld amagetothea i
rplane.
wi
thfligh
tcon trolandpow erinputsismo stl
ikelyun tim e
ly
andou tofsequ encew iththeoscil
lationsandon lym ak ethe Thepu rposeo fpn eum atictires,sho ckab sorbingl anding
si
tuat
i onw o
rse.D onotattempttosalvag ethelandin g
.A pply gear,ando th erd evice si stocu shionth eimp actandto
ful
lpow er whiles imu l
taneously m aintain
ingd irection a
l increasethetim einwh i chth eairplan esv e
rtica
ld escentis
cont
rolandlow eringth enosetoas afec limbattitude. stopped.Th eimpo rtanc eo fthiscu shionm ayb eund er
stood
fromth ecompu tat
ionth ata6 -inchf r eef al
lonl andingi s
Whee lBar row ing roughlyequ altoa340fpmd escen t
.W ithinaf ractiono fa
Whenap ilotp e
rm it sthea irplan ew eigh ttob ecom e s ec ond
,theairplanem ustb eslow e dfrom t h
israteo fv er
tic a
l
concentra
tedabou tth eno se wh e eldu r
ingth etakeoffor d escenttozerow i
thou td am ag e
.
landingroll
,acond it
ionknowna swh eelb arrow ingoccu r
s.
Wheelb a
rrow ing m ayc au selo sso fd i
r ection a
lcontro l Du ringthistim e
,th el and ingg ear,tog eth erw ithsom ea id
dur
ing thelandingro llb ec
au seb rakinga ction isinef
fect
iv e
, f romth elifto fthew ing s, mu s
tsupp ly wh ateverfo rcei s
andtheairplanet end stosw e
rv eorp ivotonth eno sewh eel
, n eededtocoun ter
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8
-33
TouchdowninaD r
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8
-34
on these airplanes, any time a swerve develops, centrifugal serious adverse effects on ground controllability and
force acting on the CG tends to stop the swerving action. braking efficiency. The three basic types of hydroplaning
are dynamic hydroplaning, reverted rubber hydroplaning,
If the airplane touches down while drifting or in a crab, and viscous hydroplaning. Any one of the three can render
apply aileron toward the high wing and stop the swerve with an airplane partially or totally uncontrollable anytime during
the rudder. Brakes are used to correct for turns or swerves the landing roll.
only when the rudder is inadequate. Exercise caution when
applying corrective brake action because it is very easy to Dynamic Hydroplaning
over control and aggravate the situation. Dynamic hydroplaning is a relatively high-speed phenomenon
that occurs when there is a film of water on the runway that
If brakes are used, sufficient brake is applied on the low-wing is at least one-tenth of an inch deep. As the speed of the
wheel (outside of the turn) to stop the swerve. When the wings airplane and the depth of the water increase, the water layer
are approximately level, the new direction must be maintained builds up an increasing resistance to displacement, resulting
until the airplane has slowed to taxi speed or has stopped. in the formation of a wedge of water beneath the tire. At
some speed, termed the hydroplaning speed (Vp), the water
In nose-wheel airplanes, a ground loop is almost always a pressure equals the weight of the airplane, and the tire is lifted
result of wheel barrowing. A pilot must be aware that even off the runway surface. In this condition, the tires no longer
though the nose-wheel type airplane is less prone than the contribute to directional control and braking action is nil.
tailwheel-type airplane, virtually every type of airplane,
including large multi-engine airplanes, can be made to ground Dynamic hydroplaning is related to tire inflation pressure. Data
loop when sufficiently mishandled. obtained during hydroplaning tests have shown the minimum
dynamic hydroplaning speed (Vp) of a tire to be 8.6 times
Wing Rising After Touchdown the square root of the tire pressure in pounds per square inch
When landing in a crosswind, there may be instances when (PSI). For an airplane with a main tire pressure of 24 pounds,
a wing rises during the after-landing roll. This may occur the calculated hydroplaning speed would be approximately
whether or not there is a loss of directional control, depending 42 knots. It is important to note that the calculated speed
on the amount of crosswind and the degree of corrective action. referred to above is for the start of dynamic hydroplaning.
Once hydroplaning has started, it may persist to a significantly
Any time an airplane is rolling on the ground in a crosswind slower speed depending on the type being experienced.
condition, the upwind wing is receiving a greater force
from the wind than the downwind wing. This causes a lift Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning
differential. Also, as the upwind wing rises, there is an Reverted rubber (steam) hydroplaning occurs during heavy
increase in the AOA, which increases lift on the upwind braking that results in a prolonged locked-wheel skid. Only a
wing, rolling the airplane downwind. thin film of water on the runway is required to facilitate this
type of hydroplaning. The tire skidding generates enough heat
When the effects of these two factors are great enough, the to cause the rubber in contact with the runway to revert to
upwind wing may rise even though directional control is its original uncured state. The reverted rubber acts as a seal
maintained. If no correction is applied, it is possible that the between the tire and the runway and delays water exit from
upwind wing rises sufficiently to cause the downwind wing the tire footprint area. The water heats and is converted to
to strike the ground. steam, which supports the tire off the runway.

In the event a wing starts to rise during the landing roll, Reverted rubber hydroplaning frequently follows an
immediately apply more aileron pressure toward the high encounter with dynamic hydroplaning, during which time the
wing and continue to maintain direction. The sooner the pilot may have the brakes locked in an attempt to slow the
aileron control is applied, the more effective it is. The further airplane. Eventually the airplane slows enough to where the
a wing is allowed to rise before taking corrective action, the tires make contact with the runway surface and the airplane
more airplane surface is exposed to the force of the crosswind. begins to skid. The remedy for this type of hydroplane is
This diminishes the effectiveness of the aileron. to release the brakes and allow the wheels to spin up and
apply moderate braking. Reverted rubber hydroplaning is
Hydroplaning insidious in that the pilot may not know when it begins, and
Hydroplaning is a condition that can exist when an airplane it can persist to very slow ground speeds (20 knots or less).
has landed on a runway surface contaminated with standing
water, slush, and/or wet snow. Hydroplaning can have

8-35
Viscous Hydroplaning
Viscous hydroplaning is due to the viscous properties of
water. A thin film of fluid no more than one thousandth of an
inch in depth is all that is needed. The tire cannot penetrate
the fluid and the tire rolls on top of the film. This can
occur at a much lower speed than dynamic hydroplane, but
requires a smooth or smooth acting surface, such as asphalt
or a touchdown area coated with the accumulated rubber
of past landings. Such a surface can have the same friction
coefficient as wet ice.

When confronted with the possibility of hydroplaning,

it is best to land on a grooved runway (if available).
Touchdown speed should be as slow as possible consistent
with safety. After the nose wheel is lowered to the runway,
moderate braking is applied. If deceleration is not detected
and hydroplaning is suspected, raise the nose and use
aerodynamic drag to decelerate to a point where the brakes
do become effective.

Proper braking technique is essential. The brakes are applied

firmly until reaching a point just short of a skid. At the first sign
of a skid, release brake pressure and allow the wheels to spin
up. Directional control is maintained as far as possible with
the rudder. Remember that in a crosswind, if hydroplaning
occurs, the crosswind causes the airplane to simultaneously
weathervane into the wind, as well as slide downwind.

Chapter Summary
Accident statistics show that a pilot is at most risk for an
accident during the approach and landing than any other
phase of a flight. There are many factors that contribute to
accidents in this phase, but an overwhelming percentage of
accidents are caused from pilots lack of proficiency. This
chapter presents procedures that, when learned and practiced,
are a key to attaining proficiency. Additional information
on aerodynamics, airplane performance, and other aspects
affecting approaches and landings can be found in the Pilots
Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25, as
revised). For information concerning risk assessment as a
means of preventing accidents, refer to the Risk Management
Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2). Both of these publications are
available at www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aviation.

8-36
Chapter 9

Performance Maneuvers
Introduction
Flight maneuvers that are initially taught to pilots are
designed to be basic and relatively simple: straight-and-level,
turns, climbs and descents. However, as a pilot continues
through their flight training, additional maneuvers are needed
to develop beyond the fundamentals. Performance maneuvers
are intended to enhance a pilots proficiency in flight control
application, maneuver planning, situational awareness, and
division of attention. To further that intent, performance
maneuvers are generally designed so that the application of
flight control pressures, attitudes, airspeeds, and orientations
are constantly changing throughout the maneuver.

9-1
9-1
9-
Performance maneuvers also allow for an effective attention between flight control application, and the constant
assessment of a pilots ability to apply the fundamentals; need to scan for hazards. [Figure 9-1]
weakness in executing performance maneuvers is likely
due to a pilots lack of understanding or a deficiency of When steep turns are first demonstrated, the pilot will be
fundamental skills. It is advisable that performance maneuver in an unfamiliar environment when compared to what
training should not take place until sufficient competency was previously experienced in shallow bank angled turns;
in the fundamentals is consistently demonstrated by the however, the fundamental concepts of turns remain the same
pilot. Further, initial training for performance maneuvers in the execution of steep turns. When performing steep turns,
should always begin with a detailed ground lesson for each pilots will be exposed to higher load factors, the airplanes
maneuver, so that the technicalities are understood prior to inherent overbanking tendency, the loss of vertical component
flight. In addition, performance maneuver training should be of lift when the wings are steeply banked, the need for
segmented into comprehensible building blocks of instruction substantial pitch control pressures, and the need for additional
so as to allow the pilot an appropriate level of repetition to power to maintain altitude and airspeed during the turn.
develop the required skills.
As discussed in previous chapters, when an airplane is banked,
Performance maneuvers, once grasped by the pilot, are very the total lift is comprised of a vertical component of lift and a
satisfying and rewarding. As the pilot develops skills in horizontal component of lift. In order to not lose altitude, the
executing performance maneuvers, they may likely see an pilot must increase the wings angle of attack (AOA) to ensure
increased smoothness in their flight control application and a that the vertical component of lift is sufficient to maintain
higher ability to sense the airplanes attitude and orientation altitude. In a steep turn, the pilot will need to increase pitch
without significant conscious effort. with elevator back pressures that are greater than what has
been previously utilized. Total lift must increase substantially
Steep Turns to balance the load factor or G-force (G). The load factor is the
Steep turns consist of single to multiple 360 to 720 turns, in vector resultant of gravity and centrifugal force. For example,
either or both directions, using a bank angle between 45 to in a level altitude, 45 banked turn, the resulting load factor
60. The objective of the steep turn is to develop a pilots skill is 1.4; in a level altitude, 60 banked turn, the resulting load
in flight control smoothness and coordination, an awareness factor is 2.0. To put this in perspective, with a load factor of
of the airplanes orientation to outside references, division of 2.0, the effective weight of the aircraft will double. Pilots

WIND

Figure 9-1. Steep turns.

9-2
should realize load factors increase dramatically beyond to hold the airplane in level flightto maintain altitude.
60. Most general aviation airplanes are designed for a load Pilots should keep in mind that as the AOA increases, so
limit of 3.8Gs. Regardless of the airspeed or what airplane is does drag. Consequently, power must be added to maintain
involved, for a given bank angle in a level altitude turn, the altitude and airspeed.
same load factor will always be produced. A light, general
aviation airplane in a level altitude, 45 angle of bank turn Steep turns can be conducted more easily by the use of
will experience a load factor of 1.4 just as a large commercial elevator trim and power as the maneuver is entered. In many
airliner will in the same level altitude, 45 angle of bank turn. light general aviation airplanes, as the bank angle transitions
from medium to steep, increasing elevator up trim and adding
Because of the higher load factors, steep turns should be a small increase in engine power minimizes control pressure
performed at an airspeed that does not exceed the airplanes requirements. Pilots must not forget to remove both the trim
design maneuvering speed (VA) or the manufacturers and power inputs as the maneuver is completed.
recommended speed. Maximum turning performance is
accomplished when an airplane has both a fast rate of turn and To maintain bank angle, altitude, as well as orientation,
minimum radius of turn, which is effected by both airspeed requires an awareness of the relative position of the horizon
and angle of bank. Each airplanes turning performance to the nose and the wings. The pilot who references the
is limited by structural and aerodynamic design, as well aircrafts attitude by observing only the nose will have
as available power. The airplanes limiting load factor difficulty maintaining altitude. A pilot who observes both
determines the maximum bank angle that can be maintained the nose and the wings relative to the horizon is likely able
in level flight without exceeding the airplanes structural to maintain altitude within performance standards. Altitude
limitations or stalling. As the load factor increases, so does deviations are primary errors exhibited in the execution of
the stalling speed. For example, if an airplane stalls in level steep turns. If the altitude does increase or decrease, changing
flight at 50 knots, it will stall at 60 knots in a level altitude, elevator back pressure could be used to alter the altitude;
45 banked turn and at 70 knots in a level altitude, 60 banked however, a more effective method is a slight increase or
turn. Stalling speed increases at the square root of the load decrease in bank angle to control small altitude deviations. If
factor. As the bank angle increases in level flight, the margin altitude is decreasing, reducing the bank angle a few degrees
between stalling speed and maneuvering speed decreasesan helps recover or stop the altitude loss trend; also, if altitude
important concept for a pilot to remain cognizant. is increasing, increasing the bank angle a few degrees helps
recover or stop the altitude increase trendall bank angle
In addition to the increased load factors, the airplane will changes should be accomplished with coordinated use of
exhibit what is called overbanking tendency. Recall from a aileron and rudder.
previous chapter on the discussion of overbanking tendency.
In most flight maneuvers, bank angles are shallow enough The rollout from the steep turn should be timed so that the
that the airplane exhibits positive or neutral stability about wings reach level flight when the airplane is on heading from
the longitudinal axis; however, as bank angles steepen, which the maneuver was started. A good rule of thumb is to
the airplane will exhibit the behavior to continue rolling begin the rollout at the number of degrees of bank prior
in the direction of the bank unless deliberate and opposite to reaching the terminating heading. For example, if a right
aileron pressure is held against the bank. Also, pilots should steep turn was begun on a heading of 270 and if the bank
be mindful of the various left turning tendencies, such as angle is 60, the pilot should begin the rollout 30 prior or at
P-factor, which requires effective rudder aileron coordination. a heading of 240. While the rollout is being made, elevator
back pressure, trim, and power should be gradually reduced,
Before starting any practice maneuver, the pilot must ensure as necessary, to maintain the altitude and airspeed.
that the area is clear of air traffic and other hazards. Further,
distant references such as a mountain peak or road should be Common errors when performing steep turns are:
chosen to allow the pilot to assess when to begin rollout from Not clearing the area
the turn. After establishing the manufacturers recommended
entry speed or the design maneuvering speed, the airplane Inadequate pitch control on entry or rollout
should be smoothly rolled into the desired bank angle Gaining altitude or losing altitude
somewhere between 45 to 60. As the bank angle is being
Failure to maintain constant bank angle
established, generally prior to 30 of bank, elevator back
pressure should be smoothly applied to increase the AOA. Poor flight control coordination
After the selected bank angle has been reached, the pilot will Ineffective use of trim
find that considerable force is required on the elevator control

9-3
 Ineffective use of power is established. Once the proper airspeed is attained, the pitch
Inadequate airspeed control should be lowered and the airplane rolled to the desired bank
angle as the reference point is reached. The steepest bank
Becoming disoriented should not exceed 60. The gliding spiral should be a turn
Performing by reference to the flight instrument rather of constant radius while maintaining the airplanes position
than visual references to the reference. This can only be accomplished by proper
correction for wind drift by steepening the bank on downwind
Failure to scan for other traffic during the maneuver
headings and shallowing the bank on upwind headings, just
Attempts to start recovery prematurely as in the maneuver, turns around a point. During the steep
Failure to stop the turn on designated heading spiral, the pilot must continually correct for any changes in
wind direction and velocity to maintain a constant radius.
Steep Spiral
Operating the engine at idle speed for any prolonged period
The objective of the steep spiral is to provide a flight
during the glide may result in excessive engine cooling, spark
maneuver for rapidly dissipating substantial amounts of
plug fouling, or carburetor ice. To assist in avoiding these
altitude while remaining over a selected spot. This maneuver
issues, the throttle should be periodically advanced to normal
is especially effective for emergency descents or landings.
cruise power and sustained for a few seconds. If equipped,
A steep spiral is a gliding turn where the pilot maintains
monitoring cylinder head temperatures provides a pilot with
a constant radius around a surface-based reference point
additional information on engine cooling. When advancing
while rapidly descendingsimilar to the turns around a
the throttle, the pitch attitude must be adjusted to maintain a
point maneuver. Sufficient altitude must be gained prior
constant airspeed and, preferably, this should be done when
to practicing the maneuver so that at least three 360 turns
headed into the wind.
are completed. [Figure 9-2] The maneuver should not be
allowed to continue below 1,500 feet above ground level
Maintaining a constant airspeed throughout the maneuver
(AGL) unless an actual emergency exists.
is an important skill for a pilot to develop. This is necessary
because the airspeed tends to fluctuate as the bank angle is
The steep spiral is initiated by properly clearing the airspace
changed throughout the maneuver. The pilot should anticipate
for air traffic and hazards. In general, the throttle is closed to
pitch corrections as the bank angle is varied throughout the
idle, carburetor heat is applied if equipped, and gliding speed

Figure 9-2. Steep spiral.

9-4
man
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9
-5
complete or exceeds the 180 turn as the wings come level [Figure 9-3E] Once demonstrated that the airplane is in
to the horizon. controlled flight, the pitch attitude may be reduced and the
airplane returned to straight-and-level cruise flight.
Prior to starting the chandelle, the flaps and landing gear (if
retractable) should be in the UP position. The chandelle is Common errors when performing chandelles are:
initiated by properly clearing the airspace for air traffic and Not clearing the area
hazards. The maneuver should be entered from straight-and-
level flight or a shallow dive at an airspeed recommended by Initial bank is too shallow resulting in a stall
the manufacturerin most cases this is the airplanes design Initial bank is too steep resulting in failure to gain
maneuvering speed (VA). [Figure 9-3A] After the appropriate maximum performance
entry airspeed has been established, the chandelle is started by
Allowing the bank angle to increase after initial
smoothly entering a coordinated turn to the desired angle of
establishment
bank; once the bank angle is established, which is generally
30, a climbing turn should be started by smoothly applying Not starting the recovery at the 90 point in the turn
elevator back pressure at a constant rate while simultaneously Allowing the pitch attitude to increase as the bank is
increasing engine power to the recommended setting. In rolled out during the second 90 of turn
airplanes with a fixed-pitch propeller, the throttle should be set
Leveling the wings prior to the 180 point being
so as to not exceed rotations per minute (rpm) limitations; in
reached
airplanes with constant-speed propellers, power may be set at
the normal cruise or climb setting as appropriate. [Figure 9-3B] Pitch attitude is low on recovery resulting in airspeed
well above stall speed
Since the airspeed is constantly decreasing throughout the Application of flight control pressures is not smooth
chandelle, the effects of left turning tendencies, such as
Poor flight control coordination
P-factor, becomes more apparent. As airspeed decreases,
right-rudder pressure is progressively increased to ensure that Stalling at any point during the maneuver
the airplane remains in coordinated flight. The pilot should Execution of a steep turn instead of a climbing
maintain coordinated flight by sensing slipping or skidding maneuver
pressures applied to the controls and by quick glances to the
ball in the turn-and-slip or turn coordinator. Not scanning for other traffic during the maneuver
Performing by reference to the flight instrument rather
At the 90 point, the pilot should begin to smoothly roll out of than visual references
the bank at a constant rate while maintaining the pitch attitude
set in the first 90. While the angle of bank is fixed during the Lazy Eight
first 90, recall that as airspeed decreases, the overbanking The lazy eight is a maneuver that is designed to develop
tendency increases. [Figure 9-3C] As a result, proper use of the proper coordination of the flight controls across a wide
the ailerons allows the bank to remain at a fixed angle until range of airspeeds and attitudes. It is the only standard flight
rollout is begun at the start of the final 90. As the rollout training maneuver that, at no time, flight control pressures
continues, the vertical component of lift increases; therefore, are constant. In an attempt to simplify the discussion about
a slight release of elevator back pressure is required to keep this maneuver, the lazy eight can be loosely described by the
the pitch attitude from increasing. ground reference maneuver, S-turns across the road. Recall
that S-turns across the road are made of opposing 180
When the airspeed is slowest, near the completion of the turns. For example, first a 180 turn to the right, followed
chandelle, right rudder pressure is significant, especially when immediately by a 180 turn to the left. The lazy eight adds
rolling out from a left chandelle due to left adverse yaw and both a climb and descent to each 180 segment. The first 90
left turning tendencies, such as P-factor. [Figure 9-3D] When is a climb; the second 90 is a descent. [Figure 9-4]
rolling out from a right chandelle, the yawing moment is to
the right, which partially cancels some of the left turning To aid in the performance of the lazy eights symmetrical
tendencys effect. Depending on the airplane, either very climbing/descending turns, prominent reference points must
little left rudder or a reduction in right rudder pressure is be selected on the natural horizon. The reference points
required during the rollout from a right chandelle. At the selected should be at 45, 90, and 135 from the direction
completion of 180 of turn, the wings should be leveled to in which the maneuver is started for each 180 turn. With the
the horizon, the airspeed should be just above stall speed, and general concept of climbing and descending turns grasped,
the airplanes pitch high attitude should be held momentarily. specifics of the lazy eight can then be discussed.

9-6
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sshou ldrem emb e
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9
-7
its lowest pitch attitude. [Figure 9-4D] Pilots should Chapter Summary
remember that the airplanes airspeed is increasing as the
Performance maneuvers are used to develop a pilots skills
airplanes pitch attitude decreases; therefore, to maintain
in coordinating the flight controls use and effect while
proper coordination will require a decrease in right rudder
enhancing the pilots ability to divide attention across the
pressure. As the airplane approaches the 180 point, it is
various demands of flight. Performance maneuvers are
necessary to progressively relax rudder and aileron pressure
also designed to further develop a pilots application and
while simultaneously raising pitch and roll to level flight.
correlation of the fundamentals of flight and integrate
As the rollout is being accomplished, the pilot should note
developing skills into advanced maneuvers. Developing
the amount of turn remaining and adjust the rate of rollout
highly-honed skills in performance maneuvers allows the
and pitch change so that the wings and nose are level at the
pilot to effectively progress toward the mastery of flight.
original airspeed just as the 180 point is reached.
Mastery is developed as the mechanics of flight become
a subconscious, rather than a conscious, application of
Upon arriving at 180 point, a climbing turn should be started
the flight controls to maneuver the airplane in attitude,
immediately in the opposite direction toward the preselected
orientation, and position.
reference points to complete the second half of the lazy eight
in the same manner as the first half. [Figure 9-4E]

Power should be set so as not to enter the maneuver at an

airspeed that would exceed manufacturers recommendations,
which is generally no greater than VA. Power and bank angle
have significant effect on the altitude gained or lost; if excess
power is used for a given bank angle, altitude is gained at the
completion of the maneuver; however, if insufficient power
is used for a given bank angle, altitude is lost.

Common errors when performing lazy eights are:

Not clearing the area
Maneuver is not symmetrical across each 180
Inadequate or improper selection or use of 45, 90,
135 references
Ineffective planning
Gain or loss of altitude at each 180 point
Poor control at the top of each climb segment resulting
in the pitch rapidly falling through the horizon
Airspeed or bank angle standards not met
Control roughness
Poor flight control coordination
Stalling at any point during the maneuver
Execution of a steep turn instead of a climbing
maneuver
Not scanning for other traffic during the maneuver
Performing by reference to the flight instrument rather
than visual references

9-8
Chapter 10

Night Operations
Introduction
t d ti
The mechanical operation of an airplane at night is no
different than operating the same airplane during the day. The
airplane does not know if it is being operated in the dark or
bright sunlight. It performs and responds to control inputs by
the pilot. The pilot, however, is affected by various aspects
of night operations and must take them into consideration
during night flight operations. Some are actual physical
limitations affecting all pilots while others, such as equipment
requirements, procedures, and emergency situations, must
also be considered.

According to Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations

(14 CFR) part 1, Definitions and Abbreviations, night is
defined as the time between the end of evening civil twilight
and the beginning of morning civil twilight. To explain
further, morning civil twilight begins when the geometric
center of the sun is 6 below the horizon and ends at sunrise.
Evening civil twilight begins at sunset and ends when the
geometric center of the sun reaches 6 below the horizon.

10-1
1
100-1
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10
-2
enlarge to receive as much of the available light as possible. Close one eye when exposed to bright light to help
After approximately 5 to 10 minutes, the cones become avoid the blinding effect.
adjusted to the dim light and the eyes become approximately Do not wear sunglasses after sunset as this impairs
100 times more sensitive to the light than they were before the night vision.
dark room was entered. Much more time, about 30 minutes, is
needed for the rods to become adjusted to darkness, but when Move the eyes more slowly than in daylight.
they do adjust, they are about 100,000 times more sensitive to Blink the eyes if they become blurred.
light than they were in the lighted area. After the adaptation
Concentrate on seeing objects.
process is complete, much more can be seen, especially if
scanning techniques are used correctly. Force the eyes to view off center using scanning
techniques.
After the eyes have adapted to the dark, the entire process Maintain good physical condition.
is reversed when entering a lighted room. The eyes are first
Avoid smoking, drinking, and using drugs that may
dazzled by the brightness, but become completely adjusted
be harmful.
in a very few seconds, thereby losing their adaptation to the
dark. Now, if the dark room is re-entered, the eyes again go
Night Illusions
through the long process of adapting to the darkness.
In addition to night vision limitations, night illusions can
Before and during night flight, the adaptation process of cause confusion and distractions during night flying. The
the eyes must be considered. First, adapt to the low level of following discussion covers some of the common situations
light and then stay adapted. After the eyes are adapted to the that cause illusions associated with night flying.
darkness, avoid exposing them for more than one second to
any bright white light as that causes temporary blindness. On a clear night, distant stationary lights can be mistaken
If exposed to a bright light source, such as search lights and for stars or other aircraft. Cloud layers or even the northern
landing lights, remember that each eye adapts to the dark lights can confuse a pilot and indicate a false visual horizon.
independently. By closing or covering one eye when exposed Certain geometrical patterns of ground lights, such as a
to light, some night vision acuity is retained in the closed eye. freeway, runway, approach, or even lights on a moving
train, can cause confusion. Dark nights tend to eliminate
Temporary blindness, caused by an unusually bright light, reference to a visual horizon. As a result, pilots need to rely
may result in illusions or after images until the eyes recover less on outside references at night and more on flight and
from the brightness. The brain creates these illusions navigation instruments.
reported by the eyes. This results in misjudging or incorrectly
identifying objects, such as mistaking slanted clouds for the Visual autokinesis can occur when staring at a single light
horizon or populated areas for a landing field. Vertigo is source for several seconds on a dark night. The result is that
experienced as a feeling of dizziness and imbalance that can the light appears to be moving. The autokinesis effect will
create or increase illusions. The illusions seem very real and not occur if the visual field is expanded through scanning
pilots at every level of experience and skill can be affected. techniques. A good scanning procedure reduces the
Recognizing that the brain and eyes can play tricks in this probability of vision becoming fixed on one source of light.
manner is the best protection for flying at night.
Distractions and problems can result from a flickering light
Good eyesight depends upon physical condition. Fatigue, in the flightdeck, anti-collision light, or other aircraft lights
colds, vitamin deficiency, alcohol, stimulants, smoking, or and can cause flicker vertigo. If continuous, the possible
medication can seriously impair vision. Keep these facts in physical reactions can be nausea, dizziness, grogginess,
mind and take adequate precautions to safeguard night vision. unconsciousness, headaches, or confusion. Try to eliminate
In addition to the principles previously discussed, the following any light source causing blinking or flickering problems in
items aid in increasing night vision effectiveness. the flightdeck.
Adapt the eyes to darkness prior to flight and keep
A black-hole approach occurs when the landing is made
them adapted. About 30 minutes is needed to adjust
from over water or non-lighted terrain where the runway
the eyes to maximum efficiency after exposure to a
lights are the only source of light. Without peripheral visual
bright light.
cues to help, orientation is difficult. The runway can seem
If oxygen is available, use it during night flying. Keep out of position (down-sloping or up-sloping) and in the
in mind that a significant deterioration in night vision worst case, results in landing short of the runway. If an
can occur at cabin altitudes as low as 5,000 feet.

10-3
electronic glide slope or visual approach slope indicator the preflight visual inspection of the airplane, and the red
(VASI) is available, it should be used. If navigation aids light is used when performing cockpit operations. It is also
(NAVAIDs) are unavailable, use the flight instruments to recommended to have a spare set of batteries for the flashlight
assist in maintaining orientation and a normal approach. readily available.
Anytime position in relation to the runway or altitude is in
doubt, execute a go-around. Since the red light is non-glaring, it will not impair night
vision. Some pilots prefer two flashlights, one with a white
Bright runway and approach lighting systems, especially light for preflight and the other a penlight type with a red
where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain, may light. The latter can be suspended by a string from around the
create the illusion of being lower or having less distance to neck to ensure the light is always readily available. One word
the runway. In this situation, the tendency is to fly a higher of caution: if a red light is used for reading an aeronautical
approach. Also, flying over terrain with only a few lights chart, the red features of the chart will not show up.
makes the runway recede or appear farther away. With
this situation, the tendency is to fly a lower-than-normal Aeronautical charts are essential for night cross-country
approach. If the runway has a city in the distance on higher flight and, if the intended course is near the edge of the chart,
terrain, the tendency is to fly a lower-than-normal approach. the adjacent chart should also be available. The lights of
A good review of the airfield layout and boundaries before cities and towns can be seen at surprising distances at night,
initiating any approach helps maintain a safe approach angle. and if this adjacent chart is not available to identify those
landmarks, confusion could result. These checklist items are
Illusions created by runway lights result in a variety not just for night flying, they are required for day light flying
of problems. Bright lights or bold colors advance the also. Regardless of the equipment used, organization of the
runway, making it appear closer. Night landings are further flightdeck eases the burden and enhances safety. Organize
complicated by the difficulty of judging distance and the equipment and charts and place them within easy reach prior
possibility of confusing approach and runway lights. For to taxiing.
example, when a double row of approach lights joins the
boundary lights of the runway, there can be confusion where Airplane Equipment and Lighting
the approach lights terminate and runway lights begin. Under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part
certain conditions, approach lights can make the aircraft 91 specifies the basic minimum airplane equipment that is
seem higher in a turn to final, than when its wings are level. required for night flight. This equipment includes only basic
instruments, lights, electrical energy source, and spare fuses.
Pilot Equipment
Before beginning a night flight, carefully consider personal The standard instruments required by 14 CFR part 91 for
equipment that should be readily available during the flight to instrument flight are a valuable asset for aircraft control at
include a flashlight, aeronautical charts and pertinent data for night. Title 14 CFR part 91 specifies that during the period
the flight, and a flightdeck checklist containing procedures for from sunset to sunrise operating aircraft are required to have a
the following tasks, which can be found in 14 CFR part 91: functioning anti-collision light system, including a flashing or
Before starting engines rotating beacon and position lights. The anti-collision lights
however need not be lighted when the pilot in command (PIC)
Before takeoff determines that, because of operating conditions, it would be
Cruise in the interest of safety to turn the lights off. Airplane position
lights are arranged similar to those of boats and ships. A red
Before landing
light is positioned on the left wingtip, a green light on the
After landing right wingtip, and a white light on the tail. [Figure 10-2]
Stopping engines
This arrangement provides a means to determine the general
Emergencies
direction of movement of other airplanes in flight. If both
a red and green light of another aircraft are observed, and
At least one reliable flashlight is recommended as standard
the red light is on the left and the green to the right, the
equipment on all night flights. A reliable incandescent or
airplane is flying the same direction. Care must be taken not
light-emitting diode (LED) flashlight able to produce white/
to overtake the other aircraft and maintain clearance. If red
red light and blue for chart reading is preferable. The flash
were on the right and green to the left, the airplane could be
light should be large enough to be easily located in the
on a collision course.
event it is needed. The white light is used while performing

10-4
 It is recommended that prior to a night flight, and particularly
a cross-country night flight, that a check of the availability
and status of lighting systems at the destination airport is
made. This information can be found on aeronautical charts
and in the Chart Supplements. The status of each facility
can be determined by reviewing pertinent Notices to Airmen
(NOTAMs).

Most airports have rotating beacons. The beacon rotates at

a constant speed, thus producing a series of light flashes at
regular intervals. These flashes may consist of a white flash
and one or two different colors that are used to identify
various types of landing areas. For example:
Lighted civilian land airportsalternating white and
green lights
Lighted civilian water airportsalternating white and
yellow lights
Figure 10-2. Position lights.
Lighted military airportsalternating white and green
lights, but are differentiated from civil airports by dual
Landing lights are not only useful for taxi, takeoffs, and peaked (two quick) white flashes, then green
landings, but also provide a means by which airplanes can
be seen at night by other pilots. Pilots are encouraged to turn Beacons producing red flashes indicate obstructions or areas
on their landing lights when operating within 10 miles of an considered hazardous to aerial navigation. Steady-burning
airport and below 10,000 feet. Operation lights on applies red lights are used to mark obstructions on or near airports
to both day and night or in conditions of reduced visibility. and sometimes to supplement flashing lights on en route
This should also be done in areas where flocks of birds may obstructions. High-intensity, flashing white lights are used
be expected. to mark some supporting structures of overhead transmission
lines that stretch across rivers, chasms, and gorges. These
Although turning on aircraft lights supports the see and be high-intensity lights are also used to identify tall structures,
seen concept, do not become complacent about keeping a such as chimneys and towers.
sharp lookout for other aircraft. Most aircraft lights blend
in with the stars or the lights of the cities at night and go As a result of technological advancements, runway lighting
unnoticed unless a conscious effort is made to distinguish systems have become quite sophisticated to accommodate
them from other lights. takeoffs and landings in various weather conditions.
However, if flying is limited to VFR only, it is important to
Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids be familiar with the basic lighting of runways and taxiways.
The lighting systems used for airports, runways, obstructions,
and other visual aids at night are other important aspects of The basic runway lighting system consists of two straight
night flying. Lighted airports located away from congested parallel lines of runway edge lights defining the lateral limits of
areas are identified readily at night by the lights outlining the the runway. These lights are aviation white, although aviation
runways. Airports located near or within large cities are often yellow may be substituted for a distance of 2,000 feet from
difficult to identify as the airport lights tend to blend with the the far end of the runway to indicate a caution zone. At some
city lights. It is important not to only know the exact location airports, the intensity of the runway edge lights can be activated
of an airport relative to the city, but also to be able to identify and adjusted by radio control. The control system consists
these airports by the characteristics of their lighting pattern. of a 3-step control responsive to 7, 5, and/or 3 microphone
clicks. This 3-step control turns on lighting facilities capable
Aeronautical lights are designed and installed in a variety of either 3-step, 2-step, or 1-step operation. The 3-step and
of colors and configurations, each having its own purpose. 2-step lighting facilities can be altered in intensity, while the
Although some lights are used only during low ceiling and 1-step cannot. All lighting is illuminated for a period of 15
visibility conditions, this discussion includes only the lights that minutes from the most recent time of activation and may not
are fundamental to visual flight rules (VFR) night operation. be extinguished prior to end of the 15-minute period. Suggested

10-5
use is to always initially key the mike 7 times; this assures that charts. Course lines should be drawn in black to be more
all controlled lights are turned on to the maximum available distinguishable in low-light conditions. Note prominently
intensity. If desired, adjustment can then be made, where the lighted checkpoints along the prepared course. Rotating
capability is provided, to a lower intensity by keying 5 and/or beacons at airports, lighted obstructions, lights of cities or
3 times. Due to the close proximity of airports using the same towns, and lights from major highway traffic all provide
frequency, radio-controlled lighting receivers may be set at a excellent visual checkpoints. If a global positioning system
low sensitivity requiring the aircraft to be relatively close to (GPS) is being used for navigation, ensure that it is working
activate the system. Consequently, even when lights are on, properly before the flight. All necessary waypoints should
always key the mike as directed when overflying an airport of be loaded properly before the flight and the database should
intended landing or just prior to entering the final segment of an be checked for accuracy prior to taking off and then checked
approach. This assures the aircraft is close enough to activate again once in flight. The use of radio navigation aids and
the system and a full 15-minute lighting duration is available. communication facilities add significantly to the safety and
efficiency of night flying.
The length limits of the runway are defined by straight lines
of lights across the runway ends. At some airports, the runway Check all personal equipment prior to flight to ensure
threshold lights are aviation green, and the runway end lights proper functioning and operation. All airplane lights should
are aviation red. At many airports, the taxiways are also lighted. be checked for operation by turning them on momentarily
A taxiway edge lighting system consists of blue lights that during the preflight inspection. Position lights can be checked
outline the usable limits of taxi paths. for loose connections by tapping the light fixture. If the
lights blink while being tapped, determine the cause prior
Training for Night Flight to flight. Parking ramps should be checked with a flashlight
Learning to safely fly at night takes time and your proficiency prior to entering the airplane. During the day, it is quite easy
will improve with experience. Pilots should practice the to see stepladders, chuckholes, wheel chocks, and other
following maneuvers at night and acquire competency in obstructions, but at night, it is more difficult and a check of
straight-and-level flight, climbs and descents, level turns, the area can prevent taxiing mishaps.
climbing and descending turns, and steep turns. Practicing
recovery from unusual attitudes should only be done with Starting, Taxiing, and Runup
a flight instructor. Practice these maneuvers with all the Once seated in the airplane and prior to starting the engine,
flightdeck lights turned OFF, as well as ON. This blackout arrange all items and materials to be used during the flight so
training simulates an electrical or instrument light failure. they will be readily available and convenient to use. Take extra
Include using the navigation equipment and local NAVAIDs caution at night to assure the propeller area is clear. Turning
during the training. In spite of fewer references or checkpoints, the rotating beacon ON, or flashing the airplane position lights
night cross-country flights do not present particular problems if serves to alert persons nearby to remain clear of the propeller.
pre-planning is adequate. Continuously monitor position, time To avoid excessive drain of electrical current from the battery,
estimates, and fuel consumed. Use NAVAIDs, if available, to it is recommended that unnecessary electrical equipment be
assist in monitoring en route progress. turned OFF until after the engine has been started.

Oqdo`q`shnm`mcOqdhfgs After starting the engine and when ready to taxi, turn the
Night flying requires that pilots are aware of, and operate taxi or landing light ON. Be aware that continuous use of the
within, their abilities and limitations. Although careful landing light with revolutions per minute (rpm) power settings
planning of any flight is essential, night flying demands more normally used for taxiing may place an excessive drain on the
attention to the details of preflight preparation and planning. airplanes electrical system. Also, overheating of the landing
light is possible because of inadequate airflow to carry the heat
Preparation for a night flight includes a thorough review of away. Use landing lights only as necessary while taxiing. When
the available weather reports and forecasts with particular using lights, consideration should be given to not blinding
attention given to temperature/dew point spread. A narrow other pilots. Taxi slowly, particularly in congested areas. If
temperature/dew point spread may indicate the possibility taxi lines are painted on the ramp or taxiway, follow the lines
of fog. Emphasis should also be placed on wind direction to ensure a proper path along the route.
and speed, since its effect on the airplane cannot be as easily
detected at night as during the day. Use the checklist for the before takeoff and run-up checks
and procedures. During the day, forward movement of the
On night cross-country flights, select and use appropriate airplane can be detected easily. At night, the airplane could
aeronautical charts to include the appropriate adjacent creep forward without being noticed unless the pilot is alert

10-6
for this possibility. Hold or lock the brakes during the run-up After becoming airborne, the darkness of night often makes
and be alert for any forward movement. An instrument check it difficult to note whether the airplane is getting closer to or
should be done while taxiing to check for proper and correct farther from the surface. To ensure the airplane continues in
operation prior to takeoff. a positive climb, be sure a climb is indicated on the attitude
indicator, vertical speed indicator (VSI), and altimeter. It is
Takeoff and Climb also important to ensure the airspeed is at best climb speed.
Night flying is very different from day flying and demands
more attention of the pilot. The most noticeable difference Make necessary pitch and bank adjustments by referencing
is the limited availability of outside visual references. the attitude and heading indicators. It is recommended
Therefore, flight instruments should be used to a greater that turns not be made until reaching a safe maneuvering
degree in controlling the airplane. This is particularly true altitude. Although the use of the landing lights is helpful
on night takeoffs and climbs. Adjust the flightdeck lights to during the takeoff, they become ineffective after the airplane
a minimum brightness that allow reading the instruments and has climbed to an altitude where the light beam no longer
switches but not hinder outside vision. This also eliminates extends to the surface. The light can cause distortion when
light reflections on the windshield and windows. it is reflected by haze, smoke, or clouds that might exist in
the climb. Therefore, when the landing light is used for the
After ensuring that the final approach and runway are clear of takeoff, turn it off after the climb is well established provided
other air traffic, or when cleared for takeoff by the air traffic it is not being used for collision avoidance.
controller, turn the landing and taxi lights ON and line the
airplane up with the centerline of the runway. If the runway Orientation and Navigation
does not have centerline lighting, use the painted centerline Generally, at night, it is difficult to see clouds and restrictions
and the runway edge lights. After the airplane is aligned, note to visibility, particularly on dark nights or under overcast.
the heading indicator and set to correspond to the known When flying under VFR, pilots must exercise caution to
runway direction. To begin the takeoff, release the brakes avoid flying into clouds. Usually, the first indication of
and advance the throttle smoothly to maximum allowable flying into restricted visibility conditions is the gradual
power. As the airplane accelerates, it should be kept moving disappearance of lights on the ground. If the lights begin
straight ahead between and parallel to the runway edge lights. to take on an appearance of being surrounded by a halo or
glow, use caution in attempting further flight in that same
The procedure for night takeoffs is the same as for normal direction. Such a halo or glow around lights on the ground
daytime takeoffs except that many of the runway visual cues are is indicative of ground fog. Remember that if a descent must
not available. Check the flight instruments frequently during the be made through clouds, smoke, or haze in order to land,
takeoff to ensure the proper pitch attitude, heading, and airspeed the horizontal visibility is considerably less when looking
are being attained. As the airspeed reaches the normal lift-off through the restriction than it is when looking straight down
speed, adjust the pitch attitude to establish a normal climb. through it from above. Under no circumstances should a
Accomplish this by referring to both outside visual references, VFR night flight be made during poor or marginal weather
such as lights, and to the flight instruments. [Figure 10-3] conditions unless both the pilot and aircraft are certificated
and equipped for flight under instrument flight rules (IFR).

Crossing large bodies of water at night in single-engine

airplanes could be potentially hazardous, in the event of an
engine failure, the pilot may not have any option than to
land (ditch) the airplane in the water. Another hazard faced
W

by pilots of all aircraft, due to limited or no lighting, is that

OB the horizon blends with the water. During poor visibility
conditions over water, the horizon becomes obscure and may
result in a loss of orientation. Even on clear nights, the stars
may be reflected on the water surface, which could appear
as a continuous array of lights, thus making the horizon
W

difficult to identify.
OB

Figure 10-3. Establish a positive climb.

10-7
Lightedrunw ays,build
ings,o roth
erob j
ectsm ayc ause la
ndingche
c k
li
st.Ifth
ehead
ing
ind
ica
torc
onta
insahead
ing
illus
ion stothep i
lotwh enseenfromdiffe
rental
ti
tudes.At bug
,se
tti
ngitto
t herunwa
yhead
ing
isanexc
el
lentr
efe
rence
ana l
titudeof2 ,000feet
,ag roupofl
ightsonanobjectm ay fo
rthepat
ternlegs.
bes eenindividual
ly,whileat5,000fe
etorhigher
,thes ame
light
sc ou
lda ppear
tob eones o
lid
ligh
tm as
s.T h
esei
llusion
s Main t
ainth er ecomm end eda irspeed sandex ecuteth e
mayb ecom equiteacutew i
tha l
ti
tudechangesand,ifnot app roachandl andinginth es am em annera sdu ringth e
ov e
rcom e
,couldp re
sentproblemsinrespe
cttoapproaches day. Alow ,sh a
llowapp ro achisd efini
telyin approp r
iate
toligh tedrunw ays
. duringan ightop e
r a
tion.Th ea l
tim e
terand VS Ishou ldb e
co n
s t
a n
tlyc ross-
c h
e ckeda ga
i ns
ttheairplanesposit
io nalong
App roachesandLand ings theb asel egandf inalapp roach. Av isualapp roachs lope
Whenapp roaching theairporttoen terthetrafficp a
tte
rnand in d
i cator( V ASI
) i
s a nindispensableaid inestabl
ishi ngand
land,itisimpo rtantthatth erunw aylightsando therairpot m
r aintainingap roperg l
idep ath. [Figu re10-5]
ligh
tin gbeid en
tif
i edase ar
lya sp oss
i b
le.Iftheairportlayou
t
isun familia
r,sigh t
ingo fth erunw ay m ayb ediffi
cultuntl A
i ftertu rningon toth ef inalapp roachanda ligningth e
veryclose-indu etoth em a
z eofligh t
sob s
ervedinth ea re
a. airplane mid wayb e
t wee nt het wo ro ws o
f ru nwa y-edge
[Figure10 -4]Flytow a
rd therotatingb eaconun til
th el
ights lights,no teandco rrectforanyw indd rif
t.Th roughou tthe
outl
iningth erunw aya red ist
ingu ishable.Tof lyat raff
ic final appro ach,use p
itc hand po werto ma
i n
tain astabi
lized
pat
terno fp ropers izeandd irec
tion,th erunw aythreshold app roach.F lapsa r
eu sed thes amea sinano rm alapp roach.
andrunw ay-edgeligh t
s mu stb epo s
itivelyidentif
ied.On ce Usu al
l y
, half way throug hthe finalap proach,the landing
theairp o
rtlight
sa res een,t
h eselightssh ou
l dbek eptinsigt l
h ighti sturn edon .E arl
i e
ru seo fthel andingligh tm ayb e
throughou ttheapp ro a
ch. nec essary bec ause o
f Operation Lights O N orf orlocal
trafficcon sid e
rations. Th el andingl ightissom etimes
Dis
tanc em ayb ed e cep
tivea tnigh tdu etol imitedlight
ing in e
f fect
i ve since the light beam will usual
l y not reach
condit
ion s
.Al acko fint e
rv en
ingr efer
en cesonth eg round theg roundf romh igh eralti
tud es
.Th elightm ayev enb e
andth einabi
litytoc om paret h
esiz ea ndlocati
o nofdifferen
t reflected b ack in
to t h
e p
ilots eyesb y any exist
in g ha
ze,
groundob jectscau seth
is.Th isalsoapp liestothee s
tim a
tion smok e,orfog .Thisd isadvan t
ag eisov ershadow edbyth e
ofal
titudeandsp eed.Con sequ ent
ly ,mo red ependencemu st safety consid e
rations p
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i ded by using the Op e
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bep lacedonf l
igh tinstrum ents
,p ar
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tim e
ter LightsON p rocedurea roundo th e
rtraffic
.
and
thea
irspeed
indica
tor
. Whenen
ter
ing
the
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ficpa
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,
alw
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sel
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r heroundoutandto
uchdownismadeint
hesamem ann
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i
nd a
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redbythesca
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sin
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inexpe
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lotmayhavea
tendenc
y

Be
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lidepa
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lidepa
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lidepa
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i i
i i
i i i
i
i
i
i i i
i
i

F
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-4.U
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igu
re10
-5.VAS
I.

10
-8
to round out too high until attaining familiarity with the proper Night Emergencies
height for the correct round out. To aid in determining the Perhaps the greatest concern about flying a single-engine
proper round out point, continue a constant approach descent airplane at night is the possibility of a complete engine failure
until the landing lights reflect on the runway and tire marks on and the subsequent emergency landing. This is a legitimate
the runway can be seen clearly. At this point, the round out is concern, even though continuing flight into adverse weather
started smoothly and the throttle gradually reduced to idle as and poor pilot judgment account for most serious accidents.
the airplane is touching down. [Figure 10-6] During landings
without the use of landing lights, the round out may be started If the engine fails at night, there are several important
when the runway lights at the far end of the runway first appear procedures and considerations to keep in mind. They are
to be rising higher than the nose of the airplane. This demands as follows:
a smooth and very timely round out and requires that the pilot
Maintain positive control of the airplane and
feel for the runway surface using power and pitch changes,
establish the best glide configuration and airspeed.
as necessary, for the airplane to settle slowly to the runway.
Turn the airplane towards an airport or away from
Blackout landings should always be included in night pilot
congested areas.
training as an emergency procedure.
Check to determine the cause of the engine malfunction,
such as the position of fuel selectors, magneto switch, or
primer. If possible, the cause of the malfunction should
be corrected immediately and the engine restarted.
Announce the emergency situation to air traffic control
(ATC) or Universal Communications (UNICOM). If
already in radio contact with a facility, do not change
frequencies unless instructed to change.
If the condition of the nearby terrain is known and is
suitable for a forced landing, turn towards an unlighted
portion of the area and plan an emergency forced
landing to an unlighted portion.
Consider an emergency landing area close to public
access if possible. This may facilitate rescue or help,
if needed.
Maintain orientation with the wind to avoid a
downwind landing.
Complete the before landing checklist, and check
the landing lights for operation at altitude and turn
ON in sufficient time to illuminate the terrain or
obstacles along the flightpath. The landing should
be completed in the normal landing attitude at the
slowest possible airspeed. If the landing lights
are unusable and outside visual references are not
available, the airplane should be held in level-landing
attitude until the ground is contacted.
After landing, turn off all switches and evacuate the
airplane as quickly as possible.

Chapter Summary
Night operations present additional risks that must be
identified and assessed. Night flying operations should
not be encouraged or attempted, except by pilots that are
certificated, current, and proficient in night flying. Prior to
Figure 10-6. Roundout when tire marks are visible.

10-9
attempting night operations, pilots should receive training and
be familiar with the risks associated with night flight and how
they differ from daylight operations. Even for experienced
pilots, night VFR operations should only be conducted in
unrestricted visibility, favorable winds, both on the surface
and aloft, and no turbulence. Additional information on pilot
vision and illusions can be found in FAA brochure AM-400-
98/2 and also Chapters 2 and 17 of the Pilots Handbook of
Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25A) at www.faa.
gov. Additional information on lighting aids can be found in
Chapter 2 of the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM),
which can be accessed at www.faa.gov.

10-10
Chapter 11

Transition to
Complex Airplanes
Introduction
A high-performance airplane is defined as an airplane with an
engine capable of developing more than 200 horsepower. A
complex airplane is an airplane that has a retractable landing
gear, flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller. In lieu of a
controllable pitch propeller, the aircraft could also have an
engine control system consisting of a digital computer and
associated accessories for controlling the engine and the
propeller. A seaplane would still be considered complex if it
meets the description above except for having floats instead
of a retractable landing gear system.

11-1
11-1
11 -1
 i ii

F
igu
re11
-1.A
ir
foi
ltyp
es.

Tran
sitiontoacomp lexa irp
l ane,o rah igh-per
form an ce axi
s.W ingflap
sa c
tssymm e
tr
ical
lyaboutth elongi
tudinal
ai
rplan e
,canbedem andingformo stpilo
tsw i
thoutp revious ax
isproducin
gn oro
ll
i n
gm om en
t;how e
ver
,b othl
if
tandd rag
experience
.In c
reas
edp erform anceandcomp lex
i tybo th incre
aseasw el
lasap i
tch
ingmom entaboutthela
tera
lax is
.
requ
ir eaddit
iona
lpl anning,judgm ent
,andp i
lot
ingsk i
lls
. Li
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ludingairdensity
,
Tran
sitiontothes
etyp eso fairplanes,there
fore,shouldb e ve
l o
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ty,sur
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ea,andl
iftcoe
ffi
cient
.Sinceflap
sincr
e ase
accomp l
ishedinasy stematicm annerthroughas tructured anair
foil
sl
iftcoe
ffic
ient
,lif
tisincrea
sed.[Figure11-3 ]
cour
s eoftr
ain
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if
ie df
ligh
tinstructor
.
Asflapsaredeflec
ted
,theaircr
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tchnos eup,no se
Ai
rplanesc anb ed es
ignedtof lythrougha wid erangeo f downo rh avem inima
lch angesinpi
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.P i
tching
ai
rspeeds.H ighspeedfl
igh trequi
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lerwinga reasand mom entisc ausedbyth erearward mov em entofth e
modera
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ls wherea
slowsp e edfligh
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,thatpi
tchingb ehav
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obt
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ilswithag reat
ercamberand largerwing dependsons evera
lv a
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sin c
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are
a.[Figu re11 -1]Manycomp romis
esareof
t en m adeby posi
tion,downw ashbehavior
,andhorizonta
ltaillocat
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des
ignerstop rovideforh igherspeedcru
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ligh tandlow
speedsforl anding.F lapsa reacommond esigne ffo
rtto
increa
seana ir
foil
scamb e
randth ewing
ssurf aceareafor i
low e
rsp eedflight
.[Figu r
e11 -2]

Sin
c eanair
foi
lc a
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am bersatthesam e ii i
time,on eoftwothings mus
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ad eviceforincrea
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.C amberistheasymm etrybetw e
enth etopand ii
thebo t
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rying
ana ir
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tiono ftra
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.
Engineerscal
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i
i
Functiono fFlaps
i
Fl
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ingth ecamb erofth eair
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.
Fl
apd ef
l ec
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at
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ly
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sur
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Wi
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ction,thereisa symm et
ricallif
t wh ich F igure11 .C
-2 oef
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fli
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rflape
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etrac
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.

11
-2
 i
pV2 SC
L
L =L
i
ftp
roduced

P =A
irden
si
ty

V =Ve
loc
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lat
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ir

S =Su
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CL =
li
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ff
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isde
term
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i
F
igu
re11
-3.L
if
tequa
tion
.

C
ons
equ
ent
l y
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chbeha
vio
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pen
dso
nth
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nfe
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res
o
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larai
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ane
.

F
lapd e
flec
tiono fupto15 p r
im ar
ilyproduc
eslif
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m
inimal
increases
indrag.D e
fle
ct
i onbeyond15
p rod
ucesa
l
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om f
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ect
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a
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sasigni
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-uppit
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m
om en
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-wingairpl
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ausetheresu
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ow nwashincrea
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rfl
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.

FlapE ffectiveness
Flapeffec
tivenes
sd ep
endsonanumb e
ro ffa
ctors
,butthe
mostnoticeablea
resizeandtyp
e.Forthepurposeofthi
s
chapter
,tra
ilingedgef
lapsar
ecl
ass
if
iedasfourbas
i c
type
s:
plain(h
inge),spl
it
,slo
tted
,andFowle
r.[Figu
r e11-4]

Th ep l
aino rh ingeflapisah ingedsectiono fthew ing.Th e F
igu
re11
-4.Fou
rba
sict
ype
soff
lap
s.
stru c
tureandfun c
tiona recomp a
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surf ace
s ailerons
,rudd er,ande l
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flec
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lapsar
e
mor ecomp l ex.Itisth elow erorund ersidepo r
tiono fth e mos
tcommon lyusedonlarge
rairplane
sb ecau
seofthe
ir
wing ;deflectiono fthef l
apl eave
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ingedg e st
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lex
ityanddif
ficu
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ingthes
lot
s.
ofth ew ingund istu
rb ed.Itis,how ev er
, mo ree ffe
ct ive
th anth ehing eflapb ecauseofg r
eaterliftandl es
sp it
ch ing OperationalP rocedures
mom ent
,bu tth ereis mored r
ag.Spl
itfl apsare moreu sefu l
Itw ou
ldbeim pos
sibl
etodiscussal
lthem anyai
rplanedesign
forl anding,bu tth eparti
allydef
lectedh ingeflapsh aveth e
andflapcombinat
ions
.T hi
sem ph a
siz
estheim p
ortanceofthe
adv antageint akeoff
.Th esp l
itfl
aph a ssignif
icantd raga t
Federa
lAv ia
tionAdm in
i s
tra
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ane
sm al
ld ef
lection s
,wh ereasthehingef lapdo esnotb ec au s
e
Fl
ightM anualand/orPilot
s Op e
rat
ing Handbook(AFM /
airflowr em ains a
ttachedtotheflap.
POH )forag ivenairplane
. Wh ilesom e AFM /POH sare
speci
ficastoop er
at
ionalu s
eo fflaps
,othersleavetheu se
Theslot
t edflaph asag apbetw eenthew ingandth el ead
ing
offl
apstopilo
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etio
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apo p
erat
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it
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limpo r
tance.Sincef
lapop er
ationisused
thew ingund ersurf acetoen ergizeth elow erp re ssureov e
r
forland
ingsandtakeo
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tytothegroundwh ereth emarg
inforerrorissm a
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hasgreaterli
ft than theh ingeflapbu tlessthan thesp li
tflap;
but
,b ecauseo fah igh er l
if
t-dragratio
, i
tg ivesb ettertakeoff
Sincether ecomm endationsgiveninth e AFM /POHa r
e
andclimbp e
rfo rm an ce
.Sm al
ld ef
l ec
tion softh eslottedflap
basedonth ea irp
lan eandth eflapdesign,thep i
lot must
giveahigh erd ragth anth ehing eflapbu tlessth anth espl
it.
rela
tethem anufa
cturersrecomm endat
iontoa erodynamic
Thi
sa l
low sth eslo t
t edflaptob eu sedfo rtak eoff
.
eff
e c
tsofflaps.Thisr equir
esb a
sicbackgroundknow ledge
offlapaerodynami csandg eom e
try
.W iththisin
form a
tion,
TheFow l e
rfl apd efle c
tsdownanda fttoin creas ethew ing
ad eci
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tionandt imeo f
are
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is f
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roachcondit
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toth ewindcond i
tionsc anb emade.
them aximuml iftco effic
ient.D ragch arac
te ri
sticsa tsm al
l

11
-3
The time of flap extension and degree of deflection are related. is used to offset this pitching moment. Application of full
Large flap deflections at one single point in the landing power in the go-around increases the airflow over the wing.
pattern produce large lift changes that require significant This produces additional lift causing significant changes in
pitch and power changes in order to maintain airspeed and pitch. The pitch-up tendency does not diminish completely
glide slope. Incremental deflection of flaps on downwind, with flap retraction because of the trim setting. Expedient
base, and final approach allow smaller adjustment of pitch retraction of flaps is desirable to eliminate drag; however,
and power compared to extension of full flaps all at one time. the pilot must be prepared for rapid changes in pitch forces as
This procedure facilitates a more stabilized approach. the result of trim and the increase in airflow over the control
surfaces. [Figure 11-5]
While all landings should be accomplished at the slowest
speed possible for a given situation, a soft or short-field The degree of flap deflection combined with design
landing requires minimal speed at touchdown while a short configuration of the horizontal tail relative to the wing require
field obstacle approach requires minimum speed and a steep carefully monitoring of pitch and airspeed, carefully control
approach angle. Flap extension, particularly beyond 30, results flap retraction to minimize altitude loss, and properly use
in significant levels of drag. As such, large angles of flap the rudder for coordination. Considering these factors, it is
deployment require higher power settings than used with partial good practice to extend the same degree of flap deflection at
flaps. When steep approach angles and short fields combine the same point in the landing pattern for each landing. This
with power to offset the drag produced by the flaps, the landing requires that a consistent traffic pattern be used. This allows
flare becomes critical. The drag produces a high sink rate that for a preplanned go-around sequence based on the airplanes
must be controlled with power, yet failure to reduce power at a position in the landing pattern.
rate so that the power is idle at touchdown allows the airplane
to float down the runway. A reduction in power too early can There is no single formula to determine the degree of flap
result in a hard landing and damage or loss of control. deflection to be used on landing because a landing involves
variables that are dependent on each other. The AFM/POH
Crosswind component is another factor to be considered in for the particular airplane contains the manufacturers
the degree of flap extension. The deflected flap presents a recommendations for some landing situations. On the other
surface area for the wind to act on. With flaps extended in a hand, AFM/POH information on flap usage for takeoff is
crosswind, the wing on the upwind side is more affected than more precise. The manufacturers requirements are based
the downwind wing. The effect is reduced to a slight extent in on the climb performance produced by a given flap design.
the crabbed approach since the airplane is more nearly aligned Under no circumstances should a flap setting given in the
with the wind. When using a wing-low approach, the lowered AFM/POH be exceeded for takeoff.
wing partially blocks the upwind flap. The dihedral of the
wing combined with the flap and wind make lateral control Controllable-Pitch Propeller
more difficult. Lateral control becomes more difficult as flap Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency
extension reaches maximum and the crosswind becomes at one speed of rotation and forward speed. This type of
perpendicular to the runway. propeller provides suitable performance in a narrow range
of airspeeds; however, efficiency would suffer considerably
With flaps extended, the crosswind effects on the wing outside this range. To provide high-propeller efficiency
become more pronounced as the airplane comes closer to the through a wide range of operation, the propeller blade angle
ground. The wing, flap, and ground form a container that must be controllable. The most effective way of controlling
is filled with air by the crosswind. Since the flap is located the propeller blade angle is by means of a constant-speed
behind the main landing gear when the wind strikes the governing system.
deflected flap and fuselage side, the upwind wing tends to rise
and the airplane tends to turn into the wind. Proper control Constant-Speed Propeller
position is essential for maintaining runway alignment. The constant-speed propeller keeps the blade angle adjusted
Depending on the amount of crosswind, it may be necessary for maximum efficiency for most conditions of flight. The
to retract the flaps soon after touchdown in order to maintain pilot controls the engine revolutions per minute (rpm)
control of the airplane. indirectly by means of a propeller control in the flightdeck,
which is connected to a propeller governor. For maximum
The go-around is another factor to consider when making takeoff power, the propeller control is moved all the way
a decision about degree of flap deflection and about where forward to the low pitch/high rpm position, and the throttle is
in the landing pattern to extend flaps. Because of the nose moved forward to the maximum allowable manifold pressure
down pitching moment produced with flap extension, trim

11-4
 i
i

i i

i i

F
igu
re11
-5.F
lap
sex
tend
edp
itch
ingmom
ent
.

p
osi
tion
.[Figu
re11-6]Toreducepowerfo
rcl
im bo
rcruis
e, th
epr o
pel
lercon
tro
lc a
usestheprop
el
lerblade
stom ovet
oa
m
ani
foldpre
ssur
eisreduc
edt othede
sire
dv a
luewiththe h
igherangl
e.I
ncre
asingtheprope
ll
erbladeang
le(ofat
tack
)
t
hro
tt
le,an
dtheeng
inerpmi
sreducedb
ym ovin
gthep
ro p
el
ler re
sul
tsina nin
cre
aseint heres
is
tanceoftheair
.T h
isputs
c
ont
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ow a
rdtheh
ighpi
t c
h/l
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it
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tilth
e aloadontheenginesoitslowsdow n
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e
d
esi
redrpmisobser
vedonthetachome
ter
.P u
ll
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sis
tanceofth
eairatthehighe
rbladeangl
eisgreat
erthan

i i i i

F
igu
re11
-6.Con
tro
llab
lep
itchp
rop
ell
erp
itchang
les
.

11
-5
thetorque,o rp ow er
,d e
liv eredt o thepr opel
l erb yt hee ngine
, blad eang l e(pit ch).Th elowb l ad eang lek e ep sth e AOA ,
soitslow sd ow nt oap ointw he ref orcesarei nb a
l ance. withr esp e cttoth er el a
tivew ind ,sm al
lande f ficientatth e
lowsp e ed.[F igu r e11 -7 ]
Whena na ircr af
te nginei sr un nin gatc onstants p eed,t he
torque( pow e r)e xertedb yt hee n gineatt hep ropellers ha
ft Atth es am etim e,ita llow sthep rop elle
rtoh and leasm all e
r
mus
te qualth eo pp osingloa dpro vi dedb ythe resistanceo fthe m a s
so fa irp err evo lution .Thisl igh tloada llow sth eeng ine
ai
r.T her pmi sc ontrol
le db yr eg ulatingthet or quea b sorbed totu rna tm ax imumrpmandd ev e
lop m aximumpow er
.
bythep ropelle r ino therw ord sb yincreasingo rdec reasing Although th em a sso fa irp e
rr evo lutioni ssm all,th enumb e
r
ther esi
stan ceo fferedbyth ea irtoth ep rop eller
.Th isis ofrpmi sh igh.Th rusti sm aximuma tth eb eg inn ingo fth e
accom pl
is hedw ithac o ns
t ant
- sp eedp ro p
ellerb ym e ansofa t ak eoffandth end ecre a
s e
sa sth ea irp
l aneg ain ssp eedand
governor.T heg over n
or,inm ostc a ses
,isg eared tot hee ngine th ea irp lan ed ragin creases. Du etoth eh ighs l
ipstre am
crankshafta n dth usisse nsi
tiv et oc h
an gesi ne n g
i ner pm. v elo ci
tydu ringt ak eo ff
,th eeff ectiv eli
fto fth ew ingb ehind
th ep rop ell e
r(s)i sin c reased.
Whenana irpl anei sno sedupin toac l
imbf roml evelflight,
thee ng
i neten dst oslowd ow n
.S in cetheg over n o
riss en s
it
ive As thea irs peed i ncre asesa f
terlift-off,the loado n theen gine
tosm allch ang esineng inerpm ,i td ec
r easesth eb lad eangle isligh t en edb e cau seo fth esm a
llb ladeang le.Th egov ernor
jus
tenoughtok eepth eeng inesp eedfromf allingo ff.Ifthe sen ses thi sand inc reas estheb lad eang les l
ight ly.Ag a
in, the
ai
rplanei sno seddownin toad iv e,thegov erno rin creases high erb l ad eang le,w ithth eh igh ersp eed s
,k e ep stheAOA
theb ladeang leenoughtop r ev entth eeng in ef romov e
r- withr esp e cttoth er elativew indsm allande f
fi cien t
.
speeding.Th i sallow sth eengin etom aintainacon s
t antrpm
thereby m aint a
iningth epow erou tput
.Ch ang esina irspeed Fo rc l
imba ft
ert ak eoff,th epow erou tpu tofth eeng in ei s
andpow erc anb eob tain edbych angingrpma tacon s
tant redu ced toc limbpow erbyd e creasing th em an ifoldp r
e ssure
mani
foldp re ssure;bych angingth em an i
foldp r e
ssu reata a n dl ow eri ngrpmb yin crea
sin gt heb ladea ngle.A tthehi gher
constantrpm ;o rb yc hangingb ot h rpma ndm a n
if oldpr essu
re. (climb )a irspe edandth ehigh erb lad eang le
,th ep ropelleris
Thecon stant-sp eedp rop e
llerm ak e
sitpo ssibl etoob tainan h a ndlin gag reaterm as sofairp ers ec onda talow ers l
ips
tr eam
inf
initenumb ero fpow ers e
tting s. velo ci
ty .Th isr edu ct
ioninpow eri soff se
tbyth eincre ase
inp rop ellere fficien cy.Th eAOAi sag aink ep tsm al
lbyth e
Takeo ff
,C limb ,andC ru ise in creas einth eb l ad eang lew ithanin creaseina irspeed.
Dur
ingt ak eoff, wh enth efo rw ard mo tiono fth ea irplane
isatlowsp eed sandwh en m aximumpow erandth rustare Atc ruisinga lt
itud e
,wh enth eairp lan eisinl ev elflight
,l ess
required
, thec onstant-
s peedp r op el
l e
rs e
tsu pa lowp ropel
ler po w eri s re qu
ir ed t o pro duce a hig herairs peed t hanis u sed
i

i i
i i

Th
rus
t
i

i i i

i i

F
igu
re11
-7.P
rop
el
lerb
lad
eang
le
.

11
-6
in climb. Consequently, engine power is again reduced by limits of the propeller blades travel between high and low
lowering the manifold pressure and increasing the blade angle blade angle pitch stops. As long as the propeller blade angle
(to decrease rpm). The higher airspeed and higher blade angle is within the governing range and not against either pitch
enable the propeller to handle a still greater mass of air per stop, a constant engine rpm is maintained. However, once the
second at still smaller slipstream velocity. At normal cruising propeller blade reaches its pitch-stop limit, the engine rpm
speeds, propeller efficiency is at or near maximum efficiency. increases or decreases with changes in airspeed and propeller
load similar to a fixed-pitch propeller. For example, once a
Blade Angle Control specific rpm is selected, if the airspeed decreases enough, the
Once the rpm settings for the propeller are selected, the propeller blades reduce pitch in an attempt to maintain the
propeller governor automatically adjusts the blade angle to selected rpm until they contact their low pitch stops. From
maintain the selected rpm. It does this by using oil pressure. that point, any further reduction in airspeed causes the engine
Generally, the oil pressure used for pitch change comes rpm to decrease. Conversely, if the airspeed increases, the
directly from the engine lubricating system. When a governor propeller blade angle increases until the high pitch stop is
is employed, engine oil is used and the oil pressure is usually reached. The engine rpm then begins to increase.
boosted by a pump that is integrated with the governor. The
higher pressure provides a quicker blade angle change. The rpm Constant-Speed Propeller Operation
at which the propeller is to operate is adjusted in the governor The engine is started with the propeller control in the low
head. The pilot changes this setting by changing the position pitch/high rpm position. This position reduces the load or drag
of the governor rack through the flightdeck propeller control. of the propeller and the result is easier starting and warm-up
of the engine. During warm-up, the propeller blade changing
On some constant-speed propellers, changes in pitch are mechanism is operated slowly and smoothly through a full
obtained by the use of an inherent centrifugal twisting cycle. This is done by moving the propeller control (with the
moment of the blades that tends to flatten the blades toward manifold pressure set to produce about 1,600 rpm) to the high
low pitch and oil pressure applied to a hydraulic piston pitch/low rpm position, allowing the rpm to stabilize, and then
connected to the propeller blades which moves them toward moving the propeller control back to the low pitch takeoff
high pitch. Another type of constant-speed propeller uses position. This is done for two reasons: to determine whether
counterweights attached to the blade shanks in the hub. the system is operating correctly and to circulate fresh warm
Governor oil pressure and the blade twisting moment move oil through the propeller governor system. Remember the
the blades toward the low pitch position, and centrifugal oil has been trapped in the propeller cylinder since the last
force acting on the counterweights moves them (and the time the engine was shut down. There is a certain amount
blades) toward the high pitch position. In the first case above, of leakage from the propeller cylinder, and the oil tends to
governor oil pressure moves the blades towards high pitch congeal, especially if the outside air temperature is low.
and in the second case, governor oil pressure and the blade Consequently, if the propeller is not exercised before takeoff,
twisting moment move the blades toward low pitch. A loss there is a possibility that the engine may overspeed on takeoff.
of governor oil pressure, therefore, affects each differently.
An airplane equipped with a constant-speed propeller has
Governing Range better takeoff performance than a similarly powered airplane
The blade angle range for constant-speed propellers varies equipped with a fixed-pitch propeller. This is because with
from about 1112 to 40. The higher the speed of the airplane, a constant-speed propeller, an airplane can develop its
the greater the blade angle range. [Figure 11-8] maximum rated horsepower (red line on the tachometer)
while motionless. An airplane with a fixed-pitch propeller, on
The range of possible blade angles is termed the propellers the other hand, must accelerate down the runway to increase
governing range. The governing range is defined by the airspeed and aerodynamically unload the propeller so that

Pitch
Aircraft Type Design Speed (mph) Blade Angle Range
Low High
Fixed gear 160 111/2 101/2 22
Retractable 180 15 11 26
Turbo retractable 225/240 20 14 34
Turbine retractable 250/300 30 10 40
Transport retractable 325 40 10/15 50/55

Figure 11-8. Blade angle range (values are approximate).

11-7
rpm and horsepower can steadily build up to their maximum. The green arc on the tachometer indicates the normal
With a constant-speed propeller, the tachometer reading operating range. When developing power in this range,
should come up to within 40 rpm of the red line as soon as the engine drives the propeller. Below the green arc,
full power is applied and remain there for the entire takeoff. however, it is usually the windmilling propeller that
Excessive manifold pressure raises the cylinder combustion powers the engine. Prolonged operation below the
pressures, resulting in high stresses within the engine. green arc can be detrimental to the engine.
Excessive pressure also produces high-engine temperatures. On takeoffs from low elevation airports, the manifold
A combination of high manifold pressure and low rpm pressure in inches of mercury may exceed the rpm.
can induce damaging detonation. In order to avoid these This is normal in most cases, but the pilot should
situations, the following sequence should be followed when always consult the AFM/POH for limitations.
making power changes.
All power changes should be made smoothly and
When increasing power, increase the rpm first and slowly to avoid over-boosting and/or over-speeding.
then the manifold pressure
When decreasing power, decrease the manifold Turbocharging
pressure first and then decrease the rpm The turbocharged engine allows the pilot to maintain
sufficient cruise power at high altitudes where there is
The cruise power charts in the AFM/POH should be less drag, which means faster true airspeeds and increased
consulted when selecting cruise power settings. Whatever range with fuel economy. At the same time, the powerplant
the combinations of rpm and manifold pressure listed in has flexibility and can be flown at a low altitude without
these chartsthey have been flight tested and approved the increased fuel consumption of a turbine engine. When
by engineers for the respective airframe and engine attached to the standard powerplant, the turbocharger does
manufacturer. Therefore, if there are power settings, such as not take any horsepower from the engine to operate; it
2,100 rpm and 24 inches manifold pressure in the power chart, is relatively simple mechanically, and some models can
they are approved for use. With a constant-speed propeller, pressurize the cabin as well.
a power descent can be made without over-speeding the
engine. The system compensates for the increased airspeed The turbocharger is an exhaust-driven device that raises the
of the descent by increasing the propeller blade angles. If the pressure and density of the induction air delivered to the
descent is too rapid or is being made from a high altitude, engine. It consists of two separate components: a compressor
the maximum blade angle limit of the blades is not sufficient and a turbine connected by a common shaft. The compressor
to hold the rpm constant. When this occurs, the rpm is supplies pressurized air to the engine for high-altitude
responsive to any change in throttle setting. operation. The compressor and its housing are between the
ambient air intake and the induction air manifold. The turbine
Although the governor responds quickly to any change in and its housing are part of the exhaust system and utilize the
throttle setting, a sudden and large increase in the throttle flow of exhaust gases to drive the compressor. [Figure 11-9]
setting causes a momentary over-speeding of the engine
until the blades become adjusted to absorb the increased The turbine has the capability of producing manifold pressure
power. If an emergency demanding full power should arise in excess of the maximum allowable for the particular engine.
during approach, the sudden advancing of the throttle causes In order not to exceed the maximum allowable manifold
momentary over-speeding of the engine beyond the rpm for pressure, a bypass or waste gate is used so that some of the
which the governor is adjusted. exhaust is diverted overboard before it passes through the
turbine.
Some important points to remember concerning constant-
speed propeller operation are: The position of the waste gate regulates the output of the
The red line on the tachometer not only indicates turbine and therefore, the compressed air available to the
maximum allowable rpm; it also indicates the rpm engine. When the waste gate is closed, all of the exhaust
required to obtain the engines rated horsepower. gases pass through and drive the turbine. As the waste gate
opens, some of the exhaust gases are routed around the
A momentary propeller overspeed may occur when
turbine through the exhaust bypass and overboard through
the throttle is advanced rapidly for takeoff. This is
the exhaust pipe.
usually not serious if the rated rpm is not exceeded
by 10 percent for more than 3 seconds.

11-8
 i
i i i i
i i i i i
i i i i

i
i i i

i
i i
i
i ii i i
ii i ii i i
E
xhau
stga
sdi
scha
rge i i i

F
igu
re11
-9.Tu
rbo
cha
rgings
yst
em.

Th ew ast eg atea ctua

tori sasp ring -load edp is
tonop erated u singg roundboo st
ing ,t ak eoffm anifoldp re
ssu resm aygo
bye n g
i neo ilpr e
ss u
re.T hea ctu ator,w hic ha djusts thew aste ash igha s45"Hg .
gatepo sition, isconn e
cted toth ew as
teg at ebyam echani cal
linkag e. Al
thoughas eal eve lpow ers ett
ingand m aximumrpm
canb em aintaineduptoth ec ri
ticala l
titud e
,th isdo e
sno t
Th econ trolc enterofthetu rbo ch argersy st em isth ep ressur e meanth attheeng inei sd evelopings eal evelpow er.Eng ine
con t
ro l
l er.Th isd evices imp l ifiestu rbo ch a
rg ingtoon e pow erisno td ete
rm in edju stbym anifoldp r e
ssu reandrpm .
con t
rol:th eth rott
l e
.On c eth ed esired m anifoldp ressurei s Indu ct
iona irtemp e ratur eisa lsoaf a c
to r
.Tu rbocharg ed
set,virtu a
llyno throt
tleadju stm entisr equ iredw ithch ang es indu ct
iona iri sh eatedbycomp ression.Th i stemp eratu r
e
ina ltitud e.Th econ trol
l ers en sescomp r esso rd isch arge rised ecreasesindu ctiona ird ensi
ty,wh ichc au sesapow e
r
requ irem entsfo rv ariou sa ltitud esandcon tro lsth eo i
l loss.M a
intainingth eequ ivalenthorsepow erou tputrequ i
r e
s
pressur etoth ew astegatea c
tu ato r
,wh i chad juststh ew aste as om ew ha
th igherm anif oldpressurea tag ivena l
titudet han
gatea cco rdingly.Thu sth etu rbo chargerm aintain sonlyth e ifth eindu c
tiona irw ereno tcomp ress edbytu rbocharging.
manifoldp ressurec al
ledfo rbyth eth rott
l es ett
ing . If
,onth eo therh and,th esy s
t emin corpo ratesanau tom a
tic
densitycon trol
lerwh ich,in steado fm aintain
ingacon stant
GroundBoos tingVe rsusA lt
i tudeTu rbocha rging manifoldp ressure,au tom atic
allypo sition sthew a
steg ate
Alt
itud etu rbo ch a
rging( som etim esc a
ll edno rm al
izing ) soa sto m aintaincon stanta i
rd ens
itytoth eeng in e
,an e a
r
isa c comp l
i shedbyu s
ingatu rbo ch arg erth a
tm a
in tains cons t
antho rsepow erou tputr esult
s.
maximuma l
low ablesealev e
lm anifoldp r essur e(no rm ally
2930"Hg )up toac er
t a
ina lt
itud e.Th isa lt
itud ei sspe c
ifi ed Ope ratingCha rac te r
is tics
byth ea irp lan em anu facture randi sr ef erredtoa sth e Fi
r s
tandfo remo st
,a llmov em entsofth epow ercon t
rolson
airplane sc r
iticalalti
tud e
. Abov eth ec rit
i cala lti
tud e
,th e turb ochargede ng
i ness h ouldb eslowa n dsm o
ot h
.A g
gres s
i v
e
manifoldp ressured ecrea
s esa sadd it
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11
-9
When the waste gate is open, the turbocharged engine reacts detonation, which in turn can cause catastrophic engine failure.
the same as a normally aspirated engine when the rpm is Turbocharged engines are especially heat sensitive. The key
varied. That is, when the rpm is increased, the manifold to turbocharger operation is effective heat management.
pressure decreases slightly. When the engine rpm is
decreased, the manifold pressure increases slightly. However, Monitor the condition of a turbocharged engine with manifold
when the waste gate is closed, manifold pressure variation pressure gauge, tachometer, exhaust gas temperature/turbine
with engine rpm is just the opposite of the normally aspirated inlet temperature gauge, and cylinder head temperature.
engine. An increase in engine rpm results in an increase in Manage the heat system with the throttle, propeller rpm,
manifold pressure, and a decrease in engine rpm results in a mixture, and cowl flaps. At any given cruise power, the mixture
decrease in manifold pressure. is the most influential control over the exhaust gas/TIT. The
throttle regulates total fuel flow, but the mixture governs the
Above the critical altitude, where the waste gate is closed, fuel to air ratio. The mixture, therefore, controls temperature.
any change in airspeed results in a corresponding change in
manifold pressure. This is true because the increase in ram Exceeding temperature limits in an after takeoff climb is
air pressure with an increase in airspeed is magnified by the usually not a problem since a full rich mixture cools with
compressor resulting in an increase in manifold pressure. excess fuel. At cruise, power is normally reduced and
The increase in manifold pressure creates a higher mass flow mixture adjusted accordingly. Under cruise conditions,
through the engine, causing higher turbine speeds and thus monitor temperature limits closely because that is when the
further increasing manifold pressure. temperatures are most likely to reach the maximum, even
though the engine is producing less power. Overheating in
When running at high altitudes, aviation gasoline may tend an en route climb, however, may require fully open cowl
to vaporize prior to reaching the cylinder. If this occurs in the flaps and a higher airspeed.
portion of the fuel system between the fuel tank and the engine-
driven fuel pump, an auxiliary positive pressure pump may Since turbocharged engines operate hotter at altitude than do
be needed in the tank. Since engine-driven pumps pull fuel, normally aspirated engines, they are more prone to damage
they are easily vapor locked. A boost pump provides positive from cooling stress. Gradual reductions in power and careful
pressurepushes the fuelreducing the tendency to vaporize. monitoring of temperatures are essential in the descent
phase. Extending the landing gear during the descent may
Heat Management help control the airspeed while maintaining a higher engine
Turbocharged engines must be thoughtfully and carefully power setting. This allows the pilot to reduce power in small
operated with continuous monitoring of pressures and increments which allows the engine to cool slowly. It may
temperatures. There are two temperatures that are especially also be necessary to lean the mixture slightly to eliminate
importantturbine inlet temperature (TIT) or, in some roughness at the lower power settings.
installations, exhaust gas temperature (EGT) and cylinder
head temperature. TIT or EGT limits are set to protect the Turbocharger Failure
elements in the hot section of the turbocharger, while cylinder Because of the high temperatures and pressures produced
head temperature limits protect the engines internal parts. in the turbine exhaust systems, any malfunction of the
turbocharger must be treated with extreme caution. In
Due to the heat of compression of the induction air, a all cases of turbocharger operation, the manufacturers
turbocharged engine runs at higher operating temperatures recommended procedures should be followed. This is
than a non-turbocharged engine. Because turbocharged especially so in the case of turbocharger malfunction.
engines operate at high altitudes; their environment is less However, in those instances where the manufacturers
efficient for cooling. At altitude, the air is less dense and, procedures do not adequately describe the actions to be
therefore, cools less efficiently. Also, the less dense air causes taken in the event of a turbocharger failure, the following
the compressor to work harder. Compressor turbine speeds procedures should be used.
can reach 80,000100,000 rpm, adding to the overall engine
operating temperatures. Turbocharged engines are also Over-Boost Condition
operated at higher power settings a greater portion of the time. If an excessive rise in manifold pressure occurs during
normal advancement of the throttle (possibly owing to faulty
High heat is detrimental to piston engine operation. Its operation of the waste gate):
cumulative effects can lead to piston, ring, and cylinder
Immediately retard the throttle smoothly to limit the
head failure and place thermal stress on other operating
manifold pressure below the maximum for the rpm
components. Excessive cylinder head temperature can lead to
and mixture setting

11-10
 Operate the engine in such a manner as to avoid a extension. The pump that pressurizes the fluid in the system
further over-boost condition can be either engine driven or electrically powered. If an
electrically-powered pump is used to pressurize the fluid, the
Low Manifold Pressure system is referred to as an electrohydraulic system. The system
also incorporates a hydraulic reservoir to contain excess fluid
Although this condition may be caused by a minor fault,
and to provide a means of determining system fluid level.
it is quite possible that a serious exhaust leak has occurred
creating a potentially hazardous situation:
Regardless of its power source, the hydraulic pump is
Shut down the engine in accordance with the designed to operate within a specific range. When a sensor
recommended engine failure procedures, unless a detects excessive pressure, a relief valve within the pump
greater emergency exists that warrants continued opens, and hydraulic pressure is routed back to the reservoir.
engine operation. Another type of relief valve prevents excessive pressure that
If continuing to operate the engine, use the lowest may result from thermal expansion. Hydraulic pressure is
power setting demanded by the situation and land as also regulated by limit switches. Each gear has two limits
soon as practicable. switchesone dedicated to extension and one dedicated to
retraction. These switches de-energize the hydraulic pump
It is very important to ensure that corrective maintenance is after the landing gear has completed its gear cycle. In the
undertaken following any turbocharger malfunction. event of limit switch failure, a backup pressure relief valve
activates to relieve excess system pressure.
Retractable Landing Gear
Controls and Position Indicators
The primary benefits of being able to retract the landing gear
Landing gear position is controlled by a switch on the
are increased climb performance and higher cruise airspeeds
flightdeck panel. In most airplanes, the gear switch is shaped
due to the resulting decrease in drag. Retractable landing gear
like a wheel in order to facilitate positive identification and
systems may be operated either hydraulically or electrically
to differentiate it from other flightdeck controls.
or may employ a combination of the two systems. Warning
indicators are provided in the flightdeck to show the pilot
Landing gear position indicators vary with different make and
when the wheels are down and locked and when they are up
model airplanes. However, the most common types of landing
and locked or if they are in intermediate positions. Systems
gear position indicators utilize a group of lights. One type
for emergency operation are also provided. The complexity
consists of a group of three green lights, which illuminate when
of the retractable landing gear system requires that specific
the landing gear is down and locked. [Figure 11-10] Another
operating procedures be adhered to and that certain operating
type consists of one green light to indicate when the landing
limitations not be exceeded.
gear is down and an amber light to indicate when the gear is
up. [Figure 11-11] Still other systems incorporate a red or
Landing Gear Systems
amber light to indicate when the gear is in transit or unsafe for
An electrical landing gear retraction system utilizes an
landing. [Figure 11-12] The lights are usually of the press to
electrically-driven motor for gear operation. The system is
test type, and the bulbs are interchangeable. [Figure 11-10]
basically an electrically-driven jack for raising and lowering
the gear. When a switch in the flightdeck is moved to the UP
Other types of landing gear position indicators consist of
position, the electric motor operates. Through a system of
tab-type indicators with markings UP to indicate the gear
shafts, gears, adapters, an actuator screw, and a torque tube,
is up and locked, a display of red and white diagonal stripes
a force is transmitted to the drag strut linkages. Thus, the gear
to show when the gear is unlocked, or a silhouette of each
retracts and locks. Struts are also activated that open and close
gear to indicate when it locks in the DOWN position.
the gear doors. If the switch is moved to the DOWN position,
the motor reverses and the gear moves down and locks. Once Landing Gear Safety Devices
activated, the gear motor continues to operate until an up or
Most airplanes with a retractable landing gear have a gear
down limit switch on the motors gearbox is tripped.
warning horn that sounds when the airplane is configured
for landing and the landing gear is not down and locked.
A hydraulic landing gear retraction system utilizes pressurized
Normally, the horn is linked to the throttle or flap position
hydraulic fluid to actuate linkages to raise and lower the gear.
and/or the airspeed indicator so that when the airplane is
When a switch in the flightdeck is moved to the UP position,
below a certain airspeed, configuration, or power setting with
hydraulic fluid is directed into the gear up line. The fluid
the gear retracted, the warning horn sounds.
flows through sequenced valves and down locks to the gear
actuating cylinders. A similar process occurs during gear

11-11
 thi
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11
-12
 GEAR
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TAX
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11
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the airplane could no longer be landed on the runway. This They are published in the AFM/POH for the particular
procedure, however, may not apply to all situations. Preplan airplane and are usually listed on placards in the flightdeck.
landing gear retraction taking into account the following: [Figure 11-15] The maximum landing extended speed (VLE)
Length of the runway is the maximum speed at which the airplane can be flown
with the landing gear extended. The maximum landing gear
Climb gradient operating speed (VLO) is the maximum speed at which the
Obstacle clearance requirements landing gear may be operated through its cycle.
The characteristics of the terrain beyond the departure
The landing gear is extended by placing the gear selector
end of the runway
switch in the GEAR DOWN position. As the landing gear
The climb characteristics of the particular airplane. extends, the airspeed decreases and the pitch attitude may
change. During the several seconds it takes for the gear to
For example, in some situations it may be preferable, in the extend, be attentive to any abnormal sounds or feel. Confirm
event of an engine failure, to make an off airport forced landing that the landing gear has extended and locked by the normal
with the gear extended in order to take advantage of the energy sound and feel of the system operation, as well as by the gear
absorbing qualities of the terrain (see Chapter 19, Emergency position indicators in the flightdeck. Unless the landing gear
Procedures). In which case, a delay in retracting the landing has been previously extended to aid in a descent to traffic
gear after takeoff from a short runway may be warranted. In pattern altitude, the landing gear should be extended by the
other situations, obstacles in the climb path may warrant a time the airplane reaches a point on the downwind leg that is
timely gear retraction after takeoff. Also, in some airplanes the opposite the point of intended landing. Establish a standard
initial climb pitch attitude is such that any view of the runway procedure consisting of a specific position on the downwind
remaining is blocked, making an assessment of the feasibility leg at which to lower the landing gear. Strict adherence to this
of touching down on the remaining runway difficult. procedure aids in avoiding unintentional gear up landings.

Avoid premature landing gear retraction and do not retract Operation of an airplane equipped with a retractable landing
the landing gear until a positive rate of climb is indicated gear requires the deliberate, careful, and continued use of
on the flight instruments. If the airplane has not attained an appropriate checklist. When on the downwind leg, make
a positive rate of climb, there is always the chance it may it a habit to complete the before landing checklist for that
settle back onto the runway with the gear retracted. This is airplane. This accomplishes two purposes. It ensures that
especially so in cases of premature lift-off. Remember that action has been taken to lower the gear and establishes
leaning forward to reach the landing gear selector may result awareness so that the gear down indicators can be rechecked
in inadvertent forward pressure on the yoke, which causes prior to landing.
the airplane to descend.
Unless good operating practices dictate otherwise, the landing
As the landing gear retracts, airspeed increases and the roll should be completed and the airplane should be clear
airplanes pitch attitude may change. The gear may take of the runway before any levers or switches are operated.
several seconds to retract. Gear retraction and locking (and
gear extension and locking) is accompanied by sound and
feel that are unique to the specific make and model airplane.
Become familiar with the sound and feel of normal gear
retraction so that any abnormal gear operation can be readily
recognized. Abnormal landing gear retraction is most often a
clear sign that the gear extension cycle will also be abnormal.

Approach and Landing

The operating loads placed on the landing gear at higher
airspeeds may cause structural damage due to the forces of
the airstream. Limiting speeds, therefore, are established for
gear operation to protect the gear components from becoming
overstressed during flight. These speeds may not be found Figure 11-15. Placarded gear speeds in the cockpit.
on the airspeed indicator.

11-15
This technique greatly reduces the chance of inadvertently determine if the bulb(s) in the display is good. Check
retracting the landing gear while on the ground. Wait until to see if spare bulbs are available in the airplane spare
after rollout and clearing the runway to focus attention on bulb supply as part of the preflight inspection.
the after landing checklist. This practice allows for positive Be familiar with and aware of the sounds and feel of
identification of the proper controls. a properly operating landing gear system.

When transitioning to retractable gear airplanes, it is Transition Training

important to consider some frequent pilot errors. These
include pilots that have: Transition to a complex airplane or a high-performance
airplane should be accomplished through a structured course
Neglected to extend landing gear of training administered by a competent and qualified flight
Inadvertently retracted landing gear instructor. The training should be accomplished in accordance
with a ground and flight training syllabus. [Figure 11-16]
Activated gear but failed to check gear position
Misused emergency gear system This sample syllabus for transition training is an example. The
Retracted gear prematurely on takeoff arrangement of the subject matter may be changed and the
emphasis shifted to fit the qualifications of the transitioning
Extended gear too late
pilot, the airplane involved, and the circumstances of the
training situation. The goal is to ensure proficiency standards
These mistakes are not only committed by pilots who have are achieved. These standards are contained in the Practical
just transitioned to complex aircraft, but also by pilots who Test Standards (PTS) or Airmen Certification Standard
have developed a sense of complacency over time. In order (ACS) as appropriate for the certificate that the transitioning
to minimize the chances of a landing gear-related mishap: pilot holds or is working towards.
Use an appropriate checklist. (A condensed checklist
mounted in view is a reminder for its use and easy The training times indicated in the syllabus are for illustration
reference can be especially helpful.) purposes. Actual times must be based on the capabilities of
the pilot. The time periods may be minimal for pilots with
Be familiar with, and periodically review, the
higher qualifications or increased for pilots who do not meet
landing gear emergency extension procedures for the
certification requirements or have had little recent flight
particular airplane.
experience.
Be familiar with the landing gear warning horn and
warning light systems for the particular airplane. Chapter Summary
Use the horn system to cross-check the warning light Flying a complex or high-performance airplane requires a
system when an unsafe condition is noted. pilot to further divide his or her attention during the most
Review the procedure for replacing light bulbs in the critical phases of flight: take-off and landing. The knowledge,
landing gear warning light displays for the particular judgment, and piloting skills required to fly these airplanes
airplane, so that you can properly replace a bulb to must be developed. It is essential that adequate training is

Ground Instruction Flight Instruction

One hour One hour

1. Operations sections of flight manual 1. Flight training maneuvers
2. Line inspection 2. Takeoffs, landings and go-arounds
3. Cockpit familiarization
One hour One hour
1. Aircraft loading, limitations and servicing 1. Emergency operations
2. instruments, radio and special equipment 2. Control by reference to instruments
3. Aircraft systems 3. Use of radio and autopilot
One hour One hour
1. Performance section of flight manual 1. Short and soft-field takeoffs and landings
2. Cruise control 2. Maximum performance operations
3. Review

Figure 11-16. Sample transition training syllabus.

11-16
received to ensure a complete understanding of the systems,
their operation (both normal and emergency), and operating
limitations.

11-17
11-18
Chapter 12

Transition to Multiengine
Airplanes
Introduction
This chapter is devoted to the factors associated with the
operation of small multiengine airplanes. For the purpose
of this handbook, a small multiengine airplane is a
reciprocating or turbopropeller-powered airplane with a
maximum certificated takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds or
less. This discussion assumes a conventional design with two
enginesone mounted on each wing. Reciprocating engines
are assumed unless otherwise noted. The term light-twin,
although not formally defined in the regulations, is used
herein as a small multiengine airplane with a maximum
certificated takeoff weight of 6,000 pounds or less.

There are several unique characteristics of multiengine

airplanes that make them worthy of a separate class rating.
Knowledge of these factors and proficient flight skills are a key
to safe flight in these airplanes. This chapter deals extensively
with the numerous aspects of one engine inoperative (OEI)
flight. However, pilots are strongly cautioned not to place
undue emphasis on mastery of OEI flight as the sole key to
flying multiengine airplanes safely. The inoperative engine
information that follows is extensive only because this chapter
emphasizes the differences between flying multiengine
airplanes as contrasted to single-engine airplanes.

12--1
12
12-1
-1
The modern, well-equipped multiengine airplane can be Above the single-engine absolute ceiling, VYSE yields
remarkably capable under many circumstances. But, as the minimum rate of sink.
with single-engine airplanes, it must be flown prudently by VSSEsafe, intentional OEI speedoriginally known
a current and competent pilot to achieve the highest possible as safe single-engine speed, now formally defined in
level of safety. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)
part 23, Airworthiness Standards, and required to be
This chapter contains information and guidance on the established and published in the AFM/POH. It is the
performance of certain maneuvers and procedures in small minimum speed to intentionally render the critical
multiengine airplanes for the purposes of flight training engine inoperative.
and pilot certification testing. The airplane manufacturer
is the final authority on the operation of a particular make VREFreference landing speedan airspeed used
and model airplane. Flight instructors and students should for final approach, which adjust the normal approach
use the Federal Aviation Administrations Approved Flight speed for winds and gusty conditions. VREF is 1.3 times
Manual (AFM) and/or the Pilots Operating Handbook (POH) the stall speed in the landing configuration.
but realize that the airplane manufacturers guidance and VMCminimum control speed with the critical engine
procedures take precedence. inoperativemarked with a red radial line on most
airspeed indicators. The minimum speed at which
General directional control can be maintained under a very
The basic difference between operating a multiengine specific set of circumstances outlined in 14 CFR part
airplane and a single-engine airplane is the potential problem 23, Airworthiness Standards. Under the small airplane
involving an engine failure. The penalties for loss of an engine certification regulations currently in effect, the flight
are twofold: performance and control. The most obvious test pilot must be able to (1) stop the turn that results
problem is the loss of 50 percent of power, which reduces when the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative
climb performance 80 to 90 percent, sometimes even more. within 20 of the original heading, using maximum
The other is the control problem caused by the remaining rudder deflection and a maximum of 5 bank, and
thrust, which is now asymmetrical. Attention to both these (2) thereafter, maintain straight flight with not more
factors is crucial to safe OEI flight. The performance and than a 5 bank. There is no requirement in this
systems redundancy of a multiengine airplane is a safety determination that the airplane be capable of climbing
advantage only to a trained and proficient pilot. at this airspeed. VMC only addresses directional
control. Further discussion of VMC as determined
Sdqlr`mcCdmhshnmr during airplane certification and demonstrated in pilot
training follows in minimum control airspeed (VMC)
Pilots of single-engine airplanes are already familiar with many
demonstration. [Figure 12-1]
performance V speeds and their definitions. Twin-engine
airplanes have several additional V-speeds unique to OEI
Unless otherwise noted, when V-speeds are given in the
operation. These speeds are differentiated by the notation SE
AFM/POH, they apply to sea level, standard day conditions
for single engine. A review of some key V-speeds and several
at maximum takeoff weight. Performance speeds vary with
new V-speeds unique to twin-engine airplanes are listed below.
aircraft weight, configuration, and atmospheric conditions.
VRrotation speedspeed at which back pressure is The speeds may be stated in statute miles per hour (mph)
applied to rotate the airplane to a takeoff attitude. or knots (kt), and they may be given as calibrated airspeeds
VLOFlift-off speedspeed at which the airplane leaves (CAS) or indicated airspeeds (IAS). As a general rule, the
the surface. (NOTE: Some manufacturers reference newer AFM/POHs show V-speeds in knots indicated airspeed
takeoff performance data to VR, others to VLOF.) (KIAS). Some V-speeds are also stated in knots calibrated
airspeed (KCAS) to meet certain regulatory requirements.
VXbest angle of climb speedspeed at which the
Whenever available, pilots should operate the airplane from
airplane gains the greatest altitude for a given distance
published indicated airspeeds.
of forward travel.
VXSEbest angle-of-climb speed with OEI. With regard to climb performance, the multiengine airplane,
VYbest rate of climb speedspeed at which the particularly in the takeoff or landing configuration, may be
airplane gains the most altitude for a given unit of time. considered to be a single-engine airplane with its powerplant
divided into two units. There is nothing in 14 CFR part 23
VYSEbest rate of climb speed with OEI. Marked that requires a multiengine airplane to maintain altitude while
with a blue radial line on most airspeed indicators. in the takeoff or landing configuration with OEI. In fact,

12-2
 There is a dramatic performance loss associated with the loss
of an engine, particularly just after takeoff. Any airplanes
climb performance is a function of thrust horsepower, which
IAS is in excess of that required for level flight. In a hypothetical
260 40 twin with each engine producing 200 thrust horsepower,
AIRSPEED
KNOTS
assume that the total level flight thrust horsepower required
60
200
25
0 is 175. In this situation, the airplane would ordinarily have
a reserve of 225 thrust horsepower available for climb. Loss
180 200 80
of one engine would leave only 25 (200 minus 175) thrust

160
440
140
114
TAS
160 100 horsepower available for climb, a drastic reduction. Sea level
140
120 rate of climb performance losses of at least 80 to 90 percent,
even under ideal circumstances, are typical for multiengine
airplanes in OEI flight.

Operation of Systems
Figure 12-1. Airspeed indicator markings for a multiengine This section deals with systems that are generally found on
airplane. multiengine airplanes. Multiengine airplanes share many
features with complex single-engine airplanes. There are
many twins are not required to do this in any configuration, certain systems and features covered that are generally unique
even at sea level. to airplanes with two or more engines.

The current 14 CFR part 23 single-engine climb performance Propellers

requirements for reciprocating engine-powered multiengine The propellers of the multiengine airplane may outwardly
airplanes are as follows. appear to be identical in operation to the constant-speed
More than 6,000 pounds maximum weight and/or propellers of many single-engine airplanes, but this is not the
VSO more than 61 knots: the single-engine rate of case. The propellers of multiengine airplanes are featherable,
climb in feet per minute (fpm) at 5,000 feet mean to minimize drag in the event of an engine failure. Depending
sea level (MSL) must be equal to at least .027 VSO 2. upon single-engine performance, this feature often permits
For airplanes type certificated February 4, 1991, or continued flight to a suitable airport following an engine
thereafter, the climb requirement is expressed in terms failure. To feather a propeller is to stop engine rotation with
of a climb gradient, 1.5 percent. The climb gradient the propeller blades streamlined with the airplanes relative
is not a direct equivalent of the .027 VSO 2 formula. wind, thus to minimize drag. [Figure 12-2]
Do not confuse the date of type certification with the
airplanes model year. The type certification basis of Feathering is necessary because of the change in parasite
many multiengine airplanes dates back to the Civil drag with propeller blade angle. [Figure 12-3] When the
Aviation Regulations (CAR) 3. propeller blade angle is in the feathered position, the change
in parasite drag is at a minimum and, in the case of a typical
6,000 pounds or less maximum weight and VSO multiengine airplane, the added parasite drag from a single
61 knots or less: the single-engine rate of climb at feathered propeller is a relatively small contribution to the
5,000 feet MSL must simply be determined. The rate airplane total drag.
of climb could be a negative number. There is no
requirement for a single-engine positive rate of climb At the smaller blade angles near the flat pitch position, the
at 5,000 feet or any other altitude. For light-twins drag added by the propeller is very large. At these small blade
type certificated February 4, 1991, or thereafter, the angles, the propeller windmilling at high rates per minute
single-engine climb gradient (positive or negative) is (rpm) can create such a tremendous amount of drag that the
simply determined. airplane may be uncontrollable. The propeller windmilling
at high speed in the low range of blade angles can produce
Rate of climb is the altitude gain per unit of time, while climb an increase in parasite drag, which may be as great as the
gradient is the actual measure of altitude gained per 100 feet parasite drag of the basic airplane.
of horizontal travel, expressed as a percentage. An altitude
gain of 1.5 feet per 100 feet of travel (or 15 feet per 1,000,
or 150 feet per 10,000) is a climb gradient of 1.5 percent.

12-3
 Wi
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12
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12
-5
used in training, this saves much electric starter and battery POH describes crossfeed limitations and procedures that vary
wear. High oil pressure from the propeller governor recharges significantly among multiengine airplanes.
the accumulator just moments after engine rotation begins.
Checking crossfeed operation on the ground with a quick
Propeller Synchronization repositioning of the fuel selectors does nothing more than
Many multiengine airplanes have a propeller synchronizer ensure freedom of motion of the handle. To actually check
(prop sync) installed to eliminate the annoying drumming crossfeed operation, a complete, functional crossfeed system
or beat of propellers whose rpm are close, but not precisely check should be accomplished. To do this, each engine should
the same. To use prop sync, the propeller rpm is coarsely be operated from its crossfeed position during the run-up. The
matched by the pilot and the system is engaged. The prop engines should be checked individually and allowed to run at
sync adjusts the rpm of the slave engine to precisely moderate power (1,500 rpm minimum) for at least 1 minute
match the rpm of the master engine and then maintains to ensure that fuel flow can be established from the crossfeed
that relationship. source. Upon completion of the check, each engine should be
operated for at least 1 minute at moderate power from the main
The prop sync should be disengaged when the pilot selects a (takeoff) fuel tanks to reconfirm fuel flow prior to takeoff.
new propeller rpm and then re-engaged after the new rpm is
set. The prop sync should always be off for takeoff, landing, This suggested check is not required prior to every flight.
and single-engine operation. The AFM/POH should be Crossfeed lines are ideal places for water and debris to
consulted for system description and limitations. accumulate unless they are used from time to time and
drained using their external drains during preflight. Crossfeed
A variation on the propeller synchronizer is the propeller is ordinarily not used for completing single-engine flights
synchrophaser. Prop synchrophase acts much like a when an alternate airport is readily at hand, and it is never
synchronizer to precisely match rpm, but the synchrophaser used during takeoff or landings.
goes one step further. It not only matches rpm but actually
compares and adjusts the positions of the individual blades Combustion Heater
of the propellers in their arcs. There can be significant Combustion heaters are common on multiengine airplanes.
propeller noise and vibration reductions with a propeller A combustion heater is best described as a small furnace that
synchrophaser. From the pilots perspective, operation of burns gasoline to produce heated air for occupant comfort
a propeller synchronizer and a propeller synchrophaser are and windshield defogging. Most are thermostatically operated
very similar. A synchrophaser is also commonly referred to as and have a separate hour meter to record time in service
prop sync, although that is not entirely correct nomenclature for maintenance purposes. Automatic over temperature
from a technical standpoint. protection is provided by a thermal switch mounted on the
unit that cannot be accessed in flight. This requires the pilot
As a pilot aid to manually synchronizing the propellers, some or mechanic to actually visually inspect the unit for possible
twins have a small gauge mounted in or by the tachometer(s) heat damage in order to reset the switch.
with a propeller symbol on a disk that spins. The pilot
manually fine tunes the engine rpm so as to stop disk rotation, When finished with the combustion heater, a cool-down
thereby synchronizing the propellers. This is a useful backup period is required. Most heaters require that outside air be
to synchronizing engine rpm using the audible propeller permitted to circulate through the unit for at least 15 seconds
beat. This gauge is also found installed with most propeller in flight or that the ventilation fan can be operated for at least
synchronizer and synchrophase systems. Some synchrophase 2 minutes on the ground. Failure to provide an adequate cool
systems use a knob for the pilot to control the phase angle. down usually trips the thermal switch and renders the heater
inoperative until the switch is reset.
Fuel Crossfeed
Fuel crossfeed systems are also unique to multiengine Flight Director/Autopilot
airplanes. Using crossfeed, an engine can draw fuel from a Flight director/autopilot (FD/AP) systems are common on the
fuel tank located in the opposite wing. better-equipped multiengine airplanes. The system integrates
pitch, roll, heading, altitude, and radio navigation signals in
On most multiengine airplanes, operation in the crossfeed a computer. The outputs, called computed commands, are
mode is an emergency procedure used to extend airplane displayed on a flight command indicator (FCI). The FCI
range and endurance in OEI flight. There are a few models replaces the conventional attitude indicator on the instrument
that permit crossfeed as a normal, fuel balancing technique panel. The FCI is occasionally referred to as a flight director
in normal operation, but these are not common. The AFM/ indicator (FDI) or as an attitude director indicator (ADI).

12-6
The entire flight director/autopilot system is sometimes Yaw Damper
called an integrated flight control system (IFCS) by some The yaw damper is a servo that moves the rudder in response
manufacturers. Others may use the term automatic flight to inputs from a gyroscope or accelerometer that detects yaw
control system (AFCS). rate. The yaw damper minimizes motion about the vertical
axis caused by turbulence. (Yaw dampers on swept wing
The FD/AP system may be employed at the following airplanes provide another, more vital function of damping
different levels: dutch roll characteristics.) Occupants feel a smoother ride,
Off (raw data) particularly if seated in the rear of the airplane, when the yaw
damper is engaged. The yaw damper should be off for takeoff
Flight director (computed commands) and landing. There may be additional restrictions against its
Autopilot use during single-engine operation. Most yaw dampers can
be engaged independently of the autopilot.
With the system off, the FCI operates as an ordinary attitude
indicator. On most FCIs, the command bars are biased out of Alternator/Generator
view when the FD is off. The pilot maneuvers the airplane Alternator or generator paralleling circuitry matches the
as though the system were not installed. output of each engines alternator/generator so that the
electrical system load is shared equally between them. In the
To maneuver the airplane using the FD, the pilot enters the event of an alternator/generator failure, the inoperative unit
desired modes of operation (heading, altitude, navigation can be isolated and the entire electrical system powered from
(NAV) intercept, and tracking) on the FD/AP mode the remaining one. Depending upon the electrical capacity
controller. The computed flight commands are then displayed of the alternator/generator, the pilot may need to reduce the
to the pilot through either a single-cue or dual-cue system electrical load (referred to as load shedding) when operating
in the FCI. On a single-cue system, the commands are on a single unit. The AFM/POH contains system description
indicated by V bars. On a dual-cue system, the commands and limitations.
are displayed on two separate command bars, one for pitch
and one for roll. To maneuver the airplane using computed Nose Baggage Compartment
commands, the pilot flies the symbolic airplane of the FCI Nose baggage compartments are common on multiengine
to match the steering cues presented. airplanes (and are even found on a few single-engine
airplanes). There is nothing strange or exotic about a nose
On most systems, to engage the autopilot the FD must first baggage compartment, and the usual guidance concerning
be operating. At any time thereafter, the pilot may engage observation of load limits applies. Pilots occasionally neglect
the autopilot through the mode controller. The autopilot then to secure the latches properly. When improperly secured, the
maneuvers the airplane to satisfy the computed commands door opens and the contents may be drawn out, usually into
of the FD. the propeller arc and just after takeoff. Even when the nose
baggage compartment is empty, airplanes have been lost
Like any computer, the FD/AP system only does what it when the pilot became distracted by the open door. Security
is told. The pilot must ensure that it has been programmed of the nose baggage compartment latches and locks is a vital
properly for the particular phase of flight desired. The preflight item.
armed and/or engaged modes are usually displayed on the
mode controller or separate annunciator lights. When the Most airplanes continue to fly with a nose baggage door open.
airplane is being hand-flown, if the FD is not being used at There may be some buffeting from the disturbed airflow, and
any particular moment, it should be off so that the command there is an increase in noise. Pilots should never become so
bars are pulled from view. preoccupied with an open door (of any kind) that they fail
to fly the airplane.
Prior to system engagement, all FD/AP computer and trim
checks should be accomplished. Many newer systems Inspection of the compartment interior is also an important
cannot be engaged without the completion of a self-test. preflight item. More than one pilot has been surprised to find a
The pilot must also be very familiar with various methods supposedly empty compartment packed to capacity or loaded
of disengagement, both normal and emergency. System with ballast. The tow bars, engine inlet covers, windshield sun
details, including approvals and limitations, can be found screens, oil containers, spare chocks, and miscellaneous small
in the supplements section of the AFM/POH. Additionally, hand tools that find their way into baggage compartments
many avionics manufacturers can provide informative pilot should be secured to prevent damage from shifting in flight.
operating guides upon request.

12-7
Anti-Icing/Deicing usually plumbed to a non-pressurized baggage compartment.
Anti-icing/deicing equipment is frequently installed on The pilot must activate the alternate static source by opening
multiengine airplanes and consists of a combination of a valve or a fitting in the flightdeck. Upon activation, the
different systems. These may be classified as either anti- airspeed indicator, altimeter, and the vertical speed indicator
icing or deicing, depending upon function. The presence (VSI) is affected and reads somewhat in error. A correction
of anti-icing and deicing equipment, even though it may table is frequently provided in the AFM/POH.
appear elaborate and complete, does not necessarily mean
that the airplane is approved for flight in icing conditions. Anti-icing/deicing equipment only eliminates ice from the
The AFM/POH, placards, and even the manufacturer should protected surfaces. Significant ice accumulations may form
be consulted for specific determination of approvals and on unprotected areas, even with proper use of anti-ice and
limitations. Anti-icing equipment is provided to prevent deice systems. Flight at high angles of attack (AOA) or even
ice from forming on certain protected surfaces. Anti-icing normal climb speeds permit significant ice accumulations on
equipment includes heated pitot tubes, heated or non- lower wing surfaces, which are unprotected. Many AFM/
icing static ports and fuel vents, propeller blades with POHs mandate minimum speeds to be maintained in icing
electrothermal boots or alcohol slingers, windshields with conditions. Degradation of all flight characteristics and large
alcohol spray or electrical resistance heating, windshield performance losses can be expected with ice accumulations.
defoggers, and heated stall warning lift detectors. On many Pilots should not rely upon the stall warning devices for
turboprop engines, the lip surrounding the air intake is adequate stall warning with ice accumulations.
heated either electrically or with bleed air. In the absence of
AFM/POH guidance to the contrary, anti-icing equipment Ice accumulates unevenly on the airplane. It adds weight
should be actuated prior to flight into known or suspected and drag (primarily drag) and decreases thrust and lift. Even
icing conditions. wing shape affects ice accumulation; thin airfoil sections
are more prone to ice accumulation than thick, highly-
Deicing equipment is generally limited to pneumatic boots on cambered sections. For this reason, certain surfaces, such
wing and tail leading edges. Deicing equipment is installed as the horizontal stabilizer, are more prone to icing than the
to remove ice that has already formed on protected surfaces. wing. With ice accumulations, landing approaches should
Upon pilot actuation, the boots inflate with air from the be made with a minimum wing flap setting (flap extension
pneumatic pumps to break off accumulated ice. After a few increases the AOA of the horizontal stabilizer) and with an
seconds of inflation, they are deflated back to their normal added margin of airspeed. Sudden and large configuration
position with the assistance of a vacuum. The pilot monitors and airspeed changes should be avoided.
the buildup of ice and cycles the boots as directed in the AFM/
POH. An ice light on the left engine nacelle allows the pilot Unless otherwise recommended in the AFM/POH, the
to monitor wing ice accumulation at night. autopilot should not be used in icing conditions. Continuous
use of the autopilot masks trim and handling changes that
Other airframe equipment necessary for flight in icing occur with ice accumulation. Without this control feedback,
conditions includes an alternate induction air source and an the pilot may not be aware of ice accumulation building to
alternate static system source. Ice tolerant antennas are also hazardous levels. The autopilot suddenly disconnects when
installed. it reaches design limits, and the pilot may find the airplane
has assumed unsatisfactory handling characteristics.
In the event of impact ice accumulating over normal engine
air induction sources, carburetor heat (carbureted engines) The installation of anti-ice/deice equipment on airplanes
or alternate air (fuel injected engines) should be selected. Ice without AFM/POH approval for flight into icing conditions
buildup on normal induction sources can be detected by a is to facilitate escape when such conditions are inadvertently
loss of engine rpm with fixed-pitch propellers and a loss of encountered. Even with AFM/POH approval, the prudent
manifold pressure with constant-speed propellers. On some pilot avoids icing conditions to the maximum extent
fuel injected engines, an alternate air source is automatically practicable and avoids extended flight in any icing conditions.
activated with blockage of the normal air source. No multiengine airplane is approved for flight into severe
icing conditions and none are intended for indefinite flight
An alternate static system provides an alternate source of in continuous icing conditions.
static air for the pitot-static system in the unlikely event
that the primary static source becomes blocked. In non-
pressurized airplanes, most alternate static sources are
plumbed to the cabin. On pressurized airplanes, they are

12-8
Pe
rfo
rmanceandL
imi
tat
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thengin
esopera
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.Thea
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compon en t
.[F igu re12 -5] isa ttemptingtocon tinuef l
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airplanesperformancec apabil
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Th ea ll
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i i

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12
-9
Ta ke
offp l
a nningfacto
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.

ii

F
igu
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-6.A
reao
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rea
fte
rli
ft
-of
f.

12
-10
Weight and Balance licensed empty weight does not. Oil must always be added
to any weight and balance utilizing a licensed empty weight.
The weight and balance concept is no different than that of
a single-engine airplane. The actual execution, however, is
When the airplane is placed in service, amended weight
almost invariably more complex due to a number of new
and balance documents are prepared by appropriately-
loading areas, including nose and aft baggage compartments,
rated maintenance personnel to reflect changes in installed
nacelle lockers, main fuel tanks, auxiliary fuel tanks, nacelle
equipment. The old weight and balance documents are
fuel tanks, and numerous seating options in a variety of
customarily marked superseded and retained in the AFM/
interior configurations. The flexibility in loading offered by
POH. Maintenance personnel are under no regulatory
the multiengine airplane places a responsibility on the pilot
obligation to utilize the GAMA terminology, so weight
to address weight and balance prior to each flight.
and balance documents subsequent to the original may
use a variety of terms. Pilots should use care to determine
The terms empty weight, licensed empty weight, standard
whether or not oil has to be added to the weight and balance
empty weight, and basic empty weight as they appear on the
calculations or if it is already included in the figures provided.
manufacturers original weight and balance documents are
sometimes confused by pilots.
The multiengine airplane is where most pilots encounter the
term zero fuel weight for the first time. Not all multiengine
In 1975, the General Aviation Manufacturers Association
airplanes have a zero fuel weight limitation published in
(GAMA) adopted a standardized format for AFM/POHs.
their AFM/POH, but many do. Zero fuel weight is simply
It was implemented by most manufacturers in model year
the maximum allowable weight of the airplane and payload,
1976. Airplanes whose manufacturers conform to the GAMA
assuming there is no usable fuel on board. The actual airplane
standards utilize the following terminology for weight and
is not devoid of fuel at the time of loading, of course. This
balance:
is merely a calculation that assumes it was. If a zero fuel
weight limitation is published, then all weight in excess of
standard empty weight + optional equipment = basic empty
that figure must consist of usable fuel. The purpose of a zero
weight
fuel weight is to limit load forces on the wing spars with
heavy fuselage loads.
Standard empty weight is the weight of the standard airplane,
full hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and full oil. Optional
Assume a hypothetical multiengine airplane with the
equipment includes the weight of all equipment installed
following weights and capacities:
beyond standard. Basic empty weight is the standard empty
weight plus optional equipment. Note that basic empty weight
Basic empty weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,200 lb
includes no usable fuel, but full oil.
Zero fuel weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,400 lb
Maximum takeoff weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,200 lb
Airplanes manufactured prior to the GAMA format generally
Maximum usable fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 gal
utilize the following terminology for weight and balance,
although the exact terms may vary somewhat:
1. Calculate the useful load:
empty weight + unusable fuel = standard empty weight
Maximum takeoff weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,200 lb
Basic empty weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,200 lb
standard empty weight + optional equipment = licensed
Useful load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000 lb
empty weight
The useful load is the maximum combination of usable fuel,
Empty weight is the weight of the standard airplane, full
passengers, baggage, and cargo that the airplane is capable
hydraulic fluid, and undrainable oil. Unusable fuel is the fuel
of carrying.
remaining in the airplane not available to the engines. Standard
empty weight is the empty weight plus unusable fuel. When
2. Calculate the payload:
optional equipment is added to the standard empty weight,
the result is licensed empty weight. Licensed empty weight,
Zero fuel weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,400 lb
therefore, includes the standard airplane, optional equipment,
Basic empty weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,200 lb
full hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and undrainable oil.
Payload. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1,200 lb
The major difference between the two formats (GAMA
and the old) is that basic empty weight includes full oil and

12-11
The payload is the maximum combination of passengers, favorable stall characteristics. At aft CG, the airplane is
baggage, and cargo that the airplane is capable of carrying. less stable, with a slightly lower stalling speed, a slightly
A zero fuel weight, if published, is the limiting weight. faster cruising speed, and less desirable stall characteristics.
Forward CG limits are usually determined in certification by
3. Calculate the fuel capacity at maximum payload (1,200 lb): elevator/stabilator authority in the landing roundout. Aft CG
limits are determined by the minimum acceptable longitudinal
Maximum takeoff weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,200 lb stability. It is contrary to the airplanes operating limitations
Zero fuel weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,400 lb and 14 CFR to exceed any weight and balance parameter.
Fuel allowed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 lb
Some multiengine airplanes may require ballast to remain
Assuming maximum payload, the only weight permitted in within CG limits under certain loading conditions. Several
excess of the zero fuel weight must consist of usable fuel. In models require ballast in the aft baggage compartment with
this case, 133.3 gallons (gal). only a student and instructor on board to avoid exceeding the
forward CG limit. When passengers are seated in the aft-most
4. Calculate the payload at maximum fuel capacity (180 gal): seats of some models, ballast or baggage may be required
in the nose baggage compartment to avoid exceeding the aft
Basic empty weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,200 lb CG limit. The pilot must direct the seating of passengers and
Maximum usable fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+1,080 lb placement of baggage and cargo to achieve a CG within the
Weight with max. fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,280 lb approved envelope. Most multiengine airplanes have general
Maximum takeoff weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,200 lb loading recommendations in the weight and balance section
Weight with max. fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,280 lb of the AFM/POH. When ballast is added, it must be securely
Payload allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920 lb tied down, and it must not exceed the maximum allowable
floor loading.
Assuming maximum fuel, the payload is the difference
between the weight of the fueled airplane and the maximum Some airplanes make use of a special weight and balance
takeoff weight. plotter. It consists of several movable parts that can be
adjusted over a plotting board on which the CG envelope
Some multiengine airplanes have a ramp weight, which is in is printed. The reverse side of the typical plotter contains
excess of the maximum takeoff weight. The ramp weight is general loading recommendations for the particular airplane.
an allowance for fuel that would be burned during taxi and A pencil line plot can be made directly on the CG envelope
run-up, permitting a takeoff at full maximum takeoff weight. imprinted on the working side of the plotting board. This plot
The airplane must weigh no more than maximum takeoff can easily be erased and recalculated anew for each flight.
weight at the beginning of the takeoff roll. This plotter is to be used only for the make and model airplane
for which it was designed.
A maximum landing weight is a limitation against landing
at a weight in excess of the published value. This requires Ground Operation
preflight planning of fuel burn to ensure that the airplane Good habits learned with single-engine airplanes are directly
weight upon arrival at destination is at or below the applicable to multiengine airplanes for preflight and engine
maximum landing weight. In the event of an emergency start. Upon placing the airplane in motion to taxi, the new
requiring an immediate landing, the pilot should recognize multiengine pilot notices several differences, however.
that the structural margins designed into the airplane are not The most obvious is the increased wingspan and the need
fully available when over landing weight. An overweight for even greater vigilance while taxiing in close quarters.
landing inspection may be advisablethe service manual Ground handling may seem somewhat ponderous and the
or manufacturer should be consulted. multiengine airplane is not as nimble as the typical two- or
four-place single-engine airplane. As always, use care not to
Although the foregoing problems only dealt with weight, ride the brakes by keeping engine power to a minimum. One
the balance portion of weight and balance is equally vital. ground handling advantage of the multiengine airplane over
The flight characteristics of the multiengine airplane vary single-engine airplanes is the differential power capability.
significantly with shifts of the center of gravity (CG) within Turning with an assist from differential power minimizes
the approved envelope. both the need for brakes during turns and the turning radius.

At forward CG, the airplane is more stable, with a slightly The pilot should be aware, however, that making a sharp
higher stalling speed, a slightly slower cruising speed, and turn assisted by brakes and differential power can cause the

12-12
airplane to pivot about a stationary inboard wheel and landing matched in their normal ranges. A directed and purposeful
gear. This is abuse for which the airplane was not designed scan of the engine gauges can be accomplished well before
and should be guarded against. Unless otherwise directed by the airplane approaches rotation speed. If a crosswind is
the AFM/POH, all ground operations should be conducted present, the aileron displacement in the direction of the
with the cowl flaps fully open. The use of strobe lights is crosswind may be reduced as the airplane accelerates. The
normally deferred until taxiing onto the active runway. elevator/stabilator control should be held neutral throughout.

Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb Full rated takeoff power should be used for every takeoff.
With the Before Takeoff checklist, which includes a pre- Partial power takeoffs are not recommended. There is no
takeoff safety brief complete and air traffic control (ATC) evidence to suggest that the life of modern reciprocating
clearance received, the airplane should be taxied into position engines is prolonged by partial power takeoffs. Paradoxically,
on the runway centerline. If departing from an airport without excessive heat and engine wear can occur with partial power
an operating control tower, a careful check for approaching as the fuel metering system fails to deliver the slightly over-
aircraft should be made along with a radio advisory on the rich mixture vital for engine cooling during takeoff.
appropriate frequency. Sharp turns onto the runway combined
with a rolling takeoff are not a good operating practice and There are several key airspeeds to be noted during the takeoff
may be prohibited by the AFM/POH due to the possibility and climb sequence in any twin. The first speed to consider
of unporting a fuel tank pickup. (The takeoff itself may be is VMC. If an engine fails below VMC while the airplane is on
prohibited by the AFM/POH under any circumstances below the ground, the takeoff must be rejected. Directional control
certain fuel levels.) The flight controls should be positioned can only be maintained by promptly closing both throttles and
for a crosswind, if present. Exterior lights, such as landing using rudder and brakes as required. If an engine fails below
and taxi lights, and wingtip strobes should be illuminated VMC while airborne, directional control is not possible with
immediately prior to initiating the takeoff roll, day or night. If the remaining engine producing takeoff power. On takeoffs,
holding in takeoff position for any length of time, particularly therefore, the airplane should never be airborne before the
at night, the pilot should activate all exterior lights upon airspeed reaches and exceeds VMC. Pilots should use the
taxiing into position. manufacturers recommended rotation speed (VR) or lift-off
speed (VLOF). If no such speeds are published, a minimum
Takeoff power should be set as recommended in the of VMC plus 5 knots should be used for VR.
AFM/POH. With normally aspirated (non-turbocharged)
engines, this is full throttle. Full throttle is also used in most The rotation to a takeoff pitch attitude is performed with
turbocharged engines. There are some turbocharged engines, smooth control inputs. With a crosswind, the pilot should
however, that require the pilot to set a specific power setting, ensure that the landing gear does not momentarily touch
usually just below red line manifold pressure. This yields the runway after the airplane has lifted off, as a side drift is
takeoff power with less than full throttle travel. Turbocharged present. The rotation may be accomplished more positively
engines often require special consideration. Throttle motion and/or at a higher speed under these conditions. However, the
with turbocharged engines should be exceptionally smooth pilot should keep in mind that the AFM/POH performance
and deliberate. It is acceptable, and may even be desirable, to figures for accelerate-stop distance, takeoff ground roll,
hold the airplane in position with brakes as the throttles are and distance to clear an obstacle were calculated at the
advanced. Brake release customarily occurs after significant recommended VR and/or VLOF speed.
boost from the turbocharger is established. This prevents
wasting runway with slow, partial throttle acceleration as After lift-off, the next consideration is to gain altitude as
the engine power is increased. If runway length or obstacle rapidly as possible. To assist the pilot in takeoff and initial
clearance is critical, full power should be set before brake climb profile, some AFM/POHs give a 50-foot or 50-foot
release as specified in the performance charts. barrier speed to use as a target during rotation, lift-off, and
acceleration to VY. Prior to takeoff, pilots should review
As takeoff power is established, initial attention should the takeoff distance to 50 feet above ground level (AGL)
be divided between tracking the runway centerline and and the stopping distance from 50 feet AGL and add the
monitoring the engine gauges. Many novice multiengine distance together. If the runway is no longer than the total
pilots tend to fixate on the airspeed indicator just as soon as value, the odds are very good that if anything fails, it will be
the airplane begins its takeoff roll. Instead, the pilot should an off-runway landing at the least. After leaving the ground,
confirm that both engines are developing full-rated manifold altitude gain is more important than achieving an excess
pressure and rpm, and that as the fuel flows, fuel pressures, of airspeed. Experience has shown that excessive speed
exhaust gas temperatures (EGTs), and oil pressures are cannot be effectively converted into altitude in the event

12-13
of an engine failure. Additional altitude increases the time power can be reduced, if desired, as the transition to en route
available to recognize and respond to any aircraft abnormality climb speed is made.
or emergency during the climb segment.
Some airplanes have a climb power setting published in
Excessive climb attitudes can be just as dangerous as the AFM/POH as a recommendation (or sometimes as a
excessive airspeed. Steep climb attitudes limit forward limitation), which should then be set for en route climb. If
visibility and impede the pilots ability to detect and avoid there is no climb power setting published, it is customary,
other traffic. The airplane should be allowed to accelerate but not a requirement, to reduce manifold pressure and rpm
in a shallow climb to attain VY, the best all-engine rate- somewhat for en route climb. The propellers are usually
of-climb speed. VY should then be maintained until a safe synchronized after the first power reduction and the yaw
single-engine maneuvering altitude, considering terrain damper, if installed, engaged. The AFM/POH may also
and obstructions is achieved. Any speed above or below recommend leaning the mixtures during climb. The Climb
VY reduces the performance of the airplane. Even with all checklist should be accomplished as traffic and work load
engines operating normally, terrain and obstruction clearance allow. [Figure 12-7]
during the initial climb after takeoff is an important preflight
consideration. Most airliners and most turbine powered Level Off and Cruise
airplanes climb out at an attitude that yields best rate of climb Upon leveling off at cruising altitude, the pilot should allow
(VY) usually utilizing a flight management system (FMS). the airplane to accelerate at climb power until cruising
airspeed is achieved, and then cruise power and rpm should
When to raise the landing gear after takeoff depends on be set. To extract the maximum cruise performance from
several factors. Normally, the gear should be retracted when any airplane, the power setting tables provided by the
there is insufficient runway available for landing and after manufacturer should be closely followed. If the cylinder
a positive rate of climb is established as indicated on the head and oil temperatures are within their normal ranges,
altimeter. If an excessive amount of runway is available, it the cowl flaps may be closed. When the engine temperatures
would not be prudent to leave the landing gear down for an have stabilized, the mixtures may be leaned per AFM/POH
extended period of time and sacrifice climb performance recommendations. The remainder of the Cruise checklist
and acceleration. Leaving the gear extended after the point should be completed by this point.
at which a landing cannot be accomplished on the runway is
a hazard. In some multiengine airplanes, operating in a high- Fuel management in multiengine airplanes is often more
density altitude environment, a positive rate of climb with complex than in single-engine airplanes. Depending upon
the landing gear down is not possible. Waiting for a positive system design, the pilot may need to select between main
rate of climb under these conditions is not practicable. An tanks and auxiliary tanks or even employ fuel transfer from
important point to remember is that raising the landing gear one tank to another. In complex fuel systems, limitations are
as early as possible after liftoff drastically decreases the often found restricting the use of some tanks to level flight
drag profile and significantly increases climb performance only or requiring a reserve of fuel in the main tanks for
should an engine failure occur. An equally important point to descent and landing. Electric fuel pump operation can vary
remember is that leaving the gear down to land on sufficient widely among different models also, particularly during tank
runway or overrun is a much better option than landing with switching or fuel transfer. Some fuel pumps are to be on for
the gear retracted. A general recommendation is to raise the takeoff and landing; others are to be off. There is simply no
landing gear not later than VYSE airspeed, and once the gear substitute for thorough systems and AFM/POH knowledge
is up, consider it a GO commitment if climb performance when operating complex aircraft.
is available. Some AFM/POHs direct the pilot to apply the
wheel brakes momentarily after lift-off to stop wheel rotation Normal Approach and Landing
prior to landing gear retraction. If flaps were extended for
Given the higher cruising speed (and frequently altitude) of
takeoff, they should be retracted as recommended in the
multiengine airplanes over most single-engine airplanes, the
AFM/POH.
descent must be planned in advance. A hurried, last minute
descent with power at or near idle is inefficient and can
Once a safe, single-engine maneuvering altitude has been
cause excessive engine cooling. It may also lead to passenger
reached, typically a minimum of 400500 feet AGL, the
discomfort, particularly if the airplane is unpressurized. As a rule
transition to an en route climb speed should be made.
of thumb, if terrain and passenger conditions permit, a maximum
This speed is higher than VY and is usually maintained to
of a 500 fpm rate of descent should be planned. Pressurized
cruising altitude. En route climb speed gives better visibility,
airplanes can plan for higher descent rates, if desired.
increased engine cooling, and a higher groundspeed. Takeoff

12-14
 500fee
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Thet ra
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llyf lowna t appropriateexp erien ceandf amiliar
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ai
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ly
pi
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Landingch eckli
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.Fu lls ta
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t hen osew heel
canb eh eldo fffo rb esta erodyn amicb r aking.Ev ena sth e
TheFAAr ecomm endsas tabi
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12
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 Downw
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ical
,o rwithas t
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elsassoona spra
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12
-16
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racted.[F igu re12 -10 ]
re comm end edno rm alapp roa chsp eed.
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terth esho rt
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retracting thew ingflaps,a ddin gb ac kp r e
ssu re tothee lev a
tor
/ shou ldb er ev i
ew edaswo rklo adp e rm its
.
stab i
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runw ayl eng thp e
rm its
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12
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operative engine is the only alternative. Attempting to correct when the suspected throttle is retarded is verification
the roll with aileron without first applying rudder increases that the correct engine has been identified as failed. The
drag and adverse yaw and further degrades directional corresponding propeller control should be brought fully aft
control. After rudder is applied to stop the yaw, a slight to feather the engine.
amount of aileron should be used to bank the airplane toward
the operative engine. This is the most efficient way to control Climb
the aircraft, minimize drag, and gain the most performance. As soon as directional control is established and the airplane
Control forces, particularly on the rudder, may be high. The configured for climb, the bank angle should be reduced to that
pitch attitude for VYSE has to be lowered from that of VY. At producing best climb performance. Without specific guidance
least 5 of bank should be used initially to stop the yaw and for zero sideslip, a bank of 2 and one-third to one-half ball
maintain directional control. This initial bank input is held deflection on the slip/skid indicator is suggested. VYSE is
only momentarily, just long enough to establish or ensure maintained with pitch control. As turning flight reduces climb
directional control. Climb performance suffers when bank performance, climb should be made straight ahead or with
angles exceed approximately 2 or 3, but obtaining and shallow turns to avoid obstacles to an altitude of at least 400
maintaining VYSE and directional control are paramount. Trim feet AGL before attempting a return to the airport.
should be adjusted to lower the control forces.
Checklist
%QPIWTCVKQP Having accomplished the memory items from the Engine
The memory items from the Engine Failure After Takeoff Failure After Takeoff checklist, the printed copy should
checklist should be promptly executed to configure the be reviewed as time permits. The Securing Failed Engine
airplane for climb. [Figure 12-14] The specific procedures checklist should then be accomplished. [Figure 12-15] Unless
to follow are found in the AFM/POH and checklist for the the pilot suspects an engine fire, the remaining items should
particular airplane. Most direct the pilot to assume VYSE, set be accomplished deliberately and without undue haste.
takeoff power, retract the flaps and landing gear, identify, Airplane control should never be sacrificed to execute the
verify, and feather the failed engine. (On some airplanes, the remaining checklists. The priority items have already been
landing gear is to be retracted before the flaps.) accomplished from memory.

The identify step is for the pilot to initially identify the Other than closing the cowl flap of the failed engine, none of
failed engine. Confirmation on the engine gauges may or these items, if left undone, adversely affects airplane climb
may not be possible, depending upon the failure mode. performance. There is a distinct possibility of actuating an
Identification should be primarily through the control inputs incorrect switch or control if the procedure is rushed. The
required to maintain straight flight, not the engine gauges. pilot should concentrate on flying the airplane and extracting
The verify step directs the pilot to retard the throttle of the maximum performance. If an ATC facility is available, an
engine thought to have failed. No change in performance emergency should be declared.

The memory items in the Engine Failure After Takeoff

Engine Failure After Takeoff checklist may be redundant with the airplanes existing
Airspeed .............................................................Maintain VYSE configuration. For example, in the third takeoff scenario,
Mixtures........................................................................... RICH the gear and flaps were assumed to already be retracted,
Propellers.............................................................. HIGH RPM yet the memory items included gear and flaps. This is not
Throttles ........................................................... FULL POWER an oversight. The purpose of the memory items is to either
Flaps .................................................................................... UP initiate the appropriate action or to confirm that a condition
Landing gear....................................................................... UP exists. Action on each item may not be required in all cases.
Identify.............................................Determine failed engine The memory items also apply to more than one circumstance.
Verify......................................Close throttle of failed engine In an engine failure from a go-around, for example, the
Propeller.................................................................. FEATHER landing gear and flaps would likely be extended when the
Trim tabs...................................................................... ADJUST failure occurred.
Failed engine.............................................................. SECURE
As soon as practical.........................................................LAND The three preceding takeoff scenarios all include the landing
Bold-faced items require immediate action and are to be gear as a key element in the decision to land or continue.
accomplished from memory.
With the landing gear selector in the DOWN position, for
Figure 12-14. Typical engine failure after takeoff emergency example, continued takeoff and climb is not recommended.
checklist. This situation, however, is not justification to retract the

12-21
 the failure. Maintaining airplane control, however, is still
Securing Failed Engine
paramount. Airplanes have been lost at altitude due to
Mixture............................................................... IDLE CUT OFF
apparent fixation on the engine problem to the detriment of
Magnetos ........................................................................... OFF
flying the airplane.
Alternator............................................................................ OFF
Cowl flap ....................................................................... CLOSE
Not all engine failures or malfunctions are catastrophic in
Boost pump ....................................................................... OFF
nature (catastrophic meaning a major mechanical failure that
Fuel selector....................................................................... OFF
damages the engine and precludes further engine operation).
Prop sync ........................................................................... OFF
Many cases of power loss are related to fuel starvation,
Electrical load................................................................Reduce
where restoration of power may be made with the selection
Crossfeed................................................................... Consider
of another tank. An orderly inventory of gauges and switches
Figure 12-15. Typical securing failed engine emergency checklist.
may reveal the problem. Carburetor heat or alternate air
can be selected. The affected engine may run smoothly on
just one magneto or at a lower power setting. Altering the
landing gear the moment the airplane lifts off the surface
mixture may help. If fuel vapor formation is suspected, fuel
on takeoff as a normal procedure. The landing gear should
boost pump operation may be used to eliminate flow and
remain selected down as long as there is usable runway or
pressure fluctuations.
overrun available to land on. The use of wing flaps for takeoff
virtually eliminates the likelihood of a single-engine climb
Although it is a natural desire among pilots to save an ailing
until the flaps are retracted.
engine with a precautionary shutdown, the engine should be
left running if there is any doubt as to needing it for further
There are two time-tested memory aids the pilot may find
safe flight. Catastrophic failure accompanied by heavy
useful in dealing with engine-out scenarios. The first, dead
vibration, smoke, blistering paint, or large trails of oil, on
footdead engine is used to assist in identifying the failed
the other hand, indicate a critical situation. The affected
engine. Depending on the failure mode, the pilot will not
engine should be feathered and the Securing Failed Engine
be able to consistently identify the failed engine in a timely
checklist completed. The pilot should divert to the nearest
manner from the engine gauges. In maintaining directional
suitable airport and declare an emergency with ATC for
control, however, rudder pressure is exerted on the side (left
priority handling.
or right) of the airplane with the operating engine. Thus,
the dead foot is on the same side as the dead engine.
Fuel crossfeed is a method of getting fuel from a tank on
Variations on this saying include idle footidle engine
one side of the airplane to an operating engine on the other.
and working footworking engine.
Crossfeed is used for extended single-engine operation.
If a suitable airport is close at hand, there is no need to
The second memory aid has to do with climb performance.
consider crossfeed. If prolonged flight on a single-engine
The phrase raise the dead is a reminder that the best climb
is inevitable due to airport non-availability, then crossfeed
performance is obtained with a very shallow bank, about 2
allows use of fuel that would otherwise be unavailable to
toward the operating engine. Therefore, the inoperative, or
the operating engine. It also permits the pilot to balance the
dead engine should be raised with a very slight bank.
fuel consumption to avoid an out-of-balance wing heaviness.
Not all engine power losses are complete failures. Sometimes
The AFM/POH procedures for crossfeed vary widely.
the failure mode is such that partial power may be available.
Thorough fuel system knowledge is essential if crossfeed
If there is a performance loss when the throttle of the affected
is to be conducted. Fuel selector positions and fuel boost
engine is retarded, the pilot should consider allowing it to run
pump usage for crossfeed differ greatly among multiengine
until altitude and airspeed permit safe single-engine flight,
airplanes. Prior to landing, crossfeed should be terminated
if this can be done without compromising safety. Attempts
and the operating engine returned to its main tank fuel supply.
to save a malfunctioning engine can lead to a loss of the
entire airplane.
If the airplane is above its single-engine absolute ceiling at
the time of engine failure, it slowly loses altitude. The pilot
Engine Failure During Flight should maintain VYSE to minimize the rate of altitude loss.
Engine failures well above the ground are handled differently This drift down rate is greatest immediately following
than those occurring at lower speeds and altitudes. Cruise the failure and decreases as the single-engine ceiling is
airspeed allows better airplane control and altitude, which approached. Due to performance variations caused by
may permit time for a possible diagnosis and remedy of engine and propeller wear, turbulence, and pilot technique,

12-22
the airplane may not maintain altitude even at its published round out just prior to touchdown. With drag from only one
single-engine ceiling. Any further rate of sink, however, windmilling propeller, the airplane tends to float more than
would likely be modest. on a two-engine approach. Precise airspeed control therefore
is essential, especially when landing on a short, wet, and/or
An engine failure in a descent or other low power setting slippery surface.
can be deceiving. The dramatic yaw and performance loss
is absent. At very low power settings, the pilot may not Some pilots favor resetting the rudder trim to neutral on final
even be aware of a failure. If a failure is suspected, the pilot and compensating for yaw by holding rudder pressure for the
should advance both engine mixtures, propellers, and throttles remainder of the approach. This eliminates the rudder trim
significantly, to the takeoff settings if necessary, to correctly change close to the ground as the throttle is closed during
identify the failed engine. The power on the operative engine the round out for landing. This technique eliminates the
can always be reduced later. need for groping for the rudder trim and manipulating it to
neutral during final approach, which many pilots find to be
Engine Inoperative Approach and Landing highly distracting. AFM/POH recommendations or personal
The approach and landing with OEI is essentially the same preference should be used.
as a two-engine approach and landing. The traffic pattern
should be flown at similar altitudes, airspeeds, and key A single-engine go-around must be avoided. As a practical
positions as a two-engine approach. The differences are matter in single-engine approaches, once the airplane is on
the reduced power available and the fact that the remaining final approach with landing gear and flaps extended, it is
thrust is asymmetrical. A higher-than-normal power setting committed to land on the intended runway, on another runway,
is necessary on the operative engine. a taxiway, or grassy infield. The light-twin does not have the
performance to climb on one engine with landing gear and
With adequate airspeed and performance, the landing gear flaps extended. Considerable altitude is lost while maintaining
can still be extended on the downwind leg. In which case it VYSE and retracting landing gear and flaps. Losses of 500 feet
should be confirmed DOWN no later than abeam the intended or more are not unusual. If the landing gear has been lowered
point of landing. Performance permitting, initial extension of with an alternate means of extension, retraction may not be
wing flaps (typically 10) and a descent from pattern altitude possible, virtually negating any climb capability.
can also be initiated on the downwind leg. The airspeed
should be no slower than VYSE. The direction of the traffic Engine Inoperative Flight Principles
pattern, and therefore the turns, is of no consequence as far as Best single-engine climb performance is obtained at VYSE
airplane controllability and performance are concerned. It is with maximum available power and minimum drag. After the
perfectly acceptable to make turns toward the failed engine. flaps and landing gear have been retracted and the propeller
of the failed engine feathered, a key element in best climb
On the base leg, if performance is adequate, the flaps may performance is minimizing sideslip.
be extended to an intermediate setting (typically 25). If the
performance is inadequate, as measured by decay in airspeed With a single-engine airplane or a multiengine airplane with
or high sink rate, delay further flap extension until closer to both engines operative, sideslip is eliminated when the ball of
the runway. VYSE is still the minimum airspeed to maintain. the turn and bank instrument is centered. This is a condition
of zero sideslip, and the airplane is presenting its smallest
On final approach, a normal, 3 glidepath to a landing is possible profile to the relative wind. As a result, drag is at its
desirable. Visual approach slope indicator (VASI) or other minimum. Pilots know this as coordinated flight.
vertical path lighting aids should be utilized if available.
Slightly steeper approaches may be acceptable. However, a In a multiengine airplane with an inoperative engine, the
long, flat, low approach should be avoided. Large, sudden centered ball is no longer the indicator of zero sideslip due
power applications or reductions should also be avoided. to asymmetrical thrust. In fact, there is no instrument at
Maintain VYSE until the landing is assured, then slow to 1.3 all that directly tells the pilot the flight conditions for zero
VSO or the AFM/POH recommended speed. The final flap sideslip. In the absence of a yaw string, minimizing sideslip
setting may be delayed until the landing is assured or the is a matter of placing the airplane at a predetermined bank
airplane may be landed with partial flaps. angle and ball position. The AFM/POH performance charts
for single-engine flight were determined at zero sideslip. If
The airplane should remain in trim throughout. The pilot this performance is even to be approximated, the zero sideslip
must be prepared, however, for a rudder trim change as technique must be utilized.
the power of the operating engine is reduced to idle in the

12-23
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12
-25
If a yaw string is attached to the airplane at the time of a VMC multiengine airplanes tend to heat up fairly quickly under
demonstration, it is noted that VMC occurs under conditions some conditions of slow flight, particularly in the landing
of sideslip. VMC was not determined under conditions of zero configuration. Simulated engine failures should not be
sideslip during aircraft certification and zero sideslip is not conducted during slow flight. The airplane will be well below
part of a VMC demonstration for pilot certification. VSSE and very close to VMC. Stability, stall warning, or stall
avoidance devices should not be disabled while maneuvering
To review, there are two different sets of bank angles used during slow flight.
in OEI flight.
1. To maintain directional control of a multiengine Stalls
airplane suffering an engine failure at low speeds Stall characteristics vary among multiengine airplanes just
(such as climb), momentarily bank at least 5 and a as they do with single-engine airplanes, and therefore, a
maximum of 10 towards the operative engine as the pilot must be familiar with them. Yet, the most important
pitch attitude for VYSE is set. This maneuver should be stall recovery step in a multiengine airplane is the same as
instinctive to the proficient multiengine pilot and take it is in all airplanes: reduce the angle of attack (AOA). For
only 1 to 2 seconds to attain. It is held just long enough reference, the stall recovery procedure described in Chapter
to assure directional control as the pitch attitude for 4 is included in Figure 12-19.
VYSE is assumed.
Following a reduction in the AOA and the stall warning being
2. To obtain the best climb performance, the airplane
eliminated, the wings should be rolled level and power added
must be flown at VYSE and zero sideslip with the failed
as needed. Immediate full application of power in a stalled
engine feathered and maximum available power from
condition has an associated risk due to the possibility of
the operating engine. Zero sideslip is approximately 2
asymmetric thrust. In addition, single-engine stalls or stalls
of bank toward the operating engine and a one-third
with significantly more power on one engine than the other
to one-half ball deflection also toward the operating
should not be attempted due to the likelihood of a departure
engine. The precise bank angle and ball position varies
from controlled flight and possible spin entry. Similarly,
somewhat with make and model and power available. If
simulated engine failures should not be performed during
above the airplanes single-engine ceiling, this attitude
stall entry and recovery.
and configuration results in the minimum rate of sink.
It is recommended that stalls be practiced at an altitude
In OEI flight at low altitudes and airspeeds such as the
that allows recovery no lower than 3,000 feet AGL for
initial climb after takeoff, pilots must operate the airplane
multiengine airplanes, or higher if recommended by the
so as to guard against the three major accident factors: (1)
AFM/POH. Losing altitude during recovery from a stall is
loss of directional control, (2) loss of performance, and (3)
to be expected.
loss of flying speed. All have equal potential to be lethal.
Loss of flying speed is not a factor, however, when the
Power-Off Approach to Stall (Approach and
airplane is operated with due regard for directional control
Landing)
and performance.
A power-off approach to stall is trained and checked to
Slow Flight simulate problematic approach and landing scenarios. A
power-off approach to stall may be performed with wings
There is nothing unusual about maneuvering during slow level, or from shallow and medium banked turns (20 degrees
flight in a multiengine airplane. Slow flight may be conducted of bank). To initiate a power-off approach to stall maneuver,
in straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, or descents. It the area surrounding the airplane should first be cleared for
can also be conducted in the clean configuration, landing possible traffic. The airplane should then be slowed and
configuration, or at any other combination of landing gear configured for an approach and landing. A stabilized descent
and flaps. Slow flight in a multiengine airplane should be should be established (approximately 500 fpm) and trim
conducted so the maneuver can be completed no lower adjusted. A turn should be initiated at this point, if desired.
than 3,000 feet AGL or higher if recommended by the The pilot should then smoothly increase the AOA to induce
manufacturer. In all cases, practicing slow flight should a stall warning. Power is reduced further during this phase,
be conducted at an adequate height above the ground for and trimming should cease at speeds slower than takeoff.
recovery should the airplane inadvertently stall.
When the airplane reaches the stall warning (e.g., aural alert,
Pilots should closely monitor cylinder head and oil buffet, etc.), the recovery is accomplished by first reducing
temperatures during slow flight. Some high performance

12-26
 Stall Recovery Template

1. Wing leveler or autopilot 1. Disconnect

2. a) Nose-down pitch control 2. a) Apply until impending stall indications are eliminated

b) Nose-down pitch trim b) As needed

3. Bank 3. Wings Level

4. Thrust/Power 4. As needed

5. Speed brakes/spoilers 5. Retract

6. Return to the desired flight path

Figure 12-19. Stall recovery procedure.

the AOA until the stall warning is eliminated. The pilot then be retracted when a positive rate of climb is attained, and flaps
rolls the wings level with coordinated use of the rudder and retracted, if flaps were set for takeoff. The target airspeed on
smoothly applies power as required. The airplane should be recovery is VX if (simulated) obstructions are present, or VY.
accelerated to VX (if simulated obstacles are present) or VY The pilot should anticipate the need for nose-down trim as the
during recovery and climb. Considerable forward elevator/ airplane accelerates to VX or VY after recovery.
stabilator pressure will be required after the stall recovery
as the airplane accelerates to VX or VY. Appropriate trim Full Stall
input should be anticipated. The flap setting should be It is not recommended that full stalls be practiced unless a
reduced from full to approach, or as recommended by the qualified flight instructor is present. A power-off or power-on
manufacturer. Then, with a positive rate of climb, the landing full stall should only be practiced in a structured lesson with
gear is selected up. The remaining flaps are then retracted as clear learning objectives and cautions discussed. The goals
a positive rate-of-climb continues. of the training are (a) to provide the pilots the experience
of the handling characteristics and dynamic cues (e.g.,
Power-On Approach to Stall (Takeoff and Departure) buffet, roll off) near and at full stall and (b) to reinforce the
A power-on approach to stall is trained and checked to proper application of the stall recovery procedures. Given
simulate problematic takeoff scenarios. A power-on approach the associated risk of asymmetric thrust at high angles of
to stall may be performed from straight-and-level flight attack and low rudder effectiveness due to low airspeeds,
or from shallow and medium banked turns (20 degrees of this reinforces the primary step of first lowering the AOA,
bank). To initiate a power-on approach to stall maneuver, which allows all control surfaces to become more effective
the area surrounding the airplane should always be cleared and allows for roll to be better controlled. Thrust should only
to look for potential traffic. The airplane is slowed to the be used as needed in the recovery.
manufacturers recommended lift-off speed. The airplane
should be configured in the takeoff configuration. Trim should Accelerated Approach to Stall
be adjusted for this speed. Engine power is then increased Accelerated approach to stall should be performed with a bank
to that recommended in the AFM/POH for the practice of of approximately 45, and in no case at a speed greater than
power-on approach to stall. In the absence of a recommended the airplane manufacturers recommended airspeed or the
setting, use approximately 65 percent of maximum available specified design maneuvering speed (VA). The entry altitude
power. Begin a turn, if desired, while increasing AOA to for this maneuver should be no lower than 5,000 feet AGL.
induce a stall warning (e.g., aural alert, buffet, etc.). Other
specified (reduced) power settings may be used to simulate The entry method for the maneuver is no different than
performance at higher gross weights and density altitudes. for a single-engine airplane. Once at an appropriate speed,
begin increasing the back pressure on the elevator while
When the airplane reaches the stall warning, the recovery maintaining a coordinated 45 turn. A good speed reduction
is made first by reducing the AOA until the stall warning is rate is approximately 3-5 knots per second. Once a stall
eliminated. The pilot then rolls the wings level with coordinated warning occurs, recover promptly by reducing the AOA
use of the rudder and applying power as needed. However, until the stall warning stops. Then roll the wings level with
if simulating limited power available for high gross weight coordinated rudder and add power as necessary to return to
and density altitude situations, the power during the recovery the desired flightpath.
should be limited to that specified. The landing gear should

12-27
Spin Awareness As very few twins have ever been spin-tested (none are
No multiengine airplane is approved for spins, and their spin required to), the recommended spin recovery techniques
recovery characteristics are generally very poor. It is therefore are based only on the best information available. The
necessary to practice spin avoidance and maintain a high departure from controlled flight may be quite abrupt and
awareness of situations that can result in an inadvertent spin. possibly disorienting. The direction of an upright spin can
be confirmed from the turn needle or the symbolic airplane
In order to spin any airplane, it must first be stalled. At the of the turn coordinator, if necessary. Do not rely on the ball
stall, a yawing moment must be introduced. In a multiengine position or other instruments.
airplane, the yawing moment may be generated by rudder
input or asymmetrical thrust. It follows, then, that spin If a spin is entered, most manufacturers recommend
awareness be at its greatest during VMC demonstrations, stall immediately retarding both throttles to idle, applying full
practice, slow flight, or any condition of high asymmetrical rudder opposite the direction of rotation, and applying full
thrust, particularly at low speed/high AOA. Single-engine forward elevator/stabilator pressure (with ailerons neutral).
stalls are not part of any multiengine training curriculum. These actions should be taken as near simultaneously as
possible. The controls should then be held in that position
No engine failure should ever be introduced below safe, until the spin has stopped. At that point adjust rudder pressure,
intentional one-engine inoperative speed (VSSE). If no VSSE back elevator pressure, and power as necessary to return to
is published, use VYSE. Other than training situations, the the desired flight path. Pilots should be aware that a spin
multiengine airplane is only operated below VSSE for mere recovery will take considerable altitude therefore it is critical
seconds just after lift-off or during the last few dozen feet of that corrective action be taken immediately.
altitude in preparation for landing.

For spin avoidance when practicing engine failures, the flight

instructor should pay strict attention to the maintenance
of proper airspeed and bank angle as the student executes
the appropriate procedure. The instructor should also be
particularly alert during stall and slow flight practice. Forward
center-of-gravity positions result in favorable stall and spin
avoidance characteristics, but do not eliminate the hazard.

When performing a VMC demonstration, the instructor should

also be alert for any sign of an impending stall. The student
may be highly focused on the directional control aspect of
the maneuver to the extent that impending stall indications go
unnoticed. If a VMC demonstration cannot be accomplished
under existing conditions of density altitude, it may, for
training purposes, be done utilizing the rudder blocking
technique described in the following section.

12-28
Chapter 13

Transition to Tailwheel
Airplanes
Introduction
Due to their design and structure, tailwheel airplanes
(tailwheels) exhibit operational and handling characteristics
different from those of tricycle-gear airplanes (nosewheels).
[Figure 13-1] In general, tailwheels are less forgiving of pilot
error while in contact with the ground than are nosewheels.
This chapter focuses on the operational differences that occur
during ground operations, takeoffs, and landings.

Although still termed conventional-gear airplanes,

tailwheel designs are most likely to be encountered today
by pilots who have first learned in nosewheels. Therefore,
tailwheel operations are approached as they appear to a pilot
making a transition from nosewheel designs.

1 -1
13
13-1
-1
Figure 13-1. The Piper Super Cub on the left is a popular tailwheel airplane. The airplane on the right is a Mooney M20, which is a
nosewheel (tricycle gear) airplane.

Landing Gear stop a turn that has been started, and it is necessary to apply
an opposite input (opposite rudder) to bring the aircraft back
The main landing gear forms the principal support of the
to straight-line travel.
airplane on the ground. The tailwheel also supports the
airplane, but steering and directional control are its primary
If the initial rudder input is maintained after a turn has been
functions. With the tailwheel-type airplane, the two main struts
started, the turn continues to tighten, an unexpected result
are attached to the airplane slightly ahead of the airplanes
for pilots accustomed to a nosewheel. In consequence, it is
center of gravity (CG), so that the plane naturally rests in a
common for pilots making the transition between the two
nose-high attitude on the triangle created by the main gear and
types to experience difficulty in early taxi attempts. As long
the tailwheel. This arrangement is responsible for the three
as taxi speeds are kept low, however, no serious problems
major handling differences between nosewheel and tailwheel
result, and pilots typically adjust quickly to the technique of
airplanes. They center on directional instability, angle of attack
using rudder pressure to start a turn, then neutralizing the
(AOA), and crosswind weathervaning tendencies.
pedals as the turn continues, and finally using an opposite
pedal input to stop the turn and regain straight line travel.
Proper usage of the rudder pedals is crucial for directional
control while taxiing. Steering with the pedals may be
Because of this inbuilt instability, the most important lesson
accomplished through the forces of airflow or propeller
that can be taught in tailwheel airplanes is to taxi and make
slipstream acting on the rudder surface or through a
turns at slow speeds.
mechanical linkage acting through springs to communicate
steering inputs to the tailwheel. Initially, the pilot should taxi
Angle of Attack
with the heels of the feet resting on the floor and the balls of
the feet on the bottom of the rudder pedals. The feet should A second strong contrast to nosewheel airplanes, tailwheel
be slid up onto the brake pedals only when it is necessary to aircraft make lift while on the ground any time there is a
depress the brakes. This permits the simultaneous application relative headwind. The amount of lift obviously depends on
of rudder and brake whenever needed. Some models of the wind speed, but even at slow taxi speeds, the wings and
tailwheel airplanes are equipped with heel brakes rather than ailerons are doing their best to aid in liftoff. This phenomenon
toe brakes. As in nosewheel airplanes, brakes are used to slow requires care and management, especially during the takeoff
and stop the aircraft and to increase turning authority when and landing rolls, and is again unexpected by nosewheel pilots
tailwheel steering inputs prove insufficient. Whenever used, making the transition.
brakes should be applied smoothly and evenly.
Taxiing
Instability On most tailwheel-type airplanes, directional control while
Because of the relative placement of the main gear and the taxiing is facilitated by the use of a steerable tailwheel,
CG, tailwheel aircraft are inherently unstable on the ground. which operates along with the rudder. The tailwheel steering
As taxi turns are started, the aircraft begins to pivot on one or mechanism remains engaged when the tailwheel is operated
the other of the main wheels. From that point, with the CG aft through an arc of about 30 each side of center. Beyond that
of that pivot point, the forward momentum of the plane acts limit, the tailwheel breaks free and becomes full swiveling. In
to continue and even tighten the turn without further steering full swivel mode, the airplane can be pivoted within its own
inputs. In consequence, removal of rudder pressure does not

13-2
length, if desired. While taxiing, the steerable tailwheel should of light tailwinds, producing a net headwind over the tail.
be used for making normal turns and the pilots feet kept off This in turn suggests that back stick, not forward, does the
the brake pedals to avoid unnecessary wear on the brakes. most to help with directional control. If in doubt, it is best to
sample the wind as you taxi and position the elevator where
When beginning to taxi, the brakes should be tested it will do the most good.
immediately for proper operation. This is done by first
applying power to start the airplane moving slowly forward, Weathervaning
then retarding the throttle and simultaneously applying Tailwheel airplanes have an exaggerated tendency to
pressure smoothly to both brakes. If braking action is weathervane, or turn into the wind, when operated on the
unsatisfactory, the engine should be shut down immediately. ground in crosswinds. This tendency is greatest when taxing
with a direct crosswind, a factor that makes maintaining
To turn the airplane on the ground, the pilot should apply directional control more difficult, sometimes requiring use of
rudder in the desired direction of turn and use whatever power the brakes when tailwheel steering alone proves inadequate
or brake necessary to control the taxi speed. At very low taxi to counteract the weathervane effect.
speeds, directional response is sluggish as surface friction
acting on the tailwheel inhibits inputs trough the steering Visibility
springs. At normal taxi speeds, rudder inputs alone should
In the normal nose-high attitude, the engine cowling may be
be sufficient to start and stop most turns. During taxi, the
high enough to restrict the pilots vision of the area directly
AOA built in to the structure gives control placement added
ahead of the airplane while on the ground. Consequently,
importance when compared to nosewheel models.
objects directly ahead are difficult, if not impossible, to see.
In aircraft that are completely blind ahead, all taxi movements
When taxiing in a quartering headwind, the upwind wing can
should be started with a small turn to ensure no other plane
easily be lifted by gusting or strong winds unless ailerons
or ground vehicle has positioned itself directly under the
are positioned to kill lift on that side (stick held into the
nose while the pilots attention was distracted with getting
wind). At the same time, elevator should be held full back
ready to takeoff. In taxiing such an airplane, the pilot should
to add downward pressure to the tailwheel assembly and
alternately turn the nose from one side to the other (zigzag)
improve tailwheel steering response. This is standard control
or make a series of short S-turns. This should be done slowly,
positioning for both nosewheel and tailwheel airplanes, so
smoothly, positively, and cautiously.
the difference lies only in the added tailwheel vulnerability
created by the fuselage pitch attitude.
Directional Control
When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, this fuselage After absorbing all the information presented to this point,
angle reduces the tendency of the wind to lift either wing. the transitioning pilot may conclude that the best approach
Nevertheless, the basic vulnerability to surface winds to maintaining directional control is to limit rudder inputs
common to all tailwheel airplanes makes it essential to be from fear of overcontrolling. Although intuitive, this is
aware of wind direction at all times, so holding the stick away an incorrect assumption: the disadvantages built in to the
from the cross wind is good practice (left aileron in a right tailwheel design sometimes require vigorous rudder inputs
quartering tailwind). to maintain or retain directional control. The best approach is
to understand the fact that tailwheel aircraft are not damaged
Elevator positioning in tailwinds is a bit more complex. from the use of too much rudder, but rather from rudder
Standard teaching tends to recommend full forward stick in inputs held for too long.
any degree of tailwind, arguing that a tailwind striking the
elevator when it is deflected full down increases downward Normal Takeoff Roll
pressure on the tailwheel assembly and increases directional Wing flaps should be lowered prior to takeoff if recommended
control. Equally important, if the elevator were to remain by the manufacturer. After taxiing onto the runway, the
deflected up, a strong tailwind can get under the control airplane should be aligned with the intended takeoff direction,
surface and lift the tail with unfortunate consequences for and the tailwheel positioned straight or centered. In airplanes
the propeller and engine. equipped with a locking device, the tailwheel should be
locked in the centered position. After releasing the brakes,
While stick-forward positioning is essential in strong the throttle should be smoothly and continuously advanced
tailwinds, it is not likely to be an appropriate response when to takeoff power. At all times on the takeoff roll, care must
winds are light. The propeller wash in even lightly-powered be taken to avoid applying brake pressure.
airplanes is usually strong enough to overcome the effects

13-3
After a brief period of acceleration, positive forward elevator airplane encounters a sudden lull in strong, gusty wind or
should be applied to smoothly lift the tail. The goal is to other turbulent air currents. In this case, the pilot should
achieve a pitch attitude that improves forward visibility hold the airplane on the ground longer to attain more speed,
and produces a smooth transition to climbing flight as the then make a smooth, positive rotation to leave the ground.
aircraft continues to accelerate. If the attitude chosen is
excessively steep, weight transfers rapidly to the wings, Crosswind Takeoff
making crosswind control more difficult. If the attitude is It is important to establish and maintain proper crosswind
too flat, crosswind control is also diminished, a counter- corrections prior to lift-off; that is, application of aileron
intuitive result that is discussed in the Crosswind section of deflection into the wind to keep the upwind wing from rising
this chapter. and rudder deflection as needed to prevent weathervaning.

It is important to note that nose-down pitch movement Takeoffs made into strong crosswinds are the reason for
produces left yaw, the result of gyroscopic precession maintaining a positive AOA (tail-low attitude) while
created by the propeller. The amount of force created by this accelerating on the runway. Because the wings are making
precession is directly related to the rate the propeller axis is lift during the takeoff roll, a strong upwind aileron deflection
tilted when the tail is raised, so it is best to avoid an abrupt can bank the airplane into the wind and provide positive
pitch change. Whether smooth or abrupt, the need to react crosswind correction before the aircraft lifts from the runway.
to this yaw with rudder inputs emphasizes the increased The remainder of the takeoff roll is then made on the upwind
directional demands common to tailwheel airplanes, a main wheel. As the aircraft leaves the runway, the wings can
demand likely to be unanticipated by pilots transitioning be leveled as appropriate drift correction (crab) is established.
from nosewheel models.
Short-Field Takeoff
As speed is gained on the runway, the added authority of
the elevator naturally continues to pitch the nose forward. With the exception of flap settings and initial climb speed as
During this stage, the pilot should concentrate on maintaining recommended by the manufacturer, there is little difference
a constant-pitch attitude by gradually reducing elevator between the techniques described above for normal takeoffs.
deflection. At the same time, directional control must be After liftoff, the pitch attitude should be adjusted as required
maintained with smooth, prompt, positive rudder corrections. for obstacle clearance.
All this activity emphasizes the point that tailwheel planes
start to fly long before leaving the runway surface. Soft-Field Takeoff
Wing flaps may be lowered prior to starting the takeoff (if
Liftoff recommended by the manufacturer) to provide additional lift
When the appropriate pitch attitude is maintained throughout and transfer the airplanes weight from the wheels to the wings
the takeoff roll, liftoff occurs when the AOA and airspeed as early as possible. The airplane should be taxied onto the
combine to produce the necessary lift without any additional takeoff surface without stopping on a soft surface. Stopping
rotation input. The ideal takeoff attitude requires only on a soft surface, such as mud or snow, might bog the airplane
minimum pitch adjustments shortly after the airplane lifts down. The airplane should be kept in continuous motion with
off to attain the desired climb speed. sufficient power while lining up for the takeoff roll.

All modern tailwheel aircraft can be lifted off in the three- As the airplane is aligned with the proposed takeoff path,
point attitude. That is, the AOA with all three wheels on the takeoff power is applied smoothly and as rapidly as the
ground does not exceed the critical AOA, and the wings will powerplant will accept without faltering. The tail should be
not be stalled. While instructive, this technique results in an kept very low to maintain the inherent positive AOA and to
unusually high pitch attitude and an AOA excessively close avoid any tendency of the airplane to nose over as a result
to stall, both inadvisable circumstances when flying only of soft spots, tall grass, or deep snow.
inches from the ground.
When the airplane is held at a nose-high attitude throughout
As the airplane leaves the ground, the pilot must continue the takeoff run, the wings progressively relieve the wheels of
to maintain straight flight and hold the proper pitch attitude. more and more of the airplanes weight, thereby minimizing
During takeoffs in strong, gusty winds, it is advisable to the drag caused by surface irregularities or adhesion. Once
add an extra margin of speed before the airplane is allowed airborne, the airplane should be allowed to accelerate to climb
to leave the ground. A takeoff at the normal takeoff speed speed in ground effect.
may result in a lack of positive control, or a stall, when the

13-4
Land
ing th eairplanei sallow edtotou chdowne ar
li erinth ep ro cess
inalow erpitcha tt
itud e
,soth atth em aing eartou chwh i
le
Thed if
f erenc eb etw e
enno sewh eelandt ai
lwh ee
lairplan e s
th etailrem ainso f
fth erunw ay.
becom esapp a r
entwh end is cussingth etou chdownandth e
perio dofd ecelerat
io ntota x
is peed.In then osew hee
ld esi gn,
Th ree -Poin tLand ing
tou ch dow n isf o
llow edq ui
t en aturallyb yar educt
i o
n inp itch
Asw i
tha l
lland ings,su ccessb egin sw ithano rd e
rlya rriv al
:
at
titud etob ringth eno sewh ee
lt ireintocon tactw ithth e
airspee d
,alig nm en
t,a ndc onfi gu
r at
i onw elli nh andc rossi ng
runw ay.Th isp i
t chch ang er edu ces AOA ,r emov esa lmo s
t
th ethreshold.Roundou t(level-off)shou ldb em ad ew ith the
al
lw ing li
ft,andr apidlytran sfersaircraftw e
ighttoth etires.
mainwh eelsabou ton efoo to ffthesu rf a
c e
.F romth atpo int
fo rw a
rd,th ete chniquei se ssentiallyth es am eth atisu sed
Int a
ilwh eeld e
sign s
,th isr edu c
tiono f AOAand w eigh t
inno sewh eels
:ag entleinc reaseinAOAto m a
int a
inf light
tran sfera reno tp racticaland ,a sno tedinth es ec
tionon
whiles lowing.Inat a
ilwh eela i
r craft
,how ev er
,th ego a
li s
Tak eoffs,iti sr aretoen coun tert a
ilwh eelp lanesd esign ed
toa ttainamu chs teeperfu selag eang leth anth atcommon ly
soth atth ew ing sa reb eyondc ri
ticalAOA in thethree-po int
us edinno sewh eel mod els
;on eth attou ch esth et a
ilwh e els
at
titud e.Incon sequen ce
,th ea i
rpl anecon tinu e
sto fly in
atth es ametim ea sth em ainwh eels.
theth ree-poin ta t
ti
tud ea ftertou chdown ,r equir
ingc areful
at
ten tiontoh eading,roll,andp itchfo ranex tendedp eriod .
Withth etai
lwh e elonth esurf ace,afu rtherin cr ea
s einp itch
Touchdown attitudeisi m possible
, soth e plan ere m
ain s o nthe ru nw ay,
alb e
ittenuously.W ithd eceleration,w eights hiftsincreasin gly
Tai
lwh eela irplan esarel essfo rgivingo fc rosswindl anding f rom w ingsto wh eels
,w i
thth ef inalr esultth atth ep l ane
er
r ors thann o sew heelm o de
l s.It
i sim portant tha
ttouc hdow n on ceag ainb ecom e sag roundv ehiclea ftersh edd ing mo st
occu rsw ithth ea irplan e
slong i
tud inalax isparallelto o fi t
ssp eed.
thed ire c
tionth eairplan ei s mov inga longth erunw ay.
[Figu re13 -2]F a i
luretoa c comp lish thi
s impo sesSid elo ads Th erea retwopo t
entiale r
ro rsina tt
emp t
ingath ree-point
onth el andingg ea
r wh ichl eadstod irectionalinstabili
ty . land ing.Inth efirst
,th em ainwh eel
sa r ea l
low edto m ake
Toavo ids id es t
r essesandd irect
ion alp roblem s
,th ep ilo t runw aycon t ac
tal i
ttlee arly w ithth et ails ti
llinth ea ir
.
shou ldno ta llowth eairplan etotou chdownwh i
leinac r ab Withth eCGa fto fth em ainwh eels
,th et ai
ln atura
llyd rop s
orwh il
ed ri
fting. wh enth em ainwh e
elstou ch,AOAin cr eases,andth eplan e
be
com esairbo
rneagain
.Thissk
ipi
seasi
ly managedby
Therearetwos ignificant
lydifferentt echniquesusedto re
-fla
ringandaga
intr
y i
ngt
oh o
ldthep
lan
eoffu
ntilre
achi
ng
manageta
ilw he
ela i
rcraf
tt o
uchdow ns
: three-poi
ntandw hee
l theth
ree-poin
tat
ti
tude.
land
ing s
.Inth efirst
,th eai
rplaneish eldo f
fth esur
faceof
therunw ayunti
l theatt
itudeneeded torem ainalof
tm atch
es Inthese
conde r
ror
,thep
lan
eishe
ldoffth
egroundabittoo
theg eometryofth elandingge a
r. Wh entou chdowno ccu
rs longsoth a
tthein-
fl
igh
tpi
tchat
ti
tudeisst
eeperthanthe
atth
ispoin t
,them aing ea
randth et a
ilwh ee
lm akeconta
ct thre
e-p
ointat
ti
tude
.W he
ntouc
hdowni
sm ade
inthisa
tt
itude
,
atthesam etime.Inth esecondtechniqu e(wh ee
llandings
),

i i
i
i i

F
igu
re13
-2.Ta
ilwh
eeltou
chdown
.

13
-5
thetai
lm ake
scontac
tfi
rst
.Providedth
i shappensfromno Oncethem ainwh eel
sa reonthesurf
ace
,theta
ilshouldbe
mo
r ethanafootof
fthesurfa
ce,theresultisundramati
c: permi
tted
t odro ponitsow naccor
dunt
ili
ttoomakesgroun
d
thetai
ltouch
es,th
eplanepi
tchesforwardsligh
tlyontothe conta
ct.Atthispo int
,theelevato
rshou
ldb eb
roughttothe
ma
inwh ee
ls
,androl
loutpro
ceedsnorm a
lly. ful
laftpo
sit
i ona nddecele
rat
ionshou
ldbeal
lowed
top ro
ceed
asinathree-pointlanding
.
Ineverycase,onceth eta
ilwh eelm ak
escontact,
theeleva
tor
cont
rolshouldb eeasedfullyb acktop r
essthet a
ilwhee
lon NOTE:Th eonlyd i
fferen
cebetweenth
ree-po
intandwheel
therunw ay.W ithoutthise lev a
torinput,the AOAo fthe land
ingsi sth
et imingofthetouchdown( e
arlyandla
ter
).
hor
izonta
ls t
abi
lizerd eve
lop senough lif
ttolightenpres
sure Ther
ei snod i
f f
erenceb e
tweentheapproachanglesand
onthetai
lwh ee
landr end e
r i
tu selessasadirec
tionalcont
rol ai
rspeedsinthetwot e
chniqu
es.
wi
thpo ss
iblyunw elcom econ sequ ence
s.Thisa f
ter-
land
ing
el
evatorinputisquiteforeigntono sewheelpilo
tsandmu st Crossw inds
best
resseddu r
ingtran s
it
iont raining. Asno t ed,iti sh ighlyd e
sirabletoe l
im inatecr abandd rift
attou chdown . Byf arth eb e s
tapp ro achtoc rossw ind
NOTE :B eforethetai
lwh eelison theground ,applicationo f m an agem ent isasid e
-slipo rwing-lowtou chdown .L anding
ful
lb a
c kelev a
tordur
in g
t hefla
re lowerst h
etai
l,increas esthe inth isa ttitud e
,on lyon em ainwh ee
lm akesin it
ialcontact
,
AOA ,andqu i
ten a
tura
llypu tsthep laneinc l
imb ingf light. e itherincon c er
tw ithth etailwheelinth ree-pointlandings
orbyi tselfinwh eelland ings.
WheelLand ing
Insom ew indcond i
tions,then eedtoretaincontrolau thority Afte r-Land ingRo l
l
may mak eitd es
irabl
eto m akecon t
a c
tw i
ththerunw aya t Th el andingp rocess mu stn everb econ sideredcomp lete
ahighera irspeedthanth ata s
so c
iated w i
ththeth ree -point untilth eairp lanede ce
le ra
testo thenorm altaxispe edduring
at
ti
tu d
e.T hisn ec
essi
tate
s landinginaflatterpi
tcha tt
itu deo n th el andingro l
lo rh a sb eenb roughttoacomp letestop
them ainwh e e
lsonly
,w ithth et
a i
lwh eelsti
llof
f thesu r
fa ce
. wh enc learo fthel andinga rea.Th epilot mu s
tb ea le
rtfo r
[Figure13 -3]Asno t
ed,ifth eta
iliso f
fth eground ,itt ends d irect
ion a
lcon trold i
fficult
iesimm ed
i at
elyuponanda f
ter
todropandpu ttheplaneairborn e
,soaso f
ttouchdownanda tou chdown ,andth ee levatorcontrolshouldb eheldb ackas
sl
ightrelaxationofb ackelev a
torjustafterthewh e e
lstou ch fara spo ssibl eanda sf irmlya spo ss
ibleun tilthea i
rplane
arekeying redient
stoasu ccess
fulwh e elland
ing . stop s
.Th isp rovides mo repo sit
ivecon trolw itht a
ilwh ee
l
st
eer
ing,
tendstosho
rten
thea
fte
r-
land
ingro
ll
,andp
rev
ent
s
I
f t
hetouchdownism ad
eattoohigharateofde
scent
,theta
ili
s boun
cingandskipp
ing
.
forc
edd ownb yi
tsownw eig
ht,r
esul
tinginasu ddeni
ncrea
se
inli
ft
.Ifthepilo
tn owpushesfo
rw a
r dinanat
t empttoaga
in An
ydif
ferencebetweenthedi
rec
tion
theair
planei
stravel
ing
makeconta
ctwiththesur
face
,ap o
t e
ntial
lydangerouspi
lot
- an
dthedir
ecti
oniti
sh ea
de d
(dr
if
torcrab
)produce
sam om e
nt
inducedosc
ill
ationmaydevelop
.Itisfarbet
tertorespon
dto ab
outthepivo
tp oi
ntofthew he
els
,andtheair
planetendsto
ab oun
cedw h
eelland
ingattemptbyi ni
tia
tingag o-a
round swe
rve
.L ossofdi
rect
ionalcon
tro
lm ayl
eadtoanaggrava
t ed
,
o
rc onver
tingtoathre
e-poi
ntland
i ngifcond
itionspermi
t. un
cont
rol
led,tig
htturnontheground
,oragroundl o
op.T he

i i i i
i i i
i i
i i ii i
i i

F
igu
re13
-3.Wh
eelland
ing
.

13
-6
c
om b
ina
tionofine
rti
aact
ingo n
theCGa ndgr o
un d
fri
ct
io no
f C
rossw
indA
fte
r-Land
ingRo
ll
t
hem a
inw he
elsdur
ingthegroun
dloopm aycauset
heair
plane
Particula
rlydu r
ingth ea f
ter-landingro ll
,specia
latten
tion
t
oti
pe no
u g
hfortheouts
idewingt
iptocon
t a
ctthegroundand
mu s
tb egivento m a
intainingd irectionalcont
rolbytheu se
m
ayevenim poseasidewardforc
eth a
tco u
ldc o
llap
seo ne
ofrudd erandt ai
lwh ee
ls teer
ingwh ilekeep
ingtheupw ind
l
and
ingg ea
rleg.[Figu
re1 3
-4]Ingenera
l,thi
sc ombina
tion
wingf romrisingbytheu seo faile
ron .Chara
cte
ris
tica
lly
,an
o
feven
tsisel
imi n
atedbyland
ingst
raigh
ta ndavoid
ingturn
s
airplaneh asag rea
terp rofi
leo rs id eare
ab eh
indth em ain
a
thigh
erthannorm a
lrunni
ngs p
eed.
land ingg e
arthanforw ardof i
t.W i ththem a
inwh ee
lsacting
asap ivo
tpo intandtheg reatersu rfa c
eareaexposedtoth e
Tou sethebrakes,thep ilo
tshou ldslideth etoesorfe e
tup
cro s
sw indbehindtha
tpi votpoi n
t,
t h eai
rplan
etendstotu
rno r
fromth erudderp edalstoth ebrakep edal
s(o rapplyh eel
we a
th e
rvaneintothewind.[F i gure1 3-5]T h
isweathe
rvaning
pressu
reinairplanesequ ipp edw i
thh eelb rakes
).Ifrudd e
r
tend encyismo reprevalentin theta i
lwh e
el-
typebecausethe
pressu
reisbeingh elda tthet imebrakinga c
tionisneed ed
,
airplane
ss u
rfaceareabe h
i ndthem ainland
inggear
isg r
eater
thatpressu
reshou ldno tb er el
easeda sth efeetortoe sare
th aninno sewh e
el-
typea irplanes
.
beingsliduptoth eb r
ak ep edalsbe c
au secon t
rolm ayb e
lostb e
forebrakesc anb eapp l
ied. Duringth egroundro l
l,
Pi
lotsshouldb efamiliarw i
thth ecrossw indcompon en
to f
thea i
rplane
sdir ec
tiono f mov em entm ayb echang edby
eachairp
lanet heyf
l ya nda v o
ido per
ati
on sinwi n
dc ond
it
ions
carefu
llyapp
l y
ingp ressureo nonebra keoru nevenpressure
s
thatexceedth ecap abil
ityo ftheairplan e
,asw e
llasthei
r
one achb r
akeinth ed es
iredd ire
ction.C aut
ion mu stbe
ownl imi
tation s
. Wh ileth ea irp
laneisd ece
lera
tingduring
exerci
sedwh enapp lyingb rakestoavo idov ercon
trol
ling.
theafter
-landingro l
l, mo r eaile
ron mustb eapp l
iedtok e
ep
theupw indw ingfromr ising.Sin c
ethea irplanei
sslowing
Ifa wingstar
tstoris
e,ail
eroncont
rolshouldbeapp
lied
down,th erei slessa irf
lowa roundth ea i
leronsandth ey
towardtha
tw ing
tolower
it
.T heamoun
trequ
iredde
pend
so n
becom ele
sse ffect
ive.A t th esam et
im e
, therela
tivewindis
spee
db ecaus
easthefo
rwardspeedo
fthea
irpl
a n
edec
rea
ses,
becomingmo reofac rossw indandex ertingag rea
terl
if
ting
theai
leronsbecomele
sseffec
tiv
e.
forceonth eupw indw ing.Con sequen
tly,wh entheairp
lane
iscom ingtoas top,th ea ileroncontrol mu s
tb eheldful
ly
Ifavai
l ablerunw ayp ermi
ts,thesp e
edo fth
ea i
rplaneshould
tow a
rdthew ind.
beallow edtod is
sip a
teinano rm alm anne
rbyth efr
iction
andd r
ago f thewh e e
lsonth eground.Brakesm ayb eusedif
Sho
rt-F
ieldLand
ing
neededtoh e
lps low theai
rplane.A f
ter
th ea
irplanehasb een
slowedsu fficient
lyandh asb eenturnedontoat axiwayo r Upontou chdown ,theairplaneshouldb ef
irm lyheldina
clea
ro fthel andinga rea
,itshouldb ebroughttoacomp l e
te th ree
-po intatti
tude.Th isp rov
idesaerodynam icbraking
stop
.On lyafterthisisdon eshouldthepilo
tr e
tra
cttheflaps byth ew ing s
.Imm ed
iatelyupontou chdownandc los
ing
andp e
r formo th e
rch eck
listi
tem s. th ethrot
tle,theb r
ak e
sshou ldbeappl
iedev enlyandfirmly
to m inim i
z etheafter
-landingrol
l.Th eai
rplaneshouldb e
stopp ed w i
thinth esho r
testpossib
led is
tanc econsi
stent
withsafety.
Mo
tion

Po
intof
wheelpivo
ting

CG

P
rofi
lebehind
pivotpo
int

F
igu
re13
-5.W
eath
ervan
ingt
end
enc
y.

F
igu
re13
-4.E
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13
-7
Soft-Field Landing To counteract the possibility of an uncontrolled turn, the pilot
should counter any swerve with firm rudder input. In stronger
The tailwheel should touchdown simultaneously with or
swerves, differential braking is essential as tailwheel steering
just before the main wheels and should then be held down
proves inadequate. It is important to note, however, that as
by maintaining firm back-elevator pressure throughout the
corrections begin to become apparent, rudder and braking
landing roll. This minimizes any tendency for the airplane
inputs need to be removed promptly to avoid starting yet
to nose over and provides aerodynamic braking. The use of
another departure in the opposite direction.
brakes on a soft field is not needed because the soft or rough
surface itself provides sufficient reduction in the airplanes
Chapter Summary
forward speed. Often, it is found that upon landing on a
very soft field, the pilot needs to increase power to keep the This chapter focuses on the operational differences between
airplane moving and from becoming stuck in the soft surface. tailwheel and nosewheel airplanes that occur during ground
operations, takeoffs, and landings. The chapter covers
Ground Loop specific topics, such as landing gear, taxiing, visibility,
liftoff, and landing. Comparisons are given as to how each
A ground loop is an uncontrolled turn during ground
react during the takeoff and landing, as well as situations
operations that may occur during taxi, takeoff, or during
that should be avoided. Pilots who use proper rudder control
the after-landing roll. Ground loops start with a swerve that
techniques should be able to transition to tailwheel airplanes
is allowed to continue for too long. The swerve may be
without too much difficulty.
the result of side-load on landing, a taxi turn started with
too much groundspeed, overcorrection, or even an uneven
ground surface or a soft spot that retards one main wheel of
the airplane.

Due to the inbuilt instability of the tailwheel design, the forces

that lead to a ground loop accumulate as the angle between
the fuselage and inertia, acting from the CG, increase. If
allowed to develop, these forces may become great enough
to tip the airplane to the outside of the turn until one wing
strikes the ground.

13-8
Chapter 14

Transition to
Turbopropeller-
Powered
Airplanes
Introduction
The turbopropeller-powered airplane flies and handles just
like any other airplane of comparable size and weight. The
aerodynamics are the same. The major differences between
flying a turboprop and other non-turbine-powered airplanes
are found in the handling of the airplanes powerplant and its
associated systems. The powerplant is different and requires
operating procedures that are unique to gas turbine engines.
But so, too, are other systems, such as electrical, hydraulics,
environmental, flight control, rain and ice protection, and
avionics. The turbopropeller-powered airplane also has the
advantage of being equipped with a constant speed, full
feathering and reversing propellersomething normally not
found on piston-powered airplanes.

14-1
1
14-
144-1
-1
Gas Turbine Engine the high velocity excess exhaust exits the tail pipe or exhaust
section. (The exhaust section of a turbojet engine may also
Both piston (reciprocating) engines and gas turbine engines
incorporate a system of moving doors to redirect airflow
are internal combustion engines. They have a similar
for the purpose of slowing an airplane down after landing
cycle of operation that consists of induction, compression,
or back-powering it away from a gate. They are referred to
combustion, expansion, and exhaust. In a piston engine,
as thrust reversers). Once the turbine section is powered by
each of these events is a separate distinct occurrence in each
gases from the burner section, the starter is disengaged, and
cylinder. Also in a piston engine, an ignition event must occur
the igniters are turned off. Combustion continues until the
during each cycle in each cylinder. Unlike reciprocating
engine is shut down by turning off the fuel supply.
engines, in gas turbine engines these phases of power occur
simultaneously and continuously instead of successively
NOTE: Because compression produces heat, some pneumatic
one cycle at a time. Additionally, ignition occurs during the
aircraft systems tap into the source of hot (480 F) compressed
starting cycle and is continuous thereafter. The basic gas
air from the engine compressor (bleed air) and use it for
turbine engine contains four sections: intake, compression,
engine anti-ice, airfoil anti-ice, aircraft pressurization, and
combustion, and exhaust. [Figure 14-1]
other ancillary systems after further conditioning its internal
pressure and temperature.
To start the engine, the compressor section is rotated
by an electrical starter on small engines or an air-driven
High-pressure exhaust gases can be used to provide jet thrust
starter on large engines. As compressor rates per minute
as in a turbojet engine. Or, the gases can be directed through
(rpm) accelerates, air is brought in through the inlet
an additional turbine to drive a propeller through reduction
duct, compressed to a high pressure, and delivered to the
gearing, as in a turbopropeller (turboprop) engine.
combustion section (combustion chambers). Fuel is then
injected by a fuel controller through spray nozzles and ignited
Turboprop Engines
by igniter plugs. (Not all of the compressed air is used to
support combustion. Some of the compressed air bypasses The turbojet engine excels the reciprocating engine in
the burner section and circulates within the engine to provide top speed and altitude performance. On the other hand,
internal cooling, enhanced thrust, and noise abatement. In the turbojet engine has limited takeoff and initial climb
turbojet engines, by-pass airflow may be augmented by performance as compared to that of a reciprocating engine.
the action of a fan located at the engines intake.) The fuel/ In the matter of takeoff and initial climb performance, the
air mixture in the combustion chamber is then burned in a reciprocating engine is superior to the turbojet engine.
continuous combustion process and produces a very high Turbojet engines are most efficient at high speeds and
temperature, typically around 4,000 Fahrenheit (F), which high altitudes, while propellers are most efficient at slow
heats the entire air mass to 1,600 2,400 F. The mixture of and medium speeds (less than 400 miles per hour (mph)).
hot air and gases expands and is directed to the turbine blades Propellers also improve takeoff and climb performance.
forcing the turbine section to rotate, which in turn drives the The development of the turboprop engine was an attempt to
compressor by means of a direct shaft, a concentric shaft, or combine in one engine the best characteristics of both the
a combination of both. After powering the turbine section, turbojet and propeller-driven reciprocating engine.

INTAKE COMPRESSION COMBUSTION E HAUST

Air inlet Compression

Compres Combustion
C b chambers
ambers Turbine
T bi Exhaust

Cold section Hot section

Figure 14-1. Basic components of a gas turbine engine.

14-2
The turboprop engine offers several advantages over other per horsepower per hour) is increased. Decreased specific
types of engines, such as: fuel consumption plus the increased true airspeed at higher
Lightweight altitudes is a definite advantage of a turboprop engine.

Mechanical reliability due to relatively few moving All turbine engines, turboprop or turbojet, are defined by
parts limiting temperatures, rotational speeds, and (in the case
Simplicity of operation of turboprops) torque. Depending on the installation, the
primary parameter for power setting might be temperature,
Minimum vibration
torque, fuel flow, or rpm (either propeller rpm, gas generator
High power per unit of weight (compressor) rpm, or both). In cold weather conditions,
Use of propeller for takeoff and landing torque limits can be exceeded while temperature limits are
still within acceptable range. While in hot weather conditions,
Turboprop engines are most efficient at speeds between 250 temperature limits may be exceeded without exceeding
and 400 mph and altitudes between 18,000 and 30,000 feet. torque limits. In any weather, the maximum power setting
They also perform well at the slow speeds required for takeoff of a turbine engine is usually obtained with the throttles
and landing and are fuel efficient. The minimum specific fuel positioned somewhat aft of the full forward position. The
consumption of the turboprop engine is normally available in transitioning pilot must understand the importance of
the altitude range of 25,000 feet up to the tropopause. knowing and observing limits on turbine engines. An over
temperature or over torque condition that lasts for more than a
The power output of a piston engine is measured in few seconds can literally destroy internal engine components.
horsepower and is determined primarily by rpm and manifold
pressure. The power of a turboprop engine, however, is Turboprop Engine Types
measured in shaft horsepower (shp). Shaft horsepower is Fixed Shaft
determined by the rpm and the torque (twisting moment) One type of turboprop engine is the fixed shaft constant speed
applied to the propeller shaft. Since turboprop engines type, such as the Garrett TPE331. [Figure 14-2] In this type
are gas turbine engines, some jet thrust is produced by engine, ambient air is directed to the compressor section
exhaust leaving the engine. This thrust is added to the shaft through the engine inlet. An acceleration/diffusion process
horsepower to determine the total engine power or equivalent in the two stage compressor increases air pressure and directs
shaft horsepower (eshp). Jet thrust usually accounts for less it rearward to a combustor. The combustor is made up of a
than 10 percent of the total engine power. combustion chamber, a transition liner, and a turbine plenum.
Atomized fuel is added to the air in the combustion chamber.
Although the turboprop engine is more complicated and Air also surrounds the combustion chamber to provide for
heavier than a turbojet engine of equivalent size and power, cooling and insulation of the combustor.
it delivers more thrust at low subsonic airspeeds. However,
the advantages decrease as flight speed increases. In normal The gas mixture is initially ignited by high-energy igniter
cruising speed ranges, the propulsive efficiency (output plugs, and the expanding combustion gases flow to the
divided by input) of a turboprop decreases as speed increases. turbine. The energy of the hot, high-velocity gases is
converted to torque on the main shaft by the turbine rotors.
The propeller of a typical turboprop engine is responsible The reduction gear converts the high rpmlow torque of the
for roughly 90 percent of the total thrust under sea level main shaft to low rpmhigh torque to drive the accessories
conditions on a standard day. The excellent performance of a and the propeller. The spent gases leaving the turbine are
turboprop during takeoff and climb is the result of the ability directed to the atmosphere by the exhaust pipe.
of the propeller to accelerate a large mass of air while the
airplane is moving at a relatively low ground and flight speed. Only about 10 percent of the air that passes through the
Turboprop, however, should not be confused with turbo engine is actually used in the combustion process. Up to
supercharged or similar terminology. All turbine engines approximately 20 percent of the compressed air may be bled
have a similarity to normally aspirated (non-supercharged) off for the purpose of heating, cooling, cabin pressurization,
reciprocating engines in that maximum available power and pneumatic systems. Over half the engine power is
decreases almost as a direct function of increased altitude. devoted to driving the compressor, and it is the compressor
that can potentially produce very high drag in the case of a
Although power decreases as the airplane climbs to failed, windmilling engine.
higher altitudes, engine efficiency in terms of specific
fuel consumption (expressed as pounds of fuel consumed

14-3
 i i i i

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14
-4
 NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
NAV1 108.00 113.00 WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _ TRK 360 134.000 118.000 COM1
NAV2 108.00 110.60 123.800 118.000 COM2

4000
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338
5

Figure 14-4. Powerplant instrumentationfixed shaft turboprop engine.

Torque developed by the turbine section is measured by a of the propeller blades automatically toward their feathered
torque sensor. The torque is then reflected on the instrument position should the engine suddenly lose power while in
panel horsepower gauge calibrated in horsepower times 100. flight. The NTS system is an emergency backup system in
ITT is a measurement of the combustion gas temperature the event of sudden engine failure. It is not a substitution
between the first and second stages of the turbine section. The for the feathering device controlled by the condition lever.
gauge is calibrated in degrees Celsius (C). Propeller rpm is
reflected on a tachometer as a percentage of maximum rpm. Split Shaft/ Free Turbine Engine
Normally, a vernier indicator on the gauge dial indicates In a free power-turbine engine, such as the Pratt & Whitney
rpm in 1 percent graduations as well. The fuel flow indicator PT-6 engine, the propeller is driven by a separate turbine
indicates fuel flow rate in pounds per hour. through reduction gearing. The propeller is not on the
same shaft as the basic engine turbine and compressor.
Propeller feathering in a fixed shaft constant-speed turboprop [Figure 14-5] Unlike the fixed shaft engine, in the split
engine is normally accomplished with the condition lever. shaft engine the propeller can be feathered in flight or on the
An engine failure in this type engine, however, results in a ground with the basic engine still running. The free power-
serious drag condition due to the large power requirements of turbine design allows the pilot to select a desired propeller
the compressor being absorbed by the propeller. This could governing rpm, regardless of basic engine rpm.
create a serious airplane control problem in twin-engine
airplanes unless the failure is recognized immediately and A typical free power-turbine engine has two independent
the affected propeller feathered. For this reason, the fixed counter-rotating turbines. One turbine drives the compressor,
shaft turboprop engine is equipped with negative torque while the other drives the propeller through a reduction
sensing (NTS). gearbox. The compressor in the basic engine consists of
three axial flow compressor stages combined with a single
NTS is a condition wherein propeller torque drives the engine, centrifugal compressor stage. The axial and centrifugal stages
and the propeller is automatically driven to high pitch to are assembled on the same shaft and operate as a single unit.
reduce drag. The function of the negative torque sensing
system is to limit the torque the engine can extract from the Inlet air enters the engine via a circular plenum near the
propeller during windmilling and thereby prevent large drag rear of the engine and flows forward through the successive
forces on the airplane. The NTS system causes a movement compressor stages. The flow is directed outward by the

14-5
 i

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llycon s
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maintainth epow e
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Exce p
t inth eb e
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ran ger emai nsc o
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14
-6
 ITT 0 PROP 0 ITT 0 FF 0
50 50 3 PRESS 4
OIL
0.0 N1 0.0 40 TEMP C 38
TORO TORO
0 10

ITT 0 PROP 0 ITT 0 FF 0

50 50 3 PRESS 4
OIL
0.0 N1 0.0 40 TEMP C 38
TORO TORO
0 10

KBEC 0.2NM 20:46

ELD 0.2NM : :
MCB 516NM : :
KMIA 1196NM : : LB .6M

FMS 12 127
DTK 135
HDG 225 15
ELD
TTG :

E
344NM ABOVE

S
300

TERR
RDR
TERRAIN

TFC
TCAS OFF

GS 0 TAS 4 SAT 28 C ISA 16 C

BRT

DIM

Figure 14-7. Engine instrumentssplit shaft/free turbine engine.

speed at which this occurs. The AOA varies with the pitch
angle of the propeller.

So called flat pitch is the blade position offering minimum

resistance to rotation and no net thrust for moving the
airplane. Forward pitch produces forward thrusthigher
pitch angles being required at higher airplane speeds.

The feathered position is the highest pitch angle obtainable.

[Figure 14-8] The feathered position produces no forward
thrust. The propeller is generally placed in feather only in
case of in-flight engine failure to minimize drag and prevent
the air from using the propeller as a turbine.

Figure 14-6. Powerplant controlssplit shaft/free turbine engine. In the reverse pitch position, the engine/propeller turns in
the same direction as in the normal (forward) pitch position,
The ITT indicator and torquemeter are used to set takeoff but the propeller blade angle is positioned to the other side of
power. Climb and cruise power are established with the flat pitch. [Figure 14-8] In reverse pitch, air is pushed away
torquemeter and propeller tachometer while observing ITT from the airplane rather than being drawn over it. Reverse
limits. Gas generator (N1) operation is monitored by the gas pitch results in braking action, rather than forward thrust
generator tachometer. Proper observation and interpretation of the airplane. It is used for backing away from obstacles
of these instruments provide an indication of engine when taxiing, controlling taxi speed, or to aid in bringing the
performance and condition. airplane to a stop during the landing roll. Reverse pitch does
not mean reverse rotation of the engine. The engine delivers
Reverse Thrust and Beta Range power just the same, no matter which side of flat pitch the
Operations propeller blades are positioned.
The thrust that a propeller provides is a function of the angle
of attack (AOA) at which the air strikes the blades, and the

14-7
 No
rma
lFo
rwa
rdP
itch
Theb etarang eofo pera
tio nco nsi
stso fpow e
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it
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fromf lightidl eto m aximumr everse.B eg
inninga tpow e
r
i lev e
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e,prop e
ll
erb ladepitch
ang l
esb ecom ep rogres
siv e
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t mov emento f
thepow erl everun ti
lth eygob eyond m aximumf l
atpitch
an dint
on egativ epitc
h,res u
lt
i ngi nreverseth
rust
.W hi
lei na
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t/con s
t ant
-speedeng in e
, theenginespe edremains
larg e
lyun ch ang eda sth ep rop e
ll e
rb ladeangl esachieve
theirn ega
tiv ev alues
.Onth esp li
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,a sthe
neg a
tive5po si
tionisr eached,fu rtheraftmovem en
tofth e
ii
pow erlevera lsor esu
ltsinap rogr ess
iveincreaseineng ine
Fea
the
rMa
ximumFo
rwa
rdP
itch
(N 1)rpmun ti
la m aximumv alueo fabou tnegative11 of
bladeang l
eand85p ercentN 1 a
r e a
c h
ieved.
i

Operatinginth ebetar angeand/orw i

thr eversethrust
requi
r esspeci
fictechn
iq ue
sa n
dproce
d ur
esdepe nd
ingo nth
e
part
icularairpl
anem ak eand mode
l.Th e
rearealsospecif
ic
enginep ar
am ete
rsandl imi
tat
ionsforop e
r a
tionsw i
thin
thisare athat mus
tb eadh e
redto
.Itisessen
tialthatapilo
t
trans
itioningtoturbopropairp
lanesbecomeknow ledgeable
andp rofici
entinthesea rea
s, wh
ichareuniquetotu rb
in e
-
F
latP
itch enginepow er
eda i
rplanes
.
i
Tu
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14
-8
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14
-9
 Primary Inverter Left Main Bus Right Main Bus Secondary Inverter

Left Essential Bus Right Essential Bus

200 28 200

100 300 100 300

AMPS 0 DC 35 AMPS
0 400 VOLTS 0 400

Regulator Left Generator Bus Battery Charging Bus Right Generator Bus Regulator

Left Generator Right Generator

Starter Over Voltage Cutout Starter

Current Limiter

Circuit Breaker *
Left Battery G.P.U. Right Battery
Bus

Figure 14-10. Simplified schematic of turboprop airplane electrical system.

rpm that is not high enough for the engine to continue to run at a constant power. On a warm or hot day, maximum
without help from the starter. This is usually the result of temperature limits may be reached at a rather low altitude,
low battery power or the starter not turning the engine fast making it impossible to maintain high horsepower to higher
enough for it to start properly. altitudes. Also, the engines compressor section has to
work harder with decreased air density. Power capability is
Takeoffs in turboprop airplanes are not made by automatically reduced by high-density altitude and power use may have
pushing the power lever full forward to the stops. Depending to be modulated to keep engine temperature within limits.
on conditions, takeoff power may be limited by either torque
or by engine temperature. Normally, the power lever position In a turboprop airplane, the pilot can close the throttles(s) at
on takeoff is somewhat aft of full forward. any time without concern for cooling the engine too rapidly.
Consequently, rapid descents with the propellers in low pitch
Takeoff and departure in a turboprop airplane (especially a can be dramatically steep. Like takeoffs and departures,
twin-engine cabin-class airplane) should be accomplished approach and landing should be accomplished in accordance
in accordance with a standard takeoff and departure with a standard approach and landing profile. [Figure 14-12]
profile developed for the particular make and model.
[Figure 14-11] The takeoff and departure profile should be A stabilized approach is an essential part of the approach
in accordance with the airplane manufacturers recommended and landing process. In a stabilized approach, the airplane,
procedures as outlined in the Federal Aviation Administration depending on design and type, is placed in a stabilized descent
(FAA)-approved Airplane Flight Manual and/or the Pilots on a glidepath ranging from 2.5 to 3.5. The speed is stabilized
Operating Handbook (AFM/POH). The increased complexity at some reference from the AFM/POHusually 1.25 to 1.30
of turboprop airplanes makes the standardization of procedures times the stall speed in approach configuration. The descent rate
a necessity for safe and efficient operation. The transitioning is stabilized from 500 fpm to 700 fpm until the landing flare.
pilot should review the profile procedures before each takeoff
to form a mental picture of the takeoff and departure process. Landing some turboprop airplanes (as well as some piston
twins) can result in a hard, premature touchdown if the engines
For any given high horsepower operation, the pilot can expect are idled too soon. This is because large propellers spinning
that the engine temperature will climb as altitude increases rapidly in low pitch create considerable drag. In such airplanes,

14-10
 P
ressure C
limb
i Al
ti
tude Speed
i i Feet K
IAS

1
2 1
0 9
1
1 8

ii 7
i

6
i
i 5

4
3
i
i
i 2
1
NOTE
: i
i i i i
i i i i
i i ii
ii i i
i i
i

F
igu
re14 .E
-11 xamp
leo
fat
ypi
caltu
rbop
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irp
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eta
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epa
rtu
rep
rof
ile
.

i
tm aybepr
efer
ablet
om a
int
ainpowert
hroug
houtthe
land
ing requi r
em ents
,andev enm e
teorology
.Th epilottransi
tioning
f
lar
ea ndtouch
dow n
.O n
cefirmlyontheground
,prope
ll
er to tu
r bop
r opairp
lanes,part
ic u
lar
lythosew hoa r
en otfamili
ar
b
etaran
geopera
tio
ndrama
tica
lly
r e
duce
stheneedf
orbra
king withop era
tionsinth eh igh/m ed
iuma l
titudeenv ironm ent
,
i
nc ompar
isontopi
stona
irp
lanesofs
imil
arw e
ight
s. shou ldapp roachturbopropt rans
it
iontr a
ining withthisin
mind.Tho roughg roundtrainingshouldcove ral
la spectsof
TrainingCons idera t
ions high/m ed
i umalti
tudefli
g h
t,includ
ingthefl
ig htenvironm en
t,
Them ed
iumandhigha
lt
itude
satwh i
chturbopropai
rpl
anes we a
th e
r,f
lightplannin
g and navig
atio
n,ph y
siologicala
s pect
s
aref
lownprov
ideanen
tire
lydif
feren
tenvironm en
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erms ofh igh-a
ltitudeflight
,oxyg enandp ressuriza
tionsy stem
ofre
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equ
iremen
ts,ai
rspac
estru
cture,phys
iolo
gic
al op e
ration
, a ndhigh-a
lti
tude e me
rgencie
s.

NOTE
: i
i i i i i
i i i i i
ii ii i
i i i
i

i i

i i
i i i
8 9 1
1
7 1
0
i

i 1
2

i
3

i
i i
4

ii i i
5
i i

i i 6

F
igu
re14 .E
-12 xamp
leo
fat
ypi
caltu
rbop
ropa
irp
lan
ear
riva
landland
ingp
rof
ile
.

14
-11
Flight training should prepare the pilot to demonstrate a c. MACH Tuck and MACH Critical (turbojet
comprehensive knowledge of airplane performance, systems, airplanes)
emergency procedures, and operating limitations, along d. Swept wing concept
with a high degree of proficiency in performing all flight
maneuvers and in-flight emergency procedures. The training 7. Emergencies
outline below covers the minimum information needed by a. Decompression
pilots to operate safely at high altitudes.
b. Donning of oxygen masks
Ground Training c. Failure of oxygen mask or complete loss of
oxygen supply/system
1. High-Altitude Flight Environment
d. In-flight fire
a. Airspace and Reduced Vertical Separation
Minimum (RVSM) Operations e. Flight into severe turbulence or thunderstorms
b. Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) f. Compressor stalls
part 91, section 91.211, Requirements for Use of
Supplemental Oxygen Flight Training

2. Weather 1. Preflight Briefing

a. Atmosphere 2. Preflight Planning
b. Winds and clear air turbulence a. Weather briefing and considerations
c. Icing b. Course plotting
3. Flight Planning and Navigation c. Airplane Flight Manual (AFM)
a. Flight planning d. Flight plan
b. Weather charts 3. Preflight Inspection
c. Navigation a. Functional test of oxygen system, including the
verification of supply and pressure, regulator
d. Navigation aids (NAVAIDs)
operation, oxygen flow, mask fit, and pilot and
e. High Altitude Redesign (HAR) air traffic control (ATC) communication using
f. RNAV/Required Navigation Performance (RNP) mask microphones
and Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring 4. Engine Start Procedures, Runup, Takeoff, and Initial
(RAIM) prediction Climb
4. Physiological Training 5. Climb to High Altitude and Normal Cruise Operations
a. Respiration While Operating Above 25,000 Feet Mean Sea Level
(MSL)
b. Hypoxia
6. Emergencies
c. Effects of prolonged oxygen use
a. Simulated rapid decompression, including the
d. Decompression sickness immediate donning of oxygen masks
e. Vision b. Emergency descent
f. Altitude chamber (optional) 7. Planned Descents
5. High-Altitude Systems and Components 8. Shutdown Procedures
a. Oxygen and oxygen equipment 9. Postflight Discussion
b. Pressurization systems
c. High-altitude components
6. Aerodynamics and Performance Factors
a. Acceleration and deceleration
b. Gravity (G)-forces

14-12
Chapter Summary
Transitioning from a non-turbopropeller airplane to a
turbopropeller-powered airplane is discussed in this chapter.
The major differences are introduced specifically handling,
powerplant, and the associated systems. Turbopropeller
electrical systems and operational considerations are
explained to include starting procedures and high temperature
considerations. Training considerations are also discussed
and a sample training syllabus is given to show the topics
that a pilot should become proficient in when transitioning
to a turbopropeller-powered airplane.

14-13
14-14
Chapter 15

Transition to Jet-Powered
Airplanes
Introduction
This chapter contains an overview of jet powered airplane
operations. The information contained in this chapter is meant
to be a useful preparation for, and a supplement to, formal
and structured jet airplane qualification training. The intent of
this chapter is to provide information on the major differences
a pilot will encounter when transitioning to jet powered
airplanes. In order to achieve this in a logical manner, the
major differences between jet powered airplanes and piston
powered airplanes have been approached by addressing two
distinct areas: differences in technology, or how the airplane
itself differs; and differences in pilot technique, or how the
pilot addresses the technological differences through the
application of different techniques. For airplane-specific
information, a pilot should refer to the FAA-approved
Airplane Flight Manual for that airplane.

15-1
15-1
Jet Engine Basics Although the propeller-driven airplane is not nearly as efficient
as the jet, particularly at the higher altitudes and cruising
A jet engine is a gas turbine engine. A jet engine develops
speeds required in modern aviation, one of the few advantages
thrust by accelerating a relatively small mass of air to very
the propeller-driven airplane has over the jet is that maximum
high velocity, as opposed to a propeller, which develops
thrust is available almost at the start of the takeoff roll. Initial
thrust by accelerating a much larger mass of air to a much
thrust output of the jet engine on takeoff is relatively lower
slower velocity.
and does not reach peak efficiency until the higher speeds. The
fanjet or turbofan engine was developed to help compensate
Piston and gas turbine engines are internal combustion
for this problem and is, in effect, a compromise between the
engines and have a similar basic cycle of operation; that
pure jet engine (turbojet) and the propeller engine.
is, induction, compression, combustion, expansion, and
exhaust. Air is taken in and compressed, and fuel is injected
Like other gas turbine engines, the heart of the turbofan
and burned. The hot gases then expand and supply a surplus
engine is the gas generatorthe part of the engine that
of power over that required for compression and are finally
produces the hot, high-velocity gases. Similar to turboprops,
exhausted. In both piston and jet engines, the efficiency of
turbofans have a low-pressure turbine section that uses most
the cycle is improved by increasing the volume of air taken
of the energy produced by the gas generator. The low pressure
in and the compression ratio.
turbine is mounted on a concentric shaft that passes through
the hollow shaft of the gas generator, connecting it to a ducted
Part of the expansion of the burned gases takes place in the
fan at the front of the engine. [Figure 15-2]
turbine section of the jet engine providing the necessary
power to drive the compressor, while the remainder of the
Air enters the engine, passes through the fan, and splits into
expansion takes place in the nozzle of the tail pipe in order
two separate paths. Some of it flows aroundbypasses the
to accelerate the gas to a high velocity jet thereby producing
engine core, hence its name, bypass air. The air drawn into the
thrust. [Figure 15-1]
engine for the gas generator is the core airflow. The amount
of air that bypasses the core compared to the amount drawn
In theory, the jet engine is simpler and more directly converts
into the gas generator determines a turbofans bypass ratio.
thermal energy (the burning and expansion of gases) into
Turbofans efficiently convert fuel into thrust because they
mechanical energy (thrust). The piston or reciprocating
produce low-pressure energy spread over a large fan disk area.
engine, with all of its moving parts, must convert the thermal
While a turbojet engine uses the entire gas generators output
energy into mechanical energy and then finally into thrust
to produce thrust in the form of a high-velocity exhaust gas
by rotating a propeller.
jet, cool, low-velocity bypass air produces between 30 percent
and 70 percent of the thrust produced by a turbofan engine.
One of the advantages of the jet engine over the piston engine
is the jet engines capability of producing much greater
The fan-jet concept increases the total thrust of the jet engine,
amounts of thrust horsepower at the high altitudes and high
particularly at the lower speeds and altitudes. Although
speeds. In fact, turbojet engine efficiency increases with
efficiency at the higher altitudes is lost (turbofan engines are
altitude and speed.
subject to a large lapse in thrust with increasing altitude), the

Direction of flight Concentric shaft

Ducted fan Gas generator Low-pressure turbine

Figure 15-1. Basic turbojet engine.

15-2
 Fan air

Combustion
Fa
na
ir
Inlet
air

Exhaust

Combustion

Figure 15-2. Turbofan engine.

turbofan engine increases acceleration, decreases the takeoff temperature limits, even for a very few seconds, may result in
roll, improves initial climb performance, and often has the serious heat damage to turbine blades and other components.
effect of decreasing specific fuel consumption. Specific fuel Depending on the make and model, gas temperatures can be
consumption is a ratio of the fuel used by an engine and the measured at a number of different locations within the engine.
amount of thrust it produces. The associated engine gauges therefore have different names
according to their location. For instance:
Operating the Jet Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)the temperature
In a jet engine, thrust is determined by the amount of fuel of the exhaust gases as they enter the tail pipe after
injected into the combustion chamber. The power controls passing through the turbine.
on most turbojet-and turbofan-powered airplanes consist of
just one thrust lever for each engine, because most engine
control functions are automatic. The thrust lever is linked
to a fuel control and/or electronic engine computer that
meters fuel flow based upon revolutions per minute (rpm),
internal temperatures, ambient conditions, and other factors.
[Figure 15-3]

In a jet engine, each major rotating section usually has a

separate gauge devoted to monitoring its speed of rotation.
Depending on the make and model, a jet engine may have an
N1 gauge that monitors the low-pressure compressor section
and/or fan speed in turbofan engines. The gas generator
section may be monitored by an N2 gauge, while triple spool
engines may have an N3 gauge as well. Each engine section
rotates at many thousands of rpm. Their gauges therefore are
calibrated in percent of rpm rather than actual rpm, for ease
of display and interpretation. [Figure 15-4]

The temperature of turbine gases must be closely monitored Figure 15-3. Jet engine power controls.
by the pilot. As in any gas turbine engine, exceeding

15-3
 TAT +13c ---- ENG 1 ENG 2
START VALVE 2
OPEN 5
10 28.8 10 94.8 66.8 94.5 1
0 0 10
8 8
2 2

L
6 4 6 4 UP 15
N1 N2
NOSE
65 768 GEAR 0.40 FF 3.50 FLAPS 25
NOSE 30
40
GEAR OIL
EGT 25 PRESS 64
LEFT RIGHT LE FLAPS LE FLAPS
GEAR GEAR TRANSIT EXIT
0.42 FF 3.50 LEFT RIGHT
GEAR GEAR OIL SPEED BRAKE
15 TEMP 32
AHEAD
30 33 1
7
SPEED BRAKES
21 24 2

CTR OIL
17 17
3

EXTENDED
11260 QTY
6

FUEL
1 EG 2
9

12 15 18 2.5 VIB 1.8

2350 2350

Figure 15-4. Jet engine RPM gauges.

Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT)the temperature of In order to avoid the possibility of engine flameout from the
the gases from the combustion section of the engine as above conditions, or from other conditions that might cause
they enter the first stage of the turbine. The TIT is the ingestion problems, such as heavy rain, ice, or possible
highest temperature inside a gas turbine engine and bird strike, most jet engines are equipped with a continuous
is one of the limiting factors of the amount of power ignition system. This system can be turned on and used
the engine can produce. TIT, however, is difficult to continuously whenever the need arises. In many jets, as an
measure. Therefore, EGT, which relates to TIT, is added precaution, this system is normally used during takeoffs
normally the parameter measured. and landings. Many jets are also equipped with an automatic
Interstage Turbine Temperature (ITT)the ignition system that operates both igniters whenever the
temperature of the gases between the high-pressure airplane stall warning or stick shaker is activated.
and low-pressure turbine wheels.
Fuel Heaters
Turbine Outlet Temperature (TOT)like EGT, turbine Because of the high altitudes and extremely cold outside air
outlet temperature is taken aft of the turbine wheel(s). temperatures in which the jet flies, it is possible to supercool
the jet fuel to the point that the small particles of water
Jet Engine Ignition suspended in the fuel can turn to ice crystals and clog the
Most jet engine ignition systems consist of two igniter fuel filters leading to the engine. For this reason, jet engines
plugs, which are used during the ground or air starting of are normally equipped with fuel heaters. The fuel heater
the engine. Once the start is completed, this ignition either may be of the automatic type that constantly maintains the
automatically goes off or is turned off, and from this point fuel temperature above freezing, or they may be manually
on, the combustion in the engine is a continuous process. controlled by the pilot.

Continuous Ignition Setting Power

An engine is sensitive to the flow characteristics of the air On some jet airplanes, thrust is indicated by an engine pressure
that enters the intake of the engine nacelle. So long as the ratio (EPR) gauge. EPR can be thought of as being equivalent
flow of air is substantially normal, the engine continues to run to the manifold pressure on the piston engine. EPR is the
smoothly. However, particularly with rear-mounted engines difference between turbine discharge pressure and engine inlet
that are sometimes in a position to be affected by disturbed pressure. It is an indication of what the engine has done with
airflow from the wings, there are some abnormal flight the raw air scooped in. For instance, an EPR setting of 2.24
situations that could cause a compressor stall or flameout of means that the discharge pressure relative to the inlet pressure
the engine. These abnormal flight conditions would usually is 2.24:1. On these airplanes, the EPR gauge is the primary
be associated with abrupt pitch changes such as might be reference used to establish power settings. [Figure 15-5]
encountered in severe turbulence or a stall.

15-4
 Asrpmincr
ease
s,m a
ssflow,tempera
tur
e,andeff
iciency
al
soinc
reas
e.Ther
efor
e, much mo
rethru
sti
sproducedp e
r
TAT 13
C incr
ementofth
rot
tle movemen
tn ea
rthetopofther ang
e
CAB.L
IGHTOFF thanne
arthebo
ttom.
FUELVALVE1 OP
2
.00 2
.00 2
.00 2
.00 FUELVALVE2 OP
FUELVALVE3 OP Onet hin gt hatseem sdi ff
erenttothepi
stonp i
l o
t t
r an
sit
io n
i ng
FUELVALVE4 OP intoj et
-pow ereda irp l
anesi sther a
th e
rl arg eamoun to f
EPR ELEC GEN1 ON
ELEC GEN2 ON thrustl e verm o vem entb e
tw eentheflightidlep o
sit
io na nd
ELEC GEN3 ON ful
lp ow era sc om pa
r edtot hesm a
llam ounto fm ovem ent
ELEC GEN4 ON
HYDRSYS1 ofth et hr ot
tlei nt h
ep i s
tone ngine
.F orinstance,a nin cho f
25.8 25.8 25.8 25.8 HYDRSYS2
HYDRSYS3 throttlem ovem e n
to nap is
to nm aybew orth4 00h orsepow er
N1
HYDRSYS4 where ver t hethrott
le may be
. O naje
t,a n
in ch ofthrust
l ev e
r
movem e nta tal owr pm m ayb ew o
rtho n
l y2 00p o undso f
339 339 339 339 thrust, b ut ata high rp mthatsa meinch of m ove ment mi gh
t
am ou ntt oc losert o2, 000p oundsofthrust.B ecauseo ft hi
s,
EGT inas ituati onw heresi gn
ifi
ca n
tlym orethrustisn eede da nd
TR IM0.0 thej ete n g
i neisa tl owr pm ,itd o
esn otd om uchg oo dto
mere
l y in ch th
e thrustleverforward
.S ubs
t ant
ialthrust
l ever
TOTALFUEL3 35 .0 LBS 1000
movem e ntisi no rder
.T hi
sisn ottosaythatr oug hora bru p
t
thrustl ev era ct
ioni ss tandardop er
atingp ro cedure
.I fth e
pow ers ettin gisalread yhigh
,itm aytakeo n
l yasm a
llam o unt
F
igu re15 -5.EPRg auge. ofm o vem ent
.H ow ev er
,therearetw oc h
ara c
t e
rist
icso ft he
jete n g
i net h a
tw orka gains
tt henormalh abitsoft hepiston-
engin ep il o
t.O neisth ev a
ria
tionofthr u
stw ithr pm,a ndt he
Fansp e ed(N1)i sth ep rim aryind icationo fthruston mo st
otheri st her elat
i ve
lys lowa cceler
at
io noft hejete ngine.
turbofaneng ine s.Fu elf lowp rov id esas econd aryth rust
indication,andc ross-che ckingforp rope rfu e
lflowc anh elp
Varia tiono fTh rustw i
thRPM
inspo ttingaf aulty N 1g auge.Tu rbof ansa lsoh aveag as
Where asp istoneng in esno rm a
llyop e
r a
teinth er angeo f
generator turbine t achom eter(N 2).Th eya reu sedm a
inlyfo r
40p er cen tto70p e
rc entofav a
ilabl
erpm ,j e
tsop e
ratemo st
engines t a
rtingandsom esy stemfun ct
ion s.
eff
ici entlyinth e85p er
centto100p e
rcentr ang e
,w i
tha
fl
igh tid lerpmo f50p e
rcentto60p er c
ent.Th erangef rom
Ins et
tingpow e
r,i tisu su al
lyth ep rim a rypow err e
feren ce
90p er cent to100p erc ent
injetsm ayprodu cea smu chth rust
(EPRo rN 1) thati s mo stc r
itic
alandi sth eg augeth atfirst
asth eto talav ailablea t70p ercent
.[Figu re15 -6]
limitsth efo rw ardmov em entofth eth ru stlevers.How ev e
r,
ther ea reo cc asion s wh ereth el im itso feitherrpmo r
temp eratu rec anb eex ceed ed.Th eru lei s: mov em en
to fth e
thrustlev ersmu stb estopp edandpow ers etatwh ichever the ii i
i i
limitso fEPR ,rpm ,o rtemp era
tur ei sre achedf i
rst
.

Th rustToTh rustLeve rRelationsh ip

Inap is
ton-engine,prop e
lle
r-drivena irplane,thrus
ti s
propo r
tiona
ltorpm ,m ani
foldpressure,andprop e
lle
rb l
ade
i

ang le
,w ith m an
ifoldpressureb e
ingth e mo stdom inan
t
fa c
tor.A tacon st
antrpm,thrustisp ropor
tionaltothrot
tl
e
lev erpo s
it
ion.Inaj etengine,how ever
,th rusti
squ ite
disproport
ionaltothru
stleverposit
ion.Thisisanimpo rtan
t
differencethatth epilottrans
itioningin toj e
t-pow e
red
airplanesmustb ecomea ccus
tom edto.

O
na je
tengine
,th
rusti
spro p
ort
iona
ltorpm(m assf
l ow)a n
d
t
emp era
ture(
fue
l/a
irra
tio)
.Th e
searem a
tchedandafu rthe
r
v
ari
ationofth
rus
tresul
tsfromthecompressoreff
iciencyat i
v
aryingrpm.Thejetengineis mo
steff
icien
ta thighrpm ,
w
heretheengi
nei
sd es
ignedtobeopera
tedm ostof
t het
im e. F
igu
re15
-6.Va
ria
tiono
fth
rus
twi
thrpm
.

15
-5
SlowAcce le rat
iono ftheJe tEngine du
ringthefin
alapp
roa
chto
landingo
ratanyo
the
rtim
eth
at
Inap ropel
ler-drivenairplane
,thecons
tantsp eedp rope
lle
r imm ed
ia
t epowermaybeneed
ed.
keep sth eeng inetu rninga taconstantrpm w ithinthe
gov erningr ang e
,andpow erischangedbyv aryingthe IdsDm
fhmdDebhdmbx
manifoldp r
es sure
.A c c
el e
rat
ionofthepistonfromid l
eto Maximumop eratinga l
ti
tud esfo rg ener a
lav ia
tiontu rboj
et
fullpow erisr el
ative
lyr ap
id,somewhereon th
eo rderof3to airplanesnowr each51 ,000f eet.Th ee ff
i c
ien cyofth ejet
4s econds.Th eaccel
erationonthedi
fferentje
teng inescan en gineathigh-alti
tu desist hep rim a
r yr easo nforo pe
r a
tingin
varycon siderably,butitisusua
llymuchs lower
. th ehig h
-al
ti
t udee nvironm e nt.T hes pecificf ue
lc onsum pt
ion
ofj eteng ine sd ecr easesa sth eou tsid ea i
rt emp er
ature
Eff
iciencyinaj eteng in ei shighestath ighrpmwh e
r eth e de c
r ease
sfo rcon stanteng in erpmandt ruea irspeed(TAS ).
comp ressori s wo rkingc losesttoitsop timumcond itions. Thu s,byflyinga tah ighaltitud e,thep iloti sabletoop e
rate
Atlowrpm ,th eop eratingcy c
leisg en erallyin efficient.If atflightlevelswh er efuele conomy isb estandw ithth emost
theeng inei sop era
tinga tno rm alapp ro achrpmandth e
re adv antageousc ruisesp eed.Fo re ff
i c
i ency,j etairplanesare
isasudd enr equ irem entfo rincreasedth ru s
t,th ej eteng ine typ ical
lyop erateda th igha ltitud es wh erec ruiseisu sual
ly
respond simm ediatelyandfu llthrustc anb ea chiev edin veryc losetorpmo rEGTl im its.A th igha lti
tude s
,lit
tle
abou t2s econd s. How ev er
,a talowrpm ,sudd enfu l
l- ex cessthrus
tm ayb eav a
ilab lefo rm aneuv e
ring.Th erefo
re,
pow erappl icationt end stoov erfuelth eeng inere sult
ingin itiso ftenimpo ss
ib leforth ej etairplan etoc limbandtu rn
possibl
ecomp r essorsu rge,ex ces
sivetu rbin etemp eratu re
s, simu ltaneously,anda l
lm an euv er
ingmu stb ea ccomp l
ished
comp ressors talland /orf lam eout
.Top rev entthis,v arious withinthelim itsofav ai
lableth rustandw ithouts ac
rific
ing
limiter
s,su cha scomp ressorbleedv alv es,a r
econ tain edin stabili
tyandcon trollabil
ity.
thesy s
t emands erv etor estr
icttheeng ineun tili tisa tan
rpma twh ichi tc anr espondtoar apida c celera
tiond em and Absenceo
fPrope
lle
rEf
fec
t
wit
ho u
tdi s
tr es
s.T hisc r
iticalrpm ism ostn oticeablew he nt h
e
Theab senceofap rope
lle
rh a
sas ign
ific
antef
fec
tonth e
engineisa tidl erpm ,and th ethrus
tlev erisr apidlyadv an ced
opera
tiono fjet-power
edairpl
anesthatthetr
ansi
tioning
toah igh-p ow erp o s
itio n.E ngineacceleration i
s ini
ti a
llyv e
ry
pi
lot mustbecom eaccus
tomedto.Thee f
fec
tisduetoth e
slow,butc anch ang etov eryf a
stafterabou t78p ercentrpm
absenceofli
ftfromtheprope
ll
ersl
ipst
reamandtheabsence
isre a
ched .[F igu re15 -7]
ofpropell
erdrag.
Eventhoughengin
ea ccel
era
tionisne a
rlyins
tantan
eous
Absenceo fP rope lle rS lipstream
af
terabout78percentrpm,tota
ltimetoa cce
lera
tefrom
id
l erpmtofu
llpow e
rm aytakeas muchas8s e
conds r Ap
.Fo ropellerp roducesthrustbya ccele
ratingal argem assof
th
isr e
ason
, mos
tjetsareoper
atedatarela
tiv
elyhighrpm airr e
ar wards, and(especia
lly w
ith wing- mounted eng
ines)
thisairp as
se soveracomp ara
tiv e
lylargep ercentageofthe
winga re a
. Onap ropelle
r-drivena i
rplane,th eli
ftthatthe
wingd ev elopsisthesumo fthelif
tg eneratedbyth ew ing
areano tinth ewakeo fthep ropelle
r(asar e sul
to fai
rplane
spe ed)andth elif
tg en e
ratedbyth ew inga reain f
luenced
byth ep ropelle
rs l
ipstream . Byin c
rea s
ingo rd ec
reas
ing
thesp e edo ftheslipst
r e
ama i
r,itispo ssib
l etoin c
reaseor
decr e
ase thet o
tal
lif
to nthew in gwithoutc h
a ngingai
rspeed.

Forex amp le
,ap ropel
ler-dr
ivenairplanethatisa llow ed
i

tob ecom etoolowandtoos lowonanapp roachi sve ry

responsivetoaqu ickblastofpowertos a
lvagethesituat
ion .
Inadditiontoin c
r eas
inglif
tatacon stan
ta i
rspeed,stal
ling
i

speedisr educedw ithpow eron.Aj etengine

,onth eoth er
hand,al soproduc esthrustbya cc
elerat
inga m asso fai r
rearward,butthi
sa i
rd oesnotpas
sov e
r th
ew ings
.T herefore,
thereisno l
if
tbonu sa
tin cr
easedpow eratconst
antairspe ed
andnos ignif
icantlow er
ingo fpower-onstal
lsp e
ed.

F
igu
re15
-7.T
ypi
calj
eteng
inea
cce
lera
tiont
ime
s.

15
-6
In not having propellers, the jet-powered airplane is minus (such as in a long descent), it is a handicap when it is necessary
two assets: to lose speed quickly, such as when entering a terminal area
It is not possible to produce increased lift instantly by or when in a landing flare. The lack of propeller drag, along
simply increasing power. with the aerodynamically clean airframe of the jet, are new
to most pilots, and slowing the airplane down is one of the
It is not possible to lower stall speed by simply initial problems encountered by pilots transitioning into jets.
increasing power. The 10-knot margin (roughly the
difference between power-off and power-on stall Speed Margins
speed on a propeller-driven airplane for a given
The typical piston-powered airplane had to deal with two
configuration) is lost.
maximum operating speeds:
Add the poor acceleration response of the jet engine, and it VNOmaximum structural cruising speed, represented
becomes apparent that there are three ways in which the jet on the airspeed indicator by the upper limit of the
pilot is worse off than the propeller pilot. For these reasons, green arc. It is, however, permissible to exceed VNO
there is a marked difference between the approach qualities of and operate in the caution range (yellow arc) in certain
a piston-engine airplane and a jet. In a piston-engine airplane, flight conditions.
there is some room for error. Speed is not too critical and VNEnever-exceed speed, represented by a red line
a burst of power salvages an increasing sink rate. In a jet, on the airspeed indicator.
however, there is little room for error.
These speed margins in the piston airplanes were never of
If an increasing sink rate develops in a jet, the pilot must
much concern during normal operations because the high
remember two points in the proper sequence:
drag factors and relatively low cruise power settings kept
1. Increased lift can be gained only by accelerating speeds well below these maximum limits.
airflow over the wings, and this can be accomplished
only by accelerating the entire airplane. Maximum speeds in jet airplanes are expressed differently and
2. The airplane can be accelerated, assuming altitude always define the maximum operating speed of the airplane,
loss cannot be afforded, only by a rapid increase in which is comparable to the VNE of the piston airplane. These
thrust, and here, the slow acceleration of the jet engine maximum speeds in a jet airplane are referred to as:
(possibly up to 8 seconds) becomes a factor. VMOmaximum operating speed expressed in terms
of knots.
Salvaging an increasing sink rate on an approach in a jet
MMOmaximum operating speed expressed in terms
can be a very difficult maneuver. The lack of ability to
of a decimal of Mach speed (speed of sound).
produce instant lift in the jet, along with the slow acceleration
of the engine, necessitates a stabilized approach to a
To observe both limits VMO and MMO, the pilot of a jet
landing where full landing configuration, constant airspeed,
airplane needs both an airspeed indicator and a Machmeter,
controlled rate of descent, and relatively high power settings
each with appropriate red lines. In some general aviation jet
are maintained until over the threshold of the runway. This
airplanes, these are combined into a single instrument that
allows for almost immediate response from the engine in
contains a pair of concentric indicators: one for the indicated
making minor changes in the approach speed or rate of
airspeed and the other for indicated Mach number. Each is
descent and makes it possible to initiate an immediate go-
provided with an appropriate red line. [Figure 15-8]
around or missed approach if necessary.
It looks much like a conventional airspeed indicator but has
Absence of Propeller Drag a barber pole that automatically moves so as to display the
When the throttles are closed on a piston-powered airplane, applicable speed limit at all times.
the propellers create a vast amount of drag, and airspeed is
immediately decreased or altitude lost. The effect of reducing Because of the higher available thrust and very low drag
power to idle on the jet engine, however, produces no such design, the jet airplane can very easily exceed its speed
drag effect. In fact, at an idle power setting, the jet engine margin even in cruising flight and, in fact, in some airplanes
still produces forward thrust. The main advantage is that the in a shallow climb. The handling qualities in a jet can change
jet pilot is no longer faced with a potential drag penalty of a drastically when the maximum operating speeds are exceeded.
runaway propeller or a reversed propeller. A disadvantage,
however, is the freewheeling effect forward thrust at idle has
on the jet. While this occasionally can be used to advantage

15-7
 POWER
NAV1 108.00 117.95 DIS __._NM BRG ___ 136.975 118.000 COM1
i i
NAV2 1080
8.00 117.95 136.975 118.000 COM2

2
40 T
RAF
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2
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NAV 2
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9

F
igu
re15
-8.J
eta
irsp
eedind
ica
tor
.

High
-speeda
irp
lanesd e
signedforsubson
icfligh
tarelimi
t ed AsthegraphinF igure15-10i llus
trate
s,init
ial
lya sspeedis
tosom eM a
chnumb erbelow thespeedofsoundtoavoidthe incr
e a
sedupto M ach.72,thew ingd evelopsanin cr
e a
sing
format
ionofsho
ckw a v
estha
tb egintodevel
opas t
heairp
lane am o
u n
to f
lif
tr e
q u
ir
ingan ose-dow nforceortr
im tom a
i n
tain
near
sM ach1.0
.Th eseshockw aves(andtheadv e
rseef
fe c
ts leve
lflight
.W i
thincreasedspe edandth ea f
t mov ementof
assoc
iat
edw i
ththem)c anoc cu
rwh enthea i
rplanespeedis thesho ck wave,thew ing
sc enterofp ressurea
l so moves
subst
ant
ial
lybe
low M ach1.0
.T heM achspeedatw hi
chs ome af
tcausingth esta
rtofano se-downt endencyo rtuck.By
port
ionoftheai
rflowov erth ewingfir
stequ a
lsM a
ch1 .0 Mach.9
,th enose-downfo rc
esar ew e
lldev e
lopedtoapo int
istermedthecr
it
i c
alM a
chnumb er(M c
r).Thisisalsothe wher
eato talof70pound sofba ckpressurearerequiredto
speedatwhichashockw av
ef i
rstappea
r sontheairpl
an e
.

i i
T
her
eisnop ar
ti
c u
larpro
blemassoc
i a
tedwi
ththeacc
eler
at
i on i i
o
ftheai
rflowu ptoM achC r
it
,thep o
intwhereM ach1.0is
M 0
.72
e
ncoun
tered;how eve
r,as ho
ckw a v
eisformedatthep o
int
(C
rit
ica
l machnumbe
r)
w
her
et heair
flows udden
lyr e
turnstosubson
icflow.T hi
s
i
s
hockw avebecom esmoreseve
rea ndmovesaf
tonthew ing
a
sspee
doft h
ew ingis
incr
easedandeven
tua
llyf
lowsepara
tion i
o
ccu
rsbe h
indthew el
l-dev
elopedshockwave
.[Figure15-9] M 0
.77 i
i

i
Ifal
low edtop rogres
sw el
lb eyondth eMMO fortheairp
l ane
,
thiss epara
tiono fa i
rb ehindthesho ck wavec anresultin
severebu f
fet
ingandpo ssib
lelo ssofcon t
rolo rup set
.
M 0
.82
Becaus eofthech angingc ente
rofliftofthew ingresul
ting i

from themov em entoftheshockw av e

,thepi
lotexp e
rien c
es
pi
tchch angetend enc
iesa stheairplane movesthroughth e
transonicsp eedsuptoandex ceeding MMO.[Figure15 -10] F
igu
re15
-9.T
ran
son
icf
lowpa
tte
rns
.

15
-8
 Goodatt
itud
einst
rum en
tfly
ingsk
il
lsandgoodpow
er
cont
rola
r ee
ssen
tia
l.

Thepi
lotshouldb eawar
eo fthesymptomsthatwi
llbe
expe
rien
cedinthepar
ti
cula
rairp
laneasth
eV MO o
r MMO s
i
be
ingapproa
ch ed
.Thesemayinc
lude:
Nos
e-downt
end
encyandn
eedfo
rba
ckp
res
sur
eor
i

t
rim
.
M
ildbuf
fet
ingasa
ir
flowsep
ara
tionb
egin
stoo
ccu
r
a
fterc
ri
ti
calM a
chspeed
.
i

Ac
tivat
ionofanover
spe
ed w
arn
ingo
rhighsp
eed
envelopep
rot
ect
ion
.

Thep i
lotsr espon setoanov erspeedcond itionshou ldb e
toimm ed ia
telys lowth eairplan ebyr edu c
ingth epow e
r
toflightid le
.Itw illa l
soh elptosmoo th lyande a
silyr ais
e
thep i
tcha t
ti
tud etoh e
lpd issip atesp eed.Th eu s
eo fsp e
ed
brakescana lsoa idins low ingth ea irplan e.I f
,how ev er,the
F
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ind
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thes hockw aveb ecomem oresever e
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shouldbeaw a
rethatM a chbuffe
tisafun ctiono fthespeed
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r c
escausingM achtuckar eares u
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et
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andlacko feffec
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therfromtoof a
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rthed eve
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asfarasp ract
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.A lso,
thebuffetcanbeexp e
rien cedatmu chslow erspe ed
sknown
becauseoft hecrit
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aslowsp eed Machbu ffet
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fl
ight,m os
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tingint h
eM ach
speedr angesa red e
signed w i
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imand
The mostlikelysitua
tionsthatcou ldc ausethelowsp eed
autopi
lotM achcom pensa
tingd ev
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ic kpulle
r)t oale
rtthe
buffe
twou ldb ewh enana irp
lanei sflowna ttooslowo fa
pi
lottoinad ve
rten
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sionsb eyo nditscert
i f
icatedM MO.
speedforitsw eightandalt
itudec ausingah ighAOA .Th i
s
ve
ryh igh AOA wou ldh avethes am ee ff
ectofincre
asing
Recove ryF rom OverspeedCond itions
ai
rflowov ertheupp ersurf
a c
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tth a
t
Api
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econdi
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toexceed
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imumop e
rat
ingspeed
s. occurasinth ehighsp e
edbu ff
etsituation.

15
-9
The AOA of the wing has the greatest effect on inducing Mach. However, only 1.4 G (an increase of only 0.4 G) may
the Mach buffet, or pre-stall buffet, at either the high or bring on buffet at the optimum speed of 0.73 Mach and any
low speed boundaries for the airplane. The conditions that change in airspeed, bank angle, or gust loading may reduce
increase the AOA, hence the speed of the airflow over the this straight-and-level flight 1.4 G protection to no protection
wing and chances of Mach buffet are: at all. Consequently, a maximum cruising flight altitude
High altitudesThe higher the airplane flies, the must be selected which will allow sufficient buffet margin
thinner the air and the greater the AOA required to for necessary maneuvering and for gust conditions likely to
produce the lift needed to maintain level flight. be encountered. Therefore, it is important for pilots to be
familiar with the use of charts showing cruise maneuver and
Heavy weightsThe heavier the airplane, the greater buffet limits. [Figure 15-11]
the lift required of the wing, and all other things being
equal, the greater the AOA. The transitioning pilot must bear in mind that the
G loadingAn increase in the G loading of the maneuverability of the jet airplane is particularly critical,
wing results in the same situation as increasing the especially at the high altitudes. Some jet airplanes have a
weight of the airplane. It makes no difference whether narrow span between the high and low speed buffets. One
the increase in G forces is caused by a turn, rough airspeed that the pilot should have firmly fixed in memory
control usage, or turbulence. The effect of increasing is the manufacturers recommended gust penetration speed
the wings AOA is the same. for the particular make and model airplane. This speed is
normally the speed that would give the greatest margin
An airplanes indicated airspeed decreases in relation to between the high and low speed buffets, and may be
true airspeed as altitude increases. As the indicated airspeed considerably higher than design maneuvering speed (VA).
decreases with altitude, it progressively merges with the This means that, unlike piston airplanes, there are times
low speed buffet boundary where pre-stall buffet occurs for when a jet airplane should be flown in excess of VA during
the airplane at a load factor of 1.0 G. The point where the encounters with turbulence. Pilots operating airplanes at high
high speed Mach indicated airspeed and low speed buffet speeds must be adequately trained to operate them safely.
boundary indicated airspeed merge is the airplanes absolute This training cannot be complete until pilots are thoroughly
or aerodynamic ceiling. This is where if an airplane flew educated in the critical aspects of the aerodynamic factors
any slower it would exceed its stalling AOA and experience pertinent to Mach flight at high altitudes.
low speed buffet. Additionally, if it flew any faster it would
exceed MMO, potentially leading to high speed buffet. This Low Speed Flight
critical area of the airplanes flight envelope is known as The jet airplane wing, designed primarily for high speed
coffin corner. All airplanes are equipped with some form flight, has relatively poor low speed characteristics. As
of stall warning system. Crews must be aware of systems opposed to the normal piston powered airplane, the jet wing
installed on their airplanes (stick pushers, stick shakers, has less area relative to the airplanes weight, a lower aspect
audio alarms, etc.) and their intended function. In a high ratio (long chord/short span), and thin airfoil shapeall
altitude environment, airplane buffet is sometimes the initial of which amount to the need for speed to generate enough
indicator of problems. lift. The sweptwing is additionally penalized at low speeds
because its effective lift is proportional to airflow speed
Mach buffet occurs as a result of supersonic airflow on the that is perpendicular to the leading edge. This airflow speed
wing. Stall buffet occurs at angles of attack that produce is always less than the airspeed of the airplane itself. In
airflow disturbances (burbling) over the upper surface of other words, the airflow on the sweptwing has the effect of
the wing which decreases lift. As density altitude increases, persuading the wing into believing that it is flying slower
the AOA that is required to produce an airflow disturbance than it actually is.
over the top of the wing is reduced until the density altitude is
reached where Mach buffet and stall buffet converge (coffin The first real consequence of poor lift at low speeds is a high
corner). When this phenomenon is encountered, serious stall speed. The second consequence of poor lift at low speeds
consequences may result causing loss of airplane control. is the manner in which lift and drag vary at those low speeds.
As a jet airplane is slowed toward its minimum drag speed
Increasing either gross weight or load factor (G factor) will (VMD or L/DMAX), total drag increases at a much greater rate
increase the low speed buffet and decrease Mach buffet than the changes in lift, resulting in a sinking flightpath. If
speeds. A typical jet airplane flying at 51,000 feet altitude the pilot attempts to increase lift by increasing the AOA,
at 1.0 G may encounter Mach buffet slightly above the airspeed will be further reduced resulting in a further increase
airplanes MMO (0.82 Mach) and low speed buffet at 0.60

15-10
 19
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indragandsinkr
ateastheai
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es morerap
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: j
etairp
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itcha t
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the AOAanda llowth ea irplan etoa c cele r
at etoa S talls
spe edabov eV MD, w h eres t eadyf l
igh tcond it
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teristi csofthesw eptw ingjetairplanec an
canb ereestabli
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rplane.Th egr ea
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iftd ev elop edv s
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Th rustc anb ein cr easedtoa c cel
erat
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andcon s
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tv ecto ruptoi tsm ax imum
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ift,andsoon ther
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ifth eai
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havea sdram a
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maximum liftcoeffic
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[F igure1 5-12]F lightb e
l owV MD o nap i
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areaccomp aniedbyh ighd rag,whi chr e
sultsinah ighr a
te
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e15 -13 ]
flightinth eareao fV MD ( typ ic al
ly1 .51 .6 V S)d oe sno t
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Thed ifferen cesinth es tallchar a c
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andasw e
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l anecen
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afu rtherd ecre
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.A
pilotwho isnotcogn iz
an to fad evelop ingsp eedd iv erg en ce T heb as
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mayf indas er
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tan tpow er T a
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setting,andap itcha tt
itud eth atapp ea rstob eno rm al.Th e

15
-11
 A Je
tAi
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Onaconv entionalstra
ightwing /
lowt a
ilplan eai rplane,the st
all
.[Figure1 5-14]T heco nve
nti
onalst
r a
ightwingairp
lane
weighto fth eairplaneactsdownw a
rdsfo rw ardo fth elif
t conformstothefam i
li a
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-downpitchingtendencyatthe
actin
gu pw ards,pro du
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ting st
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lyp ronouncednose-
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,th ew ing wakepasses
upe levatord eflec
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.Th e
causesan o
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endency
.T h
isiscounteredb yf ur
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rsed inhighenergyairwh ere
itexperi
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Asthep itcha t
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inth ew ing w ake, whichisslight
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ialtost a
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ai
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ings erv esasa
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twithaT -
ta
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twing
.

15
-12
of the airplane as the stall develops and the loss of tail In an unmodified swept wing, the tips first stall, results in a
effectiveness at the stall. The handling qualities down to the shift of the center of lift of the wing in a forward direction
stall are much the same as the straight wing airplane except relative to the center of gravity of the airplane, causing a
that the high, T-tail remains clear of the wing wake and tendency for the nose to pitch up. A disadvantage of a tip first
provides little or no warning in the form of a pre-stall buffet. stall is that it can involve the ailerons and erode roll control.
Also, the tail is fully effective during the speed reduction To satisfy certification criteria, airplane manufacturers may
towards the stall, and remains effective even after the wing have to tailor the airfoil characteristics of a wing as it proceeds
has begun to stall. This enables the pilot to drive the wing from the root to the tip so that a pilot can still maintain wings
into a deeper stall at a much greater AOA. level flight with normal use of the controls. Still, more
aileron will be required near stall to correct roll excursion
At the stall, two distinct things happen. After the stall, the than in normal flight, as the effectiveness of the ailerons will
sweptwing T-tail airplane tends to pitch up rather than down, be reduced and feel mushy. This change in feel can be an
and the T-tail can become immersed in the wing wake, important recognition cue that the airplane may be stalled.
which is low energy turbulent air. This greatly reduces tail
effectiveness and the airplanes ability to counter the nose- As previously stated, when flying at a speed near VMD, an
up pitch. Also, if the AOA increases further, the disturbed, increase in AOA causes drag to increase faster than lift and
relatively slow air behind the wing may sweep across the tail the airplane begins to sink. It is essential to understand that
at such a large angle that the tail itself stalls. If this occurs, this increasing sinking tendency, at a constant pitch attitude,
the pilot loses all pitch control and will be unable to lower results in a rapid increase in AOA as the flightpath becomes
the nose. The pitch up just after the stall is worsened by large deflected downwards. [Figure 15-17] Furthermore, once
reduction in lift and a large increase in drag, which causes a the stall has developed and a large amount of lift has been
rapidly increasing descent path, thus compounding the rate lost, the airplane will begin to sink rapidly and this will be
of increase of the wings AOA. [Figure 15-15] accompanied by a corresponding rapid increase in AOA. This
is the beginning of what is termed a deep stall.
A slight pitch up tendency after the stall is a characteristic of
a swept or tapered wings. With these types of wings, there As an airplane enters a deep stall, increasing drag reduces
is a tendency for the wing to develop a spanwise airflow forward speed to well below normal stall speed. The sink
towards the wingtip when the wing is at high angles of attack. rate may increase to many thousands of feet per minute. It
This leads to a tendency for separation of airflow, and the must be emphasized that this situation can occur without an
subsequent stall, to occur at the wingtips first. [Figure 15-16] excessively nose-high pitch attitude. On some airplanes, it
can occur at an apparently normal pitch attitude, and it is this
quality that can mislead the pilot because it appears similar to
the beginning of a normal stall recovery. It can also occur at a
negative pitch attitude, that is, with the nose pointing towards
the ground. In such situations, it seems counterintuitive to
apply the correct recovery action, which is to push forward
on the pitch control to reduce the AOA, as this action will
also cause the nose to point even further towards the ground.
But, that is the right thing to do.

Deep stalls may be unrecoverable. Fortunately, they are easily

avoided as long as published limitations are observed. On those
airplanes susceptible to deep stalls (not all swept or tapered
wing airplanes are), sophisticated stall warning systems such
as stick shakers are standard equipment. A stick pusher, as its
name implies, acts to automatically reduce the airplanes AOA
before the airplane reaches a dangerous stall condition, or it
may aid in recovering the airplane from a stall if an airplanes
natural aerodynamic characteristics do so weakly.

Pilots undergoing training in jet airplanes are taught to

recover at the first sign of an impending stall instead of going
Figure 15-15. Stall progressionsweptwing airplane. beyond those initial cues and into a full stall. Normally, this

15-13
 1
2
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15
-14
 OC
Pre-stall
Relative wind

OC Initial stall

e wind
Relativ

Deep stall
Figure 15-18. Spoilers.

OC
The primary purpose of speed brakes is to produce drag.
wi
nd Speed brakes are found in many sizes, shapes, and locations
ive on different airplanes, but they all have the same purposeto
lat
Re Pitch altitude
assist in rapid deceleration. The speed brake consists of a
Flightpath angle to the horizontal hydraulically-operated board that, when deployed, extends
OC Angle of attack into the airstream. Deploying speed brakes results in a rapid
decrease in airspeed. Typically, speed brakes can be deployed
at any time during flight in order to help control airspeed, but
Figure 15-17. Deep stall progression.
they are most often used only when a rapid deceleration must
be accomplished to slow down to landing gear and flap speeds.
comply with an ATC request to go down and slow down at There is usually a certain amount of noise and buffeting
the same time. Therefore, jet airplanes are equipped with associated with the use of speed brakes, along with an obvious
drag devices, such as spoilers and speed brakes. penalty in fuel consumption. Procedures for the use of spoilers
and/or speed brakes in various situations are contained in the
The primary purpose of spoilers is to spoil lift. The most FAA-approved AFM for the particular airplane.
common type of spoiler consists of one or more rectangular
plates that lie flush with the upper surface of each wing. Thrust Reversers
They are installed approximately parallel to the lateral axis
of the airplane and are hinged along the leading edges. Jet airplanes have high kinetic energy during the landing
When deployed, spoilers deflect up against the relative roll because of weight and speed. This energy is difficult to
wind, which interferes with the flow of air about the dissipate because a jet airplane has low drag with the nose
wing. [Figure 15-18] This both spoils lift and increases drag. wheel on the ground, and the engines continue to produce
Spoilers are usually installed forward of the flaps but not in forward thrust with the power levers at idle. While wheel
front of the ailerons so as not to interfere with roll control. brakes normally can cope, there is an obvious need for
another speed retarding method. This need is satisfied by
Deploying spoilers results in a substantial sink rate with the drag provided by reverse thrust.
little decay in airspeed. Some airplanes exhibit a nose-up
pitch tendency when the spoilers are deployed, which the A thrust reverser is a device fitted in the engine exhaust
pilot must anticipate. system that effectively reverses the flow of the exhaust gases.
The flow does not reverse through 180; however, the final
When spoilers are deployed on landing, most of the wings path of the exhaust gases is about 45 from straight ahead.
lift is destroyed. This action transfers the airplanes weight to This, together with the losses in the reverse flow paths, results
the landing gear so that the wheel brakes are more effective. in a net efficiency of about 50 percent. It produces even less
Another beneficial effect of deploying spoilers on landing is that if the engine rpm is less than maximum in reverse.
they create considerable drag, adding to the overall aerodynamic
braking. The real value of spoilers on landing, however, is Normally, a jet engine has one of two types of thrust reversers:
creating the best circumstances for using wheel brakes. a target reverser or a cascade reverser. [Figure 15-19] Target

15-15
 Target or Clamshell Reverser

Cascade Reverser

Figure 15-19. Thrust reversers.

reversers are simple clamshell doors that swivel from the On most installations, reverse thrust is obtained with the
stowed position at the engine tailpipe to block all of the thrust lever at idle by pulling up the reverse lever to a detent.
outflow and redirect some component of the thrust forward. Doing so positions the reversing mechanisms for operation
but leaves the engine at idle rpm. Further upward and
Cascade reversers are more complex. They are normally backward movement of the reverse lever increases engine
found on turbofan engines and are often designed to reverse power. Reverse is cancelled by closing the reverse lever
only the fan air portion. Blocking doors in the shroud to the idle reverse position, then dropping it fully back to
obstructs forward fan thrust and redirects it through cascade the forward idle position. This last movement operates the
vanes for some reverse component. Cascades are generally reverser back to the forward thrust position.
less effective than target reversers, particularly those that
reverse only fan air, because they do not affect the engine Reverse thrust is much more effective at high airplane speed
core, which continues to produce forward thrust. than at low airplane speeds for two reasons: the net amount of

15-16
reverse thrust increases with speed; and the power produced In many flight conditions, airspeed changes can occur more
is higher at higher speeds because of the increased rate of slowly than in a propeller airplane. This arises from different
doing work. In other words, the kinetic energy of the airplane effects. At high altitudes, the ability to accelerate lessens due
is being destroyed at a higher rate at the higher speeds. To get to the reduction in available thrust. Another effect is the long
maximum efficiency from reverse thrust, therefore, it should spool-up time required from low throttle settings. Some
be used as soon as is prudent after touchdown. aircraft can take on the order of 810 seconds to develop
full thrust when starting from an idle condition. Finally, the
When considering the proper time to apply reverse thrust clean aerodynamic design of a jet can result in smaller than
after touchdown, the pilot should remember that some expected decelerations when thrust is reduced to idle.
airplanes tend to pitch nose up when reverse is selected on
landing and this effect, particularly when combined with the The lack of propeller effect is also responsible for the lower
nose-up pitch effect from the spoilers, can cause the airplane drag increment at the reduced power settings and results in
to leave the ground again momentarily. On these types, the other changes that the pilot will have to become accustomed
airplane must be firmly on the ground with the nose wheel to. These include the lack of effective slipstream over the
down before reverse is selected. Other types of airplanes lifting surfaces and control surfaces, and lack of propeller
have no change in pitch, and reverse idle may be selected torque effect.
after the main gear is down and before the nose wheel is
down. Specific procedures for reverse thrust operation for a The aft mounted engines will cause a different reaction to
particular airplane/engine combination are contained in the power application and may result in a slightly nosedown
FAA-approved AFM for that airplane. pitching tendency with the application of power. On the
other hand, power reduction will not cause pitch changes to
There is a significant difference between reverse pitch on the same extent the pilot is used to in a propeller airplane.
a propeller and reverse thrust on a jet. Idle reverse on a Although neither of these characteristics are radical enough
propeller produces about 60 percent of the reverse thrust to cause transitioning pilots much of a problem, they must
available at full power reverse and is therefore very effective be compensated for.
at this setting when full reverse is not needed. On a jet engine,
however, selecting idle reverse produces very little actual Power settings required to attain a given performance are
reverse thrust. In a jet airplane, the pilot must not only select almost impossible to memorize in the jets, and the pilot who
reverse as soon as reasonable, but then must open up to full feels the necessity for having an array of power settings for
power reverse as soon as possible. Within AFM limitations, all occasions will initially feel at a loss. The only way to
full power reverse should be held until the pilot is certain answer the question of how much power is needed? is
the landing roll is contained within the distance available. by saying, whatever is required to get the job done. The
primary reason that power settings vary so much is because
Inadvertent deployment of thrust reversers while airborne is of the great changes in weight as fuel is consumed during the
a very serious emergency situation. Therefore, thrust reverser flight. Therefore, the pilot will have to learn to use power as
systems are designed with this prospect in mind. The systems needed to achieve the desired performance.
normally contain several lock systems: one to keep reversers
from operating in the air, another to prevent operation with In time, the pilot will find that the only reference to power
the thrust levers out of the idle detent, and/or an auto-stow instruments will be that required to keep from exceeding
circuit to command reverser stowage any time thrust reverser limits of maximum power settings or to synchronize rpm.
deployment would be inappropriate, such as during takeoff and
while airborne. It is essential that pilots understand not only Proper power management is one of the initial problem areas
the normal procedures and limitations of thrust reverser use, encountered by the pilot transitioning into jet airplanes.
but also the procedures for coping with uncommanded reverse. Although smooth power applications are still the rule, the
Those emergencies demand immediate and accurate response. pilot will be aware that a greater physical movement of the
power levers is required as compared to throttle movement
Pilot Sensations in Jet Flying in the piston engines. The pilot will also have to learn to
There are usually three general sensations that the pilot anticipate and lead the power changes more than in the past
transitioning into jets will immediately become aware of. and must keep in mind that the last 30 percent of engine rpm
These are: response differences, increased control sensitivity, represents the majority of the engine thrust, and below that
and a much increased tempo of flight. the application of power has very little effect. In slowing the

15-17
airplane, power reduction must be made sooner because there Jet Airplane Takeoff and Climb
is no longer any propeller drag and the pilot should anticipate
The following information is generic in nature and, since
the need for drag devices.
most civilian jet airplanes require a minimum flight crew
of two pilots, assumes a two pilot crew. If any of the
Control sensitivity will differ between various airplanes, but
following information conflicts with FAA-approved AFM
in all cases, the pilot will find that they are more sensitive to
procedures for a particular airplane, the AFM procedures
any change in control displacement, particularly pitch control,
take precedence. Also, if any of the following procedures
than are the conventional propeller airplanes. Because of the
differ from the FAA-approved procedures developed for use
higher speeds flown, the control surfaces are more effective
by a specific air operator and/or for use in an FAA-approved
and a variation of just a few degrees in pitch attitude in a
training center or pilot school curriculum, the FAA-approved
jet can result in over twice the rate of altitude change that
procedures for that operator and/or training center/pilot
would be experienced in a slower airplane. The sensitive pitch
school take precedence.
control in jet airplanes is one of the first flight differences
that the pilot will notice. Invariably the pilot will have a
All FAA certificated jet airplanes are certificated under Title
tendency to overcontrol pitch during initial training flights.
14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 25, which
The importance of accurate and smooth control cannot be
contains the airworthiness standards for transport category
overemphasized, however, and it is one of the first techniques
airplanes. The FAA-certificated jet airplane is a highly
the transitioning pilot must master.
sophisticated machine with proven levels of performance and
guaranteed safety margins. The jet airplanes performance
The pilot of a sweptwing jet airplane will soon become
and safety margins can only be realized, however, if the
adjusted to the fact that it is necessary and normal to fly at
airplane is operated in strict compliance with the procedures
higher angles of attack. It is not unusual to have about 5
and limitations contained in the FAA-approved AFM for the
of nose-up pitch on an approach to a landing. During an
particular airplane. Furthermore, in accordance with 14 CFR
approach to a stall at constant altitude, the nose-up angle may
part 91, section 91.213, a turbine powered airplane may not be
be as high as 15 to 20. The higher deck angles (pitch angle
operated with inoperable instruments or equipment installed
relative to the ground) on takeoff, which may be as high as
unless an approved Minimum Equipment List (MEL)
15, will also take some getting used to, although this is not
exists for that aircraft, and the aircraft is operated under all
the actual AOA relative to the airflow over the wing.
applicable conditions and limitations contained in the MEL.
The greater variation of pitch attitudes flown in a jet airplane
LhmhltlDptholdmsKhrs`mcBnmftq`shnm
are a result of the greater thrust available and the flight Deviation List
characteristics of the low aspect ratio and sweptwing. Flight
The MEL serves as a reference guide for dispatchers and
at the higher pitch attitudes requires a greater reliance on the
pilots to determine whether takeoff of an aircraft with
flight instruments for airplane control since there is not much
inoperative instruments or equipment is authorized under the
in the way of a useful horizon or other outside reference to
provisions of applicable regulatory requirements.
be seen. Because of the high rates of climb and descent,
high airspeeds, high altitudes and variety of attitudes flown,
The operators MEL must be modeled after the FAAs Master
the jet airplane can only be precisely flown by applying
MEL for each type of aircraft and must be approved by the
proficient instrument flight techniques. Proficiency in
Administrator before its implementation. The MEL includes
attitude instrument flying, therefore, is essential to successful
a General Section, comprised of definitions, general
transition to jet airplane flying.
policies, as well as operational procedures for flight crews and
maintenance personnel. Each aircraft component addressed in
Most jet airplanes are equipped with a thumb operated
the MEL is listed in an alphabetical index for quick reference.
pitch trim button on the control wheel which the pilot must
A table of contents further divides the manual in different
become familiar with as soon as possible. The jet airplane
chapters, each numbered for its corresponding aircraft system
will differ regarding pitch tendencies with the lowering
designation (i.e., the electrical system, also designated as
of flaps, landing gear, and drag devices. With experience,
system number 24, would be found in chapter 24 of the MEL).
the jet airplane pilot will learn to anticipate the amount of
pitch change required for a particular operation. The usual
Maintenance may be deferred only on those aircraft systems
method of operating the trim button is to apply several small,
and components cataloged in the approved MEL. If a
intermittent applications of trim in the direction desired rather
malfunctioning or missing item is not specifically listed in
than holding the trim button for longer periods of time which
the MEL inventory, takeoff is not authorized until the item is
can lead to overcontrolling.

15-18
adequately repaired or replaced. In cases where repairs may An inoperative air condition (A/C) pack might restrict
temporarily be deferred, operation or dispatch of an aircraft a Super 80 or a Boeing 737 to a maximum operating
whose systems have been impaired is often subject to limitations altitude of flight level (FL)250, whereas as a Boeing
or other conditional requirements explicitly articulated in the 757 is only restricted to FL350.
MEL. Such conditional requirements may be of an operational An inoperative Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) will not
nature, a mechanical nature, or both. Operational conditions affect the performance or flying characteristics of an
generally include one or more of the following: aircraft, but it does prompt the operator to verify that
Limited use of aircraft systems ground air and electrical power is available for that
Downgraded instrument flight rule (IFR) landing minima particular type of aircraft at the designated destination
and alternate airports.
Fuel increases due to additional burn, required
automatic power unit (APU) usage or potential fuel A faulty fuel pump in the center tank may lower the
imbalance situations Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW) by the amount
of center tank fuel, as that fuel would otherwise be
Precautionary checks to be performed by the crew trapped and unusable should the remaining fuel pump
prior to departure, or special techniques to be applied fail while in flight. At the same time, the unavailability
while in flight of center tank fuel unmistakably decreases the aircraft
Weight penalties affecting takeoff, cruise, or landing range while perhaps excluding it from operating too
performance (runway limit, climb limit, usable landing far off-shore.
distance reduction, and VREF, takeoff V-speeds, N1/ An inoperable generator (IDG) may require the
EPR adjustments) continuous operation of the APU as an alternate
Specific flight restrictions involving: source of electrical power throughout the entire flight
(and thus more fuel) as it is tasked with assuming the
Authorized areas of operation (clearly defined
function of the defunct generator.
geographical regions)
A failure of the Heads-up Display (HUD) or the
Type of operations (international, extended
auto-pilot may restrict the airplane to higher approach
operations (ETOPS))
minima (taking it out of Category II or Category III
Altitude and airspace (reduced vertical separation authorizations)
minimums (RVSM)
Minimum navigation performance specifications Mechanical conditions outlined in the MEL may require
(MNPS) precautionary pre-flight checks, partial repairs prior to
departure, or the isolation of selected elements of the
Speed (knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) or Mach)
deficient aircraft system (or related interacting systems), as
Routing options (extended overwater, reduced well as the securing of other system components to avoid
navigation capability, High Altitude Redesign further degradation of its operation in flight. The MEL
navigation) may contain either a step-by-step description of required
Environmental conditions (icing, thunderstorms, partial maintenance actions or a list of numerical references
wind shear, daylight, visual meteorological to the Maintenance Procedures Manual (MPM) where
conditions (VMC), turbulence index, cross-wind each corrective procedure is explained in detail. When
component) procedures must be performed to ensure the aircraft can be
safely operated, they are categorized as either Operations
Airport selection (runway surface, length, Procedures or Maintenance Procedures. The MEL will
contamination, and availability of aircraft denote which by indicating an O or an M as appropriate.
maintenance, Airport rescue and firefighting
(ARFF) and ATC services) If operational and mechanical conditions can be met, a
placard is issued and an entry made in the aircraft MEL
Listed below are some examples of both operational and Deferral Record to authorize the operation for a limited time
mechanical situations that may be encountered: before more permanent repairs can be accomplished. The
A defective Ground Proximity Warning System placard is affixed by maintenance personnel or the flight
(GPWS) would require alternate procedures to be crew as appropriate onto the instrument or control mechanism
developed by the operator to mitigate the loss of that otherwise governs the operation of the defective device.
the GPWS and would likely only allow continued
operation for two days.

15-19
In order to use the MEL properly, it is important to clearly V-Speeds
understand its purpose and the timing of its applicability. The following are speeds that affect the jet airplanes takeoff
Because it is designed to provide guidance in determining performance. The jet airplane pilot must be thoroughly
whether a flight can be safely initiated with aircraft equipment familiar with each of these speeds and how they are used in
that is deficient, inoperative, or missing, the MEL is only the planning of the takeoff.
relevant while the aircraft is still on the ground awaiting
VSstalling speed or minimum steady flight speed
departure or takeoff. It is essentially a dispatching reference
at which the airplane is controllable.
tool used in support of all applicable Federal Aviation
Regulations. If dispatchers are not required by the Operators V1critical engine failure speed or takeoff decision
certificate, flight crews still need to refer to the MEL before speed. It is the speed at which the pilot is to continue
dispatching themselves and ensure that the flight is planned the takeoff in the event of an engine failure or
and conducted within the operating limits set forth in the other serious emergency. At speeds less than V1,
MEL. However, once the aircraft is airborne, any mechanical it is considered safer to stop the aircraft within the
failure should be addressed using the appropriate checklists accelerate-stop distance. It is also the minimum speed
and approved AFM, not the MEL. Although nothing could in the takeoff, following a failure of the critical engine
technically keep a pilot from referring to the MEL for at VEF, at which the pilot can continue the takeoff and
background information and documentation to support his achieve the required height above the takeoff surface
decisions, his actions must be based strictly on instructions within the takeoff distance.
provided by the AFM (i.e., Abnormal or Emergency sections). VEF speed at which the critical engine is assumed to
fail during takeoff. This speed is used during aircraft
A Configuration Deviation List (CDL) is used in the same certification.
manner as a MEL but it differs in that it addresses missing
VRrotation speed, or speed at which the rotation
external parts of the aircraft rather than failing internal
of the airplane is initiated to takeoff attitude. This
systems and their constituent parts. They typically include
speed cannot be less than V1 or less than 1.05 VMCA
elements, such as service doors, power receptacle doors,
(minimum control speed in the air). On a single-engine
slat track doors, landing gear doors, APU ram air doors,
takeoff, it must also allow for the acceleration to V2
flaps fairings, nose wheel spray deflectors, position light
at the 35-foot height at the end of the runway.
lens covers, slat segment seals, static dischargers, etc. Each
CDL item has a corresponding AFM number that identifies VLOFlift-off speed, or speed at which the airplane
successively the system number, sub-system number, and first becomes airborne. This is an engineering term
item number. Flight limitations derived from open CDL items used when the airplane is certificated and must meet
typically involve some kind of weight penalty and/or fuel certain requirements. If it is not listed in the AFM, it
tax due to increased drag and a net performance decrement, is within requirements and does not have to be taken
although some environmental restrictions may also be of into consideration by the pilot.
concern in a few isolated cases. For example, a missing V2takeoff safety speed means a referenced airspeed
nose wheel spray deflector (Super 80 aircraft) requires dry obtained after lift-off at which the required one-engine-
runways for both takeoff and landing. inoperative climb performance can be achieved.

Each page of the MEL/CDL is divided into 6 columns. From Pre-Takeoff Procedures
left to right, these columns normally display the following Takeoff data, including V1/VR and V2 speeds, takeoff power
information: settings, and required field length should be computed prior
Functional description/identification of the inoperative to each takeoff and recorded on a takeoff data card. This data
or missing aircraft equipment item is based on airplane weight, runway length available, runway
gradient, field temperature, field barometric pressure, wind,
Normal complement of equipment (number installed)
icing conditions, and runway condition. Both pilots should
Minimum equipment required for departure (number separately compute the takeoff data and cross-check in the
of items) cockpit with the takeoff data card.
Conditions required for flight/dispatch including
maintenance action required (M) by mechanics A captains briefing is an essential part of crew resource
or other authorized maintenance personnel and management (CRM) procedures and should be accomplished
operational procedures or restrictions (O) to be just prior to takeoff. [Figure 15-20] The captains briefing is
observed by the flight crew an opportunity to review crew coordination procedures for

15-20
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15
-21
power, they should not be readjusted after 60 knots. Retarding unsuspected equipment on the runway, bird strike, blown
a thrust lever would only be necessary in case an engine tires, direct instructions from the governing ATC authority,
exceeds any limitation, such as ITT, fan, or turbine rpm. or recognition of a significant abnormality (split airspeed
indications, activation of a warning horn, etc.).
If sufficient runway length is available, a rolling takeoff
may be made without stopping at the end of the runway. Ill-advised rejected takeoff decisions by flight crews and
Using this procedure, as the airplane rolls onto the runway, improper pilot technique during the execution of a rejected
the thrust levers should be smoothly advanced to the takeoff contribute to a majority of takeoff-related commercial
recommended intermediate power setting and the engines aviation accidents worldwide. Statistically, although only 2
allowed to stabilize, and then proceed as in the static takeoff percent of rejected takeoffs are in this category, high-speed
outlined above. Rolling takeoffs can also be made from the aborts above 120 knots account for the vast majority of RTO
end of the runway by advancing the thrust levers from idle overrun accidents. Four out of five rejected takeoffs occur
as the brakes are released. at speeds below 80 knots and generally come to a safe and
successful conclusion.
During the takeoff roll, the pilot flying should concentrate on
directional control of the airplane. This is made somewhat The kinetic energy of any aircraft (and thus the deceleration
easier because there is no torque produced yawing in a jet as power required to stop it) increases with aircraft weight
there is in a propeller-driven airplane. The airplane must be and the square of the aircraft speed. Therefore, an increase
maintained exactly on centerline with the wings level. This in weight has a lesser impact on kinetic energy than a
automatically aids the pilot when contending with an engine proportional increase in groundspeed. A 10 percent increase
failure. If a crosswind exists, the wings should be kept level in takeoff weight produces roughly a 10 percent increase in
by displacing the control wheel into the crosswind. During kinetic energy, while a 10 percent increase in speed results in
the takeoff roll, the primary responsibility of the pilot not a 21 percent increase in kinetic energy. Hence, it should be
flying is to closely monitor the aircraft systems and to call stressed during pilot training that time (delayed decision or
out the proper V speeds as directed in the captains briefing. reaction) equals higher speed (to the tune of at least 4 knots
per second for most jets), and higher speed equals longer
Slight forward pressure should be held on the control column stopping distance. A couple of seconds can be the difference
to keep the nose wheel rolling firmly on the runway. If between running out of runway and coming to a safe halt.
nose-wheel steering is being utilized, the pilot flying should Because weight ceases to be a variable once the doors are
monitor the nose-wheel steering to about 80 knots (or VMCG closed, the throttles are pushed forward and the airplane is
for the particular airplane) while the pilot not flying applies launching down the runway, all focus should be on timely
the forward pressure. After reaching VMCG, the pilot flying recognition and speed control.
should bring his or her left hand up to the control wheel. The
pilots other hand should be on the thrust levers until at least The decision to abort takeoff should not be attempted beyond
V1 speed is attained. Although the pilot not flying maintains the calculated V1, unless there is reason to suspect that the
a check on the engine instruments throughout the takeoff airplanes ability to fly has been impaired or is threatened
roll, the pilot flying (pilot in command) makes the decision to cease shortly after takeoff (for example on-board fire,
to continue or reject a takeoff for any reason. A decision to smoke, or identifiable toxic fumes). If a serious failure or
reject a takeoff requires immediate retarding of thrust levers. malfunction occurs beyond takeoff decision speed (V1), but
the airplanes ability to fly is not in question, takeoff must
The pilot not flying should call out V1. After passing V1 generally continue.
speed on the takeoff roll, it is no longer mandatory for the
pilot flying to keep a hand on the thrust levers. The point for It is paramount to remember that FAA-approved takeoff data
abort has passed, and both hands may be placed on the control for any aircraft is based on aircraft performance demonstrated
wheel. As the airspeed approaches VR, the control column in ideal conditions, using a clean, dry runway, and maximum
should be moved to a neutral position. As the pre-computed braking (reverse thrust is not used to compute stopping
VR speed is attained, the pilot not flying should make the distance). In reality, stopping performance can be further
appropriate callout, and the pilot flying should smoothly degraded by an array of factors as diversified as:
rotate the airplane to the appropriate takeoff pitch attitude. Runway friction (grooved/non-grooved)

Rejected Takeoff Mechanical runway contaminants (rubber, oily

Every takeoff could potentially result in a rejected takeoff residue, debris)
(RTO) for a variety of reasons: engine failure, fire or smoke,

15-22
 Natural contaminants (standing water, snow, slush, b) Minimum V1. The minimum permissible V1 speed for
ice, dust) the reference conditions from which the takeoff can
Wind direction and velocity be safely completed from a given runway, or runway
and clearway, after the critical engine had failed at the
Air density designated speed.
Flaps configuration c) Maximum V1. That maximum possible V1 speed for
Bleed air configuration the reference conditions at which a rejected takeoff
can be initiated and the airplane stopped within the
Underinflated or failing tires
remaining runway, or runway and stopway.
Penalizing MEL or CDL items
d) Reduced V1. A V1 less than maximum V1 or the
Deficient wheel brakes or RTO auto-brakes normal V1, but more than the minimum V1, selected
Inoperative anti-skid to reduce the RTO stopping distance required.
Pilot technique and individual proficiency
The main purpose for using a reduced V1 is to properly adjust
the RTO stopping distance in light of the degraded stopping
Because performance conditions used to determine V1 do
capability associated with wet or contaminated runways,
not necessarily consider all variables of takeoff performance,
while adding approximately 2 seconds of recognition time
operators and aircraft manufacturers generally agree that
for the crew.
the term takeoff decision speed is ambiguous at best.
By definition, it would suggest that the decision to abort
Most aircraft manufacturers recommend that operators
or continue can be made upon reaching the calculated V1,
identify a low-speed regime (i.e., 80 knots and below)
and invariably result in a safe takeoff or RTO maneuver if
and a high-speed regime (i.e., 100 knots and above) of
initiated at that point in time. In fact, taking into account the
the takeoff run. In the low speed regime, pilots should
pilots response time, the Go/No Go decision must be made
abort takeoff for any malfunction or abnormality (actual
before V1 so that deceleration can begin no later than V1. If
or suspected). In the high speed regime, takeoff should
braking has not begun by V1, the decision to continue the
only be rejected because of catastrophic malfunctions or
takeoff is made by default. Delaying the RTO maneuver by
life-threatening situations. Pilots must weigh the threat
just one second beyond V1 increases the speed 4 to 6 knots
against the risk of overshooting the runway during a RTO
on average. Knowing that crews require 3 to 7 seconds to
maneuver. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) should
identify an impending RTO and execute the maneuver, it
be tailored to include a speed callout during the transition
stands to reason that a decision should be made prior to V1 in
from low-speed to high-speed regime, the timing of which
order to ensure a successful outcome of the rejected takeoff.
serves to remind pilots of the impending critical window of
This prompted the FAA to expand on the regulatory definition
decision-making, to provide them with a last opportunity to
of V1 and to introduce a couple of new terms through the
crosscheck their instruments, to verify their airspeed, and to
publication of Advisory Circular (AC) 120-62, Takeoff
confirm that adequate takeoff thrust is set, while at the same
Safety Training Aid.
time performing a pilot incapacitation check through the
challenge and response ritual. Ideally, two callouts would
The expanded definition of V1 is as follows:
enhance a crews preparedness during takeoff operations. A
a) V1. The speed selected for each takeoff, based upon first callout at the high end of the low-speed regime would
approved performance data and specified conditions, announce the beginning of the transition from low speed
which represents: to high-speed, alerting the crew that they have entered a
(1) The maximum speed by which a rejected takeoff short phase of extreme vigilance where the Go/No Go
must be initiated to assure that a safe stop can must imminently be decided. A second callout made at the
be completed within the remaining runway, or beginning of the high-speed regime would signify the end
runway and stopway; of the transition, thus the end of the decision-making. Short
of some catastrophic failure, the crew is then committed to
(2) The minimum speed which assures that a takeoff continue the takeoff.
can be safely completed within the remaining
runway, or runway and clearway, after failure of Proper use of brakes should be emphasized in training, as
the most critical engine the designated speed; and they have the most stopping power during a rejected takeoff.
(3) The single speed which permits a successful stop or However, experience has shown that the initial tendency
continued takeoff when operating at the minimum of a flight crew is to use normal after-landing braking
allowable field length for a particular weight. during a rejected takeoff. Delaying the intervention of the

15-23
primary deceleration force during a RTO maneuver, when to takeoff pitch attitude exactly at VR so that the airplane
every second counts, could be costly in terms of required accelerates through VLOF and attains V2 speed at 35 feet
stopping distance. Instead of braking after the throttles are AGL. Rotation to the proper takeoff attitude too soon may
retarded and the spoilers are deployed (normal landing), extend the takeoff roll or cause an early lift-off, which results
pilots must apply maximum braking immediately while in a lower rate of climb and the predicted flightpath will not
simultaneously retarding the throttles, with spoilers extension be followed. A late rotation, on the other hand, results in a
and thrust reversers deployment following in short sequence. longer takeoff roll, exceeding V2 speed, and a takeoff and
Differential braking applied to maintain directional control climb path below the predicted path.
also diminishes the effectiveness of the brakes. And finally,
not only does a blown tire eliminate any kind of braking Each airplane has its own specific takeoff pitch attitude that
action on that particular tire, but it could also lead to the remains constant regardless of weight. The takeoff pitch
failure of adjacent tires, and thus further impairing the attitude in a jet airplane is normally between 10 and 15
airplanes ability to stop. nose up. The rotation to takeoff pitch attitude should be made
smoothly but deliberately and at a constant rate. Depending
In order to better assist flight crews in making a split second on the particular airplane, the pilot should plan on a rate of
Go/No Go decision during a high speed takeoff run, and pitch attitude increase of approximately 2.5 to 3 per second.
subsequently avoid an otherwise unnecessary but risky
high speed RTO, some commercial aircraft manufacturers In training, it is common for the pilot to overshoot VR and
have gone as far as inhibiting aural or visual malfunction then overshoot V2 because the pilot not flying calls for
warnings of non-critical equipment beyond a preset speed. rotation at or just past VR. The reaction of the pilot flying
The purpose is to prevent an overreaction by the crew and a is to visually verify VR and then rotate. The airplane then
tendency to select a risky high-speed RTO maneuver over leaves the ground at or above V2. The excess airspeed may be
a safer takeoff with a non-critical malfunction. Indeed, the of little concern on a normal takeoff, but a delayed rotation
successful outcome of a rejected takeoff, one that concludes can be critical when runway length or obstacle clearance is
without damage or injury, does not necessarily point to the limited. It should be remembered that on some airplanes, the
best decision-making by the flight crew. all-engine takeoff can be more limiting than the engine-out
takeoff in terms of obstacle clearance in the initial part of the
In summary, a rejected takeoff should be perceived as an climb-out. This is because of the rapidly increasing airspeed
emergency. RTO safety could be vastly improved by: causing the achieved flightpath to fall below the engine out
Developing SOPs aiming to advance the expanded scheduled flightpath unless care is taken to fly the correct
FAA definitions of takeoff decision speed and their speeds. The transitioning pilot should remember that rotation
practical application, including the use of progressive at the right speed and rate to the right attitude gets the airplane
callouts to identify transition from low-to high-speed off the ground at the right speed and within the right distance.
regime.
Initial Climb
Promoting situational awareness and better recognition Once the proper pitch attitude is attained, it must be
of emergency versus abnormal situations through maintained. The initial climb after lift-off is done at this
enhanced CRM training. constant pitch attitude. Takeoff power is maintained and
Encouraging crews to carefully consider variables that the airspeed allowed to accelerate. Landing gear retraction
may seriously affect or even compromise available should be accomplished after a positive rate of climb has been
aircraft performance data. established and confirmed. Remember that in some airplanes
Expanding practical training in the proper use of gear retraction may temporarily increase the airplane drag
brakes, throttles, spoilers, and reverse thrust during while landing gear doors open. Premature gear retraction may
RTO demonstrations. cause the airplane to settle back towards the runway surface.
Remember also that because of ground effect, the vertical
Encouraging aircraft manufacturers to eliminate non- speed indicator and the altimeter may not show a positive
critical malfunction warnings during the takeoff roll climb until the airplane is 35 to 50 feet above the runway.
at preset speeds.
The climb pitch attitude should continue to be held and
Rotation and Lift-Off the airplane allowed to accelerate to flap retraction speed.
Rotation and lift-off in a jet airplane should be considered However, the flaps should not be retracted until obstruction
a maneuver unto itself. It requires planning, precision, and clearance altitude or 400 feet AGL has been passed. Ground
a fine control touch. The objective is to initiate the rotation effect and landing gear drag reduction results in rapid

15-24
acceleration during this phase of the takeoff and climb. baseline landing distance on a dry, level runway at standard
Airspeed, altitude, climb rate, attitude, and heading must temperatures without using thrust reversers, auto brakes, or
be monitored carefully. When the airplane settles down to a auto-land systems. In order to meet regulatory requirements
steady climb, longitudinal stick forces can be trimmed out. however, a safety margin of 67 percent is added to the
If a turn must be made during this phase of flight, no more unfactored dry landing distance in the FAA-approved AFM,
than 15 to 20 of bank should be used. Because of spiral after applicable adjustments are made for environmental and
instability and, because at this point an accurate trim state aircraft conditions (MEL/CDL penalties). This corrected
on rudder and ailerons has not yet been achieved, the bank length is then referred to as the factored dry-landing distance
angle should be carefully monitored throughout the turn. If or the minimum dry-landing field length. [Figure 15-22]
a power reduction must be made, pitch attitude should be
reduced simultaneously and the airplane monitored carefully For minimum wet-landing field length, the factored dry-
so as to preclude entry into an inadvertent descent. When landing distance is increased by an additional 15 percent.
the airplane has attained a steady climb at the appropriate Thus, the minimum dry runway field length is 1.67 times
en route climb speed, it can be trimmed about all axes and the actual minimum air and ground distance needed, and the
the autopilot engaged. wet runway minimum landing field length is 1.92 times the
minimum dry air and ground distance needed.
Jet Airplane Approach and Landing
Landing Requirements Certified landing field length requirements are computed for
The FAA landing field length requirements for jet airplanes the stop made with speed brakes deployed and maximum
are specified in 14 CFR part 25. It defines the minimum wheel braking. Reverse thrust is not used in establishing
field length (and therefore minimum margins) that can be the certified landing distances; however, reversers should
scheduled. The regulation describes the landing profile as the definitely be used in service.
horizontal distance required to land and come to a complete
Landing Speeds
stop on a dry surface runway from a point 50 feet above
the runway threshold, through the flare and touchdown, As in the takeoff planning, there are certain speeds that must
using the maximum stopping capability of the aircraft. The be taken into consideration when landing a jet airplane. The
unfactored or certified landing distance is determined during speeds are as follows:
aircraft certification. As such, it may be different from the VSOstall speed in the landing configuration
actual landing distance because certification regulations do V REF1.3 times the stall speed in the landing
not take into account all factors that could potentially affect configuration
landing distance. The unfactored landing distance is the

VREF 1.3 VS

50 ft
TD

Actual distance 60 40

FAR (dry) runway field length required 15

1.67 actual distance

FAR (wet) runway field length required

1.15 FAR (dry)
or
1.92 actual distance

Figure 15-22. FAR landing field length required.

15-25
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15
-26
 Poor acceleration response in a jet engine from low The five basic elements to the stabilized approach are listed
rpm. This characteristic requires that the approach be below.
flown in a high drag/high power configuration so that The airplane should be in the landing configuration
sufficient power is available quickly if needed. early in the approach. The landing gear should be
The increased momentum of the jet airplane making down, landing flaps selected, trim set, and fuel
sudden changes in the flightpath impossible. Jet balanced. Ensuring that these tasks are completed
airplanes are consistently heavier than comparable helps keep the number of variables to a minimum
sized propeller airplanes. The jet airplane, therefore, during the final approach.
requires more indicated airspeed during the final The airplane should be on profile before descending
approach due to a wing design that is optimized for below 1,000 feet. Configuration, trim, speed, and
higher speeds. These two factors combine to produce glidepath should be at or near the optimum parameters
higher momentum for the jet airplane. Since force is early in the approach to avoid distractions and
required to overcome momentum for speed changes conflicts as the airplane nears the threshold window.
or course corrections, the jet is far less responsive than An optimum glidepath angle of 2.5 to 3 should be
the propeller airplane and requires careful planning established and maintained.
and stable conditions throughout the approach.
Indicated airspeed should be within 10 knots of the
The lack of good speed stability being an inducement target airspeed. There are strong relationships between
to a low-speed condition. The drag curve for many jet trim, speed, and power in most jet airplanes, and it is
airplanes is much flatter than for propeller airplanes, important to stabilize the speed in order to minimize
so speed changes do not produce nearly as much drag those other variables.
change. Further, jet thrust remains nearly constant
with small speed changes. The result is far less speed The optimum descent rate should be 500 to 700 fpm.
stability. When the speed does increase or decrease, The descent rate should not be allowed to exceed 1,000
there is little tendency for the jet airplane to re-acquire fpm at any time during the approach.
the original speed. The pilot, therefore, must remain The engine speed should be at an rpm that allows best
alert to the necessity of making speed adjustments, response when and if a rapid power increase is needed.
and then make them aggressively in order to remain
on speed. Every approach should be evaluated at 500 feet. In a typical
Drag increasing faster than lift producing a high sink jet airplane, this is approximately 1 minute from touchdown.
rate at low speeds. Jet airplane wings typically have a If the approach is not stabilized at that height, a go-around
large increase in drag in the approach configuration. should be initiated. [Figure 15-24]
When a sink rate does develop, the only immediate
remedy is to increase pitch attitude (AOA). Because Approach Speed
drag increases faster than lift, that pitch change On final approach, the airspeed is controlled with power. Any
rapidly contributes to an even greater sink rate unless speed diversion from VREF on final approach must be detected
a significant amount of power is aggressively applied. immediately and corrected. With experience, the pilot is able
to detect the very first tendency of an increasing or decreasing
These flying characteristics of jet airplanes make a stabilized airspeed trend, which normally can be corrected with a small
approach an absolute necessity. adjustment in thrust. It is imperative the pilot does not allow
the airspeed to decrease below the target approach speed
Stabilized Approach or a high sink rate can develop. Remember that with an
The performance charts and the limitations contained in the increasing sink rate, an apparently normal pitch attitude is no
FAA-approved AFM are predicated on momentum values guarantee of a normal AOA value. If an increasing sink rate
that result from programmed speeds and weights. Runway is detected, it must be countered by increasing the AOA and
length limitations assume an exact 50-foot threshold height simultaneously increasing thrust to counter the extra drag.
at an exact speed of 1.3 times VSO. That window is critical The degree of correction required depends on how much the
and is a prime reason for the stabilized approach. Performance sink rate needs to be reduced. For small amounts, smooth and
figures also assume that once through the target threshold gentle, almost anticipatory corrections is sufficient. For large
window, the airplane touches down in a target touchdown sink rates, drastic corrective measures may be required that,
zone approximately 1,000 feet down the runway, after which even if successful, would destabilize the approach.
maximum stopping capability is used.

15-27
 1,000' window

500' window

Threshold
window

Flare
1,000'

Stop Rollout Touchdown Check Stabilized

for stablized approach on
50' VREF approach course on speed
2.5 3 glidepath
500 700 FPM
decent

Figure 15-24. Stabilized approach.

A common error in the performance of approaches in jet beyond the normal aiming point. An extra 50 feet of height
airplanes is excess approach speed. Excess approach speed over the threshold adds approximately 1,000 feet to the
carried through the threshold window and onto the runway landing distance. It is essential that the airplane arrive at
increases the minimum stopping distance required by 2030 the approach threshold window exactly on altitude (50 feet
feet per knot of excess speed for a dry runway and 4050 feet above the runway).
for a wet runway. Worse yet, the excess speed increases the
chances of an extended flare, which increases the distance The Flare
to touchdown by approximately 250 feet for each excess The flare reduces the approach rate of descent to a more
knot in speed. acceptable rate for touchdown. Unlike light airplanes, a
jet airplane should be flown onto the runway rather than
Proper speed control on final approach is of primary held off the surface as speed dissipates. A jet airplane is
importance. The pilot must anticipate the need for speed aerodynamically clean even in the landing configuration, and
adjustment so that only small adjustments are required. It is its engines still produce residual thrust at idle rpm. Holding
essential that the airplane arrive at the approach threshold it off during the flare in an attempt to make a smooth landing
window exactly on speed. greatly increases landing distance. A firm landing is normal
and desirable. A firm landing does not mean a hard landing,
Glidepath Control but rather a deliberate or positive landing.
On final approach at a constant airspeed, the glidepath angle
and rate of descent is controlled with pitch attitude and For most airports, the airplane passes over the end of the
elevator. The optimum glidepath angle is 2.5 to 3 whether runway with the landing gear 3045 feet above the surface,
or not an electronic glidepath reference is being used. On depending on the landing flap setting and the location of
visual approaches, pilots may have a tendency to make flat the touchdown zone. It takes 57 seconds from the time the
approaches. A flat approach, however, increases landing airplane passes the end of the runway until touchdown. The
distance and should be avoided. For example, an approach flare is initiated by increasing the pitch attitude just enough
angle of 2 instead of a recommended 3 adds 500 feet to to reduce the sink rate to 100200 fpm when the landing
landing distance. gear is approximately 15 feet above the runway surface. In
most jet airplanes, this requires a pitch attitude increase of
A more common error is excessive height over the threshold. only 1 to 3. The thrust is smoothly reduced to idle as the
This could be the result of an unstable approach or a stable flare progresses.
but high approach. It also may occur during an instrument
approach where the missed approach point is close to or at The normal speed bleed off during the time between passing
the runway threshold. Regardless of the cause, excessive the end of the runway and touchdown is 5 knots. Most of
height over the threshold most likely results in a touchdown the decrease occurs during the flare when thrust is reduced.

15-28
Ifthef l
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15
-29
stop must be made on the runway that remains in front of the but more importantly, they spoil much of the lift the wing is
airplane. The runway distance available to stop is longest if creating, thereby causing more of the weight of the airplane to
the touchdown was on target. The energy to be dissipated is be loaded onto the wheels. The spoilers increase wheel loading
least if there is no excess speed. The stop that begins with a by as much as 200 percent in the landing flap configuration.
touchdown that is on the numbers is the easiest stop to make This increases the tire ground friction force making the
for any set of conditions. maximum tire braking and cornering forces available.

At the point of touchdown, the airplane represents a very large Like spoilers, thrust reversers are most effective at high
mass that is moving at a relatively high speed. The large total speeds and should be deployed quickly after touchdown.
energy must be dissipated by the brakes, the aerodynamic However, the pilot should not command significant reverse
drag, and the thrust reversers. The nose wheel should be thrust until the nose wheel is on the ground. Otherwise,
flown onto the ground immediately after touchdown because the reversers might deploy asymmetrically resulting in an
a jet airplane decelerates poorly when held in a nose-high uncontrollable yaw towards the side on which the most
attitude. Placing the nose wheel tire(s) on the ground assists reverse thrust is being developed, in which case the pilot
in maintaining directional control. Also, lowering the nose needs whatever nose-wheel steering is available to maintain
gear decreases the wing AOA, decreasing the lift, placing directional control.
more load onto the tires, thereby increasing tire-to-ground
friction. Landing distance charts for jet airplanes assume that Key Points
the nose wheel is lowered onto the runway within 4 seconds Many LSAs have airframe designs that are conducive to high
of touchdown. drag which, when combined with their low mass, results in
low inertia. When attempting a crosswind landing in a high
There are only three forces available for stopping the airplane: drag LSA, a rapid reduction in airspeed prior to touchdown
wheel braking, reverse thrust, and aerodynamic braking. Of may result in a loss of rudder and/or aileron control, which
the three, the brakes are most effective and therefore the may push the aircraft off of the runway heading. This is
most important stopping force for most landings. When because as the air slows across the control surfaces, the
the runway is very slippery, reverse thrust and drag may be LSAs controls become ineffective. To avoid loss of control,
the dominant forces. Both reverse thrust and aerodynamic maintain airspeed during the approach to keep the air moving
drag are most effective at high speeds. Neither is affected over the control surfaces until the aircraft is on the ground.
by runway surface condition. Brakes, on the other hand, are
most effective at low speed. The landing rollout distance LSAs with an open cockpit, easy build characteristics, low
depends on the touchdown speed, what forces are applied, cost, and simplicity of operation and maintenance tend to
and when they are applied. The pilot controls the what and be less aerodynamic and, therefore, incur more drag. The
when factors, but the maximum braking force may be limited powerplant in these aircraft usually provide excess power
by tire-to-ground friction. and exhibit desirable performance. However, when power is
reduced, it may be necessary to lower the nose of the aircraft
The pilot should begin braking as soon after touchdown to a fairly low pitch attitude in order to maintain airspeed,
and wheel spin-up as possible, and to smoothly continue especially during landings and engine failure.
the braking until stopped or a safe taxi speed is reached.
However, caution should be used if the airplane is not If the pilot makes a power off approach to landing, the
equipped with a functioning anti-skid system. In such a approach angle will be high and the landing flare will
case, heavy braking can cause the wheels to lock and the need to be close to the ground with minimum float. This is
tires to skid. because the aircraft will lose airspeed quickly in the flare
and will not float like a more efficiently designed aircraft.
Both directional control and braking utilize tire ground Too low of an airspeed during the landing flare may lead
friction. They share the maximum friction force the to insufficient energy to arrest the decent which may result
tires can provide. Increasing either subtracts from the in a hard landing. Maintaining power during the approach
other. Understanding tire ground friction, how runway will result in a reduced angle of attack and will extend the
contamination affects it, and how to use the friction available landing flare allowing more time to make adjustments to
to maximum advantage is important to a jet pilot. the aircraft during the landing. Always remember that rapid
power reductions require an equally rapid reduction in pitch
Spoilers should be deployed immediately after touchdown attitude to maintain airspeed.
because they are most effective at high speed. Timely
deployment of spoilers increases drag by 50 to 60 percent,

15-30
In the event of an engine failure in an LSA, quickly transition
to the required nose-down flight attitude in order to maintain
airspeed. For example, if the aircraft has a power-off glide
angle of 30 degrees below the horizon, position the aircraft
to a nose-down 30 degree attitude as quickly as possible. The
higher the pitch attitude is when the engine failure occurs, the
quicker the aircraft will lose airspeed and the more likely the
aircraft is to stall. Should a stall occur, decrease the aircrafts
pitch attitude rapidly in order to increase airspeed to allow
for a recovery. Stalls that occur at low altitudes are especially
dangerous because the closer to the ground the stall occurs, the
less time there is to recover. For this reason, when climbing
at a low altitude, excessive pitch attitude is discouraged.

Chapter Summary
There are many considerations for a pilot when transitioning
to jet powered airplanes. In addition to the information
found in this chapter and type specific information that will
be found in an FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual, a
pilot can find basic aerodynamic information for swept-
wing jets, considerations for operating at high altitudes,
and airplane upset causes and general recovery procedures
in the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid, Supplement,
pages 1-14, and all of Section 2 found at www.faa.gov/
other_visit/aviation_industry/airline_operators/training/
media/ap_upsetrecovery_book.pdf.

15-31
15-32
Chapter 16

Transition to Light
Sport Airplanes (LSA)
Introduction
Transitioning into a light sport airplane (LSA) requires the
same methodical training approach as transitioning into any
other airplane. A pilot should never attempt to fly another
airplane that is different than the pilots current certification,
experience, training, proficiency, or currency without proper
training. Some pilots may be lulled into a false sense of
security because LSAs seem to be simple. However, a pilot
seeking a transition into light sport flying should follow
a systematic, structured LSA training course under the
guidance of a competent instructor with recent experience
in the specific training airplane.

The light sport category is not a new type of airplane. It is a

classification that intends to broaden the access of flight to
more people. LSA has been defined as a simple-to-operate,
easy-to-fly aircraft; however, simple-to-operate and easy-
to-fly does not negate the need for proper and effective
training. This chapter introduces the light sport category of
aircraft and places emphasis on LSA transition.

16-1
1
166-1
-1
Light Sport Airplane (LSA) Background Maximum speed in level flight at maximum continuous
power of 120 knots calibrated airspeed (CAS)
Several groups were instrumental in the development
and success of the LSA concept. These included the Maximum stall speed of 45 knots. [Figure 16-2]
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Light Aircraft
Manufacturers Association, American Society for Testing and The LSA category includes standard, special, and experimental
Materials (ASTM) International, and countless individuals designations. Some standard airworthiness certificated
who promoted the concept since the early 1990s. In 2004, aircraft (i.e., a Piper J-2 or J-3) may meet Title 14 of the
the FAA released a rule that created the LSA category, Code of Federal Regulation (14 CFR) 1.1 definition of LSA.
which covers a wide variety of aircraft including: airplane, Type certificated aircraft that continue to meet the CFR 1.1
gyroplane, lighter-than-air, weight-shift-control, glider, and definition of LSA allows for that type certificated aircraft
powered parachute. [Figure 16-1] to be flown by a pilot who holds a Sport Pilot certificate.
The Sport Pilot certificate is discussed later in this chapter.
The primary concept of the LSA is built around a defined Aircraft that are specifically manufactured for the LSA market
set of standards: are included in either the Special (S-LSA) or Experimental
(E-LSA) designations. An approved S-LSA is manufactured
Powered (if powered) by single reciprocating engine
in a ready-to-fly condition and an E-LSA is either a kit or
Fixed landing gear, seaplanes are excluded plans-built aircraft based on an approved S-LSA model.
Fixed pitch or ground adjustable propeller
It is important to note that S-LSAs or E-LSAs are not type
Maximum takeoff weight of 1,320 pounds for
certificated by the FAA and are not required to meet any
landplane, 1,430 for seaplane
airworthiness requirements of 14 CFR part 23. Instead,
Maximum of two occupants S-LSA and E-LSA aircraft are designed and manufactured in
Non-pressurized cabin accordance with ASTM Committee F-37 Industry Consensus
Standards. Therefore, LSA aircraft designs are not subjected
to the scrutiny, demands, and testing of FAA standard
airworthiness certification. Industry Consensus Standards are
intended to be less costly and less restrictive than 14 CFR part
23 certification requirements and, as a result, manufacturers
have greater latitude with their designs. ASTM Industry
Consensus Standards were accepted by the FAA in 2005,
which established for the first time that the FAA accepted
industry-developed standards rather than its own standards
for the design and manufacture of aircraft.

ASTM Industry Consensus Standards for LSA airplanes

covers the following areas:
Design and performance
Required equipment
Quality assurance
Production acceptance tests
Aircraft operating instructions
Maintenance and inspection procedures
Identification and recording of major repairs and major
alterations
Continued airworthiness
Manufacturers assembly instructions (E-LSA aircraft)

Figure 16-1. The LSA category covers a wide variety of aircraft Using the ASTM Industry Consensus Standards, an LSA
including: A) airplane, B) gyroplane, C) lighter-than-air, D) weight- manufacturer can design and manufacture their aircraft
shift-control, E) glider, and F) powered parachute. and assess its compliance to the consensus standards. The

16-2
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16
-3
ratings. For example, a commercial pilot with exclusively a locate a flight instructor that has verifiable experience in LSA
rotorcraft rating cannot pilot an LSA airplane. instruction. Considerations for selecting a flight instructor
are similar to any other flight training; however, some clarity
Pilots who hold a recreational, private, commercial, or airline around selecting a flight instructor is needed. The Sport Pilot
transport pilot certificate with the appropriate category and rule allows for a new flight instructor certificate, the CFI-S.
class ratings but do not hold a current medical certificate The CFRs limit a CFI-S to instruction only in LSAsa CFI-S
may fly LSAs as long as the pilot holds a valid U.S. drivers cannot give instruction in a non-LSA airplane (i.e., a Cessna
license as evidence of medical eligibility; however, if the 150). However, a flight instructor certificated as a CFI-A can
pilots most recent medical certificate was denied, revoked, give instruction in LSA, as well as instruction in non-LSA
suspended, or withdrawn, a U.S. drivers license is not airplanes for which the flight instructor is rated. It is important
sufficient for medical eligibility. In this case, the pilot would to note that a CFI-S or a CFI-A should not be the criteria for
be prohibited from flying an LSA until the pilot could be selecting an LSA flight instructor. A CFI-S with teaching
issued a third class medical. experience in LSA is the correct choice compared to a CFI-A,
which has minimal teaching experience in LSA airplanes.
Transition Training Considerations
Flight School A transitioning LSA pilot should ask the flight instructor to
The LSA category has created new business opportunities for make available for review their LSA curriculum, syllabus,
flight school operators. Many owners and operators of flight lesson plans, as well the process for tracking a pilots
schools have embraced the concept of LSA aircraft and have progress though the transition training program. Depending
LSAs available on their flight line for flight instruction and on the transitioning pilots experience, currency, and type of
rental. An S-LSA may be rented to students for flight training airplane typically flown, the flight instructor should make
and rented to rated pilots for pleasure flying. While S-LSAs adjustments, as appropriate, to the LSA training curriculum.
cannot be used for compensation or hire (such as charter A suggested LSA transition training outline is presented:
however, there are some exceptions), their low cost of CFR review as pertaining to LSAs and Sport Pilots
operation, frugal fuel usage, reliability, and low maintenance Pilots Operating Handbook (POH) review
costs have made them a favorite of many students, pilots,
and flight school owners. E-LSAs are not eligible for flight LSA maintenance
training and rental except when flight instruction is given to LSA weather considerations
the owner of the E-LSA airplane.
Wake turbulence avoidance
When considering a transition to LSA, a potential pilot Performance and limitations
should exercise due diligence in searching for a quality Operation of systems
flight school. Considerations should be given as in any
Ground operations
flight training selection. First, locate a flight school that has
a verifiable experience in LSA instruction and can provide Preflight inspection
the LSA academic framework. Consider if the flight school Before takeoff check
can match your needs. Some questions to be asked are the
following: how many pilots the flight school has transitioned Normal and crosswind takeoff/climb
into LSAs; how many LSAs are available for instruction Normal and crosswind approach/landing
and rental; what are the flight schools rental and insurance Soft-field takeoff and climb
policies; how is maintenance accomplished and by whom;
how is scheduling accomplished; how are records maintained; Soft-field approach and landing
what are the schools safety policies; and, take the time to Short-field takeoff
personally tour the school before starting flight training.
Go-around/rejected landing
Finally, if possible, solicit feedback from other pilots that
have transition into LSAs. Steep turns
Power-off stalls
Flight Instructors
Power-on stalls
The flight school provides the organization for the
transitioning pilot; however, it is the flight instructor that Spin awareness
is the critical link in a successful LSA transition. Flight Emergency approach and landing
instructors are at first teachers of flight, so it should be
Systems and equipment malfunctions
considered vital that a pilot wishing to transition into LSA

16-4
 After landing, parking, and securing primary effort by the manufacturer is to keep the airplane
lightweight while maintaining the structural requirements.
LSA Maintenance Composite LSAs tend to be sleek and modern looking with
Proper airplane maintenance is required to maximize flight clean lines as molding of the various components allows
safety. LSAs are no different and must be treated with the designers great flexibility shaping the airframe. Other LSAs
same level of care as any standard airworthiness certificated are authentic-looking renditions of early aviation airplanes
airplane. S-LSAs have greater latitude pertaining to who may with fabric covering a framework of steel tubes. Of course,
conduct maintenance as compared to standard airworthiness LSAs may be anything in between using both metal and
certificated airplanes. S-LSAs may be maintained and composite construction. [Figure 16-3] A pilot transitioning
inspected by: into LSA should understand the type of construction and what
are typical concerns for each type of construction:
An LSA Repairman with a Maintenance rating; or,
Steel tube and fabricwhile the techniques of steel
An FAA-certificated Airframe and Powerplant tube and fabric construction hails back to the early
Mechanic (A&P); or, days of aviation, this construction method has proven
As specified by the aircraft manufacturer; or to be lightweight, strong, and inexpensive to build and
As permitted, owners performing limited maintenance maintain. Advances in fabric technology continue to
on their S-LSA make this method of covering airframes an excellent
choice. Fabric can be limited in its life span if not
The airplane maintenance manual includes the specific properly maintained. Fabric should be free from tears,
requirements for repair and maintenance, such as information well-painted with little to no fading, and should easily
on inspections, repair, and authorization for repairs and spring back when lightly pressed.
maintenance. Most often, S-LSA inspections can be signed Aluminuman aluminum-fabricated airplane has
off by an FAA-certificated A&P or LSA repairman with been a favorite choice for decades. Pilots should be
a Maintenance rating rather than an A&P with Inspection quite familiar with this type of construction. Generally,
Authorization (IA); however, the aircraft maintenance airframes tend to be lightly rounded structures dotted
manual provides the specific requirements which must be with rivets and fasteners. This construction is easily
followed. The FAA does not issue Airworthiness Directives inspected due to the wide-spread experience with
(ADs) for S-LSAs or E-LSAs. If an FAA-certified component aluminum structures. Conditions such as corrosion,
is installed on an LSA, the FAA issues any pertaining ADs for working rivets, dents, and cracks should be a part of
that specific component. Manufacturer safety directives are a pilots preflight inspection.
not distributed by the FAA. S-LSA owners must comply with: Compositea composite airplane is principally
Safety directives (alerts, bulletins, and notifications) made from structural epoxies and cloth-like fabrics,
issued by the LSA manufacturer such as bi-directional and uni-directional fiberglass
ADs if any FAA-certificated components are installed cloths, and specialty cloths like carbon fiber. Airframe
components, such as wing and fuselage halves, are
Safety alerts (immediate action) made in molds that result in a sculpted, mirror-like
Service bulletins (recommending future action)
Safety notifications (informational)

S-LSA compliance with maintenance requirements provides

greater latitude for owners and operators of these airplanes.
Because of the options in complying with the maintenance
requirements, pilots who are transitioning to LSAs must
understand how maintenance is accomplished; who is
providing the maintenance services; and verify that all
compliance requirements have been met.

Airframe and Systems

Construction
LSAs may be constructed using wood, tube and fabric, metal, Figure 16-3. LSA can be constructed using both metal and
composite, or any combination of materials. In general, a composites.

16-5
 finish. Generally, composite construction has few
fasteners, such as protruding rivets and bolts. Pilots
should become acquainted with inspection concerns
such as looking for hair-line cracks and delaminations.

Engines
LSAs use a variety of engines that range from FAA-
certificated to non-FAA-certificated. Engine technology
varies significantly from conventional air-cooled to high
revolutions per minute (rpm)/water-cooled designs.
[Figure 16-4] These different technologies present a
transitioning pilot new training opportunities and challenges.
Since most LSAs use non-FAA-certificated engines, a
transitioning pilot should fully understand the engine controls,
Figure 16-4. A water-cooled 4-cycle engine.
procedures, and limitations. In most LSA airplanes, engines
are water-cooled, 4-cycle, carbureted with a gear reduction
drive. Engines such as these have much higher operating rpms trained to quickly and properly configure, access, program,
and require a gear-box to reduce the propeller rpms to the and interpret the information provided. Transition training
proper range. Because of the higher operating rpms, vibration must include, if EFIS is installed, instruction in the use of the
and noise signatures are quite different in most LSAs when specific EFIS installed in the training airplane. In some cases,
compared to most standard type certificated designs. EFIS manufacturers or third party products are available for
the pilot to practice EFIS operations on a personal computer
Instrumentation as opposed to learning their functions in flight.
In addition to advanced airframe and engine technology, LSAs
often have advanced flight and engine instrumentation. Often Weather Considerations
installed are electronic flight instrumentation systems (EFIS) Managing weather factors is important for all aircraft but
that provide attitude, airspeed, altimeter, vertical speed, becomes more significant as the weight of the airplane
direction, moving map, navigation, terrain awareness, traffic, decreases. Smaller, lighter weight airplanes are more affected
weather, engine data, etc., all on one or two liquid crystal by adverse weather such as stronger winds (especially
displays. [Figure 16-5] EFIS has become a cost-effective crosswinds), turbulence, terrain influences, and other
replacement for traditional mechanical gyros and instruments. hazardous conditions. [Figures 16-6 and 16-7] LSA Pilots
Compared to mechanical instrumentation systems, EFIS should carefully consider any hazardous weather conditions
requires almost no maintenance. There are tremendous and effectively use an appropriate set of personal minimums
advantages to EFIS systems as long as the pilot is correctly to mitigate flight risk. Some LSAs have a maximum
trained in its use. EFIS systems can cause a heads down recommend wind velocity regardless of wind direction.
syndrome and loss of situation awareness if the pilot is not

Figure 16-5. An electronic flight instrumentation system provides attitude, airspeed, altimeter, vertical speed, direction, moving map,
navigation, terrain awareness, traffic, weather, and engine data all on one or two liquid crystal displays.

16-6
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F
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16
-9
 Figure 16-14. Split flap.

Before Start and Starting Engine

Once a pilot has completed the preflight inspection of the
LSA, the pilot should properly seat themselves in the airplane
ensuring that the rudder pedals can be exercised with full-range
Figure 16-13. A ballistic recovery parachute is a popular safety movement without over-reaching. Seat belts should be checked
feature available on some LSA. for proper position and security. The pilot must continue
to use the POH for all required checklists. Starting newer
Propellers of LSAs may range from a conventional metal generation LSA engines can be quite simple only requiring
propeller to composite or wood. The preflight inspection the pull of the choke and a twist of the ignition switch. If the
is similar regardless of the type of propeller; however, LSA is equipped with a standard certificated engine, starting
if a transitioning pilot is principally familiar with metal procedures are normal and routine. The canopy or doors
propellers, time should be spent with the LSA flight instructor of an LSA may have quite different latching mechanisms
covering the type of propeller installed. Many LSA propellers than standard airworthiness airplanes. Practice latching and
are composite and have a ground adjustable pitch adjustment. unlatching the doors or canopy to ensure that understanding
As a result, there may be more areas to check with these types is complete. Having a gull-wing door or sliding canopy pop
of propellers. For example, on ground adjustable propellers, open in flight can become an emergency in seconds.
ensure that the blades are tight against the hub by snugly
twisting the blade at the root to verify that there is no rotation Taxi
of the blade at the hub. Like standard certificated airplanes, LSAs may have a
full-castoring or steerable nosewheel or, if conventional
Many LSAs are equipped with engines that have a water gear, a tailwheel. In order to taxi a full-castoring nosewheel
cooling system. LSAs may be tightly cowled, which reduces equipped airplane, the use of differential brakes is required.
drag, and with liquid-cooled engines, this minimizes the This type of nosewheel can require practice to develop the
need for cylinder cooling inlets, which further reduces drag skill necessary to keep the airplane on the centerline while
and improves performance. This does present a new system minimizing brake application or damage to the tires. The
for a transitioning pilot to check. Preflighting this system balance is just enough taxi speed so that only light taps of
requires that the radiator, coolant hoses, and expansion tank brake pressure in the desired direction of turn or correction
are checked for condition, freedom from leaks, and coolant is required to make a turn or correction without carrying
level requirements. Most standard type certificated airplanes excessive taxi speed. If the speed is too slow, application of
do not have coolant systems. a brake can cause the aircraft to pivot to a stop, rather than an
adjustment in direction, resulting in excessive brake and tire
Split flaps may be used on some LSA designs. [Figure 16-14] wear. If the speed is too fast, excessive brake wear is likely.
These flaps hinge down from underneath the wing and
inspecting these flaps require the pilot to crouch and twist An LSA with conventional gear (tailwheel) should be initially
low for inspection. A suitable handheld mirror can facilitate transitioned into during no-wind conditions. The airplane, due
inspection without undue twisting and bending. In an attempt to its light weight, requires the development of the proper flight
to keep complexity to a minimum, flap control is typically a control responses prior to operations in any substantial wind.
handle that actuates the flaps. A pilot should verify that the
flaps extend and retract smoothly.

16-10
Takeoff and Climb drive and the propeller is turning much slower. If the LSA is
Takeoff and climb performance of LSA can be spirited equipped with a standard aircraft engine, rpms are in a range
as it typically has a high horsepower to weight ratio and that the transitioning pilot is immediately comfortable. The
accelerates quickly. Due to design requirement for low pilot should refer to the Cruise Checklist to ensure that the
stall speeds, LSAs typically have low rotation and climb airplane is properly configured.
speeds with impressive climb rates. Like other airplanes,
the pilot should be flying the published speeds as given the In slower cruise flight, stick forces are likely to be light;
airplanes POH. Stick (yoke or stoke) forces tend to be light, therefore, correction to pitch and roll attitudes should be made
which may lead a transitioning pilot to initially over-control with light pressures. Excessive pressures result in the pilot
as a result of flight control deflections being greater than inducing excessive correction causing a chasing effect. Only
required. The key is to relax, have reasonable patience, and enough pressure needed to correct a deviation is required.
input only appropriate flight control pressures needed to get This is best accomplished with fingertip pressures only and
the required response. If a transitioning pilot is inducing not with a wrapped palm of the hand. Stick forces can change
excessive control inputs, they should minimize flight control dramatically as airspeed changes; for example, what could be
pressures, set attitudes based on outside references, and allow considered light control pressures at 80 knots may become
the airplane to settle. quite stiff at 100 knots. A CFI-S or CFI-A experienced in the
LSA airplane is able to demonstrate this effect. This effect is
During climbs, visibility over the nose may be difficult in dependent on the specific model of LSA and any significance
some LSAs. As always, it is important to properly clear the or relevance varies from manufacturer to manufacturer.
airspace for traffic and other hazards. Occasionally lowering
the airplanes nose to get a good look out toward the horizon LSA maneuvers such as steep turns, slow flight, and stalls are
is important for managing flight safety. Shallow banked turns typically conventional. These maneuvers should be practiced
in both directions of 10 to 20 also allow for clearing. Trim as part of a good transition training program. Steep turns in
should be used to relieve climb flight control pressures that LSA airplanes tend to be quite easy to perform precisely.
are generally light. Because flight control pressures tend to With light flight control pressures, stick mounted trim (if
be light, it is easy to get in the habit of flying with an LSA installed), and highly differential ailerons (if part of the
airplane out of trim. This is to be avoided. Trim off any flight airplanes design), makes the performance of the maneuver
control pressures. This allows the pilot to focus as much time simpler than heavier airplanes. Basic aerodynamics applies
as possible looking outside. to any airplane and factors, such as over-banking tendency,
are still prevalent and must be compensated.
Cruise
After leveling off at cruise altitude, the airplane should Slow flight in LSAs is accomplished at slower airspeeds
be allowed to accelerate to cruise speed, reduce power to than standard airworthiness airplanes since stall speeds tend
cruise rpm, adjust pitch, and then trim off any flight control to be well below the 45-knot limit. The first time practicing
pressures. [Figure 16-15] The first time a transitioning pilot slow flight demonstrates the unique capability of LSAs.
sees cruise rpm setting of 4,800 rpm (or as recommended), Power off stalls are typically of no particular significance
they may have a sense that the engine is turning too fast; as simply unloading the wing and the application of power
however, remember that the engine has gear-reduction immediately puts the airplane back flying. However, a pilot
should understand that control pressures tend to be light so
an aggressive forward movement of the elevator is generally
not required. In addition, proper application of rudder to
compensate for propeller forces is required, and retraction of
any flap should be completed prior to reaching VFE, which
comes very quickly if full power and nose down pitch attitude
are maintained. Power on stalls can result in a very high nose-
up attitude unless the airplane is adequately slowed down
prior to the maneuver. In addition, some manufacturers limit
pitch attitudes to 30 during power on stalls. If aggressive
pitch attitudes are coupled with uncoordinated rudder inputs,
spin entry is likely to be quick and aggressive.

Depending on the LSA design, especially those airplanes

which use control tubes rather than wires and pulleys,
Figure 16-15. EFIS indication of level cruise flight.

16-11
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[Figur e16 -16] Con sideraf ewex ampl e
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16
-12
LSAs controls become ineffective. To avoid loss of control, Chapter Summary
maintain airspeed during the approach to keep the air moving
LSAs are a new category of small, lightweight aircraft that
over the control surfaces until the aircraft is on the ground.
may include advanced systems, such a parachutes, EFIS, and
LSAs with an open cockpit, easy build characteristics, low
composite construction. While the transition is not difficult,
cost, and simplicity of operation and maintenance tend to
LSA does require a properly designed transition training
be less aerodynamic and, therefore, incur more drag. The
program led by a competent CFI-S or CFI-A. Safety is of
powerplant in these aircraft usually provide excess power
utmost importance when it comes to any flight activity. In
and exhibit desirable performance. However, when power is
order to properly assess the hazards of flight and mitigate
reduced, it may be necessary to lower the nose of the aircraft
flight risk, a pilot must develop the skill, judgment, and
to a fairly low pitch attitude in order to maintain airspeed,
experience in order to effectively and safely pilot a LSA.
especially during landings and engine failure.

If the pilot makes a power off approach to landing, the

approach angle will be high and the landing flare will
need to be close to the ground with minimum float. This is
because the aircraft will lose airspeed quickly in the flare
and will not float like a more efficiently designed aircraft.
Too low of an airspeed during the landing flare may lead
to insufficient energy to arrest the decent which may result
in a hard landing. Maintaining power during the approach
will result in a reduced angle of attack and will extend the
landing flare allowing more time to make adjustments to
the aircraft during the landing. Always remember that rapid
power reductions require an equally rapid reduction in pitch
attitude to maintain airspeed.

In the event of an engine failure in an LSA, quickly transition

to the required nose-down flight attitude in order to maintain
airspeed. For example, if the aircraft has a power-off glide
angle of 30 degrees below the horizon, position the aircraft
to a nose-down 30-degree attitude as quickly as possible. The
higher the pitch attitude is when the engine failure occurs, the
quicker the aircraft will lose airspeed and the more likely the
aircraft is to stall. Should a stall occur, decrease the aircrafts
pitch attitude rapidly in order to increase airspeed to allow
for a recovery. Stalls that occur at low altitudes are especially
dangerous because the closer to the ground the stall occurs, the
less time there is to recover. For this reason, when climbing
at a low altitude, excessive pitch attitude is discouraged.

16-13
16-14
Chapter 17

Emergency Procedures
Emergency Situations
This chapter contains information on dealing with non-normal
and emergency situations that may occur in flight. The key
to successful management of an emergency situation, and/
or preventing a non-normal situation from progressing into a
true emergency, is a thorough familiarity with, and adherence
to, the procedures developed by the airplane manufacturer
and contained in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
approved Airplane Flight Manual and/or Pilots Operating
Handbook (AFM/POH). The following guidelines are generic
and are not meant to replace the airplane manufacturers
recommended procedures. Rather, they are meant to enhance
the pilots general knowledge in the area of non-normal and
emergency operations. If any of the guidance in this chapter
conflicts in any way with the manufacturers recommended
procedures for a particular make and model airplane, the
manufacturers recommended procedures take precedence.

17-1
17-1
Emergency Landings reach, and indecision in general. Desperate attempts
to correct whatever went wrong at the expense of
This section contains information on emergency landing
airplane control fall into the same category.
techniques in small fixed-wing airplanes. The guidelines that
are presented apply to the more adverse terrain conditions Desire to save the airplanethe pilot who has
for which no practical training is possible. The objective is been conditioned during training to expect to find
to instill in the pilot the knowledge that almost any terrain a relatively safe landing area, whenever the flight
can be considered suitable for a survivable crash landing instructor closed the throttle for a simulated forced
if the pilot knows how to use the airplane structure for self- landing, may ignore all basic rules of airmanship to
protection and the protection of passengers. avoid a touchdown in terrain where airplane damage
is unavoidable. Typical consequences are: making a
Types of Emergency Landings 180 turn back to the runway when available altitude
The different types of emergency landings are defined as is insufficient; stretching the glide without regard
follows: for minimum control speed in order to reach a more
appealing field; accepting an approach and touchdown
Forced landingan immediate landing, on or off an
situation that leaves no margin for error. The desire
airport, necessitated by the inability to continue further
to save the airplane, regardless of the risks involved,
flight. A typical example of which is an airplane forced
may be influenced by two other factors: the pilots
down by engine failure.
financial stake in the airplane and the certainty that an
Precautionary landinga premeditated landing, on undamaged airplane implies no bodily harm. There are
or off an airport, when further flight is possible but times, however, when a pilot should be more interested
inadvisable. Examples of conditions that may call for in sacrificing the airplane so that the occupants can
a precautionary landing include deteriorating weather, safely walk away from it.
being lost, fuel shortage, and gradually developing
Undue concern about getting hurtfear is a vital
engine trouble.
part of the self-preservation mechanism. However,
Ditchinga forced or precautionary landing on water. when fear leads to panic, we invite that which we
want most to avoid. The survival records favor pilots
A precautionary landing, generally, is less hazardous than who maintain their composure and know how to
a forced landing because the pilot has more time for terrain apply the general concepts and procedures that have
selection and the planning of the approach. In addition, the been developed through the years. The success of an
pilot can use power to compensate for errors in judgment or emergency landing is as much a matter of the mind
technique. The pilot should be aware that too many situations as of skills.
calling for a precautionary landing are allowed to develop
into immediate forced landings, when the pilot uses wishful Basic Safety Concepts
thinking instead of reason, especially when dealing with a self- General
inflicted predicament. The non-instrument-rated pilot trapped
A pilot who is faced with an emergency landing in terrain that
by weather, or the pilot facing imminent fuel exhaustion who
makes extensive airplane damage inevitable should keep in
does not give any thought to the feasibility of a precautionary
mind that the avoidance of crash injuries is largely a matter
landing, accepts an extremely hazardous alternative.
of: (1) keeping the vital structure (cabin area) relatively
intact by using dispensable structure (i.e., wings, landing
Psychological Hazards
gear, fuselage bottom) to absorb the violence of the stopping
There are several factors that may interfere with a pilots
process before it affects the occupants (2) avoiding forceful
ability to act promptly and properly when faced with an
bodily contact with interior structure.
emergency. Some of these factors are listed below.
Reluctance to accept the emergency situationa The advantage of sacrificing dispensable structure is
pilot who allows the mind to become paralyzed at demonstrated daily on the highways. A head-on car impact
the thought that the airplane will be on the ground against a tree at 20 miles per hour (mph) is less hazardous for
in a very short time, regardless of the pilots actions a properly restrained driver than a similar impact against the
or hopes, is severely handicapped in the handling of drivers door. Accident experience shows that the extent of
the emergency. An unconscious desire to delay the crushable structure between the occupants and the principal point
dreaded moment may lead to such errors as: failure of impact on the airplane has a direct bearing on the severity
to lower the nose to maintain flying speed, delay in of the transmitted crash forces and, therefore, on survivability.
the selection of the most suitable landing area within

17-2
Avoid
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17
-3
can be accomplished in an effectively used short stopping to discard the original plan for one that is obviously better.
distance. Understanding the need for a firm but uniform However, as a general rule, the pilot should not change his
deceleration process in very poor terrain enables the pilot or her mind more than once; a well-executed crash landing
to select touchdown conditions that spread the breakup of in poor terrain can be less hazardous than an uncontrolled
dispensable structure over a short distance, thereby reducing touchdown on an established field.
the peak deceleration of the cabin area.
@hqok`mdBnmftq`shnm
Attitude and Sink Rate Control Since flaps improve maneuverability at slow speed, and
The most critical and often the most inexcusable error that lower the stalling speed, their use during final approach
can be made in the planning and execution of an emergency is recommended when time and circumstances permit.
landing, even in ideal terrain, is the loss of initiative over However, the associated increase in drag and decrease in
the airplanes attitude and sink rate at touchdown. When the gliding distance call for caution in the timing and the extent
touchdown is made on flat, open terrain, an excessive nose- of their application; premature use of flap and dissipation of
low pitch attitude brings the risk of sticking the nose in altitude may jeopardize an otherwise sound plan.
the ground. Steep bank angles just before touchdown should
also be avoided, as they increase the stalling speed and the A hard and fast rule concerning the position of a retractable
likelihood of a wingtip strike. landing gear at touchdown cannot be given. In rugged terrain
and trees, or during impacts at high sink rate, an extended
Since the airplanes vertical component of velocity is gear would definitely have a protective effect on the cabin
immediately reduced to zero upon ground contact, it must area. However, this advantage has to be weighed against the
be kept well under control. A flat touchdown at a high possible side effects of a collapsing gear, such as a ruptured
sink rate (well in excess of 500 feet per minute (fpm)) on a fuel tank. As always, the manufacturers recommendations
hard surface can be injurious without destroying the cabin as outlined in the AFM/POH should be followed.
structure, especially during gear up landings in low-wing
airplanes. A rigid bottom construction of these airplanes When a normal touchdown is assured, and ample stopping
may preclude adequate cushioning by structural deformation. distance is available, a gear-up landing on level, but soft
Similar impact conditions may cause structural collapse of the terrain or across a plowed field may result in less airplane
overhead structure in high-wing airplanes. On soft terrain, an damage than a gear-down landing. [Figure 17-3] Deactivation
excessive sink rate may cause digging in of the lower nose of the airplanes electrical system before touchdown reduces
structure and severe forward deceleration. the likelihood of a post-crash fire.

Terrain Selection However, the battery master switch should not be turned off
A pilots choice of emergency landing sites is governed by: until the pilot no longer has any need for electrical power
The route selected during preflight planning to operate vital airplane systems. Positive airplane control
during the final part of the approach has priority over all other
The height above the ground when the emergency considerations, including airplane configuration and checklist
occurs tasks. The pilot should attempt to exploit the power available
Excess airspeed (excess airspeed can be converted
into distance and/or altitude)

The only time the pilot has a very limited choice is during
the low and slow portion of the takeoff. However, even under
these conditions, the ability to change the impact heading
only a few degrees may ensure a survivable crash.

If beyond gliding distance of a suitable open area, the pilot

should judge the available terrain for its energy absorbing
capability. If the emergency starts at a considerable height
above the ground, the pilot should be more concerned about
first selecting the desired general area than a specific spot.
Terrain appearances from altitude can be very misleading
and considerable altitude may be lost before the best spot can
be pinpointed. For this reason, the pilot should not hesitate Figure 17-3. Intentional gear-up landing.

17-4
from an irregularly running engine; however, it is generally paralleled by power or telephone lines. Only a sharp lookout for
better to switch the engine and fuel off just before touchdown. the supporting structures or poles may provide timely warning.
This not only ensures the pilots initiative over the situation,
but a cooled-down engine reduces the fire hazard considerably. Trees (Forest)
Although a tree landing is not an attractive prospect, the
Approach following general guidelines help to make the experience
When the pilot has time to maneuver, the planning of the survivable.
approach should be governed by the following three factors: Use the normal landing configuration (full flaps, gear
Wind direction and velocity down).
Dimensions and slope of the chosen field Keep the groundspeed low by heading into the wind.
Obstacles in the final approach path Make contact at minimum indicated airspeed, but not
below stall speed, and hang the airplane in the tree
These three factors are seldom compatible. When compromises branches in a nose-high landing attitude. Involving
have to be made, the pilot should aim for a wind/obstacle/ the underside of the fuselage and both wings in the
terrain combination that permits a final approach with some initial tree contact provides a more even and positive
margin for error in judgment or technique. A pilot who cushioning effect, while preventing penetration of the
overestimates the gliding range may be tempted to stretch the windshield. [Figure 17-4]
glide across obstacles in the approach path. For this reason, it Avoid direct contact of the fuselage with heavy tree
is sometimes better to plan the approach over an unobstructed trunks.
area, regardless of wind direction. Experience shows that a
collision with obstacles at the end of a ground roll or slide is Low, closely spaced trees with wide, dense crowns
much less hazardous than striking an obstacle at flying speed (branches) close to the ground are much better than
before the touchdown point is reached. tall trees with thin tops; the latter allow too much free
fall height (a free fall from 75 feet results in an impact
Terrain Types speed of about 40 knots, or about 4,000 fpm).
Since an emergency landing on suitable terrain resembles Ideally, initial tree contact should be symmetrical;
a situation in which the pilot should be familiar through that is, both wings should meet equal resistance in the
training, only the more unusual situations are discussed. tree branches. This distribution of the load helps to
maintain proper airplane attitude. It may also preclude
Bnmmdc@qd`r the loss of one wing, which invariably leads to a more
The natural preference to set the airplane down on the ground rapid and less predictable descent to the ground.
should not lead to the selection of an open spot between trees
or obstacles where the ground cannot be reached without
making a steep descent.

Once the intended touchdown point is reached, and the

remaining open and unobstructed space is very limited,
it may be better to force the airplane down on the ground
than to delay touchdown until it stalls (settles). An airplane
decelerates faster after it is on the ground than while airborne.
Thought may also be given to the desirability of ground-
looping or retracting the landing gear in certain conditions.

A river or creek can be an inviting alternative in otherwise

rugged terrain. The pilot should ensure that the water or creek
bed can be reached without snagging the wings. The same
concept applies to road landings with one additional reason
for caution: manmade obstacles on either side of a road may
not be visible until the final portion of the approach.

When planning the approach across a road, it should be

remembered that most highways and even rural dirt roads are Figure 17-4. Tree landing.

17-5
 If heavy tree trunk contact is unavoidable once the in groundspeed could mislead the pilot into attempting to
airplane is on the ground, it is best to involve both prematurely slow down the airplane and cause it to stall. On the
wings simultaneously by directing the airplane other hand, continuing straight ahead or making a slight turn
between two properly spaced trees. Do not attempt allows the pilot more time to establish a safe landing attitude,
this maneuver, however, while still airborne. and the landing can be made as slowly as possible, but more
importantly, the airplane can be landed while under control.
Water (Ditching) and Snow
A well-executed water landing normally involves less Concerning the subject of turning back to the runway following
deceleration violence than a poor tree landing or a touchdown an engine failure on takeoff, the pilot should determine the
on extremely rough terrain. Also, an airplane that is ditched minimum altitude an attempt of such a maneuver should
at minimum speed and in a normal landing attitude does not be made in a particular airplane. Experimentation at a safe
immediately sink upon touchdown. Intact wings and fuel altitude should give the pilot an approximation of height lost
tanks (especially when empty) provide floatation for at least in a descending 180 turn at idle power. By adding a safety
several minutes, even if the cabin may be just below the water factor of about 25 percent, the pilot should arrive at a practical
line in a high-wing airplane. decision height. The ability to make a 180 turn does not
necessarily mean that the departure runway can be reached
Loss of depth perception may occur when landing on a wide in a power-off glide; this depends on the wind, the distance
expanse of smooth water with the risk of flying into the traveled during the climb, the height reached, and the glide
water or stalling in from excessive altitude. To avoid this distance of the airplane without power. The pilot should also
hazard, the airplane should be dragged in when possible. remember that a turn back to the departure runway may in
Use no more than intermediate flaps on low-wing airplanes. fact require more than a 180 change in direction.
The water resistance of fully extended flaps may result in
asymmetrical flap failure and slowing of the airplane. Keep a Consider the following example of an airplane which has
retractable gear up unless the AFM/POH advises otherwise. taken off and climbed to an altitude of 300 feet above ground
level (AGL) when the engine fails. [Figure 17-5] After a
A landing in snow should be executed like a ditching, in typical 4 second reaction time, the pilot elects to turn back
the same configuration and with the same regard for loss to the runway. Using a standard rate (3 change in direction
of depth perception (white out) in reduced visibility and on per second) turn, it takes 1 minute to turn 180. At a glide
wide-open terrain. speed of 65 knots, the radius of the turn is 2,100 feet, so at
the completion of the turn, the airplane is 4,200 feet to one
Engine Failure After Takeoff (Single- side of the runway. The pilot must turn another 45 to head
Engine) the airplane toward the runway. By this time, the total change
The altitude available is, in many ways, the controlling factor in direction is 225 equating to 75 seconds plus the 4 second
in the successful accomplishment of an emergency landing. reaction time. If the airplane in a poweroff glide descends
If an actual engine failure should occur immediately after at approximately 1,000 fpm, it has descended 1,316, feet
takeoff and before a safe maneuvering altitude is attained, it placing it 1,016 feet below the runway.
is usually inadvisable to attempt to turn back to the field from
where the takeoff was made. Instead, it is safer to immediately Emergency Descents
establish the proper glide attitude, and select a field directly An emergency descent is a maneuver for descending as
ahead or slightly too either side of the takeoff path. rapidly as possible to a lower altitude or to the ground for an
emergency landing. [Figure 17-6] The need for this maneuver
The decision to continue straight ahead is often difficult to may result from an uncontrollable fire, a sudden loss of
make unless the problems involved in attempting to turn cabin pressurization, or any other situation demanding an
back are seriously considered. In the first place, the takeoff immediate and rapid descent. The objective is to descend the
was in all probability made into the wind. To get back to airplane as soon and as rapidly as possible within the structural
the takeoff field, a downwind turn must be made. This limitations of the airplane. Simulated emergency descents
increases the groundspeed and rushes the pilot even more in should be made in a turn to check for other air traffic below
the performance of procedures and in planning the landing and to look around for a possible emergency landing area. A
approach. Secondly, the airplane is losing considerable radio call announcing descent intentions may be appropriate
altitude during the turn and might still be in a bank when the to alert other aircraft in the area. When initiating the descent,
ground is contacted, resulting in the airplane cartwheeling a bank of approximately 30 to 45 should be established to
(which would be a catastrophe for the occupants, as well as maintain positive load factors (G forces) on the airplane.
the airplane). After turning downwind, the apparent increase

17-6
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particular airplane. For the purposes of this handbook, in- However, consideration must be given to the possibility that
flight fires are classified as in-flight engine fires, electrical a wing could be seriously impaired and lead to structural
fires, and cabin fires. failure. Even a brief but intense fire could cause dangerous
structural damage. In some cases, the fire could continue to
Engine Fire burn under the wing (or engine cowling in the case of a single-
An in-flight engine compartment fire is usually caused by a engine airplane) out of view of the pilot. Engine compartment
failure that allows a flammable substance, such as fuel, oil, fires that appear to have been extinguished have been known
or hydraulic fluid, to come in contact with a hot surface. This to rekindle with changes in airflow pattern and airspeed.
may be caused by a mechanical failure of the engine itself,
an engine-driven accessory, a defective induction or exhaust The pilot must be familiar with the airplanes emergency
system, or a broken line. Engine compartment fires may also descent procedures. The pilot must bear in mind the following:
result from maintenance errors, such as improperly installed/ The airplane may be severely structurally damaged to
fastened lines and/or fittings resulting in leaks. the point that its ability to remain under control could
be lost at any moment.
Engine compartment fires can be indicated by smoke and/
or flames coming from the engine cowling area. They can The airplane may still be on fire and susceptible to
also be indicated by discoloration, bubbling, and/or melting explosion.
of the engine cowling skin in cases where flames and/or The airplane is expendable and the only thing that
smoke are not visible to the pilot. By the time a pilot becomes matters is the safety of those on board.
aware of an in-flight engine compartment fire, it usually is
well developed. Unless the airplane manufacturer directs Electrical Fires
otherwise in the AFM/POH, the first step on discovering a The initial indication of an electrical fire is usually the distinct
fire should be to shut off the fuel supply to the engine by odor of burning insulation. Once an electrical fire is detected,
placing the mixture control in the idle cut off position and the the pilot should attempt to identify the faulty circuit by
fuel selector shutoff valve to the OFF position. The ignition checking circuit breakers, instruments, avionics, and lights.
switch should be left ON in order to use up the fuel that If the faulty circuit cannot be readily detected and isolated,
remains in the fuel lines and components between the fuel and flight conditions permit, the battery master switch and
selector/shutoff valve and the engine. This procedure may alternator/generator switches should be turned off to remove
starve the engine compartment of fuel and cause the fire to the possible source of the fire. However, any materials that
die naturally. If the flames are snuffed out, no attempt should have been ignited may continue to burn.
be made to restart the engine.
If electrical power is absolutely essential for the flight,
If the engine compartment fire is oil-fed, as evidenced by an attempt may be made to identify and isolate the faulty
thick black smoke, as opposed to a fuel-fed fire, which circuit by:
produces bright orange flames, the pilot should consider
1. Turning the electrical master switch OFF.
stopping the propeller rotation by feathering or other means,
such as (with constant-speed propellers) placing the pitch 2. Turning all individual electrical switches OFF.
control lever to the minimum rpm position and raising the 3. Turning the master switch back ON.
nose to reduce airspeed until the propeller stops rotating. This
4. Selecting electrical switches that were ON before the
procedure stops an engine-driven oil (or hydraulic) pump from
fire indication one at a time, permitting a short time
continuing to pump the flammable fluid that is feeding the fire.
lapse after each switch is turned on to check for signs
of odor, smoke, or sparks.
Some light airplane emergency checklists direct the pilot
to shut off the electrical master switch. However, the pilot
This procedure, however, has the effect of recreating the
should consider that unless the fire is electrical in nature, or a
original problem. The most prudent course of action is to
crash landing is imminent, deactivating the electrical system
land as soon as possible.
prevents the use of panel radios for transmitting distress
messages and also causes air traffic control (ATC) to lose
Cabin Fire
transponder returns.
Cabin fires generally result from one of three sources: (1)
careless smoking on the part of the pilot and/or passengers;
Pilots of powerless single-engine airplanes are left with no
(2) electrical system malfunctions; (3) heating system
choice but to make a forced landing. Pilots of twin-engine
malfunctions. A fire in the cabin presents the pilot with
airplanes may elect to continue the flight to the nearest airport.

17-8
two immediate demands: attacking the fire and getting the Approaching the runway in a relatively nose-high attitude
airplane safely on the ground as quickly as possible. A fire can also cause the perception that the airplane is close to a
or smoke in the cabin should be controlled by identifying stall. This may cause the pilot to lower the nose abruptly and
and shutting down the faulty system. In many cases, smoke risk touching down on the nosewheel.
may be removed from the cabin by opening the cabin air
vents. This should be done only after the fire extinguisher With the flaps retracted and the power reduced for landing,
(if available) is used. Then the cabin air control can be the airplane is slightly less stable in the pitch and roll axes.
opened to purge the cabin of both smoke and fumes. If Without flaps, the airplane tends to float considerably during
smoke increases in intensity when the cabin air vents are roundout. The pilot should avoid the temptation to force
opened, they should be immediately closed. This indicates the airplane onto the runway at an excessively, high speed.
a possible fire in the heating system, nose compartment Neither should the pilot flare excessively because without
baggage area (if so equipped), or that the increase in airflow flaps, this might cause the tail to strike the runway.
is feeding the fire.
Asymmetric (Split) Flap
On pressurized airplanes, the pressurization air system An asymmetric split flap situation is one in which one
removes smoke from the cabin; however, if the smoke flap deploys or retracts while the other remains in position.
is intense, it may be necessary to either depressurize at The problem is indicated by a pronounced roll toward the
altitude, if oxygen is available for all occupants, or execute wing with the least flap deflection when wing flaps are
an emergency descent. extended/retracted.

In unpressurized single-engine and light twin-engine The roll encountered in a split flap situation is countered
airplanes, the pilot can attempt to expel the smoke from the with opposite aileron. The yaw caused by the additional drag
cabin by opening the foul weather windows. These windows created by the extended flap requires substantial opposite
should be closed immediately if the fire becomes more rudder resulting in a cross-control condition. Almost full
intense. If the smoke is severe, the passengers and crew aileron may be required to maintain a wings-level attitude,
should use oxygen masks if available, and the pilot should especially at the reduced airspeed necessary for approach
initiate an immediate descent. The pilot should also be aware and landing. The pilot should not attempt to land with a
that on some airplanes, lowering the landing gear and/or wing crosswind from the side of the deployed flap because the
flaps can aggravate a cabin smoke problem. additional roll control required to counteract the crosswind
may not be available.
Flight Control Malfunction/Failure
Total Flap Failure The approach to landing with a split flap condition should
The inability to extend the wing flaps necessitates a no-flap be flown at a higher than normal airspeed. The pilot should
approach and landing. In light airplanes, a no-flap approach not risk an asymmetric stall and subsequent loss of control
and landing is not particularly difficult or dangerous. by flaring excessively. Rather, the airplane should be flown
However, there are certain factors that must be considered onto the runway so that the touchdown occurs at an airspeed
in the execution of this maneuver. A no-flap landing requires consistent with a safe margin above flaps-up stall speed.
substantially more runway than normal. The increase in
required landing distance could be as much as 50 percent. Loss of Elevator Control
In many airplanes, the elevator is controlled by two cables:
When flying in the traffic pattern with the wing flaps a down cable and an up cable. Normally, a break or
retracted, the airplane must be flown in a relatively nose-high disconnect in only one of these cables does not result in a
attitude to maintain altitude, as compared to flight with flaps total loss of elevator control. In most airplanes, a failed cable
extended. Losing altitude can be more of a problem without results in a partial loss of pitch control. In the failure of the
the benefit of the drag normally provided by flaps. A wider, up elevator cable (the down elevator being intact and
longer traffic pattern may be required in order to avoid the functional), the control yoke moves aft easily but produces
necessity of diving to lose altitude and consequently building no response. Forward yoke movement, however, beyond the
up excessive airspeed. neutral position produces a nosedown attitude. Conversely, a
failure of the down elevator cable, forward movement of
On final approach, a nose-high attitude can make it difficult the control yoke produces no effect. The pilot, however, has
to see the runway. This situation, if not anticipated, can partial control of pitch attitude with aft movement.
result in serious errors in judgment of height and distance.

17-9
When experiencing a loss of up-elevator control, the pilot loss of control, and cause excessive structural stress to be
can retain pitch control by: imposed on the aircraft.
Applying considerable nose-up trim
The design maneuvering speed (VA) is a structural design
Pushing the control yoke forward to attain and airspeed used in determining the strength requirements for
maintain desired attitude the airplane and its control surfaces. The structural design
Increasing forward pressure to lower the nose and requirements do not cover multiple control inputs in one axis or
relaxing forward pressure to raise the nose control inputs in more than one axis at a time at any speed, even
below VA. Combined control inputs cause additional bending
Releasing forward pressure to flare for landing
and twisting forces. Any airspeed above the maneuvering
speed provides a positive life capability that may cause
When experiencing a loss of down-elevator control, the pilot structural damage if excessive G forces are exerted on the
can retain pitch control by: aircraft. VA is based on the actual gross weight of the airplane
Applying considerable nosedown trim and the wings response to a 50 foot per second wind gust or
movement of the elevator. The combination of turbulence
Pulling the control yoke aft to attain and maintain
and high G loading induces even greater stress on the aircraft.
attitude
Because wind gusts are not symmetrical, the total additional
Releasing back pressure to lower the nose and stress that is added to the aircraft due to turbulence is difficult
increasing back pressure to raise the nose to determine. Each element of the airframe and each flight
Increasing back pressure to flare for landing control component have their own design structural load limit.
Maneuvering speed is primarily determined for the wings; the
Trim mechanisms can be useful in the event of an in-flight elevator may be structurally damaged below this speed.
primary control failure. For example, if the linkage between
the cabin and the elevator fails in flight, leaving the elevator An alternative method that has proven useful in dislodging
free to weathervane in the wind, the trim tab can be used to stuck landing gear (in some cases) is to induce rapid yawing.
raise or lower the elevator within limits. The trim tabs are not After stabilizing below VA, the pilot should alternately and
as effective as normal linkage control in conditions such as aggressively apply rudder in one direction and then the
low airspeed, but they do have some positive effectusually other in rapid sequence. However, be advised that operating
enough to bring about a safe landing. at or below maneuvering speed does not provide structural
protection against multiple full control inputs in one axis or
If an elevator becomes jammed, resulting in a total loss of full control inputs in more than one axis at the same time. The
elevator control movement, various combinations of power resulting yawing action may cause the landing gear to fall into
and flap extension offer a limited amount of pitch control. place. The pilot must be aware that moving the rudder from
A successful landing under these conditions, however, is stop to stop is not a load limit certification requirement for
problematical. normal category airplanes. Only aircraft designed for certain
high G load flight maneuvers must have a vertical fin and
Landing Gear Malfunction rudder capable to withstand abrupt pedal control application
Once the pilot has confirmed that the landing gear has in to the limits in both directions.
fact malfunctioned and that one or more gear legs refuses
to respond to the conventional or alternate methods of gear If all efforts to extend the landing gear have failed and a gear-
extension contained in the AFM/POH, there are several up landing is inevitable, the pilot should select an airport with
methods that may be useful in attempting to force the gear crash and rescue facilities. The pilot should not hesitate to
down. One method is to dive the airplane (in smooth air request that emergency equipment is standing by.
only) to VNE speed (red line on the airspeed indicator) and
(within the limits of safety) execute a rapid pull up. In normal When selecting a landing surface, the pilot should consider
category airplanes, this procedure creates a 3.8G load on the that a smooth, hard-surface runway usually causes less
structure, in effect making the landing gear weigh 3.8 times damage than rough, unimproved grass strips. A hard surface
normal. In some cases, this may force the landing gear into does, however, create sparks that can ignite fuel. If the airport
the down and locked position. This procedure requires a is so equipped, the pilot can request that the runway surface
fine control touch and good feel for the airplane. Careful be foamed. The pilot should consider burning off excess fuel.
consideration should be given to the fact that if the pull up This reduces landing speed and fire potential.
is too abrupt, it may result in an accelerated stall, possible

17-10
If the landing gear malfunction is limited to one main landing
gear leg, the pilot should consume as much fuel from that
side of the airplane as practicable, thereby reducing the
weight of the wing on that side. The reduced weight makes
it possible to delay the unsupported wing from contacting the
surface during the landing roll until the last possible moment.
Reduced impact speeds result in less damage.

If only one landing gear leg fails to extend, the pilot has the
option of landing on the available gear legs or landing with
all the gear legs retracted. Landing on only one main gear
usually causes the airplane to veer strongly in the direction Figure 17-8. Landing with nosewheel retracted.
of the faulty gear leg after touchdown. If the landing runway
is narrow and/or ditches and obstacles line the runway edge,
fuselage structure with a nose-high attitude. This procedure
maximum directional control after touchdown is a necessity.
helps prevent porpoising and/or wheelbarrowing. The pilot
In this situation, a landing with all three gear retracted may
should then allow the nosewheel to gradually touchdown,
be the safest course of action.
using nosewheel steering as necessary for directional control.
If the pilot elects to land with one main gear retracted (and
the other main gear and nose gear down and locked), the Systems Malfunctions
landing should be made in a nose-high attitude with the wings Electrical System
level. As airspeed decays, the pilot should apply whatever The loss of electrical power can deprive the pilot of numerous
aileron control is necessary to keep the unsupported wing critical systems, and therefore should not be taken lightly
airborne as long as possible. [Figure 17-7] Once the wing even in day/visual flight rules (VFR) conditions. Most
contacts the surface, the pilot can anticipate a strong yaw in in-flight failures of the electrical system are located in the
that direction. The pilot must be prepared to use full opposite generator or alternator. Once the generator or alternator
rudder and aggressive braking to maintain some degree of system goes off line, the electrical source in a typical light
directional control. airplane is a battery. If a warning light or ammeter indicates
the probability of an alternator or generator failure in an
When landing with a retracted nosewheel (and the main airplane with only one generating system, however, the pilot
gear extended and locked), the pilot should hold the nose may have very little time available from the battery.
off the ground until almost full up-elevator has been applied.
[Figure 17-8] The pilot should then release back pressure The rating of the airplane battery provides a clue to how long
in such a manner that the nose settles slowly to the surface. it may last. With batteries, the higher the amperage load, the
Applying and holding full up-elevator results in the nose less the usable total amperage. Thus, a 25-amp hour battery
abruptly dropping to the surface as airspeed decays, possibly could produce 5 amps per hour for 5 hours, but if the load
resulting in burrowing and/or additional damage. Brake were increased to 10 amps, it might last only 2 hours. A 40-
pressure should not be applied during the landing roll unless amp load might discharge the battery fully in about 10 or 15
absolutely necessary to avoid a collision with obstacles. minutes. Much depends on the battery condition at the time
of the system failure. If the battery has been in service for a
If the landing must be made with only the nose gear few years, its power may be reduced substantially because of
extended, the initial contact should be made on the aft internal resistance. Or if the system failure was not detected
immediately, much of the stored energy may have already
been used. It is essential, therefore, that the pilot immediately
shed non-essential loads when the generating source fails.
[Figure 17-9] The pilot should then plan to land at the nearest
suitable airport.

What constitutes an emergency load following a generating

system failure cannot be predetermined because the actual
circumstances are always somewhat differentfor example,
whether the flight is VFR or instrument flight rules (IFR),
Figure 17-7. Landing with one main gear retracted.

17-11
 Electrical Loads for Number Total Pitot-Static System
Light Single of units Amperes The source of the pressure for operating the airspeed
A. Continuous Load indicator, the vertical speed indicator (VSI), and the altimeter
Pitot Heating (Operating) 1 3.30 is the pitot-static system. The major components of the pitot-
Wingtip Lights 4 3.00 static system are the impact pressure chamber and lines and
Heater Igniter 1 1-20
**Navigation Receivers 1-4 1-2 each
the static pressure chamber and lines, each of which are
**Communications Receivers 1-2 1-2 each subject to total or partial blockage by ice, dirt, and/or other
Fuel Indicator 1 0.40 foreign matter. Blockage of the pitot-static system adversely
Instrument Lights (overhead) 2 0.60 affects instrument operation. [Figure 17-10]
Engine Indicator 1 0.30
Compass Light 1 0.20
Landing Gear Indicator 1 0.17 Partial static system blockage is insidious in that it may go
Flap Indicator 1 0.17 unrecognized until a critical phase of flight. During takeoff,
B. Intermittent Load climb, and level-off at cruise altitude the altimeter, airspeed
Starter 1 100.00 indicator, and VSI may operate normally. No indication of
Landing Lights 2 17.80 malfunction may be present until the airplane begins a descent.
Heater Blower Motor 1 14.00
Flap Motor 1 13.00
Landing Gear Motor 10.00
If the static reference system is severely restricted, but not
1
Cigarette Lighter 1 7.50 entirely blocked, as the airplane descends, the static reference
Transceiver (keyed) 1 5-7 pressure at the instruments begins to lag behind the actual
Fuel Boost Pump 1 2.00 outside air pressure. While descending, the altimeter may
Cowl Flap Motor 1 1.00
Stall Warning Horn 1.50
indicate that the airplane is higher than actual because the
1
** Amperage for radios varies with equipment.
obstruction slows the airflow from the static port to the
In general, the more recent the model, the less amperage required. altimeter. The VSI confirms the altimeters information
NOTE: Panel and indicator lights usually draw less than one amp. regarding rate of change because the reference pressure is
not changing at the same rate as the outside air pressure. The
Figure 17-9. Electrical load for light single.
airspeed indicator, unable to tell whether it is experiencing
more airspeed pitot pressure or less static reference pressure,
conducted in day or at night, in clouds or in the clear. Distance
indicates a higher airspeed than actual. To the pilot, the
to nearest suitable airport can also be a factor.
instruments indicate that the airplane is too high, too fast,
and descending at a rate much less than desired.
The pilot should remember that the electrically-powered (or
electrically-selected) landing gear and flaps do not function
If the pilot levels off and then begins a climb, the altitude
properly on the power left in a partially-depleted battery.
indication may still lag. The VSI indicates that the airplane
Landing gear and flap motors use up power at rates much
is not climbing as fast as actual. The indicated airspeed,
greater than most other types of electrical equipment. The
however, may begin to decrease at an alarming rate. The least
result of selecting these motors on a partially-depleted battery
amount of pitch-up attitude may cause the airspeed needle
may well result in an immediate total loss of electrical power.
to indicate dangerously near stall speed.
If the pilot should experience a complete in-flight loss of
Managing a static system malfunction requires that the pilot
electrical power, the following steps should be taken:
know and understand the airplanes pitot-static system. If a
Shed all but the most necessary electrically-driven system malfunction is suspected, the pilot should confirm it
equipment. by opening the alternate static source. This should be done
Understand that any loss of electrical power is critical while the airplane is climbing or descending. If the instrument
in a small airplanenotify ATC of the situation needles move significantly when this is done, a static pressure
immediately. Request radar vectors for a landing at problem exists and the alternate source should be used during
the nearest suitable airport. the remainder of the flight.

If landing gear or flaps are electrically controlled or Failure of the pitot-static system may also have serious
operated, plan the arrival well ahead of time. Expect consequences for Electronic Flight Instrument Systems
to make a no-flap landing and anticipate a manual (EFIS). To satisfy the requirements of Title 14 of the Code
landing gear extension.

17-12
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17
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17
-14
point where attention is focused on the open door rather than Accident statistics show that the pilot who has not been
maintaining control of the airplane, loss of control may result trained in attitude instrument flying, or one whose instrument
even though disruption of airflow by the door is minimal. skills have eroded, lose control of the airplane in about 10
minutes once forced to rely solely on instrument reference.
In the event of an inadvertent door opening in flight or on The purpose of this section is to provide guidance on practical
takeoff, the pilot should adhere to the following. emergency measures to maintain airplane control for a
Concentrate on flying the airplane. Particularly in limited period of time in the event a VFR pilot encounters
light single and twin-engine airplanes; a cabin door instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). The main goal
that opens in flight seldom if ever compromises the is not precision instrument flying; rather, it is to help the VFR
airplanes ability to fly. There may be some handling pilot keep the airplane under adequate control until suitable
effects, such as roll and/or yaw, but in most instances visual references are regained.
these can be easily overcome.
The first steps necessary for surviving an encounter with
If the door opens after lift-off, do not rush to land. IMC by a VFR pilot are as follows:
Climb to normal traffic pattern altitude, fly a normal
traffic pattern, and make a normal landing. Recognition and acceptance of the seriousness of the
situation and the need for immediate remedial action
Do not release the seat belt and shoulder harness in
an attempt to reach the door. Leave the door alone. Maintaining control of the airplane
Land as soon as practicable, and close the door once Obtaining the appropriate assistance in getting the
safely on the ground. airplane safely on the ground
Remember that most doors do not stay wide open.
They usually bang open and then settle partly closed. Recognition
A slip towards the door may cause it to open wider; A VFR pilot is in IMC conditions anytime he or she is unable
a slip away from the door may push it closed. to maintain airplane attitude control by reference to the natural
horizon regardless of the circumstances or the prevailing
Do not panic. Try to ignore the unfamiliar noise and weather conditions. Additionally, the VFR pilot is, in effect,
vibration. Also, do not rush. Attempting to get the in IMC anytime he or she is inadvertently or intentionally for
airplane on the ground as quickly as possible may an indeterminate period of time unable to navigate or establish
result in steep turns at low altitude. geographical position by visual reference to landmarks on
Complete all items on the landing checklist. the surface. These situations must be accepted by the pilot
Remember that accidents are almost never caused by involved as a genuine emergency requiring appropriate action.
an open door. Rather, an open door accident is caused
by the pilots distraction or failure to maintain control The pilot must understand that unless he or she is trained,
of the airplane. qualified, and current in the control of an airplane solely
by reference to flight instruments, he or she is unable to
Inadvertent VFR Flight Into IMC do so for any length of time. Many hours of VFR flying
using the attitude indicator as a reference for airplane
It is beyond the scope of this handbook to incorporate a course control may lull a pilot into a false sense of security
of training in basic attitude instrument flying. This information based on an overestimation of his or her personal ability
is contained in FAA-H-8083-15, Instrument Flying to control the airplane solely by instrument reference. In
Handbook. Certain pilot certificates and/or associated ratings VFR conditions, even though the pilot thinks he or she is
require training in instrument flying and a demonstration of controlling the airplane by instrument reference, the pilot
specific instrument flying tasks on the practical test. also receives an overview of the natural horizon and may
subconsciously rely on it more than the attitude indicator.
Pilots and flight instructors should refer to FAA-H-8083-15 If the natural horizon were to suddenly disappear, the
for guidance in the performance of these tasks and to the untrained instrument pilot would be subject to vertigo,
appropriate practical test standards (PTS) for information spatial disorientation, and inevitable control loss.
on the standards to which these required tasks must be
performed for the particular certificate level and/or rating. The Maintaining Airplane Control
pilot should remember, however, that unless these tasks are Once the pilot recognizes and accepts the situation, he
practiced on a continuing and regular basis, skill erosion begins or she must understand that the only way to control the
almost immediately. In a very short time, the pilots assumed airplane safely is by using and trusting the flight instruments.
level of confidence is much higher than the performance he Attempts to control the airplane partially by reference to flight
or she is actually able to demonstrate should the need arise.

17-15
instruments while searching outside of the airplane for visual
Attitude indicator
confirmation of the information provided by those instruments _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM
108.00 113.00 WPT DTK _ _ _ TRK 360 134.000 118.000
results in inadequate airplane control. This may be followed
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fact the only concern at this pointis to keep the wings level.
An uncontrolled turn or bank usually leads to difficulty in
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achieving the objectives of any desired flight condition. The

pilot finds that good bank control has the effect of making
pitch control much easier. Figure 17-12. Attitude indicator.

The pilot should remember that a person cannot feel control

as indicated on the horizon bar corresponds to a
pressures with a tight grip on the controls. Relaxing and
proportionately much larger change in actual airplane
learning to control with the eyes and the brain, instead of
attitude.
only the muscles usually takes considerable conscious effort.
Make use of any available aid in attitude control, such
The pilot must believe what the flight instruments show about as autopilot or wing leveler.
the airplanes attitude regardless of what the natural senses
tell. The vestibular sense (motion sensing by the inner ear) The primary instrument for attitude control is the attitude
can and will confuse the pilot. Because of inertia, the sensory indicator. [Figure 17-12] Once the airplane is trimmed so
areas of the inner ear cannot detect slight changes in airplane that it maintains hands-off level flight at cruise airspeed, that
attitude, nor can they accurately sense attitude changes that airspeed need not vary until the airplane must be slowed for
occur at a uniform rate over a period of time. On the other landing. All turns, climbs, and descents can and should be
hand, false sensations are often generated, leading the pilot made at this airspeed. Straight flight is maintained by keeping
to believe the attitude of the airplane has changed when, the wings level using fingertip pressure on the control
in fact, it has not. These false sensations result in the pilot wheel. Any pitch attitude change should be made by using
experiencing spatial disorientation. no more than one bar width up or down.

Attitude Control Turns

An airplane is, by design, an inherently stable platform and, Turns are perhaps the most potentially dangerous maneuver
except in turbulent air, maintains approximately straight-and- for the untrained instrument pilot for two reasons:
level flight if properly trimmed and left alone. It is designed The normal tendency of the pilot to overcontrol,
to maintain a state of equilibrium in pitch, roll, and yaw. The leading to steep banks and the possibility of a
pilot must be aware, however, that a change about one axis graveyard spiral.
affects the stability of the others. The typical light airplane
exhibits a good deal of stability in the yaw axis, slightly less The inability of the pilot to cope with the instability
in the pitch axis, and even lesser still in the roll axis. The resulting from the turn.
key to emergency airplane attitude control, therefore, is to:
When a turn must be made, the pilot must anticipate and
Trim the airplane with the elevator trim so that it cope with the relative instability of the roll axis. The smallest
maintains hands-off level flight at cruise airspeed. practical bank angle should be usedin any case no more
Resist the tendency to overcontrol the airplane. Fly the than 10 bank angle. [Figure 17-13] A shallow bank takes
attitude indicator with fingertip control. No attitude very little vertical lift from the wings resulting in little if
changes should be made unless the flight instruments any deviation in altitude. It may be helpful to turn a few
indicate a definite need for a change. degrees and then return to level flight if a large change in
heading must be made. Repeat the process until the desired
Make all attitude changes smooth and small, yet with
heading is reached. This process may relieve the progressive
positive pressure. Remember that a small change
overbanking that often results from prolonged turns.

17-16
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17
-17
encountered in individual maneuvers and increase the risk Chapter Summary
of control loss. Remember that the objective is to maintain
This chapter provided general guidance and recommended
airplane control by deviating as little as possible from
procedures that may apply to light single-engine airplanes
straight-and-level flight attitude and thereby maintaining as
involved in certain emergency situations. The information
much of the airplanes natural equilibrium as possible.
presented is intended to enhance the general knowledge of
emergency operations with the clear understanding that the
When being assisted by ATC, the pilot may detect a sense of
manufacturers recommended emergency procedures take
urgency as he or she is being directed to change heading and/
precedence. The chapter offers explanation concerning design
or altitude. This sense of urgency reflects a normal concern
structural load damage that may be imposed on the aircraft
for safety on the part of the controller. But the pilot must not
while performing emergency gear extension techniques.
let this prompt him or her to attempt a maneuver that could
Rapid and abrupt pitch attitude changes executed at high
result in loss of control.
forward airspeed may impose structural damage on the
aircraft and flight controls. Normal category aircraft may not
Transition to Visual Flight
be designed to withstand abrupt pedal applications necessary
One of the most difficult tasks a trained and qualified
to dislodge the landing gear.
instrument pilot must contend with is the transition from
instrument to visual flight prior to landing. For the untrained
Additional information is provided addressing failure of the
instrument pilot, these difficulties are magnified.
pitot-static system in aircraft with EFIS. The redundancy of
these systems as required by 14 CFR part 23 for IFR flight
The difficulties center around acclimatization and orientation.
may be less than desired because both the primary and backup
On an instrument approach, the trained instrument pilot
instrumentation may be receiving signal data input from the
must prepare in advance for the transition to visual flight.
same pitot-static source. The failure indications of EFIS may
The pilot must have a mental picture of what he or she
be entirely different from conventional instruments making
expects to see once the transition to visual flight is made and
recognition of system malfunction much more difficult for the
quickly acclimatize to the new environment. Geographical
pilot. Lack of system standardization compounds the problem
orientation must also begin before the transition, as the pilot
making equipment specific information and knowledge
must visualize where the airplane is in relation to the airport/
imperative to determine electronic display malfunctions. The
runway when the transition occurs so that the approach and
inability to simulate certain failure modes during training
landing may be completed by visual reference to the ground.
and evaluation makes the pilot less prepared for an actual
emergency. As electronic avionics become more technically
In an ideal situation, the transition to visual flight is made
advanced, the training and proficiency needed to safely
with ample time, at a sufficient altitude above terrain,
operate these systems must keep pace.
and to visibility conditions sufficient to accommodate
acclimatization and geographical orientation. This, however,
is not always the case. The untrained instrument pilot
may find the visibility still limited, the terrain completely
unfamiliar, and altitude above terrain such that a normal
airport traffic pattern and landing approach is not possible.
Additionally, the pilot is most likely under considerable
self-induced psychological pressure to get the airplane on the
ground. The pilot must take this into account and, if possible,
allow time to become acclimatized and geographically
oriented before attempting an approach and landing, even if
it means flying straight and level for a time or circling the
airport. This is especially true at night.

17-18
Glossary

Numbers and Symbols Aerodynamic ceiling. The point (altitude) at which, as the
indicated airspeed decreases with altitude, it progressively
100-hour Inspection. An inspection, identical in scope to
merges with the low speed buffet boundary where prestall
an annual inspection. Must be conducted every 100 hours of
buffet occurs for the airplane at a load factor of 1.0 G.
flight on aircraft of under 12,500 pounds that are used for hire.
Aerodynamics. The science of the action of air on an object,
A
and with the motion of air on other gases. Aerodynamics
Absolute altitude. The vertical distance of an airplane above deals with the production of lift by the aircraft, the relative
the terrain, or above ground level (AGL). wind, and the atmosphere.

Absolute ceiling. The altitude at which a climb is no longer Ailerons. Primary flight control surfaces mounted on the
possible. trailing edge of an airplane wing, near the tip. Ailerons control
roll about the longitudinal axis.
Accelerate-go distance. The distance required to accelerate
to V1 with all engines at takeoff power, experience an engine Air start. The act or instance of starting an aircrafts engine
failure at V1 and continue the takeoff on the remaining while in flight, especially a jet engine after flameout.
engine(s). The runway required includes the distance required
to climb to 35 feet by which time V2 speed must be attained. Aircraft logbooks. Journals containing a record of total
operating time, repairs, alterations or inspections performed,
Accelerate-stop distance. The distance required to accelerate and all Airworthiness Directive (AD) notes complied with. A
to V1 with all engines at takeoff power, experience an engine maintenance logbook should be kept for the airframe, each
failure at V1, and abort the takeoff and bring the airplane to engine, and each propeller.
a stop using braking action only (use of thrust reversing is
not considered). Airfoil. An airfoil is any surface, such as a wing, propeller,
rudder, or even a trim tab, which provides aerodynamic force
Acceleration. Force involved in overcoming inertia, and when it interacts with a moving stream of air.
which may be defined as a change in velocity per unit of time.
Airmanship skills. The skills of coordination, timing, control
Accessories. Components that are used with an engine, but touch, and speed sense in addition to the motor skills required
are not a part of the engine itself. Units such as magnetos, to fly an aircraft.
carburetors, generators, and fuel pumps are commonly
installed engine accessories. Airmanship. A sound acquaintance with the principles of
flight, the ability to operate an airplane with competence and
Adjustable stabilizer. A stabilizer that can be adjusted in precision both on the ground and in the air, and the exercise
flight to trim the airplane, thereby allowing the airplane to of sound judgment that results in optimal operational safety
fly hands-off at any given airspeed. and efficiency.

Adverse yaw. A condition of flight in which the nose of an Airplane Flight Manual (AFM). A document developed
airplane tends to yaw toward the outside of the turn. This is by the airplane manufacturer and approved by the Federal
caused by the higher induced drag on the outside wing, which Aviation Administration (FAA). It is specific to a particular
is also producing more lift. Induced drag is a by-product of make and model airplane by serial number and it contains
the lift associated with the outside wing. operating procedures and limitations.

G-1
Airplane Owner/Information Manual. A document Altitude (AGL). The actual height above ground level (AGL)
developed by the airplane manufacturer containing general at which the aircraft is flying.
information about the make and model of an airplane. The
airplane owners manual is not FAA-approved and is not Altitude (MSL). The actual height above mean sea level
specific to a particular serial numbered airplane. This manual (MSL) at which the aircraft is flying.
is not kept current, and therefore cannot be substituted for
the AFM/POH. Altitude chamber. A device that simulates high altitude
conditions by reducing the interior pressure. The occupants
Airport/Facility Directory. A publication designed will suffer from the same physiological conditions as flight
primarily as a pilots operational manual containing all at high altitude in an unpressurized aircraft.
airports, seaplane bases, and heliports open to the public
including communications data, navigational facilities, and Altitude engine. A reciprocating aircraft engine having a
certain special notices and procedures. This publication is rated takeoff power that is producible from sea level to an
issued in seven volumes according to geographic area. established higher altitude.

Airworthiness. A condition in which the aircraft conforms Angle of attack. The acute angle between the chord line of
to its type certificated design including supplemental type the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind.
certificates, and field approved alterations. The aircraft must
also be in a condition for safe flight as determined by annual, Angle of incidence. The angle formed by the chord line of the
100 hour, preflight and any other required inspections. wing and a line parallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane.

Airworthiness Certificate. A certificate issued by the FAA Annual inspection. A complete inspection of an aircraft and
to all aircraft that have been proven to meet the minimum engine, required by the Code of Federal Regulations, to be
standards set down by the Code of Federal Regulations. accomplished every 12 calendar months on all certificated
aircraft. Only an A&P technician holding an Inspection
Airworthiness Directive. A regulatory notice sent out by Authorization can conduct an annual inspection.
the FAA to the registered owner of an aircraft informing
the owner of a condition that prevents the aircraft from Anti-icing. The prevention of the formation of ice on a
continuing to meet its conditions for airworthiness. surface. Ice may be prevented by using heat or by covering
Airworthiness Directives (AD notes) must be complied with the surface with a chemical that prevents water from reaching
within the required time limit, and the fact of compliance, the surface. Anti-icing should not be confused with deicing,
the date of compliance, and the method of compliance must which is the removal of ice after it has formed on the surface.
be recorded in the aircrafts maintenance records.
Attitude indicator. An instrument which uses an artificial
Alpha mode of operation. The operation of a turboprop horizon and miniature airplane to depict the position of the
engine that includes all of the flight operations, from takeoff airplane in relation to the true horizon. The attitude indicator
to landing. Alpha operation is typically between 95 percent senses roll as well as pitch, which is the up and down
to 100 percent of the engine operating speed. movement of the airplanes nose.

Alternate air. A device which opens, either automatically or Attitude. The position of an aircraft as determined by the
manually, to allow induction airflow to continue should the relationship of its axes and a reference, usually the earths
primary induction air opening become blocked. horizon.

Alternate static source. A manual port that when opened Autokinesis. This is caused by staring at a single point of
allows the pitot static instruments to sense static pressure light against a dark background for more than a few seconds.
from an alternate location should the primary static port After a few moments, the light appears to move on its own.
become blocked.
Autopilot. An automatic flight control system which keeps
Alternator/generator. A device that uses engine power to an aircraft in level flight or on a set course. Automatic pilots
generate electrical power. can be directed by the pilot, or they may be coupled to a radio
navigation signal.
Altimeter. A flight instrument that indicates altitude by
sensing pressure changes.

G-2
Axes of an aircraft. Three imaginary lines that pass through Bleed valve. In a turbine engine, a flapper valve, a popoff
an aircrafts center of gravity. The axes can be considered as valve, or a bleed band designed to bleed off a portion of the
imaginary axles around which the aircraft turns. The three compressor air to the atmosphere. Used to maintain blade
axes pass through the center of gravity at 90 angles to each angle of attack and provide stall-free engine acceleration
other. The axis from nose to tail is the longitudinal axis, the and deceleration.
axis that passes from wingtip to wingtip is the lateral axis, and
the axis that passes vertically through the center of gravity Boost pump. An electrically driven fuel pump, usually of the
is the vertical axis. centrifugal type, located in one of the fuel tanks. It is used
to provide fuel to the engine for starting and providing fuel
Axial flow compressor. A type of compressor used in a pressure in the event of failure of the engine driven pump. It
turbine engine in which the airflow through the compressor also pressurizes the fuel lines to prevent vapor lock.
is essentially linear. An axial-flow compressor is made up of
several stages of alternate rotors and stators. The compressor Buffeting. The beating of an aerodynamic structure or
ratio is determined by the decrease in area of the succeeding surface by unsteady flow, gusts, etc.; the irregular shaking
stages. or oscillation of a vehicle component owing to turbulent air
or separated flow.
B
Back side of the power curve. Flight regime in which flight Bus bar. An electrical power distribution point to which
at a higher airspeed requires a lower power setting and a several circuits may be connected. It is often a solid metal
lower airspeed requires a higher power setting in order to strip having a number of terminals installed on it.
maintain altitude.
Bus tie. A switch that connects two or more bus bars. It is
Balked landing. A go-around. usually used when one generator fails and power is lost to its
bus. By closing the switch, the operating generator powers
Ballast. Removable or permanently installed weight in an both busses.
aircraft used to bring the center of gravity into the allowable
range. Bypass air. The part of a turbofans induction air that
bypasses the engine core.
Balloon. The result of a too aggressive flare during landing
causing the aircraft to climb. Bypass ratio. The ratio of the mass airflow in pounds per
second through the fan section of a turbofan engine to the
Basic empty weight (GAMA). Basic empty weight mass airflow that passes through the gas generator portion of
includes the standard empty weight plus optional and special the engine. Or, the ratio between fan mass airflow (lb/sec.)
equipment that has been installed. and core engine mass airflow (lb/sec.).

Best angle of climb (VX). The speed at which the aircraft C

will produce the most gain in altitude in a given distance. Cabin pressurization. A condition where pressurized air is
forced into the cabin simulating pressure conditions at a much
Best glide. The airspeed in which the aircraft glides the lower altitude and increasing the aircraft occupants comfort.
furthest for the least altitude lost when in non-powered flight.
Calibrated airspeed (CAS). Indicated airspeed corrected
Best rate of climb (VY). The speed at which the aircraft will for installation error and instrument error. Although
produce the most gain in altitude in the least amount of time. manufacturers attempt to keep airspeed errors to a minimum,
it is not possible to eliminate all errors throughout the
Blade face. The flat portion of a propeller blade, resembling airspeed operating range. At certain airspeeds and with
the bottom portion of an airfoil. certain flap settings, the installation and instrument errors
may total several knots. This error is generally greatest at
Bleed air. Compressed air tapped from the compressor stages low airspeeds. In the cruising and higher airspeed ranges,
of a turbine engine by use of ducts and tubing. Bleed air can indicated airspeed and calibrated airspeed are approximately
be used for deice, anti-ice, cabin pressurization, heating, and the same. Refer to the airspeed calibration chart to correct
cooling systems. for possible airspeed errors.

G-3
Cambered. The camber of an airfoil is the characteristic Chord line. An imaginary straight line drawn through an
curve of its upper and lower surfaces. The upper camber is airfoil from the leading edge to the trailing edge.
more pronounced, while the lower camber is comparatively
flat. This causes the velocity of the airflow immediately Circuit breaker. A circuit-protecting device that opens the
above the wing to be much higher than that below the wing. circuit in case of excess current flow. A circuit breakers
differs from a fuse in that it can be reset without having to
Carburetor ice. Ice that forms inside the carburetor due to be replaced.
the temperature drop caused by the vaporization of the fuel.
Induction system icing is an operational hazard because it can Clear air turbulence. Turbulence not associated with any
cut off the flow of the fuel/air charge or vary the fuel/air ratio. visible moisture.

Carburetor. 1. Pressure: A hydromechanical device Climb gradient. The ratio between distance traveled and
employing a closed feed system from the fuel pump to the altitude gained.
discharge nozzle. It meters fuel through fixed jets according
to the mass airflow through the throttle body and discharges Cockpit resource management. Techniques designed to
it under a positive pressure. Pressure carburetors are reduce pilot errors and manage errors that do occur utilizing
distinctly different from float-type carburetors, as they do not cockpit human resources. The assumption is that errors
incorporate a vented float chamber or suction pickup from are going to happen in a complex system with error-prone
a discharge nozzle located in the venturi tube. 2. Float-type: humans.
Consists essentially of a main air passage through which the
engine draws its supply of air, a mechanism to control the Coefficient of lift. See lift coefficient.
quantity of fuel discharged in relation to the flow of air, and a
means of regulating the quantity of fuel/air mixture delivered Coffin corner. The flight regime where any increase in
to the engine cylinders. airspeed will induce high speed Mach buffet and any decrease
in airspeed will induce low speed Mach buffet.
Cascade reverser. A thrust reverser normally found on
turbofan engines in which a blocker door and a series of Combustion chamber. The section of the engine into which
cascade vanes are used to redirect exhaust gases in a forward fuel is injected and burned.
direction.
Common traffic advisory frequency. The common
Center of gravity (CG). The point at which an airplane frequency used by airport traffic to announce position reports
would balance if it were possible to suspend it at that point. in the vicinity of the airport.
It is the mass center of the airplane, or the theoretical point
at which the entire weight of the airplane is assumed to Complex aircraft. An aircraft with retractable landing
be concentrated. It may be expressed in inches from the gear, flaps, and a controllable-pitch propeller, or is turbine
reference datum, or in percent of mean aerodynamic chord powered.
(MAC). The location depends on the distribution of weight
in the airplane. Compression ratio. 1. In a reciprocating engine, the ratio
of the volume of an engine cylinder with the piston at the
Center-of-gravity limits. The specified forward and aft bottom center to the volume with the piston at top center. 2.
points within which the CG must be located during flight. In a turbine engine, the ratio of the pressure of the air at the
These limits are indicated on pertinent airplane specifications. discharge to the pressure of air at the inlet.

Center-of-gravity range. The distance between the Compressor bleed air. See bleed air.
forward and aft CG limits indicated on pertinent airplane
specifications. Compressor bleed valves. See bleed valve.

Centrifugal flow compressor. An impeller-shaped device Compressor section. The section of a turbine engine that
that receives air at its center and slings air outward at high increases the pressure and density of the air flowing through
velocity into a diffuser for increased pressure. Also referred the engine.
to as a radial outflow compressor.

G-4
Compressor stall. In gas turbine engines, a condition in Cowl flaps. Devices arranged around certain air-cooled
an axial-flow compressor in which one or more stages of engine cowlings which may be opened or closed to regulate
rotor blades fail to pass air smoothly to the succeeding the flow of air around the engine.
stages. A stall condition is caused by a pressure ratio that is
incompatible with the engine rpm Compressor stall will be Crab. A flight condition in which the nose of the airplane
indicated by a rise in exhaust temperature or rpm fluctuation, is pointed into the wind a sufficient amount to counteract
and if allowed to continue, may result in flameout and a crosswind and maintain a desired track over the ground.
physical damage to the engine.
Crazing. Small fractures in aircraft windshields and windows
Compressor surge. A severe compressor stall across the caused from being exposed to the ultraviolet rays of the sun
entire compressor that can result in severe damage if not and temperature extremes.
quickly corrected. This condition occurs with a complete
stoppage of airflow or a reversal of airflow. Critical altitude. The maximum altitude under standard
atmospheric conditions at which a turbocharged engine can
Condition lever. In a turbine engine, a powerplant control produce its rated horsepower.
that controls the flow of fuel to the engine. The condition
lever sets the desired engine rpm within a narrow range Critical angle of attack. The angle of attack at which a
between that appropriate for ground and flight operations. wing stalls regardless of airspeed, flight attitude, or weight.

Configuration. This is a general term, which normally refers Critical engine. The engine whose failure has the most
to the position of the landing gear and flaps. adverse effect on directional control.

Constant speed propeller. A controllable pitch propeller Cross controlled. A condition where aileron deflection is in
whose pitch is automatically varied in flight by a governor the opposite direction of rudder deflection.
to maintain a constant rpm in spite of varying air loads.
Crossfeed. A system that allows either engine on a twin-
Control touch. The ability to sense the action of the airplane engine airplane to draw fuel from any fuel tank.
and its probable actions in the immediate future, with regard
to attitude and speed variations, by sensing and evaluation Crosswind component. The wind component, measured in
of varying pressures and resistance of the control surfaces knots, at 90 to the longitudinal axis of the runway.
transmitted through the cockpit flight controls.
Current limiter. A device that limits the generator output
Controllability. A measure of the response of an aircraft to a level within that rated by the generator manufacturer.
relative to the pilots flight control inputs.
D
Controllable pitch propeller. A propeller in which the blade Datum (reference datum). An imaginary vertical plane or
angle can be changed during flight by a control in the cockpit. line from which all measurements of moment arm are taken.
The datum is established by the manufacturer. Once the
Conventional landing gear. Landing gear employing a third datum has been selected, all moment arms and the location
rear-mounted wheel. These airplanes are also sometimes of CG range are measured from this point.
referred to as tailwheel airplanes.
Decompression sickness. A condition where the low
Coordinated flight. Application of all appropriate flight pressure at high altitudes allows bubbles of nitrogen to form
and power controls to prevent slipping or skidding in any in the blood and joints causing severe pain. Also known as
flight condition. the bends.

Coordination. The ability to use the hands and feet together Deicer boots. Inflatable rubber boots attached to the leading
subconsciously and in the proper relationship to produce edge of an airfoil. They can be sequentially inflated and
desired results in the airplane. deflated to break away ice that has formed over their surface.

Core airflow. Air drawn into the engine for the gas generator. Deicing. Removing ice after it has formed.

G-5
Delamination. The separation of layers. Drift angle. Angle between heading and track.

Density altitude. This altitude is pressure altitude corrected Ducted-fan engine. An engine-propeller combination that
for variations from standard temperature. When conditions has the propeller enclosed in a radial shroud. Enclosing the
are standard, pressure altitude and density altitude are the propeller improves the efficiency of the propeller.
same. If the temperature is above standard, the density
altitude is higher than pressure altitude. If the temperature Dutch roll. A combination of rolling and yawing oscillations
is below standard, the density altitude is lower than pressure that normally occurs when the dihedral effects of an aircraft
altitude. This is an important altitude because it is directly are more powerful than the directional stability. Usually
related to the airplanes performance. dynamically stable but objectionable in an airplane because
of the oscillatory nature.
Designated pilot examiner (DPE). An individual designated
by the FAA to administer practical tests to pilot applicants. Dynamic hydroplaning. A condition that exists when
landing on a surface with standing water deeper than the
Detonation. The sudden release of heat energy from fuel in tread depth of the tires. When the brakes are applied, there is
an aircraft engine caused by the fuel-air mixture reaching a possibility that the brake will lock up and the tire will ride
its critical pressure and temperature. Detonation occurs as on the surface of the water, much like a water ski. When the
a violent explosion rather than a smooth burning process. tires are hydroplaning, directional control and braking action
are virtually impossible. An effective anti-skid system can
Dewpoint. The temperature at which air can hold no more minimize the effects of hydroplaning.
water.
Dynamic stability. The property of an aircraft that causes
Differential ailerons. Control surface rigged such that the it, when disturbed from straight-and-level flight, to develop
aileron moving up moves a greater distance than the aileron forces or moments that restore the original condition of
moving down. The up aileron produces extra parasite drag straight and level.
to compensate for the additional induced drag caused by
the down aileron. This balancing of the drag forces helps E
minimize adverse yaw. Electrical bus. See bus bar.

Diffusion. Reducing the velocity of air causing the pressure Electrohydraulic. Hydraulic control which is electrically
to increase. actuated.

Directional stability. Stability about the vertical axis of an Elevator. The horizontal, movable primary control surface in
aircraft, whereby an aircraft tends to return, on its own, to the tail section, or empennage, of an airplane. The elevator is
flight aligned with the relative wind when disturbed from that hinged to the trailing edge of the fixed horizontal stabilizer.
equilibrium state. The vertical tail is the primary contributor
to directional stability, causing an airplane in flight to align Emergency locator transmitter. A small, self-contained
with the relative wind. radio transmitter that will automatically, upon the impact
of a crash, transmit an emergency signal on 121.5, 243.0,
Ditching. Emergency landing in water. or 406.0 MHz.

Downwash. Air deflected perpendicular to the motion of Empennage. The section of the airplane that consists of the
the airfoil. vertical stabilizer, the horizontal stabilizer, and the associated
control surfaces.
Drag. An aerodynamic force on a body acting parallel
and opposite to the relative wind. The resistance of the Engine pressure ratio (EPR). The ratio of turbine discharge
atmosphere to the relative motion of an aircraft. Drag opposes pressure divided by compressor inlet pressure that is used
thrust and limits the speed of the airplane. as an indication of the amount of thrust being developed by
a turbine engine.
Drag curve. A visual representation of the amount of drag
of an aircraft at various airspeeds.

G-6
Environmental systems. In an aircraft, the systems, Flaps. Hinged portion of the trailing edge between the
including the supplemental oxygen systems, air conditioning ailerons and fuselage. In some aircraft, ailerons and flaps
systems, heaters, and pressurization systems, which make it are interconnected to produce full-span flaperons. In either
possible for an occupant to function at high altitude. case, flaps change the lift and drag on the wing.

Equilibrium. A condition that exists within a body when the Flat pitch. A propeller configuration when the blade chord
sum of the moments of all of the forces acting on the body is aligned with the direction of rotation.
is equal to zero. In aerodynamics, equilibrium is when all
opposing forces acting on an aircraft are balanced (steady, Flicker vertigo. A disorienting condition caused from
unaccelerated flight conditions). flickering light off the blades of the propeller.

Equivalent shaft horsepower (ESHP). A measurement of Flight director. An automatic flight control system in which
the total horsepower of a turboprop engine, including that the commands needed to fly the airplane are electronically
provided by jet thrust. computed and displayed on a flight instrument. The
commands are followed by the human pilot with manual
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT). The temperature of the control inputs or, in the case of an autopilot system, sent to
exhaust gases as they leave the cylinders of a reciprocating servos that move the flight controls.
engine or the turbine section of a turbine engine.
Flight idle. Engine speed, usually in the 70-80 percent range,
Exhaust manifold. The part of the engine that collects for minimum flight thrust.
exhaust gases leaving the cylinders.
Floating. A condition when landing where the airplane does
Exhaust. The rear opening of a turbine engine exhaust duct. not settle to the runway due to excessive airspeed.
The nozzle acts as an orifice, the size of which determines
the density and velocity of the gases as they emerge from Force (F). The energy applied to an object that attempts to
the engine. cause the object to change its direction, speed, or motion.
In aerodynamics, it is expressed as F, T (thrust), L (lift), W
F (weight), or D (drag), usually in pounds.
False horizon. An optical illusion where the pilot confuses a
row of lights along a road or other straight line as the horizon. Form drag. The part of parasite drag on a body resulting
from the integrated effect of the static pressure acting normal
False start. See hung start. to its surface resolved in the drag direction.

Feathering propeller (feathered). A controllable pitch Forward slip. A slip in which the airplanes direction of
propeller with a pitch range sufficient to allow the blades motion continues the same as before the slip was begun. In
to be turned parallel to the line of flight to reduce drag and a forward slip, the airplanes longitudinal axis is at an angle
prevent further damage to an engine that has been shut down to its flightpath.
after a malfunction.
Free power turbine engine. A turboprop engine where the
Fixation. A psychological condition where the pilot fixes gas producer spool is on a separate shaft from the output
attention on a single source of information and ignores all shaft. The free power turbine spins independently of the gas
other sources. producer and drives the output shaft.

Fixed shaft turboprop engine. A turboprop engine where Friction drag. The part of parasitic drag on a body resulting
the gas producer spool is directly connected to the output from viscous shearing stresses over its wetted surface.
shaft.
Frise-type aileron. Aileron having the nose portion
Fixed-pitch propellers. Propellers with fixed blade angles. projecting ahead of the hinge line. When the trailing edge
Fixed-pitch propellers are designed as climb propellers, of the aileron moves up, the nose projects below the wings
cruise propellers, or standard propellers. lower surface and produces some parasite drag, decreasing
the amount of adverse yaw.

G-7
Fuel control unit. The fuel-metering device used on a turbine Glide ratio. The ratio between distance traveled and altitude
engine that meters the proper quantity of fuel to be fed into lost during non-powered flight.
the burners of the engine. It integrates the parameters of inlet
air temperature, compressor speed, compressor discharge Glidepath. The path of an aircraft relative to the ground
pressure, and exhaust gas temperature with the position of while approaching a landing.
the cockpit power control lever.
Global position system (GPS). A satellite-based radio
Fuel efficiency. Defined as the amount of fuel used to positioning, navigation, and time-transfer system.
produce a specific thrust or horsepower divided by the total
potential power contained in the same amount of fuel. Go-around. Terminating a landing approach.

Fuel heaters. A radiator-like device which has fuel passing Governing range. The range of pitch a propeller governor
through the core. A heat exchange occurs to keep the can control during flight.
fuel temperature above the freezing point of water so that
entrained water does not form ice crystals, which could Governor. A control which limits the maximum rotational
block fuel flow. speed of a device.

Fuel injection. A fuel metering system used on some aircraft Gross weight. The total weight of a fully loaded aircraft
reciprocating engines in which a constant flow of fuel is fed including the fuel, oil, crew, passengers, and cargo.
to injection nozzles in the heads of all cylinders just outside
of the intake valve. It differs from sequential fuel injection in Ground adjustable trim tab. A metal trim tab on a control
which a timed charge of high-pressure fuel is sprayed directly surface that is not adjustable in flight. Bent in one direction
into the combustion chamber of the cylinder. or another while on the ground to apply trim forces to the
control surface.
Fuel load. The expendable part of the load of the airplane.
It includes only usable fuel, not fuel required to fill the lines Ground effect. A condition of improved performance
or that which remains trapped in the tank sumps. encountered when an airplane is operating very close to the
ground. When an airplanes wing is under the influence of
Fuel tank sump. A sampling port in the lowest part of the ground effect, there is a reduction in upwash, downwash, and
fuel tank that the pilot can utilize to check for contaminants wingtip vortices. As a result of the reduced wingtip vortices,
in the fuel. induced drag is reduced.

Fuselage. The section of the airplane that consists of the Ground idle. Gas turbine engine speed usually 60-70 percent
cabin and/or cockpit, containing seats for the occupants and of the maximum rpm range, used as a minimum thrust setting
the controls for the airplane. for ground operations.

G Ground loop. A sharp, uncontrolled change of direction of

Gas generator. The basic power producing portion of a an airplane on the ground.
gas turbine engine and excluding such sections as the inlet
duct, the fan section, free power turbines, and tailpipe. Ground power unit (GPU). A type of small gas turbine
Each manufacturer designates what is included as the gas whose purpose is to provide electrical power, and/or air
generator, but generally consists of the compressor, diffuser, pressure for starting aircraft engines. Aground unit is
combustor, and turbine. connected to the aircraft when needed. Similar to an aircraft-
installed auxiliary power unit.
Gas turbine engine. A form of heat engine in which burning
fuel adds energy to compressed air and accelerates the air Groundspeed (GS). The actual speed of the airplane over the
through the remainder of the engine. Some of the energy ground. It is true airspeed adjusted for wind. Groundspeed
is extracted to turn the air compressor, and the remainder decreases with a headwind, and increases with a tailwind.
accelerates the air to produce thrust. Some of this energy can
be converted into torque to drive a propeller or a system of Ground track. The aircrafts path over the ground when
rotors for a helicopter. in flight.

G-8
Gust penetration speed. The speed that gives the greatest Hydraulics. The branch of science that deals with the
margin between the high and low Mach speed buffets. transmission of power by incompressible fluids under
pressure.
Gyroscopic precession. An inherent quality of rotating
bodies, which causes an applied force to be manifested 90 Hydroplaning. A condition that exists when landing on a
in the direction of rotation from the point where the force surface with standing water deeper than the tread depth of
is applied. the tires. When the brakes are applied, there is a possibility
that the brake will lock up and the tire will ride on the
H surface of the water, much like a water ski. When the tires
Hand propping. Starting an engine by rotating the propeller are hydroplaning, directional control and braking action
by hand. are virtually impossible. An effective anti-skid system can
minimize the effects of hydroplaning.
Heading. The direction in which the nose of the aircraft is
pointing during flight. Hypoxia. A lack of sufficient oxygen reaching the body
tissues.
Heading bug. A marker on the heading indicator that can
be rotated to a specific heading for reference purposes, or to I
command an autopilot to fly that heading. Igniter plugs. The electrical device used to provide the spark
for starting combustion in a turbine engine. Some igniters
Heading indicator. An instrument which senses airplane resemble spark plugs, while others, called glow plugs, have
movement and displays heading based on a 360 azimuth, a coil of resistance wire that glows red hot when electrical
with the final zero omitted. The heading indicator, also called current flows through the coil.
a directional gyro, is fundamentally a mechanical instrument
designed to facilitate the use of the magnetic compass. The Impact ice. Ice that forms on the wings and control surfaces
heading indicator is not affected by the forces that make the or on the carburetor heat valve, the walls of the air scoop, or
magnetic compass difficult to interpret. the carburetor units during flight. Impact ice collecting on the
metering elements of the carburetor may upset fuel metering
Headwind component. The component of atmospheric or stop carburetor fuel flow.
winds that acts opposite to the aircrafts flightpath.
Inclinometer. An instrument consisting of a curved glass
High performance aircraft. An aircraft with an engine of tube, housing a glass ball, and damped with a fluid similar
more than 200 horsepower. to kerosene. It may be used to indicate inclination, as a level,
or, as used in the turn indicators, to show the relationship
Horizon. The line of sight boundary between the earth and between gravity and centrifugal force in a turn.
the sky.
Indicated airspeed (IAS). The direct instrument reading
Horsepower. The term, originated by inventor James Watt, obtained from the airspeed indicator, uncorrected for
means the amount of work a horse could do in one second. variations in atmospheric density, installation error, or
One horsepower equals 550 foot-pounds per second, or instrument error. Manufacturers use this airspeed as the basis
33,000 foot-pounds per minute. for determining airplane performance. Takeoff, landing, and
stall speeds listed in the AFM or POH are indicated airspeeds
Hot start. In gas turbine engines, a start which occurs with and do not normally vary with altitude or temperature.
normal engine rotation, but exhaust temperature exceeds
prescribed limits. This is usually caused by an excessively Indicated altitude. The altitude read directly from the
rich mixture in the combustor. The fuel to the engine must altimeter (uncorrected) when it is set to the current altimeter
be terminated immediately to prevent engine damage. setting.

Hung start. In gas turbine engines, a condition of normal Induced drag. That part of total drag which is created by
light off but with rpm remaining at some low value rather than the production of lift. Induced drag increases with a decrease
increasing to the normal idle rpm This is often the result of in airspeed.
insufficient power to the engine from the starter. In the event
of a hung start, the engine should be shut down.

G-9
Induction manifold. The part of the engine that distributes L
intake air to the cylinders.
Lateral axis. An imaginary line passing through the center
of gravity of an airplane and extending across the airplane
Inertia. The opposition which a body offers to a change of
from wingtip to wingtip.
motion.
Lateral stability (rolling). The stability about the
Initial climb. This stage of the climb begins when the
longitudinal axis of an aircraft. Rolling stability or the ability
airplane leaves the ground, and a pitch attitude has been
of an airplane to return to level flight due to a disturbance
established to climb away from the takeoff area.
that causes one of the wings to drop.
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). Rules that govern the
Lead-acid battery. A commonly used secondary cell having
procedure for conducting flight in weather conditions below
lead as its negative plate and lead peroxide as its positive
VFR weather minimums. The term IFR also is used to
plate. Sulfuric acid and water serve as the electrolyte.
define weather conditions and the type of flight plan under
which an aircraft is operating.
Leading edge devices. High lift devices which are found on
the leading edge of the airfoil. The most common types are
Integral fuel tank. A portion of the aircraft structure, usually
fixed slots, movable slats, and leading edge flaps.
a wing, which is sealed off and used as a fuel tank. When a
wing is used as an integral fuel tank, it is called a wet wing.
Leading edge. The part of an airfoil that meets the airflow
first.
Intercooler. A device used to reduce the temperature of the
compressed air before it enters the fuel metering device. The
Leading edge flap. A portion of the leading edge of an
resulting cooler air has a higher density, which permits the
airplane wing that folds downward to increase the camber,
engine to be operated with a higher power setting.
lift, and drag of the wing. The leading-edge flaps are
extended for takeoffs and landings to increase the amount
Internal combustion engines. An engine that produces
of aerodynamic lift that is produced at any given airspeed.
power as a result of expanding hot gases from the combustion
of fuel and air within the engine itself. A steam engine where
Licensed empty weight. The empty weight that consists
coal is burned to heat up water inside the engine is an example
of the airframe, engine(s), unusable fuel, and undrainable
of an external combustion engine.
oil plus standard and optional equipment as specified in the
equipment list. Some manufacturers used this term prior to
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Standard
GAMA standardization.
atmospheric conditions consisting of a temperature of 59 F
(15 C), and a barometric pressure of 29.92 "Hg. (1013.2 mb)
Lift. One of the four main forces acting on an aircraft. On a
at sea level. ISA values can be calculated for various altitudes
fixed-wing aircraft, an upward force created by the effect of
using a standard lapse rate of approximately 2 C per 1,000
airflow as it passes over and under the wing.
feet.
Lift coefficient. A coefficient representing the lift of a given
Interstage turbine temperature (ITT). The temperature
airfoil. Lift coefficient is obtained by dividing the lift by the
of the gases between the high pressure and low pressure
free-stream dynamic pressure and the representative area
turbines.
under consideration.
Inverter. An electrical device that changes DC to AC power.
Lift/drag ratio (L/D). The efficiency of an airfoil section. It
is the ratio of the coefficient of lift to the coefficient of drag
J
for any given angle of attack.
Jet powered airplane. An aircraft powered by a turbojet or
turbofan engine. Lift-off. The act of becoming airborne as a result of the
wings lifting the airplane off the ground, or the pilot rotating
K the nose up, increasing the angle of attack to start a climb.
Kinesthesia. The sensing of movements by feel.

G-10
Limit load factor. Amount of stress, or load factor, that an Maneuvering speed (VA). The maximum speed where full,
aircraft can withstand before structural damage or failure abrupt control movement can be used without overstressing
occurs. the airframe.

Load factor. The ratio of the load supported by the airplanes Manifold pressure (MP). The absolute pressure of the fuel/
wings to the actual weight of the aircraft and its contents. air mixture within the intake manifold, usually indicated in
Also referred to as G-loading. inches of mercury.

Longitudinal axis. An imaginary line through an aircraft Maximum allowable takeoff power. The maximum power
from nose to tail, passing through its center of gravity. The an engine is allowed to develop for a limited period of time;
longitudinal axis is also called the roll axis of the aircraft. usually about one minute.
Movement of the ailerons rotates an airplane about its
longitudinal axis. Maximum landing weight. The greatest weight that an
airplane normally is allowed to have at landing.
Longitudinal stability (pitching). Stability about the lateral
axis. A desirable characteristic of an airplane whereby it tends Maximum ramp weight. The total weight of a loaded
to return to its trimmed angle of attack after displacement. aircraft, including all fuel. It is greater than the takeoff
weight due to the fuel that will be burned during the taxi
M and runup operations. Ramp weight may also be referred to
Mach. Speed relative to the speed of sound. Mach 1 is the as taxi weight.
speed of sound.
Maximum takeoff weight. The maximum allowable weight
Mach buffet. Airflow separation behind a shock-wave for takeoff.
pressure barrier caused by airflow over flight surfaces
exceeding the speed of sound. Maximum weight. The maximum authorized weight of
the aircraft and all of its equipment as specified in the Type
Mach compensating device. A device to alert the pilot Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) for the aircraft.
of inadvertent excursions beyond its certified maximum
operating speed. Maximum zero fuel weight (GAMA). The maximum
weight, exclusive of usable fuel.
Mach critical. The Mach speed at which some portion of the
airflow over the wing first equals Mach 1.0. This is also the Minimum controllable airspeed. An airspeed at which any
speed at which a shock wave first appears on the airplane. further increase in angle of attack, increase in load factor,
or reduction in power, would result in an immediate stall.
Mach tuck. A condition that can occur when operating a
swept-wing airplane in the transonic speed range. A shock Minimum drag speed (L/DMAX). The point on the total
wave could form in the root portion of the wing and cause drag curve where the lift-to-drag ratio is the greatest. At this
the air behind it to separate. This shock-induced separation speed, total drag is minimized.
causes the center of pressure to move aft. This, combined
with the increasing amount of nose down force at higher Mixture. The ratio of fuel to air entering the engines
speeds to maintain left flight, causes the nose to tuck. If cylinders.
not corrected, the airplane could enter a steep, sometimes
unrecoverable dive. MMO. Maximum operating speed expressed in terms of a
decimal of Mach speed.
Magnetic compass. A device for determining direction
measured from magnetic north. Moment arm. The distance from a datum to the applied
force.
Main gear. The wheels of an aircrafts landing gear that
supports the major part of the aircrafts weight. Moment index (or index). A moment divided by a constant
such as 100, 1,000, or 10,000. The purpose of using a moment
Maneuverability. Ability of an aircraft to change directions index is to simplify weight and balance computations of
along a flightpath and withstand the stresses imposed upon it. airplanes where heavy items and long arms result in large,
unmanageable numbers.

G-11
Moment. The product of the weight of an item multiplied O
by its arm. Moments are expressed in pound-inches (lb-in).
Octane. The rating system of aviation gasoline with regard
Total moment is the weight of the airplane multiplied by the
to its antidetonating qualities.
distance between the datum and the CG.
Overboost. A condition in which a reciprocating engine
Movable slat. A movable auxiliary airfoil on the leading edge
has exceeded the maximum manifold pressure allowed by
of a wing. It is closed in normal flight but extends at high
the manufacturer. Can cause damage to engine components.
angles of attack. This allows air to continue flowing over the
top of the wing and delays airflow separation.
Overspeed. A condition in which an engine has produced
more rpm than the manufacturer recommends, or a condition
Mushing. A flight condition caused by slow speed where
in which the actual engine speed is higher than the desired
the control surfaces are marginally effective.
engine speed as set on the propeller control.
N
Overtemp. A condition in which a device has reached a
N1, N2, N3. Spool speed expressed in percent rpm. N1 on temperature above that approved by the manufacturer or any
a turboprop is the gas producer speed. N1 on a turbofan or exhaust temperature that exceeds the maximum allowable for
turbojet engine is the fan speed or low pressure spool speed. a given operating condition or time limit. Can cause internal
N2 is the high pressure spool speed on engine with 2 spools damage to an engine.
and medium pressure spool on engines with 3 spools with
N3 being the high pressure spool. Overtorque. A condition in which an engine has produced
more torque (power) than the manufacturer recommends,
Nacelle. A streamlined enclosure on an aircraft in which or a condition in a turboprop or turboshaft engine where the
an engine is mounted. On multiengine propeller-driven engine power has exceeded the maximum allowable for a
airplanes, the nacelle is normally mounted on the leading given operating condition or time limit. Can cause internal
edge of the wing. damage to an engine.

Negative static stability. The initial tendency of an aircraft P

to continue away from the original state of equilibrium after
Parasite drag. That part of total drag created by the design
being disturbed.
or shape of airplane parts. Parasite drag increases with an
increase in airspeed.
Negative torque sensing (NTS). A system in a turboprop
engine that prevents the engine from being driven by the
Payload (GAMA). The weight of occupants, cargo, and
propeller. The NTS increases the blade angle when the
baggage.
propellers try to drive the engine.
P-factor. A tendency for an aircraft to yaw to the left due to
Neutral static stability. The initial tendency of an aircraft
the descending propeller blade on the right producing more
to remain in a new condition after its equilibrium has been
thrust than the ascending blade on the left. This occurs when
disturbed.
the aircrafts longitudinal axis is in a climbing attitude in
relation to the relative wind. The P-factor would be to the
Nickel-cadmium battery (NiCad). A battery made up
right if the aircraft had a counterclockwise rotating propeller.
of alkaline secondary cells. The positive plates are nickel
hydroxide, the negative plates are cadmium hydroxide, and
Pilots Operating Handbook (POH). A document
potassium hydroxide is used as the electrolyte.
developed by the airplane manufacturer and contains the
FAA approved Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) information.
Normal category. An airplane that has a seating configuration,
excluding pilot seats, of nine or less, a maximum certificated
Piston engine. A reciprocating engine.
takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds or less, and intended for
nonacrobatic operation.
Pitch. The rotation of an airplane about its lateral axis, or on a
propeller, the blade angle as measured from plane of rotation.
Normalizing (turbonormalizing). A turbocharger that
maintains sea level pressure in the induction manifold at
altitude.

G-12
Pivotal altitude. A specific altitude at which, when an Profile drag. The total of the skin friction drag and form
airplane turns at a given groundspeed, a projecting of the drag for a two-dimensional airfoil section.
sighting reference line to a selected point on the ground will
appear to pivot on that point. Propeller blade angle. The angle between the propeller
chord and the propeller plane of rotation.
Pneumatic systems. The power system in an aircraft used
for operating such items as landing gear, brakes, and wing Propeller lever. The control on a free power turbine
flaps with compressed air as the operating fluid. turboprop that controls propeller speed and the selection for
propeller feathering.
Porpoising. Oscillating around the lateral axis of the aircraft
during landing. Propeller slipstream. The volume of air accelerated behind
a propeller producing thrust.
Position lights. Lights on an aircraft consisting of a red light
on the left wing, a green light on the right wing, and a white Propeller synchronization. A condition in which all of the
light on the tail. CFRs require that these lights be displayed propellers have their pitch automatically adjusted to maintain
in flight from sunset to sunrise. a constant rpm among all of the engines of a multiengine
aircraft.
Positive static stability. The initial tendency to return to a
state of equilibrium when disturbed from that state. Propeller. A device for propelling an aircraft that,
when rotated, produces by its action on the air, a thrust
Power distribution bus. See bus bar. approximately perpendicular to its plane of rotation. It
includes the control components normally supplied by its
Power lever. The cockpit lever connected to the fuel control manufacturer.
unit for scheduling fuel flow to the combustion chambers of
a turbine engine. R
Ramp weight. The total weight of the aircraft while on the
Power. Implies work rate or units of work per unit of time, ramp. It differs from takeoff weight by the weight of the
and as such, it is a function of the speed at which the force is fuel that will be consumed in taxiing to the point of takeoff.
developed. The term power required is generally associated
with reciprocating engines. Rate of turn. The rate in degrees/second of a turn.

Powerplant. A complete engine and propeller combination Reciprocating engine. An engine that converts the heat
with accessories. energy from burning fuel into the reciprocating movement of
the pistons. This movement is converted into a rotary motion
Practical slip limit. The maximum slip an aircraft is capable by the connecting rods and crankshaft.
of performing due to rudder travel limits.
Reduction gear. The gear arrangement in an aircraft engine
Precession. The tilting or turning of a gyro in response that allows the engine to turn at a faster speed than the
to deflective forces causing slow drifting and erroneous propeller.
indications in gyroscopic instruments.
Region of reverse command. Flight regime in which flight
Preignition. Ignition occurring in the cylinder before the time at a higher airspeed requires a lower power setting and a
of normal ignition. Preignition is often caused by a local hot lower airspeed requires a higher power setting in order to
spot in the combustion chamber igniting the fuel/air mixture. maintain altitude.

Pressure altitude. The altitude indicated when the altimeter Registration certificate. A State and Federal certificate that
setting window (barometric scale) is adjusted to 29.92. This documents aircraft ownership.
is the altitude above the standard datum plane, which is a
theoretical plane where air pressure (corrected to 15 C) Relative wind. The direction of the airflow with respect to
equals 29.92 "Hg. Pressure altitude is used to compute density the wing. If a wing moves forward horizontally, the relative
altitude, true altitude, true airspeed, and other performance wind moves backward horizontally. Relative wind is parallel
data. to and opposite the flightpath of the airplane.

G-13
Reverse thrust. A condition where jet thrust is directed Runway end identifier lights (REIL). One component of
forward during landing to increase the rate of deceleration. the runway lighting system. These lights are installed at many
airfields to provide rapid and positive identification of the
Reversing propeller. A propeller system with a pitch change approach end of a particular runway.
mechanism that includes full reversing capability. When the
pilot moves the throttle controls to reverse, the blade angle Runway incursion. Any occurrence at an airport involving
changes to a pitch angle and produces a reverse thrust, which an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that
slows the airplane down during a landing. creates a collision hazard or results in loss of separation
with an aircraft taking off, intending to takeoff, landing, or
Roll. The motion of the aircraft about the longitudinal axis. intending to land.
It is controlled by the ailerons.
Runway threshold markings. Runway threshold markings
Roundout (flare). A pitch-up during landing approach to come in two configurations. They either consist of eight
reduce rate of descent and forward speed prior to touchdown. longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed
symmetrically about the runway centerline, or the number of
Rudder. The movable primary control surface mounted on stripes is related to the runway width. A threshold marking
the trailing edge of the vertical fin of an airplane. Movement helps identify the beginning of the runway that is available
of the rudder rotates the airplane about its vertical axis. for landing. In some instances, the landing threshold may
be displaced.
Ruddervator. A pair of control surfaces on the tail of an
aircraft arranged in the form of a V. These surfaces, when S
moved together by the control wheel, serve as elevators, Safety (SQUAT) switch. An electrical switch mounted on
and when moved differentially by the rudder pedals, serve one of the landing gear struts. It is used to sense when the
as a rudder. weight of the aircraft is on the wheels.

Runway centerline lights. Runway centerline lights are Scan. A procedure used by the pilot to visually identify all
installed on some precision approach runways to facilitate resources of information in flight.
landing under adverse visibility conditions. They are located
along the runway centerline and are spaced at 50-foot Sea level. A reference height used to determine standard
intervals. When viewed from the landing threshold, the atmospheric conditions and altitude measurements.
runway centerline lights are white until the last 3,000 feet of
the runway. The white lights begin to alternate with red for Segmented circle. A visual ground based structure to provide
the next 2,000 feet, and for the last 1,000 feet of the runway, traffic pattern information.
all centerline lights are red.
Service ceiling. The maximum density altitude where the best
Runway centerline markings. The runway centerline rate-of-climb airspeed will produce a 100 feet-per-minute
identifies the center of the runway and provides alignment climb at maximum weight while in a clean configuration
guidance during takeoff and landings. The centerline consists with maximum continuous power.
of a line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps.
Servo tab. An auxiliary control mounted on a primary control
Runway edge lights. Runway edge lights are used to outline surface, which automatically moves in the direction opposite
the edges of runways during periods of darkness or restricted the primary control to provide an aerodynamic assist in the
visibility conditions. These light systems are classified movement of the control.
according to the intensity or brightness they are capable
of producing: they are the High Intensity Runway Lights Shaft horse power (SHP). Turboshaft engines are rated in
(HIRL), Medium Intensity Runway Lights (MIRL), and the shaft horsepower and calculated by use of a dynamometer
Low Intensity Runway Lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL device. Shaft horsepower is exhaust thrust converted to a
systems have variable intensity controls, whereas the LIRLs rotating shaft.
normally have one intensity setting.

G-14
Shock waves. A compression wave formed when a body Spiraling slipstream. The slipstream of a propeller-driven
moves through the air at a speed greater than the speed of airplane rotates around the airplane. This slipstream strikes
sound. the left side of the vertical fin, causing the airplane to yaw
slightly. Vertical stabilizer offset is sometimes used by
Sideslip. A slip in which the airplanes longitudinal axis aircraft designers to counteract this tendency.
remains parallel to the original flightpath, but the airplane no
longer flies straight ahead. Instead, the horizontal component Split shaft turbine engine. See free power turbine engine.
of wing lift forces the airplane to move sideways toward the
low wing. Spoilers. High-drag devices that can be raised into the air
flowing over an airfoil, reducing lift and increasing drag.
Single engine absolute ceiling. The altitude that a twin Spoilers are used for roll control on some aircraft. Deploying
engine airplane can no longer climb with one engine spoilers on both wings at the same time allows the aircraft
inoperative. to descend without gaining speed. Spoilers are also used to
shorten the ground roll after landing.
Single engine service ceiling. The altitude that a twin engine
airplane can no longer climb at a rate greater then 50 fpm Spool. A shaft in a turbine engine which drives one or more
with one engine inoperative. compressors with the power derived from one or more
turbines.
Skid. A condition where the tail of the airplane follows a
path outside the path of the nose during a turn. Stabilator. A single-piece horizontal tail surface on an
airplane that pivots around a central hinge point. A stabilator
Slip. An intentional maneuver to decrease airspeed or serves the purposes of both the horizontal stabilizer and the
increase rate of descent, and to compensate for a crosswind elevator.
on landing. A slip can also be unintentional when the pilot
fails to maintain the aircraft in coordinated flight. Stability. The inherent quality of an airplane to correct for
conditions that may disturb its equilibrium, and to return or to
Specific fuel consumption. Number of pounds of fuel continue on the original flightpath. It is primarily an airplane
consumed in 1 hour to produce 1 HP. design characteristic.

Speed. The distance traveled in a given time. Stabilized approach. A landing approach in which the pilot
establishes and maintains a constant angle glidepath towards
Speed brakes. A control system that extends from the a predetermined point on the landing runway. It is based on
airplane structure into the airstream to produce drag and the pilots judgment of certain visual cues, and depends on
slow the airplane. the maintenance of a constant final descent airspeed and
configuration.
Speed instability. A condition in the region of reverse
command where a disturbance that causes the airspeed to Stall. A rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of
decrease causes total drag to increase, which in turn, causes airflow from the wings surface brought on by exceeding
the airspeed to decrease further. the critical angle of attack. A stall can occur at any pitch
attitude or airspeed.
Speed sense. The ability to sense instantly and react to any
reasonable variation of airspeed. Stall strips. A spoiler attached to the inboard leading edge
of some wings to cause the center section of the wing to
Spin. An aggravated stall that results in what is termed an stall before the tips. This assures lateral control throughout
autorotation wherein the airplane follows a downward the stall.
corkscrew path. As the airplane rotates around the vertical
axis, the rising wing is less stalled than the descending wing
creating a rolling, yawing, and pitching motion.

Spiral instability. A condition that exists when the static

directional stability of the airplane is very strong as compared
to the effect of its dihedral in maintaining lateral equilibrium.

G-15
Standard atmosphere. At sea level, the standard atmosphere Subsonic. Speed below the speed of sound.
consists of a barometric pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury
("Hg) or 1013.2 millibars, and a temperature of 15 C (59 F). Supercharger. An engine- or exhaust-driven air compressor
Pressure and temperature normally decrease as altitude used to provide additional pressure to the induction air so the
increases. The standard lapse rate in the lower atmosphere for engine can produce additional power.
each 1,000 feet of altitude is approximately 1 "Hg and 2 C
(3.5 F). For example, the standard pressure and temperature Supersonic. Speed above the speed of sound.
at 3,000 feet mean sea level (MSL) is 26.92 "Hg (29.92 3)
and 9 C (15 C 6 C). Supplemental Type Certificate (STC). A certificate
authorizing an alteration to an airframe, engine, or component
Standard day. See standard atmosphere. that has been granted an Approved Type Certificate.

Standard empty weight (GAMA). This weight consists of Swept wing. A wing planform in which the tips of the wing
the airframe, engines, and all items of operating equipment are farther back than the wing root.
that have fixed locations and are permanently installed in the
airplane; including fixed ballast, hydraulic fluid, unusable T
fuel, and full engine oil. Tailwheel aircraft. See conventional landing gear.

Standard weights. These have been established for numerous Takeoff roll (ground roll). The total distance required for
items involved in weight and balance computations. These an aircraft to become airborne.
weights should not be used if actual weights are available.
Target reverser. A thrust reverser in a jet engine in which
Standard-rate turn. A turn at the rate of 3 per second which clamshell doors swivel from the stowed position at the
enables the airplane to complete a 360 turn in 2 minutes. engine tailpipe to block all of the outflow and redirect some
component of the thrust forward.
Starter/generator. A combined unit used on turbine engines.
The device acts as a starter for rotating the engine, and after Taxiway lights. Omnidirectional lights that outline the edges
running, internal circuits are shifted to convert the device of the taxiway and are blue in color.
into a generator.
Taxiway turnoff lights. Flush lights which emit a steady
Static stability. The initial tendency an aircraft displays green color.
when disturbed from a state of equilibrium.
Tetrahedron. A large, triangular-shaped, kite-like object
Station. A location in the airplane that is identified by a installed near the runway. Tetrahedrons are mounted on a
number designating its distance in inches from the datum. pivot and are free to swing with the wind to show the pilot
The datum is, therefore, identified as station zero. An item the direction of the wind as an aid in takeoffs and landings.
located at station +50 would have an arm of 50 inches.
Throttle. The valve in a carburetor or fuel control unit that
Stick puller. A device that applies aft pressure on the control determines the amount of fuel-air mixture that is fed to the
column when the airplane is approaching the maximum engine.
operating speed.
Thrust line. An imaginary line passing through the center of
Stick pusher. A device that applies an abrupt and large the propeller hub, perpendicular to the plane of the propeller
forward force on the control column when the airplane is rotation.
nearing an angle of attack where a stall could occur.
Thrust reversers. Devices which redirect the flow of jet
Stick shaker. An artificial stall warning device that vibrates exhaust to reverse the direction of thrust.
the control column.

Stress risers. A scratch, groove, rivet hole, forging defect

or other structural discontinuity that causes a concentration
of stress.

G-16
Thrust. The force which imparts a change in the velocity of a Triple spool engine. Usually a turbofan engine design where
mass. This force is measured in pounds but has no element of the fan is the N1 compressor, followed by the N2 intermediate
time or rate. The term, thrust required, is generally associated compressor, and the N3 high pressure compressor, all of
with jet engines. A forward force which propels the airplane which rotate on separate shafts at different speeds.
through the air.
Tropopause. The boundary layer between the troposphere
Timing. The application of muscular coordination at the and the mesosphere which acts as a lid to confine most of the
proper instant to make flight, and all maneuvers incident water vapor, and the associated weather, to the troposphere.
thereto, a constant smooth process.
Troposphere. The layer of the atmosphere extending from
Tire cord. Woven metal wire laminated into the tire to the surface to a height of 20,000 to 60,000 feet depending
provide extra strength. A tire showing any cord must be on latitude.
replaced prior to any further flight.
True airspeed (TAS). Calibrated airspeed corrected for
Torque meter. An indicator used on some large reciprocating altitude and nonstandard temperature. Because air density
engines or on turboprop engines to indicate the amount of decreases with an increase in altitude, an airplane has to be
torque the engine is producing. flown faster at higher altitudes to cause the same pressure
difference between pitot impact pressure and static pressure.
Torque sensor. See torque meter. Therefore, for a given calibrated airspeed, true airspeed
increases as altitude increases; or for a given true airspeed,
Torque. 1. A resistance to turning or twisting. 2. Forces that calibrated airspeed decreases as altitude increases.
produce a twisting or rotating motion. 3. In an airplane, the
tendency of the aircraft to turn (roll) in the opposite direction True altitude. The vertical distance of the airplane above
of rotation of the engine and propeller. sea levelthe actual altitude. It is often expressed as feet
above mean sea level (MSL). Airport, terrain, and obstacle
Total drag. The sum of the parasite and induced drag. elevations on aeronautical charts are true altitudes.

Touchdown zone lights. Two rows of transverse light bars T-tail. An aircraft with the horizontal stabilizer mounted on
disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline in the the top of the vertical stabilizer, forming a T.
runway touchdown zone.
Turbine blades. The portion of the turbine assembly that
Track. The actual path made over the ground in flight. absorbs the energy of the expanding gases and converts it
into rotational energy.
Trailing edge. The portion of the airfoil where the airflow
over the upper surface rejoins the lower surface airflow. Turbine outlet temperature (TOT). The temperature of
the gases as they exit the turbine section.
Transition liner. The portion of the combustor that directs
the gases into the turbine plenum. Turbine plenum. The portion of the combustor where the
gases are collected to be evenly distributed to the turbine
Transonic. At the speed of sound. blades.

Transponder. The airborne portion of the secondary Turbine rotors. The portion of the turbine assembly that
surveillance radar system. The transponder emits a reply mounts to the shaft and holds the turbine blades in place.
when queried by a radar facility.
Turbine section. The section of the engine that converts
Tricycle gear. Landing gear employing a third wheel located high pressure high temperature gas into rotational energy.
on the nose of the aircraft.
Turbocharger. An air compressor driven by exhaust gases,
Trim tab. A small auxiliary hinged portion of a movable which increases the pressure of the air going into the engine
control surface that can be adjusted during flight to a position through the carburetor or fuel injection system.
resulting in a balance of control forces.

G-17
Turbofan engine. A turbojet engine in which additional Useful load. The weight of the pilot, copilot, passengers,
propulsive thrust is gained by extending a portion of the baggage, usable fuel, and drainable oil. It is the basic empty
compressor or turbine blades outside the inner engine case. weight subtracted from the maximum allowable gross weight.
The extended blades propel bypass air along the engine This term applies to general aviation aircraft only.
axis but between the inner and outer casing. The air is not
combusted but does provide additional thrust. Utility category. An airplane that has a seating configuration,
excluding pilot seats, of nine or less, a maximum certificated
Turbojet engine. A jet engine incorporating a turbine-driven takeoff weight of 12,500 pounds or less, and intended for
air compressor to take in and compress air for the combustion limited acrobatic operation.
of fuel, the gases of combustion being used both to rotate the
turbine and create a thrust producing jet. V
V-bars. The flight director displays on the attitude indicator
Turboprop engine. A turbine engine that drives a propeller that provide control guidance to the pilot.
through a reduction gearing arrangement. Most of the energy
in the exhaust gases is converted into torque, rather than its V-speeds. Designated speeds for a specific flight condition.
acceleration being used to propel the aircraft.
Vapor lock. A condition in which air enters the fuel system
Turbulence. An occurrence in which a flow of fluid is and it may be difficult, or impossible, to restart the engine.
unsteady. Vapor lock may occur as a result of running a fuel tank
completely dry, allowing air to enter the fuel system. On fuel-
Turn coordinator. A rate gyro that senses both roll and injected engines, the fuel may become so hot it vaporizes in
yaw due to the gimbal being canted. Has largely replaced the fuel line, not allowing fuel to reach the cylinders.
the turn-and-slip indicator in modern aircraft.
VA. The design maneuvering speed. This is the rough air
Turn-and-slip indicator. A flight instrument consisting speed and the maximum speed for abrupt maneuvers. If
of a rate gyro to indicate the rate of yaw and a curved glass during flight, rough air or severe turbulence is encountered,
inclinometer to indicate the relationship between gravity and reduce the airspeed to maneuvering speed or less to minimize
centrifugal force. The turn-and-slip indicator indicates the stress on the airplane structure. It is important to consider
relationship between angle of bank and rate of yaw. Also weight when referencing this speed. For example, VA may
called a turn-and-bank indicator. be 100 knots when an airplane is heavily loaded, but only
90 knots when the load is light.
Turning error. One of the errors inherent in a magnetic
compass caused by the dip compensating weight. It shows Vector. A force vector is a graphic representation of a force
up only on turns to or from northerly headings in the and shows both the magnitude and direction of the force.
Northern Hemisphere and southerly headings in the Southern
Hemisphere. Turning error causes the compass to lead turns to Velocity. The speed or rate of movement in a certain
the north or south and lag turns away from the north or south. direction.

U Vertical axis. An imaginary line passing vertically through

Ultimate load factor. In stress analysis, the load that causes the center of gravity of an aircraft. The vertical axis is called
physical breakdown in an aircraft or aircraft component the z-axis or the yaw axis.
during a strength test, or the load that according to
computations, should cause such a breakdown. Vertical card compass. A magnetic compass that consists of
an azimuth on a vertical card, resembling a heading indicator
Unfeathering accumulator. Tanks that hold oil under with a fixed miniature airplane to accurately present the
pressure which can be used to unfeather a propeller. heading of the aircraft. The design uses eddy current damping
to minimize lead and lag during turns.
UNICOM. A nongovernment air/ground radio communication
station which may provide airport information at public use Vertical speed indicator (VSI). An instrument that uses
airports where there is no tower or FSS. static pressure to display a rate of climb or descent in feet
per minute. The VSI can also sometimes be called a vertical
Unusable fuel. Fuel that cannot be consumed by the engine. velocity indicator (VVI).
This fuel is considered part of the empty weight of the aircraft.

G-18
Vertical stability. Stability about an aircrafts vertical axis. VMO. Maximum operating speed expressed in knots.
Also called yawing or directional stability.
VNE. Never-exceed speed. Operating above this speed is
VFE. The maximum speed with the flaps extended. The upper prohibited since it may result in damage or structural failure.
limit of the white arc. The red line on the airspeed indicator.

VFO. The maximum speed that the flaps can be extended or VNO. Maximum structural cruising speed. Do not exceed this
retracted. speed except in smooth air. The upper limit of the green arc.

VFR Terminal Area Charts (1:250,000). Depict Class B VP. Minimum dynamic hydroplaning speed. The minimum
airspace which provides for the control or segregation of all speed required to start dynamic hydroplaning.
the aircraft within the Class B airspace. The chart depicts
topographic information and aeronautical information VR. Rotation speed. The speed that the pilot begins rotating
which includes visual and radio aids to navigation, airports, the aircraft prior to lift-off.
controlled airspace, restricted areas, obstructions, and related
data. VS0. Stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed in
the landing configuration. In small airplanes, this is the
V-G diagram. A chart that relates velocity to load factor. It power-off stall speed at the maximum landing weight in the
is valid only for a specific weight, configuration, and altitude landing configuration (gear and flaps down). The lower limit
and shows the maximum amount of positive or negative lift of the white arc.
the airplane is capable of generating at a given speed. Also
shows the safe load factor limits and the load factor that the VS1. Stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed
aircraft can sustain at various speeds. obtained in a specified configuration. For most airplanes, this
is the power-off stall speed at the maximum takeoff weight
Visual approach slope indicator (VASI). The most in the clean configuration (gear up, if retractable, and flaps
common visual glidepath system in use. The VASI provides up). The lower limit of the green arc.
obstruction clearance within 10 of the extended runway
centerline, and to 4 nautical miles (NM) from the runway VSSE. Safe, intentional one-engine inoperative speed. The
threshold. minimum speed to intentionally render the critical engine
inoperative.
Visual Flight Rules (VFR). Code of Federal Regulations
that govern the procedures for conducting flight under visual V-tail. A design which utilizes two slanted tail surfaces to
conditions. perform the same functions as the surfaces of a conventional
elevator and rudder configuration. The fixed surfaces act as
VLE. Landing gear extended speed. The maximum speed at both horizontal and vertical stabilizers.
which an airplane can be safely flown with the landing gear
extended. VX. Best angle-of-climb speed. The airspeed at which an
airplane gains the greatest amount of altitude in a given
VLOF. Lift-off speed. The speed at which the aircraft departs distance. It is used during a short-field takeoff to clear an
the runway during takeoff. obstacle.

VLO. Landing gear operating speed. The maximum speed for VXSE. Best angle of climb speed with one engine inoperative.
extending or retracting the landing gear if using an airplane The airspeed at which an airplane gains the greatest amount
equipped with retractable landing gear. of altitude in a given distance in a light, twin-engine airplane
following an engine failure.
VMC. Minimum control airspeed. This is the minimum flight
speed at which a twin-engine airplane can be satisfactorily VY. Best rate-of-climb speed. This airspeed provides the most
controlled when an engine suddenly becomes inoperative altitude gain in a given period of time.
and the remaining engine is at takeoff power.

VMD. Minimum drag speed.

G-19
VYSE. Best rate-of-climb speed with one engine inoperative. Windsock. A truncated cloth cone open at both ends and
This airspeed provides the most altitude gain in a given mounted on a freewheeling pivot that indicates the direction
period of time in a light, twin engine airplane following an from which the wind is blowing.
engine failure.
Wing. Airfoil attached to each side of the fuselage and are
W the main lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight.
Wake turbulence. Wingtip vortices that are created when
an airplane generates lift. When an airplane generates lift, Wing area. The total surface of the wing (square feet),
air spills over the wingtips from the high pressure areas which includes control surfaces and may include wing area
below the wings to the low pressure areas above them. This covered by the fuselage (main body of the airplane), and
flow causes rapidly rotating whirlpools of air called wingtip engine nacelles.
vortices or wake turbulence.
Wing span. The maximum distance from wingtip to wingtip.
Waste gate. A controllable valve in the tailpipe of an aircraft
reciprocating engine equipped with a turbocharger. The valve Wingtip vortices. The rapidly rotating air that spills over an
is controlled to vary the amount of exhaust gases forced airplanes wings during flight. The intensity of the turbulence
through the turbocharger turbine. depends on the airplanes weight, speed, and configuration.
It is also referred to as wake turbulence. Vortices from heavy
Weathervane. The tendency of the aircraft to turn into the aircraft may be extremely hazardous to small aircraft.
relative wind.
Wing twist. A design feature incorporated into some wings
Weight. A measure of the heaviness of an object. The force to improve aileron control effectiveness at high angles of
by which a body is attracted toward the center of the Earth (or attack during an approach to a stall.
another celestial body) by gravity. Weight is equal to the mass
of the body times the local value of gravitational acceleration. Y
One of the four main forces acting on an aircraft. Equivalent Yaw. Rotation about the vertical axis of an aircraft.
to the actual weight of the aircraft. It acts downward through
the aircrafts center of gravity toward the center of the Earth. Yaw string. A string on the nose or windshield of an aircraft
Weight opposes lift. in view of the pilot that indicates any slipping or skidding
of the aircraft.
Weight and balance. The aircraft is said to be in weight and
balance when the gross weight of the aircraft is under the max Z
gross weight, and the center of gravity is within limits and Zero fuel weight. The weight of the aircraft to include all
will remain in limits for the duration of the flight. useful load except fuel.

Wheelbarrowing. A condition caused when forward yoke Zero sideslip. A maneuver in a twin-engine airplane with
or stick pressure during takeoff or landing causes the aircraft one engine inoperative that involves a small amount of bank
to ride on the nosewheel alone. and slightly uncoordinated flight to align the fuselage with
the direction of travel and minimize drag.
Wind correction angle. Correction applied to the course to
establish a heading so that track will coincide with course. Zero thrust (simulated feather). An engine configuration
with a low power setting that simulates a propeller feathered
Wind direction indicators. Indicators that include a condition.
wind sock, wind tee, or tetrahedron. Visual reference will
determine wind direction and runway in use.

Wind shear. A sudden, drastic shift in windspeed, direction,

or both that may occur in the horizontal or vertical plane.

Windmilling. When the air moving through a propeller

creates the rotational energy.

G-20
Index

A Before start and starting engine .................................16-10

Before-takeoff check....................................................2-17
Abnormal engine instrument indication.....................17-13 Avionics ...................................................................2-18
Absence of propeller Electrical system.......................................................2-17
Drag ..........................................................................15-7 Engine operation.......................................................2-17
Effect ........................................................................15-6 Flight controls ..........................................................2-17
Slipstream.................................................................15-6 Flight instruments.....................................................2-18
Academic material (knowledge and risk Fuel system...............................................................2-17
management)................................................................4-20 Takeoff briefing........................................................2-18
Prevention through ADM and risk management......4-21 Trim..........................................................................2-17
Prevention through proportional counter-response.....4-21 Vacuum system ........................................................2-18
Recovery...................................................................4-22 Bouncing during touchdown........................................8-31
Accelerated stalls .........................................................4-10 Brakes ............................................................................2-8
Accelerate-go distance .................................................12-9
Accelerate-stop distance ..............................................12-9 C
After-landing................................................................2-18 Cabin fire .....................................................................17-8
After-landing roll .........................................................13-6 Captains briefing.......................................................15-22
Airframe and systems ..................................................16-5 Cascade reversers.......................................................15-16
Airplane-based UPRT..................................................4-22 Chandelle .......................................................................9-5
Airplane configuration .................................................17-4 Climb gradient .............................................................12-9
Airplane equipment and lighting .................................10-4 Climbs and climbing turns ...........................................3-16
Airport and navigation lighting aids ............................10-5 Climbing turns..........................................................3-18
Airport traffic patterns and operations...........................7-2 Establishing a climb .................................................3-17
All-attitude/all-envelope flight training methods.........4-23 Best angle of climb (VX).......................................3-16
All-engine service ceiling of multiengine airplanes ....12-9 Best rate of climb (VY) .........................................3-16
Alternator/generator.....................................................12-7 Normal climb ........................................................3-16
Angle of attack..................................................... 4-2, 13-2 Combustion heater .......................................................12-6
Anti-icing/deicing ........................................................12-8 Constant radius during turning flight.............................6-4
Approach......................................................................17-5 Construction.................................................................16-5
Approach and landing ...................................... 10-8, 16-12 Aluminum.................................................................16-5
Night emergencies....................................................10-9 Composite.................................................................16-5
Approaches to stalls (impending stalls), power-on or Steel tube and fabric .................................................16-5
power-off........................................................................4-8
Continuous ignition......................................................15-4
Attitude and sink rate control.......................................17-4
Controllable-pitch propeller.........................................11-4
Attitude flying................................................................3-4
Blade angle control...................................................11-7
B Climb........................................................................11-6
Constant-speed propeller..........................................11-4
Ballooning during round out........................................8-30 Constant-speed propeller operation..........................11-7
Bank control...................................................................3-5 Cruise .......................................................................11-6
Basic safety concepts ...................................................17-2

I-1
 Fixed-pitch propellers...............................................11-4 Forced landing ......................................................17-2
Governing range .......................................................11-7 Precautionary landing ...........................................17-2
Takeoff .....................................................................11-6 Emergency situations ...................................................17-1
Control touch .................................................................1-1 Engine and propeller ......................................................2-9
Coordinated flight ..........................................................4-2 Engine failure
Coordination ..................................................................1-1 After lift-off............................................................12-19
Correcting drift during straight-and-level flight ............6-3 After takeoff ...........................................................12-21
Cross-control stall ........................................................4-11 After takeoff (single-engine) ....................................17-6
Crosswind after-landing roll ........................................13-7 During flight...........................................................12-22
Crosswind approach and landing ..................... 8-14, 12-16 Engine fire....................................................................17-8
Crosswind after-landing roll.....................................8-16 Engine inoperative approach and landing..................12-23
Crosswind final approach.........................................8-14 Engine inoperative flight principles...........................12-23
Crab method..........................................................8-14 Engines.........................................................................16-6
Wing-low (sideslip) method .................................8-15 Engine shutdown..........................................................2-19
Crosswind round out (flare) .....................................8-15 Engine starting .............................................................2-12
Crosswind touchdown ..............................................8-15 Environmental factors..................................................4-18
Maximum safe crosswind velocities ........................8-17 Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)...................................15-3
Crosswind takeoff ................................................ 5-6, 13-4
Initial climb ................................................................5-8
F
Lift-off ........................................................................5-8 False start .....................................................................14-9
Takeoff roll.................................................................5-6 Faulty approaches and landings ...................................8-27
Cruise .........................................................................16-11 Feathering .......................................................... 12-3, 12-4
Flap effectiveness.........................................................11-3
D
Flight control malfunction/failure................................17-9
Defining an airplane upset .............................................4-2 Asymmetric (split) flap ............................................17-9
Descents and descending turns ....................................3-19 Landing gear malfunction ......................................17-10
Descent at minimum safe airspeed...........................3-19 Loss of elevator control............................................17-9
Emergency descent...................................................3-20 Total flap failure.......................................................17-9
Partial power descent................................................3-19 Flight director/autopilot ...............................................12-6
Directional control .......................................................13-3 Flight environment.......................................................16-7
Door opening in-flight ...............................................17-13 Flight standards service..................................................1-5
Drag devices...............................................................15-14 Floating during round out ............................................8-30
Drift and ground track control .......................................6-3 Forward slip .................................................................8-12
Four fundamentals .........................................................3-2
E Climbs ........................................................................3-2
Effect and use of the flight controls Descents......................................................................3-2
Feel of the airplane .....................................................3-4 Straight-and-level flight .............................................3-2
Electrical fires ..............................................................17-8 Turns...........................................................................3-2
Elementary eights.........................................................6-11 Fowler flap ...................................................................11-3
Eights across a road..................................................6-13 Fuel and oil ....................................................................2-6
Eights along a road ...................................................6-11 Fuel crossfeed .................................................. 12-6, 12-22
Eights around pylons................................................6-13 Fuel heaters ..................................................................15-4
Eights-on-pylons ......................................................6-14 Full stalls
Elevator trim stall.........................................................4-12 Power-off....................................................................4-8
Emergencies...............................................................16-12 Power-on ....................................................................4-9
Emergency approaches and landings (simulated)........8-26 Function of flaps ..........................................................11-2
Emergency descents.....................................................17-6 Fundamentals of stall recovery ......................................4-7
Emergency landings.....................................................17-2
G
Psychological hazards ..............................................17-2
Types of emergency landings...................................17-2 Gas turbine engine .......................................................14-2
Ditching ................................................................17-2 Glides ...........................................................................3-20

I-2
 Gliding turns.............................................................3-21 J
Go-around ..................................................................12-18
Rejected landings .....................................................8-12 Jet airplane approach and landing..............................15-25
Attitude.....................................................................8-13 Approach speed ......................................................15-27
Configuration ...........................................................8-13 Glidepath control....................................................15-28
Ground effect............................................................8-14 Landing requirements.............................................15-25
Power........................................................................8-13 Landing speeds .......................................................15-25
Ground loop ....................................................... 8-34, 13-8 Approach climb ..................................................15-26
Ground operation .......................................................12-12 Landing climb.....................................................15-26
VREF ....................................................................15-25
H VSO ......................................................................15-25
Stabilized approach ................................................15-27
Hand propping .............................................................2-13
The flare .................................................................15-28
Hard landing.................................................................8-33
Touchdown and rollout ..........................................15-29
High final approach......................................................8-28
Jet engine basics...........................................................15-2
High-performance airplane ..........................................11-1
Jet engine efficiency ....................................................15-6
High round out .............................................................8-29
Jet engine ignition ........................................................15-4
Human factors..............................................................4-18
Diversion of attention...............................................4-18 L
IMC ..........................................................................4-18
Sensory overload/deprivation...................................4-18 Landing ............................................................ 13-5, 14-10
Spatial disorientation................................................4-19 Landing gear ........................................................ 2-8, 13-2
Startle response.........................................................4-19 Instability..................................................................13-2
Surprise response......................................................4-19 Landing gear control selected up, single-engine
Task saturation .........................................................4-18 climb performance adequate ......................................12-20
VMC to IMC ............................................................4-18 Checklist.................................................................12-21
Hydraulic pump .........................................................11-11 Climb......................................................................12-21
Hydroplaning ...............................................................8-35 Configuration .........................................................12-21
Dynamic hydroplaning .............................................8-35 Control....................................................................12-20
Reverted rubber hydroplaning..................................8-35 Landing gear control selected up, single-engine
Viscous hydroplaning...............................................8-36 climb performance inadequate...................................12-20
Landing gear down ....................................................12-19
I Late or rapid round out ................................................8-30
Lazy eight.......................................................................9-6
Inadvertent VFR flight into IMC ...............................17-15
Level off and cruise ...................................................12-14
Attitude control.......................................................17-16
Level turns ...................................................................3-10
Climbs ....................................................................17-17
Establishing a turn....................................................3-13
Combined maneuvers .............................................17-17
Medium turns........................................................3-11
Descents..................................................................17-17
Shallow turns ........................................................3-11
Maintaining airplane control ..................................17-15
Steep turns ............................................................3-11
Recognition ............................................................17-15
Turn radius ...............................................................3-12
Transition to visual flight .......................................17-18
Liftoff...........................................................................13-4
Turns.......................................................................17-16
Rotation ......................................................................5-2
In-flight fire..................................................................17-7
Light sport airplane (LSA) background.......................16-2
Initial climb................................................................15-24
Loss of control in-flight (LOC-I)...................................4-1
Inside of the airplane....................................................16-8
Low final approach ......................................................8-27
Instrumentation ............................................................16-6
Low speed flight ........................................................15-10
Integrated flight instruction............................................3-5
LSA maintenance.........................................................16-5
Intentional slips............................................................8-11
LSA synopsis ...............................................................16-3
Intentional spins ...........................................................4-16
Interstage turbine temperature (ITT) ...........................15-4

I-3
M 90 Power-off approach ...........................................8-22
180 Power-off approach .........................................8-23
Mach buffet boundaries ...............................................15-9
Preflight........................................................................16-7
Maneuvering by reference to ground objects.................6-2
Preflight assessment of the aircraft ................................2-2
Minimum equipment list and configuration
Preparation and preflight..............................................10-6
deviation list...............................................................15-18
Pre-takeoff procedures ...............................................15-20
Multiengine training considerations ..........................12-28
Prior to takeoff ...............................................................5-2
N Propellers .....................................................................12-3
Propeller synchronization ............................................12-6
Night illusions..............................................................10-3
Black-hole approach.................................................10-3 R
Visual autokinesis ....................................................10-3 Recovery from overspeed conditions...........................15-9
Night vision..................................................................10-2 Rectangular course.........................................................6-6
Noise abatement...........................................................5-13 Rejected takeoff ............................................. 12-19, 15-22
Normal and crosswind takeoff and climb ..................12-13 Rejected takeoff/engine failure ....................................5-12
Normal approach and landing............................ 8-2, 12-14 Retractable landing gear ............................................11-11
After-landing roll........................................................8-8 Controls and position indicators.............................11-11
Base leg ......................................................................8-2 Emergency gear extension systems........................11-12
Final approach ............................................................8-3 Landing gear safety devices ...................................11-11
Estimating height and movement ...........................8-5 Landing gear systems .............................................11-11
Use of flaps .............................................................8-4 Electrical landing gear retraction system............11-11
Round out (flare) ........................................................8-6 Hydraulic landing gear retraction system ...........11-11
Stabilized approach concept.......................................8-9 Operational procedures...........................................11-12
Touchdown.................................................................8-7 Approach and landing.........................................11-15
Normal takeoff ...............................................................5-3 Preflight ..............................................................11-12
Initial climb ................................................................5-5 Takeoff and climb...............................................11-13
Lift-off ........................................................................5-4 Reverse thrust and beta range operations.....................14-7
Takeoff roll....................................................... 5-3, 13-3 Risk and resource management ........................... 2-9, 2-10
Nose baggage compartment.........................................12-7 Identifying the hazard ...........................................2-10
O Resource management ..........................................2-11
Aeronautical decision-making (ADM) .............2-11
Operating the jet engine ...............................................15-3 Flight deck resource management.....................2-11
Operational considerations...........................................14-9 Situational awareness ........................................2-11
Operation of systems....................................................12-3 Task management..............................................2-11
Orientation and navigation...........................................10-7 Risk .......................................................................2-10
Outer wing surfaces .......................................................2-5 Risk assessment ....................................................2-10
Outside of the airplane .................................................16-9 Role of the FAA.............................................................1-2
P Role of the flight instructor............................................1-7
Role of the pilot examiner..............................................1-6
Parking .........................................................................2-19 Roles of FSTDs and airplanes in UPRT ......................4-22
Performance and limitations ........................................12-9 Rotation and lift-off ...................................................15-24
Pilot equipment ............................................................10-4
Pilot sensations in jet flying.......................................15-17 S
Pitch and power............................................................3-23 Safety considerations .....................................................7-5
Pitch control ...................................................................3-5 Secondary stall .............................................................4-10
Plain (hinge) flap..........................................................11-3 Setting power ...............................................................15-4
Porpoising ....................................................................8-32 Short-field approach and landing..................... 8-18, 12-17
Post-flight......................................................... 2-19, 16-12 Short-field landing .......................................................13-7
Securing and servicing .............................................2-19 Short-field takeoff........................................................13-4
Power control .................................................................3-5 Short-field takeoff and climb .....................................12-17
Power-off accuracy approaches ...................................8-22 Short field takeoff and maximum performance climb ...5-10

I-4
 Initial climb ..............................................................5-11 Power-on stalls (takeoff and departure) .................12-27
Lift-off ......................................................................5-10 Spin awareness .......................................................12-28
Takeoff roll...............................................................5-10 Stall training...................................................................4-8
Sideslip.........................................................................8-11 Standard airport traffic patterns .....................................7-2
Single-engine service ceiling .......................................12-9 Base leg ......................................................................7-4
Slotted flap ...................................................................11-3 Crosswind leg.............................................................7-4
Slow acceleration of the jet engine ..............................15-6 Departure leg ..............................................................7-4
Slow final approach .....................................................8-28 Downwind leg ............................................................7-4
Slow flight.......................................................... 4-3, 12-26 Entry leg .....................................................................7-3
Maneuvering in slow flight ........................................4-4 Starting, taxiing, and runup..........................................10-6
Soft-field approach and landing...................................8-21 Steep spiral.....................................................................9-4
Soft-field landing .........................................................13-8 Steep turns......................................................................9-2
Soft-field takeoff..........................................................13-4 Straight-and-level flight .................................................3-6
Soft/rough-field takeoff and climb...............................5-11 Level flight .................................................................3-8
Initial climb ..............................................................5-12 Straight flight..............................................................3-7
Lift-off ......................................................................5-12 S-turns across a road ......................................................6-8
Sources of flight training ...............................................1-8 Systems malfunctions ................................................17-11
Airman certification standards (ACS)......................1-10 Electrical system.....................................................17-11
Flight safety practices...............................................1-11 Pitot-static system ..................................................17-12
Collision avoidance ..............................................1-11
Positive transfer of controls ..................................1-15
T
Runway incursion avoidance................................1-12 Takeoff and climb ............................................ 10-7, 16-11
Stall awareness......................................................1-12 Takeoff and departure ................................................14-10
Use of checklists ...................................................1-13 Takeoff checks .............................................................2-18
Practical test standards (PTS)...................................1-10 Takeoff roll ................................................................15-21
Speed margins..............................................................15-7 Ground roll .................................................................5-2
Speed sense ....................................................................1-1 Takeoffs .....................................................................14-10
Spin awareness................................................. 4-13, 12-28 Taxi ............................................................................16-10
Spin procedures............................................................4-14 Taxiing ............................................................... 2-14, 13-2
Developed phase.......................................................4-15 Terrain selection...........................................................17-4
Entry phase ...............................................................4-14 Terrain types ................................................................17-5
Incipient phase..........................................................4-14 Confined areas..........................................................17-5
Recovery phase.........................................................4-15 Trees (forest) ............................................................17-5
Spiral dive ....................................................................4-23 Water (ditching) and snow .......................................17-6
Split flap.......................................................................11-3 Thrust reversers..........................................................15-15
Sport pilot certificate....................................................16-3 Thrust to thrust lever relationship ................................15-5
Stabilized approach....................................................14-10 Timing............................................................................1-1
Stall characteristics ........................................................4-6 Tires ...............................................................................2-8
Stall recognition .............................................................4-5 Touchdown ..................................................................13-5
Angle of attack indicators.......................................4-6 Crosswinds ...............................................................13-6
Feel .........................................................................4-5 Three-point landing ..................................................13-5
Hearing ...................................................................4-6 Wheel landing...........................................................13-6
Kinesthesia..............................................................4-6 Touchdown in a drift or crab .......................................8-34
Vision......................................................................4-6 Tracking over and parallel to a straight line ..................6-6
Stalls........................................................ 4-5, 12-26, 15-11 Training considerations..............................................14-11
Accelerated approach to stall .................................12-27 Flight training.........................................................14-12
Engine inoperativeloss of directional control Ground training ......................................................14-12
demonstration .........................................................12-28 Training for night flight ...............................................10-6
Full stall.......................................................... 4-5, 12-27 Transition training......................................................11-16
Impending stall ...........................................................4-5 Transition training considerations................................16-4
Power-off stalls (approach and landing) ................12-26 Flight instructors ......................................................16-4

I-5
 Flight school.............................................................16-4 W
Trim control ......................................................... 3-5, 3-10
Turbine inlet temperature (TIT)...................................15-4 Weather considerations................................................16-6
Turbine outlet temperature (TOT) ...............................15-4 Weathervaning .............................................................13-3
Turbocharging..............................................................11-8 Weight and balance....................................................12-11
Ground boosting versus altitude turbocharging .......11-9 Basic empty weight ................................................12-11
Heat management ...................................................11-10 Empty weight .........................................................12-11
Operating characteristics ..........................................11-9 Maximum landing weight ......................................12-12
Turbocharger failure...............................................11-10 Ramp weight ..........................................................12-12
Low manifold pressure .......................................11-11 Standard empty weight...........................................12-11
Over-boost condition ..........................................11-10 Zero fuel weight .....................................................12-11
Turboprop airplane electrical systems .........................14-8 Weight and balance requirements related to spins.......4-17
Turboprop engines .......................................................14-2 Wheel barrowing..........................................................8-33
Turboprop engine types ...............................................14-3 Wing rising after touchdown .......................................8-35
Fixed shaft ................................................................14-3 Y
Split shaft/free turbine engine ..................................14-5
Turbulent air approach and landing .............................8-18 Yaw damper .................................................................12-7

U
Unusual attitudes versus upsets ...................................4-17
Upset prevention and recovery ....................................4-17
Upset prevention and recovery training (UPRT) .........4-19
Use of power ................................................................8-29

V
V1 ...............................................................................15-23
Maximum V1 ..........................................................15-23
Minimum V1...........................................................15-23
Reduced V1.............................................................15-23
Variation of thrust with RPM ......................................15-5
Visibility ......................................................................13-3
Visual inspection of the aircraft.....................................2-2
Visual preflight assessment............................................2-3
V-speeds........................................................... 12-2, 15-20
VLOF ..........................................................................12-2
VMC ...........................................................................12-2
VR .............................................................................12-2
VREF ..........................................................................12-2
VSSE ..........................................................................12-2
VX .............................................................................12-2
VXSE ..........................................................................12-2
VY .............................................................................12-2
VYSE ..........................................................................12-2

I-6