Engineers Pocket Book1 PDF

First Edition Volume 5
Formulas and Conversions

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WESTERN AUSTRALIA Steve Mackay
Copyright 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004
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Other books in this series

Volume 1 INSTRUMENTATION
Automation using PLCs, SCADA and Telemetry, Process Control and
Data Acquisition
Volume 2 COMMUNICATIONS
Data Communications, Industrial Networking, TCP/IP and Fiber Optics
Volume 3 ELECTRICAL
Power Quality, Power Systems Protection and Substation Automation
Volume 4 ELECTRONICS
Personal Computers, Digital Signal Processing and Analog/Digital Conversions
5.3.7 Conditions of Equilibrium .........................................................65
Table of Contents 5.3.8 Gravity .....................................................................................66
5.3.9 Vibrations & Waves .................................................................66
Chapter 1 5.3.10 Standing Waves.......................................................................66
5.3.11 Beats........................................................................................66
Definition and Abbreviations for Physical Quantities ...........1 5.3.12 Temperature and Heat.............................................................67
5.3.13 Ideal Gases..............................................................................67
5.3.14 Elastic Deformation..................................................................68
5.3.15 Temperature Scales ................................................................68
Chapter 2 5.3.16 Sensible Heat Equation ...........................................................68
Units of Physical Quantities .................................................3 5.3.17 Latent Heat ..............................................................................68
5.3.18 Gas Laws.................................................................................68
5.3.19 Specific Heats Of Gases..........................................................69
5.3.20 Efficiency of Heat Engines .......................................................70
Chapter 3 5.3.21 Heat Transfer by Conduction ...................................................71
5.3.22 Thermal Expansion of Solids ...................................................72
System of Units ..................................................................23 5.3.23 Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel ...........................................72
5.4 Fluid Mechanics ................................................................... 77
5.4.1 Discharge from an Orifice ........................................................77
Chapter 4 5.4.2 Bernoullis Theory ....................................................................78
5.4.3 Actual pipe dimensions ............................................................78
General Mathematical Formulae........................................27
4.1 Algebra................................................................................. 27 Chapter 6
4.2 Geometry ............................................................................. 29 References.........................................................................80
4.3 Trigonometry ........................................................................ 39 6.1 Periodic Table of Elements .................................................. 80
4.4 Logarithm ............................................................................. 40 6.2 Resistor Color Coding .......................................................... 81
4.5 Exponents ............................................................................ 42
4.6 Complex Numbers ............................................................... 42
Chapter 5
Engineering Concepts and Formulae ................................44
5.1 Electricity.............................................................................. 44
5.2 Applied Mechanics ............................................................... 57
5.2.1 Newton's laws of motion ..........................................................57
5.2.2 Linear Velocity And Acceleration .............................................60
5.2.3 Force........................................................................................61
5.2.4 Centripetal (Centrifugal) Force.................................................62
5.2.5 Stress, Strain And Modulus Of Elasticity..................................64
5.3 Thermodynamics.................................................................. 64
5.3.1 Laws of Thermodynamics ........................................................64
5.3.2 Momentum...............................................................................65
5.3.3 Impulse ....................................................................................65
5.3.4 Elastic and Inelastic collision ...................................................65
5.3.5 Center of Mass ........................................................................65
5.3.6 Angular Motion.........................................................................65
Formulas and Conversions Formulas and Conversions
Symbol Prefix Factor by which unit is

Chapter 1 multiplied
k Kilo 103
Definition and Abbreviations for Physical Quantities h Hecto 102
da Deca 10
Symbol Unit Quantity d Deci 10-1
m meter Length c Centi 10-2
kg kilogram Mass m Milli 10-3
s second Time Micro 10-6
A ampere Electric current n Nano 10-9
K kelvin Thermodynamic temp p Pico 10-12
cd candela Luminous intensity
Quantity Unit Symbol Equivalent Quantity Electrical Symbol Derived

unit unit
Plane angle radian rad -
Potential Volt V W/A
Force newton N kg m/s2
Resistance Ohm V/A
Work, energy heat joule JNm
Charge Coulomb C As
Power watt W J/s
Capacitance Farad F As/V
Frequency hertz Hz s-1
Electric field - V/m -
Viscosity: - m2/s 10 c St strength
kinematic (Centistoke)
Electric flux - C/m2 -
Viscosity: - Ns/m2 103 cP density
Dynamic (Centipoise)
Pressure - Pa or N/m2 pascal, Pa Quantity Magnetic Symbol Derived unit

unit
Symbol Prefix Factor by which unit is Magnetic flux Weber Wb Vs = Nm/A

multiplied Inductance Henry H Vs/A = Nm/A2
T Tera 1012 Magnetic field - A/m -
G Giga 109 strength
M Mega 106 Magnetic flux density Tesla T Wb/m2 =

(N)/(Am)
-1- -2-
Chapter 2 Multiply
Name To convert from To Divide by
by
Density lbs2/in4 kg/m3 1.069E+07 9.357E-08

Units of Physical Quantities Density slug/ft 3
kg/m 3
515.40 1.940E-03
Energy BTU J 1055 9.478E-04

Conversion Factors (general):
Energy cal J 4.1859 0.2389
1 acre = 43,560 square feet
Energy erg J 1.000E-07 1.000E+07
1 cubic foot = 7.5 gallons
Energy eV J 1.602E-19 6.242E+18
1 foot = 0.305 meters
Energy Ftlbf J 1.3557 0.7376
1 gallon = 3.79 liters
Energy kiloton TNT J 4.187E+12 2.388E-13
1 gallon = 8.34 pounds
Energy KWhr J 3.600E+06 2.778E-07
1 grain per gallon = 17.1 mg/L
Energy Megaton TNT J 4.187E+15 2.388E-16
1 horsepower = 0.746 kilowatts
Force Dyne N 1.000E-05 1.000E+05
1 million gallons per day = 694 gallons per minute
Force Lbf N 4.4484 0.2248
1 pound = 0.454 kilograms
Force Ozf N 0.2780 3.5968
1 pound per square inch = 2.31 feet of water
Heat capacity BTU/lbm F J/kgC 4188 2.388E-04
Degrees Celsius = (Degrees Fahrenheit - 32) (5/9)
Heat transfer coefficient BTU/hrft2F W/m2C 5.6786 0.1761
Degrees Fahrenheit = (Degrees Celsius) (9/5) + 32
Length AU m 1.496E+11 6.685E-12
1% = 10,000 mg/L
Length ft m 0.3048 3.2810
Length in m 2.540E-02 39.3700

Multiply
Name To convert from To Divide by
by Length mile m 1609 6.214E-04
2 2
Acceleration ft/sec m/s 0.3048 3.2810 Length Nautical mile m 1853 5.397E-04
Area acre m2 4047 2.471E-04 Length parsec m 3.085E+16 3.241E-17
Area ft2 m2 9.294E-02 10.7600 Mass amu kg 1.661E-27 6.022E+26
Area hectare m2 1.000E+04 1.000E-04 Mass lbm kg 0.4535 2.2050
Area in2 m2 6.452E-04 1550 Mass lbs2/in kg 1200.00 5.711E-03
Density g/cm3 kg/m3 1000 1.000E-03 Mass slug kg 14.59 6.853E-02
Density lbm/ft3 kg/m3 16.02 6.243E-02 Mass flow rate lbm/hr kg/s 1.260E-04 7937
Density lbm/in3 kg/m3 2.767E+04 3.614E-05
-3- -4-
Multiply Multiply
Name To convert from To Divide by Name To convert from To Divide by
by by
Mass flow rate lbm/sec kg/s 0.4535 2.2050 Time sidereal year S 3.156E+07 3.169E-08
2 2
Moment of inertia ftlbs kgm 1.3557 0.7376 Torque ftlbf Nm 1.3557 0.7376
Moment of inertia inlbs2 kgm2 0.1130 8.8510 Torque inlbf Nm 0.1130 8.8504
Moment of inertia ozins2 kgm2 7.062E-03 141.60 Torque Inozf Nm 7.062E-03 141.61
Power BTU/hr W 0.2931 3.4120 Velocity ft/min m/s 5.079E-03 196.90
Power hp W 745.71 1.341E-03 Velocity ft/s m/s 0.3048 3.2810
Power tons of refrigeration W 3516 2.844E-04 Velocity Km/hr m/s 0.2778 3.6000
Pressure bar Pa 1.000E+05 1.000E-05 Velocity miles/hr m/s 0.4470 2.2370

2 2
Pressure dyne/cm Pa 0.1000 10.0000 Viscosity absolute centipose Ns/m 1.000E-03 1000
Pressure in. mercury Pa 3377 2.961E-04 Viscosity absolute g/cms Ns/m2 0.1000 10
2 2
Pressure in. water Pa 248.82 4.019E-03 Viscosity absolute lbf/ft s Ns/m 47.87 2.089E-02
2 2
Pressure kgf/cm Pa 9.807E+04 1.020E-05 Viscosity absolute lbm/fts Ns/m 1.4881 0.6720
Pressure lbf/ft2 Pa 47.89 2.088E-02 Viscosity kinematic centistoke m2/s 1.000E-06 1.000E+06
2 2 2
Pressure lbf/in Pa 6897 1.450E-04 Viscosity kinematic ft /sec m /s 9.294E-02 10.7600
Pressure mbar Pa 100.00 1.000E-02 Volume ft3 m3 2.831E-02 35.3200
Pressure microns mercury Pa 0.1333 7.501 Volume in3 m3 1.639E-05 6.102E+04
Pressure mm mercury Pa 133.3 7.501E-03 Volume Liters m3 1.000E-03 1000
Pressure std atm Pa 1.013E+05 9.869E-06 Volume U.S. gallons m3 3.785E-03 264.20
Specific heat BTU/lbmF J/kgC 4186 2.389E-04 Volume flow rate ft3/min m3/s 4.719E-04 2119
Specific heat cal/gC J/kgC 4186 2.389E-04 Volume flow rate U.S. gallons/min m3/s 6.309E-05 1.585E+04
Temperature F C 0.5556 1.8000

A. DISTANCE (Length)
Thermal conductivity BTU/hrftF W/mC 1.7307 0.5778 Conversions
Thermal conductivity BTUin/hrft2F W/mC 0.1442 6.9340
Multiply By To obtain
Thermal conductivity cal/cmsC W/mC 418.60 2.389E-03
LENGTH
Thermal conductivity cal/fthrF W/mC 6.867E-03 145.62
Centimeter 0.03280840 foot
Time day S 8.640E+04 1.157E-05
Centimeter 0.3937008 inch
-5- -6-
Multiply By To obtain To Convert To Multiply By
Fathom 1.8288* meter(m) Centimeters Meters 0.01
Foot 0.3048* meter(m) Centimeters Yards 0.01093613
Foot 30.48* centimeter(cm) Centimeters Feet 0.0328084

*
Foot 304.8 millimeter(mm) Centimeters Inches 0.3937008
Inch 0.0254* meter(m) Chains, (Surveyor's) Rods 4

*
Inch 2.54 centimeter(cm) Chains, (Surveyor's) Meters 20.1168
*
Inch 25.4 millimeter(mm) Chains, (Surveyor's) Feet 66
Kilometer 0.6213712 mile(USstatute) Fathoms Meters 1.8288
Meter 39.37008 Inch Fathoms Feet 6
Meter 0.54680066 Fathom Feet Statute Miles 0.00018939
Meter 3.280840 Foot Feet Kilometers 0.0003048
Meter 0.1988388 Rod Feet Meters 0.3048
Meter 1.093613 Yard Feet Yards 0.3333333
Meter 0.0006213712 mile(USstatute) Feet Inches 12
Microinch 0.0254* micrometer(micron)(m) Feet Centimeters 30.48
micrometer(micron) 39.37008 Microinch Furlongs Statute Miles 0.125
mile(USstatute) 1,609.344* meter(m) Furlongs Meters 201.168

*
mile(USstatute) 1.609344 kilometer(km) Furlongs Yards 220
millimeter 0.003280840 Foot Furlongs Feet 660
millimeter 0.0397008 Inch Furlongs Inches 7920

*
Rod 5.0292 meter(m) Hands (Height Of Horse) Inches 4
Yard 0.9144* meter(m) Hands (Height Of Horse) Centimeters 10.16
Inches Meters 0.0254

To Convert To Multiply By
Inches Yards 0.02777778
Cables Fathoms 120
Inches Feet 0.08333333
Cables Meters 219.456
Inches Centimeters 2.54
Cables Yards 240
Inches Millimeters 25.4
-7- -8-
To Convert To Multiply By To Convert To Multiply By
Kilometers Statute Miles 0.621371192 Miles, Statute Centimeters 160934.4
Kilometers Meters 1000 Millimeters Inches 0.039370079
Leagues, Nautical Nautical Miles 3 Mils Inches 0.001
Leagues, Nautical Kilometers 5.556 Mils Millimeters 0.0254
Leagues, Statute Statute Miles 3 Paces (US) Inches 30
Leagues, Statute Kilometers 4.828032 Paces (US) Centimeters 76.2
Links, (Surveyor's) Chains 0.01 Points (Typographical) Inches 0.013837
Links, (Surveyor's) Inches 7.92 Points (Typographical) Millimeters 0.3514598
Links, (Surveyor's) Centimeters 20.1168 Rods Meters 5.0292
Meters Statute Miles 0.000621371 Rods Yards 5.5
Meters Kilometers 0.001 Rods Feet 16.5
Meters Yards 1.093613298 Spans Inches 9
Meters Feet 3.280839895 Spans Centimeters 22.86
Meters Inches 39.370079 Yards Miles 0.00056818
Meters Centimeters 100 Yards Meters 0.9144
Meters Millimeters 1000 Yards Feet 3
Microns Meters 0.000001 Yards Inches 36
Microns Inches 0.0000394 Yards Centimeters 91.44
Miles, Nautical Statute Miles 1.1507794
Miles, Nautical Kilometers 1.852

Conversion
Miles, Statute Kilometers 1.609344
Length
Miles, Statute Furlongs 8
1 ft = 12 in 1 yd = 3 ft
Miles, Statute Rods 320
1 cm = 0.3937 in 1 in = 2.5400 cm
Miles, Statute Meters 1609.344
1 m = 3.281 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m
Miles, Statute Yards 1760
1 m = 1.0936 yd 1 yd = 0.9144 m
Miles, Statute Feet 5280
1 km = 0.6214 mile 1 mile = 1.6093 km
Miles, Statute Inches 63360
1 furlong = 40 rods 1 fathom = 6 ft
-9- - 10 -
Conversion Conversion
1 statute mile = 8 furlongs 1 rod = 5.5 yd Dry Volume
1 statute mile = 5280 ft 1 in = 100 mils 1 quart = 2 pints 1 quart = 67.2 in3
1 nautical mile = 6076 ft 1 light year = 9.461 x 1015 m 1 peck = 8 quarts 1 peck = 537.6 in3
-5
1 league = 3 miles 1 mil = 2.540 x 10 m 1 bushel = 4 pecks 1 bushel = 2150.5 in3
Area
B. Area
1 ft2 = 144 in2 1 acre = 160 rod2 Conversions
1 yd2 = 9 ft2 1 acre = 43,560 ft2
2 2
Multiply By To obtain
1 rod = 30.25 yd 1 mile2 = 640 acres
AREA
1 cm2 = 0.1550 in2 1 in2 = 6.4516 cm2
2 2
acre 4,046.856 meter2 (m2)
1 m = 10.764 ft 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
acre 0.4046856 hectare
1 km2 = 0.3861 mile2 1 mile2 = 2.590 km2
2
centimeter 0.1550003 inch2
Volume
centimeter2 0.001076391 foot2
1 cm3 = 0.06102 in3 1 in3 = 16.387 cm3
2 *
foot 0.09290304 meter2 (m2)
1 m3 = 35.31 ft3 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3
foot2 929.03042 centimeter2 (cm2)
1 Litre = 61.024 in3 1 in3 = 0.0164 litre
2
foot 92,903.04 millimeter2 (mm2)
1 Litre = 0.0353 ft3 1 ft3 = 28.32 litres
hectare 2.471054 acre
1 Litre = 0.2642 gal. (U.S.) 1 yd3 = 0.7646 m3
inch2 645.16* millimeter2 (mm2)
1 Litre = 0.0284 bu (U.S.) 1 gallon (US) = 3.785 litres
inch2 6.4516 centimeter2 (cm2)
1 Litre = 1000.000 cm3 1 gallon (US) = 3.785 x 10-3 m3
inch2 0.00064516 meter2 (m2)
1 Litre = 1.0567 qt. (liquid) or
1 bushel (US) = 35.24 litres 2
0.9081 qt. (dry) meter 1,550.003 inch2
1 oz (US fluid) = 2.957 x 10-5 m3 1 stere = 1 m3 meter2 10.763910 foot2

2
Liquid Volume meter 1.195990 yard2
1 gill = 4 fluid ounces 1 barrel = 31.5 gallons meter2 0.0002471054 acre
1 pint = 4 gills 1 hogshead = 2 bbl (63 gal) millimeter2 0.00001076391 foot2

2
1 quart = 2 pints 1 tun = 252 gallons millimeter 0.001550003 inch2
1 gallon = 4 quarts 1 barrel (petrolum) = 42 gallons yard2 0.8361274 meter2 (m2)
- 11 - - 12 -
C. Volume
Conversions To Convert To Multiply By
Metric Conversion Factors: Volume (including Capacity)
Carat Milligrams 200
Multiply By To obtain Drams, Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Ounces 0.06255
VOLUME (including CAPACITY) Drams, Avoirdupois Grams 1.7718452
centimeter3 0.06102376 inch3 Drams, Avoirdupois Grains 27.344
foot3 0.028311685 meter3 (m3) Drams, Troy Troy Ounces 0.125
foot3 28.31685 liter Drams, Troy Scruples 3
gallon (UK liquid) 0.004546092 meter3 (m3) Drams, Troy Grams 3.8879346
gallon (UK liquid) 4.546092 litre Drams, Troy Grains 60
gallon (US liquid) 0.003785412 meter3 (m3) Grains Kilograms 6.47989E-05
gallon (US liquid) 3.785412 liter Grains Avoirdupois Pounds 0.00014286
inch3 16,387.06 millimeter3 (mm3) Grains Troy Pounds 0.00017361
inch3 16.38706 centimeter3 (cm3) Grains Troy Ounces 0.00208333
inch3 0.00001638706 meter3 (m3) Grains Avoirdupois Ounces 0.00228571
Liter 0.001* meter3 (m3) Grains Troy Drams 0.0166
Liter 0.2199692 gallon (UK liquid) Grains Avoirdupois Drams 0.03657143
Liter 0.2641720 gallon (US liquid) Grains Pennyweights 0.042
Liter 0.03531466 foot3 Grains Scruples 0.05
meter3 219.9692 gallon (UK liquid) Grains Grams 0.06479891
3
meter 264.1720 gallon (US liquid) Grains Milligrams 64.79891
meter3 35.31466 foot3 Grams Kilograms 0.001
meter3 1.307951 yard3 Grams Avoirdupois Pounds 0.002204623
meter3 1000.* liter Grams Troy Pounds 0.00267923
meter3 61,023.76 inch3 Grams Troy Ounces 0.032150747
millimeter3 0.00006102376 inch3 Grams Avoirdupois Ounces 0.035273961
Yard3 0.7645549 meter3 (m3) Grams Avoirdupois Drams 0.56438339
Grams Grains 15.432361

D. Mass and Weight
Conversions
- 13 - - 14 -
Grams Milligrams 1000 Ounces, Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Drams 16
Hundredweights, Long Long Tons 0.05 Ounces, Avoirdupois Grams 28.34952313
Hundredweights, Long Metric Tons 0.050802345 Ounces, Avoirdupois Grains 437.5
Hundredweights, Long Short Tons 0.056 Ounces, Troy Avoirdupois Pounds 0.06857143
Hundredweights, Long Kilograms 50.802345 Ounces, Troy Troy Pounds 0.0833333
Hundredweights, Long Avoirdupois Pounds 112 Ounces, Troy Avoirdupois Ounces 1.097143
Hundredweights, Short Long Tons 0.04464286 Ounces, Troy Troy Drams 8
Hundredweights, Short Metric Tons 0.045359237 Ounces, Troy Avoirdupois Drams 17.55429
Hundredweights, Short Short Tons 0.05 Ounces, Troy Pennyweights 20
Hundredweights, Short Kilograms 45.359237 Ounces, Troy Grams 31.1034768
Hundredweights, Short Avoirdupois Pounds 100 Ounces, Troy Grains 480
Kilograms Long Tons 0.0009842 Pennyweights Troy Ounces 0.05
Kilograms Metric Tons 0.001 Pennyweights Grams 1.55517384
Kilograms Short Tons 0.00110231 Pennyweights Grains 24
Kilograms Short Hundredweights 0.02204623 Pounds, Avoirdupois Long Tons 0.000446429
Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds 2.204622622 Pounds, Avoirdupois Metric Tons 0.000453592
Kilograms Troy Pounds 2.679229 Pounds, Avoirdupois Short Tons 0.0005
Kilograms Troy Ounces 32.15075 Pounds, Avoirdupois Quintals 0.00453592
Kilograms Avoirdupois Ounces 35.273962 Pounds, Avoirdupois Kilograms 0.45359237
Kilograms Avoirdupois Drams 564.3834 Pounds, Avoirdupois Troy Pounds 1.215278
Kilograms Grams 1000 Pounds, Avoirdupois Troy Ounces 14.58333
Kilograms Grains 15432.36 Pounds, Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Ounces 16
Milligrams Grains 0.015432358 Pounds, Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Drams 256
Ounces, Avoirdupois Kilograms 0.028349523 Pounds, Avoirdupois Grams 453.59237
Ounces, Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Pounds 0.0625 Pounds, Avoirdupois Grains 7000
Ounces, Avoirdupois Troy Pounds 0.07595486 Pounds, Troy Kilograms 0.373241722
Ounces, Avoirdupois Troy Ounces 0.9114583 Pounds, Troy Avoirdupois Pounds 0.8228571
- 15 - - 16 -
Pounds, Troy Troy Ounces 12 Tons, Short Long Tons 0.8928571
Pounds, Troy Avoirdupois Ounces 13.16571 Tons, Short Metric Tons 0.90718474
Pounds, Troy Avoirdupois Drams 210.6514 Tons, Short Long Hundredweights 17.85714
Pounds, Troy Pennyweights 240 Tons, Short Short Hundredweights 20
Pounds, Troy Grams 373.2417216 Tons, Short Kilograms 907.18474
Pounds, Troy Grains 5760 Tons, Short Avoirdupois Pounds 2000
Quintals Metric Tons 0.1

E. Density
Quintals Kilograms 100 Conversions
Quintals Avoirdupois Pounds 220.46226
To Convert To Multiply By
Scruples Troy Drams 0.333
Grains/imp. Gallon Parts/million 14.286
Scruples Grams 1.2959782
Grains/US gallon Parts/million 17.118
Scruples Grains 20
Grains/US gallon Pounds/million gal 142.86
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Metric Tons 1.016046909
Grams/cu. Cm Pounds/mil-foot 3.405E-07
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Short Tons 1.12
Grams/cu. Cm Pounds/cu. in 0.03613
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Long Hundredweights 20
Grams/cu. Cm Pounds/cu. ft 62.43
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Short Hundredweights 22.4
Grams/liter Pounds/cu. ft 0.062427
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Kilograms 1016.04691
Grams/liter Pounds/1000 gal 8.345
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Avoirdupois Pounds 2240
Grams/liter Grains/gal 58.417
Tons, Long (Deadweight) Avoirdupois Ounces 35840
Grams/liter Parts/million 1000
Tons, Metric Long Tons 0.9842065
Kilograms/cu meter Pounds/mil-foot 3.405E-10
Tons, Metric Short Tons 1.1023113
Kilograms/cu meter Pounds/cu in 0.00003613
Tons, Metric Quintals 10
Kilograms/cu meter Grams/cu cm 0.001
Tons, Metric Long Hundredweights 19.68413072
Kilograms/cu meter Pound/cu ft 0.06243
Tons, Metric Short Hundredweights 22.04623
Milligrams/liter Parts/million 1
Tons, Metric Kilograms 1000
Pounds/cu ft Pounds/mil-foot 5.456E-09
Tons, Metric Avoirdupois Pounds 2204.623
Pounds/cu ft Pounds/cu in 0.0005787
Tons, Metric Troy Ounces 32150.75
- 17 - - 18 -
To Convert To Multiply By Substance Relative

Density
Pounds/cu ft Grams/cu cm 0.01602
Sand (dry) 1.42
Pounds/cu ft Kgs/cu meter 16.02
Carbon (graphite) 2.3
Pounds/cu in Pounds/mil-foot 0.000009425
Silicon 2.6
Pounds/cu in Gms/cu cm 27.68
Carbon (charcoal) 1.8
Pounds/cu in Pounds/cu ft 1728
Silver 10.57
Pounds/cu in Kgs/cu meter 27680
Chromium 6.5
F. Relative Density (Specific Gravity) Of Various Substances Slate 2.1-2.8
Clay 1.9
Substance Relative
Density Sodium 0.97
Water (fresh) 1.00 Coal 1.36-1.4
Mica 2.9 Steel (mild) 7.87
Water (sea average) 1.03 Cobalt 8.6
Nickel 8.6 Sulphur 2.07
Aluminum 2.56 Copper 8.77
Oil (linseed) 0.94 Tin 7.3
Antimony 6.70 Cork 0.24
Oil (olive) 0.92 Tungsten 19.1
Bismuth 9.80 Glass (crown) 2.5
Oil (petroleum) 0.76-0.86 Wood (ash) 0.75
Brass 8.40 Glass (flint) 3.5
Oil (turpentine) 0.87 Wood (beech) 0.7-0.8
Brick 2.1 Gold 19.3
Paraffin 0.86 Wood (ebony) 1.1-1.2
Calcium 1.58 Iron (cast) 7.21
Platinum 21.5 Wood (elm) 0.66
Carbon (diamond) 3.4 Iron (wrought) 7.78
- 19 - - 20 -
Substance Relative Lower Upper

Name
Density Case Case
Wood (lignum-vitae) 1.3 Eta
Lead 11.4 Theta
Magnesium 1.74 Iota
Manganese 8.0 Kappa
Mercury 13.6 Lambda
Lead 11.4 Mu
Magnesium 1.74 Nu
Manganese 8.0 Xi
Wood (oak) 0.7-1.0 Omicron
Wood (pine) 0.56 Pi
Wood (teak) 0.8 Rho
Zinc 7.0 Sigma and
Wood (oak) 0.7-1.0 Tau
Wood (pine) 0.56 Upsilon
Wood (teak) 0.8 Phi
Zinc 7.0 Chi
Mercury 13.6 Psi
Omega
G. Greek Alphabet
Lower Upper
Name
Case Case
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Zeta
- 21 - - 22 -
Multiply Into Into Into Into Into Into Into

Chapter 3 by Milli Centi Deci MGL* Deca Hecto Kilo
To
convert 105 104 103 102 101 1 10-1
System of Units Hecto
The two most commonly used systems of units are as follows: To
SI convert 104 103 102 101 1 10-1 10-2
Imperial Deca
To
SI: The International System of Units (abbreviated "SI") is a scientific method of expressing convert 103 102 101 1 10-1 10-2 10-3
the magnitudes of physical quantities. This system was formerly called the meter-kilogram- MGL*
second (MKS) system. To
convert 102 101 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4
Imperial: A unit of measure for capacity officially adopted in the British Imperial System; Deci
British units are both dry and wet To
convert 101 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5
Metric System Centi
To
Exponent Numerical convert 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6
Representation Example
value equivalent Milli
Thz (Tera MGL = meter, gram, liter
Tera 1012 1000000000000 T
hertz)
Ghz (Giga Example:
Giga 109 1000000000 G
hertz) To convert Kilogram Into Milligram (1 Kilo X 106 ) Milligrams
Mhz (Mega
Mega 106 1000000 M
hertz) Physical constants
Unit hz (hertz)
1 1
quantity F (Farads) Symbolic
Name Numerical Equivalent
F (Micro Representation
Micro 10-6 0.001
farads)
Avogadro's number N 6.023 x 1026 /(kg mol)
nF (Nano
Nano 10-9 0.000001 n
farads) Bohr magneton B 9.27 x 10-24 Am 252
-12 pF (Pico
Pico 10 0.000000000001 p
farads) Boltzmann's constant k 1.380 x 10-23 J/k
Conversion Chart Stefan-Boltzmann constant d 5.67 x 10-8 W/(m2K4)
Multiply Into Into Into Into Into Into Into Characteristic impedance of free
Zo (o/Eo)1/2=120
by Milli Centi Deci MGL* Deca Hecto Kilo space
To
convert 106 105 104 103 102 101 1 Electron volt eV 1.602 x 10-19 J
Kilo
Electron charge e 1.602 x 10-19 C
- 23 - - 24 -
Symbolic Symbolic
Name Numerical Equivalent Name Numerical Equivalent
Representation Representation
Acceleration due to gravity on
Electronic rest mass me 9.109 x 10-31 kg g 9.80 m s-2
Earth
Electronic charge to mass ratio e/me 1.759 x 1011 C/kg Acceleration due to gravity on the
gM 1.62 m s-2
Moon
Faraday constant F 9.65 x 107 C/(kg mol) Radius of the Earth RE 6.37 x 106 m
Permeability of free space 0 4 x 10-7 H/m Mass of the Earth ME 5.98 x 1024 kg
Radius of the Sun RS 6.96 x 108 m

Permittivity of free space Eo 8.85 x 10-12 F/m
Mass of the Sun MS 1.99 x 1030 kg
Planck's constant h 6.626 x 10-34 J s
Radius of the Moon RM 1.74 x 106 m
Proton mass mp 1.672 x 10-27 kg
Mass of the Moon MM 7.35 x 1022 kg
Proton to electron mass ratio mp/me 1835.6
Earth-Moon distance - 3.84 x 108 m
Standard gravitational Earth-Sun distance - 1.50 x 1011 m

g 9.80665 m/s2, 9.80665 N/kg
acceleration
Speed of light in air c 3.00 x 108 m s-1
Universal constant of gravitation G 6.67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2
Electron charge e -1.60 x 10-19 C
Universal gas constant Ro 8.314 kJ/(kg mol K)
Mass of electron me 9.11 x 10-31 kg
8
Velocity of light in vacuum C 2.9979 x 10 m/s Planck's constant h 6.63 x 10-34 J s
Temperature 0
C 5/9(0F - 32) Universal gravitational constant G 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
5/9(0F + 459.67), 5/90R, 0C + Electron volt 1 eV 1.60 x 10-19 J

Temperature K
273.15
Mass of proton mp 1.67 x 10-27 kg
Speed of light in air c 3.00 x 108 m s-1 Acceleration due to gravity on
g 9.80 m s-2
Earth
Electron charge e -1.60 x 10-19 C
Acceleration due to gravity on the
gM 1.62 m s-2
Moon
Mass of electron me 9.11 x 10-31 kg
Ton 1 ton 1.00 x 103 kg
Planck's constant h 6.63 x 10-34 J s
Universal gravitational constant G 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
Electron volt 1 eV 1.60 x 10-19 J
Mass of proton mp 1.67 x 10-27 kg
- 25 - - 26 -
Chapter 4 Identity a+0 = 0+a = a
Inverse a + (-a) = 0, a(1/a) = 1
General Mathematical Formulae Cancellation If a+x=a+y, then x=y

4.1 Algebra
A. Expansion Formulae Zero-factor a0 = 0a = 0
Square of summation
(x + y) 2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 Negation -(-a) = a, (-a)b= a(-b) = -(ab), (-a)(-b) = ab
Square of difference
(x y) 2 = x2 2xy + y2 Algebraic Combinations
Difference of squares Factors with a common denominator can be expanded:

x2 y2 = (x + y) (x y) a+b a b
= +
c c c
Cube of summation
(x + y) 3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 Fractions can be added by finding a common denominator:
a b ad + bc
Summation of two cubes + =
c d cd
x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 - xy + y2)
Cube of difference Products of fractions can be carried out directly:

(x y) 3 = x3 3x2y + 3xy2 y3 a b ab
=
c d cd
Difference of two cubes
x3 y3 = (x y) (x2 + xy + y2) Quotients of fractions can be evaluated by inverting and multiplying:
a
B. Quadratic Equation b = a d = ad
If ax2 + bx + c = 0, c b c bc
d
b b 2 4ac
Then x = Radical Combinations
2a
The basic algebraic properties of real numbers a, b and c are: n
ab = n a n b
Property Description
n
a = a1/ n
Closure a + b and ab are real numbers
n
a a
Commutative a + b = b + a, ab = ba n = n
b b
Associative (a+b) + c = a + (b+c), (ab)c = a(bc) m
n
am = a n
Distributive (a+b)c = ac+bc
n m
a = mn a
- 27 - - 28 -
4.2 Geometry
Circumference
Item Area Surface Area Volume Figure
/ Perimeter
2
Square 4s s NA NA
(Length)(Breadth)
Rectangle 2 (L + B) NA NA
= LB
- 29 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
s1 + s2 + s3
where s1, s2, s3 1
Triangle B H NA NA
are the 3 sides 2
of the triangle
Right s1 + s2 + s3 1
B H NA NA
triangle 2
- 30 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
s ( s a)( s b)( s c)
where
Generic s1 + s2 + s3 a+b+c
s= NA NA
triangle 2
3s
Equilateral where s is the 1
A= bh NA NA
triangle length of each 2
side
- 31 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
a +b
Trapezoid A= h NA NA
where and are 2
the 2 base angles
C = 2r A = r2
C = d
Circle NA NA
- 32 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
arc r
A=
2

A= r 2
Circle 2r + (arc 360 NA NA
Sector length)
2
r
A=
2

(1/4)Dd A= Dd
4
Ellipse D is the larger NA NA
where D and d
are the two axis radius and d is the
smaller radius
- 33 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
1
Trapezoid Sum of all sides A= (b1 + b2 )h NA NA
2
Hexagon 6s A = 2.6s2 NA NA
Where s is the
length of 1 side
- 34 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
A = 4.83 s2
Octagon 8s NA NA
Where s is the
length of 1 side
2
Cube NA NA 6s s3
- 35 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
Rectangular 2 l h + 2wh + 2
NA NA l w h
solid
S = 2rh +
2r2 V = r2h
Right
NA NA
cylinder
- 36 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
S = 4r2 4 3
Sphere NA NA r
3
1
base area
.perimeter 3
Pyramid NA NA slant height + perpendicular
B height
- 37 -
Circumference
/ Perimeter
Rectangular
NA NA 2lh+2lw+2wh V = lwh
prism
1 2
r h
Cone NA NA pir(r+sh) 3
- 38 -
4.3 Trigonometry Tangent, Secant and Co-Secant
A. Pythagoras' Law sin

tan =
cos
c2 = a2 + b2 1
sec =
B. Basic Ratios cos
c 1
Sin = a/c a csc =
Cos = b/c sin
Tan = a/b
Cosec = c/a C. Trigonometric Function Values
b
Sec = c/b
Cot = b/a Eulers Representation
e j = cos( ) + j sin( )
Degrees versus Radians
A circle in degree contains 360 degrees
A circle in radians contains 2 radians
e j = cos( ) j sin( )
e jn = cos(n ) + j sin(n )
hypotenuse
e j + e j
opposite cos =
2
e j e j
sin =
2j
adjacent
Sine, Cosine and Tangent 4.4 Logarithm
opposite adjacent opposite Definition

sin = cos = tan = The logarithm of a number to a particular base is the power (or index) to which that
hypotenus hypotenus adjacent base must be raised to obtain the number.
The number 8 written in index form as 8 = 23

Sine, Cosine and the Pythagorean Triangle
The equation can be rewritten in logarithm form as log 2 8 = 3
[sin ] + [cos ]
2 2
= sin 2 + cos 2 = 1
Logarithm laws
The logarithm laws are obtained from the index laws and are:
loga x + loga y = loga xy
- 39 - - 40 -
loga x loga y = loga (x/y) 4.5 Exponents

Summary of the Laws of Exponents
loga xy = y loga x Let c, d, r, and s be any real numbers.
loga (1/x) = -loga x

c r c s = c r+s (c d ) r = c r d r
loga 1 = 0 cr c
r
cr
= c rs , c 0 = r , d 0
cs
d d
loga a = 1
( c r ) s = c r s c r =
1
a (log a x )
=x cr
Basic Combinations
Note: It is not possible to have the logarithm of a negative number. All logarithms must Since the raising of a number n to a power p may be defined as multiplying
have the same base. n times itself p times, it follows that
Euler Relationship n p1 + p 2 = n p1 n p 2
The trigonometric functions are related to a complex exponential by the Euler
relationship: The rule for raising a power to a power can also be deduced
e jx = cos x + j sin x
jx
e = cos x j sin x (na)b = nab
From these relationships the trig functions can be expressed in terms of the complex
exponential: (ab)n = anbn
am/an = am-n
e jx + e jx
cos x = where a not equal to zero
2
e jx e jx
sin x =
2 4.6 Complex Numbers
A complex number is a number with a real and an imaginary part, usually
Hyperbolic Functions expressed in Cartesian form
The hyperbolic functions can be defined in terms of exponentials. a + jb where j = -1 and j j = -1
e x e x Complex numbers can also be expressed in polar form

Hyperbolic sine = sinh x =
2 Aej where A = a2 +b2 and = tan-1 (b/a)
e x + e x The polar form can also be expressed in terms of trigonometric functions using the Euler
Hyperbolic cosine = cosh x =
2 relationship
ej = cos + j sin
sinh x e x e x
Hyperbolic tangent = tanh x = = Euler Relationship
cosh x e x + e x
The trigonometric functions are related to a complex exponential by the
Euler relationship
ejx = cos x + j sin x
- 41 - - 42 -
Chapter 5
e-j = cos x - j sin x
From these relationships the trigonometric functions can be expressed in terms of the
Engineering Concepts and Formulae
complex exponential:
5.1 Electricity
e jx + e jx
cos x =
2 Ohm's Law
e jx e jx
sin x = V
2 I=
R
This relationship is useful for expressing complex numbers in polar form, as
well as many other applications. Or
Polar Form, Complex Numbers V = IR

The standard form of a complex number is
Where
a + jb where j = -1 I = current (amperes)
E = electromotive force (volts)
But this can be shown to be equivalent to the form R = resistance (ohms)
Aej where A = a2 +b2 and = tan-1 (b/a) Temperature correction
which is called the polar form of a complex number. The equivalence can be shown by Rt = Ro (1 + t)
using the Euler relationship for complex exponentials.
Where
b b Ro = resistance at 0C (.)
j
Ae = a + b (cos tan 1 + j sin tan 1 )
2 2
Rt = resistance at tC (.)
a a = temperature coefficient which has an average value for copper of 0.004
28 (/ C)
Ae j = a 2 + b 2 (
a
+ j
b
) = a + jb (1 + t2 )
R2 = R1
a2 + b2 a2 + b2 (1 + t1 )
Where R1 = resistance at t1
R2 = resistance at t2
Values of / C
alpha
Copper 0.00428
Platinum 0.00358
Nickel 0.00672
Tungsten 0.00450
- 43 - - 44 -
Aluminum 0.0040
Where EG = generated e.m.f.
EB = generated back e.m.f.
nqvtA Ia = armature current
Current, I = = nqvA Ra = armature resistance
t
Conductor Resistivity Alternating Current

L
R= RMS value of sine curve = 0.707 of maximum value
a Mean Value of Sine wave = 0.637 of maximum value
Form factor = RMS value / Mean Value = 1.11
Where
pN
= specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm meters, m) Frequency of Alternator = cycles per second
L = length (meters) 60
a = area of cross-section (square meters) Where p is number of pairs of poles
N is the rotational speed in r/min
Quantity Equation
Slip of Induction Motor
Resistance R of a uniform L
conductor R= [(Slip speed of the field Speed of the rotor) / Speed of the Field] 100
A
Inductors and Inductive Reactance
Resistors in series, Rs Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors in parallel, R p 1 1 1 1 Physical Quantity Equation

= + +
R p R1 R2 R3 Inductors and Inductance di
VL = L
dt
Power dissipated in resistor: V2
P = VI = I 2 R = Inductors in Series: LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + . . . .
R
Inductor in Parallel: 1 1 1 1
Potential drop across R V=IR = + + + .....
L T L1 L 2 L 3
Dynamo Formulae Current build up -

t
2NpZ (switch initially closed after having At v L ( t) = E e

Average e.m.f. generated in each conductor = been opened) t
60c
v R ( t) = E(1 - e )
t
Where E -
Z = total number of armature conductors i(t) = (1 e

)
R
c = number of parallel paths through winding between positive and negative brushes
L
Where c = 2 (wave winding), c = 2p (lap winding) =
= useful flux per pole (webers), entering or leaving the armature R
p = number of pairs of poles Current decay t
-
N = speed (revolutions per minute) (switch moved to a new position) i(t) = I o e
vR(t) = R i(t)
Generator Terminal volts = EG IaRa vL(t) = RT i(t)
Motor Terminal volts = EB + IaRa
- 45 - - 46 -
Physical Quantity Equation Quantity Equation
L Current Divider Rule ZT

' = I x = IT
RT Zx
Alternating Current f = 1/T Two impedance values in Z1 Z 2

=2f parallel ZT =
Z1 + Z 2
Complex Numbers: C=a+jb
C = M cos + j M sin Capacitance
M = a 2 + b2
b Capacitors
= tan -1 C=
Q
[F] (Farads)
a V
Polar form: C=M Capacitor in Series 1 1 1 1
= + + + .....
Inductive Reactance |XL| = L C T C1 C 2 C 3
Capacitive Reactance |XC| = 1 / ( C) Capacitors in Parallel C T = C1 + C 2 + C 3 + .....

Resistance R Charging a Capacitor t
E - RC
i(t) = e
Impedance Resistance: ZR = R 0 R
Inductance: ZL = XL 90 = L 90 -
t
Capacitance: ZC = XC -90 = 1 / (C) v R ( t) = E e RC
-90 -
t
v C ( t) = E(1 - e RC
)
= RC
Discharging a Vo -
t
Quantity Equation Capacitor i(t) = e
R
Ohms Law for AC V=IZ -
t
v R ( t) = Vo e
t
Time Domain v(t) = Vm sin ( t ) -
v C ( t) = Vo e
i(t) = Im sin ( t )
' = RTC
Phasor Notation V = Vrms
V = Vm
Components in Series ZT = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + . Quantity Equation

.
Voltage Divider Rule Zx

Vx = VT Capacitance Q
ZT C=
V
Components in Parallel 1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
Z T Z1 Z 2 Z 3
- 47 - - 48 -
Quantity Equation Current in AC Circuit

RMS Current
In Cartesian 1
Capacitance of a A I=
V
R j L
Parallel-plate Capacitor C= form
2 C
1
2
d
R + L
V C
E =
d Amperes
Isolated Sphere C = 4r In polar form V

I= s Amperes
2
1
[ R + L
2
]
C
Capacitors in parallel C = C1 + C2 + C3
1
L C
where s = tan 1
Capacitors in series 1 1 1 1 R
= + +
C C1 C 2 C 3
Modulus V
Energy stored in a 2 I = Amperes
Q1 1 2
charged capacitor W = = CV 2 = QV 1
2C 2 2 R + L
2

C
If the capacitor is Q
2
isolated W = Complex Impedance

2C
If the capacitor is 1 In Cartesian
W = CV 2 1
connected to a battery 2 form Z = R + j L Ohms
C
For R C circuits Q = Qo (1 - e-t/RC); In polar form 2
1
V = Vo Z = R 2 + L s Ohms
Charging a capacitor (1 - e-t/RC) C
1
Discharging a capacitor Q = Qo e- t/RC L
1 C
V = Vo e-t/RC Where s = tan
R

If the capacitor is isolated, the presence of the dielectric decreases the potential Modulus 2
difference between the plates 1
Z = [ R 2 + L ] Ohms
If the capacitor is connected to a battery, the presence of the dielectric increases the C
charge stored in the capacitor.
The introduction of the dielectric increases the capacitance of the capacitor
- 49 - - 50 -
Power dissipation Three Phase Alternators
Star connected
Average power, P = VI cos Watts
Line voltage = 3 phase voltage
Power dissipation in a Line current = phase current
P = I R Watts
2
resistor Delta connected

Line voltage = phase voltage
Line current = 3 phase current
Rectification Three phase power
P = 3 EL IL cos
Controlled half wave EL = line voltage
rectifier Average DC voltage =
Vm
(1 + cos )
2 IL = line current
Volts cos = power factor
Controlled full wave

rectifier Average DC voltage =
Vm
(1 + cos )
Electrostatics
Volts
Quantity Equation
Power Factor
Instantaneous current, dq dv
I= =C Amperes
dt dt
DC V2
Power Pdc = VI = I 2 R = Permittivity of free space 10 9

R 0 = = 8.85 10 12 Farads
36
AC Pac = Re(V .I ) = VI cos (meters)-1
Power
Energy stored in a 1
capacitor = CV 2 Joules
Power in ac circuits 2
Quantity Equation
Quantity Equation
Resistance The mean power = P = Irms Vrms = Irms2 R
Inductance The instantaneous power = (Io sin wt) (Vo sin (wt + Coulombs law Q1Q2
) F =k
r2
The mean power P =0
Electric fields F
E=
Capacitance The instantaneous power = (Io sin (wt + /2)) (Vo sin q
wt )
Due to a point charge Q
The mean power P =0 E=
4 o r 2
Formula for a.c. The mean power = P = Irms Vrms cos Due to a conducting sphere carrying charge E=0
power
Q Inside the sphere
- 51 - - 52 -
Quantity Equation Quantity Equation
Outside the sphere Q Relation between E and V dV

E= E=
4 o r 2 dx
Just outside a uniformly charged conducting For uniform electric field V

E = E =
sphere or plate o d
An electric field E is a vector Magnetostatics

The electric field strength is directly proportional to the number of electric field lines
per unit cross-sectional area,
Physical Quantity Equation
The electric field at the surface of a conductor is perpendicular to the surface.
The electric field is zero inside a conductor. Magnetic flux density (also called the B- F
field) is defined as the force acting per unit B=
current length.
Il
Quantity Equation Force on a current-carrying conductor in a F = I l BF = I l B
magnetic field
And Magnitude of F = F = I l B
Suppose a point charge Q is at A. The work done in Qq sin
bringing a charge q from infinity to some point a distance W =
4 o r Force on a moving charged particle in a F=q v B
r from A is magnetic field
Electric potential W Circulating Charges
V = mv 2
q qvB =
r
Due to a point charge Q
V =
4 o r Calculation of magnetic flux density
Due to a conducting sphere, of radius a, carrying charge Q Physical Quantity Equation

Q: V =
4 o a
Inside the sphere Magnetic fields around a long straight wire o I
carrying current I B=
Outside the sphere Q 2a
V =
4 o r where a = perp. distance from a
very long straight wire.
If the potential at a point is V, then the potential energy U = qV
Magnetic fields inside a long solenoid, I: B = o n I, where n = number of
of a charge q at that point is
carrying current turns per unit length.
Work done in bringing charge q from A of potential VA to W = q (VB VA) Hall effect VH
point B of potential VB At equilibrium Q = QvB and VH = B v d
d
The current in a material is given by I = nQAv
- 53 - - 54 -
Physical Quantity Equation Quantity Equation
The forces between two current-carrying II l Energy stored in an inductor: 1 2

conductors F21 = o 1 2 U= LI
2a 2
Transformers: VS N S
=
VP N P
The L R (d.c.) circuit: E
The torque on a rectangular coil in a magnetic T = F b sin I= (1 e Rt / L )
field = N I l B b sin
R
= N I A B sin When a great load (or smaller VP p
resistance) is connected to Vp -p = I R; I =
If the coil is in a radial field and the plane of the T = N I A B sin R
the secondary coil, the flux in
coil is always parallel to the field, then = N I A B sin 90o
the core decreases. The
=NIAB
e.m.f., p, in the primary coil
Magnetic flux = B A cos falls.
and
Flux-linkage = N Kirchoffs laws
Current Sensitivity NAB Kirchoff's first law (Junction Theorem)
SI = =
I c At a junction, the total current entering the junction is equal to the total
current leaving the junction.
Lenz's law d Kirchoff's second law (Loop Theorem)

The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that it tends to = N The net e.m.f. round a circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.s round the loop.
oppose the flux-change causing it, and does oppose it if dt
induced current flows.
EMF Equations
Power W
P= = VI
t
E.m.f. induced in a straight conductor =BLv
Electric current q
E.m.f. induced between the center and the rim of a spinning = B r2f I=
disc t
E.m.f. induced in a rotating coil = N A B w sin Work W = qV

wt
Ohms Law V = IR
Resistances in Series R T = R1 + R 2 K
Quantity Equation
Resistances in Parallel 1 1 1
Self-induction = + K
L= R T R1 R 2
dI / dt
N =LI
Magnetic flux = BA
- 55 - - 56 -
Electromagnetic ( 2 1 ) Impulse = force time = change of momentum

induction Emf = N Ft=mvmu
t
emf = l v B Newton's third law of motion
When two objects interact, they exert equal and opposite forces on one another.
Magnetic force F=I l B "Third-law pair" of forces act on two different bodies.
Universal Law
Transformer turns ratio Vs Ns
= F = Gmsmp/d2
Vp Np ms is the mass of the sun.
mp is the mass of the planet.
The Universal law and the second law must be consistent

Electromagnetic spectrum
Newtons Laws of Motion and Their Applications
Wavelength
(m) 102 10 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11
Physical Quantity Equations
s v+u
radio frequencies Average velocity v av = =
X-rays t 2
v-u
Area of Acceleration a=
Spectrum
microwaves t
visible
ultraviolet
radiation
Momentum p = mv
infrared radiation
gamma rays Force F = ma
Weight weight = mg
f(Hz) 10 6
10 7
10 8 9
10 10 10
10 11 12
10 10 10 13 14
10 15
10 16
10 17
1018 19
10 10 20
Work done W = Fs
Frequency
Kinetic energy E k = 21 mv 2
Note: 1. Shaded areas represent regions of overlap.
2. Gamma rays and X-rays occupy a common region. Gravitational potential energy E p = mgh
5.2 Applied Mechanics vu

Equations of motion a= ; s = ut + 21 at 2 ; v 2 = u 2 + 2as
t
5.2.1 Newton's laws of motion
v2
Centripetal acceleration a=
Newton' first law of motion r
The inertia of a body is the reluctance of the body to change its state of rest or motion.
Mass is a measure of inertia. mv 2
Centripetal force F = ma =
r
Newton's second law of motion
mv-mu Newtons Law of Universal m1m2
F= ; F=G
t Gravitation r2
F=ma
- 57 - - 58 -
Conversion:
m ft
1 = 3.28 2
Gravitational field strength M s2 s
g=G
r2
Acceleration due to gravity, g is 9.81 m/s2
5.2.2 Linear Velocity and Acceleration

Moment of a force M = rF Quantity Equations
Principle of M = 0
If u initial velocity and v final velocity, v+u
moments s=
then displacement s,
2
Stress F
Stress =
A If t is the elapsed time 1 2
s = ut + at
2
Strain l
Strain =
l If a is the acceleration v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Youngs Modulus F/A

Y= Angular Velocity and Acceleration
l/ l
Quantity Equations
Scalar: a property described by a magnitude only
angular displacement 1 + 2
(radians) = t
Vector: a property described by a magnitude and a direction 2
angular velocity (radians/s);
1 = initial, 2 = final 1
Velocity: vector property equal to displacement / time = 1t + t 2
2
The magnitude of velocity may be referred to as speed
angular acceleration 2 2 = 1 2 + 2
In SI the basic unit is m/s, in Imperial ft/s
(radians/s2)
Other common units are km/h, mi/h
Conversions: Linear displacement s=r
1m/s = 3.28 ft/s
1km/h = 0.621 mi/h Linear velocity v=r
Linear, or tangential aT = r
Speed of sound in dry air is 331 m/s at 0C and increases by about 0.61 m/s for each C
acceleration
rise.
Speed of light in vaccum equals 3 x 108m/s Tangential, Centripetal and Total Acceleration
Acceleration: vector property equal to change in velocity time. Quantity Equations
In SI the basic unit is m/s2 Tangential acceleration aT is due to angular acceleration aT = r

In Imperial ft/s2
- 59 - - 60 -
Kinetic Energy
Centripetal (Centrifugal) acceleration ac is due to change ac = v2/r = r 2
in direction only
1
ER = mk 2 2
2
Total acceleration, a, of a rotating point experiencing a = aT + ac Where k is radius of gyration, is angular velocity in rad/s
angular acceleration is the vector sum of aT and ac
Kinetic Energy of Rotation
1
5.2.3 Force Er = I 2
2
Vector quantity, a push or pull which changes the shape and/or motion of an object
Where I = mk2 is the moment of inertia
In SI the unit of force is the newton, N, defined as a kg m
In Imperial the unit of force is the pound lb
Conversion: 9.81 N = 2.2 lb 5.2.4 Centripetal (Centrifugal) Force
Weight mv 2
The gravitational force of attraction between a mass, m, and the mass of the Earth Fc =
r
In SI weight can be calculated from Weight = F = mg, where g = 9.81 m/s2 Where r is the radius
In Imperial, the mass of an object (rarely used), in slugs, can be calculated from the Where is angular velocity in rad/s
known weight in pounds
weight Potential Energy
m=
g
ft Quantity Equation
g = 32.2 2
s Energy due to position in a force Ep = m g h
field, such as gravity
Torque Equation In Imperial this is usually expressed Ep = w h
T = I where T is the acceleration torque in Nm, I is the moment of inertia in kg m2 and Where w is weight, and h is height
is the angular acceleration in radians/s2 above some specified datum
Momentum
Thermal Energy
Vector quantity, symbol p, In SI the common units of thermal energy are J, and kJ, (and kJ/kg for specific
p = mv [Imperial p = (w/g)v, where w is weight] quantities)
in SI unit is kgm / s
In Imperial, the units of thermal energy are British Thermal Units (Btu)
Work
Conversions
Scalar quantity, equal to the (vector) product of a force and the displacement of an 1 Btu = 1055 J
object. In simple systems, where W is work, F force and s distance 1 Btu = 778 ft-lb
W=Fs
In SI the unit of work is the joule, J, or kilojoule, kJ Electrical Energy
1 J = 1 Nm In SI the units of electrical energy are J, kJ and kilowatt hours kWh. In Imperial, the unit
In Imperial the unit of work is the ft-lb of electrical energy is the kWh
Energy Conversions
Energy is the ability to do work, the units are the same as for work; J, kJ, and ft-lb 1 kWh = 3600 kJ
1 kWh = 3412 Btu = 2.66 x 106 ft-lb
Power
- 61 - - 62 -
A scalar quantity, equal to the rate of doing work 1 atmosphere (atm) = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi
In SI the unit is the Watt W (or kW)
J Simple Harmonic Motion
1W = 1 m
s Velocity of P = R 2 x 2
s
In Imperial, the units are:
Mechanical Power (ft lb) / s, horsepower h.p. 5.2.5 Stress, Strain And Modulus Of Elasticity
Thermal Power Btu / s
Electrical Power - W, kW, or h.p. Youngs modulus and the breaking stress for selected materials
Conversions
Young modulus Breaking stress
746W = 1h. p. Material
x 1011 Pa x 108 Pa
ft lb Aluminium 0.70 2.4

1h. p. = 550
s Copper 1.16 4.9
Btu Brass 0.90 4.7

1kW = 0.948
s Iron (wrought) 1.93 3.0
Pressure Mild steel 2.10 11.0
A vector quantity, force per unit area
In SI the basic units of pressure are pascals Pa and kPa Glass 0.55 10
Tungsten 4.10 20
N
1Pa = 1
m2 Bone 0.17 1.8
In Imperial, the basic unit is the pound per square inch, psi
5.3 Thermodynamics
Atmospheric Pressure 5.3.1 Laws of Thermodynamics
At sea level atmospheric pressure equals 101.3 kPa or 14.7 psi
W = PV
Pressure Conversions U = Q W
1 psi = 6.895 kPa W= nRT lnVf/Vi
Pressure may be expressed in standard units, or in units of static fluid head, in both SI Q = CnT
and Imperial systems Cv= 3/2R
Common equivalencies are: Cp= 5/2R
1 kPa = 0.294 in. mercury = 7.5 mm mercury Cp/Cv = = 5/3
1 kPa = 4.02 in. water = 102 mm water e = 1 Qc/Qh = W/Qh
1 psi = 2.03 in. mercury = 51.7 mm mercury ec = 1 Tc/Th
1 psi = 27.7 in. water = 703 mm water COP = Qc/W (refrigerators)
1 m H2O = 9.81 kPa COP = Qh /W (heat pumps)
Wmax= (1-Tc/Th)Qh
Other pressure unit conversions:
S = Q/T
1 bar = 14.5 psi = 100 kPa
1 kg/cm2 = 98.1 kPa = 14.2 psi = 0.981 bar
- 63 - - 64 -
5.3.2 Momentum Fy = 0
p = mv = 0 (any axis)
F = p/t
5.3.8 Gravity
5.3.3 Impulse F = Gm1m2/r2
I = Fav t = mvf mvi T = 2 / r3 /GMs
G = 6.67 x 10-11N-m2/kg2
5.3.4 Elastic and Inelastic collision g = GME / R2E
miv1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f PE = - Gm1m2 / r
() miv1i2 + () m2v2i2 = m1v1f2 + m2v2f2 ve = 2GME / RE
miv1i + m2v2i = (m1 + m2)vf vs = GME / r
ME = 5.97 x 1024 kg
5.3.5 Center of Mass RE = 6.37 x 106 m
xcm = mx/M
Vcm = mv/M 5.3.9 Vibrations & Waves
Acm = ma/M F = -kx
MAcm = Fnet PEs = kx2
x = Acos = Acos(t)
5.3.6 Angular Motion v = -Asin(t)
s = r a = -A2cos(t)
vt = r = k / m
at = r f = 1 / T
ac = vt2/r = r2 T = 2m / k
= 2/T E = kA2
1 rev = 2 rad = 360o T = 2L / g
vmax = A
For constant amax = A2
= o + t v = f v = FT/
2 = o2 +2 = m/L
= ot + t2 I = P/A
= (o + )t/2 = 10log(I/Io)
I = mr2 Io = 1 x 10-12 W/m2
KER = I2 f = f[(1 v0/v)/(1 m vs/v)]
= rF Surface area of the sphere = 4r2
= I Speed of sound waves = 343 m/s
WR =
L = I 5.3.10 Standing Waves
= I fn = nf1
WR = fn = nv/2L (air column, string fixed both ends) n = 1,2,3,4.
L = I fn = nv/4L (open at one end) n = 1,3,5,7
Li = Lf
5.3.11 Beats
5.3.7 Conditions of Equilibrium fbeats = | f1 f2 |
Fx = 0 Fluids
- 65 - - 66 -
= m/V 5.3.14 Elastic Deformation

P = F/A P = F/A
P2 = P1 + gh Y = FLo/AL
Patm = 1.01 x 105Pa = 14.7 lb/in2 S = Fh/Ax
FB = fVg = Wf (weight of the displaced fluid) B = VoF / AV
o/f = Vf /Vo (floating object) Volume of the sphere = 4r3/3
water = 1000 kg/m
3
1 atm = 1.01 105 Pa
Wa=W-FB
5.3.15 Temperature Scales
Equation of Continuity: Av = constant
C = 5/9 (F 32)
Bernoullis equation: P + v2 + gy = 0
F = 5/9 (C + 32)
R = F + 460 (R Rankine)
5.3.12 Temperature and Heat
K = C + 273 (K Kelvin)
TF= 9/5TC+32
TC= 5/9(TF-32)
TF = 9/5TC
5.3.16 Sensible Heat Equation
Q=mcT
T= TC+273.15
M=mass
= m/v
C=specific heat
L = LoT
T=temperature chance
A = AoT
V = VoT =3
Q = mcT
5.3.17 Latent Heat
Q = mL Latent heat of fusion of ice = 335 kJ/kg
1 kcal = 4186 J Latent heat of steam from and at 100C = 2257 kJ/kg
Heat Loss = Heat Gain 1 tonne of refrigeration = 335 000 kJ/day = 233 kJ/min
Q = (kAT)t/L,
H = Q/t =(kAT)/L
5.3.18 Gas Laws
Boyles Law
Q = eT4At When gas temperature is constant
P = Q/t PV = constant or
P = AeT4 P1V1 = P2V2
P net= Ae(T4-TS4) Where P is absolute pressure and V is volume
= 5.67 10-8 W/m 2K4
Charles Law
5.3.13 Ideal Gases When gas pressure is constant,
PV = nRT V
= const.
R = 8.31 J/mol K T
PV = NkT or
NA = 6.02 1023 molecules/mol
k = 1.38 10-23 J/K V1 V2
=
M=NAm T1 T2
(KE)av=(1/2mv2 )av= 3/2kT
U= 3/2NkT = 3/2nRT where V is volume and T is absolute temperature
- 67 - - 68 -
Gay-Lussac's Law
Specific Heat Specific Heat
at Constant at Constant Ratio of
When gas volume is constant,
GAS Pressure Volume Specific
P
= const. kJ/kgK or kJ/kgK or = cp / cv
T kJ/kg oC kJ/kg oC
or Helium 5.234 3.153 1.66

P1 P2 Hydrogen 14.235 10.096 1.41
=
T1 T2
Hydrogen
1.105 0.85 1.30
Sulphide
where P is absolute pressure and T is absolute temperature
Methane 2.177 1.675 1.30
General Gas Law
Nitrogen 1.043 0.745 1.40
P1V1 P2V 2
= = const. Oxygen 0.913 0.652 1.40
T1 T2
P V = m R T where P = absolute pressure (kPa) Sulphur Dioxide 0.632 0.451 1.40
V = volume (m3)
T = absolute temp (K) 5.3.20 Efficiency of Heat Engines
m = mass (kg)
R = characteristic constant (kJ/kgK) Carnot Cycle
Also T1 T2
PV = nRoT where P = absolute pressure (kPa) =
T1
V = volume (m3)
T = absolute temperature K where T1 and T2 are absolute temperatures of heat source and sink
N = the number of kmoles of gas
Ro = the universal gas constant 8.314 kJ/kmol/K Air Standard Efficiencies
Spark Ignition Gas and Oil Engines (Constant Volume Cycle)
1
5.3.19 Specific Heats Of Gases = 1 ( 1)
rv
rv= compression ratio
Specific Heat Specific Heat
at Constant at Constant Ratio of
= specific heat (constant pressure) / Specific heat (constant volume)
GAS Pressure Volume Specific
Diesel Cycle
kJ/kgK or kJ/kgK or = cp / cv
kJ/kg oC kJ/kg oC
R 1)
=1 1
rv ( R 1)
Air 1.005 0.718 1.40
Where r = ratio of compression
Ammonia 2.060 1.561 1.32 R = ratio of cut-off volume to clearance volume
Carbon Dioxide 0.825 0.630 1.31 High Speed Diesel (Dual-Combustion) Cycle
Carbon
1.051 0.751 1.40 k 1
Monoxide =1
rv
1
[(k 1) + k ( 1)]
- 69 - - 70 -
Where rv= cylinder volume / clearance volume 5.3.22 Thermal Expansion of Solids
k = absolute pressure at the end of constant V heating (combustion) / absolute pressure at Increase in length = L (T2 T1)
the beginning of constant V combustion Where L = original length
= volume at the end of constant P heating (combustion) / clearance = coefficient of linear expansion
volume (T2 T1) = rise in temperature
Increase in volume = V (T2 T1)
Gas Turbines (Constant Pressure or Brayton Cycle) Where V = original volume
1 = coefficient of volumetric expansion
=1 1
(T2 T1) = rise in temperature
r p

Coefficient of volumetric expansion = Coefficient of linear expansion 3
where rp = pressure ratio = compressor discharge pressure / compressor intake pressure = 3
5.3.21 Heat Transfer by Conduction 5.3.23 Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel

O2
Chemical Heating Value MJ per kg of fuel = 33.7C + 144( H 2 ) + 9.3S
Material Coefficient of Thermal 8
Conductivity C is the mass of carbon per kg of fuel
W/m C H2 is the mass of hydrogen per kg of fuel
O2 is the mass of oxygen per kg of fuel
Air 0.025
S is the mass of sulphur per kg of fuel
Brass 104
Theoretical Air Required to Burn Fuel
Concrete 0.85 8 100
Air (kg per kg of fuel) = C + 8( H 2 O2 ) + S
Cork 0.043 3 23
Glass 1.0 Air Supplied from Analysis of Flue Gases

Iron, cast 70
N2
Air in kg per kg of fuel = C
33(CO2 + CO)
Steel 60 Boiler Formulae
Wallboard, 0.076 m s (h1 h2 )
Equivalent evaporation =
paper 2257 kj / kg
Aluminum 206 (h1 h2 )
Factor of evaporation =
2257 kj / kg
Brick 0.6
Copper 380 Boiler Efficiency
Felt 0.038 m s (h1 h2 )

Glass, fibre 0.04 mf (calorificvalue)
Plastic, cellular 0.04 Where

ms = mass flow rate of steam
Wood 0.15
h1 = enthalpy of steam produced in boiler
h2 = enthalpy of feedwater to boiler
mf = mass flow rate of fuel
- 71 - - 72 -
P-V-T Relationships
Change in
Name of Value Change in Change in
Heat added Work done Internal
process of n Enthalpy Entropy
Energy
P-V T-P T-V
Constant T1 P1 T
Volume -- = -- mc v (T2 T1 ) 0 mc v (T2 T1 ) mc p (T2 T1 ) mc v log e 2
V=Constant T2 P2 T1
Constant T1 V1 T
pressure 0 -- -- = mc p (T2 T1 ) P(V2-V1) mc v (T2 T1 ) mc p (T2 T1 ) mc n log e 2
P=Pressure T2 V2 T1
Isothermal P1 V2 P P P
1 = -- -- mRT log e 1 mRT log e 1 0 0 mR log e 1
T=Constant P2 V1 P2 P2 P2
l 1
Isentropic P1 V2 T1 P1 T1 V2
= = 0 mc v (T1 T2 ) mc v (T2 T1 ) mc p (T2 T1 ) 0
S=Constant =
P2 V1 T2 P2 T2 V1
n n l n 1
Polytropic P1 V2 n T1 V2 mR T
PVn = n = T1 P1 = mc n (T2 T1 ) (T1 T2 ) mc v (T2 T1 ) mc p (T2 T1 ) mc n log e 2
=
Constant P2 V1 T2 P2 T2 V1 n 1 T1
Thermodynamic Equations for perfect gases

*Can be used for reversible adiabatic processes
cv = Specific heat at constant volume, kJ/kgK
cp = Specific heat at constant pressure, kJ/kgK
- 73 -
n
cm = Specific heat for polytropic process = cv kJ / kgK
1 n
H = Enthalpy, kJ
= Isentropic Exponent, cp/cv
n = polytropic exponent
P = Pressure, kPa
R = Gas content, kJ/kgK
S = Entropy, kJ/K
T = Absolute Temperature, K = 273+C
U = Internal Energy, kJ
V = Volume, m3
m = Mass of gas, kg
- 74 -
Coefficient of Linear Expansion

Specific Heat and Linear Mean Specific Heat between 0 o C
between 0 o C and 100 o C
Expansion of Solids and 100 o C kJ/kgK or kJ/kg o C
(multiply by 10-6)
Aluminum 0.909 23.8
Antimony 0.209 17.5
Bismuth 0.125 12.4
Brass 0.383 18.4
Carbon 0.795 7.9
Cobalt 0.402 12.3
Copper 0.388 16.5
Glass 0.896 9.0
Gold 0.130 14.2

o o
Ice (between -20 C & 0 C ) 2.135 50.4
Iron (cast) 0.544 10.4
Iron (wrought) 0.465 12.0
Lead 0.131 29.0
Nickel 0.452 13.0
Platinum 0.134 8.6
Silicon 0.741 7.8
Silver 0.235 19.5
Steel (mild) 0.494 12.0
Tin 0.230 26.7
Zinc 0.389 16.5

- 75 -
Specific Heat and Volume Expansion for Liquids
Specific Heat
Coefficient of Volume Expansion
Liquid (at 20 o C )
(Multiply by 10-4)
KJ/kgK or kJ/kg o C
Alcohal 2.470 11.0
Ammonia 0.473
Benzine 1.138 12.4
Carbon Dioxide 3.643 1.82
Mercury 0.139 1.80
Olive oil 1.633
Petroleum 2.135
Gasoline 2.093 12.0
Turpentine 1.800 9.4
Water 4.183 3.7
- 76 -
5.4 Fluid Mechanics

5.4.1 Discharge from an Orifice Where B = breadth (m)
H = head (m above sill)
Triangular Right Angled Notch: Q = 2.635 H5/2
Let A = cross-sectional area of the orifice = Where H = head (m above sill)
d2
4
5.4.2 Bernoullis Theory
And Ac = cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena 2
conrtacta dc
4 P v2
H =h+ +
Then Ac = CcA Ac d c
2 w 2g
Or C c = =
A d
H = total head (meters)
w = force of gravity on 1 m3 of fluid (N)
Where Cc is the coefficient of contraction h = height above datum level (meters)
v = velocity of water (meters per second)
P = pressure (N/m2 or Pa)
Loss of Head in Pipes Due to Friction
L v2
Loss of head in meters = f
d 2g
L = length in meters
v = velocity of flow in meters per second
d = diameter in meters
f = constant value of 0.01 in large pipes to 0.02 in small pipes
5.4.3 Actual pipe dimensions
Nominal Outside Inside Wall

Flow area
pipe size diameter diameter thickness
(m2)
(in) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1/8 10.3 6.8 1.73 3.660 10-5
1/4 13.7 9.2 2.24 6717 10-5
3/8 17.1 12.5 2.31 1.236 10-4
1/2 21.3 15.8 2.77 1.960 10-4
At the vena contracta, the volumetric flow rate Q of the fluid is given by 3/4 26.7 20.9 2.87 3.437 10-4
Q = area of the jet at the vena contracta actual velocity = AcV
1 33.4 26.6 3.38 5.574 10-4
Or Q = C c AC v 2 gh
1 42.2 35.1 3.56 9.653 10-4
Typically, values for Cd vary between 0.6 and 0.65
Circular orifice: Q = 0.62 A 2gh 1 48.3 40.9 3.68 1.314 10-3
Where Q = flow (m /s) A = area (m ) h = head (m)
3 2
2 60.3 52.5 3.91 2.168 10-3
Rectangular notch: Q = 0.62 (B H) 2/3 2gh
- 77 - - 78 -
Nominal Outside Inside Wall

Flow area
pipe size diameter diameter thickness
(m2)
(in) (mm) (mm) (mm) Chapter 6
2 73.0 62.7 5.16 3.090 10-3
3 88.9 77.9 5.49 4.768 10-3

References
3 101.6 90.1 5.74 6.381 10-3
6.1 Periodic Table of Elements
4 114.3 102.3 6.02 8.213 10-3
A 8A
5 141.3 128.2 6.55 1.291 10-2 1 18
1 2
6 168.3 154.1 7.11 1.864 10-2 H 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A He
1.00 2 13 14 15 16 17 4.00
8 3
8 219.1 202.7 8.18 3.226 10-2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
10 273.1 254.5 9.27 5.090 10-2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.1
1 2 1 1 1 0 0 8
12 323.9 303.2 10.31 7.219 10-2
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 8B 8B 1B 2B Al Si P S Cl Ar
14 355.6 333.4 11.10 8.729 10-2 22.9 24.3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.9 28.0 30.9 32.0 35.4 39.9
9 1 8 9 7 7 5 5
16 406.4 381.0 12.70 0.1140 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
18 457.2 428.7 14.27 0.1443 39.1 40.0 44.9 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.3 69.7 72.5 74.9 78.9 79.9 83.8
0 8 6 0 4 0 4 5 3 0 5 8 2 9 2 6 0 0
20 508.0 477.9 15.06 0.1794 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
24 609.6 574.7 17.45 0.2594 85.4 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 97.9 101. 102. 106. 107. 112. 114. 118. 121. 127. 126. 131.
7 2 1 2 1 4 1 9 4 9 4 8 7 8 6 9 3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132. 137. 138. 178. 180. 183. 186. 190. 192. 195. 197. 200. 204. 207. 209. (209) (210) (222)
9 3 9 5 9 8 2 2 2 1 0 6 4 2 0
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
(223) 226. 227. (261) (262) (266) (264) (265) (268)
0 0
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140. 140. 144. (145) 150. 152. 157. 158. 162. 164. 167. 168. 173. 175.
1 9 2 4 0 3 9 5 9 3 9 0 0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232. 231. 238. 237. (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
0 0 0 0
- 79 - - 80 -
6.2 Resistor Color Coding
Color Value
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet / Purple 7
Grey 8
White 9
Courtesy: Dick Smith Electronics, Australia
- 81 -
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years, we have helped our clients in achieving their business objectives by Practical Troubleshooting & Problem Solving of Industrial Data Communications
developing their people. Practical Industrial Networking for Engineers & Technicians
Practical TCP/IP and Ethernet Networking for Industry
We specialize in the fields of electrical systems, industrial data Practical Fundamentals of Telecommunications and Wireless Communications
communications, telecommunications, automation and control, mechanical Practical Radio & Telemetry Systems for Industry
engineering, project and financial management and are continually adding to Practical TCP/IP Troubleshooting & Problem Solving for Industry
our portfolio of over 140 different workshops. Our instructors are highly Practical Wireless Networking Technologies for Industry
respected in their fields of expertise and in the last ten years have trained Practical Routers & Switches (Including TCP/IP & Ethernet) for Engineers and
over 140,000 engineers, technicians and other technical personnel. With Technicians
Best Practice in Industrial Data Communications Systems
offices conveniently located worldwide, IDC Technologies has an
Practical Fundamentals of VOICE over IP (VoIP) for Engineers & Technicians
enthusiastic team of professional engineers, technicians and support staff
Practical Troubleshooting, Design & Selection of Fiber Optic Systems for Industry
who are committed to providing the highest quality of training, publishing
Troubleshooting Industrial Ethernet & TCP/IP Networks
and consultancy services.
Back to Basics Wireless Networking & Telemetry Systems for Industry
Wireless Networking & Radio Telemetry Systems for Industry
Our worldwide offices are located in:
Australia Electrical Power
Canada Practical Electrical Network Automation & Communication Systems
Ireland Practical Troubleshooting of Electrical Equipment and Control Circuits
New Zealand Practical Grounding/Earthing, Bonding, Lightning & Surge Protection
Singapore Practical High Voltage Safety Operating Procedures for Engineers and Technicians
South Africa Practical Power Distribution
United Kingdom Practical Power Quality: Problems & Solutions
USA Practical Power Systems Protection for Engineers and Technicians
Practical Variable Speed Drives for Instrumentation and Control Systems
For more information visit our website: www.idc-online.com Practical Electrical Wiring Standards - IEE BS7671 - 2001 Edition
or email us on [email protected] Practical Wind & Solar Power - Renewable Energy Technologies
Practical Distribution & Substation Automation (incl. Communications) for Electrical
Power Systems
Safe Operation & Maintenance of Circuit Breakers and Switchgear
Troubleshooting, Maintenance and Protection of AC Electrical Motors & Drives
Practical Power Transformers - Operation and Maintenance
Lightning, Surge Protection and Earthing of Electrical & Electronic Systems
Practical Safety Instrumentation & Emergency Shutdown Systems for Process Industries
Electronics using IEC 61511 and IEC 61508
Practical Digital Signal Processing Systems for Engineers and Technicians
Practical Fundamentals of E-Manufacturing, Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES)
Practical Embedded Controllers: Troubleshooting and Design and Supply Chain Management
Practical EMC and EMI Control for Engineers and Technicians Practical Industrial Programming using 61131-3 for Programmable Logic Controllers
Practical Industrial Electronics for Engineers and Technicians (PLCs)
Practical Image Processing and Applications Control Valve Sizing, Selection and Maintenance
Practical Shielding, EMC/EMI, Noise Reduction, Earthing and Circuit Board Layout of Best Practice in Process, Electrical and Instrumentation Drawings & Documentation
Electronic Systems Practical Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
Practical Power Electronics & Switch Mode Power Supply Design for Industry
Mechanical Engineering
Information Technology Practical Fundamentals of Heating, Ventilation & Air-conditioning (HVAC) for
Industrial Network Security for SCADA, Automation, Process Control and PLC Systems Engineers & Technicians
Practical Web-Site Development & E-Commerce Systems for Industry Practical Boiler Plant Operation and Management for Engineers and Technicians
Practical Cleanroom Technology and Facilities for Engineers and Technicians
Chemical Engineering
Practical Fundamentals of Chemical Engineering Practical Hydraulic Systems: Operation and Troubleshooting
Practical Lubrication Engineering for Engineers and Technicians
Instrumentation, Automation & Process Control Practical Safe Lifting Practice and Maintenance
Practical Analytical Instrumentation in On-Line Applications Practical Centrifugal Pumps - Optimizing Performance
Practical Alarm Systems Management for Engineers and Technicians Practical Machinery and Automation Safety for Industry
Troubleshooting Programmable Logic Controller's for Automation and Process Control Practical Machinery Vibration Analysis and Predictive Maintenance
Practical Batch Management & Control (Including S88) for Industry Practical Pneumatics: Operation and Troubleshooting for Engineers and Technicians
Practical Boiler Control and Instrumentation for Engineers and Technicians Practical Pumps and Compressors: Control, Operation, Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Practical Programming for Industrial Control - using ( IEC 1131-3 and OPC )
Practical Troubleshooting of Data Acquisition & SCADA Systems for Engineers and Project & Financial Management
Technicians Practical Financial Fundamentals and Project Investment Decision Making
Practical Industrial Flow Measurement for Engineers and Technicians How to Manage Consultants
Practical Hazops, Trips and Alarms Marketing for Engineers and Technical Personnel
Practical Hazardous Areas for Engineers and Technicians Practical Project Management for Engineers and Technicians
A Practical Mini MBA in Instrumentation and Automation Practical Specification and Technical Writing for Technical Professionals
Practical Instrumentation for Automation and Process Control
Practical Intrinsic Safety for Engineers and Technicians
Practical Tuning of Industrial Control Loops
Practical Motion Control for Engineers and Technicians
Practical Fundamentals of OPC (OLE for Process Control)
Practical Process Control for Engineers and Technicians
Practical Process Control & Tuning of Industrial Control Loops
Practical SCADA & Telemetry Systems for Industry
Practical Shutdown & Turnaround Management for Engineers and Managers
PAST PARTICIPANTS SAY:
Excellent instructor with plenty of practical knowledge. Very competent and great presenter.
Ian Kemp, ANSTO
David Wolfe, Acromag
Excellent depth of subject knowledge displayed. Well presented, excellent material

Hugh Donohue, AMEC
Stephen Baron, Air Products
Saved hours of trial and error. Excellent presentation! Well done.

Mario Messwa, DAPS
Brett Muhlhauser, Connell Wagner
Ive gained more useful info from this seminar than any Ive
Well compiled technical material.
previously attended. Robert Higgenbotham, Yallourn Energy
Jim Hannen, Wheeling-Misshen Inc.
Well presented and the instructor obviously has the practical

This is the 2nd IDC Technologies class I have taken both have
knowledge to back things up.
been excellent! Mike Mazurak, ANSTO
John Harms, Avista Corporation
Great refresher on current practice. Also helped to bring me up to

A most enjoyable and informative course. Thank you.
Pat V Hammond, Johnson Matthey PLC date on new technology.
E. Burnie, Sellotape
Written material was about the best Ive seen for this type of
I like the practicality of the workshop.
course. The instructor was able to set an excellent pace and was Karl Armfield, Joy Mining
very responsive to the class.
John Myhill, Automated Control Systems
Excellent, I have taken a TCP/IP Class before and didnt

understand it. After this course, I feel more confident with my
newfound knowledge.
John Armbrust, Phelps Dodge
This was one of the best courses I have ever been on. The
instructor was excellent and kept me fully interested from start to
finish. Really glad I attended.
Chris Mercer, Air Products
ON-SITE TRAINING
TECHNICAL WORKSHOPS On-site training is a cost-effective method of training for companies with several employees to
TECHNOLOGY TRAINING THAT WORKS train in a particular area. Organizations can save valuable training dollars by holding courses on-
We deliver engineering and technology training that will maximize your business goals. In site, where costs are significantly less. Other benefits are IDC's ability to focus on particular
today's competitive environment, you require training that will help you and your organization to systems and equipment so that attendees obtain the greatest benefit from the training. All on-site
achieve its goals and produce a large return on investment. With our "Training that Works" workshops are tailored to meet with our client's training requirements and courses can be
objective you and your organization will: presented at beginners, intermediate or advanced levels based on the knowledge and experience
Get job-related skills that you need to achieve your business goals of the delegates in attendance. Specific areas of interest to the client can also be covered in more
Improve the operation and design of your equipment and plant detail.
Improve your troubleshooting abilities
CUSTOMIZED TRAINING
Sharpen your competitive edge
In addition to standard on-site training, IDC Technologies specializes in developing customized
Boost morale and retain valuable staff
courses to meet our client's training needs. IDC has the engineering and training expertise and
Save time and money
resources to work closely with clients in preparing and presenting specialized courses. You may
EXPERT INSTRUCTORS select components of current IDC workshops to be combined with additional topics or we can
We search the world for good quality instructors who have three key attributes: design a course entirely to your specifications. The benefits to companies in adopting this option
1. Expert knowledge and experience of the course topic are reflected in the increased efficiency of their operations and equipment.
2. Superb training abilities to ensure the know-how is transferred effectively and quickly to you
in a practical hands-on way ON-SITE & CUSTOMIZED TRAINING
3. Listening skills they listen carefully to the needs of the participants and want to ensure that For more information or a FREE proposal please contact our Client Services Manager:
you benefit from the experience Each and every instructor is evaluated by the delegates and we Kevin Baker: [email protected]
assess the presentation after each class to ensure that the instructor stays on track in presenting SAVE OVER 50%
outstanding courses.
SPECIALIST CONSULTING
HANDS-ON APPROACH TO TRAINING IDC Technologies has been providing high quality specialist advice and consulting for more than
All IDC Technologies workshops include practical, hands-on sessions where the delegates are ten years to organizations around the world. The technological world today presents tremendous
given the opportunity to apply in practice the theory they have learnt. challenges to engineers, scientists and technicians in keeping up to date and taking advantage of
the latest developments in the key technology areas. We pride our selves on being the premier
QUALITY MANUALS
provider of practical and cost-effective engineering solutions.
A fully illustrated workshop manual with hundreds of pages of tables, charts, figures and handy
hints, plus considerable reference material is provided FREE of charge to each delegate. PROFESSIONALLY STAFFED
IDC Technologies consists of an enthusiastic and experienced team that is committed to
ACCREDITATION AND CONTINUING EDUCATION
providing the highest quality in consulting services. The company has thirty-five professional
IDC workshops satisfy criteria for Continuing Professional Development for most engineering
engineers; quality focused support staff, as well as a vast resource base of specialists in their
professional associations throughout the world (incl. The Institution of Electrical Engineers and
relevant fields.
Institution of Measurement and Control in the UK, Institution of Engineers in Australia,
Institution of Engineers New Zealand) CLIENT FOCUS
IDCs independence and impartiality guarantee that clients receive unbiased advice and
CERTIFICATE OF ATTENDANCE
recommendations, focused on providing the best technical and economical solutions to the client's
Each delegate receives a Certificate of Attendance documenting their experience.
specific and individual requirements.
100% MONEY BACK GUARANTEE
IDC Technologies engineers have put considerable time and experience into ensuring that you
gain maximum value from each workshop. If by lunch time of the first day you decide that the
workshop is not appropriate for your requirements, please let us know so that we can arrange a
100% refund of your fee.
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First Edition Volume 5

Formulas and Conversions

Finally, thank you for being such tremendously supportive clients.

(C P Eng, BSEE, B.Sc(Hons), MBA)

Other books in this series

Symbol Prefix Factor by which unit is

Definition and Abbreviations for Physical Quantities h Hecto 102

Quantity Unit Symbol Equivalent Quantity Electrical Symbol Derived

Pressure - Pa or N/m2 pascal, Pa Quantity Magnetic Symbol Derived unit

Symbol Prefix Factor by which unit is Magnetic flux Weber Wb Vs = Nm/A

M Mega 106 Magnetic flux density Tesla T Wb/m2 =

Density lbs2/in4 kg/m3 1.069E+07 9.357E-08

Energy BTU J 1055 9.478E-04

Length in m 2.540E-02 39.3700

Power BTU/hr W 0.2931 3.4120 Velocity ft/min m/s 5.079E-03 196.90

Power hp W 745.71 1.341E-03 Velocity ft/s m/s 0.3048 3.2810

Pressure bar Pa 1.000E+05 1.000E-05 Velocity miles/hr m/s 0.4470 2.2370

Pressure mbar Pa 100.00 1.000E-02 Volume ft3 m3 2.831E-02 35.3200

Pressure microns mercury Pa 0.1333 7.501 Volume in3 m3 1.639E-05 6.102E+04

Pressure mm mercury Pa 133.3 7.501E-03 Volume Liters m3 1.000E-03 1000

Temperature F C 0.5556 1.8000

Multiply By To obtain To Convert To Multiply By

Fathom 1.8288* meter(m) Centimeters Meters 0.01

Foot 0.3048* meter(m) Centimeters Yards 0.01093613

Foot 30.48* centimeter(cm) Centimeters Feet 0.0328084

Inch 0.0254* meter(m) Chains, (Surveyor's) Rods 4

Kilometer 0.6213712 mile(USstatute) Fathoms Meters 1.8288

Meter 39.37008 Inch Fathoms Feet 6

Meter 0.54680066 Fathom Feet Statute Miles 0.00018939

Meter 3.280840 Foot Feet Kilometers 0.0003048

Meter 0.1988388 Rod Feet Meters 0.3048

Meter 1.093613 Yard Feet Yards 0.3333333

Meter 0.0006213712 mile(USstatute) Feet Inches 12

Microinch 0.0254* micrometer(micron)(m) Feet Centimeters 30.48

micrometer(micron) 39.37008 Microinch Furlongs Statute Miles 0.125

mile(USstatute) 1,609.344* meter(m) Furlongs Meters 201.168

millimeter 0.003280840 Foot Furlongs Feet 660

millimeter 0.0397008 Inch Furlongs Inches 7920

Yard 0.9144* meter(m) Hands (Height Of Horse) Centimeters 10.16

Inches Meters 0.0254

To Convert To Multiply By To Convert To Multiply By

Kilometers Statute Miles 0.621371192 Miles, Statute Centimeters 160934.4

Kilometers Meters 1000 Millimeters Inches 0.039370079

Leagues, Nautical Nautical Miles 3 Mils Inches 0.001

Leagues, Nautical Kilometers 5.556 Mils Millimeters 0.0254

Leagues, Statute Statute Miles 3 Paces (US) Inches 30

Leagues, Statute Kilometers 4.828032 Paces (US) Centimeters 76.2

Links, (Surveyor's) Chains 0.01 Points (Typographical) Inches 0.013837

Links, (Surveyor's) Inches 7.92 Points (Typographical) Millimeters 0.3514598

Links, (Surveyor's) Centimeters 20.1168 Rods Meters 5.0292

Meters Statute Miles 0.000621371 Rods Yards 5.5

Meters Kilometers 0.001 Rods Feet 16.5

Meters Yards 1.093613298 Spans Inches 9

Meters Feet 3.280839895 Spans Centimeters 22.86

Meters Inches 39.370079 Yards Miles 0.00056818

Meters Centimeters 100 Yards Meters 0.9144

Meters Millimeters 1000 Yards Feet 3

Microns Meters 0.000001 Yards Inches 36

Microns Inches 0.0000394 Yards Centimeters 91.44