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Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide
First Edition
Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide
Purchase agreement and license to use
GREEN BUILDING AND LEED CORE CONCEPTS GUIDE
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 INTRODUCTION 1
GREEN BUILDING 3
Life Cycle of Built Environments
I ntegrative Approach
Green Building Costs and Benefits

U.s. GREEN BUILDING COUNCIL AND ITS PROGRAMS 15

leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
Green Building Certification Institute
LEED Rating Systems

SUSTAINABLE SITES 25
Transportation
Site Selection
Site Design and Management
Stormwater Management

WATER EFFICIENCY 37
I ndoor Water
Outdoor Water
Process Water

ENERGY AND ATMOSPHERE 43

Energy Demand .
Energy Efficiency
Renewable Energy
Ongoing Energy Performance

MATERIALS AND RESOURCES 53

Waste Management
Life-Cycle Impacts

INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 59

Indoor Air Quality
Thermal Comfort, Lighting, and Acoustics

INNOVATION IN DESIGN
GLOSSARY 69
 " .""",,"

Green building is an integrative effort to transform the way built

environments-from individual buildings to neighborhoods and
even entire communities-are designed, constructed, and operated.
The scope of green building reaches from the earliest stages of
planning to beyond the end of a structure's life. It runs up and down
the supply chain. It encompasses the production and fate of every
substance that goes into or out of a project. The sweeping scope of
green building requires a cross~cutting, interdisciplinary approach.

This guide presents green building concepts and strategies and introduces
the ideas and practices t hat serve as the foundation for more detailed study
of green bu i Id i ng, particularly as it relates to the green building rating systems of t he Leader-
ship in Energyand Environmental Design (LEED) program and to individual market segments, such
as homes, commercial new construction, and neighborhood developments.

We first describe how green building aspires to transform the design, construction, and operation
ofbuHr environments and shift practice toward higher performance, lower environmental impact,
and ultimately regenerative designs. The section that follows describes the certification approach
used by the U.S. Green Building Council and its LEED rating systems. LEED is not an end in itself
but a tool that helps create high-performance, more sustainable built environments by providing a
framework for design, construction, and evaluation. It is up to green building professionals to use
this tool as part of an integrated planning and design process to achieve real results on the ground.

1
 Green building requires a holistic,integrated approach but in practice depends on new strategies in
the various aspects of design and construction. Accordingly, the heart of this book is an introduction
to the six categories used in LEED:

Sustamable Sites
o Water Efflciency
Energy and Atmosphere
e Materials and Resources
Indoor Environmental Quality
. . I nnovation in DeSign

Each chapter reviews the basic concepts and strategies associated with each credit category, while
recognizing t hat they are all intimately linked and must be considered together during effective in-
tegrative processes.

Throughout, the reader will find references to sources of

information for green building professionals. We also offer
examples of challenging questions faCing the green building
community-many of which lack straightforward answers-to
encourage more detailed study based on real-world projects.

At the end, a glossary defines tenos that may be unfamiliar to some readers or have specific mean-
ings in the context ofgreen building.

Having absorbed the basics of green building concepts and strategies, the rcader can move fOJWard
on morc specialized pathways. Depending on one's field in the buildi ng industry, a logical next step
mighl be to study the relevant LE ED reference guide;

LEED Reference Guide for Green Building Design and Construction, which covers the New
Construction, Core & Shell, Schools, Healt hcare, and Retail rating systems:

LEED Reference Guide for Green Building Interior Design and Construction, which covers the
Commercial Interiors and Ret ail Interiors rating systems:

LEED Reference Guide for Green Building Operations and Maintenance, which covers the
Existing Buildings and Existing Schools rating systems; or

LfED for Homes Reference Guide. which covers the Homes rating system.

Specialized educational programs also offer detailed understanding fo r the rating systems. Readers
iOlereSted in more in-depth technical training may wish to focus on specific elements, such as en-
ergy modeling or lighting design. More information about educational opportunities in all of these
areas is available at "ffi'\V.usgbc.Qrg.

,
2 Green Build ing and lEED Core Concepts Guide
 The green building movement strives to create a permanent shift In
prevailing design, planning, construction, and operational practices
toward lower~ i mpact, more sustainable, and ultimately regenerative
built environments. This t ransformation will never be complete, since
green building is fundamental ly a process of continual improvement.
In this process, today's "best practices" become tomorrow's standard
practJces and the foundation for ever~higher levels of performance.

Why is green building necessary?

The answer is rooted in the effects of conventional buildings and land use on people, the environ-
ment, and OUf shared natural resources. The cumulative impact of the design, construction, and op-
eration of built environments has profound implications for human health, the e nvironment, and
tbe economy. For example, with conventional development practices,
Clearing of land for development often destroys wildlife habitat;
Extracting. manufacturing, and transporting materia ls contribute to the pollution of water and
air, the release of toxic chemicals, and the emission of greenhouse gases;

Building operations require large inputs of energy and water and generate substantial waste
streams; and
Building-related transportation, such as commuting and services, contributes to a wide range
of impacts associated with vehicle use. energy consumption, and harmfu l environmental
effects.

3
 In the United St ates, buildings account for a high proponion of resource use and waste generation:
14% of potable water consumption;
30% of waste output;
38% of carbon dioxide em issions;
40% of raw materials use;
24% to 50% of energy use; and
72% of electricity consumption. I

Modifying the conventional way in which homes, schools, offices, shopping centers, hospitals, and
cities are designed can have a beneficial effect on the environment. Green building practices can
minimize human use of natural resources while generating economic benefits that include lower
operational costs and higher human productivity. Green buildings are efficient and comfortable,
and they contain the amenities needed for a better quality oflife, including improved health.

Many of the elements of green building are not new or even

unique. For example, energy efficiency, Smart Growth, water
conservation, and indocr air quality have been the focus of
various programs and incentives, both governmental and market
driven. What distinguishes green building is its focus on all of
these issues in an effort to contribute solutions to pressing
health , environmental, and economic challenges through the
location, design, construction , and operation of buildings.

The trend in the United States toward green building practices has quickened in the past decade,
contributing to a market transformation in the supply of building products, and services- and in
the demand for skilled professionals. The value of green building construction is projected to in~

crease to $ 60 billion by 2 010.' The facts are staggering. The Green Building Alliance anticipates that
the market for green building products will be worth ~30 billion to $ 40 billion annually by 201O.J
As more green products and technologies become available, the more mainstream green building
becomes.

Federal, state, and local governments have all adopted more sustainable building practices. For ex-
ample, the U.S. Ge neral Services Administration requires that all new federal government construc-
tion projects and substantial renovations achieve LEED certification, and it encourages projects to
achievc at least a Silver rating. Government agencies, utility companies, and manufacturers increas-
ingly offer financial incentives for developers and owners t o enhance the environmental perfor-
mance of their buildings.

1 Energy Informabon Adm inistration. 2005. EI A Annual Energy RevIeW and Energy Informatiorl Adminlstration_ Emissions of
Greenhouse Gases Tn ttle UnIted States.
2 McGraw. Hili ConstructiorL 2(X)8. Key Trends in the European and U.S. Construction Marketptace SmartMarke! Report ,
3 GrE!i)n Building Alliance. 2006. USGBC Green Building Facts. hUo;!/www ysgbc orgIShQwfjle asp!!?Documentl0=3340_

4 Green Buil ding and LEED Core Conce pts GUi de

THINK ABOUT IT
The future of the built environment. Conventional building practices
are not sustainable. They use too much energy, create too much waste, and
sometimes even undermine the health and comfort of occupants. Conventional
patterns of energy use, waste, and pollution do not support widely accepted
goals for greenhouse gas emissions reductions and public health. Recognizing
the problem, however, is only the first step toward a solution. What might the
built environment of 2030 look like? How can we break from the status quo and
ach-ieve results at scale?

Primary Resources: Energy Usage in Buildings

Buildings are exceptionally
costly investments. Thei r
owners must have access
to large amounts of capital
and sufficient revenue to
meet operations and main-
tenance costs. The design,
construction, and opera-
tion of buildings also have
social , economic, and en-
vironmenta l consequences
for occupants and society.
9% - Other, 478 trillion Btu

Since 1979, the U.S. De- 1% - Office EQuipment, 64 trillion Blu

3% - Persona l Computers. 148 trillion Blu
partment of Energy's Energy
3% - Cooking, 1671nlhon Blu
Information Administration 3% - Refrigeration, 354 trillion Btu
(EIA) has collected data on 7% - Ventilation, 384 trillion Btu

both commercial and resi- 7% - Cooling, 431 \lillion Blu

.8% Water Heating, 448 trillion Btu
dential buildings through
20% - Lghhng. 1,143 trillion Btu
its energy consumption 38% - Space Healln!'!. 2.203 trillion Btu
surveys, which provide peri-
Total Consumption, 5,820 trillion Btu
od ic national assessments.
Figuf1! 1. O,w,bul,on of BUilding Energy
Use (SOurCi!: U.S. OOE. Energy Information
Admims(Jatlon)

Green Building 5
 According to a recent Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey, in 2003 the
United States had 4.9 million commercial buildings with 71.6 billion square feet of
floor space . These buildings used 6,500 trillion Btus of energy, of which electricity
acco1unted for 55% and natural gas, 32%. Of this energy, 36% was used for space
heating and 21% for lighting. In 2003, owners and operators of commercial build-
ings spent $92 billion on energy, not including transportation-related energy costs.
For an average 13,000-square-foot building, this amounted to nearly $20,000 per
year, or $1.43 per square foot.

EIA's 2005 Residential Energy Consumption Survey collected data from 4,381 house-
holds that statistically represented the 111.1 million housing units in the United
States. The results indicated that U.S. households spent a total of $201 billion on
energy in 2005, equivalent to $1,810 per household, or $0.83 per square foot.

A focus on green bu ilding and energy efficiency ca n

dramatically reduce such costs for both commercial
and reside ntia l owners, and the savings continue to
grow throughout the lifetime of the building.

In 2001, the EIA estimated that Americans drove 2,287 billion vehicle miles, con-
suming 113 billion gallons of gasoline and spending $150.3 billion on fue l. The
combustion of all that fuel released 837 million metric tons of carbon dioxide (C0 2 l
into the atmosphere. Our dependence on cars affects local air quality, public safety,
and quality of life-impacts that could be signi ficantly reduced by smart location of
buildings and better land-use planning.

Energy Information Administration. end-use energy consumption data and analyses.

httc;l!www.eia.doe.govlemeukonsumpHon!jndex.html.
2003 Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey. http:Uwww.e1a.doe.gov/emeu/
cbecsJcbecs2003ldetailed tables 2003ldetailed tables 2003,html#consumexpen03.
2005 Residential Energy Consumption Survey. htto:l/www.eja,doe.goylemeulrecs/
recs2005!c&efdetailed tabl es 2005c&e,html .

LIFE CYCLE OF BUILT ENVIRONMENTS

Sustainability is not a singular event; it h~s no crisp beginning or end. Rath- .
er, it is a process of continual improvement. When applied to built environments.
sustainability begins at the inception of an idea and continues seamlessly until the project reaches
the end of its life and its pans are recycled or reused. The srudy of this continual process, known as
life-cycle assessment, encompasses planning, design, construction, operations, and ultimately re-
tirement and renewal. The analysis considers not only the building itself but also its materials and

6 Green Building and LEED Core Concepts GUide

components, from their extraction,
manufacture, and transpon to their
Today$ typfca l building
use, reuse, recycling, and disposal.
The intent oflife-cycle assessment is
to inform the choice of building ma-
terials and systems and thereby min-
imize the negative impacts of build- E
Today, ./lic,en! bu, 'd,ng

ings and land use on people and the '"

I

environment. Moreover, as sustain- '"

able design and operations improve, G,,,,,,n. highperlormarICe bu,lding

we aspire to create environments

that truly regenerate their surround- Years
ings, creating positive impacts.
f igure 2. GHG Emissions over lIfecyc le of Different Buil(\lI1gs (Source: eTG Energetl~.
Inc. 2009)
i
Sustainable design requires consid-
eration of the entire lifeofa building. This perspective contrasts with the conventional narrow focus
on capital or construction costs, and it allows for a balance between initial coStS (or ftrst coSts, or
capital costs) and costs incurred during operations and at the end of life. Life-cycle cost analyses
permit a comparison ofdifferent designs and identify the best long-term investment- the approach
that offers the lowest overall cost of ownership consistent with the project goals and available re-
sources. All the building expenscs that can be calculated are included in the analysis: initial COStS
(design and construction),operatingcosts (energy, ,vater, othcrutilities, and personnel), and main-
tenance, repair, and replacement costs. Life-cycle cost analysis identifies which high-performance
building systems will save money over the life of a project, despite their higher initial cost, and thus
it allows owners to invest in long-term performance.

INTEGRATIVE APPROACH
In many endeavors, discipiinary boundaries and linear planning and design
processes can lead to inefficient sol utions. The concept of an integrative approach has
emerged as a new paradigm that emphasizes connections and communication among professionals
throughout the life ofa project. Bringing building owners, operators, architects, planners, engineers,
and contractors together and working through an integrative process of obsclVation and analysis
allow building teams to cross traditional barriers and develop innovative solutions. The term inte-
grative design is most often applied to a new construction design process; however, the concept of
integrative design is applicable to any phase in the life cycle of a building or land-use project.

Green Building 7
 The building design process begins when the basic
programmatic needs and req uirements for the project are
determined. Schematic design follows, as the basic scheme
that will be used to meet the project goals is developed.
During design development, the scheme is further refined
into a design, and each component of that design is fleshed
out. Finally, construction documents are prepared to
tra nslate the design into something that can then be built.

In a conventional design process, the architect, the engineers (civil, mechanical, electrical, plumb-
ing, stnlctural), the landscape architect, the construction contractors, and others all work relatively
independently on their individual scopes of work, handing off work products to other professionals
along the way. This separation of the di:;ciplincs and generally linear design process can limit oppor-
tunities for integration and synergy, particularly with construction contractors and other special-
ists who traditionally become engaged only toward the end of the process.

In contrast, in an integrative design process, all the disciplines come together at the beginning to
discuss the project goals and requirements. A clear statement of sustainability and performance
goals guides this team to find new approaches to the project. As the project progresses through the
design phases, each element of the design is reviewed to verify that it meets the original goals and
intent of the owner. In this way, the project team engages in a more integrative approach that allows
for deeper integration and collaborative problem solving.

In an integrative process, the pro perty owner, facility managers, designers, co nstruction co ntrac-
tors, and other project team members establish a mutual understanding of the project's goals, prior-
ities, and budget as early as possible. Input from the major stakcholders and members of the design
team is essential before schematic design begins, particularly since many ofthedecisions associated
\vith environmental impacts are made early in the design process, starting with the location of the
project. Site selection can have substantial long-term impacts on building performance and deter-
mine how the building affects the natural environment, as these ex.amples indicate:
Walkable access to public transit or shops and services can reduce transportation-related
energy and associated environmental impacts.
Bu ilding orientation can increase the availabil ity of natural day light, which can be used to
re duce demand for artificial lighting and the need for mechanical heating and cooling.
Bu ilding and site design and orientation can change the amount and quality of open space
and management of stormwater.

Integrative design also provides opportunities to approach resources in new ways. For example,
in the conventional process, plumbing cngineers, mechanical engineers, civil engineers, and land-
scape designers all consider water- potable water supply, wastewater disposal, stormwater runoff,
irrigation demand- but make their plans separately. An integrative design process, in contrast, al-

8 Green Bui ld ing and lEED Core Concepts Guide

 Project Case Study

Dockside Green
.
Dockside Green in Victoria, Briti sh Columbia, is one of t he most
innovative examples of integrative design in the world. A 15-acre mixed-use
harbor community with commercial space and three residential neighborhoods, the faci l ity

is distinguished by its comprehensive attention to integrative design. The project team

aggressively pursued synergies to achieve sustainability goals. The project has multiple

" closed-loop" systems where the output from one process serves as the input to another:

rainwater is captured for domest ic use, for example, and domestic wastewater is then used
for landscape irrigation. The project uses state-of-the-art strategies for onsite biomass

heat generation, onsite stormwater and sewage treatment, strict water conservation

measures, and provisions for alternative transportation. The resu lt is an exceptionally

energy-efficient facility with very low greenhouse gas emissions. These features helped
the Dockside Green community achieve a LEED Platinum certification while creating new

jobs, supporting local suppliers, and providing educational opportunities.

For more information , visit http://docksidegreen.com/sustainabilitv/overview/overview.

blml.

Green Building

 lows these professionals to think holistically about water as a resource. This kind of collaboration
can lead to the design of systems that capture storrnwater and graywater to meet water supply and
irrigation needs while reducing runoff and protecting water quality.

The overall benefits of a sustainable building are maximized through an integrative approach. Stra-
tegic planning that focuses on sustainability, starting early in design and continuing through the
project, can open up opportunities for better indoor air quality, reduced environmental impacts,
improved occupant comfort, low or no increase in construction cOSts for sustainable elements, op-
timized reurrn on investment, and reduced operations and maintenance costs.

Primary Resources: I ntegrative Design

The integrative approach requires a f undamental shift in the mindset of project
teams. In many cases, team members must step out of their traditional silos and
jump into often unfamiliar processes, such as systems thinking and nonhierarchical
leadership.

Delleloping Sustainable Planned Communities (Urban Land Institute, 2007).

Green Building through Integrated Design, by Jerry Yudelson (McGraw-Hili
GreenSource, 2008).
The Integrative Design Guide to Green Building, by Becker Reed (John Wiley & Sons,
2009).
Sustainable Building Technical Manual: Green Building Design, Construction,
and Operations (U.S . Green Building Council, 1996). http://www.scribd.com/
doc/7 4231871Sustainable-Buj Iding-Technical Manual.

GREEN BUILDING COSTS AND BENEFITS

On average, green buildings perform better than conventional ones. Theysave
energy, use less water,generate less waste, and provide healthier, more comfortable indoor envi.ron-
ments. A recent study by the New Buildings Institute found that in green buildings, average energy
use intensities (energy consumed per unit of floor space) are 24% lower than in typical buildings.
The U.S. General Services Administration surveyed 12 green buildings in its portfolio and found
these savings and improvements:
13% lower maintenance costs;
26% less energy usage;
27% higher levels of occupant satisfaction; and
33% lower CO, emissions. 4

4 General servICeS Adm lnistraton, Public Buildings Service. 2008. AS$(!ssmll Gr~n BuitdLng Performance: A Post Occupancy
Eva luation of 12 GSA BUild ings.

10 Green Bu ilding and LEED Core Concepts Guide

The study concluded that the federal
government's green buildings out-
perform national averages inall mea-
sured performance areas-energy,
"" -
operating costs, water use, occupant
satisfaction, and carbon emissions-
.
and that buildings achieving LEED
Gold certification achieve the best
o
,. , ,-
I
overall performance. The agency at-
tributed this performance to a fully
I <

i
integrated approach to sustainable ENERGY USE INTENSITY
(kBlu/sf/yrl
design that addressed environmen-
tal, financial, and occupant satisfac- Figure 3. Energy Use IntenSlt>es for Sustainabl y DeSIgned U.S. Government Buildmgs
(Soul ce: GSA 2008)
tion issues. The led b~ r IndIcates the national a'ffllage energy use Inlenslty.

Making buildings more comfortable and productive for

their occupants has special significance in light of studies
conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), which fou nd that people in the United States spend,
on average, 90% of their time indoors, where they may be
exposed to pollutant concentrations two to 100 t imes higher
than outdoor levels. Occupants of green buildings typically
have significantly greater satisfaction with air quality and
lighting than occupants of conventional build ings. Case
studies show t hat t hese benefits can t ranslate into a 2% to
16% increase in workers ' and students' productivity. And
even small increases in productivity dramatically Increase
the value of the buildi ng.

What is the cost of these benefits? lfwe view sustainability as an added feature of a building, we
would consider efforts to reduce energy costs or improve indoor environmental quality comparable
to specifying a better grade of countertop or a more impressive front door: any improvement be-
yond a minimally code-compliant baseline is an added cost. This perspective often leads to conclu-
sions that green buildings cost slightly more than conventional buildings, with estimates ranging
from 2.% to marc than 5%. If, however, we consider energy improvements as pall of an integrative
design, the added costs are often balanced by new savings. Forinsrance, specification of more costly,
high-performance windows may allow for the use of a smaller, lower-cost heating, ventilation, and
air-conditioning (HVAC) system. More fundamentally, if we view sustainable design as part of the

Green Bui ld ing 11

 \

necessary functional requirements for building <\0 energy-efficient strucrure and providing asafe,
healthful indoor environment, we can compare the cost of the green building with that of other
buildings in the same class rather than against an an ificial baseline.

A landmark study by the firm Davis Langdon found no

sign ificant difference between ,the average cost of a LEED-
certified building and other new construction in the same
category, t here are expensive green buildings, and there are
expensive conventional buildings. Certification as a green
building was not a significant predictor of building cost.

rm eresti ngly, the public dramatically averesti mates t he marginal cost of green building. A 2007 pub-
lic opinion survey conducted by the World Business Council for Sustainable DevelopmentSfound
th at respondents believed that green building features added 17% to the cost of a building, whereas a
survey of 146 green buildi ngs found an actual average marginal cost of less than 2%.

Yct green building is a significant predictor of tangible improvements in building performa nce,
and those improvements have considerable value. Studies have shown that certified green build-
ings command significantly higher rents. A University of Califomi a- Berkeley studt analyzed 694
certified green bui ldings and compared them with 7489 other office buildings, each located withi n
a quarter-mile of a green building in the sample. The researchers found that, on average, certified
green office buildings rent fo r 2% more than comparable nearby bui ldings. After adjusting for occu-
pancy levels, they identified a6% p remium forcenified buildings. The researchers calculated that at
prevailing capitalization rates, this adds more t han $S million to the market value of each property.

Primary Resources: The cost of green

Stat ist ica lly, green buildings cost no more than their conventional counterparts. Fig-
ure 1 illustrates findings for academ ic bu ild ings. Tota l design and construction costs
range between approximate ly $250 and $575 per square foot. Cert ified buil dings
have a wide range of costs, and they are statist ically ind istinguisha ble from conven-
tiona l buildings .

"Cost of Green Revisited: Reexamining the Feasibil ity and Cost Impact of Susta inable
Design in the Light of increased Market Adoption ," by Lisa Fay Malt hi essen and
Peter Morris (Davis Langdon, 2007). hltp:f/www.day jslangdon .com/U SAIResearchl
Resea rch Fi oder/200 7 -The-Costof -Green-ReYIsjted/.

5 Green BlJlldings and CommlJnlties, Costs arK! Benefits, by Greg Kats et al. (Good Energies, 2OO8l.
6 ' Dolng Well by [)o;ng Good? Gree n Offtce BlJildings, by Piel Eichnoltz. Nils Kok, 300 John M_QlJ igley (lns~llJle of BUSiness and
Economic Resea rch , University of Califm nla .. 8~eley, 2008). hrtp-Mwm mistra m pldownlwtl/lB J9aa239fl la&id&1e6bBCXXV64
771IBERtGreeo+O!lice... Bllild inf!S+NKokte!+il! pdf

12 G reen B lJil d in g a n d LEED Core Conce pts Gu ide

 "Costing Green: A Comprehensive Cost Database and Budgeting Methodology," by
lisa Fay Matthiessen and Peter Morris (Davis Langdon, 2004). http://www,usgbc.org/
DocgReSQurces!Cost of Green Full pdf.

"Doing Well by Doing Good? Green Office Buildings," by Piet EichhOltz, Nils Kok,
and John M. Quigley (Institute of Business and EconomiC Research, University of
California-Berkeley, 2008). htto:flwww,mistra.org/downloadf18,39aa239flla8ddSde
6b8000264 7 ZI! BERtGreen+OffjcetBu jId i "gstH ~oketal, pdf.
Greening Buildings and Communities: Costs and Benefits, by Greg Kats et al. (Good
Energies, 2008). http:Hwww.goodenergjes,comfnewstresearch-knowledge,php?WVSES
SID jllrode50jl05htjjcjtbj5udl.

THINK ABOUT IT
The cost of green building. Does green bui lding cost more, and does achieving
higher levels of lEED certification add cost? Can lEED certification be achieved
in ways that lower costs?

Green Building 13

BUILDING COUNCIL
AND ITS

The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) is the nation's foremost

coalition of leaders from every sector of the building industry
working to promote buildings that are environmentally responsible,
profitable, and healthful places to live and work. USGBC is a
nonprofit organization whose members represent more than 15,000
organizations across the industry and include building owners and
end users, real estate developers, facility managers, architects,
deSigners, engineers, general contractors, subcontractors, product
and building system manufacturers, government agencies, and
non profits. USGBC provides educational opportunities to learn more
about sustainable design strategies. Green building professionals
can join one of the more than 70 regional USGBC chapters across
the country that provide green building resources, education, and
networking opportunities.

USGBC'S MISSION
To transform the way buildings and communities are designed, built, and
operated, enabling an environmentally and socially responsible, healthy, and prosperous envi-
ronment that improves the quality oflife.

15
 LEADERSHIP IN ENERGY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN
The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Rating Sys-
tem was created by USG Be to provide a framework for meeting sustainabilitygoals and as-
sessing building performance. Voluntary and consen s us~bascd , LEED addresses all building types.

LEED is a third-party green building certification program

and the nationally accepted benchmark for the design,
construction, and operation of high-performance green
buildi ngs and neighborhoods. LEED gives building owners
and operators the tools they need to have an immediate
and measurable impact on their buildings' performance.
LEED promotes a whole-building approach to sustainability
by recognizing performance in location and plann ing,
sustai nable site development, water savings, energy
efficiency, materials selection, indoor environmental quality,
innovative strategies, and attention to priori ty regio nal
Issues.

LEED measures and enhances the design and sustainability of buildings based on a "triple bonom
line"approach. The terrnwascoined by John Elkington in 1994 to refocus thcmeasurementofcorpo-
rate performance from the perspective of a shareholder (predominantly financially driven) to that
ofa stakeholder (anyone affected by
the actionsofa finn) and coordinate
three interests: "people, planet, and
profit." USGBC has adapted the
triple bottom line to establish met-
rics and rating systems to measure
and recognize building projects
based on their performance in the
three corresponding dimensions of
susrainability: society, the environ-
ment, and the economy.

The three dimensions are often lik-

ened to the three legs of a stool. If
Figure 4. The Tri ple Bottom Line the legs are not all equal, the stool

16 Green Bl!i1dmg and LEED Core Concepts Guide

will wobble and be unable to perfonn its function. Projects cerrified under the LEED rating systems
demonstrate, through compliance with a range of requirements, that thcy have addressed elements
that balance and enhance all three areas oftbe triple bottom line, all thrcc dimensions of sustain-
ability.

GREEN BUILDING CERTIFICATION INSTITUTE

In 2007, the Green Building Certification Institute (GBCll was established
as a separately incorporated entity with the support of the U.S. Green Build-
ing Counci I. GBCI administers credentialing programs related to green building practice. US-
CBC handles the development of the LEED raling systems and offers LEED-based education and re-
search programs; GBCI administers the LEED Professional Accreditation program independently,
to allow for balanced, objective management of the credentiaL

GSCI manages all aspects of the LEED Professional Accreditation program, including exam devel-
opment, registration, and delivery. Accreditation is available at three levels:

LEED Green Associate

LEED Accredited Professional

LEED Fellow

CSCI also oversees the development and implementation of a credential maintenance program for
LEED Accredited Professionals. Establishingcontinuing education requirements for LEED Accred-
ited Professionals ensures that the credential continues to distinguish those building profession-
als who have a thorough understanding of green building principles and practices plus the skills to
steward the LEED certification process.

CBCI administers all LEE D projectcenification through third-partycenit1cation bodies accredited

by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

LEED RATING SYSTEMS

The LEED rating systems are tools for encouraging, evaluating, and recog-
nizing green buildings and neighborhoods, with the ultimate goal of market
transformati on. Comprehensive and flexible, LEED is relevant to buildings in any stage in their
]jfc cycles. Newconstruction, the ongoing operations and maintenance of an existing building, and a
significant tenant retrOfit toa commercial building are all addressed by LEED rating systems. The rating
systems and their companion reference guides help teams make the right green building decisions for
their projects through an integrated process, ensuring that building systems work together effectively.
Updated regularly, the rating systems respond to new technologies and policies and to changes in the
built environment through an ongoing, consensus-based refinement process.

u.s. Green Building Council and its Programs 17

 The LEED rating systems address the following types and scopes of projects:
LEED for New Construction and Major Renovation
LEED for Core & Shell
LEED for Commercial Interiors
LEED for Schools
LEED for Healthcare
LEED for Retail
LEED for Existing Buildings: Operations & Maintenance
LEED for Homes
LEED for Neighborhood Development

The LEED fo r New Construction and Major Renovation Rating System, which addresses the full de-
sign and construction of most commercial buildings and large (more than four stories) multifamily
residential projects, was the first version of LEED to be developed; it has served as the basis for the
other rating systems. LEED fOT COTe & Shell is for projects restricted to the design and construction
of the core and exterior shell, and LEED for Commercial Interiors addresses only interior design
and tenant fit-outs. Each rating system follows a similar structure, with green building strategies
divided into the following categories:

Sustainable Sites
o Water Efficiency
Energy and Atmosphere
CD Materials and Resources
Indoor Environmental Quality
Innovation in Design

A seventh category, Regional Priority, has been developed by

USGBC chapters to address regionally important issues, such
as water conservation in the Southwest. At the publication of
this guide, the details were still being finalized by USGBC .

LEED for Schools, LEED for Healthcare, and LEEDfor Retail are derivatives ofLEED for New Con-
struction and Major Renovation and LEEDfor Commercial Interiors. These rating systems are cus-
tomized to the unique nature of each market segment. For example, LEED for Schools provides ad-
ditional focus on classroom acoustics, master planning, mold prevention, and environmental site
assessment. LEED for Retail addresses the types of spaces that retailers need for their distinctive
product lines.

LEED for Existing Buildings: Operations & Maintenance focuses on the ongoing operation of exist-
ing buildings, rather than on design and construction. This system has the same categories as the
above systems but is geared toward the sustainabi lity strategies associated with building operations.

18 Green Building and LEEO Core Concepts Guide

LEED for Homes, for single-family and small multifamily homes, includes two additional catego-
ries:

location and linkages

Awareness and Education

LEED for Neighborhood Development is designed to address the land-use planning of an entire
neighborhood. including buildings, infrastructure, str~et design, and open space. This system,
which was developed in parmership with the Congress for New Urbanism and the Narural Resourc-
es Defense Council, is organized into entirely different categories:
Smart location and linkage
Nei8hborhood Pattern and Design
Green Infrastructure and Build ings

Prerequisites and Credits

Each category in a LEED rating system consists of prerequisites and cred-
its. Prerequisites are required elements-green building strategies that must be included in any
LEED-certified project. Credits are optional elements-slrategies that projects can elect to pursue
to gain points toward LEED certification. LEED prerequisites and credits work together to provide
a common foundation of performance and a flexible set of tools and strategies to accommodate the
circumstances ofindividual projects.

LEED rating systems generally have 100 base points plus 6 Innovation in Design points and 4 Re-
gional Priority points, for a total ofllo points (LEED for Homes is based on a 12s-poim scale, plus
11 Innovation in Design points). Projects achieve certification jfthey earn points according to the
following levels:

Certified, 40-49 points

Silver, 50-59 points
Gold, 60-79 points
Platinum, 80+ points

Credit Weightings
Each credit is allocated points based on the relative importance of the build-
ing-related impacts that it addresses. The result is a weighted average that combines
building impacts and the relative value of the impact categories. Credits t hat most directly address
the most important environmental impacts and human benefits are given the greatest weight; the
market impl ications of point allocation are also considered.

u.s. Green Building Council and Its Programs 19

 The credit weightings are based on impact categories
defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and
on category we ights established by the National Institute
of Standards and Technology and modified by USGBC. The
combination of impact categories and category weights
provides a quantitative basis for determining the point value
of each credit in the LEED rating systems.

Overall, the credit weights emphasize energy efficiency, renewable energy, reduced trans po nation
demand, and water conservation, based on their direct contribution to reducing high-priority im-
pacts, particularly greenho use gas emissions.

Figure 2 illustrates the relative importance of impacts based on prio rities in the 2009 versions of
the LEED rating systems; the height of each bar refle cts its relative influence on the distribution of
points across the system.

Figure 2. Impact Categories (Source: USGBC LEED 2009 Weightings Wor~ bool<)

IMPACT CATEGORIES
CLIMATE CHANGE
INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY CLIMATE CHANGE
RESOURCE DEPLETION
HUMAN HEALTH CRITERIA

...
WATER INTAKE
HUMAN HEALTH-CANCEROUS
RESOURCE DEPLETION
ECOTOXICITY
HUMAN HEALTH CRITERIA
EUTROPHICATION
WATER INTAKE

HUMAN HEALTH-NONCANCEROUS HUMAN HEALTH-CANCEROUS

ECOTOXICITY
SMOG FORMATION EUTROPHICATION
OZONE DEPLETION
ACIDIFICATION

20 Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Gu ide

Carbon Overlay
The U.S. Green Building Council is a signatory to the Wingspread Principles
on a U.S. Response to Global Warm ing, a SCt of propositions signcd by individuais and
organizations declaring their comminnent to addressing the issue of climate change. These princi-
ples arc based on recognition that global climate change is a critical challenge that requires changes
in our economy. policies, and behaviors. The Wingspread Principles call for urgent and effective ac-
tion to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 60% to 80% below 1990 levels by midcentury.

LEED-rated buildings typically have lower greenhouse gas

emissions than comparable conventionally bUilt structures.
However, some green buildings have greater reductions than
others, sometimes because of the specific strategies used
to achieve LEED certification, and sometimes because of
the circumstances of the project, such as its location or
source of purchased electricity. Accordingly, USGBC now
identifies and prioritizes LEED credits based on their relative
value for greenhouse gas emissions reduction. This " carbon
overlay" is a quantitaJive index of the relative importance of
individual credits.

The score for each LEED credit is estimated based on the carbon footprint for a typical LEED build-
ing. A building's carbon footprint is the total greenhouse gas emissions associated with its construc-
tion and operation, which include the following:

Energy used by building systems;

Building-related transportation;
Embodied emissions of water (electricity used to extract, convey, treat, and deliver water);

Embodied emissions of solid waste (life-cycle emiSSions associated with solid waste); and
Embodied emissions of materials (emissions associated with the manufacture and transport
of materials).

The carbon footprint for constructing and operating a cypicaI135,ooo-squarc-footoffice building is

represented in Figure 5. which illustrates the sources ofemissions of the annual total of 4.700 metric
tons of carbon dioxide equivalent. This distribution can be used fO priorilize credits based on their
potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The credits addressing the most important emissions
sources receive the highest scores in the carbon overlay. The carbon overlay is included in the LEED
2009 workbooks. including LEED for New Construction and Major Renovation, LEED for Opera-
tions & Maintenance, and LEED for Neighborhood Development.

U.S. Green BUilding Council and Its Programs 21

 Carbon Footprint Building Systems .
Transportation.
Water .
Materials.

Flgllre 5. Carbon Footprint Distribution of T~pjcal Office Building (Source: USGSC LEW 2009 Weightings Workbook)

More information about carbon overlays in LEED 2009 is available at http-:Uwww.usgbc.org/Dis-

playPage.aspx?CMSPageID=18"9

THINK ABOUT IT
LEED and greenhouse gas reduction. Many government agencies and
organizations have established requirements for LEED certification as a way
of meeting their climate change goals. Do green buildings rated with flexible,
voluntary standards always reduce greenhouse gas emissions? What factors
can complicate the relationship between green building and greenhouse gas
emissions reduction?

Certification Process
Achieving LEED certification requires satisfying all prerequisites and earning
a minimum number of points as described in the applicable rating system.
Each LEED rating system corresponds with a LEED reference guide that explains credit criteria, de-
scribes the benefits of complying with the credit, and suggests approaches to achieving credit com-
pliance.

22 Green BUilding and LEED Core Concepts Gu ide

The tEED process begins with registration. The project team submits a registration form and a fee
to USGBC. Once registered, the team receives information, tools, and communications that will
help guide the certification process.

When the team is ready for USGBC to review its application, it submits the appropriate fce, which is
based on project square footage, and documentation. Submission of documentation for review can
be done in either one or twO stages. The team can wait until the building project is complete to sub-
mit documentation for all the credits it is pursuing. Orthe team can seek review ofits design-related
prerequisites and credits before completion, and then apply for construction-related credits after
the project is finished.

Whether the design and construction credits are submitted

together or separately, each credit undergoes one prel imi nary
review. The reviewer may request additional information or
clarification. The team then submits final documentation.
After completion of the final review, teams may appeal any
adverse decisions on individual credits to USGBC for an
additional fee.

All projects document credit compliance through LEED-Online, a data collection portal through
which the team can upload information about the project. It provides credit templates to be com-
pleted and signed by a specified member of the team (architect, engineer, general contractor, land-
scape architect, owner, etc.). In the near future, tEED-Online will provide dynamic,context-depen-
dent prompts for data collection.

1\vo LEED rating systems follow slightly different processes, reflecting differences in planning and
development.

LEED for Homes involves a multistep review, based on the phases in the design and construction of
new homes, with participation by project team members, including a LEED for Homes provider, the
homebuilder, a green rater, and a home energy rater. The verification process has five steps:

Step 1. Early planning

Step 2 . Design
Step 3. Build
Step 4. Verification and certification
Step 5. Reflection on achievements

LEED for Neighborhood Development follows the typical neighborhood development process-
which can take years or even decades-from the earliest steps of project entitlement (acquiring the

U.S. Green Building Council and Its Programs 23

 necessary permits) to the completion ofthe project. This process is segmented into three stages for
review:

Stage 1. Review prior to completion of t he entitlement (permitting) process

Stage 2. Certification of an approved development plan
Stage 3. Review of a completed neighborhood development

USGBC provides comprehensive information about the L-EED process on its project certification
wcbpage, http.,jLwww.usgbc.orgldisplaypagc.aspx?cmspageid:64.

Credit Interpretation
Th e LEED rating systems are intended to be flexible, voluntary tools to im-
prove the performance of buildings and promote market transformation, Over
time, experience with LEED projects has generated findings that document reviewers' responses
to questions about credit requirements or their application in specific circumstances. These credit
interpretation rulings constitute precedents.

Reviews of thousands of projects have generated a substantial foundation of experience, some of

which has been described in case studies. The rulings also indicate how particular credits have been
reviewed under different circumstances and whether a team's approach will be acceptable. Project
~eams must consult rulings and errata that have been posted prior to their registration date and
comply with any guidance that applies. Any rulings that are posted following the date of registra-
tion may be incorporated if they benefit the team, but reviewers will not hold teams responsible for
complying with rulings issued after their registration date.

If a new issue arises, a project team can submit a credit interpretation request. Guidelines
for submitting credit interpretation requests are available at hqp:flwww,usgoc.org{showfile.
aspx?docomentid- 1S10.

24 Green Bu ilding and LEED Core Concepts Guide

The locat ion of a project is the founda t ion for the sus-

tainabili ty of individual bui ldings or an entire neighbor-

hood. The sustainability of a project site has several

aspects :

Transportation;
Site selection;
Site design and management; and
Stormwater management.

These elements encom pass t he int eraction between

a project and its local and regional circumstances, as

well as the pro ject's im pact on ecosystems and water

resources. Th e most sustai na ble sites are locations that

reduce transportation demand , restore degraded or con-

taminated areas, minimize im pacts such as light pol-

lution, and manage stormwater to protect wat er quality

and aquatic ecosystems.

25
 Assessments and Measurements
To evaluate the performance of site-related strategies, the following mea-
sures and metrics can be used . Someofthese,likecommunityconnectivity,arequalitative
measures, while others lend themselves to quantitative measurement, such as the solar reflectance
rating of a surracc or the number offootcandles of lighting.
Brownfield. Previously used or developed land that may be contaminated with hazardous
waste or pollution . Once any environmental damage has been remediated, the land can be
reused. Redevelopment on brownflelds provides an important opportunity to restore degraded
urban land while promoting infill and reducing sprawl.
Community connectivity. The amount of connection between a site and the surrounding
community, measured by proximity of the site to homes, schools, parks, stores, restaurants,
medical facilities, and ot her services and amenities.
Development density. The total square footage of all buildings within a particular area,
measured in square feet per acre or units per acre.
Diversity of uses or housing types. The number of types of spaces or housing types per acre.
A neighborhood that includes a diversity of uses--offices, homes. schools, parks, stores-
encourages walking. and its residents and visitors are less dependent on personal vehicles.
A diverSity of housing types allows households of different types, sizes, ages, and incomes to
live in t he same neighborhood.
Floodplain. Land Ihal is likely to be flooded by a storm of a given size (e.g., a 100-year
storm).

Floor-area ratio. The relationship between the total building floor area and the allowable land
area the building can cover. In green building, the objective is to build up rather t han out
because a smaller footprint means less disruption of the existing or created landscape.
Footcandle. A measure of the amount of illumination falling on a surface. A footcandle is
equal to one lumen per square foot. Minimizing the number of footcandles of site lighting
helps reduce light pollution and protect dark skies and nocturnal animals.
Imperviousness. The resistance of a material to penetration by a l iquid. The tota l
imperviousness of a surface, such as paving, is expressed as a percentage of total land
area that does not allow moisture penetration. Impervious surfaces prevent rainwater from
infiltrating into the ground, thereby increasing runoff, reducing groundwater recharge, and
degrading surface wa ter quality.
Native and adapted plants. Native plants occur naturally in a given location and ecosystem.
Adapted plants are not native to a location but grow reliably with minimal attention from
humans. Using native and adapted plants can reduce t he amount of water required for
irrigation, as well as the need for pesticides or fertilizers, and may provide benefits for local
wildlife.
Prime farmland. Previously undeveloped land with so il su itab le for cult ivation. AV9iding
development on prime farmland helps protect agricultural lands, which are needed for food
production.
Site disturbance. The amount of a site that is d isturbed by construction activity. On
undeveloped sites, limiting the amount and boundary of site disturbance can protect
surrounding habitat.
Solar reflectance index (SRI). A measure of how well a material rejects solar heal; the index
a
ranges from {least reflective} to 100 (most reflective). Using "cooler" materials helps
prevent the urban heat island effect (the absorption of heat by roofs and pavement and its
radiation to the ambient air) and minimizes demand for cooling of nearby buildings.
Street grid density. An indicat or of neighborhood density, calculated as the number of
centerline miles per square mile. Centerline miles are the length of a road down its cent er. A

26 Green Building and LEED Cofe Concepts Guide

 community with high street grid density and narrow, interconnected streets is more likely to
be pedestnan friendly than one with a low street grid density and wide streets .
Transportation demand management. The process of reducing peak'period vehicle trips .
Vehicle miles traveled (vmt) . A measure of transportation demand that estimates the travel
miles associated with a project, most often for singlepassenger cars. lEED sometimes uses a
complementary metric for alternative-mode miles (e.g., in high-occupancy autos).

THINK ABOUT IT
Green building and transportation. Transportation is a fundamental impact
associated with the built environment. What does it mean to have a "green"
building in an auto-dependent location? Is consideration of transportation an
opportunity or a barrier to projects considering lEED certification?

TRANSPORTATION
According to th e U.S. Energy Information Administration, transportation ac-
counted for 32% of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2007. Buildings
generate much of the demand for transportation, and they can be an i?lportant part of efforts to
reduce the social, economic, and environmental impacts oftransportation. Land-use decisions and
the design, construction, and operation of buildings can reduce the length and frcquencyofvehicle
trips and encourage shifts to more sustainable modes of transportation.

Considering transportation may be a new issue for many

building design professionals. Some owners, architects,
engineers, and other professionals have questioned why
LEED 2009 increases theemphasis on this issue. Conversely,
land-use and transportation planning professionals are often
frustrated by claims of "green" buildings in auto-dependent
locations.

LEED recognizes that crearing a building or neighborhood can create new demand for transporta-
tion; however, projects also have opportunities to reduce transportation impacts by using a wide
variety of practical strategies, such as providing alternative modes of transportation, encouraging
walking and bicycling, providing fueling facilities for alternative-fuel vehicles, and reducing the
number and length or automobile trips. Taken together, these strategies can Significantly reduce the
impacts of building-associated transportation.

Sustainable Sites 27
 The drivers of transportation impacts include location, vehicle technology, fuel, and human behav-
ior. Location determines the number and frequency of trips. Vehicle technology determines me
quantity and types of energy and support systems needed to convey people and goods to and from
t he site. Fuel determines the environmental impact of vehicle operation. Human behavior ultimate-
ly combines all of these elements in daily mobilitychoices. Green building's emphasis on integrative
approaches calls forthe coordinated, synergistic consideration for each of these elements.

In practice, green building often assesses the elements of transportation through proxy measures
and metrics. For example, density stands in for many clements of.land-use design. Project sites in
urban areas are likely to have the density required for the sustainable operation of mass transpor-
tation- systems that are less energy intensive than single-passenger vehicles. By building in a rela-
tively high density area or on an inflll site already served by mass transit, the project can reduce the
vehicle miles traveled byits occupants and visitors and more easily integrate into existing transpor-
tation nenvorks.

Sites without access to public transportation start at a

disadvantage and may require additional attention to
transportation impacts, particularly local land-use design
and alternative fuels. It is still possible for such a project
to substantially reduce its transportation impacts by
focusing on local connectivity and the energy efficiency of
the vehicles used to serve its needs. For example, an office
complex without transit access might provide incentives for
carpooling, incorporate diverse land uses that allow workers
to walk to basic services, or facilitate the use of alternative-
fuel vehicles like plug-in hybrids.

Consideration for transportation provides many opponunities for integrative planning, such as
specifications for parking. Typically, parking is sized for annual extreme events, like shopping on
the dayafterThanksgLvingj during the other364 days of the year, parking capacity is unused, and un-
necessary expanses of asphalt or concrete have environmental impacts, causing urban heat islands
and storm\Vater runoff. A project team can reduce the number of parking spaces provided for single-
passenger vehicles, thereby discouraging vehicle use, reducing environmental impacts, and lower-
ingthe cost of construction. Project teams cango funher and designate preferred parking spaces for
altcrnative-fuel vehicles. Incentives for low-impact behavior may become more appealing as tech-
nologies like plug-in hybrids become more common.

2. Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide

Promoting alternative transportat ion as a convenient and viable option through site selection, de-
sign, and incentives benefits both the building occupants and the developer. Recognizing the impor-
tance of alternative transportation in reducing negative environmental impacts, the LEED rating
systems include multiple credit s thal give project teams flexib ility when considering site-specific
needs and opportunities.

Strategies to address transportat ion include t he followi ng,

locate near mass transit Select a project site in an area served by an existing transportation
network.
limit parking. The lack of parking spaces on the project site will spark interest in alternati . . e
transportation options.
Encourage carpooling. Designate preferred spaces for carpool . . ehicles in the parki ng area.
Promote alternative-fuel vehicles. Provide a con . . enient refueling station on the site.
Offer incentives. Develop an alternati . . e commuting incent ive program for building occupants.
Support alternative transportation. Promote alternatives to single-occupancy car commuting
at the building andlor city level.

Primary Resources: Transportation, Energy, and Gree nhouse

Gas Emiss ions
Greenhouse gas emissions from t ransportation are the result of three fundamental
factors : vehicle technology, t ransportation fuels, and land use.

Although efforts are underway to improve vehicle fuel efficiency and reduce the
carbon intensity of motor fuels, recent research suggests that these efforts may be
insufficient to meet greenhouse gas reduction goals without significant changes in
land use. Land use is what ultimately drives growth in transportation demand, and
urban sprawl is increasing t ransportation dema nd faster than vehicles and fuels can
improve. The result may be a net increase in greenhouse gas emissions despite sub-
stantial investments in technology and alternative energy. Green building profession-
als can help prevent this outcome by helping reduce transportation demand and slow
or reverse the long-term growth in vehicle miles traveled .
Commuting guide for emp loyers, www.self-oropeJled-city.com.
Growing Cooler: The Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change, by Reid
Ewing, Ke ith Bartholomew, Steve Winkelman, Jerry Walters, and Don Chen (Urban
Land Institute, 2008)
Smart commuting, www.smartcomute,org.

Sustainable Sites 29
 THINK ABOUT IT
Electric cars and net-zero buildings. Buildings create the demand
for transportation. In t he future , they may also supply the energy to fuel our
transportation system . What are the implications of the growing convergence
between vehicles and buildings? How will electrification of vehicles transform
transportation and bui ldings? How might it alter ene rgy efficiency or on site
renewable energy goals for buildings?

SITE SELECTION
The selection of a project site can provide opportunities to protect habitat
and restore degraded areas . Development or rcdevelopmenton former industrial proper-
ties (so-called brownfields) may require the cleanup of contaminated sailor groundwater. Brown-
field redevelopment can be regenerative: it improves the quality of the environment. This strategy
also reduces pressure for the development ofgreenfie\d (undeveloped) Sites, which in turn reduces
fragmentation of natural habitats. Some projects rake the extra step of explicitly protecting addi-
tional habitat outside t he project boundaries as part of the development process.

Strategies to address site selection include the following:

Increase density. Create a smaller footprint and maximize the floorarea ratio or square
foot age per acre.

Choose redevelopment. Build on a previously developed or brownfield site.

Protect habitat. Give preference to locations that do not include sensitive site elements and
land types.

lEED in Practice
Smart locations and LEED for Neighborhood Development
LEED for Neighborhood Development encourages development within and near existing commu-
nities or public transportation infrastructure. The goal is to reduce vehicle trips and miles traveled
and support walking as a transportation choice. This promotes public health and a vibrant commu-
nitylife.

One measure of "smart location" is access to transit service. LEED recognizes projects that locate
at least 50% of dwelling unit entrances within a l/4 -mile walk of bus or streetcar stops or a 1/2 -mile
walk from bus rapid transit, light or heavy passenger rail stations, ferry terminals, or tram terminals.

30 Green Bu ilding and LEED Co re Concepts Guide

The variation in distances reflects
repeated observations that residents
are willing to walk farther to reach
certain types of transit.

For more information, see the LEED

for Neighborhood Development
Rating System, Smart Location and
Linkage, Prerequisite 1, Smart Loca-
tion.

Figure 6 . Measuring Wa lkin g Distance 10 Public Transportation (Sou rce ; USGBC LEED
fOf Neighborhood Development) .
A dislanc8 of one-hall mile or less Is one measure 01 a "smart" location .

Primary Resources : Brownf ie lds

EPA defines brownfields as "real property, the expansion, redevelopment , or reuse
of which may be complicated by the presence or potentia l presence of a hazardous
substance, pol lutant, or contaminant." If found to be contaminated but then remedi -
ated, the land can be reused. Cleaning up and reinvesting in t hese properties takes
development pressure off undeveloped land, and it both improves and protects the
environment.

Brownfields provide exceptional opportunities for green building projects to go be-

yond just reducing their impacts on the environment. Restoration of brownfields
can also be regenerative and actually improve social, economic, and environmental
conditions. Encouraging regenerat ive projects is a long-term goal of USGBC. EPA
worked with USGBC to help recognize and re ward projects that choose brownfields
with points in the LEED rating systems.

EPA offers a variety of resources for brownfield redeve lopment:

Brownfields and land revitalization grants and funding, http://www,eoa,goylswerosps/
bUpjlot,htm.
Tools and technical information related to brownfield cleanup, http://www.epa.goyl
swerosps/bUtoolsandtech. htm.
Interactive maps of brownfield cleanup sites across the United States. htto;//iaspub,
.epa,goylelea nups!.

Sustainable Si tes 31
 THINK ABOUT IT
Regenerative design. Buildings have traditionally been seen as having
adverse impacts on the environment. I n fact, the whole concept of environmental
impact assessment often presumes that development has a net negative impact.
What are the implications of regenerative planning and design for environmental
policy in the United States?

SITE DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT

Sustainable landscapes reduce environmental impacts, minimize mainte-
nance costs, and contribute to the restoration and regeneration of an area.
Projects often achieve these goals by incorporating native and adapted plants, using water-efficient
irrigation systems, minimizing impervious area, and improving outdoor lighting design. Certain
plants can enhance soil nutrients and deter pests. plants can also be selected to minimize evapo-
transpiration and create wildlife habitat for pest predators. Landscape design can therebystabilize
the soil and reduce or eliminate the need for irrigation, pesticides, and fertilizers.

Strategically locating functional and/or decorative hardscape on a project site may reduce the
amount of impervious area and site lighting required to provide adequate illumination while pre-
serving the integrity of the night sky. The choice of roofing and paving materials can accomplish
multiple purposes. For example, during the day the use of reflective materials (those with high SRI
values) contributes to reducing heat gain and peak air temperatures. This increases comfort and re-
duces demand for air-conditioning. [n the evening, reflective materials help distribute light across
the site, reducing the number of fixtures needed to safely illuminate the area and saving energy.

Strategies for developing a sustainable site design include the following,

Build small. Minimize the building footprint and maximize open space.
Minimize hardscape. Design driveways and paths intelligent [y, or substitute permeable
surfaces for traditional paving.
Minimize water usage. Instal l water-efficient irrigation systems that use non potable water and
evapotranspiration controllers, or design a landscape that needs no irrigation.
Use reflective materials. Specify exterior surfaces with high SRI values to enhance
illumination levels and reduce heat island impacts.
Develop a sustainable management plan. The plan should address the application of
chemicals and the cleaning of hardscape and building exterior, and it should include an
integrated pest management program.

32 Green Bu ilding and lEED Core Concepts Guide

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
Precipitation is part of the natural hydrologic cycle, but uncontrolled storm-
water is a major problem.

Conventional new development often increases the expanse of impervious surfaces and creates
new sources of pollution, like fertilized landscape plantings. Impervious materials prevent the per-
colation and infiltration of stormwatcr runoff, which then rushes off the site, causing soil erosion
and sedimentation in local waterways. This runoff can also carry harmful chemicals into the water
system, deteriorating surface watcrqualityand harming aquatic life and recreation opportunities in
receiving waters.

LEED recognizes and encourages planning, deSign, and

operational practices that control stormwater and protect the
quality of surface and ground water. This begins with land-
use plans that limit the extent of impervious surface area,
often through local increases In denSity and the protection
of natural habitat and ecosystems. It continues with the use
of structural and site design features that slow and retain
water onsite, providing more time for natural infiltration and
contributing to more natural hydrologiC conditions.

Stormwater management can also i ndude the collection and reuse of this water for nonpotable uses,
such as landscape irrigation, toilet and urinal flushing, and custodial uses. This helps reduce stonn-
water runoff while also aVOiding the unnecessary consumption of expensive and energy-intensive
potable water.

Manywatcr resource issues involve local rules and regional environmental conditions. Forexample,
in the eastern United States, ousite water collection is often encouraged as part of effons to slow
stormwater runoff and reduce nonpoint source pollution, Conversely, in some western states, long-
standing water laws prohibit onsite water collection because the water is obligated to downstream
users.

Strategies for controll ing and reducing stormwater runoff include the following:
Minimize impervious areas, Increase the area of permeable surfaces, such as vegetated roofs,
porous pavement. and grid pavers.
Control stormwater. Direct runoff into dry ponds, rain gardens, bioswales, and similar
landscaping features designed to hold water and slow the rate of runoff.
Harvest rainwater. In many jurisdictions, the water collected can be used in build ing systems,
such as tOilets or Irrigation.

Sustainable Sites 33
 Primary Resources: Low-I mpact Development
A hard rain cleans the streets-and that's the problem. Precipitation falling on hard
su rfaces does not infiltrate and recharge groundwater. Rather, it moves quickly, en-
training contaminants and conveying them into rivers and streams. EPA calls this
non point source pollution, and it is one of the bi~est threats to surface water quality
and aquatic ecosystems.

Low-impact development (LID) comprises a set of strategies that address how water
enters a site, is stored, and ultimately leaves the site . LID minimizes impervious
surfaces, protects soils, enhances native vegetation, and manages stormwater at its
source .

There are many types of LID programs, but they typically focus on a core set of strat-
egies. For example, the Department of Environmental Resources in Prince George's
County, Maryland, uses a design approach that integrates five components: site plan-
ning, hydrologic analysis, integrated management practices, erosion and sediment
control, and public outreach . This integrated design approach protects surface water
by managing stormwater onsite and creating buffers between development and water
resources .

Low-Impact Development Design Strategies; An Integrated Design Approach (U.S.

EPA, 1999), http;lIwww,epa.gov/Oww/nos/lid/lidnatl,pdf.

Some of the design elements identified in LID strategies must be coordinated and
balanced with other elements of neighborhood or community design. For example,
LEED for Neighborhood Development encourages street grids to promote walkability
and reduce auto dependence. However, a conventional street grid may increase total
impervious surface area relative to potential alternative designs. LEED for Neighbor-
hood Development encou rages projects to balance small-scale stormwater manage-
ment features with the regional benefits of compact development patterns. Creating
compact, high-density development patterns is one strategy to prevent sprawl, which
spreads impervious surfaces across larger areas: impermeability may increase within
high-density centers but is minimized across entire watersheds.

Green building professionals must understand the trade-ofts of stormwater manage-

ment, recognize the full range of available strategies, and apply the combination
of approaches that best achieve the intent of protecting water quality an d aquatic
ecosystems for any specific project.

34 Green Building and lEED Core Concepts Guide

Stormwater Management
LEED for Neighborhood Development, htto :/lwww.usgbc,orgiDisplayPage .
aspx 7 CMSPageID-148.

Low-impact development (UP) (U.S. EPA) , http://www,eo?,govinpsJlid/.

Stormwater strategies (Natural Resources Defense Council, 1999), http://www.nrdc .
org/water/poll utioo/storm/sto i ox. asp .

Urban Stormwater Management in the United States (Nat ional Research Council,
2008), http://www.oap.edu/catalog.pho?record id 12465.

Heat Island Effect

Alternative paving materials, www,cleanaircQunts,org/ResQurces%20PackagelA%20
Book/Payinglother%20oavjngs/coolpave,htm.

Cool Colors Project (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), www.coolcolors,lbl.gov/,

Heat island ef fect (U.S . EPA), www.eDa.gov/heat island .

Sustainable Si tes 35
 Americans' use of the limited public water supply con-

tinues to increase as development expands. Municipally

provided potable water is delivered to users for domes-

tic , commercial, industria l, and other purposes and

is the primary source of water for most build ings, but

high demand is straining limited supplies. The resulting

wastewater then overwhelms treatment facilities, and

the untreated overflow can contaminat~ rivers, lakes,

and sources of potable water with bacteria, nitrogen,

toxic metals, and other contaminants. Add itional mu-

nicipal supply and treatment facilities must then be

built, at public cost.

lEED encourages and recognizes efficiency measures

that significantly reduce the amount of potable water

use"d by bui ldings while still meeting the needs of the

systems and the occupants. These measures involve all

the water usage associated with buildings:

Indoor water for restroomsj

Outdoor water for landscaping; and

Process water for industrial purposes and
buiJding systems.

37
 Efficiency strategies, combined with monitoring that tracks water consumption and identifies prob-
lems, can dramatically improve water conservation compared with comparable conventional build-
ings. Many LEED-rated buildings reduce potable water usc by more than 50%, with direct benefits
for the bottom line and the environment.

Assessments and Measurements

Design versus Baseline. The amount of water the design case conserves versus the baseline
case. AU LEED Wat er Efficiency credits use a baseline case against which the facility's design
case is compared. The baseline case represents the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct 1992)
flow and flush rates.

Gallons per f l ush (gpf). The amount of water consumed by flush fixtures (water closets, or
toilets, and urinals). The baseline flush rate for water closets is 1.6 gpf. and for urinals, 1.0
gpf (EPAct 1992).

Ga llons per minute (gpm). The amount of water consumed by flow fixtures (lavatory faucets,
showerheads, aerators, sprinkler heads).

Irrigation eff iciency. The percentage of water delivered by irrigation equipment that is actually
used for irrigat ion and does not evaporate, blow away, or fall on hardscape. For example.
overhead spray sprinklers have lower irrigation efficiencies (65%) than drip systems (90%).

INDOOR WATER
Indoor water use refers to the water that occupied buildings typically need
to operate on a day-to-day basiS-water for water closets, urinals, lavatories, showers,
and kitchen or break-room sinks. Indoor water usc reduction can be achieved by installing water-
ef~cicnt fixtures, using nonpotable water for flush functions, and installing submeters to track and
log water use trends.

Low-flow fixtures use less water than specified in the EPAct

1992 requirements. Low-flow models are now available for
all indoor plumbing fIXtures. Projects can further reduce
their potable water consumption by deSigning and installing
plumbing systems that can use captured rainwater or
graywater In flush fixtures.

Submetering gives commercial building projects a way to monitor water use, track fixture perfor-
mance, and identify problems. With submeters, teams can better understand how much water is be-
ing used for plumbing fixtures, as well as be alerted to any leaks or othcr problems that waste water.

38 Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide

Strategies for reducing indoor water use:
Install efficient plumbing fixtures. Replace water-intensive fi xtures with new law-fl aw fixtures.
If porcelain replacement proves cost-proh ibitive, install new flu sh valves or flow restrictors
(for example, aerators) to ach ieve water savings. .

Use nonpotable water. Strive to use the right water for the right purpose , including captured
rainwater, graywater, or mu nicipa l reclaimed water for flush fi xtures.

Install submeters. Meter indoor water systems and monitor the data to track consu mption
trends and pinpoint leaks .

Primary Resources: Water Usage in Buildings

The U.S . Geological Survey estimates that the United States uses 400 billion gallons
of water per day. The operation of buildings, including landscaping, accounts for ap-
proximately 47 billion gallons per day- 12% of tota l water use.

The value of any particular measure for overall water conservation efforts depends
on the distribution of end uses- the points of consumption- in a given building. For
example, office buildings typically lack extensive laundry and kitchen facilities, and
water is used for HVAC systems, restrooms, and landscaping. In contrast, kitchen
sinks and dishwashers dominate t he end use for restaurants. A water end-use profile
can help project teams identify the largest users of water and evaluate the cost-effec-
tiveness of specific conservation strategies, whether it's low-flow fixtures, irrigation
technology, or efficient cooling tower systems .

'Water: Doing More With Less ," (Environmental Building News, 2DOB),
http://www.bu ildinggreen .com/auth/artid e,cfm /IP/36291.

Residential End Uses of Water (American Water Works Assoc iat ion Research
Fou ndat ion, 1999) , http://www.aquacraft.com/Publ k ations/resident .htm .

THINK ABOUT IT
Waterless urinals. Non-water-using urinals are the ultimate low-f low f ixtures.
What might be some reasons they are not spec if ied for every new commercial
build ing project?

Water Effi ciency 39

 OUTDOOR WATER
Landscape irrigation is a significant component of many commercia l build-
ings' water use and thus an opportunity to conserve water. A reductioninirriga-
tion water use can be achieved by specifying water-wise landscaping and water-efficient irrigation
technology, using no npotablc water for irrigation. and installing submctcrs to track and log irriga-
tion trends.

Proj ect teams should incorporate native and adapted species in the landscape design, because these
plants tend to thrive without irrigation, pesticides, or fertilizer. Drought-tolerant and xeriscape
plantings arc also preferable because of their extremely low water needs.

High-performance irrigation systems include efficient

water supply and control technology, such as drip and
bubbler distribution systems and weather-based irrigation
controllers, which respond to weather conditions. Potable
water use for irrigation can be further reduced by using
nonpotable water-harvested rainwater, graywater, or
muniCipal reclaimed water.

Submctering is a way to detennine how much water is being used fo r irrigatio n purposes. Metering
irrigation water can even provide an immediate economic benefit because facilit ics can receive credit
from the utility companyfor sewer charges, given that the water is not entcring the sewer system.

Strategies for reducing outdoor water use:

Choose locally adapted plants. Landscape wilh native and adapted plants that require less
water.

Use xeriscaping. Especially i n arid regions, employ xeriscape princ iples when designing the
site landscape.

Select effident irrigation technologies. Drip and bubbler systems and weather-based
controllers can save water.

Use nonpotable water. Match irrigation wit h the right water, including captured rainwater,
graywater, or municipal reclaimed water.

Install submeters. Meter the irrigation system to track consumption and identify leaks.

40 Green BUilding and LEED Core Concepts Guide

 THINK ABOUT IT
Green lawns and green buildings. Many commercial building landscapes
include some turf, yet most of these spaces are not intended for picnics or play.
Since turf tends to be water intensive, why is it the go-to choice for landscapes?
Why has it become the "baseline" plant material? Why does it cover so many
median strips? Why should it not?

PROCESS WATER
Process water is used for industrial processes and building systems, such
as coo li ng towers, boilers, and chillers. Thesc sysrems provideheat,coolairandwater
for building operations. Process water also includes the water used for certain business operations
(such as washing machines and dishwashers).

Commercial building projects can reduce process water use

by selecting efficient cooling towers, chillers, boilers, and
other equipment, and by integrating harvested rainwater and
non potable wate r to work in conjunction with the specified
equ ipment.

Since process water volumes can be significant, understanding how that water is being used is im-
portant. Teams can install submeters on each of the major wat~r-using systems to find out where
the water is going and where they should focus their conservation efforts. Metering cooling tower
makeup water (water lost to evaporation during cooling tower operation) is particularly important
because facilities may be able to receive credit fro m the utility company fo r sewer charges, since the
water is not entering the sewer system.

Strategies for reducing process water use:

Use nonpotable water. Use the right water for the right purpose. Investigate opportunities to
use captured ramwater, graywater, or mUnicipally reclaimed water in bu ildmg processes and
systems, such as cooling towers.

Install submeters. Meter the process water systems and use the data to track consumption
and identify leaks.

Water Efficiency 41
 Primary Resources
"8 'Green Option' for Cooling Tower Biological Control" Process Cooling, (November
2007), www.process-cooling.com/articles/Fealure Article/BNP GUlP 9-5-
2006 A 10000000000000214768.
YfHW.plantnatilJe.org.

"Water Conservation Guidelines for Cooling Towers" (Sydney Wat er Board,

Australia, no date), www.sydneywater.com.au/PubljcatioostfactSheetsi
SayjngswalerBestPracticeGuideljoesCooljngIowers pdf.

Water Efficiency, The Journal for Water Conservation ProfeS5ionals, http:Uwww.

waterefficj eDGy. DeW odex,aspx.

"Water Effi ciency: The Next Generation." by Scott Chaplin (Rocky Mountain Institute,
1998), http://www.rmi,orglimageslPDfsJWat erIW98-0Z WatEffNxtGen.pd f .

"Water-Efficient Gardening and Landscaping," by Denny Schrock (University of

Missouri Extension, no date), htto;lImuextensjon,missourj,edu/xplor/agguideslhort/
g06912,htm.

Water Measurement Manual (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, no date), www,usbr.govJ

pmlslhydraulics labfoubslwmml.

WaterSense Program (U .S. EPA), www,eDa.goyiwatersense.

42 Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide

 AND
AlMOS
Energy has emerged as a critical economic issue and

top priority for policymakers. Unsustainable patterns of

energy supply and demand have serious implications

and long-term impacts on everything from household

budgets to international relations. Buildings are on

the front fine of this issue, and the integrated design

of buildings, neighborhoods, and entire communities

can dramatically boost energy efficiency and benefit

from cleaner, renewable energy supplies. Studies have

repeatedly shown that well-designed buildings and
land use offer some of the most cost-effective op-

portunities to save money while reducing greenhouse

gas emissions.

Efforts to address energy through green building focus

on four in terconnected elements;

Energy demand;
Energy effic iency;
Renewable energy; and
Ongoing energy performance.

43
 Integrative design processes can bring these elements together to identify synergistic strategies.
The analysis of whole-building life-cycle costs is central to green building practice because it pro-
vides a framework for understanding trade-offs between the first cost s and the long-term operating
costs of HVAC and other energy-using systems. LEED encourages project team s to use simulation
models to quantitatively analyze the trade-offs and identify cost-effective energy-saving strategies.
This saves money over the life of the building, saves energy, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions
and other environmental impacts.

Assessments and Measurements

Energy or greenhouse gas emissions per capita . A community's total greenhouse gas
emissions divided by the total number of residents.
Energy use intensity. Energy consumption div ided by the number of square feet in a building,
often expressed as British thermal units (Btus) per square foot or as kilowatt-hours of
electricity per square foot per year (kWh/sf/yr) .

lighting power density. The installed lighting power per unit area.
Measures of energy use. Typical primary measures of energy consumption associated with
buildings include kilowatt-hours of electricity, therms of natural gas, and gallons of liquid
fuel.
Performance relative to benchmark. A comparison of a building system's performance with a
standard, such as EN ERGY STAR Portfolio Manager.

Performance relative to code. A comparison of a building system's performance with a

baseline that is equiva lent to minimal compliance with an applicable energy code, such as
ASH RAE Standard 90 or California's Title 24.

ENERGY DEMAND
Saving energy begins with redu ci ng energy demand . Green buildings and neigh-
borhoods can reduce demand fo r energy by capturing natural, incidental encrgy, such as sunlight,
wind, and geothermal potential, and byusing integrated design processes to reduce loads. Examples
include the follOwing:

Roads, infrastructure, and parce ls can be configured so that buildings minimize solar gain in
summer and maximize it in winter.
Adjacent buildings can be designed to shade and insulate each other.
Bui lding designs can incorporate passive strategies, such as mass and daylight, to red uce the
demand for artific ial light ing, heati ng, and cooling.
Project teams can incorporate techno logies and processes that encourage occupants to
understand and reduce their individ ual and aggregate energy demand.

Taken together, demand reduction strategies provide the foundation for energy efficiency and the
effective use of renewable energy.

44 Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide

Strategies for redu cing energy dema nd include the following,
Establish design and energy goals. Set ta rgets and establish performance ind icators at the
outset of a project and periodically verify their achievement.

Size the building appropriately. A facility that is larger than necessary to serve its function
creates costly and unproductive energy demand.

Use free energy. Orient the faCility to take advantage of natural ventilation, solar energy, and
daylighting.

Insulate. Design the building envelope to insulate efficient ly against heating and cooling
losses.
Monitor consumption. Use energy monitoring and feedback systems to encourage occupants
to reduce energy demand .

LEED in Practice
Reducing Demand by Reducing Building Size

Energy demand typically increases directly with building size: Thcmorcsquare

feet in a building, the more energy it consumes. Although this is not' always true, the relationship
between square footage and consumption is very strong.

The adjustment explicitly accounts

FIgure 7 Home Size Adjustment Chart for LEED for Homes
for the material and energy impacts
of home construction and opera-
tion: Depending on the design, location, and occupants of the home, a 100% increase in home size
yields.an increase in annual energy use of 1,5% to 50% and an increase in materials usage of 40% to
90%. LEED for Homes is currently the only LEED rat ing system with this type of adjustment.

Energy and Atmosphere 45

 ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Efforts to reduce energy demand provide the foundation for efforts to use
energy efficiently. This means getting the most productive work from a unit of energy-often
described as a measure of energy intensity. Common metries for buildings and neighborhoods in-
clude energy use per square foot and use per capita.

Buildings need to provide efficient space conditioning, water heating, lighting, refrigeration, con-
veyance (elevators and escalators), and safety (see the energy end-use profile developed by the EPA
for a typical office building, repre-
sented in Figure 8). Green building
emphasizes an integrated approach
1% - Refrigeration to addressing these issues through
. l% - Cooking
whole-building deSign.
2% - Water Heating
5% - Ventilation
6% - Other For example, green building project
. 17% - L,gh tl ng teams can identify opportunities to
20% - Office Equ ipment
improve building envelopes (win-
23% - Cooling
dows, walls, and roof) in ways thar
25% - Space Heating
enable them to reduce or even elim-
inate HVAC systems. This kind of
integrated design can reduce both
Figure 8. Energy End Uses in Typical Office Building (Source: Data from U.S. EPA Green
BUilding Workong Group) initial capital COSt s and long-term
operating costs.

Strategies for achieving energy efficiency include the following,

tdentify passive design opportunities, Use the natural resources of sun and wind to heat, cool,
and,llluminate a building without add itional energy. Proper building orientation, selection of
materials, and location of windows can al low a building to be warm in the winter. stay cool in
the summer, and capture daylight.

Address the envelope. Use the regionally appropriate amount of insulation in the walls and
roof and install high-performance glazing to minimize unwanted heat gain or toss. Make sure
that the building is properly weatherized.

Install high-performance mechanical systems. Apply life-cyete analysis to the trade-

offs between capital and operating costs, and evaluate investments in energy efficiency
technologies accordingly.

Specify high-efficiency appliances. Computers, monitors, printers, and microwave ovens

that meet or exceed ENERGY STAR requirements will reduce plug load demands (that is,
electrical loads associated wi th plug-in appliances).

Use high-efficiency infrastructure. Efficient street lighting and LEDbased traffic signals will
reduce energy demands from neighborhood infrastructure.

Capture efficiencies of scale. Design district heating and cooling systems, in which multiple
buildings are part of a single loop.

46 Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide

 Use thermal energy storage. Generating ice at night, to be used for cooling during the day,
takes advantage of off-peak energy, which is cheaper and often cleaner because some utility
companies run their older, dirtier generators only to meet peak demand.

Use energy simulation. Computer modeling can identify and prioritize energy efficiency
opportunities.

Monitor and verify performance. Ensure that the building systems are functioning as designed
and in support of the owner's project requirements through control systems, a building
automation system, and commissioning and retrocommissioning.

LEED in Practice
LEEDfor NewConstruction and Ma jorRenovation req u ires newbu i Id i ngs toexceed
basel i neenergy performancesta ndards. OneoptionforcomplyingwithLEEDrequiremcnts
involvcsconducringawhole-buildingenergysimulation,inwhichthcbuildingis representedi nacom-
purer program and compared with a baseline building that complies with Appendix G of ASHRAE
Standard 90.1.

when running an energy simulation model, project teams distinguish between regulated and pro-
cess energy.

Regulated energy powers lighting (interior, parking garage,

surface parking, fac;ades, building grounds), HVAC (space
heating, cooling, fans, pumps, toilet exhaust, parking
garage ventilation), and service water heating (domestic or
space heating). This energy is subject to LEED's minimum
performance reqUirements.

Process e nergy runs office equipment, computers, elevators and escalators, kitchen cooking and
refrigeration units, laundry washers and dryers, lighting that is exempt from the lighting power al-
lowance (fo~ example, lighting integral to medical equipment), and miscellaneous items (such as,
waterfall pumps). Process energy is not subject to the LEED minimum performance requirements.

For more infonnation, see LEED for New Construction and Major Renovation, Energy and Atmo-
sphere Credit I, Optimize Energy Perlonnance.

Primary Resources: Energy Performance of LEED Buildings

On average, green buildings provide superior energy efficiency, thereby reducing a
wide range of environmental impacts, saving operat ing costs, and contributing to
greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals. Green buildings have also provided new
information on the real-world performance of buildings-information that clearly
demonstrates the importance of build ing commissioning and monitoring.

Energy and Atmosphere 47

 The New Buildings Institute investigated 121 commercial office buildings certified
in the United States under LEED for New Construction and Major Renovation and
found that they used 24% less energy than the national average. Almost half of the
buildings achieved an ENERGY STAR Portfolio Manager score of 75 or above, with an
overall average score of 68 (a score of 50 represents average building performance) .
However, the study also collected data suggesting that a significant percentage of
buildings underperformed their benchmarks.

This last finding reinforces the need to commission systems and monitor perfor~

mance over time so that green buildings can achieve their full potential.

"Assessing Green Building Performance: A Post Occupancy Evaluation of 12 GSA

Buildings" (U .S. General Services Administration, 2008), http://www.gsa.goyfPortal/
gsa/ep/contentYjew,do?contentType-GSA BASIC&contentld 25545&noc 1.

"The Energy Challenge: A New Agenda for Corporate Real Estate" (Rocky Mountain
Institute and CoreNet Global, 2007), htlp:Uwww.usgbccolorado.com/newseventsl
documents/Energy Challenge,pdf.

"Energy Performance of LEED for New Construction Buildings," by Cathy Turner

and Mark Frankel (New Buildings Institute. 2008), httD:llwww.newbujldjngs,org/
downloads/Energy Performance of LEEDNC Buildings-final 3-408b,pdf.

"Lessons Learned from Case Studies of Six High-Performance Buildings," by P.

TorceiJini et al. (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2006). htto:llwww,nreLgoY!
docs/fy06ostj/37542,pdf.

Refrigerants
Refrigerants, which cost-effectively transfer thermal energy in air-conditioning and
refrigeration systems, have remarkable functional properties. They also have damag-
ing side effects on the environment. The choice of refrigerants for building systems
poses trade-ofts between performance, depletion of stratospheric ozone, and contri-
butions to global warming.

The Montreal Protocol bans the production of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerants

and phases out hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants to conserve stratospher-
ic ozone-a gas that protects human health and the environment by absorbing harm-
ful UV radiation. Although substitutes possess dramatically lower ozone-depleting
power (that is, the degree to which a chemical over its lifetime destroys stratospheric
ozone over its lifetime in the atmosphere), they are often potent greenhouse gases .
Additionally, replacement refrigerants are somewhat less efficient as working fluids,
making cooling systems use more energy per unit of cooling output.

48 Green Building and lEED Core Concepts Guide

 To achieve LEED certification, new buildings m?lY not use CFC-based refrigerants,
and existing buildings must complete a total CFC phase-out prior to project comple-
tion. LEED awards points for projects that entirely avoid the use of refrigerants or
select refrigerants that balance concerns about ozone depletion and global warming.
LEED recognizes that there are no perfect refrigerants but it is possible to carefully
consider performance characteristics and overall environmental impacts and select a
refrigerant with an acceptable trade-off .

"The Treatment by LEED of the Env!ronmental Impact of HVAC Refrigerants" (USGBC

Techntcal and Scientific Advisory Committee, 2004), httDjllwwwusgbc.orgiDocs,l
LEW tsacfISAC Refrig Report final -Approyed,pdf.

RENEWABLE ENERGY
Reduced demand and increased efficiency often make it cost-effective to
meet most or all of a bu i ld ing's energy needs from renewable sources. Renew-
able energy is typically understood to include solar, wind, wave, biomass, and geothermal power,
plus certain forms of hydropower. Use of these energy sources avoids the myriad environmental
impacts associated with the production and consumption of traditional fuels. such as coal, nuclear
power, oil. and natural gas.

tEED distinguishes between ensite renewable energy production and the purchase of offsite green
power. Onsite energy production typically involves a systcm that generatcs clean electricity, such
as solar phorovoltaic panels that convert light energy into electricity. Offsite renewable energy is
purchased from a utility or a provider of renewable energy certificates (REes) . Sometimes projects
can enter into agreements that provide for specific energy sources, such as wind or biomass, from a
particular generation facility. A project usually pays a premium for grcen power.

Strategies fo r meeting energy demand with renewable energy include the

following,
Generat e onsile renewable energy. Install photovoltaic cells, solar hot-water heaters, or
build!ng-mounted wind turbines .

Purchase oHsite renewable energy. Buy green power or renewable energy certificates to
reduce the impact of purchased electricity and promote renewable energy generation.

ONGOING ENERGY PERFORMANCE

Attention to energy use doesn't end with the design and construction of an
energy-effic ient bui ldi ng or neighborhood. Tt is critical tocnsurcthataprojectfunctions
as designed and dlat it sustains and improves this performance over time. tEED recognizes and en-
courages operational energy perrormance through its requirements for building commissioning
and credits for monitoring and verification.

Energy and Atmosphere 49

 Analogous to the commissioning of a new ship, building com missioning ensures that a new building
functions as designed. This detailed process begins early in the design phase, with the specification
of requirements. Consideration for these requirements is carried through the entire building design
and construction process, and the requirements are used as the basis for evaluating performance.
Continual commissioning, an ongoing part of building operations, ensures that a building always
meets its fundamen tal operational requirements. Rctrocommissioning is the same process applied
to existing buildings; it is intended to return the building to its Original operational goals-and
sometimes exceed them.

Monitoring and verification provide the basis for tracking

energy performance with the goal of identifying and resolving
any problems that may arise over time. Monitoring often
Involves comparing building performance measurements
with predictions from a calibrated energy simulation
or Industry benchmarking tool. The EPA's ENERGY
STAR Portfolio Manager is one of the most widely used
benchmarking systems. Portfolio Manager users enter data
on electricity and natural gas consumption, along with
other supporting information, into a Web-based tool. The
system then evaluates the performance of the building
against that of others with similar characteristics. This is
an exceptionally useful, free tool for gauging the relative
performance of buildings.

Strategies for maintaining energy efficiency include t he fol lowing,

Adhere to owner's project requirements. Prepare detailed owner's project requirements at the
beginning of the design process and conduct commissioning throughout the life cycle of the
project to ensure that the building functions as designed .

Provide staff training. Knowledge and training empower facility managers to improve the
performance of buildings over time.

Conduct preventive maintenance. Develop a robust preventive maintenance program to keep

the building in optimal condition.

Create incentives for occupants and tenants. Involve bUilding occupants in energy efficiency
strategies. Promote the use of energy-effiCient computers and equipment, bill tenants from
submeter readings to encourage energy conservation, educate occupants about shutting down
computers and turning out lights before they leave, and give them regular feedback on energy
performance.

50 Green BUlldmg and l EED Core Concepts GU ide

Primary Resources: Cost-Effectiveness of Commissioning
Buildings are complex systems . Performance promised duri ng planning and design
can often by undermined by design flaws, construction defects, equipment malfunc-
tions, and deferred maintenance. Building commissioning has emerged as an impor-
tant quality-control strategy to detect and correct these deficiencies .

Commissioning is a systematic investigation of building performance with respect

to performance goals, design specifications, and, most importantly, owner's require-
ments. Skilled engineers conduct a detailed study of bui ld ing const ruction and per-
formance. The cost of commissioning is often repaid with recovered energy perfor-
mance. A recent Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory study found t hat commis-
sioning for existing buildings has a median cost of $0 .27 per square foot and yie lds
whole-building energy savings of 15%, with an average simple payback period of 0.7
years. For new construction, the median cost was determined to be $1 per square
foot, with a median payback time of 4.8 years based on energy savings alone.

Overa ll, the Lawrence Berkeley study concluded that commissioning is one of the
most cost-effective means of improving energy efficiency in commercial buildings.

"Best Practices in Commissioning Exist ing Buildings" (Bu ilding Commissioning

Associat ion, 200B), http://www bcxa,org/dowoloadslbca-ebcx best practices,pdf.

"Commissioning for Great Buildings" (Building Commissioning Association, 2005),

httD:llwww.bcxa.Qrg/downloadstbca-whit e-paper-cx,pdf.

"Cost-Effectiveness of Commercial- Building Commissioning: Meta-Analysis of Energy

and Non-Energy Impacts in Existing Buildings and New Construction," by Evan Mi lls
(Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 2004), htlp:lleetd.lbl .gov/Emills/PUBS!Cx
COstS- Be nefits. him I.

"The Value of the Commissioning Process: Costs and Benef its," by Chad Dorgan,
Robert Cox, and Charles Dorgan (USGBC, 2002), http://www,usgbc.org!expoZ002J
scheduleJdocumentslDS506 Dorgan P152.pdf.

THINK ABOUT IT
Bridging the gap between design and operations. Engineers and
architects often compare building performance with code requ irements for
new construction and speak of some percentage " better tha n code ." Facility
managers and bu ilding owners see invoices with dollars, kilowatts, therms ,
and gallons. This creates a gap between the metrics used to gauge build ing
performance during design and operation . What are the consequences of this
gap? What are the opportunities for closing it?

Energy and At mosphere 51

MATERIALS AND

Buildings generate a large amount of waste throughout

their life cycles, f rom construction to building opera-

t ions to demoli tion . The amount of waste leaving the

property can be reduced, however, through responsi-

ble procurement choices, as well as by implementing

comprehensive recycling programs t hroughout t he con-

struction, operation, and demolit ion ph ases. Consider-

at ion of materia ls and resources focuse s on the hea lth

and product ivity consequences of material select ions

for building occupants, plus t he long-term social, eco-

nom ic, and environmenta l impacts of materia ls used in

the design and construction of t he building.

Green bui ld ing addresses two kinds of problems rel at-

ed to materials and resou rces:

Waste management; and

Life-cycle im pacts.

LEED recognizes and encourages strategies that con-

sider materials reJ urces "f rom a long-term, life-

cycle pe~;pec t!1e

53
 Assessments and Measurements
Rapidly renewable materials. The amount of a building's agricultural products (fiber or
animal) that are quickly grown or raised and can be harvested in a sustainable fashion,
expressed as a percentage of the total materials cost. For lEED, rapid ly renewable materials
take 10 years or less to grow or raise.

Recycled content. The percentage of material in a product that is recycled from the
manufacturing waste stream (preconsumer waste) or the consumer waste stream
(postconsumer waste) and used to make new materials. For LEED, recycted content is
tYPically expressed as a percentage of the total material yolume or weight.

Regional materials. The amount of a building's materials that are extracted, processed. and
manufactured close to a project site, expressed as a percentage of the total materials cost.
For lEED, regional materials originate within 500 miles of the project site.

Reuse. The amount of building materials returned to active' use (in the same or a related
capacity as their origi nal use), expressed as a percentage of the total materials cost of a
building. The salvaged materials are incorporated into the new building, thereby extending
the lifetime of materials that would otherwise be discarded.

Sustainable forestry. The practice of managing forest resources to meet the long-term forest
product needs of humans while malntainmg the biodiversity of forested landscapes.

Waste diversion. The amount of waste disposed of other than through incineration or in
landfills. expressed in tons. Examples of waste diversion include reuse and recycling.

THINK ABOUT IT
Materials matter, Which is more sustainable, a wood building or a steel
building? Why?

WASTE MANAGEMENT
The intent of LEED credits in this category is to reduce the waste and toxins
that are hauled to and disposed of in landfills or incineration facilities. au'
ing construction or renovation, materials should be recycled or reused whenever possible. During
the daily operation of the building, recycling, reuse, and reduction programs can curb the amount of
material destined for local landfills.

Strategies for reduci ng waste incl ude th e following,

Size the building appropriately. Carefully match the size of the building to its intended
function and owner's requirements. It may be possible to achieve the desired functions with a
smaller building, thereby saving energy and reducing operating costs.

Develop a construction waste management policy. Outlll1e procedures and goals for
construction waste diversion. This policy should specify a target diversion rate for the general
contractor.

54 Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide

 Encourage recycling. Establish a waste reduction policy for operations and maintenance.
Provide occupants with easily accessible collection bins for recyclables, and monitor the
effectiveness of the policy.

Compost. Institute an onsite compost ing program to turn landscaping debris into mulch.

Primary Resources: Waste Reduction

Solid waste is continually generated in most buildings as new products arrive and
used materials leave as waste . This waste is transported to landfills or sometimes
incinerated to generate energy. In either case, the disposal of solid waste produces
greenhouse gas emissions. In landfills, a portion of the waste decays and produces
methane-a potent greenhouse gas. Incineration of waste produces carbon dioxide
as a byproduct. The result is that solid waste ultimately contributes directly to sub-
stantial greenhouse gas emissions.

The EPA has examined greenhouse gas emissions from building waste streams and
estimates that the United States currently recycles approximately 32% of its solid
waste-the carbon dioxide equivalent of removing almost 40 million cars from the
road. The agency also estimates that improving recycling rates to just 35% could
save more than 5 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent. The construction
and operation of green buildings can be an important part of achieving these reduc-
tions.

Construction Materials Recycling Association, www.cdrecycling.org.

Recycled Content Product Directory (California Integrated Waste Management Board),
www.ciwmb.ca.goy/rcp.

U.S. EPA information on the link between solid waste and greenhouse ga$ emissions,
http://www,epa.gov/climatechaoge/wvcd/wastelgeneraljnfo.html .

Waste Reduction Model (WARM) (U.S. EPA), www.epa .gOY/warm.

THINK ABOUT IT
Embodied energy and emissions of solid waste. Many landfil!s burn the
gas that seeps from buried piles of trash and garbage, and in some cases, this
practice qualifies as a widely recognized method for creating "carbon offsets"-
real, durable, verified reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Why is burning
landfill gas considered a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions? In other cases,
landfill gas may be captured and used as fuel to generate electricity.

Materials and Resources 55

 LIFE-CYCLE IMPACTS
LEED increasingly incorporates strategies intended to reduce the enVIron-
mental impacts of materials acquired for constructi on, operation, mainte-
nance, and upgrades of a bui Id ing. To embed these strategies in the building's construc-
tion and operations processes, teams develop environmentally responsible procurement policies.

Strategies to promote sustainable purchasing during construction include

the followi ng,
Develop a construction purchasing policy. Outline the goals, thresholds, and procedures for
procurement of construction mat erials. Monitor compliance and track the effectiveness of the
policy to ensure that it is working.
Specify green materials. Rapidly renewable materials, regional materials, salvaged materials,
and materials with recycled content reduce environmental impacts and promote sustainable
material sources.

Specify green interiors. Use fin ishes, carpets. fabric, and other materials wi t h low levels of
volati le organic compounds (VOCs), formaldehyde, and other potentially toxic chemicals to
protect indoor environmental quality and reduce the lifecycle impacts of materials.

Strategies to promote sustainable purchasing during operations incl ude

these suggestions,
Develop a sustainable purchasing policy. Out line the goals, thresholds, and procedures for
procurement of ongoing consumables and durable goods. Monitor compliance to ensure that
the policy is effective.

Specify green materials. Give preference to rapidly renewable materials, regional materials,
salvaged materials, and materials with recycled content.

Specify green electronic equipment. Choose computers and appliances that meet ENERGY
STAR, EPEAT (Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool), or other standards for
efficient energy consumption .

THINK ABOUT IT
Sustainable product certification. Evaluating the sustainabijity of green
products is complex, and competing claims make it difficult to determine
the relative merits of many products. Third-party programs such as the
Forest Stewardship Council and Green Seal offer independent measures of
performance, but certifiers' varying and even conflicting standards can create
confusion . What are the pros and cons of having different approaches to
evaluating the sustainability of materials?

56 Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide

Primary Resources: Estimating Life-Cycle Impacts
Quantitative life-cycle assessment (LeA) involves an objectIVe comparison of alter-
native design and construction practices. It relies on models and database-driven
tools to analyze the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a
product. process, or service. Several tools can help project teams conduct life-cycle
assessments;

BEES 4.0 (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability). This software
tool hel ps balance the environmental and economic performance of building products.
It is based on consensus standards and designed to be practical, flexib le, consistent,
and transparent. Visit http://www,wbdp,,QrgltoolslbE!es.php.

Construction carbon calculator. This Web-based tool helps developers, builders,

architects, and land planners estimate the net embodied carbon of a project's
structures and site. Visit http://buildcarbonneutral,org/.

ATH ENA EcoCaltulator for Assemblies. This tool is used by architects. engineers,
and other building professionals to characterize hundreds of design options based on
databases, such as the U.S. Life-Cycle Inventory Database from the Department of
Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Visit http://www,athenasmLQrg/tools/
docs/EcoCalcu lator FactSheet. pdf .

EPEAT. The Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool assists with the
evaluation. comparison, and selection of computers and monitors based on their
environmental attributes. See http://www,eoeat.neV.

Materials and Resources 57

ENVIRONMENTAL
According to the EPA, Americans spend 90% of

their time indoors, where concentrations of pollut-

ants may be significantly higher than outdoor levels .

Consequently, indoor environmental quality is a major

concern in buildings.

Strategies to improve indoor environmental quality

have the potential to enhance the lives of bui lding

occupants, increase the resale value of the building,

and reduce liability for building owners. Personnel

costs-primarily salaries and benefits- are much larg-

er than the typical building's operating costs, such as

electricity and maintenance. Thus, strategies that im-

:::--_ _ _.-.<"pro'e employee health and productivity over the long

run can have a large return on investment. Moreover,

preventing problems is generally much less expensive

than dealing with any illnesses and loss of productiv-

poor indoor environmental quality.

o'!joers, des;.n"rs., and operators should aim

to prc";<jlst;m \llaIU9E and comfortable environments

.,
 for the occupants and minimize the risk of building-related health problems. Meeting this

goal requires attention to two kinds of issues:

Indoor air quality; and

Thermal comfort, lighting, and acoustics.

Assessments and Measurements

Carbon dioxide concentrations. An indicator of ventilation effectiveness inside buildings. C02
concentrations greater than 530 parts per million (ppm) above outdoor conditions generally
indicate inadequate ventilation. Absolute concentrations of greater than 800 to 1,000 ppm
generally indicate poor air quality for breathing. C02 builds up in a space when there is not
enough ventilation.

Controllability of systems. The percentage of occupants who have direct con trol over
t emperature, airflow. and lighting in their spaces.

Minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV). A rating that indicates the efficiency of air filters
in the mechanical system. MERV ratings range from 1 (very low efficiency) to 16 (very high
efficiency) .

Thermal comfort. The temperature, humidity, and airflow ranges wi thin which the majority of
people are most comfortable, as determined by ASHRAE Standard 55-2004. Because people
dress differently depending on the season, thermal comfort levels vary with the season .
Control setpoints for HVAC systems shou ld vary accordingly, to ensure that occupants are
comfortable and energy is conserved.

Ventilation rate. The amount of air circu lated through a space, measured in air changes per
hour (the quantity of infiltration air in cubic feet per minute divided by the volume of the
room). Proper ventilation rates, as prescribed by ASHRAE Standard 62, ensure that enough
air is supplied for the number of occupants to prevent accumu lation of carbo.n dioxide and
other pollutants in the space.

Volatile organic compounds (VQCs). The amount of carbon compounds that participate
in atmospheric photochemical reactions and vaporize (become a gas) at normal room
temperatures. measured in grams per liter. vacs off-gas from many materials, including
adhesives, sea lants, paints, carpets, and particleboard. Limiting vac concentrations protects
the health of both construction personnel and building occupants.

THINK ABOUT IT
Biophilia. Humans evolved with a strong connection to nature. How can
buildings reflect this connection? What are the benefits?

60 Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide

INDOOR AIR QUALITY
Protecting indoor environments from contaminants-such as volatile organic
compounds (VaCs), carbon dioxide, particulates, and tobacco smoke-is es-
sential to maintaining good indoor air quality_ Off-gassing from fumirufC, carpets,
paints, and cleaning products, plus human respiration, can create an indoor atmosphere that is
hundreds of times morc polluted than the outdoor environment. Ventilation is one effective way to
control the concentration ofpoliutants indoors. New, low-emitting alternatives for interior finish
materials are another, these products don't add pollutants to indoor environments and should be
used in new building construction and renovations.

Strategies for maintaining indoor air qua lity include th e following,

Prohibit smoking. Institute a no-smoking policy in the bUilding and around building
entrances, operable windows, and ai, intakes.

Ensure adequate ventilation. Appropriate!y size and operate ventilation systems to supply
ample outside air to. the occupants. Follow the most recent industry standards (such as
ASH RAE Standard 62. Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality).

Monitor carbon dioxide. Install monitors and integrate them with a ventilation system that
regulates the supply of air based on occupant demand. With demand-controlled ventilation,
airflow is automatically increased if [carbon dioxide?] concentrations exceed a selpoint.

Install highefficiency air filters. Use filters with high MERV ratings in the ventilation
equipment.

Specify low-emitting materials. Use green materials for both new construction and
renovations.

Protect air quality during construction. Prevent mold by protecting all building materials from
moisture exposure. Prevent dust and particulate buildup.

Conduct a flush-out. Before occupancy, flush out indoor airborne contaminants by thoroughly
exhausting old air and replacing it with outdoor air.

Employ a green cleaning program. Select cleaning products and technologies to minimize the
introduction of contaminants and the exposure of custodial staff.

Use Integrated pest management. A coordina ted program of nonchemlcal strategies, such
as monitoring and baiting. can reduce the use of pesticides and other potentially tOXIC
contaminants.

THERMAL COMFORT, LIGHTING,

AND ACOUSTICS
Thermal comfort, lighting, and acoust ics are other major aspects of indoor
environmental quality that have a significant impact on occupan ts. Am"
to daylight and views. a comfortable temperature, and good lighting and acoustic conditions can
enhance occupants' sense of satisfaction in their space. These factors have been shown to improve
human health and productivity. It has also been shown that occupants are more satisfied with their
environment if they have control over these aspects. For example. the ability to open ordose a win-

Indoor Environmental Quality 61

 dow in their office allows workers to adapt to and tolerate temperatures outside the comfort zone in
a sealed building environment.

Strategies for improving thermal comfort, lighting, and acoustics in indoor

environments include these suggestions:
Use daylighting. Design the building to provide ample access to natura l daylight and views for
the occupants. Service areas, equipment rooms, closets, and locker rooms should be locat ed
in the building core, with regularly occupied spaces placed around the perimeter of the
building.

Install operable windows. If possible, provide windows that can be opened to the outside.

Give occupants temperature control. In mechanically ventilated buildings, provide

thermostats that allow occupants to control the temperature in their immediate environment.

Give occupants venti lation control. In mechan ically ventilated buildings, provide adjustable
air diffusers that allow occupants to adjust the airflow in their immediate environment.

Give occupants lighting control. Provide occupants with adjustable lighting controls so that
they can match the lighting levels to their tasks.

Conduct occupant surveys. Use valid survey protocols to assess occupants' satisfaction with
the indoor environment. Make operational changes based on the feedback.

THINK ABOUT IT
Thermal comfort. Experiments to determine thermal comfort norms for
humans have been performed in carefully controlled laboratory environments
where people were subjected to various environmental conditions. The standards
developed through this research advised designers and operators to keep
building environments within strictly def ined ranges . However, recent research
in real-world situations has shown that people are tolerant of more varied
conditions when they have control over their environment. What are the energy
efficiency implications of design that accommodate personal control over one's
environment?

Primary Resources: Daylig hting

A study of more than 2,000 California classrooms found that students in classrooms
with t he most daylight progressed 20% faster in math and 26% faster in reading
than students in the classrooms with the least amount of natural light.

62 Green Building and LEEO Core Concepts Guide

 "Daylight and Retail Sales" (California Energy Commission, 2003), http://www,h-m- g,
corn!downloads/Daylight jng!A-5 Oaylgt Retai l 2,3,7,pd(,

"Oaylighting in Schools: An Investigation into the Relationship between Oaylighting

and Human Performance" (Heschong Mahone Group, 1999), http;Uh-m-g.coml
proj ecl sldaylightingisummaries%200n%20dayl i2hting,htm#Dayl jgbtj nR in Schools
pG&E 1999,

"Healthier, Wealthier, Wiser: A Report on National Green SchQQls" (Global Green USA,
no date), bttp:l/wNw,globalgreen,org/publ icatjons/.

" Windows and Classrooms: A Study of Student Performance and the Indoor
Environment " (California Energy Commission ; 2003), http;!twww.h-m-g.com/
dQwnloads/DaylightinglA-7 Windows Classrooms 2,4, I Q,pdf.

"Windows and Offices: A Study of Office Worker Performance and the Indoor
Environment " (Cali l ornia Energy Commission, 2003), hUp.f!www.h-m-g.coml
down loadslDaylightinglA-9 Windows Offices 2,6,10,pdf.

Indoor Environmental Qu ality

Studies by the Center for the Bu ilt Environment at the University of Californ ia-Berke-
ley have found that occupants of green buildings report significantly greater satisfac-
tion with indoor air quality t~ a n occupants of conventional buildings. However, the
benefits of green bui lding don't extend to all aspects of indoor environmental quality.
The green buildings often had superior air qualitY but provided less satisfaction in
measures of acoustic quality.

Indoor Environment Department, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, htto;//eetd.

Ibl,goyliedfJed,html.

Information on indoor health and productivity, httod/www,ihpcentral.org.

"Occupant Satisfaction with Indoor Environmental Quality in Green Buildings" (Center

for the Buil t Environment, 2006), http;l/www,cbe,berkeleY,edu/research/odf files!
Abbaszadeh HB 2006,pdf.

Indoor Environmental Quality 63

INNOVATION IN

The LEED rating systems offer Innovation in Design

credits to encourage projects to go above and beyond

the credit requirements and explore innovative green

building strategies. lEED recognizes two strategies for

earning Innovation in Design credits: except ional per-

formance and innovation.

Exemplary performance strategies surpass the require-

ments of existing lEED credits and substantially ex-

ceed the performance-based standards for energy, wa-

ter, or waste manageme nt. LEED has recognized the

following kinds of exemplary performance :

Doubling de sity requirements for Sustainable

Sites cred its.

tl~(U~:~~;:t i door water use beyond

n of 40%;
!ifj<:an,tl~1 d j"erl!nl! PlnS',uct j,,, waste
~ tI.. j l,q",j'1n>ejr1 of 75%, and
dlilii";tjnglhan the 75%

65
 Innovative strategies expand the breadth of green building practice and introduce new ideas, such
as these recent innovative strategies:

Developing an educationa l outreach program;

Using a greenhouse gas budget to demonstrate carbon-neutral design and operations; and

Incorporating high levels of fly ash in concrete to divert waste material from landfills.

Strategies and practices rewarded as innovative today may become credits in the fut ure. In fact, as
LEED continues to evolve and today's innovation becomes tomorrow's standard, strategies that
may have earned an Innovation in Design credit in the past may not necessarily earn recognition in
current or future projects.

Primary Resource: Guidance on Innovation in Design Credits

Requirements for documenting the achievement of Innovation in Design credits are
available from USGBC, at http;llwww.usgbc,QrglDocsiLEEDdocsiIDcredit guidance
final.pdf.

" Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide

 The Aldo Leopold Legacy Center
The Aldo Leopold Legacy Center was the first building recognized by
USGBC as carbon neutral-an exceptional achievement that earned the center
an Innovation in Design credit. The project team prepared a greenhouse gas 'emissions

budget based on the requirements of the World Resources I nstitute Greenhouse Gas

Protocol. Conservatively accounting for carbon generation and sequestration in metric

tons of CO 2 equivalent (a measure of greenhouse gas emissions that combines multiple

heat-trapping gases, such carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide). the activities of

the center will result in the net reduction of CO 2 emissions each year.

Projected Annual Greenhouse Gas Emissions From Aide Leopold Legacy Center

CO 2 Equivalent per Year (Metric Tons)

Total emissions 13.42
Offset from renewable energy - 6 .24
Onsite forest sequestrat ion -8.75
Total emissions reduction - 14.99
Net balance of emissions ~1.57

More information about the Aida l eopold Legacy Center is ava ilable at http://www.
aIdoleopol d .orgllegacycenterlcarbon neutral,htm I.

Innovation in Design 67
ac id ra in the precipitation of dilute solutions of Strong mineral acids, formed by the mixing in
the atmosphere of various industrial pollutants (primarily sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) with
naturally occurring oxygen and watcr vapor.

adapted plants nonnative, introduced plants chat reliably grow well in agivcn habitat with
minimal winter protection, peSt control, fertilization, or irrigation once their root systems are
established. Adapted plants are considered low maintenance and not inVasive.

air quality standards the level of pollutants prescribed byreguiations that is not to be
exceeded during a given time in a defmed area. (EPA)

alternative fuel vehicles vehicles that use low-polluting, nongasolinc fueis,sueh as

electricity, hydrogen, propane or compressed natural gas, liquid natural gas, methanol, and
ethanol. In LEED, efficient gas-electric hybrid vehicles are included in this group.
>

amb ient temperature the temperature of the surrounding air or other medium. (EPA)

ASHRAE American SocietyofHeating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.

bake-out a process used to remove volatile organic compounds ( VOCs) from a building by
elevating the temperature in the fully furnished and ventilated building prior to human occupancy.

bi odegradable capable of decomposing under natural condirions. (EPA)

biOdiversity the varietyoflife in aU forms, levels, and combinations, including eCbsystem

diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity.

biomass plam material from trees, grasses, or crops that can be converted to heat eneTb'Y to
produce electricity.

bioswale a stormwater control feature that uses a combination of an engineered basin, soils,
and vegetation to slow and detain stormwater, increase groundwater recharge, and reduce peak
stormwater runoff.

blackwater wastewater from toilets and urinals; definitions vary, and wastewater from kitchen
sinks (perhaps differentiated by the use ofa garbage disposal), showers, or bathtubs is considered
blackwater under some state or local codes.

6.
 British thermal unit (Btu) the amount of heat required to raisethetemperatureofonepound
ofliquid water from 60 to 61 Fahrenheit. This standard measure of energy is used to describe the
energyconrenr offuels and compare energy use.

brownfield real property whose use may be complicated by the presence or possible presence of
a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant.

building density the floor area of the building divided by the total area of the site (square feet
per acre).

bui Idi ng envelope the exterior surface of a building-the walls, windows, roof, and floor; also
referred to as the building shell.

build ing footprint the area on a project site that is used by the building structure, defined by
the perimeter of the building plan. Parking lots, landscapes, and other nonbuilding facilities are not
included in the building footprint.

byproduct material, other than the principal product, generated as a consequence of an

industrial process or as a breakdov,m product in a living system. (EPA)

carbon footprint a measure of greenhouse gas emissions associated with an activity. A

comprehensive carbon footprint includes building construction, operation, energy use, building-
related transportation, and the embodied energy of water, solid waste, and construction materials.

chiller a device that removes heat from a liquid, typically as pan of a refrigeration system used to
cool and dehumidify buildings.

commissioni ng (CX) the process of verifying and documenting that a building and all of its
systems and assemblies are planned,designed, installed, tested, operated, and maintained to meet
the owner's project requirements.

comm ission ing plan a document that outlines the organization, schedule, allocation of
resources, and documentation requirements of the commissioning process.

commissioning report a document that details the commiSSioning process, including a

commissioning program overview, identification of the commissioning team, and description of
thc commiSSioning process activities.

compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) a small fluorescent lamp, usedasa more efficient
alternative to incandescent lighting; also called a PL, twin-tube, or biax lamp. (EPA)

construction and demolition debris waste and recycJablesgenerated from construction

and from the renovation, demolition, or deconstruction of existing structures. It does not include
land-dearing debris, such as soil, vegetation, and rocks.

70 Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide

construction waste management plan a plan that diverts construction debris from
landfills through recycling, salvaging, and reuse.

contaminant an unwanted airborne element that may reduce indoor air quality (ASHRAE
Standard 62.1-2007).

cool ing tower a structure that uses water to absorb heat from air-conditioning systems and
regulate air temperature in a facility.

day Iighting the controlled admission of natural light into a space, used to reduce or eliminate
electric lighting.

dry ponds excavated areas that detain stormwater and slow runoff but arc dry between rain
events. Wet ponds serve a similar function but arc designed to hold water all the time.

ecosystem a basic unit of nature that includes a community of organisms and their nonliving
environment linked by biological, chemical and physical processes.

energy-efficient products and systems building components and appliances that use less
energy to perform as well as or better than standard products.

energy management system a control systemcapableofmonitoringenvironmcntal and

system loads and adjusting HVAC operations accordingly in order to conserve energy while
maintaining comfort. (EPA)

ENERGY STAR* rating a measure of a building's energy performance compared with that of
similar buildings, as determined by the ENERGY STAR Portfolio Manager. A score of So represents
average building perfom1ance.

envi ronmental sustai nability long-term maintenance of ecosystem components and

functions for future gencrations. (EPA)

flush-out the operation of mechanical systems for a minimum of two weeks using 100 percent
outside airat the end of construction and prior to building occupancy to ensure safe indoor air
quality.

fossi I fuel energy derived. from ancient organic remains, such as peat, coal, crude oil, and
natural gas. (EPA)

graywater domestic wastc\vater composed ofwasb water from kitchen, bathroom, and laundry

.
sinks, tubs, and washers. (EPA) The Uniform Plumbing Code ( UPC) defines graywater in its
Appendix G, "Gray Water Systems for Single-Family Dwellings", as "untreated household waste
water which has not come into contact with toilet waste. Graywater includes used water from
bathtubs, showers, bathroom wash basins, and water from clothes-washer and laundry rubs. It

Glossary 71
System aims to improve occupant well-being, environmental performance, and economic returns
using established and innovative practices, standards, and technologies. as a design guideline and
third-parrycenification tool, the LEED Green Building Rating System aims to improve occupant
well-being, environmental performance, and economic returns using established and innovative
practices, standards, and technologies.

lEED intent the primary goal of each prerequisiteoreredit.

lEED prerequisite a required LEED Green Building RatingSystemT~ eomponentwhose

achievement is mandatory and does not earn any points.

lEED technical advisory group (TAG) acommittecconsistingofindustryexpertswho

assist in interpreting credits and developing technical improvements to the LEED Green Building
RatingSystemT~.

Iife-cyc Ie assessment an analysis of the environmental aspects and potential impacts

associated \vith a product, process, or service.

market transformation systematic improvements in the performance of a market or market

segment. Forexample. EPA's ENERGY STAR program has shifted the performance of homes,
buildings, and appliances toward higher levels of energy efficiency by providing recognition and
comparative performance information through its ENERGY STAR labels.

native (or i!1digenous) plants plants adapted to a given area during a defined time period. In
North America, the term often refers to plants growing in a region prior to the time of settlement
by people of European descent. Native plants are considered low maintenance and nOt invasive.

non potable water. Sec potable water.

nonrenewable not capable of being replaced; permanently depleted once used. Examples of
nonrenewable energy sources are oil and natural gas; nonrenewable natural resources include
metallic ores.

off~gassi ng the emission of volatile organic compounds from synthetic and natural products.

particulates solid particles or liquid droplets in the atmosphere. The chemical composition
of particulates varies, depending on location and time of year. Sources include dust. emissions
from industrial processes, combustion products from the burning of wood and coal, combustion
products associated \vim motor vehicle or nonroad engine exhausts, and reactions to gases in the
atmosphere. (EPA)

perviousness the percentage of the surface area of a paving material that is open and allows
moisture to pass through the material and soak into the ground below.

photoYoltaic (PV) energy electricity from photovoltaic cells that convert the energy in
sunlight into electricity.

Glossary 73
 pollutant any substance introduced into the environment that harms the usefulness of a
resource or the health of humans, animals, or ecosystems. (EPA) Air pollutants include emissions
of carbon dioxide (C02), sulfur dioxide (S02), nitrogen oxides (NOx), mercury (Hg), small
particulates (PM2.S), and large particulates (PM10).

postconsumer recycled content the percentage of material in a product that was consumer
waste. The recycled material was generated by household, commercial, industrial, or institutional
end users and can no longer be used for its intended purpose. This includes returns of materials
from the distribution chain. Examples include construction and demolition debris, materials
collected through recycling programs, discarded products (such as furniture, cabinetry, and
decking), and landscaping waste (such as ieaves, grass clippings, and tree trimmings). (ISO 14021)

potable water water that meets or exceeds the EPA's drinking water quality standards and is
approved for human consumption by the state or local authorities bavingjurisdiction; it may be
supplied from wells or municipal water systems.

pre consumer recycled content the percentage of material in a product that was recycled
from manufacturing waste. Preconsumer content was formerly known as postindustrial content.
Examples include planer shavings, sawdust, bagasse, walnut shells, cuils, trimmed materials,
overissue publications, and obsolete inventories. Excluded are rework, regrind, or scrap materials
capable of being reclaimed within the same process that generated them. (ISO 14021)

rain garden a st ormwat er management feature consisting of an excavated depression and

vegetation that collects and filters runoff and reduce peak discharge rates.

ra inwater harvesting the collection and storage of precipitation from a catchment area, such
as a roof.

rapidly renewable materials agricultural products, both fiber and animal, that take lO years
or less to grow or raise and can be harvested in a sustainable fashion.

regenerative design sustainable plans for built environments that improve existing
conditions. Regenerative design goes beyond reducing impacts to create positive change in the
local and global environments.

renewable energy resources that are not depleted by use. Examples include energy from
the sun, wind, and small (low-impact) hydropower, plus geothermal energy and wave and tidal
systems. Ways to capnue energy from the sun include photovoltaic, solar thermal, and bioenergy
systems based on wood waste, agricultural crops or residue, animal and other organic waste, or
landfill gas.

renewable energy certificate (REC) a t radable commodity representing proof that a unit
of electricity was generated from a renewable energy resource. RECs are sold separately from the
electricity itself and thus allow the purchase of green power by a user of conventionally generated

74 Green Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide

electricity.

sa Ivaged material construction items recovered from existing buildings o r construction

sites and reused. Common salvaged materials include structural beams and POStS, flooring, doors,
cabinetry, brick, and decorativc items.

sick building syndrome (SBS) a combinationofsymproms, experienced by occupants of

a building, that appear to be linked to time spent in the building but cannot be traced to a specific
cause. Complaints may be localized in a panicular room or zone or be spread throughout the
building. (E PA)

stormwater runoff water from precipitation that flows over surfaces into sewer systems
or receiving water bodies. All precipitation that leaves project site boundaries on the surface is
considered stonnwater runoff.

sustainabi Iity meeting the needs ofrhe present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. (Brundtland Commission)

sustainable forestry managementofforest resources to meet the long-tenn forest product

needs of humans while maintaining the biodiversityofforested landscapes. The primary goal
is to restore, enhance, and sustain a full range offorest values, including economic, social, and
ecological considerations.

sustai ned-yield forestry management of a forest to produce in perpetuity a high-level annual

or regular periodic output, through a balance between increment and cutting. (Society of American
Foresters)

thermal comfort the condition that exists when occupams express satisfaction with the
thermal environment.

volatile organic compound (VDe) a carbon compound that panicipates in atmospheric

photochemical reactions (excluding carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbonic acid, metallic
carbides and carbonates, and ammonium carbonate). Such compounds vaporize (become a gas) at
normal room temperatures.

wastewater the spent or used water from a home, community, farm, or industry that contains
dissolved or suspended matter. (EPA)

wetland vegetation plants that require saturated soils to survive or can tolerate prolonged wet
soil conditions.

xeriscaping a landscaping method that makes routine irrigation unnecessary by using drought-
adaptable and low-water plants, as well as soil amendments such as compost and mulches to
reduce evaporation.

Glossary 75