2nd Edition

An Overview
of Disaster
Management

Disaster Management Training Programme

An Overview
of Disaster
Management

2nd Edition

Disaster Management Training Programme 1992

 PART
Table of Contents

Foreword......................................................................................................... 7
Introduction .................................................................................................... 9

PART ONE: HAZARDS AND DISASTERS ................................................. 13

Chapter 1:Introduction to disasters ..........................................................13

The disaster problem .................................................................................... 14
Causal factors of disasters ............................................................................ 15
Chapter 2: Disaster terminology and phases ........................................... 21
Disaster terms ............................................................................................... 21
Phases of a disaster ....................................................................................... 22
Chapter 3:Linking disaster and development...........................................25
Disruption of development by disasters ....................................................... 26
How development may cause disasters ........................................................ 28
Development opportunities afforded by disasters ........................................ 29
Chapter 4: Natural hazards.........................................................................31
Characteristics of particular hazards and disasters ....................................... 32
Chapter 5: Compound and complex disasters1.........................................47
Socio/political forces .................................................................................... 47
Displaced persons ......................................................................................... 48
The role of the UN in complex emergencies ................................................ 49
Safety of relief teams in conflict zones ........................................................ 50

PART TWO: DISASTER PREPAREDNESS................................................ 51

Chapter 6 The disaster management team, roles and resources............ 53

The UN Disaster Management Team ........................................................... 53
Country Disaster Management Team ........................................................... 54
Tasks, roles and resources of the UN ........................................................... 55
Roles and resources of UNDP, UNDRO, and other UN agencies ................ 55
Coordination: the resident coordinator and the UN-DMT ........................... 60
Chapter 7 Disaster preparedness.............................................................. 62
Components of disaster preparedness .......................................................... 63
Preparedness for slow onset and sudden onset disasters .............................. 66
Preparedness within the United Nations ...................................................... 67
Checklist of basic information required by a UN-DMT .............................. 68

Chapter 8 Vulnerability and risk assessment........................................... 74

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PART THREE: DISASTER REPONSE......................................................... 81

Chapter 9 Disaster reponse........................................................................ 82

Aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance .......................................... 83
Chapter 10 Disaster assessment................................................................ 87
Objectives of assessment .............................................................................. 87
The assessment process ................................................................................ 89
Assessments for different disaster types ...................................................... 89
How assessment data is used ........................................................................ 90
Chapter 11 UN reponse to disaster............................................................ 92
Principal elements and actions in response to a sudden disaster .................. 92
Sitreps-exchanging information with UNDRO ............................................ 94
Alert message and field sitreps ..................................................................... 95
The importance of coordination and information ......................................... 96
Chapter 12 Rehabilitation and reconstruction......................................... 98
Priorities and opportunities in rehabilitation and reconstruction1 ............... 99
A case study: Zenon hurricane ................................................................... 101

PART FOUR: DISASTER MITIGATION...................................................... 111

Chapter 13 Mitigation............................................................................... 112

Targeting mitigation where it has most effect ............................................ 113
Actions to reduce risk ................................................................................. 114
The menu of mitigation actions .................................................................. 115
Classification of mitigation measures ........................................................ 116
Timing for mitigation ................................................................................. 117
Chapter 14 UN assistance to mitigation.................................................. 118
Disaster mitigation as a development theme .............................................. 118
Appraising disaster mitigation needs, policies, and capacity ..................... 119
Sources of information: needs for technical expertise ............................... 122
Project identification and formulation ........................................................ 122
Disaster risk appraisal of all projects in hazardous areas ........................... 123
Disaster risk reduction planning checklist .................................................. 124

Appendix.................................................................................................... 126
GA Resolution 46/182, Strengthening of the Coordination of Humanitarian
Emergency Assistance of the United Nations

6
 PART
Foreword to the 2nd edition

The informal name for this text has been the Foundation Module. The
information it includes is regarded as the foundation for the much of the UNDP/
UNDRO Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP). This training
module describes the components of disaster management and their context
within the overall framework of United Nations agencies actively involved in
disaster and emergency issues.

This training module has been produced for the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster
Management Training Programme by the University of Wisconsin Disaster
Management Center. The Technical Operational Partners for the DMTP
provided valuable advice on the format and content. The principal sources for
the content include the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Manual and six complementary
training modules prepared for the DMTP. Intertect Training Services has edited
the material and prepared the educational components.

For those of you familiar with the first edition, you will see many changes in the
second edition. It has been significantly reorganized. The chapters which focus
on the UN have been moved adjacent to chapters on related topicsinstead of
being collected together in the former Part 4.

The chapter on Natural Hazards has been condensed. Each hazard type is
described in a one-page summary. More extensive coverage is now available in
the companion module, Introduction to Hazards.

A new chapter on Compound and Complex Emergencies has been added,

highlighting this topic as an issue that has recently emerged into our collective
consciousness. Many other chapters have been modified or rewritten with new
exercises and illustrations added.

7
 PART
Introduction to this training module

Purpose and scope

An Overview of Disaster Management is designed to introduce the subject of
disaster management to an audience of UN organization professionals who form
disaster management teams, as well as to government counterpart agencies,
NGOs, and donors. The training is designed to increase the audiences
awareness of the nature and management of disasters. This should lead to better
performance in disaster preparedness and response. By questioning the
inevitability of disasters, we hope you can begin to see mitigation of disasters
as a component of development, and disasters as opportunities to further
development goals.
In this course we take a broad view of disasters. We will not try to separate
out problems rooted in environmental degradation as a distinct set of
responsibilities. It also includes emergencies which encompass the need to
provide assistance to large populations displaced by the forces of civil conflict or
other emergencies.
Mush of the courses content is based on the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster
Manual and follows its principles, procedures, and terminology.

Overall learning objectives

The overall objectives of this training module aim to
! create interest in disaster management
! stimulate motivation
! link the learning to your work activities
! relate the learning to your values and attitudes about disaster management

We hope this will be achieved through your reading of this text and completing
the suggested exercises. Specifically, you should be able to do the following:
! describe the relationship among hazard, vulnerability and disasters
! describe the basic concepts, aims, and elements of disaster and emergency
management
! describe the range of available preparedness/mitigation measures, consider
their appropriateness, opportunities, limitations and modalities of
implementation through development activities
! clarify the purpose, function and means of response of the UN agencies
involved in the emergency scenario and particularly that of the UN Disaster
Management Team.

Q. Before you go on, write down two or three key reasons why you are
studying this course on disaster management.
Compare your reasons
A. with those of others that
are on the following page.

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Importance of training for disaster management

Why are disasters and disaster management training of concern to country
governments, to the UN and, in particular, to UNDP and UNDRO? How can
governments and UNDP justify adding disaster management to their long lists of
competing priorities? There are several answers to these questions.

! Government are increasingly requesting UN agencies to in-country

coordinate all UN post-disaster assistance and sometimes all international
assistance. Therefore, governments and the UN need better communication
about their mutual needs and capabilities.
! Disasters are a growing problem. They will become of increasing concern to
governments and an increasing part of the UNs principal activities. In
disaster-prone countries UNDPs country programmes are inevitably
affected by disasters. Projects are set back or suffer delays as a country
recovers from the consequences of a disaster.
! Disasters are non-routine events that require non-routine responses.
Government and development agencies in general cannot rely on normal
procedures to implement appropriate responses. They need to learn and
practice special skills and attitudes.
! Disasters are closely linked with at least four other priorities for which
UNDP has accepted either a direct or supportive role: displaced persons,
refugees and returnees, women in development, and environmental
protection. The issues of all these subjects overlap significantly. A training
programme in one will support the professional development of UNDP staff
in all.
! UNDRO has an established international mandate in this area. It is to
coordinate activities promoting preparedness and mitigation as well as the
response to disasters. UNDROs interests are represented in the field by
UNDP. It is incumbent upon both agencies to promote a marked increase of
awareness and competence in disasters, and to involve other concerned UN
agencies.
! In their role as Resident coordinators, UNDP Res Reps and field office staff
need to train with their sister agencies in the procedures of implementing a
coordinated and appropriate disaster response.
! The world community takes considerable interest in disasters. Governments
and the UN system have high profiles in these events which are observed
closely by the media. UN agencies and governments must prove their
competence in order to project a positive image of providing appropriate
support.

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 PART
Training methods
This module is intended for two audiences, the self-study learner and the
participant in a training workshop. The following training methods are planned
for use in workshops and are simulated in the written module. For the self-study
learner the text is as close to a tutor as can be managed in print.

Workshop training methods include

" group discussions
" simulations/role plays
" supplementary handouts
" videos
" review sessions
" self-assessment exercises

You are invited to use this text as a workbook. In addition to note-taking in

the margins, you will be given the opportunity to stop and examine your
learning along the way through questions included in the text. Write down your
answers to these questions before proceeding to ensure that you have captured
key points of the text.
This text is divided into four parts. Part One describes what hazards are,
why they become disasters, and how they affect development.
Part Two identifies the scope of disaster management, what your role may be
in it, and focuses on preparedness aspects.
Part Three accepts that some disasters will occur and examines how to
respond to them.
Part Four presents disaster mitigation as a set of activities that reduce the risk
and impact of disasters.
This training module is complemented by two short videos, The UN and
disaster response, and Disaster mitigation: how to lessen the damage through
proper development. You would benefit from making arrangements to view
these videos and from reviewing the accompanying discussion questions.

11
 PART
1
PART

HAZARDS AND DISASTERS

After reading the material and completing the exercises you should be able to: LEARNING
! define the key terms of disaster management
OBJECTIVES
! describe the causes of disaster vulnerability
! reproduce the disaster management continuum diagram
! identify the most important hazards and how they affect society
! distinguish between natural and human made hazards
! identify at least two ways that development can lead directly to a disaster
! describe at least four ways that disasters disrupt development

!
CHAPTER 1
Intr oduction to disaster
Introduction disasterss

Q. How do you define hazard and disaster?

A. Write your ideas in the following space, then compare
your definitions with those provided in the text.

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Before going any further we should establish a common understanding of the

terms hazard and disaster.

Definition of hazard
A hazard is a rare or extreme event in the natural or human-made environment
that adversely affects human life, property or activity to the extent of causing a
disaster.

Definition of disaster
A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing
widespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability of
affected society to copy using only its own resources. Disasters are often
classified according to their speed of onset (sudden or slow), or according to their
cause (natural or man-made).

Definition of natural phenomena

This part of the module will focus on the above two terms but we need to
examine them in relation to another term: natural phenomena. Natural
phenomena are extreme climatological, hydrological, or geological, processes that
do not pose any threat to persons or property. A massive earthquake in an
unpopulated area, for example, is a natural phenomena, not a hazard. So is the
annual flood along the Nile, an essential element to the well being of its
neighbouring inhabitants.

Definition of emergency
Another term closely related to disaster and used throughout this module is
emergency. A disaster might be regarded as a particular type (or sub-set) of an
emergency. Disaster suggests an intense time period and level of urgency.
Whereas a disaster is bound by a specific period in which lives and essential
property are immediately at risk, an emergency can encompass a more general
period in which
! there is a clear and marked deterioration in the coping abilities of a group or
community, or
! coping abilities are only sustained by unusual initiatives by the group or
community or by external intervention.

The disaster problem

This section will describe certain phenomena leading to disasters and emer-
gencies: disaster trends, where they occur and who is most affected by them.
From the outset it is worth reminding ourselves that disasters and
emergencies are all too often regarded as aberrant events, divorced from normal
life. In reality, however, the opposite is true. Disasters and emergencies are
fundamental reflections of normal life. They are consequences of the ways
societies structure themselves, economically and socially; the ways that societies
and states interact; and the ways that relationships between the decision makers
are sustained. Hence a flood or an earthquake is not a disaster in and of itself.

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CHAPTER 1
Introduction
todisasters

The disaster stems from the fact that certain communities or groups are forced to
settle in areas susceptible to the impact of a raging river or a volcanic eruption. It
is essential to make a distinction between hazards and disasters, and to recognize
that the effect of the former upon the latter is essentially a measure of the
societys vulnerability.
The following diagram illustrates this combination of opposing forces.
Vulnerability is seen as the progression of three stages:

1. Underlying causes: a deep-rooted set of factors within a society that together

form and maintain vulnerability.
Figure 1.1

2. Dynamic pressures: a translating process that channels the effects of a The Disaster Crunch
negative cause into unsafe conditions; this process may be due to a lack of Model
basic services or provision or it may result from a series of macro-forces This material has been drawn
from the first chapter of the
forthcoming book: At Risk-
3. Unsafe conditions: the vulnerable context where people and property are Vulnerability and Disasters, by
exposed to the risk of disaster; the fragile physical environment is one Piers Blaikie, Terry Cannon, Ian
Davis and Ben Wisner (Harper
element; other factors include an unstable economy and low income levels. Collins, London and New York)

Causal factors of disasters

The magnitude of each disaster, measured in deaths, damage, or costs for a

given developing country increases with the increased marginalization of the
population. This is caused by a high birthrate, problems of land tenure and
economic opportunity, and the lack or misallocation of resources to meet the
basic human needs of an expanding population. As the population increases, the
best land in both rural and urban areas is taken up, and those seeking land for
farming or housing are forced to accept inadequate land. These offer less
productivity and a smaller measure of physical or economic safety. The follow-
ing section considers each of these issues.

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Poverty
The most important single influence on the
impact of a disaster is poverty. All other factors
could be lessened if the affected population were
not also limited by poverty. Virtually all disaster
studies show that the wealthiest of the popula-
tion either survive the disaster unaffected or are
able to recover quickly. Across the broad spec-
trum of disasters, poverty generally makes
people vulnerable to the impact of hazards.
Poverty explains why people in urban areas are
forced to live on hills that are prone to land-
slides, or why people settle near volcanos or
rivers that invariably flood their banks. Poverty
explains why droughts claim poor peasant
farmers as victims an rarely the wealthy, and
why famines more other than not are the result
of a lack of purchasing power to buy food rather
than an absence of food. Increasingly, poverty
also explains why many people are forced to
move from their homes to other parts of their
Photo credit: UNHCR/ countries or even across borders to survive. Such crisis-induced migration poses
M. Vanappelghem considerable challenges both in terms of immediate assistance to the displaced
and of longer-term development.

Population growth
There is an obvious connection between the increase in losses from a disaster and
the increase in population. If there are more people and structures where a
disaster strikes, then it is likely there will be more of an impact. The growth of
population has been so spectacular that it is inevitable that more people will be
affected by disaster because more will be forced to live and work in unsafe areas.
Increasing numbers of people will be competing for a limited amount of resources
(such as, employment opportunities, and land) which can lead to conflict. This
conflict may result in crisis-induced migration. Such growth occurs predom-
inantly in developing countries, resulting in various contributors to disasters.

Figure. 1.2

Population growth
1750-2100
Source: Thomas Merrick,
et. al., World Population in
Transition, Population
Bulletin, Vol. 42, No.2
(1986).

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CHAPTER 1
Introduction
to disasters

Rapid urbanization
Rapid population growth and migration are related to the major phenomenon of
rapid urbanization. This process is also accelerated in developing countries. It is
characterized by the rural poor or civilians in an area of conflict moving to
metropolitan areas in search of economic opportunities and security. These
massive numbers of urban poor increasingly find fewer options for availability
of safe and desirable places to build their houses. Here again, competition for
scare resources, an inevitable consequence of rapid urbanization, can lead to
human-made disasters.
Figure 1.3
Population
projections for some
disaster-prone cities

Figure 1.4
Many landslides or flooding disasters are closely linked to rapid and
As population
unchecked urbanization which forces low-income families to settle on the slopes
continues to grow,
of steep hillsides or ravines, or along the banks of flood-prone rivers. Many settlements spread to
earthquake victims in urban areas have been impoverished families whose sites marginal and even
have failed rather than their houses, usually through landslides onto the house or unsafe areas.
out from under it.

unstable slope

river

river

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Transitions in cultural practices

Many of the inevitable changes that occur in all societies lead to an increase in
the societies vulnerability to disasters. Obviously, all societies are constantly
changing and in a continual state of transition. These transitions are often
extremely disruptive and uneven, leaving gaps in social coping mechanisms
and technology. These transitions include nomadic populations that become
sedentary rural people who move to urban areas, and both rural and urban
people who move from one economic level to another. More broadly, these
examples are typical of a shift from non-industrialized to industrializing
societies.
One example of the impact of these transitions is the introduction of new
construction materials and building designs in a society that is accustomed to
traditional materials and designs. This often results in new materials being
used incorrectly. In disaster prone areas, inadequate new construction
techniques may lead to houses that cannot withstand earthquakes or wind
storms (see the following figure).
Compounding this problem is the new community where the disaster
survivors find themselves may not have a social support system or network to
assist in the relief and recovery from the disaster. The traditional coping
mechanisms may not exist in the new setting and the population becomes
increasingly dependent on outside interveners to help in this process.
Conflicting as well as transitional cultural practices can also lead to civil
conflict, for example, as a result of communal violence triggered by religious
differences.

Figure 1.5
New house badly
built using modern
materials.

Environmental degradation
Many disasters are either caused or exacerbated by environmental degradation.
Deforestation leads to rapid rain run off, which contributes to flooding. The
destruction of mangrove swamps decreases a coast lines ability to resist tropical
winds and storm surges.

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Introduction
to disasters

The creation of drought conditionsand the relative severity and length of

time the drought lastsis mainly a natural phenomena. Drought conditions
may be exacerbated by: poor cropping patterns, overgrazing, the stripping of
topsoil, poor conservation techniques, depletion of both the surface and
subsurface water supply, and ,to an extent, unchecked urbanization.

Figure 1.6
Deforestation for
development

Lack of awareness and information

Disasters can also happen because people vulnerable to them simply didnt
know how to get out of harms way or to take protective measures. This
ignorance may not necessarily be a function of poverty, but a lack of awareness
of what measures can be taken to build safe structures on safe locations. Perhaps
some people did not know about safe evacuation routes and procedures. Other
populations may not know where to turn for assistance in times of acute distress.
Nevertheless, this point should not be taken as a justification for ignoring the
coping mechanisms of the majority of people affected by disasters. In most
disaster-prone societies, there is a wealth of understanding about disaster
threats and responses. This understanding should be incorporated into any
efforts to provide external assistance.

War and civil strife

In this text war and civil strife are regarded as hazards, that is, extreme events
that produce disasters. War and civil strife often result in displaced people, a
target population of this training programme. The causal factors of war and
civil strife include competition for scarce resources, religious or ethnic
intolerance, and ideological differences. Many of these are also byproducts of
the preceding six causal factors of disasters.

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Q. Of the seven causal factors of disasters discussed above,

how would you rank them for the region in which you live?

A. List the most serious contributor first.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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PART
CHAPTER 2
Disaster terminology
and phases

!
CHAPTER 2

Disaster ter minolo

terminolo
minologgy and phases

Disaster terms

Some terminology of disaster management has already been introduced in this

module. A brief glossary follows to highlight some of these working definitions.
This glossary lists the disaster management terms as used in the Third Draft
of A list of Disaster Management related terms with their definitions to be
included in an internationally agreed multilingual glossary prepared by
UNDRO, and in the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual. However,
consensus does not exist among all disaster management practitioners or
academicians regarding these definitions. A standardized and universally
accepted glossary would obviously be desirable, but is not likely to exist within
the next few years. Consequently, the following definitions represent one effort
toward developing a consensus. Users of the DMTP training materials are
encouraged to adopt these working definitions for the sake of uniformity and to
be tolerant of other groups definitions.

Q. Can you think of an example of how to use each of these terms? Write
your example in the space below each definition.
Disaster management is the body of policy and administrative decisions and
operational activities which pertain to the various stages of a disaster at all levels.
Disaster
A. management

Human-made disasters are disasters or emergency situations where the

principal, direct cause(s) are identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwise.
Apart from technological and ecological disasters, this mainly involves Human-made
situations in which civilian populations suffer casualties, losses of property, basic disaster
services and means of livelihood as a result of war or civil strife, for example.
Human-made disasters/emergencies can be of the rapid or slow onset types, and
in the case of internal conflict, can lead to complex emergencies as well.
A.

An even broader definition of human-made disaster acknowledges that all

disasters are caused by humans because they have chosen, for whatever reason,
to be where natural phenomena occurs that result in adverse impacts on people.
A.

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Risk Risk is the expected losses (lives lost, persons injured, damage to property and
disruption of economic activity) due to a particular hazard. Risk is the product
of hazard and vulnerability.
A.

Vulnerability
Vulnerability is the degree of loss (for example, from 0 to 100 percent) result-
ing from a potentially damaging phenomenon.
A.

The following terms are key to understanding slow onset disasters and their
impact on populations.

Population Population displacements are usually associated with crisis-induced mass

displacements migration in which large numbers of people are forced to leave their homes to
seek alternative means of survival. Such mass movements normally result from
the effects of conflict, severe food shortages or collapse of economic support
systems.
A.

Complex emergencies Complex emergencies are a form of human-made emergency in which the cause
of the emergency as well as the assistance to the afflicted are bound by intense
levels of political considerations. This sort of emergency is normally associated
with the problems of displaced people during times of civil conflict or with
Figure 2.1. people in need caught in areas of conflict.
Rapid onset disaster A.
management
continuum

Phases of a disaster
Disasters can be viewed as a series of phases on a time
continuum. Identifying and understanding these phases
helps to describe disaster related needs and to conceptu-
alize appropriate disaster management activities.

Rapid onset disasters

The definitions below correspond to the time sequence
following the occurrence of a rapid onset disaster.
See Figure 2.1.

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CHAPTER 2
Disaster terminology
and phases

The relief phase is the period immediately following the occurrence of a Relief phase
sudden disaster (or the late discovery of a neglected/deteriorated slow-onset
situation) when exceptional measures have to be taken to search and find the
survivors as well as meet their basic needs for shelter, water, food and medical
care.
A.

Rehabilitation is the operations and decisions taken after a disaster with a view Rehabilitation
to restoring a stricken community to its former living conditions, while encour-
aging and facilitating the necessary adjustments to the changes caused by the
disaster.
A.

Reconstruction is the actions taken to reestablish a community after a period of

rehabilitation subsequent to a disaster. Actions would include construction of Reconstruction
permanent housing, full restoration of all services, and complete resumption of
the pre-disaster state.
A.

Mitigation is the collective term used to encompass all actions taken prior to Mitigation
the occurrence of a disaster (pre-disaster measures) including preparedness and
long-term risk reduction measures. (Mitigation has been used by some institu-
tions or authors in a narrower sense, excluding preparedness.)
A.
Preparedness
Preparedness consists of activities designed to minimize loss of life and
damage, organize the temporary removal of people and property from a threat-
ened location, and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilita-
tion.
A.

Slow onset disasters

The sequence of a disaster continuum for slow onset

disasters is similar in framework but has important
distinctions. The following terms and definitions reflect
those additions or modifications. See Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2.
Slow onset disaster management continuum

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Early warning Early warning is the process of monitoring situations in communities or areas
known to be vulnerable to slow onset hazards. For example, famine early warning
may be reflected in such indicators as drought, livestock sales, or changes in
economic conditions. The purpose of early warning are to enable remedial
measures to be initiated and to provide more timely and effective relief including
through disaster preparedness actions.
A.

The emergency phase is the period during which extraordinary measures have to
Emergency phase
be taken. Special emergency procedures and authorities may be applied to support
human needs, sustain livelihoods, and protect property to avoid the onset of
disaster. This phase can encompass pre-disaster, disaster alert, disaster relief and
recovery periods. An emergency phase may be quite extensive, as in a slow onset
disaster such as a famine. It can also be relatively short-lived, as after an
earthquake.
A.

Rehabilitation Rehabilitation is the action taken after a slow onset disaster where attention must
be given to the issues of resettlement or returnee programmes, particularly for
people who have been displaced for reasons arising out of conflict or economic
collapse.
A.

Q. Test your recall of the two disaster continuum diagrams. Label each
circles below with the phases of a rapid onset and slow onset disaster.
A.

Rapid onset disaster Slow onset disaster

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PART
CHAPTER 3
Linking disaster
and development

!
CHAPTER 3
Linking disaster
disasterss and development
dev 1

Introduction

This training module provides a new conceptualization of the relationship

between disasters and development. This new conceptualization has been
growing in the development community over the last few years and is a major
philosophical underpinning of the United Nations Disaster Management
Training Programme. Rarely a week goes by when a major disaster is not
reported in the mediaa disaster that results in death and destructiona
disaster that frequently wipes out years of development programming and sets
the slow course of improvement in third world countries further behind, wasting
precious resources.
For a long time the cause and effect relationship between disasters and social
and economic development was ignored. Ministries of Planning and Finance and
other development planners did not concern themselves with disasters. At best,
development planners hoped that disasters would not occur and, if they did,
were most effectively handled by relief from donor countries and relief
organizations. Development programs were not assessed in the context of
disasters, neither from the effect of the disaster on the development programs nor
from the point of whether the development programs increased either the
likelihood of a disaster or increased the potential damaging effects of a disaster.
Disasters were seen in the context of emergency responsenot as a part of
long term development programming. When a disaster did occur, the response
was directed to emergency needs and cleaning up. Communities under disaster Figure 3.1
distress were seen as unlikely places to institute development. The post-disaster This figure charts
environment was seen as too turbulent to promote institutional changes aimed at aspects of a communitys
promoting long term development. development and
vulnerability to disaster.
It shows the various
orientations with
which you may analyze
the field of develop-
ment and disaster
vulnerability.
The field is divided into
positive and negative
aspects of the disaster/
development relationship
by the vertical axis. The
right half reflects the
positive or optimistic
side of the relationship
and the left side of the
diagram deals with the
negative aspects of the
relationship. The state-
ment in each quadrant
sums up the basic con-
Sources for this chapter are Disasters and Development, a UNDP/UNDRO training module
prepared by R.S. Stephenson and Disasters and Development: a study in institution-building
cept derived from the
overlap of the two
prepared for UNDP by INTERTECT, January 1991.
realms.

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The growing body of knowledge on the relationships between disasters

and development indicates four basic themes. The themes presented in the
preceeding figure may be expanded as follows:

1. Disasters set back development programming destroying years of

development initiatives.
- Infrastructure improvement e.g. transport and utility systems are
destroyed by a flood.

2. Rebuilding after a disaster provides significant opportunities to initiate

development programs.
- A self-help housing program to rebuild housing destroyed by an
earthquake teaches new skills, strengthens community pride and
leadership and retains development dollars that otherwise would
be exported to large construction companies.

3. Development programs can increase an areas susceptibility to

disasters.
- A major increase in livestock development leads to overgrazing,
which contributes to desertification and increases vulnerability to
famine.

4. Development programs can be designed to decrease the susceptibility

to disasters and their negative consequences.
- Housing projects constructed under building codes designed to
withstand high winds result in less destruction during the next
tropical storm.

Decision-makers who ignore these relationships between disasters and

development do a disservice to the people who place their trust in them.
Increasingly, around the world, forward thinking Ministries of Planning and
Finance with the support of United Nations and Non-Governmental
Organization (NGO) officials are assessing development projects in the
context of disaster mitigation and are designing disaster recovery programs
with long term development needs in mind.

Disruption of development by disasters

Disasters can seriously disrupt development initiatives in several ways, includ-

ing:
" Loss of resources
" Interruption of programs
" Impact on investment climate
" Impact on the non-formal sector
" Political destabilization

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Loss of resources
Development resources are lost when a disaster wipes out the products of
investmentit shortens the life of development investments. The disasters affect
development through:
" Impact on capital stock and inventory

" Loss of production and provision of services due to disruption and increased
cost of goods and services
" The secondary effects of the disaster include inflation, balance of payment
problems, increase in fiscal expenditure, decreases in monetary reserves
" Other indirect losses, for example: the impact on a countrys debt position
could be that as the debt service burden increases, the country has less
resources available to invest in productive enterprises
" The outcome of these losses of resources include: loss of economic growth,
delays to development programs, cancellation of programmes, and
disincentives to new investment
" There may also be a shift in skilled human resources toward high visibility
recovery activitya diversion from long-term to short-term needs.

Interruption of programs
Disasters interrupt ongoing programs and divert resources from originally
planned uses.

Impact on investment climate

Disasters, especially when they have occurred repeatedly within a short period
of time, have a negative impact on the incentive for further investment. Investors
need a climate of stability and certainty to be encouraged to risk their money.
The disaster further clouds the investment picture when it has caused loss of
employment, thereby depressing market demand, and resulting in a stagnation
which limits overall growth.

Impact on non-formal sector

Disasters have special negative impacts on the non-formal sector where
approximate costs of disasters are often underestimated. Disasters depress the
non-formal economy through the direct costs of lost equipment and housing
(which often also serves as business sites). The indirect costs of disasters include
lost employment, and lost income. Sometimes the importation of relief items
creates disincentives to producers.

Political destabilization
The stress to a country caused by a disaster often results in the destabilization of
the government. This may occur for several reasons. For example, the
government may have mismanaged the disaster relief and recovery, leading to
discontent on the part of affected communities. Or the survivors may have had
unmet expectation which, for whatever reason, translate into some form of
protest. The government could also become the scapegoat for problems beyond
its control, again leading to its possible downfall. In fact, it is very common for a
government to collapse or be overthrown within two or three years of a major
disaster.

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Q. Recall the most recent disaster with which you are familiar. Based
on that experience, respond to the following.
A.
1. Identify a facility critical to the local economy that was knocked out of
service.

2. Name one development project that was interrupted.

3. Identify one case of an investment that was withdrawn or reduced

because of the disaster.

4. Identify one case of non-formal sector employment that was lost because
disaster relief displaced the need for it.

5. Describe and example of how the government may have been

destabilized by the disaster.

How development may cause disasters

The side effects of well-meaning development efforts sometimes have disastrous

consequences. Development projects implemented without taking into account
existing environmental hazards may increase vulnerability to natural disasters.
For example, projects designed to increase employment opportunities, and thus
income, usually attract additional population growth. Low-income people may
then have to seek housing in areas previously avoided, on hillsides or in
floodplains. The costs of relief assistance after a landslide or flood can easily
outweigh the benefits to the economy of more jobs. Similarly, development
projects may lead to negative political consequences that increase the
vulnerability to civil conflict.
Some types of development projects commence without fully assessing their
impact on the environment. This can occur even in programmes resulting from a
disaster, such as reconstruction projects that increase demand for wood to fortify
houses. The resulting deforestation can then bring increased vulnerability to
mudslides and possibly long-term environmental changes.
Development projects may even consciously force a choice between reducing
disaster vulnerability and economic vulnerability. A projects design may require
a trade-off between the two and force a decision between the lesser of two evils.

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Q. Can you describe how development can contribute to vulnerability

based on the following examples of negative consequences?
A.
Watershed erosion

Deforestation

Loss of biological diversity

Lack of soil and land management

Air and water pollution

Inadequate urban sanitation and waste disposal

Marine and coastal zone development

See table on the next

page for examples of
Development opportunities afforded by disasters answers to this
question.
Despite an increasing disaster awareness in the international community, and the
recognition of the importance of developing coherent plans for relief activities, it
often takes the actual or imminent occurrence of a large-scale destructive event to
stimulate individual governments to think about a developmental approach.
Thus, a disaster can serve as a catalyst for introducing mitigation activities.
Few development workers realize the opportunities that disasters can
provide in the development field. Disasters often create a political and economic
atmosphere wherein extensive changes can be made more rapidly than under
normal circumstances. For example, in the aftermath of a disaster, there may be
major opportunities to execute land reform programmes, to improve the overall
housing stock, to create new jobs and job skills, and to expand and modernize
the economic base of the community-opportunities that would not otherwise
be possible. The collective will to take action is an advantage that should not be
wasted.
Disasters can also highlight high-risk areas where action must be taken
before another disaster strikes. The realization of vulnerability can motivate
policy-makers and the public to participate in mitigation activities. Disasters may
also serve to highlight the fact that the country is seriously under-developed.
They can thus bring in funding and the attention of donor communities to apply
to long-term development needs. (Henderson, 1990)

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Table 3.1

Examples of
development
leading to
disasters or
increased
vulnerability

From Disasters and

Development: A Study
in Institution Building,
Intertect, January, 1991.

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Natural hazards

!
CHAPTER 4
Natur
Natur al hazar
tural ds
hazards

In earlier chapters, the discussion about disasters and emergencies resulting

from natural and human-made hazards has been developed in general terms.
However, each hazard has its own characteristics. To understand the significance
and implications of a particular type of disaster we must have a basic
understanding about the nature, causes and effects of each hazard type.
The list of hazard types is very long. Many occur infrequently or impact a
very small population. Other hazards, such as severe snowstorms, often occur in
areas that are prepared to deal with them and seldom become disasters.
However, from the perspective of a disaster victim it is not particularly useful to
distinguish between minor and major disasters. Some disasters are now of
limited interest to the international community. These include avalanches, fog,
frost, hail, lightning, snowstorms, and tornadoes. The international interest is
less for these hazards because their impacts affect relatively few people and the
countries in which they normally occur have sufficient resources and systems in
place to respond without external assistance.
There are several hazard types for which there is widespread concern. They
can be categorized as follows:

Sudden onset hazards(geological and climatic hazards) earthquakes,

tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, landslides

Slow onset hazards(environmental hazards) drought, famine,

environmental degradation, desertification, deforestation, pest
infestation

Industrial/technologicalsystem failures/accidents, spillages,

explosions, fires

Wars and civil strifearmed agression, insurgency, terrorism, and

other actions leading to displaced persons and refugees

Epidemics-water and/or foodborne diseases, person-to-person

diseases (contact and respiratory spread), vector-borne diseases and
complications from wounds

These hazard types are highlighted in this training material. The

international community has an interest in them because they frequently affect
large populations and the need for outside assistance is evident. Many disasters
are themselves international events and have an impact on entire regions.
A brief description of each hazard type is presented below. It will be
your responsibility to determine which hazards are of concern to your country
and then to read the material about them.

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Q. Which hazards are of concern to your country?

A. List the most important hazards in order of their severity of impact.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Now learn more about each of these hazards in the material that follows.

Geological Hazards
Earthquakes
Tsunamis
Volcanic eruptions
Landslides

Climatic Hazards
Tropical cyclones
Floods
Drought

Environmental Hazards
Environmental pollution
Deforestation
Desertification
Pest Infestation

Epidemics

Industrial Accidents

Characteristics of particular hazards and disasters 1

This section provides an indication of the general characteristics of each of the

hazard types listed and the kinds of counter-disaster measures which may be
required. You should note that disasters have collateral or indirect effects that
may endure even after a particular type of disaster has been directly addressed.
The problem of displaced people after a sudden onset disaster, such as a cyclone,
may continue well after immediate relief, recovery and even rehabilitation
programmes have been implemented. Such collateral impact can turn a
seemingly rapid onset disaster into a continuing emergency situation.
1
The following material on hazards and population displacements is drawn from the
UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.

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Natural hazards

A further issue that must be borne in mind concerns the consequence of a

sudden onset disaster when relief assistance is stymied because civil conflict
makes access impossible. In other words, the perverse permutations are many.
Nevertheless, the basic characteristics of certain types of disasters and
emergencies and appropriate response measures can be structured as follows:
! Causal phenomena ! Typical effects
! General characteristics ! Possible risk reduction measures
! Predictability ! Specific preparedness measures
! Factors contributing to vulnerability ! Typical post-disaster needs

Different types of disasters have characteristic effects while retaining unique

aspects. Risk reduction and preparedness measures, and emergency and post-
disaster response can all be facilitated by some rules of thumbas outlined in
this sectionbut must also be tailored to the specificity of local conditions.
Remember:
(a) where different types of disaster occur in combinatione.g. floods
accompanying tropical stormsthe combined effects must be
considered; and where one disaster leads to another (for example a famine
leading to civil strife) the compound effects must be anticipated
(b) the severity of the actual impact on the society depends on human and
organization factors as well as natural and topographical ones. Figure 4.1
World map of selected
Legend hazards
# Volcanic eruptions # Land areas affected by tropical cyclones
# Shorelines exposed to tsunami waves # Desertification likely or active
# Seismic belts

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Ear thquak
Earthquak es
thquakes

Causal Slippage of crustal rock along a fault or area of strain and rebound to new
phenomena alignment.

General Shaking of earth caused by waves on and below the earths surface causing:
characteristics Surface faulting
and effects Aftershocks
Tsunamis
Tremors, vibrations
Liquefaction
Landslides

Predictability Probability of occurrence can be determined but not exact timing. Forecasting is
based on monitoring of seismic activity, historical incidence, and observations.

Factors contributing Location of settlements in seismic areas.

to vulnerability Structures which are not resistant to ground motion.
Dense collections of buildings with high occupancy.
Lack of access to information about earthquake risks.

Typical Physical damageDamage or loss of structures or infrastructure. Fires, dam

adverse failures, landslides, flooding may occur.
effects CasualtiesOften high, particularly near epicenter or in highly populated areas
or where buildings not resistant.
Public healthFracture injuries most widespread problem. Secondary threats
due to flooding, contaminated water supply, or breakdown in sanitary
conditions.
Water supplySevere problems likely due to damage of water systems,
pollution of open wells and changes in water table.

Possible risk Hazard mapping

reduction Public awareness programs and training
measures Assessing and reducing structural vulnerability
Land use control or zoning, building codes
Insurance

Specific Earthquake warning and preparedness programs

preparedness measures

Typical Search and rescue

post-disaster Emergency medical assistance
needs Damage needs and assessment survey
Relief assistance
Repair and reconstruction
Economic recovery

Impact Earthquake scales (Modified Mercalli, MSK), earthquake damage and

assessment usability forms.
tools
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Natural hazards

Tsunamis

Causal Fault movement on sea floor, accompanied by an earthquake

phenomena A landslide occurring underwater or above the sea, then plunging into the water.
Volcanic activity either underwater or near the shore.

General Tsunami waves are barely perceptible in deep water and may measure 160 km
characteristics between wave crests
May consist of ten or more wave crests
Move up to 800 km per hour in deep water of ocean, diminishing in speed as the
wave approaches shore
May strike shore in crashing waves or may inundate the land
Flooding effect depends on shape of shoreline and tides

Predictability Tsunami Warning System in Pacific monitors seismic activity and declares
watches and warnings. Waves generated by local earthquakes may strike nearby
shores within minutes and warnings to public may not be possible.

Factors contributing Location of settlements in low lying coastal regions

to vulnerability Lack of tsunami resistant buildings
Lack of timely warning systems and evacuation plans
Unawareness of public to destructive forces of tsunamis

Typical Physical damageThe force of water can raze everything in its path but the
adverse majority of damage to structure and infrastructure results form flooding.
effects Withdrawal of the wave form shore scours out sediment and can collapse ports
and buildings and batter boats.
Casualties and public healthDeaths occur principally by drowning and injuries
from battering by debris.
Water supplyContamination by salt water and debris or sewage may make
clean drinking water unavailable.
Crops and food suppliesHarvests, food stocks, livestock farm implements and
fishing boats may be lost. Land may be rendered infertile due to salt water
incursion.

Possible risk Protection of buildings along coast, houses on stilts

reduction Building barriers such as breakwaters
measures

Specific Hazard mapping, planning evacuation routes

preparedness measures Establish warning systems
Community education

Typical post-disaster Warning and evacuation; search and rescue; medical assistance; conduct disaster
needs assessment, provide food, water and shelter

Impact Aerial surveys of coastal areas, damage surveys, evaluation of warning systems
assessment and evacuation plans.
tools

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Volcanoes

Causal Magma pushed upward through volcanic vent by pressure and effervescence of
phenomena dissolved gases.

General Types of volcanoes are cindercones, shield volcanoes,composite volcanoes and

characteristics lava domes.
Magma flowing out onto surface is lava and all solid particles ejected are tephra.
Damage results from type of material ejected such as ash, pyroclastic flows
(blasts of gas containing ash and fragments), mud, debris, and lava flows.

Predictability Study of the geological history of volcanoes mainly located in a clearly defined
volcanic belt, along with seismic activity and other observations, may indicate an
impending volcano. No reliable indicator has been discovered and precursory
signs do not always occur.

Factors contributing Settlements on the flanks of volcanoes

to vulnerability Settlements in the historical paths of mud or lava lows
Structures with roof designs not resistant to ash accumulation
Presence of combustible materials
Lack of evacuation plan or warning systems

Typical Casualties and healthDeath from pyroclastic flows, mud flows and possibly
adverse lava flows and toxic gases. Injuries from falling rock, burns; respiratory
effects difficulties from gas and ash.
Settlements, infrastructure and agricultureComplete destruction of everything in
the path of pyroclastic, mud or lava flows; collapse of structures under weight of
wet ash, flooding, blockage of roads or communication systems
Crops and food suppliesDestruction of crops in path of flows, ash may break
tree branches, livestock may inhale toxic gas or ash; grazing lands may be
contaminated.

Possible risk Land use planning for settlements around volcanoes

reduction measures Protective structural measures

Specific National volcanic emergency plans

preparedness measures Volcano monitoring and warning system
Training for government officials and community participation in search and
rescue, fire fighting

Typical post-disaster Warning and evacuation; medical assistance, search and rescue; provide food,
needs water and shelter; relocate victims; provide financial assistance

Impact Aerial and ground surveys to assess damage; evaluation of evacuation plan and
assessment emergency response
tools

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Natural hazards

Landslides

Causal Downslope transport of soil and rock resulting from

phenomena naturally occurring vibrations, changes in direct
water content, removal of lateral support, loading
with weight, and weathering, or human
manipulation of water courses and slope
composition.

General Landslides vary in types of movement (falls, slides,

charasteristics topples, lateral spread, flows), and may be
secondary effects of heavy storms, earthquakes, and
volcanic eruptions. Landslides are more widespread
than any other geological event.

Predictability Frequency of occurrence, extent and consequences

of landslides may be estimated and areas of high
risk determined by use of information on area
geology, geomorphology, hydrology and
climatology and vegetation.

Factors contributing Settlements built on steep slopes, softer soils,

to vulnerability cliff tops
Settlements built at the base of steep slopes, on
mouths of streams from mountain valleys
Roads, communication lines in mountain areas
Buildings with weak foundations
Buried pipelines, brittle pipes
Lack of understanding of landslide hazard

Typical Physical damageAnything on top of or in path of

adverse landslide will suffer damage. Rubble may block
effects roads, lines of communication or waterways.
Indirect effects may include loss of productivity of
agricultural or forest lands, flooding, reduced
property values.
CasualtiesFatalities have occurred due to slope
failure. Catastrophic debris slides or mudflows have
killed many thousands.

Possible risk Hazard mapping

reduction Legislation and land use regulation
measures Insurance

Specific Community education

preparedness measures Monitoring, warning and evacuation systems

Typical post- Search and rescue (use of earth removal equipment);

disaster needs medical assistance; emergency shelter for homeless

Impact Damage assessment forms

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Tropical cyclones
cy

Causal Mixture of heat and ,moisture forms a low pressure center over oceans in tropical
phenomena latitudes where water temperatures are over 26 degrees C.
Wind currents spin and organize around deepening low pressure over
accelerating toward the center and moving along track pushed by trade winds.
Depression becomes a tropical cyclone when winds reach gale force or 117 km
per hour

General When the cyclone strikes land, high winds, exceptional rainfall and storm surges
characteristics cause damage with secondary flooding and landslides.

Predictability Tropical cyclones can be tracked from their development but accurate landfall
forecasts are usually possible only a few hours before as unpredictable changes
in course can occur.

Factors contributing Settlements located in low lying coastal areas (direct impact)
to vulnerability Settlements in adjacent areas (heavy rains, floods)
Poor communications or warning systems
Lightweight structures, older construction, poor quality masonry
Infrastructural elements, fishing boats and maritime industries

Typical Physical damageStructures lost and damaged by wing force, flooding, storm
adverse surge and landslides.
effects Casualties and public healthMay be caused by flying debris, or flooding.
Contamination of water supplies may lead to viral outbreaks and malaria.
Water suppliesGround water may be contaminated by flood waters.
Crops and food suppliesHigh winds and rains can ruin standing crops, tree
plantations and food stocks.
Communications and logisticsSevere disruption is possible as wind brings
down telephone lines, antennas and satellite disks. Transport may be curtailed.

Possible risk Risk assessment and hazard mapping

reduction measures Land use control and flood plain management
Reduction of structural vulnerability
Improvement of vegetation cover

Specific preparedness Public warning systems

measures Evacuation plans
Training and community participation

Typical post-disaster Evacuation and emergency shelter; search and rescue; medical assistance; water
needs purification; reestablish logistical and communication networks; disaster
assessment; provision of seeds for planting.

Impact Damage assessment forms, aerial surveys

assessment tools

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F loods
Floods

Causal Naturally occurring flash, river and coastal flooding from intense rainfall or
phenomena innundation associated with seasonal weather patterns
Human manipulation of watersheds, drainage basins and floodplains

General Flash floodsAccelerated runoff, dam failure, breakup of ice jam

characteristics River floodsSlow buildup, usually seasonal in river systems
Coastal floodsAssociated with tropical cyclones, tsunami waves, storm surges
Factors affecting degree of danger: depth of water, duration, velocity, rate of
rise, frequency of occurrence, seasonality

Predictability Flood forecasting depends on seasonal patterns, capacity of drainage basin,

flood plain mapping, surveys by air and land. Warning possible well in
advance for seasonal floods, but only minutes before in case of storm surge,
flash flood, or tsunami.

Factors contributing Location of settlements on floodplains

to vulnerability Lack of awareness of flooding hazard
Reduction of absorptive capacity of land (erosion, concrete)
Non-resistant buildings and foundations
High risk infrastructural elements
Unprotected food stocks and standing crops, livestock
Fishing boats and maritime industries

Typical Physical damageStructures damaged by washing a way, becoming inundated,

adverse collapsing, impact of floating debris. Landslides from saturated soils. Damage
effects greater in valleys than open areas.
Casualties and public healthDeaths from drowning but few serious injuries.
Possible outbreaks of malaria, diarrhea and viral infections.
Water suppliesContamination of wells and groundwater possible. Clean water
may be unavailable.
Crops and food suppliesHarvests and food stocks may be lost to innundation.
Animals, farm tools and seeds might be lost. Floodplain mapping, Land use
control

Possible risk Flood control (channels, dikes, dams, flood-proofing, erosion control)
reduction measures

Specific preparedness Flood detection and warning systems

measures Community participation and education
Development of master plan for floodplain management

Typical post- Search and rescue; medical assistance; disaster assessment; short term food and
disaster needs water supplies; water purification; epidemiological surveillance; temporary
shelter

Impact Damage survey forms; aerial surveys

assessment tools

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Dr oughts
Droughts

Causal Immediate cause-Rainfall deficit

phenomena Possible underlying causes-El Nio (incursion of warm surface waters into the
normally colder waters of South American Pacific); human induced changes in
ground surface and soil; higher sea surface temperatures; increase of
atmospheric carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases.

General The reduction of water or moisture availability is temporary and significant in

characteristics relation to the norm.
Meteorological drought is the reduction in rainfall and hydrological drought is the
reduction in water resources.
Agricultural drought is the impact of drought on human activity influenced by
various factors: the presence of irrigation systems, moisture retention capacity
of the soil, the timing of the rainfall and adaptive behavior of the farmers.

Predictability Periods of unusual dryness are normal in all weather systems. Rainfall and
hydrology data must be carefully analyzed with influencing factors in
predicting drought, however, advance warning is usually possible.

Factors contributing Location in an arid area where dry conditions are increased by drought
to vulnerability Farming on marginal lands, subsistence farming
Lack of agricultural inputs to improve yields
Lack of seed reserves
Areas dependent on other weather systems for water resources
Areas of low soil moisture retention
Lack of recognition and allocation of resources to drought hazard

Typical Reduced income for farmers; reduction of spending from agricultural sector;
adverse increase in price of staple foods, increased inflation rates, deterioration of
effects nutritional status, famine, illness, death, reduction of drinking water sources,
migration, breakup of communities, loss of livestock.

Possible risk Drought and famine early warning systems

reduction measures
Specific
preparedness measures Development of inter-institutional response plan

Typical post-disaster Measures to maintain food security: price stabilization, food subsidies,
needs employment creation programs, general food distribution, supplementary
feeding programs, special programs for livestock and pastoralists,
complementary water and health programs; rehabilitation

Impact Nutritional surveys, socioeconomic surveys, monitoring of rainfall and

assessment tools hydrological data, satellite imagery.

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Envir
Envir onmental pollution
vironmental

Causal Air pollutionpollutants such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,

phenomena particulates, carbon monoxide, and lead from industry and transport.
Marine pollution Sewage, industrial effluents, marine litter, petroleum spills
and dumped radioactive substances.
Fresh water pollution Discharge of human waste and domestic wastewaters
into lakes and rivers, industrial effluents, use of irrigation and pesticides, run
off of nitrogen from fertilizers. Increased runoff from deforestation causing
sedimentation.
Possible global warming Accumulation of Carbon dioxide from combustion of
fossil fuels, deforestation, and methane from livestock.
Ozone depletion Chloroflorocarbons (CFCs) released into the atmosphere
deplete ozone shield against ultraviolet light.

Predictability Pollution is related to per capita consumption so, as countries develop

pollution will also tend to increase. Deforestation is increasing in some countries.

Factors contributing High levels of industrialization and per capita consumption

to vulnerability Lack of regulation of pollutants
Insufficient resources to counter the impact of pollution

Typical Air pollution Damages agricultural crops, forests, aquatic systems, structural
adverse materials and human health.
effects Water pollution Spread of pathogens, injury to marine animals, spread of
chemicals to the environment effecting the health of humans, animals and
sealife.
Global warming Sea level rise, climate change, temperature rise
Ozone depletion Increase in skin cancer, cataracts, reduction in immune
system functions, damage to marine life.

Possible risk Set ambient air quality standards

reduction measures Set emission limits for every pollutant
Establish protection policies for water supplies
Reduce the use of pesticides by integrated management
Reduce the rate of deforestation and increase planting of trees
Promote energy efficiency
Regulate use of aerosols and disposal of refrigeration units
Prohibit manufacture and use of CFCs

Specific Establish a national environmental safety and protection plan

preparedness measures Create education programs for environmental awareness
Training of government personnel as part of development programs

Impact Aerial, remote sensing and ground surveys

assessment tools Air, water and soils testing
Comparison of climatic data
Socioeconomic surveys

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Defor
Defor esta
orestation
estation

Causal The spread of farming and grazing

phenomena Firewood collection
Timber harvesting

General Contributes to other hazards by

characteristics - removing root systems which stabilize soil, acting as a filter and buffer,
allowing percolation of water into soil and retaining moisture in soil.
- removal of leaf biomass and forest products
- burning and decay of dead wood.

Predictability An increase in global focus on the hazard is expanding data base leading to an
increased awareness of the problem and to identifying where the problem exists.
Overall, the global trend is decreasing as conservation measures are enacted but
destruction of forests is rising at alarming rates in some countries.

Factors contributing Underdevelopment

to vulnerability Dependence on wood for fuel and income
Unregulated logging and land clearance
Rapid population growth
Rapid expansion of settled or industrialized areas

Typical Deforestation results in loss of free products from the forest such as fruits and
adverse medicines, and decline in traditional cultures. It stresses economies which import
effects forest products and are dependent on wood products. It contributes to other
hazards, such as:
Flooding Deforestation of watersheds can increase severity of flooding, reduce
streamflows, dry up springs in dry seasons and increase sediment entering
waterways.
Drought Removal of roots and leaf canopy can alter moisture levels drying soil
and decreasing precipitation.
Famine Decrease in agricultural production due to erosion of topsoil and
collapse of hillsides may lead to food shortages.
Desertification Deforestation and removal of vegetation lead to soil compaction
and reduction of land productivity.
Environmental pollution Increases contamination of soil and water and reduces
carbon dioxide absorption capacity. Burning of forests and decay of trees releases
carbon dioxide to the air, possibly contributing to global warming.

Possible risk Protection of forests through management, legislation, conservancies

reduction measures Reforestation

Specific Education of the communities

preparedness measures Promoting alternatives to fuelwood
Soil conservation measures

Impact Forest mapping by use of aerial or remote sensing or ground surveys. Monitoring
assessment tools of reforestation programs.

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Deser tif
Desertif ica
tifica tion
ication

Causal Basic conducive climatic conditions such as low or uncertain rainfall and
phenomena higher temperatures as found in dryland areas.
Poor land use management practices particularly overcultivation, overgrazing,
deforestation and poor irrigation practices.

General Soil degradation by water erosion, wind erosion, soil compaction and
characteristics waterlogging (salinization and alkalinization)
Degradation of vegetation initially by reduction in density of biomass and then by
change of vegetation types to less productive forms.

Predictability Global surveillance of drylands can be achieved through remote sensing and
aerial surveys. As land use increases without measures to conserve soil and
vegetation, desertification will likely increase. One estimate claims 202,000
square km are desertified each year.

Factors contributing Low rainfall and high temperatures

to vulnerability Heavy land use
Deforested areas
Poor irrigation management
Lack of conservation measures
Poverty and lack of appropriate agricultural technologies

Typical Desertification contributes to other hazards by reducing the productivity of the

adverse land. These include drought and famine. Reduced productivity has
effects socioeconomic impacts and may reduce standards of living.

Possible risk Establish community programs to meet needs and improve practices and
reduction measures institutions.
Increase monitoring of desertification
Develop policies for sustainable agricultural systems
Develop agricultural institutions and train personnel

Specific Promote projects to improve agricultural and livestock production

preparedness measures Promote soil and water conservation

Impact Socioeconomic surveys are needed to ascertain needs of people and for
assessment tools agricultural development. Aerial and remote sensing surveys will help
determine the rate and scope of desertification.

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Pest inf
Pest esta
infesta tions
estations

Causal Increase in pest numbers due to one or a combination of ecological factors

phenomena including temperature, monoculture of crops, introduction of plants to new
locations, introduction of pest species, overcoming genetic resistance in host,
overcoming pesticide effects, conducive weather patterns, migration.

General Plants can be damaged in various ways such as consumption of parts, tunnelling
characteristics in stems, attack of root systems, injection of toxins.

Predictability Pest forecasting determines whether application of a pesticide will be cost

effective, by examining the stages of development of the crop and the pest and by
determining the economic threshold.

Factors contributing Large numbers and varieties of pests

to vulnerability Lack of controls on imported plant products.
Constraints on resources to predict and treat pest infestation
Insufficient crop yields in normal times
Areas inaccessible to surveillance for pests
Underdevelopment of agricultural technologies

Typical Crop losses could lead to food shortages, even famine, and stress economic
adverse systems.
effects

Possible risk Integrated pest management employing appropriate methods of physical control,
reduction measures cultural control, crop plant resistance, biological control, legislation, chemical
control, and possibly eradication.

Specific Establishing a national plan for pest control

preparedness measures Training for government personnel and extension to farmers

Typical post-disaster National or international control efforts

needs Provide needed food supplies

Impact Assessment of incidence and severity of infestation

assessment tools Aerial and ground surveys of damage to crops

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PART
CHAPTER 4
Natural hazards

Epidemics

Definition: Exposure to a toxin resulting in pronounced rise in number of

cases of parasitic or infectious origin.

Causal Unsanitary Conditions, crowding, poverty

phenomena Ecological changes that favor breeding of vector
Non-immune persons migrate to endemic disease area
Decline in nutritional status
Contamination of water or food supply

General Risk of introduction or spread of the disease

characteristics Possible large number of cases
Severe disease leading to disability or death
Risk of social or economic disruption
Lack of adequate professional personnel, needed supplies
Danger of international transmission

Predictability Epidemics may increase due to rise in travel or migration and long-term
dormant symptoms of sexually transmitted diseases. Reports of epidemics may
increase due to better medical coverage. Prediction is assisted by epidemiologi-
cal studies but may be constrained in newly formed settlements or emergency
camps.

Factors contributing Poverty

to vulnerability Lack of immunity (or vaccination) to diseases
Poor nutrition, poor sanitation, poor water quality, crowding
Poorly organized health care delivery
Drug resistant diseases

Typical Illness and death

adverse Social and political disruption, economic loss
effects Increased trauma in emergency settlements

Possible risk Structuring and emergency health service

reduction measures Preparing a contingency plan with inventory of required resources
Establishing an early warning system through routine surveillance
Training of national staff in emergency operations

Specific Intervention measures Verify and confirm diagnosis, identify cases, find
preparedness measures source of epidemic, treat cases and control spread, write report.
Community health education

Typical post-disaster Emergency medical assistance; international aid, if outbreak uncontained

needs

Impact Epidemiological surveys; evaluation of health care systems and emergency

assessment tools response

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Chemical and industrial accidents

Causal Disaster/explosion in a plant or storage facilities handling toxic substances

phenomena Accidents during the transportation of chemicals
Contamination of food or the environment by misuse of chemicals
Improper waste management of toxic chemicals
Technological system failures
Failures of plant safety design or components
Natural hazards such as fire, earthquake or landslides
Arson or sabotage

Predictability Incidences of chemical and industrial accidents are expected to increase as

industrialization increases in developing countries.

Factors contributing Those persons, structures, livestock, crops, and environment closest to the scene
to vulnerability of an accident are most vulnerable, however, large scale releases of airborne
pollutants may spread for hundreds of kilometres.
Lack of safety features or lack of evacuation plan.
Unawareness by vulnerable persons of the potential danger.

Typical Physical damage Damage or destruction may occur to structures and

adverse infrastructure. Transportation accidents damage vehicles and other objects on
effects impact. Industrial fires may reach high temperatures and affect large areas.
Casualties Many people may be killed or injured and require medical
treatment.
Environmental Contamination of air, water supply, land, and animal life may
occur. Areas may become uninhabitable for humans and animals. Ecological
systems may be disrupted even on a global scale.

Possible risk Development of a plan, such as the APELL (Awareness and Preparedness for
reduction measures Emergencies at the Local Level) process, to assist decision makers and technical
personnel to improve community awareness of hazardous installations and aid
them in preparing disaster response plans.

Specific Hazard mapping

preparedness measures Hazardous materials identification
Inspection of chemical plants and storage facilities
Monitoring toxic waste disposal procedures
Improve fire fighting capacity
Monitoring pollution levels
Prepare and practice evacuation plans
Test warning sirens

Typical post-disaster Evacuation from area; search and rescue; alternative sources of water; cleanup;
needs monitor environmental effects.

Impact APELL process forms for emergency response plan evaluation, CHEMTREC
assessment tools (Chemical Transportation Emergency Centre) information systems.

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PART
CHAPTER 5
Compound and
complex disasters

!
CHAPTER 5
Compound and complex disaster
complex disasterss1

Socio/political forces

Increasingly throughout many parts of the world one type of hazard can trigger
a disaster which in turn triggers another hazard and subsequent disaster. For
example, a drought may lead to a famine which in turn leads to a civil conflict
that results in the mass displacement of people. A flood may force people to seek
refuge across an international border where conflicts ensue between refugees
and local communities.
Such compound hazards and disasters need not happen sequentially; they can
also occur simultaneously. Thus, people caught between contending forces in a
civil war find that in the midst of a major drought they have no means either to
grow food or to receive outside assistance.
In a growing number of countries, complex disasters are also becoming more
evident. Essentially a complex disaster is a form of a human-made emergency in
which the cause of the emergency as well as the assistance to the afflicted are
bound by intense levels of political considerations. The single most prevalent
political condition of a complex emergency is civil conflict, resulting in a collapse
of political authority in all or part of a country. In such cases, at least one of three
situations arise:

1. The governments ability to assist the disaster-afflicted becomes severely

constrained.
2. The government becomes extremely suspicious of or uninterested in
afflicted people who have fled from non-government to government held
areas.
3. The government or opposition groups actually create or compound a
disaster through actions that generate refugees and the mass displacement
of people.
In fact, many affected people live in areas outside of government control.
They are often the persons who are most in need and they are often the most
difficult to reach with aid.
The disaster becomes complex because either the collapse or diffusion of
political control makes assistance highly problematic. Solutions ultimately
depend upon agreements with all parties involved in the conflict to permit
assistance to be provided to recognize civilian non-combatants. These solutions
may be agreements that are seen essentially as compromising fundamental
aspects of sovereignty for what have been labelled as new mechanisms of
humanitarian assistance (for example, corridors of tranquility).

1
The material from this chapter is drawn from the DMTP special topic module Displaced Persons in
Civil Conflict by Frederich Cuny; General Assembly Resolution 46/182; The Executive Summary of
the 1992 Consolidated Appeal for the Horn of Africa; and the Themes of Emergencies stated in the
First SEPHA Situation Report.

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An acute example of a situation illustrating the characteristics of both

compound and complex emergencies is the Horn of Africa. For the past several
years the situation in the Horn of Africa has been characterized by internal
conflicts in Ethiopia, Sudan, an Somalia. These conflicts have been exacerbated
by recurrent droughts and have resulted in famines on a massive scale and the
flight of large numbers of people across national borders. After years of drought
in some parts of the region, by 1991 food shortages were widespread. It became
apparent that the crisis in the region was less the result of inadequate rainfall
than that of a human-made emergency.
During the last half of 1991, the situation in many parts of the Horn
remained highly volatile and fragile, largely due to conflict and a break down of
law and order. This resulted in further population displacement and in intense
misery for millions of people.

Displaced persons

One of the most serious consequences of compound and complex emergencies is

the creation of populations of displaced persons. The example of the Horn of
Africa refers to many of the displaced populations but there are millions more in
other parts of the world.
The term displaced person applies in several contexts. These include
people who are:
! forced to leave their homes as a result of drought, famine, or other disaster,
usually in search of food
! non-combatant individuals and families forced to leave their homes because
of the direct or indirect consequences of conflict but who remain inside their
country
! forcibly resettled by their government if the resettlement is ethnically,
tribally or racially motivated
! expelled from a country, especially as an ethnic or national group, forced out
for economic or political reasons.

Reasons for concern

The international humanitarian relief system is just now beginning to meet the
challenge of working with the displaced. There are three principle reasons for
concern by relief agencies. One is that displaced persons are often ineligible to
receive relief and assistance available to refugees (individuals who have crossed
an international border seeking protection). A second reason is that the displaced
are often insecure about relying on their own government for protection. A third
reason is the obstacle of national sovereignty that limits outside agencies to assist
this population.

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CHAPTER 5
Compound and
complex disasters

Consequences and effects

The variety of possible situations generating displaced persons makes generali-

zations difficult, but the following may be experienced in varying degrees.
! loss of means of livelihood
! communities becoming separated from any services previously provided
! loss of normal sources of food
! lack of shelter and household necessities
! lack of fuel for cooking
! lack of potable water
! communicable diseases and over-crowding
! additional burdens particularly for women heads of households
! possibly large numbers of unaccompanied children
! loss of land tenure
! possible communication and logistics problems
! insecurity due to tensions and military activities

Not to be forgotten is the population that may remain at home and, even
though they are not trapped in combat areas, they nonetheless are in places
that are hard to reach because of political, logistical and/or security obstacles.
They may suffer many of the above problems and be isolated from international
humanitarian relief.

The role of the UN in complex emergencies

In light of the issues created by complex emergencies and the special needs of
displaced populations, the United Nations has determined to strengthen and
make more effective the collective efforts of the international community, in
particular the UN system, in providing humanitarian assistance. This
determination is reflected in the implementation of General Assembly resolution
46/182, passed in December of 1991.
This resolution affirms that humanitarian assistance must be provided in
accordance with the principles of humanity, neutrality and impartiality.
Accordingly the UN has a central and unique role to play in providing
leadership and coordinating the efforts of the international community to
support the affected countries.
The implementation of resolution 46!182d includes the creation of a
contingency funding arrangement, that is, a central emergency revolving fund of
US $50 million as a cash-flow mechanism to ensure the rapid and coordinated
response of the organizations of the system. The UN will also establish a central
register of specializad personnel and teams of technical specialists, supplies and
other resources that can be called upon at short notice by the UN.
The leadership of this UN initiative will be provided by a high level official,
the emergency relief coordinator, designated by the Secretary-General, to work
with the entities of the UN system dealing with humanitarian assistance. This
position combines the functions previously carried out in the coordination of UN
response by representatives of the Secretary-General for major and complex
emergencies, as well as by the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator.

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This emergency relief coordinator, among other duties, is charged with

facilitating the access by the operational organizations to emergency areas for the
rapid provision of emergency assistance. In cases of complex emergencies this
may require negotiation with all parties concerned to obtain their consent and,
where needed, the establishment of temporary relief corridors, days and zones of
tranquility and other forms.

Safety of relief teams in conflict zones

There are many operational considerations in complex emergencies. One of the

most crucial is that of the safety of relief teams in conflict zones. As coordinators
of assistance for the displaced, the UN staff bears a special responsibility for
ensuring that all personnel operating in or adjacent to conflict zones work in
conditions of minimum risk and maximum security. Guidelines and procedures
for personnel should be established in conjunction with the host government
and, where possible, with insurgent groups. The UN is often charged with the
responsibility of notifying relief workers and other organizations about the risks
they may face from military operations in or near their relief activities. In this
regard, the UN is often able to obtain clearances for special flights into contested
areas on airplanes bearing United Nations markings, to arrange for safe transport
through the front lines in specially-marked UN vehicles, and to establish special
relief corridors whereby food and relief supplies can be delivered under flags of
truce or through designated corridors, without undue restraint. It is important
for the UN to carefully assess the risks before encouraging relief organizations to
commit personnel and resources to operations in non-secure areas. A UN
assurance that an area or means of transport is safe carries much weight and
responsibility.
Two of the most important aspects of working in remote and insecure areas are
communications and stand-by evacuation support. To the greatest extent
possible, UN coordinators should ensure that relief personnel have immediate
and 24-hour access to telecommunications facilities and that suitable means are
immediately available to evacuate personnel in case of an emergency. This may
entail the assignment of light aircraft to be available on short notice to evacuate
staff.

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PART
CONTENTS

2
PART

DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
PREPAREDNESS

Introduction................................................................................................ 52

Chapter 6 The disaster management team, roles and resources............ 53

The UN Disaster Management Team ........................................................... 53
Country Disaster Management Team ........................................................... 54
Tasks, roles and resources of the UN ........................................................... 55
Roles and resources of UNDP, UNDRO, and other UN agencies ................ 55
Coordination: the resident coordinator and the UN-DMT ........................... 60

Chapter 7 Disaster preparedness.............................................................. 62

Components of disaster preparedness .......................................................... 63
Preparedness for slow onset and sudden onset disasters .............................. 66
Preparedness within the United Nations ...................................................... 67
Checklist of basic information required by a UN-DMT .............................. 68

Chapter 8 Vulnerability and risk assessment........................................... 74

Risk management......................................................................................... 74
Risk probability............................................................................................ 74
Acceptable levels of risk.............................................................................. 75
Assessing risk and vulnerability................................................................... 75
How is risk determined?............................................................................... 76
Vulnerability evaluation............................................................................... 77
Reducing vulnerability for displaced persons.............................................. 79

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PART
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
PREPAREDNESS

Introduction

Part One of this module introduced background information regarding hazards,

disasters, and the disaster continuum. The rest of the module will address each
of the phases of the disaster continuum with a special focus on preparedness,
response and mitigation.

The framework for studying these disaster phases is disaster management which
has been defined as

the body of policy and administrative decisions and operational activities which
pertain to the various stages of a disaster at all levels.

The scope of disaster management, therefore, can include all disaster-related

activities. These activities become so inclusive that no one individual is respon-
sible for the entire range. Instead the responsibility is divided according to job
descriptions and limited by the organizations primary functions. The Red
Cross/Red Crescent Societies, for example, work mainly in preparedness and
emergency response phases and less often in reconstruction. Some NGOs work
only in reconstruction. Even government, with its broad responsibility for
overall aspects of disaster management, breaks down these components to be
managed by several of its agencies. The UN has similar allocations of responsi-
bility as a function of its agencies mandates and sectoral expertise.
The following chapters will discuss the component activities of disaster
management. You will be asked to examine your individual and organizational
responsibilities in relation to each phase of activity.

After reading this part of the text and completing the exercises, you should know
the basic concepts, aims and elements of disaster and emergency management.
You will be able to:

LEARNING ! describe the UN and country disaster management teams and the role of each
member
OBJECTIVES
! identify the components of disaster preparedness planning
! describe the role of vulnerability and risk assessment as a prerequisite to disaster
mitigation

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PART
CHAPTER 6
Disaster manage-
ment team,roles
and resources
!
CHAPTER 6
The Disaster Mana
Managgement Team

Part One was a brief introduction to hazards and disasters. But, before we go
further into describing the nature of disasters, we will introduce part of your role
in the management of them.
One of the primary purposes of this overall training program is to introduce
the concept of managing disasters as a team. The objectives of disaster manage-
ment through teamwork include:
" a forum for communication, information exchange and developing consensus

" a format for coordination, eliminating duplication and reducing gaps in

services
" the possibility of being more effective through pooled resources

The UN Disaster Management Team Figure 6.1

The UN disaster
The United Nations General Assembly believes that the objectives of team management team
management are applicable to the UN agencies oriented to emergencies.
They have mandated that a standing
UN Disaster Management Team
(UN-DMT) be formed in each disas-
ter-prone country, convened
and chaired by the UN resident
coordinator. The composition of the
UN-DMT is determined by taking into
account the types of disaster to which
the country is prone and the organiza-
tions present, but should normally
include a core group consisting of the
country-level representatives of FAO,
UNDP/UNDRO, UNICEF, WFP,
WHO and, where present, UNHCR. It
may be enlarged to include additional
representatives or project personnel
from other relevant agencies when
an emergency arises.
The original and primary purpose
of the UN-DMT is to ensure a prompt,
effective and concerted response by the
UN system at country level in the
event of a disaster. The team should
also ensure similar coordination of
UN assistance to the Government in
respect to post-disaster rehabilitation
and reconstruction, and relevant
disaster mitigation measures through

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3
long-term development programs. It should be emphasized that for all aspects of
disaster management the UN-DMT is in a support role of the government.
The UN-DMT recognizes and in no way supersedes the mandates and
specific functions of the various organizations in the exercise of those mandates.
It supports and assists the office of the resident coordinator in the exercise of its
system-wide functions. In line with General Assembly resolution 46/182, the
latter will maintain close contact with, and receive leadership from the Emer-
gency Relief Coordinator.

Country Disaster Management Team

Figure 6.2
Country disaster Most disaster prone countries already have a formal or informal disaster man-
management team agement team. It is typically headed by a national disaster focal point body. This
body functions in liaison with the
Office of the President or Prime
Minister, with civil defense organi-
zations, key government minis-
tries, the Red Cross/Red Crescent,
and other NGOs and major donors.
The UN-DMT needs to interface
with this team and, where practi-
cal, to be a team member.
Where national officials do not
participate in UN-DMT meetings
or activities, the resident coordina-
tor should ensure that they are
consulted and briefed on all
relevant matters. In practice it is
vital that the policies of the DMT
relate to those approved by the
Government even under the
pressure of event.

Q. In your county which UN agencies are present that could become

operational in a disaster? Which additional governmental and non-
governmental organizations and donors should work together on a
country disaster management team?

A.

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CHAPTER 6
Disaster manage-
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and resources
Tasks, roles and resources of the UN

This part of the chapter is condensed from Chapter 1 of the UNDP/UNDRO

Disaster Management Manual. It describes the role of the UN system and its
agencies in disaster management.

Organizational tasks and general roles

Primary responsibility for all aspects of disaster management rests with the
Government of the affected country. This includes: planning and implementing
long-term risk reduction and preparedness measures; requesting and adminis-
tering disaster relief and rehabilitation operations, requesting international
assistance if required; and coordinating all disaster-related assistance programs,
both nationally and internationally-funded.
Each UN organization or agency is responsible for providing advice and
assistance to the Government of a disaster-prone or disaster-affected country, in
accordance with its mandate and the resources available to it. In so doing, each
agency is accountable to its own governing body, but it is also called upon to act
as a member of a united team. In the case of refugee emergencies, UNHCR
remains responsible for their protection and the coordination of international
assistance for the refugees.
In relation to disaster relief and other post-disaster assistance, each organiza-
tion and agency of the UN system is called on to:
" Mobilize and provide timely technical assistance and material support
to disaster-affected countries, according to its own mandate and the resources
available to it.
" Co-operate with the UN resident coordinator, UNDRO, or any other
coordination mechanism established by the Secretary-General to ensure
appropriate, coordinated UN system assistance in the context of a concerted
plan and program.
Government

Roles and resources of UNDP, UNDRO, and

other UN agencies

The role of UNDP

UNDP focuses primarily on the development-related aspects of disaster risks
and occurrences, and on providing technical assistance to institution-building in
relation to all aspects of disaster management. Its emphasis is therefore on:
a) Incorporating long-term risk reduction and preparedness measures in
normal development planning and programs, including support for specific
mitigation measures where required.
b) Assisting in the planning and implementation of post-disaster rehabilitation
and reconstruction, including the definition of new development strategies
that incorporate risk reduction measures relevant to the affected area.
c) Reviewing the impact of large settlements of refugees or displaced persons
on development and seeking ways to incorporate the refugees and displaced
persons in development strategies.
d) Providing technical assistance to the authorities managing major emergency
assistance operations of extended duration (especially in relation to dis-
placed persons and the possibilities for achieving durable solutions in such
cases).
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In addition, UNDP provides administrative and operational support to

the resident coordinator function, particularly at country level, but also at
headquarters.
In the event of a disaster, UNDP may grant a maximum of $50,000 from SPR
funds to provide immediate relief. UNDP is not otherwise involved in the
provision of relief using any of its own resources or other funds administered
by the Program.
Where a major emergency substantially affects the whole development
process within a country, IPF resources may be used to provide technical assis-
tance to plan and manage the operation, with the agreement of the Government.
Technical and material assistance in support of long-term risk reduction and
preparedness measures is included in the country program, and may be funded
from IPF resources or from other UNDP-administered funds. The same can also
be used to assist rehabilitation and reconstruction. Special additional grants (up
to $1.1 million) may be made from SPR funds for technical assistance to such
post-disaster recovery efforts following natural disasters.
The particular responsibilities of the UNDP resident representative are
summarized in the following panel.

Disaster management responsibilities of the UNDP resident representative

The resident representative is responsible for:

a) Ensuring that all concerned in planning development programs are aware of
any known or potential hazards and their likely effects, and that these are
appropriately taken into account in the country program.
b) Designating a disaster focal point, and ensuring that the field office is
adequately prepared to respond to an emergency.
c) In the event of a disaster:
" Mobilizing UNDP staff and technical assistance personnel and other
resources that meet the needs of the situation, particularly those needed
for the initial assessment and immediate response.
" Ensuring that UNDP assistance is used to good effect, and the capacity
of the office is strengthened if necessary to ensure effective response.

In all disaster-prone country field offices, a senior national

officer is designated a disaster focal point for all disaster-related
matters including mitigation, response and international UN/
UNDP preparedness. Section 3A and appendix 3A of the UNDP/
UNDRO Disaster Manual provide detail on the duties and qualifi-
cations of the disaster focal point.
In a major or complex emergency of extended duration (typically
involving displaced populations), UNDP may temporarily assign an
additional deputy resident representative. That deputy may either
manage normal UNDP business while the resident representative
concentrates on the resident coordinator functions, or may take day-to-
day responsibility for matters relating to the emergency which are within
the UNDP mandate. In the countries with the most severe or prolonged
Disaster focal point emergencies UNDP has established UN Emergency Units. These units
are able to focus exclusively on addressing the emergency and are often

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Disaster manage-
ment team, roles
and resources
staffed by persons seconded from sister UN agencies that are operational in that
country.
In the event of a sudden influx of refugees into a country in which there is no
UNHCR representation, the resident representative immediately notifies
UNHCR and initiates the assessment process on behalf of the UNHCR. (See
section 4A.5 of the manual.)

The role of UNDRO

UNDRO is the focal point for disaster management in the UN system (except in
those countries where a UN Emergency Unit is established). In relief it provides
a framework for coordination of assistance by the UN agencies and helps to
coordinate such assistance with that from other sources. In addition, UNDRO
has an important role in mobilizing external assistance and serving as a clearing
house for information concerning disasters. In the area of mitigation, UNDRO
promotes long-term measures to reduce disaster-related risks and enhance
preparedness in disaster-prone countries. UNDRO is represented at country
level on a permanent basis by the resident coordinator/representative.
Coordination at headquarters level is often effected by contacts between the
Head of Agencies concerned at the beginning of a relief operation, and through
frequent ongoing contacts between the relevant focal points. At the country level,
coordination is undertaken by the resident coordinator who is also the UNDRO
representative. Whenever possible and required, UNDRO supports the resident
coordinator by dispatching an UNDRO delegate or emergency assistance team.
UNDRO concentrates on problems related to natural hazards and sudden
disasters, but as its mandate covers all kinds of emergencies UNDRO may also
offer its services and advice in situations including droughts, and cases of war
and civil conflicts, unless and until the Secretary-General makes other arrange-
ments.
Following a disaster, UNDRO, acting on behalf of the Secretary-General,
offers its services to the Government of the disaster-stricken state in assessing the
need for external relief assistance, and communicating that information to
prospective donors and others concerned. (Contacts with The Government are
conducted through the resident coordinator /representative and the countrys
mission in Geneva or New York.) Where international assistance is required or
requested, UNDRO:
" Helps to identify priority needs on the basis of information from the Govern-
ment, the resident coordinator/representative, UN-DMT, and other compe-
tent bodies.
" Issues international appeals and acts as a clearing house for information on
needs and contributions, the assistance extended or planned by all donors,
and the progress of relief operations.
" Seeks to mobilize resources and coordinate relief assistance by various UN
organizations and agencies, bilateral donors, and inter-and non-govern
mental organizations and administers funds channelled through it.

Depending on the particular situation after consultations, wherever possible,

with the Government or the resident coordinator/ representative, UNDRO may:
" Assign one or more delegates on mission to assist the national authorities in
organizing the assessment and administering relief operations, and assist the
resident coordinator/representative in information management, the local

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coordination of international relief assistance, and in his reporting responsi-

bilities to UNDRO.
" Provide logistic support to ensure the timely arrival of relief supplies and
their prompt delivery to the affected population. This may include organiz-
ing shared or joint relief flights.

The Coordinator may approve a grant of up to US$50,000 per disaster from

funds available to UNDRO, subject to certain conditions. In some situations,
UNDRO can release supplies from the emergency stockpile it administers in Pisa,
Italy.

UNDP/UNDRO collaboration
UNDP and UNDRO complement each other. UNDP has a wealth of experience
in development planning and administration, and well-established field offices.
UNDRO has specific knowledge and experience in disaster management, and
established contacts with relevant specialist bodies. The fact that the UNDP
resident representative also represents UNDRO helps to ensure fruitful coopera-
tion between the organizations.
At the country level UNDP field offices generally administer funds and
resources channelled through UNDRO, following normal inter-agency proce-
dures. This includes the local procurement of supplies and services, and the
recruitment and appointment of temporary staff.
;

Disaster-related roles of the core members of the UN-DMTs

Provides technical advice in reducing vulnerability and helps in the rehabilitation of agriculture,
livestock, and fisheries, with emphasis on local food production. Monitors food production,
exports and imports, and forecasts any requirements of exceptional food assistance.

Promotes the incorporation of disaster mitigation in development planning, and funds techni-
cal assistance for all aspects of disaster management. Provides administrative support to the
resident coordinator and UN-DMT.

Mobilizes and coordinates international emergency relief assistance, issuing consolidated

appeals. Assists in assessments and relief management if required. Provides advice and
guidance on risk assessments and in planning and implementing mitigation measures.

Assures the protection of refugees and seeks durable solutions to their problems. Helps to
mobilize and assure the delivery of necessary assistance in the country of asylum if it is a
developing country.

Attends to the well-being of children and women, especially child health and nutrition. Assis-
tance activities may include: social programs; child feeding (in collaboration with WFP); water
supplies, sanitation and direct health interventions (in collaboration with WHO). Provides
related management and logistical support.

Provides targeted food aid for humanitarian relief, and to support rehabilitation, reconstruc-
tion, and risk-reducing development programs. Mobilizes and coordinates the delivery of
complementary emergency and program food aid from bilateral and other sources.

Provides advice and assistance in all aspects of preventive and curative health care, including
the preparedness of health services for rapid response to disaster.

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ment team, roles
and resources
Role of other UN organizations and agencies
A number of other UN organizations and agencies have specific responsibilities,
organizational arrangements, and capabilities relating to disaster mitigation,
and/or relief or recovery assistance. UNDP, UNDRO, and resident coordinators
must respect the mandates and skills of these agencies, and seek to ensure that
all work together in harmony. All should use their expertise and resources to
best effect in helping people in disaster-prone and disaster-affected areas.

UN system resources available to initiate responses to disasters and emergency needs

Up to $20,000 at discretion of FAOR within the context of an ongoing emergency

or long-term aid project.

Up to $50,000 per occurrence for immediate relief; approved by the Director DOF
following a request from the resident representative.
Up to $1.1 million for technical assistance for rehabilitation and reconstruction;
approved by the Administrator or Governing Council.
IPF funds for technical assistance to emergency management is major operations agreed with
Government; approved by Director PCO.

Up to $50,000 per disaster, subject to the availability of resources; approved by

the UNDRO co-ordinator following a request by the Government and proposal by
the resident representative or other UN organization or agency.

Allocations from a global emergency reserve for assistance to refugees, approved

by the High Commissioner.

Up to $25,000 diversion of existing programme funds or in-country supplies at

discretion of the country representative in agreement with Government. Larger
amounts from global emergency reserve ($4 million per year); approved by
Executive Director following a specific proposal by the country representative.
Possibility of diverting some existing country programme funds in case of a major
national catastrophe.

Possibility of borrowing food food aid commodities from ongoing WFP-assisted

development projects, governmental or other donor stocks, subject to headquarters
approval to assure replacement.
Up to $50,000 for local purchases of commodities at the discretion of the Director
of Operations where there are no other means of arranging timely deliveries.
Allocations primarily from the International Emergency Food Reserve (IEFR),
managed by WFP, and from WFP general resources ($45 million annually).

Global reserve from which allocations can be made for priority medical needs in
anticipation of special donor contributions; approved by the Director ERO.

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Coordination: the resident coordinator and the UN-DMT

The national Government is ultimately responsible for requesting and

ccoordinating all international assistance. It also approves all programs and
emergency work in the country. However, the UN system stands ready to assist
upon request. At the country level, the resident coordinator/representative and
the UN disaster Management Team (UN-DMT) are the essential UN coordinat-
ing institutions. Their responsibilities apply to all situations which require
significant interventions from more than one UN organization or agency. At the
international level, UNDRO promotes the coordination of responses to particular
disaster situations, both within the UN system and in the wider international
community, essentially through information-sharing.

Coordination

Coordination as used in the manual, means:

" The intelligent sharing of information and the frank, constructive
discussion of issues and possible courses of action.
" Achieving consensus on objectives and an overall strategy.
" The voluntary adoption by those concerned of specific responsibilities
and tasks in the context of the agreed objectives and strategy.
Coordination is based on mutual respect for the competencies and
agreed responsibilities of each party, and willingness to co-operate in
addressing and solving problems in pursuit of a common aim.

Role of the UN resident coordinator

The resident coordinator, also representing UNDRO, is both the UN systems
team leader at country level, and chairman of the UN-DMT. Following the
occurrence of a major disaster, the resident coordinator/representative must be
ready to give absolute priority to this coordination role, which also includes
helping to ensure the coordination of all international emergency assistance.
The resident coordinator should fulfill the general responsibilities indicated
in the panel on the next page.

Coordination arrangements for emergencies

The Secretary-General of the United Nations has appointed an Emergency Relief
Coordinator at the level of the Under Secretary-General, who has been entrusted
with the responsibility for the coordination of emergency assistance as outlined
in General Assembly Resolution 46/182 of 19 December 1991. The Emergency
Relief Coordinator is in charge of the Central Emergency Revolving Fund, which
has been established as a cashflow mechanism of US$ 50 million to ensure the
rapid and coordinated response of the organizations of the system. He has
direct access to the Secretary General in New York and maintains contacts with,
and provides leadership to, the field Resident Coordinators.

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Disaster management responsibilities of the resident coordinator (also representing UNDRO)

On an ongoing basis, the resident coordinator must:

- Ensure that the UN organizations and agencies active in a disaster-prone country are collectively
prepared to offer appropriate technical and material assistance as part of an overall international
response in the event of a disaster.
- Ensure that the same agencies take account of disaster risks in their long-term development programs,
and provide concerted assistance in relation to disaster mitigation, in consultation with any national
IDNDR committee.

In the event of a multi-sectoral disaster:

- Bring the various agencies of the UN system together and ensure the provision of prompt, effective, and
concerted multi-disciplinary advice and assistance.
- Maintain contact with the government authority responsible for conducting relief operations. Ensure
concerted UN assistance to that authority in assessing the situation and the requirements for international
assistance.
- Keep UNDRO informed of the situation and needs for international assistance. Provide a clear statement
of priority needs for international assistance rapidly to UNDRO for distribution internationally, and provide
similar information to the local representatives of the international community. Update the information
continuously to keep it current.
- Recommend that the UN team be reinforced by the appropriate agencies at the country level when
necessary.
- Help to secure co-operation and coordination between all international assistance bodies, the
government, and other national organizations to ensure proper management of international assistance.

In case of a refugee influx or mono-sectoral disaster:

- Consult with the local representative of the competent UN organization or agency (UNHCR or other) to
determine what the resident coordinator and UN-DMT should do to support that agency.

Q. State three disaster management roles of UNDP that are distinct

from UNDRO and three roles of UNDRO that are distinct from UNDP.

A.

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FINANCING
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!
CHAPTER 7
Disaster pr
preepar edness
paredness

The concept of disaster preparedness is quite straightforward. Its objective is to

ensure that in times of disasters appropriate systems, procedures and resources
are in place to assist those afflicted by the disaster and enable them to help
themselves.

The aims of disaster preparedness are to

minimize the adverse effects of a hazard through
effective precautionary actions, and to ensure
timely, appropriate and efficient organization and
delivery of emergency response following the
impact of a disaster.
This definition establishes the broad
framework for disaster preparedness, but it is
worth dwelling on some of the points implicit in
the definition.

to minimize the adverse effects of a hazard

Disaster risk reduction is intended to minimize

the adverse effects of a hazard by eliminating the
vulnerabilities which hazards otherwise would
expose and by directly reducing the potential
impact of a hazard before it strikes. Disaster
preparedness in its starkest form assumes that
certain groups of people will nevertheless remain
vulnerable, and that preparedness will have to
address the consequences of a hazards impact.

through effective precautionary actions

It is important to note that the term used is precautionary actions, for all
too often the end product of disaster preparedness is seen as a static plan to be
devised and then filed until it is needed. Disaster preparedness, to the contrary,
must be seen as an active and continuing process. Of course, both plans and
strategies are required, but they both must be dynamic ventures, which are
frequently reviewed, modified, updated and tested.

to ensure timely, appropriate, and efficient organization and delivery

Perhaps one of the most difficult aspects of disaster management is that of

timing. Timing also impinges upon the concept of disaster preparedness. Speed
and timeliness have often been treated synonymously, a major conceptual flaw.
Decisions related to timing must consider the relationship between relief inputs
and their effects. In some types of disasters, flood, for example, there are certain
basics such as shelter and clothing that may be required immediately. In terms of
alleviating immediate distress, speed is critical. However, there are other forms

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Similarly, appropriate assistance demands careful scrutiny. The issue goes

beyond the standard stories of canned pork and high heeled shoes to flooded,
Muslim communities. The issue goes to the important and natural link between
disaster preparedness, recovery and rehabilitation. Ultimately we need to ask if
one of the key objectives of disaster preparedness the provision of appropriate
assistance is designed merely to ensure the immediate survival of affected
communities or, in ensuring immediate survival, to simultaneously pave the way
for recovery?
efficient organization and delivery
Efficient organization and delivery suggest obvious criteria for effective
disaster preparedness. Systematic planning, well executed distribution, clear cut
roles and responsibilities are all vital. However, too often disaster situations
create conditions of chaos. The best laid plans can mitigate but not eliminate the
chaos. To the extent possible, preparedness plans should seek to anticipate the
sources of chaos and equally as important should try to anticipate what to do
when plans go awry. However, where a criterion of efficiency becomes particu-
larly important is in the context of distribution. The key here is to ensure that
efficiency is measured in terms of the ability to deliver needed assistance to those
most vulnerable. All too often in disaster relief situations, food and non-food
relief arrives at the scene of a disaster, but no system or structure has been
established to ensure that those in greatest need are the beneficiaries. In the final
analysis, the most important test of efficiency is that those in need are adequately
provided for.

Components of disaster preparedness

There are nine major components involved in disaster
preparedness which provide a framework upon which a
national disaster preparedness strategy can be developed.
Assessing vulnerability
Fundamental to all aspects of disaster management is
information. It is a point that may appear obvious, but it
is frequently overlooked. The disaster manager may know
that a particular geographic region or community is
susceptible to the impacts of sudden or slow-onset
hazards. However, in reality, until a decision is made
on systematic ways to compile and assess information
about disaster vulnerabilities, the manager is and will
be working in a void.
Developing and compiling vulnerability assessments is one way of
approaching a systematic means of establishing an essential disaster
management tool. There will be more on this subject in the next chapter.

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Planning
Throughout all the activities designed to promote disaster preparedness,
the ultimate objective is to have plans in place that are agreed upon, that are
implementable and for which commitment and resources are relatively assured.
The plan itself will have to address other points in this framework.

Institutional framework
A coordinated disaster preparedness and response system is a prerequisite to
any disaster preparedness plan. Each system design will depend upon the
traditions and governmental structure of the country under review. However,
without ensuring that there is horizontal coordination at central government
levels among ministries and specialized government bodies and vertical
coordination between central and local authorities, a plan will rapidly
disintegrate. This requires a structure for decision-making, inter-ministerial
committees to coordinate the plan, focal points within each ministry to be
responsible for the plan implementation and communication, as well as
regional and community structures to implement the plan at the local level.

Information systems
The preparedness plan must have an information system. For slow onset
disasters this should consist of a formalized data collection process, and early
warning system (especially for regions prone to famine), and monitoring system
to update the early warning information. For sudden onset disasters a similar
system must be in place for prediction, warning, and evacuation communication.

Resource base
The requirements to meet an emergency situation will clearly depend upon the
types of hazards the plan anticipates. Such requirements should be made explicit,
and should cover all aspects of disaster relief and recovery implementation. The
range of relief requirements is too extensive to put in this module, but this list
indicates some of the major requirements:
shelter
medicines
food
supplementary food
communications systems
logistics systems
relief workers
clearance equipment

Warning systems
For most types of rapid onset disasters, a warning system can save many lives.
By giving a vulnerable population adequate notice of an impending disaster,
they can either escape the event or take precautions to reduce the dangers.
However, you must assume that functioning communications systems, such as
telephones and telexes, may not be available in times of a major disaster. Begin
to plan a warning system around that assumption. Consider what type of
communications equipment will be needed and sustainable if power lines and
receiving stations are destroyed. Preparedness plans should include provisions
for access to alternative communication systems among police, military and
government networks.

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Warning is also critical for slow onset disasters and population

displacements. In this case it is called early warning and has to do with
information and its distribution regarding either:
giving timely notice of an impending world crisis in the supply of food
making ready for or preventing forced migrations of people.

Response mechanisms
The plans ultimate test is the effectiveness of response to warnings and disaster
impacts. At a certain stage in the warning process, various responses will have to
be mobilized. The staging of responses becomes an essential factor in designing a
preparedness plan. Chapter 9 lays out the required responses.

Public education and training

The focus of a disaster preparedness plan should be to anticipate, to the extent
possible, the types of requirements needed for action or responses to warnings
and a disaster relief operation. The plan should also specify the most effective
ways of ensuring that such requirements are met. Yet, the process will only be
effective if those who are the ultimate beneficiaries know what to do in times of
disasters and know what to expect. For this reason, an essential part of a disaster
preparedness plan is the education of those who may be threatened by disaster.
Such education takes many forms, such as: (1) Public education in schools for
children and young adults, emphasizing what actions should be taken in case of
a disaster threat (for example, earthquake tremors); (2) Special training courses,
designed for an adult population either specifically or as an extra dimension of
on-going programmes such as Preventive Health Care or Maternal and Child
Health programmes; (3) Extension programmes, in which community and Fujieda, Japan
village-based extension workers are instructed to provide relevant information
School children
and trained for the tasks they should undertake during the event; (4) Public
practicing an
information, through mass media, be they television, radio or the printed word,
earthquake safety drill.
will never really replace the impact of direct instruction. However, if sensitively
designed and presented, mass media may provide a useful supplement to the From Nature on the
overall educational process. Rampage. Photo by Paul
Chesley.
Rehearsals (drills)
As military maneuvers cannot fully portray the
reality of battle, neither can disaster prepared-
ness rehearsals portray the full
dynamics and potential chaos of a disaster
relief operation. However, that fact should
provide no excuse for avoiding the need to
rehearse the disaster preparedness plan. Not
only will rehearsals reemphasize points made
in separate training programmes, but they
will also test the system as a whole and,
invariably, reveal gaps that otherwise might
be overlooked.1

1
The preceding part of this chapter is drawn from the
UNDP/UNDRO training module, Disaster Prepared
ness, by Randolph Kent.

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Preparedness for slow onset and sudden onset disasters

Preparedness activities for slow onset disasters often vary from those of sudden
onset. Slow onset disasters may require more active involvement on the part of
planners, especially in terms of monitoring early warning systems, for famine,
war, and civil strife. The remedial response to problems indicated by the early
warning (of potential disasters) is an extension of preparedness.
Preparedness for sudden onset disasters include the monitoring of the
predictions and warnings of disasters that may occur within a matter of days or
hours. The emergency may develop over a very brief time frame and depend on
a very different set of procedures and resources than the slow onset emergency.

Q. On the following list of disaster preparedness components identify

at least one responsibility that you, in your official capacity, can or should
assume for that component. If you have none, list who is the most
responsible agency in your country for that component.

A.
Assessing vulnerability

Planning

Institutional framework

Information systems

Resource base

Warning systems

Response mechanisms

Public education and training

Rehearsals

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Preparedness within the United Nations 2

The UN system at the country level must be able to facilitate and deliver
appropriate and co-ordinated assistance in an emergency. The UN Disaster
Management Team (UN-DMT) is the standing inter-agency body for this.

The UN-DMT should meet at regular intervals to:

" review prevention and preparedness arrangements within the country,
including the progress of any relevant ongoing development projects
" review preparedness arrangements within the UN team of agencies (as
described below)
" discuss the analysis and interpretation of data from in-country and external
famine early warning systems
" decide on any specific actions to be taken by members of the group
individually and/or collectively

Q. Match the list of disaster preparedness components with the list of

examples of each component.

A.
Disaster preparedness components
1. Vulnerability assessment
2. Planning
3. Institutional framework
4. Information systems
5. Resource base
6. Warning systems
7. Response mechanisms
8. Public education and training
9. Rehearsals

Examples

A. Updates to vulnerability assessments

B. Assessment teams and search and rescue
C. A map showing a population living in a flood zone 9-D
D. Practice 8-H
E. Designing the activities promoting disaster preparedness
7-B
F. The required material and logistical support for an emergency
G. Organizational arrangements to maximize coordination
6-I
H. A poster explaining what to do when an earthquake hits 5-F
I. Communications procedures as part of the system 4-A
3-G
2-E
1-C
2
ANSWER
The remainder of this chapter is from the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.

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Checklist of basic information required by a UN-DMT 3

In order to facilitate rapid, appropriate responses to disasters, the following

kinds of information should be readily available in advance to all members of the
UN-DMT.
The Government should have much of this information incorporated and
maintained up-to-date in the framework of a national disaster preparedness
plan. This information should be made available to the Resident Coordinator,
and member agencies of the UN-DMT.
If this information is not available, or only partially available, the UN-DMT
should compile and maintain it as a team effort, normally in collaboration with
national counterparts. The specialized agencies would each address respective
areas of concern. The resident coordinator should see that all sectors are covered.
The check list presented here should be adapted to local circumstances.
Special care and attention should be given to information relevant to areas and
communities which are particularly vulnerable and disaster-prone.
This checklist often refers to agency or organizational contacts. To keep your
information current, you should have for all contacts:
" name
" office address and telephone, fax, and telex numbers
" home address and telephone number
" electronic mail address, if the person has one
You should have the same information for any alternates or deputies.

DISASTER Disaster profile of country

PROFILE
$ The history of the incidence and magnitude of particular types of disasters in different
areas, their impacts on the population and the economy.
$ The types of emergency and post-disaster assistance provided from all sources in the
past; the effectiveness of that assistance given the problems faced the lessons
learned.
$ The kinds of needs which can therefore be anticipated in particular areas and
circumstances, and the kinds of assistance interventions which might be required.

National policies, objectives and standards

Policies with regard to the soliciting, acceptance and use of international assistance,
$ including external personnel.
$ The authority delegated to local institutions, and the possible roles of national NGOs
and outside assistance agencies.
National $ Policies (both whether or not and how) regarding vaccinations, prophylactic
policies distribution of drugs, the care of unaccompanied children, and salvaging of materials.
$ Policies and criteria for any distribution of relief: whether to be on a free, for-sale or
on-credit basis; what, if any, differentiation should be encouraged within and between
different population subgroups.
$ The particular objectives and standards which should be applied to ration scales for
food and water, and any distribution of shelter materials and household supplies.
$ Specifications of the kinds of food and other commodities which are appropriate and
acceptable as donations, and those which are not.
$ General specifications for the kind of energy sources normally preferred for vehicles
(diesel or petrol) and generators and pumps (diesel or electric).
3
From UNDP/UNDRO $ General priorities for the restoration of infrastructure and services.
Disaster Management
Manual, Appendix 3B
$ Policies and arrangements for importing emergency assistance supplies, such as
arrangements for waiving fees and taxes, and for the clearance of special relief flights.

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Government structures for warning and emergency response

$ The contact responsible for all national hazard forecasting and warning systems.
$ The government contact (and deputy) normally responsible for the management of
emergency relief and post-disaster assistance operations in a central co-ordination DMT
body, if one exists. Contracts in individual ministries. CHECKLIST
$ The address and telephone/fax/telex numbers of any national disaster co-ordination
centre, and whether and how foreign donor officials will have access to the centre
during emergencies.
$ The procedures established (at national and local levels) for assessing damage,
needs and resources following the impact of a disaster.
$ The contacts in the national disaster management body or the sectoral ministries
responsible for arranging and assuring:
" Coordination and liaison with the international community (UN system,
embassies, NGOs)
" Search and rescue operations
" Post-disaster surveys and assessments
" Food supply assistance, where needed
" Medical and preventive health care
" Water supplies
" Environmental sanitation
" Emergency shelter and other relief supplies
" Communications
" Logistic services (transport, storage and handling)
" Information management (including records and reports)
" Security

$ Role of the national armed forces and relationship between the civil and military
authorities in directing operations.

Other external and national assistance organizations

$ The contacts at the principal embassies and donor agencies, the potential
contributions of their governments and organizations to post-disaster assistance
operations, and the resources they have on immediate call locally.
$ The contacts at the national Red Cross/Red Crescent Society and the principal NGOs,
their potential contributions to emergency and post-disaster assistance operations,
and the resources (human, material, and financial) they have on immediate call.

Base-line data on each distinct disaster-prone area

$ Demographic details: the location, size and socio-economic characteristics of
communities, including average family size, sources and levels of income, and any
traditional patterns of seasonal migration.
$ Formal and informal leadership structures, any particular social or religious
considerations, traditional community support processes at times of disaster,
and any taboos.
$ General climatic conditions, including day and night temperatures at different times of
year.
$ Local food habits, including weaning practices, of the various socio-economic groups.
$ Normal nutritional status of children, including any normal seasonal variations.
$ Diseases endemic to the area, including prevailing patterns of mortality and morbidity.
$ Normal sources of water: sources and methods of extraction; treatment;
and distribution.

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$ Food supply systems and local production: types, seasonal production cycles and
normal yields of both major crops and small gardens, and average on-farm stock
retention levels.
$ Services operating (official and non-official): health, education, rural development,
public works, and social welfare. This should include the location and specific nature
of the services provided and the personnel employed.
$ Coverage and general condition of the infrastructure, including roads,
telecommunications, and electricity supplies.

Resources: material and human

Resources include supplies and services which can be mobilized in-country for
emergency and post-disaster assistance operations. Potential sources include
government bodies, commercial companies (locally or in a neighbouring country), NGOs
and other aid organizations and development projects operating in or near the areas at
risk.

Medical/health care4
$ Hospitals, clinics and other health facilities: number of beds, ambulances, availability
of special equipment, number of trained doctors, nurses and nurses aides, contacts at
all facilities.
$ Stocks and sources of medical supplies: names, addresses, and telephone/fax/telex
numbers of all medical supply stores; manufacturers of pharmaceuticals and supplies;
and laboratories producing vaccines and serums.

Food supplies
$ Location, capacities, and normal stock levels of food stores, telephone/fax/telex
numbers of government marketing boards, food supply departments, commercial
importers, food wholesalers, and food aid donors.
$ Details of existing food rationing and distribution programmes (including food-for-
work), their organizational arrangements, procedures, and capacity to meet
emergency needs.

Nutrition and epidemiology5

$ Nature, location, and capacity of any nutritional rehabilitation (therapeutic feeding)
activities, their organizational arrangements, procedures and capacity to meet
emergency needs.
$ Extent and validity of any nutritional status surveys or surveillance programmes, in-
country sources of nutritional expertise (with relevant field experience).
Location and capacity of epidemiological surveillance and survey expertise linked to
communicable disease control programmes.

Water supplies, hygiene and environmental sanitation

$ Names, addresses, telephone/telex numbers of producers, large wholesalers, and
retail outlets for the following types of supplies, including location and usual stock
levels on inventory:
" Water pumps, tanks, pipes and fittings
" Road tankers for hire or purchase
" Lime or other chemicals for water disinfection
" Hard bar soap, detergents, and disinfectants
" Materials for establishing temporary latrines

" Supplies and equipment for vector control operations

4
Information should be assured by WHO staff in the context of preparedness profiles issued by
WHO headquarters.
5
Nutrition aspects may not be a priority concern in the immediate aftermath of a sudden natural
disaster, but are crucial in all emergency situations of extended duration, especially droughts,
famines, and in all cases involving population displacements.

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$ The quantities of these supplies normally available in government stocks in specified

locations.
$ The availability of mobile water treatment units and generators through the military or
major contractors. DMT
$ Sources of trained personnel and tools to undertake rapid repairs or to construct new CHECKLIST
or temporary installations.

Emergency shelter and relief materials

$ Names, addresses, telephone/telex numbers of producers, large wholesalers, and
retail outlets for the following types of supplies, including location and usual stock
levels on inventory:
" Heavy-duty tents, tarpaulins, thick polythene sheeting

" Corrugated roofing sheets, lumber, cement

" Blankets
" Cooking pots and utensils (household size, and institutional size for communal
kitchens)

$ The quantities of these supplies normally available in government stocks in specified

locations.

Construction equipment
$ Names, addresses, telephone/telex numbers of road and building contractors,
including their approximate availabilities of bulldozers, drag-lines, hoists, cranes,
hydraulic jacks, mobile generators, and pumps.
$ Contact points of government sources for the same types of equipment, for example,
within the Ministry of Public Works or Defense.

Communications

$ Contacts within the responsible authorities for establishing telecommunications

service, including the repair of normal systems and the installation of temporary radio
networks, where needed.
$ Policies concerning the use of communications equipment by international teams and
aid organizations.

Logistics systems and facilities

Logistics considerations include details of normal transport routes and capacities to and
within the disaster-prone areas, and knowledge of the specific logistical problems likely to
be faced moving supplies following a disaster.
$ Roads
" Have copies of the best available maps
" Identify essential road links and best alternative routes
" Mark potential constraints on truck traffic (such as bridge load capacities and ferry
movement capacities), and any points vulnerable to occurrences such as flooding
or landslides

$ Trucking capacity
" Government fleets: the number and condition of trucks of specified types and
capacities in different departments and locations which might be available to
transport relief supplies
" Commercial capacity: private transport contractors able to operate to or within the
areas concerned, including details of their fleets, the locations of their offices and
maintenance facilities, and normal rates

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$ Railways
" Track gauges, wagon capacities, and any loading constraints on various lines
" Daily movement capacities on various lines, and the numbers of locomotives and
wagons which might be available during each season
" Reliability and operational constraints, including any feasible measures to improve
performance
$ Sea and river ports
" Harbor depths, quay lengths, cargo handling equipment
" Daily discharge capacity, and seasonal patterns of exports and imports
" Size of covered and open storage areas, and amount normally available at
different seasons
" Normal offtake capacities: road and rail.
$ Coastal and river craft
" Government craft: the numbers and condition of boats, tugs and barges (of
specified types and capacities) in different locations which might be available for
rescue operations or to transport relief supplies
" Commercial capacity: contacts with private shipping contractors able to operate in
the areas concerned, including details of their fleets and normal rates
$ Airports and air-strips
" The precise locations and the length, width, surface and load classification of
runways in the affected areas
" Largest type of aircraft able to operate
" Fuel availability (avgas and jet fuel)
" Navigation and landing aids, and hours open for flying
" Cargo handling equipment and storage capacity
$ Aircraft and air transport
" Government: number and types of aircraft and helicopters likely to be available to
transport personnel and relief supplies; the approximate costs of operation of
military and other government aircraft and helicopters
" National airline and other companies: number and types of aircraft and helicopters
likely to be available to transport personnel and relief supplies; approximate
charter costs
$ Storage and handling
" Government warehouses: the location, size, and type of stores in different areas
which might be available for relief supplies; the general condition of the sores,
level of security, access to road and rail transport, the availability of pallets, hand
trucks, and forklifts, and the adequacy of staff and record systems
" Private warehouses: as above for stores which might be requisitioned or rented.
$ Fuel supplies (diesel and petrol)
" The locations, capacities, and normal stock levels of government and commercial
fuel storage deports; the arrangements by which fuel can be drawn or delivered
from those depots.

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Disaster
preparedness

Q. The information referred to in the checklist must be assembled from a

variety of sources. Where would you be able to obtain the information
requested under each main heading?

A.
Disaster profile of country

National policies, objectives and standards

Govt structures for warning/post-disaster response

Other external and national assistance organizations

Base-line data on each distinct disaster-prone area

Human and material resources:

Medical/health care

Food supplies

Nutrition and epidemiology

Water supplies, hygiene and environmental sanitation

Emergency shelter and relief materials

Construction equipment

Communications

Logistics systems and facilities:

Roads

Trucking capacity

Railways

Sea and river ports

Coastal and river craft

Airports and air-strips

Aircraft and air transport

Storage and handling

Fuel supplies

Q. In your opinion what agency should be responsible for collecting,

up-dating and communicating this information.

A.

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!
CHAPTER 8
Vulner
ulneraability and risk assessment1

This chapter considers the nature of risk; discusses the techniques by

which natural hazards and the accompanying risk of future losses can be
estimated; and it discusses the ways in wich future risk estimates can be
used to assist the choice of the optimum disaster mitigation strategy.
First, let us review the definitions of the key terms. Risk is the
expected lives lost, persons injured, property damaged, and economic
activity disrupted due to a particular hazard. Risk is the probability of a
disaster occurring and resulting in a particular level of loss.
Risk assessment determines the scale of the estimated losses which can be
anticipated in particular areas during a specified time period.

Risk management
One of the underlying principles of this training module is that most
people working in development are involved in disaster management at
one time or another. Even if you, as a generalist or a sectoral specialist, do
not have an active role to play in some of the other disaster phases, you
do play an important role when it comes to risk management. The design
of development projects should include an exercise in risk management.
The overall task of risk management must include both an estimation
of the magnitude of a particular risk and an evaluation of how important
to us the risk is. The process of risk management therefore has two parts:
risk assessment and risk evaluation. Risk assessment requires the
quantification of the risk from data and understanding the processes
involved. Risk evaluation is the judgement that a society places on the
risks that face them in deciding what to do about them.

Risk probability
Risks are often quantified in generalized ways. For example, there is a
probability of an individual dying in any one year of : 1 in 200 if he or she
smokes 10 cigarettes a day; 1 in 23,000 in an earthquake in Iran; and 1 in
10,000,000 of being hit by lightning in the USA. Such gross risk estimates
can be useful for comparative purposes, but usually conceal large
variations in the risk to individuals or different regions. In the case of
Iran, people who live closer to an earthquake fault are at greater risk than
those that live far away. Similarly, people who live in poorly constructed
masonry houses near a fault are more at risk than those who may live
nearby in well built wood structures.

1
This chapter has been drawn from the UNDP/UNDRO training module Vulnerability and Risk
Assessment written by A.W. Cobum, R.J.S. Spence and A. Pomonis

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The first step in risk management, therefore, is quantifying the probability of

the risk. The second step is evaluating the risk, that is, passing judgement on how
serious it is. The importance a community places on the risk of a disaster is likely
to be influenced by the type and level of other everyday risks it faces. Even if the
risk from a natural hazard is quite significant, it is unlikely to compare, for
example, with the risk of child mortality in a society with minimal primary
health care. Villages in the hazardous mountain valleys of Northern Pakistan,
regularly afflicted by floods, earthquakes, and landslides, do not perceive
disaster mitigation to be one of their priorities. Their priorities are protection
against the greater risks of disease and irrigation failures.
As societies develop economically, risk reduction is likely to assume greater
importance to them. Development itself can increase the likelihood of disasters,
but as societies become richer more resources can be made available to invest in
some degree of protection. Protection of the development process itself becomes
a disaster mitigation issue.

Acceptable levels of risk

Many risks are associated with benefits. Living close to a volcano may bring the
benefit of fertile soils for good agriculture. Generally, though, the exposure to
natural and environmental hazards does not have any specific benefit associated
with itthe exposure is a simple consequence of living or working in a
particular location. This can have the effects of making such risks less acceptable
than those from which some benefit is obtained. Generally the acceptable levels
of risk appear to increase according to the benefits derived from being exposed to
it. However, the acceptable level of risk appears to decrease over time as more
people become exposed to a particular type of risk.

Assessing risk and vulnerability

The estimation of probably future losses is a matter of increasing interest to those
concerned with development planning in hazard-prone regions. Fundamental to
disaster preparedness and mitigation planning is an understanding of what to
expect. This needs to be quantified, if only in a crude and approximate way, in
terms of the degree of risk faced, the size of event that is likely, and the
consequences of an event if it occurs.
The calculation of risk generally needs to consider several types of loss. The
most common parameter of loss, and the one most easily dealt with, is economic
cost. Cost is widely used because many types of loss can be converted into
economic cost. Effects which are considered in terms of economic costs are
known as tangible losses. But there are a range of other effects resulting from
disasters which are important but which cannot be converted into a monetary
equivalent, and these are referred to as intangible losses.
A full consideration of risk would include a complete range of effects, both
tangible and intangible, and of several qualitatively different types. The range of
undesirable consequences of natural hazards what we might consider as loss
parameters are listed in Table 1.

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Table 1
Loss parameters for
risk analysis

How is risk determined?

There are three essential components in the determination of risk, each of which
should be separately quantified:
a) the hazard occurrence probability: the likelihood of experiencing any natural or
technological hazard at a location or in a region
b) the elements at risk: identifying and making an inventory of people or
buildings or other elements which would be affected by the hazard if it
occurred, and where required, estimating their economic value
c) the vulnerability of the elements at risk: how damaged the buildings or injured
the people or other elements would be if they experienced some level of
hazard.

There is a variety of methods of presenting the above information to

illustrate the data describing risk. These can often be represented on a map. This
is an essential tool in evaluating development projects because you can see if a
project site is located in an area of high risk.
An example of mapping is the Potential Loss Study. This consists of mapping
the effect of expected hazard occurrence probability across a region or country.
It shows the location of communities likely to suffer heavy losses. The effect of
the hazard of each area is calculated for each of the communities within those
areas to identify the Communities Most at Risk. This shows, for example,
which towns or villages are likely to suffer highest losses, which should be
priorities for loss-reduction programs, and which are likely to need most aid or
rescue assistance in the event of a major disaster.

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The following is an example of potential loss mapping. It presents risk as the

levels of losses that would occur if a certain level of hazard were to occur at all
the locations simultaneously. In this case the type of loss plotted (Map 4) is
urban earthquake casualties in Turkey. Casualties are defined as those people
whose houses are liable to be totally destroyed by the largest expected
earthquake - a measure used because it has been found in Turkey to correlate
closely with the numbers of killed and injured. The potential loss plotted in each
location is derived from three other types of geographically varying data, which
are shown in Maps 1,2 and 3. (See figure.8.1)
Map 1 shows the earthquake hazard in terms of the maximum intensity of
earthquake which might possible occur there.
Map 2 shows the elements at risk - in this case the total size of the urban
population. Larger towns and cities are plotted individually, and are identified
by circles whose area represents the population. The population in the smaller
towns of 2,000 to 25,000 population is shown in the form of a population
density. Other elements at risk could be mapped in a similar way.
Map 3 shows one aspect of the vulnerability of those elements at risk. The
casualties are caused by the collapse of buildings. The vulnerability of a building
depends primarily on the type of construction. A useful approximate classifica-
tion of the building types in Turkey divides them into just three types: rubble
and adobe walls, brick and timber walls, and reinforced concrete frame. An
estimate has been made about the expected proportions of buildings that will
collapse.
Map 4 shows the analysis of the three preceding maps for each location. This
is derived by estimating the numbers of people living in each building type,
(from Maps 2 and 3) and then estimating the potential proportion of collapsed
buildings of each type if the largest earthquake were to occur there. The total
potential casualties are obtained by adding those from all three building types.

Vulnerability evaluation
Vulnerability is the propensity of things to be damaged by a hazard. Peoples
lives and health are at risk directly from the destructive effects of the hazard.
Their incomes and livelihood are at risk because of the destruction of the
buildings, crops, livestock or equipment which these depend on. Each type of
hazard puts a somewhat different set of elements at risk. Most of disaster
mitigation work is focused on reducing vulnerability, and in order to act to
reduce vulnerability, development planners need an understanding of which
elements are most at risk from the principal hazards which have been identified.
Vulnerability assessment is the process of estimating the vulnerability to
potential disaster hazards of specified elements at risk. For general socio-
economic purposes it involves consideration of all significant elements in society,
including physical, social and economic considerations, and the extent to which
essential services will be able to continue functioning.
As we have noted in Chapter 1 the root causes of vulnerability to disasters
in developing countries are poverty and inequitable development. Rapid population
growth, urban or mass migration, inequitable patterns of land ownership, lack of
education, and subsistence agriculture on marginal lands lead to vulnerable
conditions such as unsafe siting of buildings and settlements, unsafe homes,
deforestation, malnutrition, unemployment, underemployment, and illiteracy.

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Figure 8.1

Potential loss study

1HAZARD

2ELEMENTS AT RISK
(population)

3VULNERABILITY

4CASUALTY RISK
(potential loss of life)

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It is the interface between these vulnerable conditions and natural hazards

such as an earthquake, tropical storm, drought, and heavy rains, that results in a
disaster or protracted emergency. (See Fig. 1.1 on page 17.)
Vulnerability derived from poverty can best be addressed by long-term
development projects targeted at the underlying reasons that large population
groups remain poor, while at the same time introducing measure to mitigate
disaster effects.
Vulnerability may also be a result of factors more easily solved by specific
risk reduction measures. These factors include inappropriate building codes and
materials, and a lack of public awareness. However, many of these measures
depend on the extent of a societys development. For example, it is unrealistic to
expect building codes to be enforced where governments do not have staff and
resources to carry out inspections. Likewise, public awareness depends, to some
extent, on the communitys educational level and the availability of
communication facilities, which are frequently deficient in developing countries.
Vulnerability and risk assessment is the link between development project
implementation and disaster mitigation. In UNDP, for example, a proposed project
should be examined against the vulnerability and risk of the project location. If
the location or the nature of the project design are inherently vulnerable to
disasters, then the location should be reconsidered or disaster mitigation/risk
reduction measures must be taken. (See Chapter 13 for additional discussion on
how this may be achieved.)

Reducing vulnerability for displaced persons

Much of the preceding discussion on vulnerability and risk relates more to
sudden onset disasters than slow onset disasters and population displacements.
Nevertheless, much of the assessment process and technologies apply to these
situations. For example, mapping of hazards is also of prime concern to identify
areas subject to drought, or even civil conflict. Meeting the needs of a migrating
population or one recently arrived at a new location will be assisted by mapping
the best routes and survival resources along the way. Strategies for vulnerability
reduction in zones of conflict might include development inputs which can
reduce the conflict, such as installing water points for nomads in areas where
water is a scarce resource subject to competition.
These topics are discussed in more detail in the special topic modules
Disaster Mitigation and Vulnerability and Risk Assessment.
In summary, because hazards tend to be uncontrollable, much mitigation
work is centred on reducing vulnerability. Improved economic conditions
reduce many aspects of vulnerability and a sound economy may in many cases
be the best defense against disasters and emergencies.

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ANSWER
Step one: Review the
history of tropical storms to
estimate the probablity of
one occurring during the
lifetime of your project.
Step two: Inventory the
elements at risk.
Step three: Determine the
vulnerability of the elements
at risk by estimating
a) how badly damaged
the buildings might be,
b) the number of people
potentially killed or injured
c) the level of disruption
of employment or the
economic base of your
project.
A.
would you conduct a risk and vulnerability assessment?
projects to achieve economic development. As part of your analysis how
occur. You want to do an analysis of the most appropriate types of
economic development of a community in an area where tropical storms
Q. Imagine that you are working for an agency responsible for the
Manag
Mana gement
of Disaster
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CONTENTS

3
PART

DISASTER RESPONSE

Chapter 9 Disaster reponse........................................................................ 82

Aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance .......................................... 83
Warning.................................................................................................. 83
Evacuation/migration............................................................................. 83
Search and rescue.................................................................................. 84
Post-disaster assesment......................................................................... 84
Emergency relief................................................................................... 84
Logistics and supply.............................................................................. 84
Communication and information management..................................... 85
Victim response and coping................................................................... 85
Security.................................................................................................. 85
Emergency operations management...................................................... 85
Rehabilitation and reconstruction.......................................................... 85

Chapter 10 Disaster assessment................................................................ 87

Objectives of assessment .............................................................................. 87
The assessment process ................................................................................ 89
Assessments for different disaster types ...................................................... 89
How assessment data is used ........................................................................ 90

Chapter 11 UN reponse to disaster............................................................ 92

Principal elements and actions in response to a sudden disaster.................. 92
Sitreps-exchanging information with UNDRO ............................................ 94
Alert message and field sitreps ..................................................................... 95
The importance of coordination and information......................................... 96

Chapter 12 Rehabilitation and reconstruction........................................ 98

Priorities and opportunities in rehabilitation and reconstruction1 ............... 99
A case study: Zenon hurricane.....................................................................101

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PART
DISASTER RESPONSE
After reading the material and completing the exercises in Part 3 you should be
able to:
! identify the major categories of activities and responsibilities of disaster response
LEARNING
! identify the objectives of disaster assessment and how assessment data is used
OBJECTIVES ! describe the role of your UN organization in the various disaster response activities
! identify key points for action in coordination and information management
! describe development opportunities within the disaster reconstruction phase

!
CHAPTER 9
Disaster rresponse
Disaster esponse

Disaster response is the sum total of actions

taken by people and institutions in the face of
disaster. These actions commence with the
warning of an oncoming threatening event or
with the event itself if it occurs without warn-
ing. Disaster response includes the implementa-
tion of disaster preparedness plans and proce-
dures, thus overlaping with disaster prepared-
ness. The end of disaster response comes with
the completion of response comes with the
completion of disaster rehabilitation pro-
grammes.
This chapter identifies the principal activities of
disaster response. Each activity is, formally or
informally governed by a set of policies and
procedures, and each activity is typically under
the auspices of a lead agency. In the end,
disaster response activities are implemented by
a myriad of government organizations, interna-
tional and national agencies, local entities and
individuals, each with their roles and responsi-
bilities.

A full discussion of disaster response would, for each activity, identify:

! Who is responsible for its implementation, who supports it
! What means are required for its implementation
! When are its activities implemented
! What is its scope
! Why does it need to be done

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Aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance

The overall aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance are:

" To ensure the survival of the maximum possible number of victims, keeping
them in the best possible health in the circumstances.
" To re-establish self-sufficiency and essential services as quickly as possible
for all population groups, with special attention to those whose needs are
greatest: the most vulnerable and underprivileged.
" To repair or replace damaged infrastructure and regenerate viable economic
activities. To do this in a manner that contributes to long-term development
goals and reduces vulnerability to any future recurrence of potentially
damaging hazards.
In situations of civil or international conflict, the aim is to protect and assist
the civilian population, in close collaboration with the International Committee
of the Red Cross (ICRC) and in compliance with international conventions.
In cases involving population displacements (due to any type of disaster),
the aim is to find durable solutions as quickly as possible, while ensuring
protection and assistance as necessary in the mean time.
The following are typical activities of emergency response. There are
important differences, however, between sudden and slow onset disasters.
Differences also emerge when comparing the specific geographical situation
and the disasters socio/political context.

Warning
SUDDEN ONSET Warning refers to arrangements to rapidly disseminate
information concerning imminent disaster threats to government officials,
institutions and the population at large in the areas at immediate risk. These
warnings normally relate to tropical storms and floods.
SLOW ONSET Early warning is the term used regarding slow-onset disasters,
especially famine. Early warning activities include the process of monitoring the
situation in communities or areas known to be particularly vulnerable to the
effects of droughts, crop failures and/or changes in economic conditions. An
adequate warning will enable remedial measures to be initiated before hardships
become acute. Early warning is a disaster response activity only if it has failed to
detect the warning signs or where such signs were ignored.

Evacuation/migration
SUDDEN ONSET Evacuation involves the relocation of a population from zones
at risk of an imminent disaster to a safer location. Evacuation is most commonly
associated with tropical storms but is also a frequent requirement with techno-
logical or industrial accidents. For evacuation to work there must be a timely and
accurate warning system, clear identification of escape routes, an established
policy that requires everyone to evacuate when an order is given, and a public
education programme to make the community aware of the plan.
SLOW ONSET The movement of people from the zone where they are at risk to a
safer site is not, in fact, evacuation but crisis-induced migration. This movement
is usually not organized and coordinated by authorities but is a spontaneous
response to the perception by the migrants that food and/or security can be
obtained elsewhere.

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Search and rescue

SUDDEN ONSET Search and rescue, often known by the acronym SAR, is the
process of identifying the location of disaster victims that may be trapped or
isolated and bringing them to safety and medical attention.
In the aftermath of tropical storms and floods, SAR usually includes locating
stranded flood victims, who may be threatened by rising water, and either
bringing them to safety or providing them with food and first aid until they can
be evacuated or returned to their homes.
In the aftermath of earthquakes, SAR normally focuses on locating people who
are trapped and injured in collapsed buildings.

Post-disaster assessment
SUDDEN AND SLOW ONSET The primary objective of assessment is to provide a
clear, concise picture of the post-disaster situation, to identify relief needs and
to develop strategies for recovery. It determines options for humanitarian
assistance, how best to utilize existing resources, or to develop requests for
further assistance. The post-disaster assessment must distinguish among pre-
disaster chronic conditions, the needs of disaster survivors and their resources.
This activity is so vital that we will devote the next chapter exclusively to
disaster assessment.

Emergency relief
SUDDEN ONSET Emergency relief is the provision on a humanitarian basis of
material aid and emergency medical care necessary to save and preserve
human lives. It also enables families to meet their basic needs for medical and
health care, shelter, clothing, water, and food (including the means to prepare
food). Relief supplies or services are typically provided, free of charge, in the
days and weeks immediately following a sudden disaster.
SLOW ONSET Emergency relief may need to be provided for extended periods
in the case of neglected or deteriorated slow-onset emergency situations and
population displacements (refugees, internally and externally displaced
people). The impact of the disaster may be mitigated for these populations
through additional assistance to the host community as well.

Logistics and supply

SUDDEN AND SLOW ONSET The delivery of emergency relief will require
logistical facilities and capacity. A well-organized supply service is crucial for
handling the procurement or receipt, storage, and dispatch of relief supplies for
distribution to disaster victims. The logistical system is perhaps more vital and
of higher priority for slow onset emergencies.

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Communication and information management

SUDDEN AND SLOW ONSET All. of the above activities are dependent on
communication. There are two aspects to communications in disasters. One is the
equipment that is essential for information flow, such as radios, telephones and
their supporting systems of repeaters, satellites, and transmission lines. The other
is information management: the protocol of knowing who communicates what
information to whom, what priority is given to it, and how is disseminated and
interpreted.

Survivor response and coping

SUDDEN AND SLOW ONSET In the rush to plan and execute a relief operation it is
easy to overlook the real needs and resources of the survivors. The assessment
must take into account existing social coping mechanisms that negate the need to
bring in outside assistance. On the other hand, disaster survivors may have new
and special needs for social services to help adjust to the trauma and disruption
caused by the disaster.
Participation in the disaster response process by individuals to community
organizations is a key to healthy recovery. Through them appropriate coping
mechanisms will be most successfully utilized.

Security
SUDDEN ONSET Security is not always a priority issue after sudden onset
natural disasters. It is typically handled by civil defense or police departments.
SLOW ONSET The protection of the human rights and safety of displaced
populations and refugees can be of paramount importance requiring interna-
tional monitoring.

Emergency operations management

SUDDEN AND SLOW ONSET None of the above activities can be implemented
without some degree of emergency operations management. Policies and
procedures for management requirements need to be established well in advance
of the disaster. More attention is given to this subject in the following chapter on
Responding to a sudden disaster.

Rehabilitation and reconstruction

Rehabilitation and reconstruction complete the disaster response activities. As
much of this activity is within the scope of UNDPs concern, Chapter 12 is
devoted to it.

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Q. In the following matrix of disaster response activities and agencies, select a disaster type of interest to
you and fill in the matrix with the agency that has primary responsibility for that activity. Indicate agencies
with secondary responsibilities.

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Disaster
assessment

!
CHAPTER 10
Disaster assessment1

Assessment is the process of determining the impact of a disaster on a society.

The first priority is to establish the needs for immediate emergency measures to
save and sustain the lives of survivors. The second priority is to identify the
possibilities for facilitating and expediting recovery and development.
Assessment is an interdisciplinary process undertaken in phases and
involving on-the-spot surveys and the collation, evaluation and interpretation of
information from various sources. These surveys concern both direct and indirect
losses as well as the short- and long-term effects. Assessment involves
determining not only what has happened and what assistance might be needed,
but also defines objectives and how relevant assistance can actually be provided
to the victims.
Some assessments are specifically conducted as damage assessments. They
include the preparation of specific, quantified estimates of physical damage
resulting from a disaster. The damage assessment may also include
recommendations concerning the repair, reconstruction or replacement of
structures, and equipment, as well as the restoration of economic activities.

Objectives of assessment

The first objective of a post-disaster assessment is to determine when an

emergency exists. Next, define the actions and resources needed to reduce
immediate threats to health and safety and to pre-empt future serious problems.
A frequent problem of assessment is to assume that all property losses or
survival needs must be replaced or furnished from outside sources only. Instead
the assessment must also identify the local response capacity, including
organizational, medical, and logistical resources. The assessment must help
decide how best to use existing resources for relief. It must also identify the
priorities of the affected people themselves.
Another problem is that people making the assessment who are not from the
disaster area may have a difficult time distinguishing chronic needs from
problems created by the disaster. Knowledge of base line data is essential to
identify the starting point for post-disaster needs. This information is
established in the preparedness checklist in Chapter 7.
If the results of the assessment are to contribute to the design of a disaster
response program, then the response agency must also know the policies of the
government with regard to emergency assistance. These policies will affect the
estimate for the additional support required from national and international
sources for relief.

1
This chapter has been drawn from the UNDP/UNDRO training module Disaster
Assessment by Rob Stephenson of the Relief and Development Institute.

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Figure 10.1
EVOLVING OBJECTIVES OF ASSESSMENT

Evolving objectives Warning Phase

of assessment ! Determine extent to which affected populations are taking measures
to protect lives and facilities from expected hazard impact
! Activate arrangements in the preparedness plan regarding the
implementation of assessment

Emergency Phase
! Confirm the reported emergency and estimate the overall magnitude
of the damage
! Identify, characterize and quantify populations at risk in
the disaster
! Help to define and prioritize the actions and resources needed
to reduce immediate risks
! Identify local response capacity, including organizational,
medical and logistic resources
! Help anticipate future serious problems
! Help manage and control the immediate response

Rehabilitation Phase
! Identify the priorities of the affected people
! Identify the policies of the government with regard to
post-disaster assistance
! Estimate the additional support required from national and
international sources for relief and recovery
! Monitor the outcome and effectiveness of continuing relief and
rehabilitation measures

Recovery Phase
! Determine the damage to economically significant resources and its
implications for development policy
! Assess the impact of the disaster on current development programs
! Identify new development opportunities created by the disaster

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The assessment process

Assessments must be carefully planned and managed. A sequence of activities is

involved and each must be planned in detail. The following activities typically
constitute the assessment process:
! Identify information needs and sources of reliable data
! Collect data
! Analyze and interpret data
! Report conclusions, forecasts and alternatives to appropriate planner and
decision-makers
As the response actions begin in influence events, assessments become part
of the monitoring and control loop, allowing those involved to monitor outcomes
and attempt to correct the response. It becomes part of a continuing process of
assessment, review, and correction by which those managing the operation begin
to restore the framework for survival and recovery.
Figure 10.2
THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS
This figure identifies
how the objectives of
assessment evolve as
Disaster the recovery process
proceeds.

Identify information,
needs and resources

Design/modify disaster response Collect data

Report conclusions Analyze and interpret

Assessments for different disaster types

The design and execution of assessments are very different for sudden onset
disasters versus the slow onset. For sudden onset, there are typically many
different needs in many locations involving casualty management, support for
local rescue efforts and recovery of lifeline services during the first two days of
an emergency. Initially the needs change from hour to hour often resulting in
confusion. In fact, some activities need to be done so quickly that action has to

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precede detailed assessments, using strategies determined during preparedness

planning on the basic of previous emergencies.
For displaced persons and famine emergencies the lead time are sometimes
long and donors may be unwilling to commit large amounts of assistance in
response to ambiguous information. The initial priority needs which should be
assessed include immunizations (particularly measles), emergency water supply,
nutritional monitoring, bulk food logistics, and registration systems. Early
geographical assessments of the size of the populations at risk are vital.
These prolonged emergencies may last for months, and often for years. This
allows for detailed analysis of the assessment systems performance and the
opportunity to adapt them as requirements change.

How assessment data is used

Assessment provides support for emergency decision makers. Assessment is

conducted for a specific user or group of users who are making decisions about
emergency resource allocation and response strategies in what may be a fast-
changing environment. There are three aspects involved in the assessment
process: picture building, situation assessment, and response planning.
Start by building up a picture of where people are, what condition they are
in, what services are still available, and what resources have survived.
The situation assessment involves the identification of operational priorities.
The situation itself is usually fast-changing and messy, this leads to the need to
be able to forecast how the situation is likely to develop. The assessment data
needs to be structured to help with the following:
" recognition and assessment of situations requiring decisions
" formulation of the operational strategies
" objectives and needs
" potential alternatives generated
" analysis of the alternatives: evaluate their impact
" interpretation and selection: alternatives compared by evaluating impacts

The last process of decision-making is response planning. This includes the

detailed assignment and scheduling of resources (people, equipment, and
supplies) to meet specific relief objectives.
The subject of assessment will also be discussed in relation to the UN
Disaster Management Team and the UN response to disasters. See also the
specialized training module, Disaster Assessment, for a broader discussion of
these topics and the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.

Q. Name an assessment objective for each of the listed disaster phases.

A. warning:
emergency:

rehabilitation:
ANSWER
Review Figure 10.1 recovery:
for sample answers.

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Disaster
assessment

Sample assessment
format
By Intertect for the Office
Of U.S. Foreign Disaster
Assistance.

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UN rresponse
esponse to disaster
disasterss1

Principal elements and actions in response to a

sudden disaster

The vast majority of international emergency and post-disaster assistance is

funded by special contributions to the UN agencies, or is delivered bilaterally or
through NGOs. Action by UNDRO, the resident coordinator/representative and
the UN-DMT is therefore extremely important: information management and
exchange, coordination, preparation of appeals, and the mobilization of
resources. The extent to which the resident coordinator/representative and the
UN-DMT are involved in these activities, and in the provision of direct
operational support to the Government, will depend on the nature and scale of
the emergency situation, on the capacity and wishes of the national authorities,
and on the resources which can be mobilized.
The above applies in emergency situations which require action by a number
of UN organizations/agencies (possibly including UNDP) and, in consequence,
coordination by the resident coordinator and UNDRO. In situations which fall
entirely within the mandate of one specific organ of the UN system (e.g. and
epidemic or crop pest attack), primary responsibility rests with the appropriate
agency (e.g. WHO, FAO) although the country-level UN Disaster Management
Team may, if required, play a role in support of that agency. (The information
dissemination services of UNDRO may also be made available to the agency
concerned at the international level.)
The following is a list of the principal actions to be taken by the resident
coordinator/representative and the UN-DMT immediately before and during a
disaster.

Actions to be taken on receipt of a disaster warning

On receipt of a warning of an imminent disaster threat:
% Contact and exchange information with UNDRO: review need for
precautionary measures.
% Contact the relevant government authorities: confirm readiness
of UNDRO and UN-DMT to assist, if needed.
% Convene the UN-DMT, review preparedness arrangements,
alert personnel and review the UN security plan.

Actions to be taken following the occurrence of a disaster

Immediate action in all cases:
% Ensure the security of all UN personnel: activate the security plan, if
necessary.

1
This chapter is condensed from the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual, Chapter 4

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% Ensure reliable telecommunications between the field office and Geneva,

New York and the affected areas.
% Contact and exchange information with UNDRO:
send an alert message and then regular field sitreps,
and maintain telephone contact, if possible.
% Contact the government emergency management
authorities: get information, offer UN assistance
and reaffirm the capabilities of the various agencies;
confirm arrangements for ongoing contacts and
collaboration.
% Determine whether the Government requires
international assistance and wishes UNDRO to launch and
international appeal. Consider needs for:
" Search and rescue (SAR), or other specialist assistance
" Relief assistance.
% Convene the UN-DMT: review whatever information is available; confirm/
define responsibilities within the team; arrange follow-up meetings and
information-sharing.
% Gather and collate information on the situation; participate in initial
reconnaissance visits to the affected areas. Mobilize and provide technical
assistance for the assessment process.

If international emergency assistance is required:

1) Immediate needs and action
" Determine, on a provisional basis, the specific functions to be
undertaken by the UN at country level in the light of the particular
situation and the capacity of the Government.
" Define any needs for SAR teams or other specialist assistance; inform
and consult with UNDRO immediately.
" Consult with UNDRO concerning the possible assignment of one or
more UNDRO delegates.
" Ensure the convening of an early, broad-based coordination meeting to
coordinate immediate responses and arrangements for assessment.
" Institute necessary organizational arrangements and systems within the
field office: redeploy staff, define work priorities, and ensure the
availability of office equipment and clerical and administrative support
to staff engaged in emergency activities.
" Put information systems into operation to record and track needs and
contributions of international assistance.
" Consider and, where appropriate, make recommendations for the
provision of emergency grants by UNDRO and UNDP, and/or the release
of supplies by UNDRO from Pisa.

2) Continuing action during the early days of emergency assistance operations:

" Maintain close contact and exchange information with the Government
and other concerned parties (donors, NGOs); participate in and support
in-country coordination mechanisms.
" Maintain a dialogue and frequent information exchanges with UNDRO
(through field sitreps and by telephone).

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" Help to define priority needs for international assistance:

- Participate in the overall assessment
- Make an independent judgement of the priority needs for international
emergency assistance
- Help in formulating and screening requests
" Develop a concerted programme of assistance and a consolidated UN
appeal including the proposals and requirements of all UN agencies.
" Disseminate information on needs for international assistance to local
representatives of donors and NGOs, and help to mobilize resources to
cover unmet needs.
" Help to monitor assistance operations, and provide operational
assistance, where required.
" Make arrangements for relations with the news media, and the
reception and servicing of visiting missions.
" Undertake a review (post mortem) of the UN assistance to the
emergency operation as it draws to a close.

If there are political complications or humanitarian needs which are not

being met, advise the Secretary-General through the office of Emergency Relief
Coordinator. (See Appendix 1.)

Additional support functions (on a continuous basis) depending on the need

and the capacity of the Government:
" Convening and providing secretariat services to broad-based coordination
meetings.
" Providing operational support to management information systems,
logistics, or communications.

Assistance to rehabilitation and reconstruction:

" Help to plan and introduce assistance to rehabilitation and reconstruction in
phases from the earliest possible moment.

Assistance to populations in areas of conflict:

At present the UN has little role in active conflict areas for people in need
caught in the conflict. This role is mainly left to the ICRC and certain NCOs.
(See also Appendix 1).

Sitreps-exchanging information with UNDRO

This section describes the responsibilities of the resident coordinator/represen-

tative in respect of reporting to UNDRO, and provides guidelines for the
preparation of the required field sitreps. It describes UNDROs reporting (infor-
mation dissemination) system in the context of international information flows.

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Contacting UNDRO, Geneva

UNDRO maintains a 24-hour duty system, 365 days-a-year. To contact:

Telephone (4122)-7332010 (Direct line for use in case of an

emergency: out of office hours the call is
received by Air Call answering service
which conveys the message to the
UNDRO duty officer who then calls back)

or (4122)-7346011 (United Nations Office Geneva

switchboard: ask for UNDRO duty officer)

Telex 414242 DRO CH

Fax (4122)-7335623

Electronic mail UNX008 Use the UNDP E-mail facility. (Message

is delivered to UNDRO via UNIENET)

Alert message and field sitreps

To ensure a timely, appropriate, and coordinated international response, it is

essential that the resident coordinator report rapidly to UNDRO any disaster
occurrence, with an early assessment of damage and needs, however tentative.
This must then be followed up by regular and systematic reporting of increasing
detail.
Send an alert message to UNDRO as soon as information of a disaster
occurrence is received, or an occurrence in a remote area is confirmed. This
serves to let UNDRO know that something has happened and that the field office
is following up. Don not delay while waiting to get more information.
Send the first field sitrep as quickly as possible, and in any case not more
than 24 hours after the disaster occurrence. Send whatever relevant information
is available: do not delay because certain information is lacking. Send
information as it becomes available, indicating what additional information is
anticipated and arrangements made to gather more.
Send field sitreps regularly, at least daily during the initial emergency period
(typically 10-20 days) and until a reduced frequency is agreed with UNDRO.
Always follow the basic format but, if necessary, adapt the sub-headings of the
individual sections depending on the needs of the particular situation.
Send sitreps by fax (or Email) when possible. This takes full advantage of
word processing facilities in preparing and updating the reports.
Involve the UN-DMT in the preparation of the sitreps to help ensure
comprehensive reporting and a unified UN system presentation to the
Government and the international community. The UNDP disaster focal point
should normally be responsible for collating information from the various
agencies and preparing the first draft. Arrange for copies of the field sitreps to
be sent promptly to the headquarters of the UN agencies most directly concerned
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(normally the core members of the UN-DMT).

For detailed guidelines
for the format of the
field sitrep see the
UNDP/UNDRO
Main headings for field sitreps
Disaster Management 1. General situation
Manual, Chapter 4,
Appendix 4A. 2. National response
3. Country-level international response
4. Requirements for international assistance
5. Channels for delivery of international aid
Fig.11.1 6. International pledges and contributions
Sitreps and 7. Other information
international
information flows

The importance of coordination and information

Coordination is even more important in emergency assistance operations than

in development work: lives might be at risk, logistic and other resources are
likely to be limited, and decisions are made quickly. There are many possibilities
for duplicating effort, wasting resources, and leaving gaps in both geographic
and sectoral coverage.
Timely, reliable information is crucial to planning and implementing
emergency and postdisaster assistance operations, and to mobilizing national
and international resources. The regular dissemination of relevant information is
a precondition for effective coordination and co-operationat national and
local levels-between sectors and between Government, operational agencies,
and donors.

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Key action points in co-ordination and information management

# Maintain frequent, direct contacts with government focal point, operational departments, donors, and
NGOs.
# Review within the UN-DMT and discuss with the government focal point whether help from the resident
co-ordinator or UN-DMT is required in:
" Compiling and analyzing information and preparing reports on needs for and use of international
assistance
" Establishing and operating more comprehensive management information systems in support of the
responsible government authorities
" Convening information and co-ordination meetings involving government bodies, donors, NGOs, and
the UN organizations and agencies.
# Ensure the convening of regular, broad-based co-ordination meetings (probably weekly); encourage
constructive discussion; promote consensus on actions by all concerned; provide secretariat service, if
required.
# Specify the information management functions to be fulfilled by the resident co-ordinator and UN-DMT,
and the resources (staff, equipment, office space, budget) required.
# Initiate the needed information systems and services using existing staff facilities; inform UNDRO,
the regional bureau, and local donor representatives of requirements to develop and continue.
# Establish and emergency information and co-ordination (EIC) support unit, where needed, as a
collaborative UN-DMT effort; encourage all UN-DMT members to second staff, co-operate in mobilizing
other needed resources, and use the facilities.
# Disseminate information regularly to all concerned government departments, donors and NGOs; fax
copies to UNDRO.
# Encourage all concerned to be consistent in the use of agreed criteria, standards, and terminology, and
to harmonize reporting periods to the extent feasible.
# Help direct the attention of NGOs to areas and activities where they can make the greatest contribution
(not necessarily in the most affected areas).

Q. In your position with a UN agency what would you do in the event

of the most likely disaster to strike your country in terms of the following:
A. Learning of a warning of an imminent disaster?

Would you be on the UN-DMT?

Do you know the UN personnel security plan? What would you do?

What would be your contribution to the field sitrep to UNDRO?

What would be your role in an assessment? Concerning which sectors?

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CHAPTER 12
Reha bilita
ehabilita tion and rreconstr
bilitation econstr uction
econstruction

Rehabilitation and reconstruction comprise most of the

disaster recovery phase. This period following the
emergency phase focuses on activities that enable
victims to resume normal, viable lives and means of
livelihood. It also includes the restoration of
infrastructure, services and the economy in a manner
appropriate to long-term needs and defined
development objectives. Nevertheless, after some
disasters, there also may be a need for continuing
humanitarian assistance for selected vulnerable
groups.
This chapter provides brief guidelines concerning
assistance to rehabilitation and reconstruction
following a disaster. Although presented here as a
separate chapter, rehabilitation and reconstruction
must, in fact, be planned for either at the same time as
relief, or built up during the relief operations.

Rehabilitation
For some agencies it is important to distinguish between rehabilitation and
reconstruction. Specifically, rehabilitation is the actions taken in the aftermath of
a disaster to enable basic services to resume functioning, assist victims self-help
efforts to repair dwellings and community facilities, and facilitate the revival of
economic activities (including agriculture).
Rehabilitation focuses on enabling the affected populations (families and
local communities) to resume more-or-less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of life.
It may be considered as a transitional phase between (i) immediate relief and (ii)
more major, long-term reconstruction and the pursuit of ongoing development.

Reconstruction
Reconstruction is the permanent construction or replacement of severely
damaged physical structures, the full restoration of all services and local
infrastructure, and the revitalization of the economy (including agriculture).
Reconstruction must be fully integrated into ongoing long-term development
plans, taking account of future disaster risks. It must also consider the
possibilities of reducing those risks by the incorporation of appropriate
mitigation measures. Damaged structures and services may not necessarily be
restored in their previous form or locations. It may include the replacement of
any temporary arrangements established as a part of the emergency response or
rehabilitation.
Under conditions of conflict, however, rehabilitation and reconstruction may
not be feasible. For obvious reasons of safety and security, activities in
rehabilitation and reconstruction may need to wait until peace allows them.

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Priorities and opportunities in rehabilitation and

reconstruction1

The disaster occurred because the society was vulnerable to the impact of the
hazard concerned. Rehabilitation and reconstruction must therefore not be seen
as a process of simply restoring what existed previously. The need is rather to
develop strategies and modalities to reconstitute services and renovate or replace
essential structures such that vulnerability is reduced. These strategies must
include long-term development policies and plans which take account of the
current situation including any basic changes resulting from the disaster.
The disaster may, in fact, have created new opportunities for development
by changing the environment and the point of departure, both in terms of
physical structures and/or social patterns and attitudes. It will certainly have
heightened awareness concerning disaster risks, and both the local populations
and national authorities are likely to be especially receptive to proposals for risk
reduction and preparedness measures. Such opportunities must be recognized
and seized in the planning of rehabilitation and reconstruction projects, as well
as in the formulation of new, long-term development programmes.
Assistance to rehabilitation and reconstruction must therefore be planned on
the basis of a thorough assessment and appraisal of the technical and social
issues involved. While the planning of such assistance cannot be unduly rushed,
it must be accomplished as expeditiously as possible. There are two reasons for
this:
" Certain rehabilitation and reconstruction measures, if organized rapidly
enough, can shorten the period for which emergency relief assistance is
needed and eliminate the need to invest resources in temporary measures.
" The window of opportunity may be short for the incorporation of risk
reduction measures in reconstruction (of housing, for instance) or for new
development initiatives (especially social aspects).
Seasonal factors must be considered and may determine the needed
timetable for reconstruction, for example, the replacement of emergency shelter
or the rehabilitation of irrigation systems in time for the next crop.
The aim is to promote and assist recovery. Assistance during the post-
disaster phase must be planned and implemented with this clearly in mind.
Damaged structures and services which are essential to the society must be
repaired or replaced, duly protected against future risks. At the same time, and
no less important, ways must be found to help people recover, particularly those
people who have the least resources to call on.
As noted earlier, the majority of people affected are the poor. For the poor,
disasters represent lost property, jobs, and economic opportunity. In real terms
that can represent an enormous economic setback. Therefore, reconstruction
assistance should be designed to:
" relieve economic constraints and reduce the cost of reconstruction

" inject capital into the community

" create employment opportunities

" support and strengthen existing economic enterprises. 2

1
The rest of this chapter is taken from the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.
2
Frederick C. Cuny, quoted by lan Davis in "Disasters and the small dwelling, progress in the past
decade and key issues for IDNDR," outline position paper, September 1990.

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Timely and imaginative planning is therefore required to dovetail

rehabilitation and reconstruction with short-term relief measures, and to make
the most effective use of external financial resources, materials, and technical
assistance in achieving development gains while satisfying humanitarian needs.

The danger of planning and conducting reconstruction in haste

Post-disaster programmeseven reconstruction programmes, are often

planned and carried out in haste. The rush may occur because of the
reconstruction planners perceived need to return the community to
normal as soon as possible or because of time constraints on donor
funding. Thus the sort of careful planning and community involvement
necessary for development planning is often overlooked. Without such
planning, these programmes may infringe on longer-term development
efforts or delay their implementation. Reconstruction programmes that are
ill-planned and merely return communities to the status quo may leave
them almost as vulnerable again to a future disaster, while at the same time
creating a sense of complacency because something has been seen to have
been done.

From Disasters and Developmenta study in institution building prepared by INTERTECT

for UNDP, April 1990.

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Zenon hurricane: A case study3

The following is a fictitious case study. However, it is constructed from events as

they often occur and demonstrated how each part of the disaster system works or
does not work. All of the events and actions of the agencies are based on actual
occurrences.
A hurricane has been chosen for this exercise because it enables us to look
not only at post-disaster actions, but also at activities that occur prior to a
disaster when there is a warning period. While each type of disaster is unique,
the following scenario is typical of all sudden natural disasters. Although based
on actual occurrences, the examples here are intended for educational purposes
only and do not reflect on the ability or capacity of any individual or agency.
Most agency names are fictitious.
Your assignment is to read the following account and to analyze each
management action regarding its appropriateness. That is, was the management
action an example of good or bad judgement, was it the right or wrong decision,
good or poor planning, was appropriate action taken upon the available
information or was there oversight? You are encouraged to make notes in the
margin about your analysis of these management actions. Perhaps you could
circle the sentence in the text to which your analysis refers.
3
This case study has been adapted from Disasters and Development by Frederick C. Cuny, Oxford
University Press, New York, 1983.

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The setting
The Republic of Zenon is a small, heavily populated country situated on the
coast of a major landmass in the Tropics. The land bulges out into a shallow gulf,
and coastline forms 60 percent of its border. Isolated fishing villages dot the
coast, but most of the fertile coastal plain is inhabited by farmers who work small
subsistence rice paddies. The remainder of the countryside is mountainous, and
here small farmers strive to eke a living from eroded hillsides denuded by years
of deforestation.
The poverty of the mountains has driven thousands of families to the capital,
which lies on the south coast of the country. Many families live in squalid shanty
towns scattered throughout the city, and many have recently been moved to Port
Sound, a controversial new town built on a marshy area several kilometers from
the capital. Port Sound, touted by the government as a model community and
criticized by the opposition as an instant slum, is less than one meter above the
high-tide level.

Chronology of events for the Zenon Republic hurricane

August 27
Ships passing through the central tropics report a rapid
drop in barometric pressure to weather stations nearby.
The weather stations pass this information to the
International Hurricane Tracking Network (IHTN),
which soon verifies the formation of a tropical depression
and notifies the surrounding countries.

August 28
Satellite observation and aircraft monitoring indicate that
the depression has become a tropical storm.
In Zenon, the chief weather service forecaster follows procedure and notifies the
director of the Emergency Preparedness Committee (EPC). The forecaster also
reviews the difference between a hurricane watch (a first-stage alert given 48
hours before a hurricane is expected to strike) and a hurricane warning (posted
when the hurricane is only 24 hours away). The director of the EPC notifies a few
key government personnel and suggests that preliminary actions be taken in case
a hurricane should develop. One hour later, a synopsis of the storm is broadcast
over the national radio system.
The public takes little notice of the storm, which is still more than
1200 kilometers away.

August 29
Satellite photos and reconnaissance flights through the storm indicate that it is
now a full-fledged hurricane. The IHTN alerts governments of the countries in
the region and various international organizations.
At 2:00 p.m., the director of the EPC calls a meeting for 7:00 p.m. to bring
members up-to-date on the hurricanes progress and projected direction.

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Later the meeting convenes with only seven of the twelve members present. The
weather service forecaster repeats the briefing. The committee asks the forecaster
to predict the hurricanes path, but the request is refused. One of the committee
members goes into another room and telephones the International Hurricane
Tracking Network (IHTN). She is given a more detailed briefing and a
description of the projected hurricane track. The briefer at the IHTN adds that in
his own estimate the hurricane is not likely to strike Zenon because it is moving
in a direction that will take it north of the country. The committee member
returns and tells the committee what she has learned. The committee decides not
to issue a statement because it would alarm the public.
Elsewhere, the monthly meeting of the Association of Humanitarian Agencies in
Zenon (AHAZ) is being held. At the end of the meeting, one of the members asks
what plans are being made to prepare for the hurricane. The chair replies,
Zenon doesnt have hurricanes.

August 30
The hurricane intensifies and begins to move in a westward direction. The radio
gives hourly reports on its position and notes that it has changed direction and is
now moving toward the north eastern coast of Zenon.
At 10:00 a.m., another meeting of the EPC is called. The weather service has
indicated that it will issue a hurricane watch that afternoon unless the storm
changes direction. The committee begins to draw up its operational plans. The
first item is to find a strong building with good communications to use as an
emergency operations center.
During the afternoon, meetings are held at various government ministries to
prepare for the hurricane. The protection of equipment critical to the operation of
each ministry is given a high priority. Building materials and sandbags are
requested from the public works department to protect installations in the low-
lying and exposed areas, but available supplies are soon exhausted.
Precautionary measures along the coast are fairly extensive; little attention is
given to areas further inland.
The Zenon Red Cross reviews its plans for dealing with the disaster. It has a
series of guides issued by the League of Red Cross/Red crescent Societies to
serve as a model for its own activities. As staff review the guides, it becomes
clear that most are for actions that should have been taken long ago, and there is
little that can be done before the disaster strikes. Nevertheless, at the end of its
meeting, the director notifies the government that the Red Cross is ready.

August 31
At 1:00 a.m., the storm intensifies again. At 1:15 a.m., the weather service issues a
hurricane warning.
The prime minister calls the EPC to check on its activities. The director assures
the prime minister that everything possible is being done. At the same moment,
the EPC is trying to develop an evacuation plan and to find a list of buildings
designated as hurricane shelters to give to the news media.
At dawn, the citizens of Zenon awake to hear the radio announce the hurricane
warning. The newspaper publishes the newly found list of buildings designated
as hurricane shelters, some of which no longer exist. The EPC later goes on the

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radio with a new list of shelters and urges persons in low-lying areas along the
coast to evacuate.
By noon the only signs of the approaching hurricane are the rising tides along
the upper portions of the eastern coast. Winds are now gusting, and there are
intermittent rain showers.
Members of the EPC are running out of time. Hundreds of details remain, and
each minute someone thinks of some new precautionary measure that should be
taken.
At 4:30 p.m., the foreign news teams arrive and begin their live televised reports.
The first story describes the profiteering in the sale of emergency supplies and
shows pictures of several well-armed store owners defending their property
against looters.
At 5:00 p.m., the weather service announces that the hurricanes course has
now changed, putting it on a track for the central and southern portions of the
country. The impact is predicted for the early morning hours of the following
day. Winds are now gusting up to 60 kilometers per hour.
The EPC receives the news with great anxiety. Most of the preparedness
activities have focused on the northern regions, not the south. Warnings are
quickly issued to evacuate Port Sound.
Twenty minutes later, the prime minister goes on the national radio and
television to issue a plea to all persons in low-lying areas to evacuate as quickly
as possible. He suggests that those who cannot escape should seek shelter in
churches and schools.
In Port Sound, the sea level is one meter above normal. Water is coming across
the road that separates the community from the sea, and large breakers are
quickly eroding the roadbed. Vehicles attempting to evacuate have stalled. The
residents of Port Sound begin moving away from the sea on the only other road
that links the area with higher ground, but this road is
also low and crosses two streams that are now flooding.
At 10:00 p.m., a bridge collapses and the people are
stranded.
Word of the plight of Port Sound is flashed to the EPC.
It orders an army engineering battalion to attempt to
evacuate the people. The army sends a truckload of
small boats to the fallen bridge but, by the time it arrives,
the surface is too rough and the plan is abandoned. Twenty-five hundred
families begin scrambling to their rooftops. Two thousand people will not make
it to safety.

September 1
Communication from the capital to outlying areas is lost.
At 2:00 a.m., passage of the eye of the hurricane is recorded at Port Williams, 45
kilometers north of the capital. Winds in the capital reach a peak of 200
kilometers per hour.

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Aftermath
By dawn on September 1, the winds have subsided to 100 kilometers per hour,
and a few people are beginning to venture outside to see the damage. By 10:00
a.m., winds are still gusty, but it is possible to leave shelters and other structures
without too much danger.
In the capital, wind damage is severe. Almost every house has been damaged
somewhat. The slums have suffered heavily, with total destruction of buildings
as high as 85 percent in some areas. Casualties exceed the capacity of the hospital
by 200 percent. A major disaster is reported at Port Sound, but has not yet been
verified.
At noon, the prime minister orders a helicopter to take him, the director of the
EPC, the Red Cross chair, and several cabinet ministers over the affected area. In
their flight over the capital, the prime minister is shocked at the extent of the
damage. As the helicopter moves over Port Sound, the extent of the devastation
and loss of life is shockingly apparent. The few survivors cling to the tops of the
few buildings that have survived the storm. As the helicopters of the prime
ministers party swoop low overhead, all aboard see frantic gestures for help.
At the Emergency Operations Center, reports are fragmented and confused.
The death toll and damage are reported high in all parts of the affected area.
It is difficult to discern a pattern because the reports are not submitted in
any standard form or classified according to priority. The Emergency
Preparedness Committee is barraged by reporters clamoring for information.
Members of the EPC decide that their first action should be to conduct an
extensive survey of the damage. Their second action is to appoint the Red Cross
as coordinator for all emergency relief.
By nightfall, more contingents of foreign press arrive. By the next day, their
reports will have made Zenon the number one news story in the world.
At 8:00 p.m., the EPC meets with representatives of the voluntary agencies and
the foreign embassies. The director of the EPC reports on casualties and damage
and lists the pledges of aid and assistance that have been received from other
governments. The agencies ask for instructions, but it soon becomes clear that
no reconstruction plans or activities have been prepared. The EPCs apparent
indecision and lack of leadership is reported to the prime minister.
All through the night, casualties continue to arrive at hospitals and aid stations
in the affected zones.

September 2
At 7:00 a.m., the prime minister announces that he has taken personal command
of the emergency operations and reconstruction and has appointed a new
Disaster Relief Committee to take over from the EPC.
In the foreign ministry, offers of assistance are pouring in. At the airport, the first
flights of relief goods arriving. They consist of tents, medicine, blankets, and
military ration packs.
At 10:00 a.m., a local doctor reports a possible case of cholera. The prime minister
orders mass inoculation of all persons in the disaster area.
Churches report that spontaneous donations of clothing are heavy and ask the
Red Cross to arrange for helicopters to carry the donations to the mountains. The

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Red Cross agrees and diverts several helicopters from search-and-rescue

operations. The director of the Red Cross will later lose his job over this
decision.
At Red Cross headquarters, the first accurate casualty reports from outside
the capital are beginning to arrive. Heavy losses are reported in the delta.
The largest number of casualties occurred when churches and schools
used as shelters collapsed or were flooded. In one church alone, 400
people are reported dead.
The Red Cross, severely constrained by lack of resources and with no real
organizational infrastructure outside the capital, asks for a meeting with the
government to clarify responsibilities. At this meeting, it is decided that the Red
Cross will continue to have responsibility for relief coordination in the capital
and that the government will reassume responsibility for all other areas.
In the industrialized countries, televised reports of the devastation have begun to
arrive. The most vivid reporting is about the tragedy of Port Sound. The story
depicts the ineptitude of the government and ends with a statement that, unless
massive international assistance is received, survivors will starve to death.
Overnight, relief agencies report donations in excess of half a million dollars.
Several agencies decide to send their disaster officers or senior personnel to the
area to assess needs and to coordinate emergency activities.

September 3
The airlift of aid continues. The majority of aid is provided by foreign
governments, many of which have stockpiles of relief goods. Shipments from
nongovernmental agencies also begin to arrive. Some of these materials,
especially aid from governments, come from stockpiles, and these are sorted,
bundled, and well-marked. Other materials are simply packed according to size,
with each bundle containing a hodgepodge of different materials, which must be
sorted upon arrival in Zenon.
By noon, groups of villagers from remote highland areas begin to filter into aid
stations to report massive destruction and heavy loss of life due to landslides and
flooding in the denuded mountains. Overseas, more news stories arrive daily
with scenes of death and destruction in Zenon.

September 4
Now that certain roads have been re-opened, the government begins distribution
of relief goods outside the capital. Supplies had been confined to deliveries of
food and medicine by helicopter, but now truck convoys are able to take larger
amounts and a wider variety of aid to the rural areas.
At the airport, a call goes out for
volunteers to help sort relief
materials. The sheer volume
of the material and the
confusion caused by poor
packaging require several
thousand people working at
the airport and at other
sorting centers.

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Rehabilitation and
reconstruction

Throughout the affected area, a tremendous salvage effort is taking place. People
are busy trying to gather up as much building material as possible, especially the
tin roofs found wrapped around trees, curled on the ground, or lying intact.
Thousands of makeshift shelters have been built out of the rubble. Several
foreign press correspondents assigned to do a story about the need for tents ask a
group of victims to stop hammering so that their sound technician can record an
interview with a relief official arriving with a shipment of tents.

September 5
Helicopters arrive from the overseas military bases of a friendly government.
Their first activity is to airlift a complete field hospital to the delta region.
In the capital, the Disaster Relief Committee (DRC) calls a meeting of relief
agencies. To reduce duplication of effort, the government asks each agency to
take responsibility for relief and reconstruction in one particular sector. A list of
communities is placed on the board and each agency selects one to assist. Several
voluntary agencies that have worked in the country for many years are not
present at the meeting (later referred to as the lottery), and the areas where
they have had extensive experience are assigned to other agencies. No attempt is
made to verify the qualifications or capacities of any of the new agencies
present at the meeting.

September 6
Reports of corruption and favoritism in the distribution of relief supplies are
reported in the press. The prime minister asks the churches to form committees
to oversee the distribution of relief goods in each community.
During the day, three different voluntary agencies call coordination meetings in
separate locations.

September 7
At 10:00 a.m., the Disaster Relief Committee calls a coordination meeting
between the government and voluntary agencies to discuss housing
reconstruction.

September 8-14 (Week Two)

During the week, numerous coordination meetings are heldsome under
government sponsorship, others at the instigation of one or more of the
voluntary agencies.
Early in the week, the relief agencies in Zenon are offered large donations from
foundations, intergovernmental organizations, and their own government. Most
of the donors are anxious that the money benefit the victims as soon as possible;
therefore they attach a restriction that the money be spent within thirty to ninety
days.
Daily, new relief agencies (some instant agencies, such as Friends of Zenon)
arrive. They are assigned areas of responsibility by the DRC. Expatriate
volunteers also start to arrive. Among this group are several doctors who pester
local medical officials for assignments and interpreters.

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Also arriving are number of manufacturers representatives from companies that

produce small prefabricated buildings. Each claims to have the ultimate solution
for rebuilding low-cost housing. Some houses are touted as temporary and others
as permanent. The DRC, unable to choose among them, decides to hold a housing
fair where the manufacturers can set up their units and show them to the public.
The peoples preferences will be determined and a housing system will be
selected.
At a meeting of the DRC, many village relief committees report long lines for food
at distribution centers. The same day, the government is offered a huge food-aid
package of surplus commodities. There is one restriction: the food must be given
away. Despite some opposition from farmers and cooperatives the government
signs the food-aid agreement.
At a meeting of DRC, several agencies point out that the distribution of free
aid to the victims can be counterproductive. The chair of the DRC reacts firmly,
saying that to ask victims to pay for food or other aid would be against the
humanitarian principles of disaster relief, and he orders that all aid be given free
to the victims. Several local development groups argue that this will create
dependencies, but the government is adamant.
In the private sector, architects and engineers offer their
services to the voluntary agencies as advisors. At first the
agencies are excited at the prospect of having this techni-
cal assistance, but they soon discover that few of the
professionals are familiar with the traditional housing
built by the majority of the people in the country and that
their idea of low-income housing is far too expensive for
most of the agencies, not to mention the survivors
themselves.

September 15-21 (Week Three)

During the third week, emphasis begins to shift away from emergency relief
activities to concern about interim recovery and longer-term reconstruction needs.
The prime minister, sensing a change in mood, appoints a National Reconstruction
Committee to coordinate long-term recovery, but announces that the Disaster
Relief Committee will remain active until all relief needs have been met.
Late in the week, groups of international banking officials arrive for talks on
reconstruction loans to the government. The prime minister orders the Finance
Ministry to give top priority to refinancing the national debt.
There are reports that a boom economy is developing and prices are climbing at
an astounding rate, especially for materials and tools that will be used in
reconstruction. The government, fearful of creating a black market, hesitates to
establish price controls.
Local farmers protest the distribution of free food, and farmers organizations
report that, if the food donations continue, farmers who have been able to salvage
some of their crops will have no market for them.

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Housing reconstruction and agricultural recovery are proving difficult for some
of the volunteer agencies. They cable their headquarters for permission to hire
several noted specialists recommended by a local university. Fearful that the
hiring of consultants will add to overhead costs that donors would criticize, the
headquarters decide against hiring the specialists.

September 22-28 (Week Four)

The government announces a change in policy on the distribution of relief goods
and agrees to allow sales of certain items. It also goes on record as encouraging
the subsidized sale of building materials. It is left to the agencies to establish
eligibility requirements. In the countryside, the differing programs and varying
levels of assistance provided by each agency lead to complaints by the disaster
survivors. The National Reconstruction Committee (NRC) considers setting
uniform reconstruction policies. After much discussion, it decides not to set the
policies, fearing that the voluntary agencies and their donors will resent such a
move.
News media in Zenon report that reconstruction programs are inadvertently
helping only landowners and homeowners, because renters will not rebuild
houses for fear that the owners will then force them out. The issue of the land
tenure pattern and the need for land reform are not mentioned.

October-March
Aid continues to arrive. The local relief committees have been re-formed as
reconstruction committees. Food aid is now arriving in ever increasing
quantities. There is continuing opposition to the food program, however,
especially from the Agricultural Ministry. Its fears that farmers would not
replant are coming true. The ministry thus proposes a system of price supports,
but the only farms eligible are the larger farms along the coast.
As reconstruction progresses, the government realizes that its policy on
permanent housing is unrealistic and agrees to permit reconstruction programs
to rebuild traditional housing as long as the resulting construction is safe. The
Housing Bank, however, refuses to grant loans to people working with
traditional materials.
At a meeting of the NRC, the secretary reports on a survey of housing
reconstruction programs. Forty-five nongovernmental organizations are
involved in housing reconstruction. Twenty-nine are located in the capital or the
immediate vicinity, ten are located along the highway connecting the capital and
the delta, and the other six are located in the mountains. The report also shows
that only 35 percent of the total area affected by the hurricane is receiving
reconstruction assistance. Therefore the government must establish a housing
program to fill the gaps.

Midyear
Six months after the disaster, all but a few foreign agencies have departed,
claiming to have completed reconstruction of their assigned areas. The NRC
surveys indicate that work is incomplete. Sixty percent of the urban residents
and 85 percent of the people in the rural areas are still without replacement
housing.

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Midyear marks the end of the first post-disaster harvest. Observers notice a
resurgence in housing demand, as people now have the time and capital to
rebuild. However, only a few agencies remain to provide technical or financial
assistance. Even among those agencies that want to stay, funds for continued
operations are not available. To help meet the new demand, the government
seeks a loan from the International Bank to finance other reconstruction
activities. After two months, the loan is approved in principle, but funds cannot
be made available until the next fiscal year, further delaying reconstruction.
In the agricultural sector, surveys indicate that decreased agricultural production
necessitates continued food aid for another year. A report by the Agricultural
Ministry that the number of small farmers has declined by seven to ten percent,
and that a significant portion of the land formerly devoted to growing rice in
the delta region is now used to produce cotton and other cash crops, goes
unnoticed.

Q. Identify three key issues that subverted the reconstruction process

and prevented it from becoming a good development opportunity.

A.

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CONTENTS

4
PART

DISASTER MITIGATION
MITIGATION

Chapter 13 Mitigation............................................................................... 112

Targeting mitigation where it has most effect ............................................ 113
Actions to reduce risk ................................................................................. 114
The menu of mitigation actions .................................................................. 115
Classification of mitigation measures ........................................................ 116
Timing for mitigation ................................................................................. 117

Chapter 14 UN assistance to mitigation.................................................. 118

Disaster mitigation as a development theme .............................................. 118
Appraising disaster mitigation needs, policies, and capacity ..................... 119
Sources of information: needs for technical expertise ............................... 122
Project identification and formulation ........................................................ 122
Disaster risk appraisal of all projects in hazardous areas ........................... 123
Disaster risk reduction planning checklist.................................................. 124
Disasters and Development (DAD) Project Review Form......................... 125

Appendix.................................................................................................... 126
GA Resolution 46/182, Strengthening of the Coordination of
Humanitarian Emergency Assistance of the United Nations

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PART
DISASTER MITIGATION
MITIGATION

After reading Part Four and completing the exercises, you should know the basic
concepts, aims and elements of disaster mitigation. You will be able to describe:
! the principle objectives of disaster mitigation
! several available mitigation techniques
! how to consider disaster mitigation as a development theme
! how to appraise a countrys capacity to implement disaster mitigation projects
! how to take hazards into account in project identification and formulation

!
CHAPTER 13
Mitig
Mitigaation1
Mitigation is one of the positive links between disasters
and development. Agencies, communities, and
individuals can use their development resources to
reduce the risk of hazards through mitigation projects.
They can also ensure that their other development
initiatives contain components that mitigate against
future disaster.
In its broadest usage, mitigation has become a
collective term used to encompass all actions taken
prior to the occurrence of a disaster (pre-disaster
measures). This includes long-term risk reduction and
preparedness measures.
Many individuals and institutions, however, apply
a narrower definition to mitigation. They use mitigation
to mean actions taken to reduce both human suffering
and property loss resulting from extreme natural
phenomena. The concept of mitigation accepts the fact
that some hazard event may occur but tries to lessen the
impact by improving the communitys ability to absorb
the impact with minimum damage or disruptive effect. More simply stated, for
this group, mitigation is risk reduction.
Mitigation applies to a wide range of activities and protection measures that
might be instigated: from the physical, like constructing stronger buildings or
agricultural diversification, to the procedural, like standard techniques for
incorporating hazard assessment in land-use planning.
In the 1990s, a major effort is underway to encourage the implementation of
disaster mitigation techniques in development projects around the world. The
General Assembly of the United Nations has adopted the decade of the 1990s as
the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The aim is to make a
significant reduction in the losses of life and material damage caused by disasters
by the end of the decade.
1
Adapted from the UNDP/UNDRO training module, Disaster Mitigation by A.W. Coburn, R.J.S.
Spence, and A. Pomonis, Cambridge, June 1991.

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Disaster
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Disaster have, until recently, been seen in much the same way as disease
was in the early 19th century: unpredictable, unlucky and part of the everyday
risk of living. Concentrations of people and rising population levels across the
globe are increasing the risk of disasters and multiplying the consequences of
natural hazards when they occur. However, the epidemiology of disasters
the systematic science of what happens in a disastershows that disasters are
largely preventable. There are many ways to reduce the impact of a disaster and
to mitigate the effects of a possible hazard, accident, or conflict.
Just like the fight against disease, the fight against disasters has to be fought
by everyone together. It must involve public and private sector investment,
changes in social attitudes and improvements in the practices of individuals.
Governments can use public investment to improve their countries
infrastructure and to promote a physical environment where a disaster is less
likely to occur. Individuals must also learn how to act to protect themselves.
Just as public health depends on personal hygiene, so public protection depends
on personal safety.
The type of cooking stove an individual uses, and their awareness that a
sudden earthquake could tip it over is more important in reducing the risk of a
disastrous fire than having the community maintain a large fire brigade. The
type of house individuals build and where they consider a suitable place to live
affects the potential for disaster in a community more than large engineering
projects to reduce flood risk, or landslide stabilization efforts or sophisticated
typhoon warning systems.

Saving life and reducing economic disruption

The worst effects of any disaster are the deaths and injuries caused to the
population. The scale of disasters and the number of people they are capable of
killing is the primary justification for mitigation. Understanding the way that
people are killed and injured in disasters is a prerequisite for reducing casualties.

Q. Summarize what you think are the principal objectives of mitigation.

A.

Targeting mitigation where it has most effect

Understanding how the occurrence of a natural hazard or an accident turns into

a disaster enables us to forecast likely situations where a disaster is possible.
For example, some buildings (elements) are more vulnerable to earthquakes
(hazard) than others. Identifying these elements most at risk, can indicate
priorities for mitigation.

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Identifying locations and situations where combined risk factors coincide

helps indicate the elements most at risk. Elements most at risk are the elements
(buildings, networks, social groups) that are likely to contribute most to the
losses incurred in a future disaster or that are most likely to suffer from the
effects of the hazard. These elements may be the least able to recover after the
event. Within a city, for example, the portions of housing stock most likely to be
damaged can be identified. Mitigation measures applied to that sector will again
have the most effect on reducing risk.

Q. In Chapter 4, you identified the most likely disaster that could occur
in your community or country. In the discussion on vulnerability in
Chapter 8, you identified a community at risk. Within that community,
what are the elements at risk?
A.

Actions to reduce risk

% Reduce the hazard or reduce vulnerability

Protection against the threats of disaster can be achieved by modifying or
removing the causes of the threat, (reducing the hazard) or by reducing the
effects of the threat if it occurs (reducing the vulnerability of elements affected).
For most types of natural disasters, it is impossible to prevent the actual event
from occurring. The focus of mitigation policies against these hazards is
primarily on reducing the vulnerability of elements that are likely to be affected.
Obviously, some natural hazards can be reduced. The construction of levees
along a riverbank is an example of risk reduction.

% Tools, powers and budgets

It is evident that risk reduction is complex and needs to be built up through a
ANSWER (page 115) range of activities happening together. Governments, for example, can employ a
The principle objectives wide range of tools and use their powers in many ways to influence the safety of
of mitigation include: the community. Legislative powers, administrative functions, spending and
saving lives; reducing
economic disruption; project initiation are all part of the tools they can employ to bring about change.
decreasing vulnerability; Powers of persuasion are sometimes classified into two types: passive and
increasing capability to
active. These are summarized toward the end of this chapter. Another power of
resist disasters; decrease
chance of civil conflict. persuasion is diplomacy, perhaps the most useful tool to mitigate against warfare
or civil conflict.

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The menu of mitigation actions

The range of techniques that an authority might consider in order to assemble an

appropriate package for disaster mitigation can be classified into:
" engineering
" spatial planning
" economic
" management and institutionalization
" societal
" conflict reduction

Engineering
Engineering measures are those that result in stronger individual structures that
are more resistant to hazards. This is sometimes referred to as hardening
facilities against hazard forces. Building codes are critical defensive measures for
achieving stronger engineered structures. Training techniques to teach builders
the practicalities of disaster resistant construction are now well understood and
form part of the menu of mitigation actions available to the disaster planner.

Spatial planning
Many hazards are localized with their likely effects confined to specific known
areas. For example, floods affect flood plains, and landslides affect steep soft
slopes. The effects can be greatly reduced if it is possible to avoid having
hazardous areas used for settlements or as sites for important structures. Urban
planning needs to integrate awareness of natural disaster risk mitigation into the
normal procedures of planning a city.
For populations displaced by hazards or conflict, opportunities to reduce
their risk include the identification of safe zones for resettlement in areas with
adequate security and resources to support displaced persons.

Economic
Economic development is key to disaster mitigation. A strong economy is the
best protection against a future disaster. A strong economy means more money
to spend on stronger buildings, safer sites, and larger financial reserves to cope
with future losses.
Mitigation measures can help a community reduce future economic losses.
They can help members withstand losses and improve their recoverability after
loss and measures that make it possible for communities to afford higher levels
of safety are important elements of an overall mitigation programme.
Economic activities which help a community which hosts displaced persons
to absorb this population can mitigate against the development of serious social
or political problems.
Some aspects of economic planning are directly relevant to reducing disaster
risk. Diversification of economic activity is an important economic principle. A
single-industry economy is always more vulnerable than an economy made up
of many different activities. The linkages between different sectors of an
economythe transportation of goods, the flow of information, and the labor
market may be more vulnerable to disruption from a disaster than the physical
infrastructure that is the means of production.

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Management and institutionalization of disaster mitigation

Disaster mitigation also requires certain organizational and procedural measures.
The time scale over which a significant reduction can be achieved in the potential
impact of a disaster is medium and long term. Changes in location planning,
upgrading structures and changes in the characteristics of building stock are
process that take decades. The objectives and policies that guide the mitigation
processes have to be sustained over a number of years. They have to survive the
changes in political administration that are likely to happen within that time, the
changes in budgetary priorities and policies on other matters. The
institutionalization of disaster mitigation means the acceptance of a consensus of
opinion that efforts to reduce disaster risk are of continual importance.
Education, training and the development of professional expertise are necessary
components of institutionalizing disaster mitigation.

Societal
The mitigation of disasters will only come about when there is a consensus that it
is desirable. In many places, the individual hazards that threaten do not result in
disasters, the steps that people can take to protect themselves are not known and
the mandate of the community to have itself protected is not forthcoming.
Mitigation planning should aim to develop a disaster safety culture, one in
which the general public is fully aware of potential hazards, chooses to protect
itself as fully as possible and can readily support protective efforts made on its
behalf.

Conflict reduction
In the disasters and emergencies created by conflict, mitigation must include
conflict reduction. Measures at conflict reduction must start with identifying and
addressing the root causes of the conflict. Although negotiation will often be the
primary tool of conflict reduction, the issues may arise over such causes as land
tenure, employment, access to resources, and intolerance of ethnic or religious
differences. These issues need to be anticipated through a form of early warning
and defused before conflict erupts.

Classification of mitigation measures

Developing a mitigation strategy should include a structure to facilitate decision

making. The following series of questions suggests such a structure.
What risk is being reduced?
To what level should the risk be reduced?
What criteria are used to reduce the risk?
Who decides what the criteria are?
What is the political process to implement the measure?
Mitigation measures may be classified in several ways. The following list of
such classifications includes many categories which overlap in their
implementation.

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Active and passive: For active measures, authorities promote desired actions by
offering incentives. For passive measures, authorities prevent undesired actions
by using controls and penalties.

Structural and non-structural: Structural mitigation involves physical measures

taken to reduce risk by erecting structures (such as dams). Non-structural
measures are policies and practices of development whose implementation
reduces the risks to development.

Short-term and long-term: Short-term measures are those which dare taken rapidly
and which have a short life or usefulness such as sand bag reinforcements of a
dyke. Long-term measures may include a process that is itself long in
implementation, consider an extended timeframe, and change public attitudes
through education.

Restrictive and incentive: Restrictive measures result in practices that promote

safety by making some actions or development unlawful or prohibitively
expensive. Incentive measures provide financial, legal or other advantages to
promote activities which are also beneficial in terms of mitigation.

Sectoral based activities: Sectoral based activities start from the vantage point of a
sector, such as agriculture, and ask: within this sector, what can be done to
reduce risk? A response might be to introduce hazard resistant crops, or to
diversify cropping patterns.

Timing for mitigation

The risk reduction measures of mitigation are often placed in the pre-disaster
time frame. In fact, the most opportune time to implement mitigation is in the
period after a disaster. Public awareness of the problems posed by hazards is
high and the political will to act may also be at its peak. This period probably
will not last for more than two to three years before other development priorities
take precedence.

Q. Select one of the mitigation activities from the preceding discussion

and apply it to the element most at risk that you identified in the
previous question. Describe one example of a mitigation activity that will
reduce the vulnerability to an element at risk.

A.

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!
CHAPTER 14
UN assistance to disaster mitigation
mitiga
Including risk reduction and preparedness in the UNDP country programme1

This chapter focuses primarily on promoting disaster mitigation in the context of

long-term development planning and programs, in particular through the UNDP
country program and other projects funded through UNDRO. Mitigation
measures must also be actively promoted in the context of post-disaster
rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Disaster mitigation as a development theme

Hazards are a part of the natural and human-made environment. Exposure to

hazards and the risks of disastrous consequences must be considered in all
development planning. They must certainly be considered by UNDP at an early
stage of program and project formulation and design.
An awareness of the relationship between disasters and development must be
maintained in the UNDP country program and project cycles. The needs and
options for mitigation must be specifically addressed in:
" The continuing dialogue between UNDP, other UN agencies, the
Government, and aid donors.
" The country program cycle: in the preparation of the UNDP Advisory Note
and the Administrators Note, and in the country program document, review
and evaluation processes.
" The project cycle: in project identification, design and formulation, approval
(PAC/A.C), implementation (PPER, TPR), and evaluation.
It is essential that government bodies responsible for development priorities and
planning be fully aware of the impact of natural and man-made hazards on
societies and economies. This itself may require certain institution-building
initiatives during both the preparation and the implementation of the country
program.
The UN-DMT should review the priorities and possibilities for international
assistance, especially in cases where technical assistance is anticipated in
different sectors and different UN organizations or agencies and expected to be
involved or provide financing.
The context for disaster mitigation efforts lies within the policy for UNDP and
UNDRO as set forth in the following panel.

1
This chapter is adapted from Chapter 2 of the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual.

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Panel 2A/1
Disaster-related policy goals of UNDP and UNDRO

With the aim of ensuring that developing countries are fully aware of disaster risks
and take advantage of the most effective techniques for disaster mitigation,
UNDP and UNDRO seek to:
" Strengthen the ability of societies to avoid, or protect themselves, their
property and means of livelihood, against the risks associated with natural and
human-made hazards.
" Encourage the integration of disaster risk reduction and preparedness
measures in planning and budgetary processes related to development in all
sectors.
" Build on local understanding and experience of disaster threats and coping
mechanisms.
" Facilitate exchanges between disaster-prone countries of experience,
knowledge and skills related to disaster management. Panel 2A/1
Disaster-related policy
" Ensure that programmes and projects funded by UNDP contribute to lessening
of risks, are not themselves subject to major risks and do not exacerbate the goals of UNDP and
potential adverse effects of hazards. UNDRO.
From UNDP/UNDRO
Disaster Management
Manual.

Q. At what point in the UNDP country programming and project

cycle can a program officer address mitigation opportunities?
A.

Appraising disaster mitigation needs, policies, and capacity

Almost all countries have established some institutional arrangements for the
various aspects of disaster management. Many have instituted some risk
reduction and/or disaster preparedness measures. Some countries are well-
advanced, others less so. This national capacity for risk assessment, mitigation
planning, and implementation will need to be determined, based on an appraisal
of the Governments mitigation policies, strategies, and measures.

Appraisal is needed and must enable the resident representative to determine,

with the Government:
" Whether technical assistance is required for hazard and risk assessments.

" The priority to assign to risk reduction and preparedness in the country
program.
" The extent to which risk reduction measures can be incorporated into
projects being planned or undertaken in various sectors.
" The need for freestanding risk reduction and/or preparedness projects.

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Informed judgements must be made concerning the likely hazard effects, the
adequacy and cost-effectiveness of existing risk reduction and preparedness
measures, and on the capacity of all concerned to act on these measures.
Appendix 2B of the manual lists what to consider in this appraisal.

The appraisal will be the basis for the inclusion of disaster-related concerns in the
UNDP Advisory Note and Administrators Note, which draw on or address the
issues listed in panel 2B/1 of the manual. They may also refer to UNDPs policy
with respect to reaching the objectives of the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction.

Panel 2B/1
Elements to be Panel 2B/1
explicitly considered
during the early
Elements to be explicitly considered during the early stages of country
stages of country programme development
programme
development. " The experience of recent disasters.
" The extent to which the relationship between hazards and socio-economic
UNDP/UNDRO Disaster objectives is explicitly addressed in national development plan, sectoral or
Management Manual.
multi-sectoral studies.
" The effects of natural disasters on past development activities, including those
funded by UNDP through the country programme.
" Discussions in World Bank Consultative Group meetings, and UNDP-assisted
Round Tables, that underscored the link between disaster and development.
" The options available for reducing overall socio-economic losses and setbacks
to development by integrating risk reduction and preparedness measures into
general development activities.
" Specific possibilities for reducing risks and enhancing national and local-level
preparedness through technical assistance within sectoral programmes.
" The availability of national and international resources for mitigation.
" The possible usefulness of technical assistance to assess needs in disaster
mitigation.
" The institutional arrangements for inter-sectoral co-ordination of disaster
mitigation activities.

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Q. Choose one sector with which you are familiar, such as housing,
health, agriculture, etc. Then, with this sector in mind, analyze your own
experiences and responsibilities with the elements in Panel 2B/1.

A.
Identify the most recent major disaster in your country.

Is the extent of the relationship between hazards and socio-economic objectives explicitly addressed
in national development plan, sectoral or multi-sectoral studies?

What have been the effects of natural disasters on past development activities?

Are there discussions in World Bank Consultative Group meetings and UNDP-assisted Round Tables
that underscore the link between disaster and development?

What are the options available for reducing overall socio-economic losses and setbacks to
development by integrating risk reduction and preparedness measures into general development
activities?

Identify one specific possibility for reducing risks and enhancing national and local-level preparedness
through technical assistance within sectoral programs.

What is the availability of national and international resources for mitigation?

What is the possible usefulness of technical assistance to assess needs in disaster mitigation?

What institutional arrangements exist for inter-sectoral coordination of disaster mitigation activities?

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Sources of information: needs for technical expertise

The integration of all elements involved in risk assessment is a complex,

multidisciplinary task. The resident representative, in collaboration with other
members of the UN-DMT, should:
a) Determine whether the relevant government ministries or other organizations
have already compiled relevant risk assessment data, or whether they are
capable of doing so.
b) Review the available information, and identify any gaps or inadequacies in the
available information.
Where more data collection and analysis is required, the resident representative
and the UN-DMT should:
a) Identify in-country and regional institutions that could be approached to
gather and consolidate the required data.
b) Encourage the Government to begin the required studies.
c) Define requirements for technical assistance in data gathering and analysis,
where needed.
Technical assistance from UNDRO should be requested as necessary.
The analysis should be undertaken before the Advisory Note is prepared, where
possible. With Government and UNDP Headquarters consent, SPR funds may be
made available for this purpose if required.
The analysis and the consequent discussions with the government and other
concerned agencies should lead to the definition of a strategy that addresses
disaster-related issues in the country program.

Project identification and formulation

Project identification and selection must take into account hazard-related risks
and national mitigation policies and strategies. There are two contexts to consider:
a) Possible interaction between proposed projects in all sectors, and known
hazards in the project areas. The chief aim of such projects is improvement in
the sector concerned. But because a project is in a known hazard area, it must:
" Be protected from the hazard
" Not increase the vulnerability of the population to the hazard

" Not worsen the existing hazard or create a new one.

b) Possible need for freestanding disaster mitigation projects to reduce the risk
of disaster or enhance national preparedness. The chief aim of such projects is
to improve some aspect of disaster managementfor example to prepare
national and local-level preparedness plans, or to equip and train officials and
community leaders for effective disaster response.
Freestanding disaster mitigation projects aim at reducing the risk of disaster by
reducing or eliminating the hazard or societys vulnerability to it, or by increasing
the capacities of organizations, officials, and communities to prepare for and
respond to the hazard. Such projects can be placed within one organizational
sector, for example a Ministry of Health or Interior. However, the multi-sectoral
impact of disasters makes it more appropriate to place the project in more than
one sector, or under the domain of a lead entity responsible for coordinating
multiple sectors.

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Typical freestanding disaster mitigation projects are:

a) Institution-building projects which strengthen the capacity of governmental
institutions to incorporate disaster management considerations in the
planning process, or to undertake risk assessment.
b) Projects to prepare national or sub-national disaster preparedness plans,
develop warning and response mechanisms, and ensure the necessary
training.
c) Projects to introduce or strengthen particular kinds of protective measures,
such as controlling floods or introducing cycloneor earthquake-resistant
construction.
d) Projects to strengthen famine early warning systems, and the links between
these systems and disaster management bodies, in countries prone to
drought, crop failure, and uncertain food supply.
Projects which have one or more aspects of disaster mitigation as their principal
objective should normally be designed byor at least be developed in
consultation withUNDRO.

Disaster risk appraisal of all projects in hazardous areas

Projects whose activities are located in known hazardous areas must be

appraised from a disaster risk perspective, regardless of their sector or
institutional framework. This is the same approach used to review projects from
an environmental perspective, or from a women-in-development perspective.
This applies to the reviews conducted at both field and headquarters levels.
While it may be easy to see the necessity for incorporating risk reduction in a
project involving the construction of infrastructure, it also applies to institution-
building projects. For example, health personnel should be trained in how to deal
with the aftermath of a disaster, and school teachers should be involved in
organizing their communities response to warnings.
Appraisals must consider whether the project and its outputs might be adversely
affected by, and therefore need to be protected against, a hazard; whether it will
increase the vulnerability of the population in the area, or worsen the existing
hazard or create a new one.
The appraisal must determine whether adequate safeguardspossibly
including specific risk reduction measuresare built into the project, and if not,
what further steps should be taken to assure that they are.
The Disasters and Development (DAD) Project Review Form (Appendix 2B of
the manual) should be completed and attached to the Project Document for use
in project reviews and evaluations. The results of the appraisal should be
reflected in sections D and J of the PFF, and B6(f) and F of the Project Document.
If a project can make a significant contribution to risk reduction (directly or
indirectly), this should be so noted in sections of both the PFF and the Project
Document as a problem to be addressed. This should also be noted as a project
objective, and the corresponding outputs, activities and inputs be specified.
UNDRO should be invited to review and comment, from a risk perspective, on
projects whose activities would be located in areas prone to sudden disasters
(natural or technological).

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Disaster risk reduction planning checklist

In order to appraise disaster mitigation needs, policies, and capacity, an

informed judgement must be made concerning likely hazards and their effects, the
adequacy and cost-effectiveness of existing risk reduction and preparedness
Disaster risk reduction measures, and the ability of all concerned to act on these measures. This checklist
planning checklist for shows what to consider in this appraisal.
UNDP country
programme purposes National policies towards disaster risks and development planning
From Appendix 2A, # Are hazard-related risks considered in development planning? Is there a policy for
UNDP/UNDRO risk reduction: At national level? For specific disaster-prone areas?
Disaster Management
Manual # Are there institutional mechanisms to integrate risk concerns into development
planning and ensure inter-sectoral co-ordination?
# If/when new human settlements are planned, are natural hazards and risk of disaster
considered, and appropriate measures built into the planning?
Awareness and analysis of risks and options
# What is the level of awareness of the hazard-related risks among officials in central
planning and sectoral bodies?
# What impact have disasters (and all forms of hazard impacts) had on development
efforts and on the situation of the most vulnerable groups in society?
# Have data on known hazards (natural and human-made) been analysed? Have
hazard maps been prepared? Are the data and maps updated as hazard conditions
change, or as new populations or economic activities move into the hazardous areas?
# Have the populations, infrastructure, agricultural and industrial economic assets,
essential services, and development programmes and investments at risk been fully
identified?
# Have specific estimates been made of the likely social and economic effects of
particular hazard impacts on the various elements at risk and on the society as a
whole?
# What measures have been taken, or are planned, to reduce the risks? How effective
are they? Have additional specific measures been identified as feasible options?
# Why have they not been adopted or implemented yet?
Institutional arrangements for disaster management
# What arrangements exist at national level? Is there an entity in the national
government with specific responsibility for all phases of disaster management? Is it
adequately staffed, trained, and funded? Is it properly placed within the government
structure?
# Are there specific entities at the regional, subregional, and community levels
specifically responsible for disaster management? Are they adequately staffed,
trained, and funded?
Warning and other preparedness measures
# Are mechanisms in place that can issue warnings of disaster threats to populations at
risk? Are warnings given with sufficient lead time? Do they make clear the risks
involved and the action to take?
# Are there established arrangements at local and national levels? Are all concerned
aware of their responsibilities, the procedures to follow, and arrangements for co-
ordination? Are these plans widely understood and regularly tested?
# Are there adequate communications systems including back-up systems, for use in
disaster response?
Human resources for disaster management
# Is there a training programme for disaster managers?
# Is there public information and education programme?

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Disasters and Development (DAD) Project Review Form

(DRAFT FOR EXPERIMENTAL USE)

*
Form completed as an attachment to:
Prodoc / Annual Review / Evaluation / Other

Project no. and title

Proposed UNDP budget Expected duration

Geographical location

Disaster history (summary) of the location/area: [Type; frequency (everymonths/years or

unpredictable); effects; last occurred]:

The underlying and direct causes of the vulnerability of the society to the known hazards:

Effects which hazards could have on project structures and activities: how these have been taken into
account in project design. [Which elements are vulnerable and what will be done to reduce the
vulnerability]:

The effect the project will have on current vulnerability and risks:

Additional activities which could be promoted/undertaken within, or in parallel with, the project which
would contribute to reducing vulnerability and risks:

Disasters and
Development (DAD)
project review form
Signed Date From Appendix 2B,
UNDP/UNDRO Disaster
Management Manual.
* DRAFT for experimental
Use this form during project formulation, at the time of approval, and for annual reviews and
use.
evaluation for projects whose objectives, outputs and activities are set in disaster-prone areas.
Attach it to the corresponding documentation.

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UNITED
NATIONS Appendix A
General Assembly Distr.
LIMITED
A/46/L.55
17 December 1991

ORGINAL: ENGLISH

Forty-sixth session
Agenda item 143

STRENGTHENING OF THE COORDINATION OF HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCY

ASSISTANCE OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Sweden: draft resolution

The General Assembly,

Recalling its resolution 2816 (XXVI) of 14 December 1971, and its

subsequent resolutions and decisions on humanitarian assistance, including its
resolution 45/100 of 14 December 1990,

Recalling also its resolution 44/236 of 22 December 1989, the annex to

which contains the International Framework of Action for the International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction,

Deeply concerned about the suffering of the victims of disasters and

emergency situations, the loss in human lives, the flow of refugees, the mass
displacement of people and the material destruction,

Mindful of the need to strengthen further and make more effective the
collective efforts of the international community, in particular the United Nations
system, in providing humanitarian assistance,

Taking note with satisfaction of the report of the Secretary-General on

the review of the capacity, experience and coordination arrangements in the
United Nations system for humanitarian assistance, 1/

1/ A/46/568.

91-49579 4069Z (E)

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1. Adopts the text contained it the annex to the present resolution for
the strengthening of the coordination of emergency humanitarian assistance of
the United Nations system;

2. Requests the Secretary-General to report to the General Assembly at

its forty-seventh session on the implementation of the present resolution.

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ANNEX

I. GUIDING PRINCIPLES

1. Humanitarian assistance is of cardinal importance for the victims of

natural disasters and other emergencies.
2. Humanitarian assistance must be provided in accordance with the
principles of humanity, neutrality and impartiality.
3. The sovereignty, territorial integrity and national unity of States must
be fully respected in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. In
this context, humanitarian assistance should be provided with the consent of
the affected country and in principle on the basis of an appeal by the
affected country.
4. Each State has the responsibility first and foremost to take care of the
victims of natural disasters and other emergencies occurring on its
territory. Hence, the affected State has the primary role in the initiation,
organization, coordination, and implementation of humanitarian assistance
within its territory.
5. The magnitude and duration of many emergencies may be beyond the response
capacity of many affected countries. International cooperation to address
emergency situations and to strengthen the response capacity of affected
countries is thus of great importance. Such cooperation should be provided in
accordance with international law and national laws. Intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations working impartially and with strictly
humanitarian motives should continue to make a significant contribution in
supplementing national efforts.
6. States whose populations are in need of humanitarian assistance are
called upon to facilitate the work of these opganizations in implementing
humanitarian assistance, in particular the supply of food, medicines, shelter
and health care, for which access to victims is essential.
7. States in proximity to emergencies are urged to participate closely with
the affected countries in international efforts, with a view to facilitating,
to the extent possible, the transit of humanitarian assistance.
8. Special attention should be given to disaster prevention and preparedness
by the Governments concerned, as well as by the international community.
9. There is a clear relationship between emergency, rehabilitation and
development. In order to ensure a smooth transition from relief to
rehabilitation and development, emergency assistance should be provided in
ways that will be supportive of recovery and long-term development. Thus,
emergency measures should be seen as a step towards long-term development.

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10. Economic growth and sustainable development are essential for prevention
of and preparedness against natural disasters and other emergencies. Many
emergencies reflect the underlying crisis in development facing developing
countries. Humanitarian assistance should therefore be accompanied by a
renewal of commitment to economic growth and sustainable development of
developing countries. In this context, adequate resources must be made
available ot address their development problems.
11. Contributions for humanitarian assistance should be provided in a way
which is not to the detriment of resources made available for international
cooperation for development.
12. The United Nations has a central and unique role to play in providing
leadership and coordinating the efforts of the international community to
support the affected countries. The United Nations should ensure the prompt
and smooth delivery of relief assistance in full respect of the
above-mentioned principles, bearing in mind also relevant General Assembly
resolutions, including resolutions 2816 (XXVI) and 45/100. The United Nations
system needs to be adapted and strengthened to meet present and future
challenges in an effective and coherent manner. It should be provided with
resources commensurate with future requirements. The inadequacy of such
resources has been one of the major constraints in the effective response of
the United Nations to emergencies.

II. PREVENTION

13. The international community should adequately assist developing countries

in strengthening their capacity in disaster prevention and mitigation, both at
the national and regional levels, for example, in establishing and enhancing
integrated programmes in this regard.
14. In order to reduce the impact of disasters there should be increased
awareness of the need for establishing disaster mitigation strategies,
particularly in disaster-prone countries. There should be greater exchange
and dissemination of existing and new technical information related to the
assessment, prediction and mitigation of disasters. As called for in the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, efforts should be
intensified to develop measures for prevention and mitigation of natural
disasters and similar emergencies through programmes of technical assistance
and modalities for favourable access to, and transfer of, relevant technology.
15. The disaster management training programme recently initiated by the
Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator and the United
Nations Development Programme should be strengthened and broadened.
16. Organizations of the United Nations system involved in the funding and
the provision of assistance relevant to the prevention of emergencies should
be provided with sufficient and readily available resources.

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17. The international community is urged to provide the necessary support and
resources to programmes and activities undertaken to further the goals and
objectives of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction.

III. PREPAREDNESS

18. International relief assistance should supplement national efforts to

improve the capacities of developing countries to mitigate the effects of
natural disasters expeditiously and effectively and to cope efficiently with
all emergencies. The United Nations should enhance its efforts to assist
developing countries to strengthen their capacity to respond to disasters, at
the national and regional levels, as appropriate.

Early warning
19. On the basis of existing mandates and drawing upon monitoring
arrangements available within the system, the United Nations should intensify
efforts, building upon the existing capacities of relevant organizations and
entities of the United Nations, for the systematic pooling, analysis and
dissemination of early-warning information on natural disasters and other
emergencies. In this context, the United Nations should consider making use
as appropriate of the early-warning capacities of Governments and
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations.
20. Early-warning information should be made available in an unrestricted and
timely manner to all interested Governments and concerned authorities, in
particular of affected or disaster-prone countries. The capacity of
disaster-prone countries to receive, use and disseminate this information
should be strengthened. In this connection, the international community is
urged to assist these countries upon request with the establishment and
enhancement of national early-warning systems.

IV. STAND-BY CAPACITY

(a) Contingency funding arrangements

21. Organizations and entities of the United Nations system should continue
to respond to requests for emergency assistance within their respective
mandates. Reserve and other contingency funding arrangements of these
organizations and entities should be examined by their respective governing
bodies to strengthen further their operational capacities for rapid and
coordinated response to emergencies.
22. In addition, there is a need for a complementary central funding
mechanism to ensure the provision of adequate resources for use in the initial
phase of emergencies that require a system-wide response.

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23. To that end, the Secretary-General should establish under his authority a
central emergency revolving fund as a cash-flow mechanism to ensure the rapid
and coordinated response of the organizations of the system.
24. This fund should be put into operation with an amount of 50 million
United States dollars. The fund should be financed by voluntary
contributions. Consultations among potential donors should be held to this
end. To achieve this target, the Secretary-General should launch an appeal to
potential donors and convene a meeting of those donors in the first quarter of
1992 to secure contributions to the fund on an assured, broad-based and
additional basis.
25. Resources should be advanced to the operational organizations of the
system on the inderstanding that they would reimburse the fund in the first
instance from the voluntary contributions received in response to consolidated
appeals.
26. The operation of the fund should be reviewed after two years.

(b) Additional measures for rapid response

27. The United Nations should, building upon the existing capacities of
relevant organizations, establish a central register of all specialized
personnel and teams of technical specialists, as well as relief supplies,
equipment and services available within the United Nations system and from
Governments and intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, that can
be called upon at short notice by the United Nations.
28. The United Nations should continue to make appropriate arrangements with
interested Governments and intergovernmental and non-governmental
organizations to enable it to have more expeditious access, when necessary, to
their emergency relief capacities, including food reserves, emergency
stockpiles and personnel, as well as logistic support. In the context of the
annual report to the General Assembly mentioned in paragraph 35 (i) below,
the Secretary-General is requested to report on progress in this regard.
29. Special emergency rules and procedures should be developed by the United
Nations to enable all organizations to disburse quickly emergency funds, and
to procure emergency supplies and equipment, as well as to recruit emergency
staff.
30. Disaster-prone countries should develop special emergency procedures to
expedite the rapid procurement and deployment of equipment and relief
supplies.

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V. CONSOLIDATED APPEALS
31. For emergencies requiring a coordinated response, the Secretary-General
should ensure that an initial consolidated appeal covering all concerned
organizations of the system, prepared in consultation with the affected State,
is issued within the shortest possible time and in any event not longer than
one week. In the case of prolonged emergencies, this initial appeal should be
updated and elaborated within four weeks, as more information becomes
available.
32. Potential donors should adopt necessary measures to increase and expedite
their contributions, including setting aside, on a stand-by basis, financial
and other resources that can be disbursed quickly to the United Nations system
in response to the consolidated appeals of the Secretary-General.

VI. COORDINATION, COOPERATION AND LEADERSHIP

(a) Leadership of the Secretary-General

33. The leadership role of the Secretary-General is critical and must be

strenthened to ensure better preparation for, as well as rapid and coherent
response to, natural disasters and other emergencies. This should be achieved
through coordinated support for prevention and preparedness measures and the
optimal utilization of, inter alia, an inter-agency standing committee,
consolidated appeals, a central emergency revolving fund and a register of
stand-by capacities.
34. To this end, and on the understanding that the requisite resources
envisaged in paragraph 24 above would be provided, a high-level official,
emergency relief coordinator, would be designated by the
Secretary-General to work closely with and with direct access to him, in
cooperation with the relevant organizations and entities of the system
dealing with humanitarian assistance and in full respect of their
mandates, without prejudice to any decisions to be taken by the General
Assembly on the overall restructuring of the Secretariat of the United Nations.
This high-level official should combine the functions at present carried out in the
coordination of United Nations response by representatives of the
Secretary-General for major and complex emergencies, as well as by the United
Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator.
35. Under the aegis of the General Assembly and working under the direction
of the Secretary-General, the high-level official would have the following
responsibilities:
(a) Processing requests from affected Member States for emergency
assistance requiring a coordinated response;
(b) Maintaining an overview of all emergencies through, inter alia, the
systematic pooling and analysis of early-warning information as envisaged in

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Paragraph 19 above, with a view to coordinating and facilitating the

humanitarian assistance of the United Nations system to those emergencies that
require a coordinated response;
(c) Organizing, in consultation with the Government of the affected
country, a joint inter-agency needs-assessment mission and preparing a
consolidated appeal to be issued by the Secretary-General, to be followed by
periodic situation reports including information on all sources of external
assistance;
(d) Actively facilitating, including through negotiation if needed, the
access by the operational organizations to emergency areas for the rapid
provision of emergency assistance by obtaining the consent of all parties
concerned, through modalities such as the establishment of temporary relief
corridors where needed, days and zones of tranquility and other forms;
(e) Managing, in consultation with the operational organizations
concerned, the central emergency revolving fund and assisting in the
mobilization of resources;
(f) Serving as a central focal point with Governments and
intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations concerning United Nations
emergency relief operations and, when appropriate and necessary, mobilizing
their emergency relief capacities, including through consultations in his
capacity as Chairman of the Inter-Agency Standing Committee;
(g) Providing consolidated information, including early warning on
emergencies, to all interested Governments and concerned authorities,
particularly affected and disaster-prone countries, drawing on the capacities
of the organizations of the system and other available sources;
(h) Actively promoting, in close collaboration with concerned
organizations, the smooth transition from relief to rehabilitation and
reconstruction as relief operations under his aegis are phased out;
(i) Preparing an annual report for the Secretary-General on the
coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance, including information on
the central emergency revolving fund, to be submitted to the General Assembly
through the Economic and Social Council.
36. The high-level official should be supported by a secretariat based on a
strengthened office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator and the
consolidation of existing offices that deal with complex emergencies. This
secretariat could be supplemented by staff seconded from concerned
organizations of the system. The high-level official should work closely with
organizations and entities of the United Nations system, as well as the
International Committee of the Red Cross, the League of Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies, the International Organization for Migration and relevant
non-governmental organizations. At the country level, the high-level official
would maintain close contact with and provide leadership to the resident
coordinators on matters relating to humanitarian assistance.

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37. The Secretary-General should ensure that arrangements between the

high-level official and all relevant organizations are set in place,
establishing responsibilities for prompt and coordinated action in the event
of emergency.

(b) Inter-Agency Standing Committee

38. An Inter-Agency Standing Committee serviced by a strengthened Office of
the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator should be established under the
chairmanship of the high-level official with the participation of all
operational organizations and with a standing invitation to the International
Committee of the Red Cross, the League of the Red Cross Societies, and the
International Organization for Migration. Relevant non-governmental
organizations can be invited to participate on an ad hoc basis. The Committee
should meet as soon as possible in response to emergencies.

(c) Country-level coordination

39. Within the overall framework described above and in support of the
efforts of the affected countries, the resident coordinator should normally
coordinate the humanitarian assistance of the United Nations system at the
country level. He/She should facilitate the preparedness of the United
Nations system and assist in a speedy transition from relief to development.
He/She should promote the use of all locally or regionally available relief
capacities. The resident coordinator should chair an emergency operations
group of field representatives and experts from the system.

VII. CONTINUUM FROM RELIEF TO REHABILITATION AND DEVELOPMENT

40. Emergency assistance must be provided in ways that will be supportive of

recovery and long-term development. Development assistance organizations of
the United Nations system should be involved at an early stage and should
collaborate closely with those responsible for emergency relief and recovery,
within their existing mandates.
41. International cooperation and support for rehabilitation and
reconstruction should continue with sustained intensity after the initial
relief stage. The rehabilitation phase should be used as an opportunity to
restructure and improve facilities and services destroyed by emergencies in
order to enable them to withstand the impact of future emergencies.
42. International cooperation should be accelerated for the development of
developing countries, thereby contributing to reducing the occurrence and
impact of future disasters and emergencies.

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