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C L A S S IC A L P R E S E N C E S

G en eralE dttors
Lorna H ardw ick Jam es 1.Porter
 C L A SSIC A L P R E SE N C E S

T h e texts, ld eas, lm ages, an d m aterlal culture of an clen t G reece an d

R om e h ave alw ays b een cru clal to attem p ts to ap p rop rlate th e p ast ln
ord er to au th en tlcate th e p resen t. T h ey u n d erlle th e m ap p ln g of
ch an ge an d th e assertlon an d ch allen gln g of valu es an d ld en tltles,
old an d n ew .C lasslcal P resen ces b rln gs th e latest sch olarsh lp to b ear
on th e con texts, th eory, an d p ractlce of su ch u se, an d ab u se, of th e
classlcal p ast.
 '

o m er ln th e
Tw en tieth C en tu ry
B etw een JV//'/l L iteratu re and
the W csfcrrl C anotl

E dited by
B A R B A R A G R A Z IO S I

an d

E M IL Y G R E E N W O O D

O X TO RD
L N IV lbl'
t b 1 l '%r la R lar: b
 U N IV E R S IT Y P R E S S
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ISB N 9 78 0 19 929826 6

1 .3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2
T(? Paul C artledge and P at E asterhng
 A ckn ow ledgem en ts

T u ls book h as 1ts orlgln s ln a con feren ce h eld m D urh am from 20 to

23 July 2004.W e are gratefulto severallnstltutlon s for thelr hnan clal
supp ort: th e B rltlsh A cadem y: th e Soclety for th e P rom otlon of
H ellen lc Stu d les, th e D ep artm en t of C lasslcs an d A n clen t H lstory
(D urham U nlverslty), and the School of Classlcs (U nlverslty of
St A ndrew s). Several lndlvlduals helped us w lth com m ents and
practlcal h elp : w e are partlcularly grateful to P at E asterllnp E dlth
H all,Johannes H aubold,Jon H esk D avld H unt,G reg W oolf,H edw lg
H aubold ,V lctorla M addocks, an d E sth er M cG llvray. H llat'y O 'Sh ea
of O xford U nlverslty P ress expressed an lnterest ln th e prolect even
before the conference had taken place: h er p atlen ce an d supp ort
h elped us see the book through to lts com pletlon . A t th e tlm e of
th e con feren ce w e b en ef ted from th e gen ero u s ld eas an d crltlclsm of
th e p artlclp an ts: alth ough w e cann ot n am e th em ln dlvldually, w e
w ould llke to record th elr con trlbutlon . A t a later stage, th e p rolect
benef ted from the searchlng com m ents of the Serles E dltors an d the
an onym ous reader for O xford U nlverslty P ress. R anla K n obl h elp ed
u s to edlt th e volum e an d com plle th e ln dex w lth great en ergy an d
good h um our: h er con trlbutlon w as extrem ely valuable. A shley
C lem ents h elp ed w lth th e lllustratlon s. V eron lca lon s an d V lrgln la
M asardo saved us from m any errors an d lnfellcltles. W e happlly
acknow ledge h ow m uch w e ow e to th e contrlbutors to thls volum e;
thelr lndlvldual chap ters h ave prom pted us to thlnk harder and
furth er ab out th e plurallty of H om erlc receptlon s ln th e tw entleth
cen tury; w h lle th elr com m ltm ent an d supp ort h ave m ade w orkln g
on th ls volu m e an enloyable exp erlen ce.W e w ou ld also llke to th an k
Johannes H aubold and D avld M lln e for thelr support and en cour-
agem en t th rou gh ou t th ls p rolect, esp eclally d u rln g th e edltln g p h ase.
W e dedlcate thls book to Paul C artledge an d Pat E asterllng: they
sup en used o ur P IA.D . dlssertatlon s w h en w e w ere grad u ate stu d en ts
 A cknow ledgem en ts vll

ln C am brldge an d ,even w h lle w e w ere grap p lln g w lth sp eclf c asp ects
of arch alc an d classlcal G reece,en co u raged u s to lo ok b eyon d E urop e
an d an tlqulty ln search of p osslble future dlalogu es.

B G an d F, G
D urham an d B allater,
M ay 20 0 6
 C on ten ts

f-lsrof Illustrattons x
Ltstof Contrtbutors xl
l
Introd uctlon
B A RBA RA G Rytzlo sl an d E M ILV G Rslw w oo o

P A R T 1. P L A C IN G H O M E R IN T H E
T W E N T IE T H C E N T U R Y

1. H om er after P ar1'y:Tradltlon , R eceptlon ,and the

27
T lm eless T ext
Jol-lAx x l!s H wusot.o
2. Sln gln g across th e F aultlln es: C ultural
Sh lfts ln Tw en tleth -c entury R eceptlon s of H om er 47

L o ltx A H au o w lcx

P A R T II . S C H O L A R S H IP A N D F IC T IO N

3. H om er am ong the lrlsh :Yeats, Sp lge:

T hom son , and P arry 75

R tc l-lw tto M A R T tN
4. H om er an d Joyce:T h e C ase of N auslcaa 92

S'rlpl-lsx M lx rrA
5. H om er ln A lbanla:O ral E plc and th e
G eograph y of L lterature l20

B A R SA RA G ltA zlo sl

P A R T III . D IS T A N C E A N D F O R M

6. L ogu e's Tele-v lston : R ead lng H om er from a D lstan ce 145

E M ILV G uEEx w o o o
 C on ten ts lx

7. Som e A sslm llatlon s of th e H om en c

Slm lle ln L ater Tw en tleth -c en tury Poett'y 177
O LIV ER T A PLIN
8. Kl-lom ecom lngs w lthout H om e':R epresentatlons
of (Postlcolonlal nostos (H om ecom lng) ln the
Lyrlc of A im e C esaire an d D erek W alcott 19 1
G R EG SO N D ytv zs
9. T h eo A ngelop oulos ln th e U n d erw orld 2 l0
F R A N CO ISE L llrro u s l-o x

P A R T IV . P O L IT IC S A N D IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

l0. H om er ln the G reek C lvllW ar (1946-1949) 231

D -w zo R zcx s
11. N aked an d O B rotherj W /yrrrA rt T litltl? T h e
P olltlcs an d P oetlcs of E p lc C ln em a 245
SlM o w G O LD I-IILL
12. A n A m erlcan H om er for th e Tw entleth C en tury 268
SE'I'I-I L . SC I-IEIN

B lbllograp hy 286
Indexes 313
 Listof Illustrations

l l R om are Bearden,Roots O dyssey (1976),w lth klnd

p erm lsslon of th e R om are B earden Foun datlon 68
6 l M lrella lklcclardl, ph otograph of a K enyan w arrlor lm age
u sed as th e cover lllu stratlon for C L ogu e Patroclem
(Scorplon Press, 1969) l55
Every effort has b een m ade to galn p erm lsslon from th e
ow n er of th e lm age

11 1 M lke Lelgh,N aked Johnny holdlng a book (H om er,

The O dyssey Penguln),w lth klnd perm lsslon of Fllm Four 250
ll 2 M lke Lelgh, N aked Johnny addresslng Loulse,w lth kln d
p erm lsslon of Fllm Fou r 254

11 3 M tke L etgh , N aked th e restattrant,w tth km d perm tsston

of Fllm Four 255

ll 4 C oen B rothers, O B rother, W '

/lcrc A rt Thouh op enlng
qu otatlon ,w lth kln d p erm lsslon of U n lversal Stu dlos 262
ll 5 C o en B roth ers, O B rother, W '
/lcrc A rt Th t?1/?, B 1g D an Teagu e
ln a ru ral settlnp w lth km d p erm lsslon of U nlversal Stu dlos 265
 Listof Contributors

G regson D avis ls P rofessor of C lassics and C om p aratlve Llterature at

D uke U nlverslty, w h ere h e ls th e A ndrew W . M ellon D lstlngulsh ed
P rofessor ln th e H um an ltles an d D ean of H um anltles. H ls m aln
research focl are L atln llterature of th e L ate R ep ubllc an d con tem -
porary C arlbbean poetry (francophone and anglophone).A m ong hls
m alor publlcatlons are Polyhym na'The Rhetonc of H oratkan f-yrrc
D lscourse (B erkeley, 1984) and A km e C esakre (C am brldge, 1997).H e
ls currently w rltlng a m on ograph on V lrgllns E clogues.

Sim on G oldh ill ls P rofessor of G reek at C am brldge U n lverslty. H e

h as publlshed w ldely on G reek llterature and on th e relatlon b etw een
G reek culture an d m odern culture. H ls m ost recent books are W ' JIt?
N eeds Greek? Cultural Contests ;rl the H vtory of H ellenksm (Cam -
brldge,2002); The Temple of Jerusalem (London,2005),and Love,
Sex and Tragedy'f-ft/w the A naent Jlbr/t;lShapes our faivts (Chlcago,
2005).H ls nextbook ls fft/w to Stage G reek Tragedy Today (Chlcago).
B arb ara G raziosi ls Sen lor L ecturer ln C lasslcs at D urh am U nlverslty.
She ls the author of Inventkng H om er'The Flr/y Receptkon of Fpitr
(C am brldge,2002) and of shorter studles on early G reek llterature
and culture.She hasw rltten H om er'The Resonance of Fpitr(London,
2005) together w lth Johannes H aubold, and ls currently w orklng
w lth h lm on an ed ltlon an d com m entary of Ihad 6 for th e C am brldge

G reek and Latln C lasslcs.

E m ily G reenw ood ls L ecturer m G reek at th e U n lverslty of St
Andrew s.She lsthe author of Thucydkdes J/CJ the Shapkng of bhstory
(London,2006) and varlous artlcles on the receptlon of C lasslcs ln
th e C arlbbean .She ls co-edltor,w lth Llz lrw ln,of R eadtng H erodotus'
Studkes ;rl the f-txt?; of Book 5 (Cam brldge,2007) and ls currently
w rltlng a book entltled Afro-Greeks' D talogues between C' fzrllpk tfrf
L tterature and C lasskcs.

L orn a H ardw ick teach es at th e O p en U n lverslty w h ere sh e ls P rofes-

sor of C lasslcal Studles an d D lrector of the R eceptlon of C lasslcal
xu Lkstof Contnbutors
T exts R esearch P rolect. H er p ubllcatlon s ln th at lield ln clu d e Trans-
latkng J'kbrls Translatkng Cultures (London,2000),N pw Surveys irlthe
C lasskcs'Receptkon Studkes (C am brldge,2003),and artlcles on G reek
dram a an d ep lc ln p o stcolon lal con texts.Sh e ls cu rren tly w orkln g on
a m on ograp h on th e relatlon sh lp s b etw een m o d ern rew rltln gs of
an clen t d ram a an d p o etry an d b ro ad er cultural sh lfts.

Johann es H aubold ls Leverhulm e Lecturer ln G reek Llterature at

D urh am U n lverslty. H ls p ubllcatlon s ln clude H om er's P eop le' Fp itr
Poetry and Soa alForm atw n (C am brldge,2000),asw ellas artlcles on
H om es H eslod , H erod otu s, Iub an lu s, N ear E astern E p lc, an d th e
m o d ern recep tlon of th e classlcal p ast.H e ls co -au th or,togeth er w lth
Barbara Grazlosl,of H om er'The Resonance of Fpitr(London,2005)
an d ls curren tly w orkln g w lth h er on a com m en tary of Ihad 6.

Fran oise L etou b lon ls P rofessor of G reek L lteratu re an d L ln gu lstlcs

at the U nlverslte Stendhal (G renoble).She ls the author of 11allakt
parekl a la rlt/if (Parls 1985), and of Les Dpt/x com m uns du rom an'
stereotypesgrecs d'aventure etd'am our (Lelden,1993).She has edlted
H om m age a M klm an Parry (A m sterdam ,1997),and publlshed several
stu dles on H om erlc p oetry an d lts recep tlon . Sh e ls p artlcularly
ln terested ln th e w ork of T h eo A n gelop o ulo s an d h as w rltten several
artlcles on hls lilm s ln collab oratlon w lth C arolln e E ades an d Sylvle
R ollet.

R ichard R M artin holds the A nth ony and lsabelle R aubltsch ek C halr
of C lasslcs at Stanford U nlverslty. R ecent p ubllcatlon s h ave focu sed
on ep lc p oetry, H eslo d , an d Solon .H e ls E n lsh ln g a h lstory of G reek
llterature an d w orkln g on tw o oth er books: R hap sokdka, on G reek
hexam eter tradltlons,and M ythologkzkng Perjorm ance,on Greek lyrlc
p o etry an d m u slc. H ls m o st recen t w ork on lrlsh llterature ls KU p -
staged: lrlsh D ram a ln lrlsh' (forthcom lnp Prlnceton U nlverslty
Llbrary Chronlcle).
Step h en M in ta ls Sen lor L ectu rer ln E n gllsh ln th e D ep artm en t of
E n gllsh an d R elated L lteratu re at th e U n lverslty of Y ork .H ls research
fo cu ses on com p aratlve llteratu re.H e ls th e au th or of L ove P oetry irl
Skxteenth-century France (M anchester, 1977); Petrarch and Petrar-
tr/liyrrl(M anchester,1980);GabrwlGaraa M arquez'W nterofcolom -
Jpifl(London,1987);Agukrre'The Re-creatkon of a Skxteenth-century
 Lkstof Contnbutors xlll
Journey across South A m enca (London, 1993); and O n a Voweless
Shore'Byron irlG reece (N ew York,1998).H e ls currently w orklng on
a p olltlcal blograp hy of B yron .

D avid R icks teach es ln th e D ep artm ent of Byzantln e an d M odern

G reek Stu dles an d th e C om p aratlve L lterature P rogram m e at K ln g's
College London.H e ls the author of The Shade of H om er (relssued,
Cam brldge,2004)and ofthe chapter Kl-lom e/ ln The Oxford H kstory
of Lkterary Translatkon irlEnghsh,1v.1790-1900 (O xford,2006).H e
h as also w rltten on th e w ork of m any m o d ern G reek p o ets, am on g
th em C .P. C avafy.

Seth Sch ein is P rofessor of C om p arative L iteratu re at th e U n iversity

of C allforn la, D avls. H e w orks m aln ly on H om erlc ep lc, A ttlc
tragedy, an d th e recep tlon of classlcal llterature, an d h as recen tly
p ubllsh ed several essays on Sop h o clesn P hkloctetes an d a tran slatlon
of that play (N ew buryport, 2003). H ls current prolects lnclude a
com m en tary on P hkloctetes an d a tran slatlon of A eschylu s' O resteka.

O liver T ap lin ls a P rofessor of C lasslcs an d T u torlal Fellow at M ag-

dalen C ollege,O xford.H e has recently com pleted a book (w lth 125
plates) called Pots and Plays Interactzons betw een Tragedy and G reek
v'
flyrPakntkng of the Fourth Century Bc, w hlch w lll be publlshed
by G etty M u seu m P u bllcatlon s ln 2007. H e ls attem p tln g a verse
tran slatlon of th e p lays of Sop h o cles.
This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c#
. blank
 lntrod u ction

B arbara G raziosi and E m ily G reenw ood

fEveryon e w h o n ow read s and w rltes ln th e W est, of w h atever raclal

b ackgroun d , sex or ldeologlcal cam p , ls stlll a son or daugh ter of
H om e/ :thls ls h ow H arold B loom attem p ted to capture th e place of
H om er ln 1975, as p at't of hls lllustratlon of th e anxlety of ln fluen ce
ln A M ap of M iyrptzfhrlp lBloom ns statem entrepresents a w ellestab-
llsh ed w ay of th lnkln g ab out th e place of H om er ln tw entleth -
cen tury culture. H ow ever, lt seem s to u s th at thls vlslon of H om er
as th e fountalnh ead of all W estern llterature, gran d as lt ls, actually
u n d erp lays H om er's role ln tw en tleth -cen tu ry culture ln at least tw o
resp ects. T h e first and m ost obvlou s problem ls th e restrlctlon of
H om er's lnfluence to fthe W estl how ever concelved: even a super-
clal survey of H om erlc tran slatlon s p ubllsh ed ln th e tw entleth
cen tury sh ow s th at H om er w as deem ed relevan t to readers of, to
quote but a few , U ltram lan , A rablc, C h lnese, E sp eranto, A lb an lan ,
T urklsh , and K orean .z To b e sure: ln som e cases H om er w as tran s-
lated preclsely as th e def nlng auth or of W estern llterature; yet th e
close en gagem en t w lth H om erlc eplc on th e p art of readers an d
w rlters from m any corn ers of th e w orld ch allenged an d redeE n ed
th e vety con cept of W estern llterature.W e m ay th lnk of th e w ays ln
w hlch D erek W alcottns O m eros w eaves conn ectlon s betw een St Lu cla
an d th e an clen t M edlterran ean , of h ow O dysseu s n avlgates th e

l B loom 1975 33, see also B loom 1973

2 For a fu11 11st of translatlons of H om er publlsh ed m th e tw entleth cen tury see
You n g 2003
 (

2 B arbara G m zics; and F rrli/y G reenw ood

p o etry of th e Syrlan p oet A d on ls, or of lsm all K ad are's com p arlson s

b etw een A lb an lan an d H o m erlc ep lc.3
T h e secon d p roblem w lth B lo om 's vlslon lles w lth th e gen ealoglcal
m odel th at lt con stru cts: H om er ls prlm arlly vlew ed as an an cestor
w lth m any son s an d d augh ters.'l Y et on e cru clal con trlb u tlon of
H om erlc sch olarsh lp ln th e tw en tleth cen tury w as th e ln slsten ce
th at H om erlc p o etry co uld b e fru ltfully com p ared to ep lc tradltlon s
from dlfferent tlm es an d places: for exam ple, m odern Serbla an d
A lbanla, m edleval Japan : an d the an clent N ear E ast.5 C om paratlve
ap p ro ach es to ep lc h ave sh aken n o tlon s of a gen ealogy or h lerarchy
b etw een dlfferen t ep lc tradltlon s an d h ave d em on strated th at ep lc
ls n elth er dead n or fun dam en tally W estern . T h ese approach es h ave
been extrem ely lnfluentlal ln the academ lc study of H om er (no
con tem p orary classlclst can lgn ore th elr lm p act on th e u n d erstan d -
lng of early G reek eplc),butthelr lnfluence ls even greater than that:
th ey h ave ch allen ged tradltlon aln otlon s ofw h at llterature ls an d h ow
lt ls d on e.6 T h e rou tes th at H om er travelled ln th e tw en tleth cen tury
o u tm an oeuvred th e gran d n arratlves of llterary cn tlclsm . ln p lace of
B loom ns O edlp al m o d el of llterary lillatlon , th e stu dy of H om erlc
recep tlon s ln th e tw entleth century n eeds a m ore dlffu se an d h etero -
gen eous m odel.A s C harles Pollard h as argued ln a dlfferent context,
K
m odels of llterary ln fluen ce th at lsolate w rlters by geograp hy or
race or th at op p ose w rlters ln O edlp al struggles are slm p ly n ot
m u ltl-faceted en ou gh to d escrlb e th e tran scu ltu ral relatlon sh lp s
b etw een w rlters ln th e tw en tleth cen tury.n; P ollard 's statem en t

: For D erek W alcotfs engagem ent w lth H om er, see the essays ln D avls 1997: ,
H ardw lck 2000 C hs 6 an d 7,M artynlttk 2005,M elas 2005,as w ellas C hs 1,2,7,and
8 ln thls volum e O dysseus features ln Adonls's Songs of M thyar the D am ascene
(Aghant M thyar alD tm ashqt, lg6ll- French translatlon ln A donls 1982 K adare's
com p arlson s b etw een G reek an d A lb an lan ep lc are esp eclally pro m ln en t ln K ad are
1997, see also C h 5 ln thls vo lu m e
4 C om pare R obert Fow ler 2004 8 Q1n talktng about H om er,how ever,w e do w ell to
rem em b er h ow very h eterogeneou s and n u m erou s are th ose w h o w lsh to clalm h 1m as
partofthelr herltage,and to brlng as m any ofthese helrs lnto the conversatlon asw e can 7
5 A recen t exam ple o f th ls ap pro ach can b e fou n d ln Foley 2002,w h o offers a ftt11
blb llo grap hy of earller stud les See also th e collectlon of essays edlted by B elsslnger,
Tylu s, an d W o ffo rd 1999
6 See C h 5
7 P ollard 2004 22 P ollard 's stu dy exam m es seem m gly u nlikely relatio nsh ip s,
tran scu ltu ral, an d tran shlsto rlcal b o rrow ln gs b etw een E u rop ean m o dern lsm an d
w h at h e term s Qd lscrepan t cosm op olltan m od ern lsm s' See p 14
 Introductkon 3

certaln ly ap p lles to th e dlverslty o f H om erlc recep tlon s ln th e last

cen tury, w h ere com plex tran scultural relatlon shlp s w ere com bln ed
w lth tran sh lstorlcal on es.8
T h ls b ook exam ln es th e p lace of H om er ln th e last cen tury by
focuslng on som e fun dam en tal lssues w hlch sh ap ed b oth creatlve
an d sch olarly ap p ro ach es to H om erlc ep lc b u t w h lch h ave, so
far, largely escap ed cn tlcal en qulzy. O ur th esls ls th at shlfts ln th e
academ lc study of H om erlc eplc w ere p art of a m u ch broader
re-p o sltlon ln g of H om er ln th e cu ltu ral lan d scap e of th e tw en tleth
cen tu ry.For over tw o m lllen n la H om er h ad b een th e d ef n ln g auth or
of th e W estern hterary can on :Kto be llke H om er' generally lm plled a
p osltlve valu e Ju dgem en t, so th at h ls p o etry llterally b ecam e th e
K

m easurlng rodl kann ln G reek, agaln st w hlch the value of later

p oetry w as m easured . T h ls ls on e reason w hy th e suggestlon th at
H om erlc ep lc w as slm llar to m any, often oral, ep lc tradltlon s from
aroun d th e w orld proved to be exploslve. T h e an alogy betw een
H om erlc ep lc an d , for exam p le, ep lc trad ltlon s ln th e an clen t N ear
E ast or m o d ern A frlca w as p art of a larger sh lft aw ay from n arrow
n otlon s of th e W estern llterary can on an d tow ard s a bro ad er con -
ceptlon of w orld llterature.T h e term W elthteraturw as first coln ed by
G oeth e an d w as p art of h ls con cep tlon of h ow th e stu dy of llteratu re
w ould look ln th e future;hls term ls used today to ln clu de any w ork
w h lch Kclrcu lates ou t ln to a bro ad er w orld b eyon d lts lln gulstlc an d
culturalp olnt of orlglntg For sch olars of w orld llterature,orallty ls an
lm p ortan t lssu e. ln h ls recen t volu m e D ebatkng J'kb rlt;l L kteratu re, for
exam p le, C h rlstop h er P ren d ergast ob serves: Kln classlcal an tlqu lty ...
un derstan dln gs ofw rltlng an d readlng w ere h eavlly ln fluen ced by th e
oral.O n th e stan dard d efinltlon s,orallty falls outsld e th e scop e of th e
KKllterar/n.But,then,thls perforce excludes not only w hat has been
b ut w h at con tln u es to b e th e m o st w ld esp read form of verb al art ln
th e w orld .nlo It ls our con ten tlon th at tw entleth -cen tury p erceptlon s
of H om er w ere sh ap ed by a shlft of focus from the W estern

8 See D avls on D erek W alcotfs recyclln g of H om erlc arch etyp es, p 208 Qsu ch a
vlew p oln t carrles lm p llclt tran sh lstorlcal, as w ell as tran scu ltu ral ram lficatlon s '
9 D am rosch 2003 6
10 P ren d ergast 2004 p x
4 B arbara G m zitm and F rrlily G reenw ood

llterary can on to w orld llterature; b ut w e also belleve th at H om erlc

p oetry w as cru clal ln brln glng about th at shlft.
T h e collectlon as a w h ole sh ow s h ow acad em lc an d creatlve
approaches to H om er lntersected, lnfluenced, and m lsun derstood
on e another. lt explores how scholars attem pted to w ork out th e
relatlon sh lp b etw een H om erlc p o etry an d oth er ep lcs from m any
tlm es and places, an d sh ow s h ow n ovellsts, poets, playw rlghts, an d
lm -m akers establlsh ed a con n ectlon w lth H om en c eplc w hlle
slm ultan eo u sly a rm ln g th elr d lstan ce from lt.11
A t th e h eart of our lnvestlgatlon ls a ten slon b etw een app arently
con tradlctory approach es to H om er ln tw en tleth -cen tury culture.O n
th e on e h an d , th e H om erlc p oem s w ere accepted as th e E rst great
llterat'y w orks m a gen ealogy th at ln clud ed such auth ors as A p ollo -
n lus, V lrgll, L ucan , D an te, Tasso, Sp en ser, an d M llton . O n th e oth er
h and ,H om erlc eplc ln creaslngly cam e to b e vlew ed as on e ex am p le of
oral/tradltlon al p oett'y am ong m any oth ers, orlgln atln g from th e
m ost dlverse tlm es an d places.lz In thls w ay, H om er w as slm ultan -
eou sly vlew ed as th e m ost central auth or ofth e W estern llterary can on
an d seen as sh arln g fun dam en tal slm llarltles w lth a vast range of
p oem s th at w ere often deem ed n elth er llterary n or W estern . W e
could p erh ap s p ut lt llk e th ls: lf H om erlc ep lc w ere a C D : lt w ould
b e foun d both ln th e classlcal an d ln th e w orld m u slc sectlon s.W lthln
th e f eld of classlcal sch olarshlp, thls sltuatlon 1ed to a h eated d ebate
over th e correct m terp retation of th e H om erlc p oem s.T h e alm of th ls
collectlon,how ever,ls not to trace the genesls of an academ lc quarrel;
rath er, w e w lsh to explore the tenslon s an d connectlon s betw een
d lfferent con ceptlon s of H om er:and to lnvestlgate h ow th ese ten slon s

11 Settls (J004) m akes a dlstlnctlon betw een llnear hlstorles of classlcal art and
llteratu re,an d th e recent ten den cy to Juxtapose classlcal an d oth er elem en ts of w orld
ctllture w ltho ut posltln g a clear teleolop r, or h lstory of developm ent
12 See Ford 1997 396 (see also p 120) CTo callthe Iltad and the O dyssey Qoeplcs''
to day can evoke tw o qulte dlfferent sets of com p arab le w ozks T h e rst group ln g
w ould put H om er at the head of a W estern tradltlon of llterary eplc that runs from
A po llon lu s of R ho des th rough V lrp l,on to the R enalssan ce an d beyo nd T h e seco nd ,
w lth equ alJu stlce,w ou ld vlew H om erlc p oetry as on e lnstan ce of a type o f trad ltlonal
oraln arratlve to be foun d the w orld over,m clud lng cu ltures far o utslde th e ln flu ence
of th e W est Fo r all th elr d lvergence,these tw o classes of ''ep lc''are no t u nrelated th e
tradltlo nal o ral art em bodled ln H o m er w as, after ally w hat A rlstotle too k as h1s
exem plar w h en he lald th e groun dw ork for the theory of W estern eplc ln the P oettcs'
C f also B elssln ger, Tylusy and W o ffo rd 1999 l- 3
 In trod uctlon 5

p en raded n ot on ly academ lc dlsco urse l3 b ut also creatlve rew orkln gs

,

of H om erlc ep lc ln p o etry p rose llctlon , th eatre, an d film

, .

A n exploratlon of th ls ktnd m u st n ecessarlly confront som e

ch allenglng lssu es of m eth odology In p artlcular, th e con cep ts of
.

recep tlon an d tradltlon, w hlch are typ lcally used to dlscuss th e place
ofH o m er in th e t'w en tleth centu ry n eed careful scrutlny.ln th e 1930s
,
,

M llm an P arry argu ed th at th e H om erlc p oem s w ere essentlally dlffer -

en t from th e w orks of A p ollonlus or V lrgll an d rath er resem bled

,

th e eplcs p erform ed by llllterate b ards ln an area w h lch ls n ow dlvlded

b etw een Serbla, B osn la H erzegovln a an d K osovo/a l'l H ls com p ara-
.

tlve w ork revolutlonlzed th e academ lc study of H om er but th e ,

p ercep tlon of H om erlc ep lc as a text th at w as orlp n ally n ot a tex tn

d eE ned th e place of H om er w ell b eyon d academ lc clrcles A rtlsts .

asslm llated H om erlc ep lc ln to m any n on -can on lcal tradltlon s ro oted

ln oralp erform an ce:n otpust th e ep lcs of th e B alkan s b ut for exam p le,
,

(lrlsh) G aellc folk song, and the spontaneous lnventlveness of the

B lues.15 T h e ackn ow led gem ent th at H om erlc ep lc w as o rlgln ally: an
:
K
oral tex tn h as en co uraged tw en tleth -cen tury recep tlon s to cro ss
dlfferent gen res an d m edla ln th elr rew orklng of H om er T h ese .

asslm llatlons n ot only contrlb uted to destab lllzm g an d reallgnlng

th e W estern llterary can on , but also com pllcated th e n otlon of eplc
as a llterazy genre. H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tury th en , ls a go od
,

startln g p oln t for th lnkln g ab out eplc an d lts gen erlc tran sm utatlon s
,

for lnvestlgatln g ch allen ges to an d redeE m tlon s of, canon lcal lltera-
,

ture, an d for reflectln g on th e p olltlcs of readlng H om er .

T h e essays collected h ere stem from a conferen ce h eld ln

D urham from 20 to 23 July 2004.A ll contrlbutors took p art m th e
conferen ce an d thls book grow s dlrectly out of th e p ap ers an d
d lscu sslon s w e h ad th en V olum es of con feren ce p roceedlngs often
.

13 Fo r exam p ley m the last decad e,tw o sep arate C oAnp m son s fo f'lolvn cr have b een
p ubllsh ed The N ew C om p an lon to H om et edlted by 1 M orrls an d B P ow ell ln 1997
focu ses alm ost exclu sively on th e tech nlcal m tn cacles of o ral/t :
rad ltlonal po etry an d
o zl H o m erlc so clety B y co n trast T hc C fz///lvrll gr C om pan ton to H om er, edlted by
,
.

R ob ert F ow ler ln 2004, ad op ts a self co n sclou sly llterary app roach

, an d places th e
H om erlc poem s atthe beglnnlng ofa canon ofgreatm asterpleces (m ostly w rltten ln
Engllsh) The tenslon betw een the tw o Com pantonscan be gleaned from Pow ell2005
14 See Parry 197 1,4v1th C h l ln th e p resen t volu m e
15 O n th e tradltlo n s o f th e B alkan s see ln th ls volu m e G razlo sl C h 5, on G aellc
,

folk so n g see M artln , C h 3 th e B lues ls d lscu ssed by H ardw lck ln C h 2

,
6 B arbara G rflzitly; and F rrlily G reenw ood

ru n th e rlsk of b elng selectlve, or one-slded . T h at rlsk seem s esp e-

clally threatenln g for thls volum e, sln ce lt tackles a p oten tlally
ln finlte top lc: th e receptlon of H om er ln th e tw en tleth century.
L eavln g asld e th e rlch cultu ral and lln gu lstlc dlverslty of H om erlc
recep tlon s ln any glven cen tury, even w lthln a slngle lan guage an d
cultural tradltlon lt ls lm p osslble to w rlte a total,truly representatlve
receptlon hlstory of H om er (w hlch w ould lnclude the notlon of
H om er as a culturallcon,as w ellas the eplcs them selves).A lthough
surveys are p o sslble, an d catalogu es or arch lves of p u bllcatlon an d
p erfo rm an ce are a valu able reso u rce fo r recep tlo n stu d les, accum u -
latln g an lnven toty of recep tlon s w lll n ot result ln a sum -total or
com m on d en om ln ator of recep tlon s.
C o n sequ en tly, th e p resen t collectlon d o es n ot alm to p rovld e an
en cyclop aedlc survey of th e place of H om er ln tw en tleth -century
culture. In recen t years, som e dlscu sslon s of th e receptlon of
H om er h ave b een crltlclzed for tellln g a n arrow ly W estern , or
even A n glocen trlc story; w hlle oth ers h ave been b erated for tellln g
n o stot'y at a11.16 W e look at H om er ln a w lde range of places an d
questlon hls W estern ld entlty, but th e story w e tell ls stlll hlghly
selectlve. ln term s of m edla, w e d o n ot system atlcally dlscu ss th e
lm p act of H om er on tw en tleth -cen tury m u slc, n or d o w e ad dress
th e rew orkln g of H om erlc th em es an d m otlfs ln tw entleth -
cen tury art alth ough th e w ork of R om are B earden ls dlscu ssed ln
C hapter 2). The m alorlty of the chapters concern them selves w lth
lictlon , p o etry, an d , ln tw o cases, lilm . H ere, to o, th e alm ls n ot to
provlde an lnven tory of dlfferen t rew orklngs but rath er to offer
a selectlon of exam ples th at sh ed llght on th e cen tral con cern s of
th e collectlon .
W e d o n ot tackle h ead -on th e everyd ay recep tlon of H om er ln
p op ular culture. A s w e w rlte our Introdu ctlon , H om er ls belng
rew rltten ln Fan tasy Flctlon p ubllsh ed through llve Journ als on
th e W orld W ld e W eb .17 T h ese w rltln gs are h ard to assess as acts
of recep tlon . Slm llarly, H om er Slm p son ls n ot ln clu d ed ln th ls

16 R u th erfo rd 2006 Jind s th e hlsto ry of recep tlon o u tlln ed ln R obert Fow ler 2004
Qfirm ly A n glocen trlc', cf also Pow ell 2005 B lan chl 2005 crltlclzes N lcosla 2003 fo r
fallln g to o ffer any coh eren t vlew of H o m erlc receptlon
17 See M cE ld u ff 2006 l90
 Introductkon 7

volum e: hls n am e h as m ore to d o w lth th e genteel fashlon for

assum ln g G raeco -ltom an n am es ln ante-bellum A m erlca th an w lth
any dlrect en gagem en t w lth H om erlc ep lc.A s th e n arrator ln D erek
W alcottns O m eros says w h en h e ls confronted w lth th e m odern G reek
n am e for H om er, Kl-lom er an d V lrg are N ew E nglan d farm ersll8
Som e key lssues ralsed by H om er Slm p son an d th e W orld W ld e
W eb are, h ow ever, dlscu ssed ln th e collectlon : d lfferen t typ es of
cu ltural llteracy, th e exclu slven ess of th e W estern llterary can on , th e
artlstlc an d lnterpretatlve p osslbllltles op en ed up by tw entleth -
century technologles, and the pltfalls of recognlzlng (or lnventlng)
allu slon s.
W e tak e serlou sly th e p osltlon of soclologlsts an d reader-resp on se
crltlcs w h o deny th at th ere are prlvlleged receptlon s or th at th ere ls
a h lerarchy of au dlen ce resp on ses.lg w e also see th e valu e of grap h s,
m ap s, an d trees, as advo cated by M orettl,zo even lf ln th ls volu m e w e
seek to dlscu ss som e cru clal lssu es ln th e recep tlon of H om er ln th e
tw en tleth cen tu ty by relyln g on a n arrom an d ln som e w ays u n rep -
resen tatlve, set of exam p les.O ur focu s ls n ot ln ten d ed to con stru ct a
stralghtfotw ard hlerarchy betw een w h at w e ln clud e an d w h at w e do
n ot. B ecau se w e w lsh to exp lore th e con n ectlon s b etw een creatlve
an d acad em lc resp on ses to H om er, w e p rlvllege dlrect en gagem en ts
w lth th e H om erlc eplcs over th e m ore varled m anlfestatlon s of
H om er as a cultural lcon .Som e stu dles of recep tlon lnvolve sch olars
assessln g th e cultural value of creatlve rew orkln gs of classlcal lltera-
tu re: by con trast, w e w lsh to sh ow th at sch olarsh lp ls ltself p art of
recep tlon an d en gaged ln a w ld er cu ltu ral dlalogu e.zl
T h e essays ln th ls volum e lllu strate th at H om er h as travelled a
clrcultou s route ln th e tw entleth century. M any of th e tw entleth -
century Ktexts' (broadly construed) that are typlcally studled as
ln stan ces of H om erlc recep tlon are th em selves rlch sources for

18 O m eros 11111 (14)

19 Janet Stalger 1989 359,Creadlngs and vlew lngs that do not conform to verslons
recogn lzed b y th e academ y are n o less ''real'' or any less lm portant w lth ln a hlsto ry of
audlence con sum ptlon of llterary and film lc fictlon an d n on fictlon'
20 M o rettl 200 5
21 See M artln dale 199 1 46 Co ur cu rrent ln terpretatlon s of anclen t texts,w heth er
o r n ot w e are aw are of lt are,ln com p lex w ays,con stru cted by the ch aln o f recep tlo n s
throu gh w hlch th elr con tln ued readablllty over the cen turles has b een effected 7
8 B arbara G rfyzit?a and F rrli/y G reenw ood

oth er recep tlons of H om er. For exam ple, the artlst R om are B earden
u sed H om er as a referen ce p olnt ln hls O dyssey kst/ifr, an d w e th en
fin d D erek W alcott explaln ln g th e app eal of H om er through w h at
B eard en m ean s to h lm .22 Furth erm ore, w e th en lin d acad em lc p ub -
llcatlons uslng W alcott to explaln H om er.23 W alcott, Joyce, and
Seferls are all sources of m eanlngful lnterference ln the tw entleth -
cen tury receptlon of H om erlc ep lc. D ep en dlng on th e dlsclplln ary
orlentatlon of the reader, an d on w hat s/he has read, alluslon s to
Joyce m lght lead us to H om er os conversely, alluslon s to H om er
m lght lead us to Joyce. ln the clnem atography of A ngelopoulos,
dlscussed ln thls volum e by Fran olse L etoublon , an d ln th e m odern
G reek texts dlscu ssed by D avld R lcks, Seferls em erges as a key
tw en tleth -cen tu ry ln terp reter of H om er. ln fact, lt seem s en tlrely
ap p rop rlate, ln th e con text of th e recep tlon of H om er ln m o d ern
G reece after 1950, to sp eak of Kseferlsn H om e/ an d- ln th e early
decades of the twentleth century- of Kcavaf/s H om e/. ln such
con dltlon s, to look for the H om erlc Ksource' ls actually to look for
th e source from w hlch kn ow ledge of H om er ls draw n .A n d yet:ln th e
m ldst of th ese lm p ortan t m edlatlng con texts,th e auth orlty of H om er
as auth or fun ctlon perslsts. A s C harles M artln dale has argued, KW e
do n ot m erely lnterpret H om er by th e llgh t of our taste, sln ce th e
H om erlc p o em s h ave th em selves con trlb u ted to th e tran sform atlo n
of th at taste.724 T h ere are n o easy lln ear:ch ron ologlcaln arratlves to b e
told h ere. T h e artlstlc an d llterary context of th e tw en tleth century,
w hlch w e m lght use to explaln tren ds ln H om erlc scholarshlp,ls ltself
lm pllcated ln and lnform ed by that sch olarshlp .Several of the chap -
ters explore thls ln teractlon , reveallng h ow w rlters su ch as Yeats,
R ltsos, K adare, an d Logue take cues from H om erlc scholarshlp .
G lven th e sp ecl c focu s of thls volum e,lt m ay be u sefulfor readers
to b ear ln m ln d oth er recen t p ub llcatlon s th at dlscu ss th e recep tlon
of H om er ln th e tw entleth century.P. H .Young, T he P n nted H om er
(2003),endeavours to 11st allknow n edltlons and translatlons of the
Ihad an d th e O dyssey from an tlqulty to th e year 2000. G . Steln er,

22 w alcott 1997
23 For exam ple, W alcotfs O m eros sets the fram e and fttrnlsh es k ey m etaph ors
for C arol D ougherty's study of the 'ethn ographlc lm aglnatlon' of the O dyssey
(D ougherty 2001)
24 M artlndale 199 1 62, 1993 6
 Introd uch on 9

H om er irl Englksh (1996), as w ell as S. U nderw ood, Enghsh

Translatlons of H om er from George Chapm an to Chnstopher Logue
(1998/) can be used to lnvestlgate,m ore speclfcally,the lm pact of
translatlons of H om er ln the Engllsh-speaklng w orld.Boltanl (1994)
traces th e gure of O dysseus ln th e W estern llterary tradltlon . T h e
collectlon edlted by S.N lcosla, Ulksse neItempo'Ia m etafora irl
/ rllffl
(2003) com prlses over thlrty dlsparate essays on the receptlon of the
O dyssey ln th e last three m lllen nla an d ls p artlcularly valuable on
n eglected auth ors w rltln g ln ltallan and Sp anlsh .A recen t lssu e of th e
M agazkne t ifftrrfpirr d evotes a sub stan tlal sectlon sp eclf cally to th e
recep tlon of th e O dyssey ln th e tw entleth century.25 A n oth er collec-
tlon of slx essays edlted by A ndreas Luther (O dyssee-Rezeptkonen,
Frankfurt, 2005) offers an eclectlc lnslght lnto the receptlon of the
O dysseyl lt dlscusses th e use of typ e-scen es from th e O dyssey ln
R om an vlllas, th e questlon of an E gyptlan receptlon of th e O dyssey
th e E gure of Telem ach u s ln chlldren's llterature, an d th e O dyssey as a
flashpolnt for the tran slatlon of m oral norm s and confh cts ln film lc
adaptatlon s of eplc.J.P.H oloka h as recently edlted,translated, an d
com m ented on Slm on e W ellns fam ous essay on the 1had.16 O ther
stu dles explolt th e flexlble m edlum of electron lc on lln e databases,
w hlch allow for a llvlng archlve th at can be con tln u ally supplem en ted
ln resp on se to th e varlety of receptlon s en coun tered ln th e w orld .
T hls route ls exem pllf ed by th e excellen t database m alntaln ed by th e
O pen U nlverslty, w h lch docum ents tw entleth -cen tury receptlons of
H o m erlc p o etry, an d o f oth er texts an d lm ages of A n clen t G reece.27
A n oth er em plrlcalroute ls suggested by a research prolect carrled out
by N aolse M acsw eeney ln 2004:ln w hlch she analysed the responses
of vlsltors to an exhlbltlon at th e B rltlsh M u seum entltled K'l-roy
R etoldl w hlch w as tlm ed to colnclde w lth the release of the m ovle
Trcy.28 T h ls sam p lln g of llve con su m ers of H om erlc recep tlon , as
opposed to im plled or Kldealn audlences, lllustrates the p otentlal for

25 M agaztne L ttteratre, January 2004,lssue 327

26 See W ell,2003
27 T h e ftt11tltle of th e d atab ase ls Q'I'h e R eceptlon of th e Text and lm ages ofA n clent
G reece in late Tw en tleth C entury D ram a and Po etry u'l E n gllsh D atabase' http //
w wu,2 open ac A /classlcalstudles/G reee lays (last accessed A prll2006)
28 N aolse M acsw eeney presented the fin dlngs of her survey at the A G M of the
So clety fo r th e P rom o tlo n of H ellen lc Stu dles at th e ln stltu te o f C lasslcal Stu d les ln

London (1l June 2005)

 (

10 B arbara G m zitly; and F rrlily G reenw ood

a dlalogu e across dlfferent audlen ces, ln w hlch assum ptlon s can b e

ch allen ged an d revlsed .29
Even th ls brlef survey ofrecen t stu dles suggests th at th e recep tlon of
H om er allow s for m any dlfferen t ap p roach es.3o C onversely, th e
varlety of app roach es com pllcates th e questlon of w h at an act of
recep tlon m lght be. O n e lssu e th at n eeds to be con sldered ls th e
p erm eab le relatlon sh lp b etw een recep tlon stu d les an d stu dles of
allu slon an d lntertextu allty; an oth er ls th e qu estlon of h ow th e dls-
cou rse of recep tlon dlffers from th e w ell-establlsh ed stu dy of th e
classlcal tradltlon . ln b oth cases, an lm p ortan t dlstln ctlon seem s to
b e th at recep tlon stu d les cro ss p o etlcs w lth p olltlcs,forcln g acad em lc
com m u n ltles to foregro un d th e qu estlon of w h o sees th e allu slon s,or
ln w h ose lnterests th e ldea of a classlcal tradltlon ls b eln g w lelded .3l
A n oth er sou rce of com p lexlty ls th at th e very term ln ology of
recep tlon ls frelgh ted w lth p roblem atlc accen ts an d assum p tlon s. ln
th ls volu m e ln dlvld u al con trlbutors exp lore dlfferen t m od els of
recep tlon an d em p loy a bro ad sp ectrum of term ln ology to d escrlb e
th e p ro cess.W h at m any of th ese m o d els of recep tlon h ave ln com m on
ls th e m otlf of rep etltlon .T hls m otlf ls w rltten ln to receptlon by m any
of th e term s th at are u sed m ost frequen tly to descrlb e th e process
at w ork: rew rlte, rew ork revlse, retell, recover, recycle, revlvlfy,
ren oun ce, react, resp on d .A lth ough th ese verbs are u sed actlvely for
th e m o st p art, th e om n lp resen ce of th e Kren p refix suggests lteratlon ,
rep etltlon , an d secon d arln ess.
N otw lth stan dln g thls gen eral p oln t, th e term s u sed h ave dlfferen t
accen ts.P ostcolon lal sch olars h ave w earled of Krevlslonn as a descrlp -
tlon of th e w ays ln w h lch can on lcal texts h ave b een u sed an d relm a-
gln ed by w rlters w orkln g ln p o st-colon les, on th e gro u n d s th at th ls
assu m es kn ow ledge of w h at h as gon e b efore ln ord er to recogn lze or
d etect th e p resen ce of a revlslon .32 T h e lm p llcatlon th at a classlc,

29 See C arey 2005 167- 8,w h o- ln th e trad ltlon of P lerre B ou rd leu- advo cates a
tu rn ln arts research aw ay from th e Ju dgem en ts of crltlcs tow ard s em p lrlcal,h lstorlcal
stud les of aud len ces and read ershlp s
30 R A rm stro n g an d C D u e are cu rren tly ed ltln g a volu m e b ased on a con feren ce
entltled H om ertzon C oncep tualIn terrogattons CrlH om ertc Studtes,w hlch took place at
th e C en ter for H ellen lc Stu d les ln W ash ln gton ,D C ,ln 2005 T h e volu m e w 1llm ake an
ln terestlng contrlbu tlon to the study of H om erlc recep tlon
31 See G oldh lll, C h ll
32 M arx 200 4 92
 Introd uctkon 11

can on lcal w ork of llterature un d erlles a n ew w ork an d th at lt ls

ln tegral to th e ln terp retatlon of th ls w ork p erp etu ates w h at H om l
B h abh a h as d escrlb ed as Kth e u n equ al an d u n even forces of cu ltu ral
rep resen tatlon t33 H ow ever,w h lle Krevlslon nm lgh t seem to p rom ote a
hlerarchy ofknow ledge that ls founded on a grand archlve of (W est-
ern) culture, paradoxlcally lt also underm lnes thls archlve by chal-
len gln g an d op p o sln g can on lcal w orks. T h e revlslon ln qu estlon ls
n ot so m u ch a slm p le rew rltln p b u t a Kw rltln g b acknas form u lated by
p ostcolon lal th eory.34 R evlslon lm p lles lo okln g agaln an d E n dln g
w h at on e sees as ln ad equ ate.lt carrles ln lts w ak e a h ost of atten d an t
verbs, all w lth undertones of relectlon: rew rlte, rew ork and retell.
T h e p ro cess at w ork ls akln to recyclln p w h ere H om erlc p o etry an d
th e ep lc cycle are scram bled to create a n ew an d un fam lllar w ork w lth
recogn lzable m aterlal.35
A lon gsld e revlslon an d recyclln g, revlvlf catlon ls a term th at ls
som etlm es u sed of classlcal recep tlon s ln th e p resen t d ay brln gln g
th e p ast b ack to llfe.36 If tragedy w as a d eb ate w lth a H om erlc p ast
th at w as stlll allve ln A th en s ln th e fifth cen tury sc,37 w e m lgh t
w on d er w h en th ls p ast exp lres: ln R ep u bllcan R om e, ln B yzan tlum ,
ln R en alssan ce Floren ce, ln V lctorlan B rltaln , ln p o st-w ar G reece, ln
1960s P arls, to d ay, tom orrow ? A lth o ugh th e term Krevlvllicatlon n

% B h ab h a 1994 27 1, d lscu ssed ln G lkan dl 2004 94

34 T he p h rase Qthe em p lre w rltes b ack '- w h lch b ecam e a slogan fo r sub altern an d
p ostcolo n lal stu d les- orlgln ated ln th e tltle of an artlcle by Salm an R u shd le Q'I'h e
Em plre W rltes Back w lth a Vengeancel The Ttm es, 3 July 1982 C f also A shcroft,
G rlflith s, an d T lflin 1989
35 Fo r the lm age of ap prop rlatln g W estern can on lcal llteratu re by d lsm an tlln g an d
recycllng 1t,see M arx 2004 89 A tw ood'srecentnovelThePeneloptad (2005)lsa good
exam p le o f th e p ro cess Sh e focallzes h er sto ry throu gh P en elop e an d fixates o n
O dysseu 's h an gln g of tw elve of th elr m ald s, su ggestln g that Ql-lom er's O dyssey ls n o t
th e o n ly verslon o f th e story T h e story as to ld ln th e O dyssey d oesn 't h old w ater'
(pp xtv-xw l H er readlng runs parallelto academ lc scholarshlp,w hlch has long seen
troub lln g, su p pressed fem ale p lo ts ln H om er, cf K atz 199 1, Felson R u b ln 1994, an d
O 'G orm an 2006 O n A tw ood 's con testatlo n o f H o m er ln an earller n ovel, T he
H andm atd's Tale (1987),cf H ardw lck 2000 122-3 (p 63 below )
36 See e g Z alko an d L eon ard 2006 2 Cln stead of creatln g n ew gen ealogles, m any
fem ln lsts h ave ch osen to revlvlfy an clen t n arratlves to arm con tem po rary stru ggles'
T he m etaph or of revlvlficatlo n u n d erlles a forth com ln g volu m e of essays, ed lted by
Step hen H arrlson an d p rovlslon ally en tltled Qlwlvln g P resen ces' T h e volu m e ls b ased
o n a con feren ce h eld ln O xfbrd ln Sep tem ber 2005
57 See V ern an t an d W d al N aqu et 1988 33 on the Qd eb ate w lth a p ast th at ls stlll
allve' at th e heart of G reek tragedy
12 l flrlpflrfl G rflzlclsl (IJIJ F rrllly G rccrlw clt?l

m lgh t be used loosely of any receptlon ,lt m akes an lm pllclt clalm th at

th e p ast,or an elem en t of th e p ast,ls stlll allve.M yth lcalplots are often
brough t back to llfe so th at th ey m lght be confron ted an d revlsed .
T hls ls seen p artlcularly clearly w lth fem lnlst recep tlon s ofth e classlcs,
ln w hlch m etam orph osls ls a com m on trop e.38 In keep ln g w lth O vld,
p ast represen tatlon s p erslst an d survlve th e tran sform atlon lnto a n ew
form . H ow ever, th e brlngln g b ack to llfe of classlcal llteratu re ln
m odern form s creates lastln g ln terferen ce ln term s of h ow w e con -
celve of thls very llterature. Fllm , for exam ple, h as tran sform ed th e
w ay ln w hlch m odern readers envlsage an clent eplc: by n ow , th e
n otlon th at Kl-lom er ls cln em atlc' h as becom e a stan dard trop e of
sch olarsh lp .3g T h e con cept of classlcal receptlon ls sh ap ed by th e
shlftlng relatlon shlp betw een classlcs an d m odern m ed1a.40
D lfferen t n otlon s of tem p orallty also sh ap e th e p rocess of receptlon
an d n eed to b e tackled rlght at th e start of th e present volum e.W e h ave
already argued th at com paratlve approaches ch allenge llnear hlston es
of llterature. M ore gen erally, lt seem s th at current approach es to
H om er dlffer radlcally ln th elr treatm en t of tlm e. Som e academ lc
studles dlsplay a hlston clst blas,w hlch ls lm p atlent w lth the supp osed
lm plauslbllltles,ln accuracles,an d an achronlsm s of oth er acts of recep -
tlon . ln fact,hlston clst readlngs also lead to cn tlclsm of, an d dlssatls-
factlon w lth ,th e H om erlc eplcsth em selves,sln ce th ey too fallth e test of
hlstorlcal accuracy. From the poln t of vlew of th e earllest H om erlc
audlen ces, th e H om erlc eplcs w ere already set ln a dlstant p ast that
could be know n on ly w lth th e help of the M use.41V arlou s oth er m eans,
apartfrom dlrect dlalogue w lth the M u ses,can be u sed to brlng th e past
lnto the present:a focus on (contlngent) colncldence,z
iz the elllpsls of
tlm e,43 an d a rellan ce on th e p resen t ten se.For exam ple,ln h ls on goln g
verslon s of H om e/ s Ihads C hrlstoph er L ogu e u ses the vlvld present
ten se an d secon d-p erson addresses,w hlle at the sam e tlm e m edlatln g

's see R ow en a F ow ler 2006

39 Saun ders 1999 363, G reenw oo d, p l63 below
40 See G reenw oo d ,p p 154-6,an d G oldh ill,pp 259-6 1,267
41 See G razlo sl an d H aub old 2005 ch 2
42 O n co ln cld en ce, see e g R ow en a Fow ler's d escrlp tlon o f the rem o dellln g of
classcal m yth tn Joe Shapcotfs Qm ad cow 'persona ln term s of Qa happy colncldence
ln classlcalm yth and toplcalscandal'(2006 386)
4: See D avls, p 20 8
 Introd uctkon 13

th e dlstan ce betw een p ast an d present through m ultlple hlstorlcal

contexts ln clu dlng th e N apoleonlc W ars, the W orld W ars, an d th e
C old W ar.44 In Ellzabeth C ook's A chklles, the present ten se ls used
exten slvely, as seen ln h er retellln g of P rlam ns su pp llcatlon of A chllles
ln B ook 24 of th e Ihad:KB ut Prlam ls ttred an d craves a bed.A chllles'
guard goes 1.
1/.45 H ere too,how ever,the use of the present tense ls
fram ed by m edlatln g contexts, rem ln dlng the reader th at th e current
tale h as travelled a long and com pllcated ltlnerary to reach u s as
m od ern readers: a sup p lem en t called Kltelay' focallzes C ook's retellln g
of A chlllesn story through K eats's readlng of C h apm anns H om er.46
R esearch ln to H om erlc ep lc an d lts receptlon n eeds to p ay closer
atten tlon to th e tem p oralltles envlsaged ln th e tellln gs an d retellln gs.
Som e of th e m ost lnterestln g aven u es for research m ay start w lth th e
qu estlon of h ow read ers ln d lfferent h lstorlcal p erlod s m ake
con n ectlon s acro ss tlm e w h en th ey read .47
O n e vet'y recen t rew orkln g of H om erlc ep lc p o sltlon s ltself ln
relatlon to M odern lsm 's reuse of th e p ast to m ake sen se of th e
ch aos of th e presen t. D avld Farr ln trodu ces hls lirst volum e of
p lays, w hlch are all based on storles from th e can on of W estern
llterature w lth the explanatlon that,Kgthese playsl are allrew orklngs
of exlstlng storles, from th e an clent w orld of H om er to th e begln -
n ln gs of M o d ern lsm . l h ave b ecom e ln creasln gly ln terested ln
ad dresslng the turb ulen ce of our w orld through looklng at archetyp al
storles ln a n ew w ayt48 Far/ s statem en t allu d es to T . S. E llot's
form ulatlon of m yth as Ka w ay of con trolllng, of orderln p of glvln g
a sh ap e an d slgnlf can ce to th e lm m en se p an oram a of futlllty
an d an archy w h lch ls con tem p orary h lstory7.49 M o d ern lsm asserts a

44 O n L ogu e's m an lpu latlon Of ten se and h lstorlclty, see fttrth er G reenw ood ,
P P 16 8- 7 1
45 C ook 200 1 48
46 Fo r an excellent d lscu sslo n of C ook's poetlc novel, an d th e slgnlfican ce of the
Qlkela'attheend,seeZalko 2006 See also Hardwlck 2004 347,who com m entson
C ook s n arratlve m ethod and her avoldan ce of anach ronlsm
47 O n thls lssu e, see Z alko 2006 T h e p rob lem ls also d lscu ssed ln C h s l an d 2 of
the present volum e
48 Farr 2005 p v11 T he o ther sto rles th at Farr rew orks are D ostoevsky's C rtm e and
P untshm en t,T he N atlvlty of C hr1st,an d D lcken s's G reat Exp ecta ttons
49 E llo t 19754 l77 O n M od ernlsm 's preoccup atlon w lth m yth as a w ay of
com prehendlng hlstory (T S Ellot's Qm ythlcal m ethod'), see Zalko 2004 314-15,
an d R ow en a Fow ler 2006 382 See also M artin m th ys vo lu m e, p 76 , :! 5
14 B arbara G rfkzitls; and F rrlify G reenw ood

dyn am lc relatlon shlp ln w hlch a dlstant p ast n ds m ean lng through

con tact w lth th e presen t,w hlle th e present- too close for com fort-
ls glven m eanm g th rough storles from the past.By now ,M odern lsm
ls ltself outm oded,an d often evokes th e kln d s of cultural ch auvlnlsm
assoclated w lth the Kc lasslcal Tradltlonn. Yet lt seem s to u s that the
m ovem ent also h ad an un d en lable stak e ln tw orld llterature: ln
th e broadest sen se of th e term .50 O n th e on e h an d, M odernlsm fed
ln to p ostcolon lal llterature- leadln g to w h at C h arles Pollard h as
called a Kdlscrep an t cosm op olltan m odern lsm n;on th e oth es lt repre-
sen ted a ch allen ge to th e tradltlon al valu es o f E urop ean culture.sl
T hls broadenlng out m ay som etlm es have taken the form of p rlm l-
tlvlsm an d exotlclsm , but lt lntroduced tw o-w ay connectlon s be-
tw een cultures th at raclal m yth s h ad ln slsted on sep aratlnp or h ad
con iin ed to a h lerarchy.T h e place of H om er ln th e tw entleth century
m u st, w e b elleve, be un derstood as p art of thls gradu al eroslon of
E u rop ens cu ltu ral lsolatlon .
T he presentvolum e explores th e conn ectlons and ten slon sb etw een
dlfferen t p ercep tlon s of H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tury, an d sh ow s
h ow H om erlc p o etry h as p layed a cen tral role ln th e evolutlon of
con cepts su ch as tradltlon ,receptlon ,llterature,orallty,an d eplc.P art
l of ln thls volum e,fplaclng H om er ln the Tw entleth C enturyl offers
an m trodu ction to these concepts and provldes a theoretlcal
fram ew ork for the rest of th e collectlon . P art ll, Ksch olarshlp and
Flctlonl lnvestlgates the connectlons betw een academ lc and creatlve
readlngs, an d explores th e w ays ln w h lch b oth contrlb uted to radlcal
redefnltlons ofllterature.Part111,tD lstance and G enrells speclfcally
con cern ed w lth th e p roblem s of readln g H om er from a dlstan ce an d
lnvestlgates the w ays ln w hlch such problem s affect ch olces of form
and genre.Flnally, Part IM 'Polltlcs and Interpretatlonl lnvestlgates
the polltlcal and soclologlcal lm pllcatlons of readlng H om er ln th e
tw en tleth cen tu ry.
A s th e qu otatlon from B lo om w lth w h lch w e b egan sh ow s,H om er
h as often b een seen as th e an cestor of a llterary tradltlon th at

50 O n the concept of Qw orld llteraturel see Prendergast 2004

51 Pollard 2004 15 O n the provocatlve overturnlng of tradltlonalvalues ln Jam es
Joyce's U lysses,see M lnta,p l19
 Introd uctkon 15

grew an d exp an d ed con tln u o u sly, llke a fam lly tree M etaph ors of
.

tradltlon often evoke th e organ lc an d ln exorable grow th of n ature ,

b ut m ore vlolen t an d p urp oseful m etaph ors are also p osslble:

H om e/s poetry can be Kyanked out of lts hldey-holel as M lchael
L on gley p uts lt,an d radlcally Juxtap osed w lth experlences con sldered
forelgn to 1t.52 T h e essays ln thls volum e explore w h at ls at stake ln
p osltln g con tln u ltles an d rup tures. C on trlbu tors lnvestlgate h ow
n ovellsts, sch olars, p oets, playw rlghts an d E lm -m akers p osltlon
,

th em selves ln relatlon to H om er h ow read ers read an d d o n ot read

,

allu slon s, an d h ow ln stltutlon al con texts affect th e place of H om erlc

ep lc ln tw en tleth -cen tu ty culture. T h e collectlon as a w h ole, ls
,

ln ten ded n ot on ly for classlclsts b ut also for stu den ts of com p aratlve
llterature, p ostcolonlal stu dles, an d cultural hlstory lts m aln alm ls
.

to offer a theoretlcal fram ew ork w lthln w hlch to sltuate H om er ln

tw entleth -century culture,to p rovlde a gulde to th e slgm f can t blbll-
ograp hy, an d to stlm ulate research ln to m any areas th at d eserve an d
w ould rew ard furth er lnvestlgatlon .

P A R T 1. P L A C IN G H O M E R IN T H E
T W E N T IE T H C E N T U R Y

T hls lirst sectlon addresses a problem th at vexes m any receptlon

stu dles of classlcal auth ors. lt ls certaln ly tru e to say that m th e ,

course of th e tw entleth cen tury,H om erlc p oetry ln creasln gly becam e

p art of w orld llterature, an d th at th ls p ro cess ch allen ged an d
redef n ed th e conf n es of th e W estern can on T h e qu estlon ls w h at
.

w e sh ould m ake of thls fact. C lasslclsts ourselves ln cluded, often

,

m ake th e rev1slon lst clalm th at th e G reek an d R om an w ork s ln th e

W estern can on w ere alw ays un can on lcalan d cou n tercultural ln deed,
.

ln the second halfofthe tw entleth century (speclfcally ln the 1980s),

sch olars ln all dlsclplln es w ere turn ln g to th e p aradox th at th e w orks
ln th e can on are n ecessarlly cou n tercan on lcal lf w h at ls m ean t by
,

th e Kcan onn ls th e ldea of a n orm atlve tradltlon of great texts .

52 M Longley,el-lom er's O ctopus'ln The G hostO rchtd (1995) See H ardw lck,p 56
below
16 B arbara G rfkz/tls; and Frrlily G rccnw tlt)cl

A s D om lnlck L ac apra h as w rltten : K'fh e m ore ch allengln g an d : at

tlm es,dlscon certlng text seem s to rew rlte th e genre or to take part m
a contm ual foundln g an d alterlng of expectatlon s. T he apparen t
p aradox ls that texts halled as p erfectlons of a genre or a dlscurslve
p ractlce m ay also test an d contest 1ts llm lts.753
T h e dan ger h ere ls a repllcatlon , w lth subtle dlfferen ces, of p re-
clsely the ktnd of cultural ch auvlnlsm th at cn tlcs of can onlcal lltera-
ture alm ed to contest. lf evety n ew culture th at com es lnto contact
w lth a can on lcalw ork an d reads lt ln un can on lcalw ays ls foun d to b e
ech oln g w h at w as already th ere,th en th e w ork m qu estion becom es
lnvested w lth quasl-lm pen al status.In thls w ay,receptlon studles,for
all th at th ey are ln tend ed to free up read ers to read texts on th elr ow n
term s,ln fact run th e rlsk of conf rm lng w h at th e m ost con servatlve
of classlclsts h ave alw ays clalm ed: that H om eric p oetry is an in ex-
haustlble source ofln splratlon an d ln slght.T he rst tw o essays ln th e
collectlon tackle thls p oten tlal p arad ox of receptlon stu dles from
dlfferent, but com plem en taty an gles.
Johannes H aubold begm s w lth an lnvestlgatlon of the w ork of
M llm an P arry an d suggests th at h ls approach to H om erlc ep lc
radlcally questloned dom ln ant n otlon s of orlgln allty, authorshlp,
an d llterary h lstot'y.H e lnvestlgates som e un resolved ten slon s w lth ln
Parryns w ork and show s how th ose ten slon s dom lnated subsequent
ap proach es to H om er ln th e tw entleth cen tury. O n th e on e h and ,
H om erlc eplc w as th ough t to belon g to th e w orld of tradltlon al
poetry (a type of poetry w hlch w as concelved as tlm elessl ln m ore
than one sense); on the other, H om er w as placed Erm ly w lthln a
lln ear h lstory of W estern llterature.H aub old suggests th at n otlon s of
tradltlon an d recep tlon n eed to be lnvestlgated ln relatlon to on e
an oth er.M odels of tradltlon allty are n ow begln nln g to accom m odate
m any ph en om en a w lu ch Parry assoclated excluslvely w lth th e great
auth ors of the W estern llterary can on ,such as A pollonlus an d V lrgll.
lnn ovatlon , selectlvlty, an d careful negotlatlons w lth other texts
are also m anlfest ln tradltlon al p oetry. C onversely, P arry's n otlon s
of tradltlonal p oetry can b e u sed to ch allen ge llnear con ceptlon s of
llterary h lstory,so th at H om erlc ep lc ls n ot seen slm p ly as th e so urce
for later acts of receptlon . T hls suggestlon ls lm p ortan t for th e

,: L ac ap ra l9 ss 140- 1
 Introd uctkon 17

ln terp retatlon of m any tw en tleth -cen tu ty au th ors, n ot least D erek

W alcott, an d ls taken up m th e secon d ch ap ter.
L orn a H ardw lck qu estlon s lln ear m odels of receptlon by reflectln g
on creatlve en gagem en ts w lth H om erlc p o etty ln th e tw en tleth
cen tury.M any of th e m ost successful creatlve adaptatlon s of H om er
h ave been preoccupled w lth th e qu estlon of roots. T h us, w hlle
classlclsts ln E urop e an d A m erlca are n ow llkely to dlstan ce th em -
selves from gen ealoglcal an d blologlcal m odels of llterary hlstory ln
th elr p ubllsh ed sch olarsh lp , creatlve acts of receptlon h ave kept
th e lssu e of gen ealogy on th e agen da.54 A galn st th e m odel of H om er
as a n atlon less, stateless, an d colourless bard , w orks such as D erek
W alcotfs O m eros (1990), or The O dyssey'A Stage Versw n (1993)
ralsed th e questlon of th e Kcolou/ of H om er even w h lle th ey w rested
H om erlc ep lc aw ay from an exclu slvely E urop ean tradltlon .H ardw lck
d lscu sses th e th em e of ro ots an d ro otlessn ess ln several tw en tleth -
cen tu ry w ork s an d argu es th at th ey suggest com plex m o d els of recep -
tlon th at d efy exlstln g n otlon s of th e bro ad cultu ral slgn lf can ce
of H om er, and m ove aw ay from the danger of eternal regresstlon)
ln receptlon studles.A ccordlng to H ardw lck the practlce ofrecelvlng
H om erlc eplc ln th e tw en tleth century ls ah ead of th e th eory. T hls
ln slgh t ls reln forced by m an y o th er con trlb u tors, w h o suggest th at
th e m od el of Kreceptlonn ls n ot en tlrely adequate to exp laln th e
com pllcated , crlss-crosslng dlalogu es b etw een H om erlc eplc and
tw entleth -century culture.

P A R T II. S C H O L A R S H IP A N D F IC T IO N

T h e secon d sectlon lnvestlgates th e con n ectlon s an d ten slon s

b etw een app roach es to H om er ln sch olarshlp an d ln E ctlon . A galn ,
questlon s of lnfluen ce an d orlgln allty qulckly em erge. A t th e m ost
b aslc level: on e m ay ask w h eth er sch olars lnfluen ced w rlters or vlce
versa; b ut, ln reallty, p attern s of ln teractlon w ere far m ore com p lex.

54 See Sald 1991 16-24, and ch 5 (CO n Repetltlon') for dlscusslon of fillatlon,
affiltatton ,and genealo p calm odels m ltterary crtttctsm O n the p otenttally dtstu rb m g
overton es of genealoglcal and b lologlcal m od els ln genre th eory, see th e excellen t
dlscusslon by Barchlesl (2001)
18 B arbara G rflzftu f and l'rf7l/y G reenw ood

A 11 th e ch apters ln thls sectlon sh ow th at th ere are n o easy, lln ear

n arratlves to be told h ere. T h e artlstlc and llterary contexts of th e
tw entleth century,w h lch w e m lght u se to Kexp lalnntren ds ln H om erlc
sch olarshlp, w ere th em selves lm pllcated ln , an d ln form ed by, thls
sch olarsh lp .
R lch ard M artln's essay tells an altern atlve stot'y about H om er
am ong th e In sh by focuslng not on Jam es Joyce,but on the dram atlst
John M lllm gton Synge and the scholar G eorge D erw ent T hom son .lt
ls a story th at offers a com p elllng vlew of h ow H om er w as recelved,
represen ted , an d rem ad e ln th e early tw entleth century an d sh ed s
llght on som e p ow erful altern atlve ap proach es to H om erlc p oetry to
the fam ous m ythlc m ethod of poyce an d other m odernlst w rlters.
M artln argu es th at Syn ge's an d T h om son's con sclou sn ess of H om er
w as sh ap ed by th elr exten d ed vlslts to th e A ran Islan ds an d th e
B lasket lslan ds resp ectlvely. H ow ever, h e also argu es th at H om erlc
p oetry affected th elr d escrlptlon s of contem p orary lrlsh p eople llvln g
on th ose lslan d s. B y dlscusslng h ow an clen t G reece w as lm p orted
ln to m od ern lreland , an d h ow ln turn lreland w as exp orted lnto
H om erlc eplc, M artln offers a n uan ced plcture of th e conn ectlon s
an d dlfferen ces betw een plap vn gh t an d sch olar.
ln M artln's essay, H om er rem aln s h ldden - even supp ressed-
b ehln d referen ces to Kold ; cu stom s an d p oem s, so th at hls presen ce
on th e lrlsh lslan d s em erges ln p art from a reflectlon on tlm e an d
tlm elessness. ln Jam es Joyce's U lysses, there ls no such retlcence
about H om erlc preceden ts: th e n ovel ls expllcltly con structed as a
rew ork ln g of O dyssean eplsod es;yet lt too establlsh es a com pllcated
relatlon shlp w lth th e H om erlc p ast. ln C h apter 4, Steph en M ln ta
Juxtap oses th e en co un ter b etw een O dysseus an d N au slcaa ln th e
O dyssey w lth th at b etw een L eop old B loom an d G erty M acdow ell ln
U lysses. H e em ph aslzes th e sexual an d llngulstlc am blgultles of 170th
texts an d contrasts th em w lth sanltlzed readlngs of th e O dyssey su ch
as a V lctorlan p oem by M ortlm er C ollln s, w h ere O dysseu s an d
N auslcaa are presen ted as slm ple p aradlgm s of w lsdom an d ch astlty.
loyce's know ledge of th e O dyssey d epends on nln eteenth -century
verslon s, an d th ese are rep eatedly evoked ln th e n ovel: th e op enln g
p aragraph s of th e N auslcaa eplsode, for exam p le, read llke a bad
V lcton an n ovel m tent on subllm atlng sexual deslre. Joyce's U lysses
exp oses th e m oral blln d -sp ots ln prlor receptlon s of th e O dyssey
 Introductkon 19

and lnitlates the rehabllltatlon of O dysseu's subtle character (his

artlstlc hom ecom lnp as lt w ere) ln tw entleth-century receptlons.
T he result,for us,ls that Joycens readlng of H om er n o longer seem s
radlcal: th e sex u al an d lln gulstlc am blgu ltles of O dyssey 6 are so
w ldely recognlzed ln curren t scholarshlp that Joycens readlng seem s
closer to H om er th an th e V lctorlan verslon s on w hlch h e relled .
T h e last ch apter ln th ls sectlon also explores a n ltles across tlm e
an d sp ace,th ls tlm e by lo okln g at th e en co un ter b etw een th e sch olar
A lb ert L ord , P arryns m o st ln flu en tlal collab orator, an d th e A lb an lan
n ovellst an d p o et lsm all K ad are.B arb ara G razlo sl traces som e of th e
w ays ln w hlch th e w ork of P arry an d L ord ln sp lred K adare's n ovel
D osla H through 1ts dlfferen t A lban lan , Fren ch , an d E ngllsh ln car-
n atlon s. lt tnvestlgates so m e w llfu l m lsu n d erstan d ln gs b etw een
scholar and w rlter (m ostly about the lm pact of Serblan eplc on the
study of H om er), and suggests that K adare perform ed a careful
b alan clng act through hls engagem en t w lth th e w ork of P arry an d
L ord . O n th e on e h an d, h e used lt to byp ass m ost of th e hlstory of
W estern llteratu re, th u s p o sltln g a dlrect con n ectlon b etw een A lb a-
nlan an d H om erlc eplc.O n the othes that very conn ectlon w as then
u sed to ln scrlb e K ad are's ow n w ork w lth ln m aln stream E u rop ean
llteratu re. K ad arens p osltlon resem bles th at of several sch olars w h o
h ave draw n on th e w ork of P arry an d L ord an d argu ed for th e
exlsten ce of ep lc p o etry ln several p arts of th e w orld , p artlcularly
sub-saharan A frlca. The so-called A frlcan eplc controversyl llke
K adare's D osla f-t qu estlon s and redefn es th e n otlon of llterature
by su ggestln g con n ectlon s an d an alogles acro ss tlm e an d sp ace.

P A R T lll . D IS T A N C E A N D G E N R E

C ontrastlng def nltlon s of eplc as a genre h ave con stantly shlfted th e

p lace of H om er ln th e cultural lan dscap e of th e tw entleth cen tury.55
A s often , th e acad em lc d ebate relates to bro ad er m ovem en ts ln th e

55 c f Ford 1997,quoted ln n l2,Foley 2004,M artln 2005,an d C hs l an d 5 ln the

p resent volum e For a general dlscu sslon o f gen re ln classlcal scho larsh lp see B rau n d
200 1
20 B arbara G m zitly; and F rrlily G reenw ood

recep tlon of H om er. T h e essays ln th ls sectlon sh ow h ow w rlters,

p oets an d E lm -m akers h ave w orked closely w lth som e def nln g feat-
ures of eplc and m lxed th em w lth oth er form s an d gen res: ln ord er
to m easure th elr dlstan ce from H om er.
ln C h ap ter 6, E m lly G reenw o od exp lores th e lssu es lnvolved ln
readlng H om er from a dlstan ce by focu slng on C hrlstoph er L ogu e's
on goln g ad ap tatlon s of th e Ihad, w h lch draw on m o d ern tech n olo -
gles, contem p orary cultu ral references: and th e full tradltlon of
E n gllsh llterature ln ord er to m ed late th e forelgn n ess of H om er for
m odern readers. ln keepln g w lth th e focu s on th e dlalogue b etw een
E ctlon an d sch olarsh lp ln p revlou s essays, G reenw ood argu es th at,
for all lts dlstan ce from H om er, L ogu e's J'Uflr M uskc conveys m any of
th e dlstln ctlve features of H om erlc eplc ln equlvalen t term s, an d
reflects m any of th e sh lfts th at took place ln H om erlc sch olarsh lp
ln th e N en tleth cen tury. T h e relatlon shlp w lth sch olarshlp ls, h ow -
ever, n ot alw ays harm onlous. Judgem ents about Logue's H om er ln
academ lc crltlclsm ten d to crltlclze th e falth fuln ess of L ogu e's adap -
tatlon s, dem on stratlng E llzabeth Sh een ns observatlon th at Kfidellty
crltlclsm ls p erh ap s m ost approprlately seen as a rh etorlc of p osses-
s 1o n 7 56 G reenw ood's dlscu sslon suggests th e p oten tlal for tw o -w ay
.

readlngs th at hlghllgh t th e H om erlc ln L ogue an d th e L ogu e ln

H o m er, ln so far as C h rlstop h er L ogu ens W f
'lr M tfsfc h as b egu n to
feed b ack ln to th e receptlon an d ln terpretatlon of H om er.
O llver Taplln tackles the toplc of dlstance and (dlslslm llarlty by
look lng sp ecliically at th e lm p act of H om erlc slm lles on th e p oetry of
M lch ael L on gley, C h rlstop h er L ogu e, an d D erek W alcott.Slm lles are
am on g th e m ost m em orab le featu res of H om erlc ep lc:T ap lln argu es
th at th elr expresslve force derlves as m uch from th elr dlsslm llarlty to
th e m aln n arratlve as from th e p arallels th ey suggest. L ogue an d
L on gley explolt thls asp ect of th e H om erlc slm lle ln ord er to express
th elr dlfferen ce from , as w ell as th elr a n lty w lth , H om er. T h e
H om erlc slm lle ls th u s used to m ap th e dlstan ce betw een H om erlc
ep lc and tw entleth -cen tury p oetry.
T h e n ext tw o ch apters lllustrate h ow an oth er def n ln g feature
of eplc p oetry, th e katabasks or descent lnto th e un detw old, ls u sed
to explore th e relatlon sh lp betw een tw entleth -centu ry exp erlen ce

56 Sh een 2000 3, see p l50 below w lth n 15

 Introd uctkon 21

an d H om erlc p oetry. ln C h apter 8 G regson D avls dlscusses th e

ad aptatlon of th e m otlf of katabasks ln A lm e C esalre's C ahw r d 'un
rcfptfrfltfpaysrlflffll(1939/47)and ln a shortpoem by D erek W alcott,
Kl-lom ecom lng:A nse La R aye' (1969).57 H e lnvestlgates w hat lt m ay
m ean to return h om e ln a p ostcolonlal con text an d sh ow s h ow th at
return ls conf gured slm ultan eously as a hom ecom lng and an lnfer-
n al Journ ey. ln th e p oem s, th e m otlf of katabasv also hlnts at th e
ten slon betw een llvlng tradltlons an d th e cultural deadw elght of p ast
clvlllzatlon s, ralsln g th e qu estlon of w h eth er H om er llves, or ls
a gh ostly presen ce. D avls sh ow s h ow C esalre an d W alcott m oblllze
som e fun dam en tal conven tlon s ln th e tradltlon of E urop ean ep lc,
ln cludlng the ldea of th e W estns cultural possesslon of H om er,w hlle
at th e sam e tlm e explorlng w h at an Keplc of th e dlsp ossessedn m lght
lo ok llke.58
ln C h ap ter 9, Fran olse L eto u blon lo ok s at th e th em e of katabasts
ln tw o recent E lm s by A n gelop oulos.ln U lysses'G flzc th e p rotagonlst,
a G reek -A m en can lilm dlrector kn ow n on ly by h ls ln ltlalA .,w an ts to
track dow n three film reels sh ot by th e M an akls broth ers at th e
b eglnnln g of th e tw entleth century. Sln ce the orlglns of film , th e
lirst Kgazel are to be found ln the B alkans,the dlrector travels from
G reece through w ar-torn Yugoslavla, In order to fin d the key to hls
ow n past (and future).ln the course ofhlsJourney,dlfferent vlslons
of th e p ast clash an d converge, su ggestln g a com p lex n etw ork of
repetltlon s, m em orles, docum en tazy evldence an d, ultlm ately, an
lm p resslon of clrcularlty. L eto ub lon go es on to sh ow h ow E tern kty
JrIJ O ne D ay rew ork s m any elem en ts of katabasks already presen t ln
U lysses'G aze an d, bulldlng on p revlou s w ork sh e p ubllsh ed togeth er
w lth C . E ad es an d S. R ollet, argu es th at A n gelop o ulo s d o es n ot
slm p ly ap p ro ach H o m er th ro u gh th e W estern llterary trad ltlo n ,b u t
also develop s a lilm lc ldlom of rep eated typ lcal scen es an d form ulas
w hlch closely resem bles th e tradltlon al langu age of H om er. T h e
argu m ent h ere ls n ot th at A n gelop oulosns w ork ls sh ap ed by H om erlc
stu dles of form ulas an d typ e scen es, b ut rath er th at h e reads H om er
llke sch olars ln terested ln th e tradltlon al p o etry of th e B alkan s.

57 A firstverslon of Cesalre's Cahterw as publlshed ln the Journal Volontes (Par1s)

ln 1939, the poem s w ere first pub llshed ln bo ok form ln N ew York ln 1947
58 T he ph rase ls taken from the tltle of H am n er 1997
22 B arbara G rflzit?s and F rrlily G reenw ood

T h e essay sh ow s h ow A n gelop oulos's katabasks deties lln ear n otlon s

of tlm e an d h lstory.

P A R T lV . P O L IT IC S A N D IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

R eadlng H om er from a dlstan ce lnvolves careful self-p osltlonlng.

W e saw ln Part lll h ow th e form s an d conventlons of tradltlon al
ep lc w ere used to m ap th e dlstan ce betw een H om er an d tw entleth -
cen tury exp en en ce as deplcted by n ovellsts, p oets, and lilm -m akers.
T hls process of self-posltlonlng ln relatlon to H om er also h as
lm p ortant p olltlcal: cultu ral: an d soclologlcal lm p llcatlon s, w h lch
are th e focus of our last sectlon . C h ap ter 10 looks at th e recep tlon
of H om er durln g th e G reek C lvllW ar of 1946-9 an d sh ow s h ow th at
con fh ct preven ted stralghtforw ard asslm llatlon s of H om erlc p oetry.
Chapter 11 dlscusses the culturalpolltlcs of recognlzlng (or lnvent-
lng) alluslons to H om er ln two late tw entleth -century Elm s:N aked
an d O B rothez J'kr/lprrA rt T hou? Fln ally, C h apter 12 sh ow s h ow an
an alysls of ln stltutlon al con texts can sh ed llgh t on th e recep tlon of
H o m er.
Slm llarly to the last ch apter ln Part 111, the rst essay ln P art IV
dlscusses th e problem s of n egotlatm g on p n s ln a m odern G reek
context;h ow ever, m th ls case,th e lnvestlgatlon focu ses on an earller
p erlod of con fh ct: 1946- 9. D avld R lcks sh ow s h ow p oets dlstan ced
them selves from H om er,or approach ed H om erfrom a dlstan ce,ln th e
context of th e G reek C lvll W ar. :1 learned m y H om er ln A lbanlan
clalm ed Z lsslm os L orenzatos,w h lle,ln th e late 1950s,A rlsA lexan drou
w arn ed readers about th e dan gers of tran slatln g H om er ln to
th e p resent d ay.T h e lssu e:h ere:ls w h eth er on e can escap e th e rep etl-
tlon s of hlstory,an d of th e llteraty tradltlon .P oets slgn al th elr acts of
rep etltlon an d at th e sam e tlm e express a yearnlng for dlfferen ce- tb at
thlngs w lll som ehow be dlfferent (as ln R ltzosns Repetktw ns, also
dlscussed ln thls chapter), and that the dlstance travelled from
H om er m ay actually m ean som ethln g.
T h e n ext essay tackles th e problem of dlfferen ce from an oth er
perspectlve: that of lilm au dlen ces vlew lng O B rotherj J'krk rp A rt
Thou(2000) by the C oen Brothers,and M lke Lelgh's N aketl(1993).
 Introd uctkon 23

Slm on G oldh lllasks w h eth er H om eric allusion s m atter,and to w h om .

C lasslclsts are lm pllcated ln con fh ctln g cultural p olltlcs ln term s of
th e w ay m w h lch th ey grade alluslon s.To glve a sp eclE c exam ple:w h at
m akes W alcottns *O -m cr-os'59 a classler p un th an L elghns Kl-lom oph o -
bicn (H om erphoblcl?6o The very dlsclpllne of Kclasslcs' has lts ow n
com plex relatlon shlp w lth lssues of class: th e n am e of th e dlsclplln e
d erlves ultlm ately from th e L atln adlectlve clflssfctfs w h lch orlglnally
referred to som eon e from th e h lgh est of th e live R om an classes.6l
G oldh lll exam ln es th e lm pllclt cultural p olltlcs of th ese E lm lc recep -
tlon s of th e O dyssey as w ell as th e p ow erful m ythlcal structures th at
H o m erlc ep lc co ntln u es to assert over artlstlc rep resentatlo n s of
m o d ern exp erlen ce.
T he E nal ch apter: by Seth Sch elm offers an expllclt dlscusslon of a
qu estlon th at reverberates through out thls volum e:h ow lnstltutlon al
contexts affect th e readlng of H om er.ln partlcular, Scheln focuses on
th e p olltlcs of teachlng H om er ln KG reat B ooks' courses at N orth
A m erlcan um versltles. A lthou gh th e oth er chapters ln thls volum e
dlscuss free (and loose), creatlve tw entleth-centuty receptlons, they
fin d ln them slgnlf cant dlalogu es w lth H om erlc eplc th at reflect an d
elucldate ten slon s ln th e p oem snvalue system s an d p oetlcs.C onversely
an d p aradoxlcally, Sch elnns stu dy of th e acad em lc receptlon of
H om er as lnstltutlon allzed ln KG reat B ooks' courses exp oses a fashlon
for on e-dlm en slon al approaches h am p ered by an overt presentlst
fram lng. H ls essay questlon s n arratlves of W estern ldentlty an d
culturalprogress an d sh ow s how the H om erlc p oem s w ere som etlm es
m ade to volce th ose n arratlves on N orth A m erlcan cam p uses.
T aken togeth er,th e essays ln th e last sectlon lnvlte u s to lo cate th e
h lstorlcal, cultural, an d ln stltutlon al con texts th at h ave sh ap ed our
ow n receptlon of H om er.M any of th e contrlbutors ln thls collectlon
are classlclsts an d all w ork as acad em lcs ln th e U n lted K ln gd om ,
Fran ce,or th e U n lted States;som e h ave exp erlen ced th e dlff cultles of
n egotlatln g dlvergent cultural h erltages ln th elr ow n llves. T h ese

59 Q uoted by H aubold at p 45 For dlscusslons of thls etym ologlcal pun, see

D ou gh erty 1997 336, and M elas 2005 158-61
60 See G oldh lll, p 249 C f also P orter 20044 324 on th e place of H om er ln th e
cu ltu re w ars of an tlqu lty an d m o dern lty
61 See Sch eln 1999 288 for dlscusslon
24 B arbara G rfyzitm and F rrli/y G reenw ood

clrcum stan ces m form th e story of H om en c receptlon th at w e tell ln

th ls b ook .
A t the beglnnlng of the tw enty-rst century,H om erns future looks
ln creaslngly com plex an d cosm opolltan : the M artlnlcan n ove1lst
P atrlck C h am olseau h as em b arked on a Fran cop h on e C reole verslon
of th e O Jysscy;62 w h lle th e C anadlan w rlter M argaret A tw ood h asJu st
publlshed a m edltatlon on the O dyssey volced by Penelope (2005).
Tow ard s th e en d of A tw ood's n ovel, P en elop e reflects on th e w orld
ln h ablted by th e reader from th e p ersp ectlve of h er p osltlon ln th e
undetw orld, m uslng on all the dlfferent form s that O dysseus takes
w h en h e ls Kreb orn n ln to th e w orld ab ove.P en elop e ls sup p osedly th e
on e ch aracter w h o refuses to drlnk th e w aters of L eth e an d to forget
ab out th e p ast.T h ls con celt fun ctlon s as a com m en tary on A tw oo d 's
ow n lm pllcatlon ln th e reblrth of H om er-o dysseu s: as the author
b ehln d P en elop ens accoun t,A tw ood strateglcally Kforgetsnelem en ts of
H om er ln order to spln h er ow n story.63 T h ere are good H om erlc
precedents for th ls kln d of m an oeuvre:already ln th e O dyssey H elen
an d M en elaus rem em ber to forget ln order to rew rlte the future.64
W e hope th at thls volum e w lll help read ers to navlgate th e llterary,
cultural,and polltlcallssues ralsed by rem em berlng (and forgettlng)
H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tury.

62 W e ow e th ls lnform atlon to L orn a M lln e,a C h am o lseau exp ert at th e U n lverslty

o f St A nd rew s
6:5 Fo r a related co ncelt,see 'W alcotfs O m eros w here th e narrator, ln conversatlon
w lth O m eros,clalm s never to have read h1s Qbook'(W alcott 1990 I-vl111 (283) CCC1
never read 1t7' Il sald Qolotallthe way through 77 Qo-l'he gods and the dem lgods
aren'tm uch use to us''$QoForgetthe godsr''O m erosgrowled>Qoand read the rest'''
64 O dyssey 4 2 19- 89
 P art 1

P lacin g H om er in th e
Tw entieth C entu ry
This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c#
. blank
 1

H om er after P arry '

.Tradition ,R ecep tion ,an d
th e T im eless text

Iohannes H aubold

T hls ch apter explores som e of th e w ays ln w hlch tw en tleth -century

classlcal scholars read and studled H om er. M y startlng polnt ls the
w ork of M llm an P arry ln th e 1920s an d 1930s: h ls essays m ade a
lastlng contrlbutlon to H om erlc scholarshlp an d had a w lde lnflu -
en ce ln sh ap ln g tw en tleth -cen tury p ercep tlon s of H om en l M y m aln
con cern w lll be w lth P art'y an d h ls receptlon am on g classlclsts, but
the lssues he ralsed have lm pllcatlons w ell beyon d the n arrow con -
fin es of classlcs as a dlsclpllne. Part'y ch allenged fam lllar n otlon s of
w h at con stltutes a text:h ow m eanlng enters lnto texts,and h ow texts
relate to oth er texts across tlm e an d sp ace.Even th e m ost sup erE clal
glan ce suggests th at w e cann ot dlvorce hlm an d hls su ccessors from
w lder m ovem ents ln tw en tleth -century cultural an d llterary h lstory:
for exam ple, th e tltle of T . S. E llot's essay f'Fradltlon an d th e In dlvl-
dual Talent' (1920) could easlly be used to sum m arlze the central
concerns raised by Parryns w ork .2 H e en gaged ln a system atlc stu dy of
oral eplc p oetry ln order to w ork out, am ong oth er th ln gs, h ow
lndlvldual perform an ces and perform ers related to th e w lder eplc
tradltlon w lth ln w hlch th ey op erated .P arry's dlscusslon of H om erlc

I am gratefttlto the E dltors,and to those w ho to ok p art ln the con ference on H om er

ln the tw en tleth cen turp for thelr h elpful suggestlon s
l T he lastln g ln flu ence o f Parry's w o rk ls even m ore rem arkab le lfw e conslder th at
he dled at the age of 33 H 1s essays w ere collected posthum ously and (w here
necessary) translated from the French by h1s son Parry 1971
2 E llot 19754
28 Johannes H aubold

ep lc also p oln ts ah ead to th e p o stm o d ern ch allen ges of crltlcs llk e

M lchel Foucault an d Jacques D ern da sln ce,llke th em ,h e called lnto
q u estlon som e fun d am en tal attrlb u tes of th e llteraty w ork : th e p os-
slblllty of an ln dlvldual style, th e con cept of auth orshlp, th e very
ablllty of w ords to convey m ean ln g. Fln ally, by com p arlng H om erlc
w lth Y ugoslav ep lc, P arry an tlclp ated p ostcolon lal m odels of ln ter-
textuallty as a com pllcated w eb th at sp an s dlverse cultures,m odes of
com m unlcatlon (e.g. the oral and the w rltten w ord), geographles,
an d tem p oralltles.3 lf l focus on developm ents w lthln classlcs h ere,
th ls ls n ot to d eny th e lm p ortan ce of th o se b ro ad er lssu es. O n th e
con trary, m y alm ls to prep are th e groun d for oth er p ap ers ln th e
collectlon w hlch look at th e w lder con text of H om en c recep tlon ln
th e tw en tleth century.
M y essay focu ses on an asp ect of P arryns w ork w hlch h as n ot yet
recelved w ld esp read atten tlon b u t w h lch ls of p artlcular ln terest for a
cultural hlstory of H om er ln th e tw en tleth century :h ls vlew of h ow
texts relate to oth er texts; an d th e lm pllcatlon s thls vlew h as for
readlng th e w ork of oth er sch olars an d of creatlve w rlters. l suggest
th at P arryns n otlon s of th e tradltlon al text n ot on ly affect h ow w e
vlew sp eclf c acts of receptlon , su ch as W alcottns com plex evocatlon
of a C arlbbean H om er, but m ore gen erally sh ed llght on H om erlc
recep tlon ln th e tw entleth century as a process of con stant an d often
radlcal textu al an d cultu ral reallgn m en t.
Tw entleth -cen tu ry H o m erlc sch olarsh lp h as b equ eath ed u s a curl-
ou s dlch otom y.O n th e on e h an d,H om erlc eplc ls vlew ed as th e lirst
ln a lon g gen ealogy of great texts ln th e W estern llterary tradltlon ,
a gen ealogy w h lch ln clu d es, for ex am p le, V lrgll, D an te, an d M llton .
O n the other,Parr/sw ork on Yugoslav eplc hasopened thew ay to a
w ld e ran ge of co m p aratlve stu d les of ep lc p oem s p erform ed arou n d
th e w orld .4
C om p aratlve stu dles som etlm es focus on eplcs th at exlst ln w rltten
form (llke the H om erlc poem s them selves) but lnslst that thelr
lan gu age ls sh ap ed by m any acts of com p o sltlon an d recom p o sltlon

3 C f th e In trod u ctlo n to th ls volu m e, p p 10- 14, an d H ardw lck ln C h 2

4 See Ford 1997 396 A n em ph asls on the W estern llterary can on can be p ercelved ,
for exam ple,ln G rlflin 1980 an d R ob ert Fow ler 2004,com p aratlve app roach es to eplc
are evld en t ln Lo rd 1960 an d 1995, Foley 2002 an d 20059, M artln 1989 an d 2005
 H om erafterParry 29
ln p erform an ce. ln ord er to avold th e m lsleadln g category of Koral
ep lc' for p o em s th at are som etlm es w rltten d ow n , sch olars p refer to
d escrlb e th em as Ktrad ltlon alt Y et th at term to o can b e m lsleadln g.
Thls ls how John Foley (1999) attem pts to clarlfy lts use ln H om er's
Trad ktkonalA rt:

Thls concept gsc 'tradltlon'l has suffered from m uch m lsunderstandlng ln

th e p ast, so 1et m e b e as sp eclfic as posslble ab out 1ts lnten ded u sage ln thls
b ook In allu dlng to 'tradltlon'I do n ot refer to th e kln d of ab stractlon th at
w e gllm pse ln term s llke 'llterary tradltlonl ln w hlch m uch of the netw ork
of contln ulty ls con stru cted by crltlcs organ lzlng ln dlvldu al texts from
an ou tslder's p ersp ectlve, often w lth th e h elp of hlstorlcal con text,
docu m en tary evlden ce of ln flu en ce or ln tertextu allts an d th e llke N or do
I p olnt tow ard a m on ollthlc m ass, a b aslcally ln ert lnh erltan ce th at on e
gen eratlon tran sm lts to th e n ext m th ou t m u ch , lf ans m odlficatlon , thls
n otlon of tradltlon as a keep sake or an tlqu e h as b een m u ch crltlclzed, an d
w lth Ju stlficatlon N elth er ab stractlon n or m 011011th , th e p oetlc tradltlon
u n der exam ln atlon ln thls volum e ls first an d forem ost a language- a
sp eclallzed an d hlghly ldlom atlc langu age to b e sure,w lth a focu sed purp ose
an d a p artlcu lar content an d con text,b ut n on eth eless a langu age A s su ch ,
a tradltlon ls alw ays evolvlng w lthln certaln ru les or bou n darles, alw ays
provln g a som ew h at dlfferent 'thln g' from on e p erform an ce to an oth er an d
from on e p ractltlon er to an oth er 5

T h o se w h o see H om er as b elon gln g to th e classlcal tradltlon an d

th o se w h o con sld er h ls p o etry tradltlon al ln Foley's sen se d o n ot
alw ays talk to on e an oth er.ln d eed ,so dlfferen t are th elr con cern s th at
th ey som etlm es ap p ear to u se th e sam e term s w h lle sp eakln g tw o
w h olly dlfferen t lan gu ages: w h lle read ers of H om er as tradltlon al
p oetry talk ab o ut form ulalc p attern s, orallty, an d recom p osltlon -
ln -p erform an ce, th o se w h o stu dy H om er w lth ln th e con text of th e
E u rop ean llterary tradltlon are m ore ln terested ln lm ltatlon , ap p ro -
p rlatlon , an d th e p olltlcs of can on form atlon . ln term s of ln stltu -
tlon al a llatlon , too, th e tw o ap p ro ach es p oln t ln dlfferen t
dlrectlons.'W hereas the student of H om e/s Ktradltlonal art' (Foley's
phrase) gravltates tow ards com paratlve llngulstlcs,6 the study of
folklore; an d even cogn ltlve sclen ce,8 th o se ln terested ln H om e/ s

5 Foley 1999 p x11 6 N ap r 1974, 1979, 1990, B akker 1997

7 M ltchell an d N agy 2000 pp xtx-u l 8 B akker 1997, M ln ch ln 200 1
 (

30 Johannes H aubold

p lace ln th e W estern llteraty can on ap p ear m ore ln terested ln llterary

th eory,g tran slatlon ,lo an d recep tlon stu dles.ll T h ere are obvlo u s
p oln ts of con tact b etw een th e tw o cam p s, b ut th e rlft ls real:w ltn ess
th e tw o com p etln g C om p ankons to H om er th at h ave app eared over
th e p ast ten years. O n e of th em , th e N pw C om p ankon to H om er
p ubllsh ed by B rlll, looks at H om erlc eplc as w h at Foley w ould call
tradltlon al p oetry,w hlle T he C am bn dge C om p ankon to H om er expll-
cltly allgn s ltself w lth th e stu dy of llteratu re an d 1ts recep tlon .tz T h ere
are m any factors th at con trlb ute to th e curren t sltu atlon , ln clu dln g
gen erlc on es su ch as th e ln creasln g sp eclallzatlon of research ln th e
H um anltles. B ut sh lfts ln th e n ature of academ lc research cann ot b e
h eld resp on slble for all asp ects of thls dlsagreem ent over th e kln d of
com pany H om er keeps (A pollonlus,V lrgll, or the Yugoslav bards)
an d h en ce w h at kln d of C om p anw n hls p oetry deserves.
H ere l w ould llke to slngle out on e p oln t th at seem s to m e of
p artlcular ln terest ln th e con text of th e presen t collectlon :th e uses of
th e term s Ktradltlon n an d Krecep tlon n. B roadly sp eakln p lt seem s th at
tw o sh lfts are cu rren tly u n d er w ay. A n arrow fo cu s on oral ep lc ls
ln creasln gly b eln g rep laced by an ln terest ln trad ltlon al p oetry
m ore broadly defin ed .l3 M eanw hlle,m on ollthlc vlew s of th e classlcal
tradltlon as em b o dled by th e great auth ors of th e W estern llterary
can on are belng replaced by an ln terest ln th e receptlon of classlcal
llterature w ell beyon d th e conf n es of llterature or th e W est.14 W h at
rem aln s to b e w orked o u t ls th e relatlon sh lp b etw een th ese em ergln g
dlscourses of tradltlon an d receptlon . A t lirst slght, th ere ls llttle
evld en ce of ln teractlon or com m un lcatlon : on ce agaln , th e tw o
recen t C om p ankons to H om er lllustrate th e p oln t. T h e C am bn dge
Com pankon to H om er devotes one substantlal sectlon (com prlslng

9 P u ccl 1987: Lyn n G eorge 1988: P erad otto 1990: G old h lll 199 1
10 M ason 1972, Stelner an d D ykm an 1996 and 2004, H ardw lck 2000
11 H ardw lck 2003, R ob ert Fow ler 2004
12 M o rrls an d P ow ell 1997 an d R ob ert Fow ler 2004 See th e ln tro d u ctlon ,p 5 w lth
n l3
13 Foley 1999 1) xtl,quoted at p 29 For allthat M llm an Parry started from an
ln terest ln H om er's tradltlon al style b efore m ovlng on to the com paratlve study of
o ral ep lc,h 1s lm m ed late su ccessors w ere partlcu larly con cern ed w lth o rallty C u rren t
H om erlc scholarshlp adop ts m ore flextble n otlon s of tradltlon w hlch straddle th e
dlvlde b etw een oral an d w rltten texts,see Fo ley 1999, Scodel 2002
14 C f In trod u ctlon , p p l- 2
 H om erafterParry 31
elghtchapters) to t'l-he Receptlons ofH om ertisBy contrast,TheN pw
C om pankon to H om er publlshed by B rlll an d edlted by 1.M orrls and
B . Pow ell, offers n o few er th an five ch ap ters on asp ects of H om er's
tradltlonallanguage,as w ellas John Foley's m ore w lde-ranglng essay
entltled Ko ral Tradltlon an d 1ts Im pllcatlon stl6
A t a very gen eral level, tradltlon an d receptlon both have to do
w lth h ow w e con cep tuallze th e relatlon sh lp betw een texts over tlm e,
th ough of course the tw o term s m ean dlfferent thln gs: w h ereas
Ktradltlonn em phaslzes w hat ls handed dow n (Latln tradere),recep-
tion starts from w hat ls recelved (Latln rctupcrc).A s l have already
p oln ted out, tradltlon and receptlon also have dlfferent tralectorles
ln th e h lstory ln acad em lc sch olarsh lp . A lth ou gh receptlon studles
dlstan ce them selves from n arrow definltlon s of llterature, thelr em -
ph asls ls stlll on creatlve resp on ses to can on lcal w ork s of llterature.i;
C onversely, w hlle an lnterest ln the tradltlon al language of eplc ls
obvlously relevant to the stu dy of llterature,th e concept of tradltlon
n ow seem s to be of partlcular lnterest to students of hum an culture
an d soclety.l8 W lthln th e field of classlcs, tradltlon an d tradltlonally
are m ost lnslstently dlscussed by H om erlsts.
W h at seem s to be at stake ln the dlfferent dlscourses of tradltlon
an d receptlon ls not m erely th e relatlon sh lp betw een texts: but also
th e n ature an d status w e attrlbute to th ose texts. Tw en tleth -cen tury
H om erlc sch olarshlp , l argu e,developed 1ts ow n dlscourses of trad-
ltlon an d recep tlon p reclsely ln th e con text of sh lftln p an d often
confllctlnp p erceptlon s of H om erlc eplc as a text.T h e seeds of th ls
d evelopm ent w ere already sow n In th e w ork of M llm an P arry, an d
l th erefore b egln by conslderlng h ow and w hy h e developed hls ldea
of a trad ltlon al text agaln st a very dlfferen t m od el of creatlve recep -
tlon . l th en con slder som e of th e w ays ln w hlch P arry's approach
d evelop ed ln th e course of th e cen tuty an d w hy lt proved to be 170th
ln flu en tlal an d con tested .

1, R o bert Fow ler 20t)4 p art 5

16 SeeH orrockson Ql-lom er'sD lalect'(193-217),Russo on Q'rhellorm ula'(238-60),
Edw ards on 'H om erlc Style and ''O ralPoetlcs''7 (261-83),Bakker on C'I'he Study of
H om ertc D tscourse'(284-304),Kahane on Qo uantlfp ng Eplc'(326.-42)
17 e g M achor and G old steln 200 1,H ard w lck 2003
id See e g H obsbaw m and R anger 1983,and the host of publlcatlons on lnven tcd
tradltlo ns that have appeared slnce
32 Johannes H aubold

M y story, th en , starts w lth M llm an P arty an d hls dlstln ctlon

b etw een tradltlon al an d u n tradltlon al typ es of p o etry. P arryns w orks
are easlly accesslble, so 1 can be br1ef.19 Tradltlon al po etry, for P arry,
w as d ef n ed by certaln ln n ate p rop ertles w h lch can n ot b e red u ced to
ln d lvld u al ch olce, or to h lstorlcal or cultu ral clrcum stan ce. So:
H om erlc p oetty ls tradltlon al n ot becau se lt exp resses th e genlu s of
a partlcular people or because lt w as h eld ln great and en durlng
esteem through tlm e; rath er, lt ls tradltlon al becau se lt em p loys a
tradltlonalstyle.Form ulalc phrases such as bkob-'O jtptzov/ (Kbrllllant
O dysseus') or ' rroA/zztt t
'
iioq no bvaowLb- (tm uch-sufferlng brllllant
O dysseusn) sen re as bulldlng blocks w hlch enable the bard to tell
hls story com p eten tly but w lth out p erform lng an act of llterary
creatlon . P arry fam ou sly con trasted h ls ln terp retatlon of H om er's
tradltlon al style w lth w h at h e saw as th e un tradltlon al style of
A pollonlus an d V lrgll. A t a supel clal level, those poets can seem
rather slm llar to H om er yet, un llke H om er: they use language ln
con sclou s an d creatlve resp on se to earller m odels, above all H om er
h lm self. P arry rep eatedly rem arked on th e orlgln allty of A p ollon lu s
ln p artlcu lar. A p ollon lu s, for h lm , created <an ln dlvld u al ln terp ret-
atlon ofthe anclent storyl Klilled w lth the splrlt ofhls ow n H ellenlstlc
aget20 P arry does n ot use th e term receptlon , w hlch h ad n ot yet
en tered ln to m aln stream acad em lc dlsco urse.zl B ut w h at h e says
ab out A p ollonlus strlkln gly p ref gures later vlew s of llterary hlstory
as a serles of dlscrete creatlve-receptlve even ts. A ccordlng to L orn a
H ardw lck the student of receptlon ls cruclally concerned w lth Kthe
artlstlc or lntellectual processes lnvolved ln selectlnp lm ltatlng or
ad ap tln g an clen t w orks7.22 Kselectln p lm ltatln g an d ad ap tln g'ls m ore
or less w h at P arry says A p ollonlus dld , th ough h e takes p aln s to
defen d hlm agaln st th e ch arge of beln g a m ere lm ltaton

19 Parry's w ork ls collected ln Parry 1971 A brlef outllne of h1s theory can be
foun d ln Foley 19979 For an attem pt to contextu allze h1s w ork ,see D e V et 2005
20 P arry 19 7 1 169, 429
21 T he b egln nln gs of receptlo n theory have been traced b ack to th e P ragu e School
an d especlally Fellx V od lcka,cf D olezel 1995 54- 5 R eceptlo n theory ln the narrow
sense w as lnaugurated by the w ork of H R Jauss and the K onstanz School,see lser
1978,Jauss 1982
22 H ardw lck 2003 5
 H om erafterParry 33
O th er au th ors recelve a slm llar treatm ent. P in d arns p o etry, fo r
exam p le, ls on ce agaln sald to look slm llar to H om er's b u t to b e
radlcally dlfferen t ln th e w ay lt relates to oth er texts: KW h en P ln d as

for exam ple, wrote: yr-rep6ev-ra & lktyqtplc/p IllvbGvab'Jsovt;p

(PI. O l. 9.11-12.1 he w as w lthout doubt recalllng the H om erlc
p hrase- grvvplcpzc Jsov o/- an d th e H om erlc ln fluen ce ls proved .
B ut w h at w as a form ula to H om er w as n on e to P ln d ar.723
P ln dar,lt tran splres,does n ot use Kform ulaen.H e ls n ot a tradltlon al
p oet llke H om er, but on e w h o, by a p rocess of creatlve receptlon ,
lm ltates an d adap ts H om erlc lan guage an d th em es. In th e course of
h ls w ork P art'y add uces m any m ore exam ples to sh ow th at, after
H om er, verbal ech oes b etw een texts b ecom e a m atter of artistlc
ch olce. Tradltlon allty ln th e con text of H om erlc stu dles w as from
th e beglnn lng defin ed agaln st th e kln d of actlvlty th at w e w ould
to d ay asso clate w lth th e recep tlon of an clen t llteratu re.
W e h ave seen th at tradltlon ,or rath er tradltlon allty,for P arry,w as
n ot a m atter of p erson al ch olce or h lstorlcal clrcum stan ce, but a
p rop erty of th e text.ln oth er w ords, certaln p oem s, su ch as th e Ihad,
are tradltlon al by th elr very n ature.ln practlce,th at m ean s th at th ey
exlst outslde th e establlsh ed fram ew ork of llterary hlstory, for tradl-
tlon allty obllterates 170th th e llterary agen t an d th e ln dlvld ualm om en t
ofcreatlon .24 W h lle th e stu dent ofH om erlc receptlon assum es a stable
tlm e fram e w lth ln w lu ch H om er com es Kfirstn an d can th erefo re
Kb e recelved n by h ls su ccessors, H om erlc ep lc as a tradltlon al text ls,
at least p otentlally,ah lstorlcal.A n oth er w ay ofm aklng th e sam e p oln t
w ould be to say th at P arryns n otlon of th e tradltlon al text creates
dlscrete ch un ks of cultural tlm e w h lch can b e Juxtap osed w lth oth er
such ch unks b ut can n ot easlly be an alysed lnto a sequen ce of
ln dlvld u al even ts. So, for exam p le, w e can Juxtap o se H om erlc ep lc
w lth Y u go slav ep lc w lth o ut w orryln g ab o ut relatlve ch ron olo gy.
From tradltlon allty P arry m oved on to orallty.T h e ldea of H om er
as an oral bard w as n ot n ew ;already W olf h ad argu ed th at H om er d1d
n ot use w rltlng.25 P arry, h ow ever, gave th e old ldea a n ew m eanln p

2: I'arry 19 7 1 2 74
24 W e m lgh t add that lt also obllterates the m om en t of recep tlon , fo r Qtrad ltlon
alltyl as Parry defines 1t, does not depend on how lt ls construed by lndlvldual
llsten ers
25 W olf 1985 W olf ln tu rn h arks b ack to V lco , see P orter 2004a 330
34 Johannes H aubold

ldentlfp ng th e constralnts of oral perform ance as the determ lnlng

factor behln d the m aklng of H om er's tradltlonal style. A t a sup er-
ficlal level, Parryns suggestlon th at H om er d1d not w n te m erely
provlded an attractlve explan atlon for hls earller f ndln gs.B ut orallty
as a gloss on tradltlon allty also radlcallzes P arryns vlew s ln at least
on e slgnlficant respect: lf h lstory, an d llterary hlstoty ln partlcular,
starts w lth w n tlnp th en texts th at are oral becom e by default elth er
prehlstorlcal or slm ply ahlstorlcal.26 Indeed,as M lchaelLynn -G eorge
polnts outln hlsbrllllant analysls ofParrynsw ork the oral-tradltlonal
bard w h om P arry lm agln es as th e com p oser of th e H om en c p oem s
qulte llterally lacks tlm e- an d any sen se of the passlng of tlm e-
b ecause th e sh ow m ust alw ays go on :
ln h 1s unllm lted freed om th e w rlter can m ove along an 'u nrestrlcted ran ge'
ofth ou ght,langu age an d tlm e T h e p oet m th out w rltlng,on th e oth er h an d,
ls caughtcom pletely '1n the stress ofthe m om entlthe pressure oftlm e w hlch
at thls prlm ltlve stage fetters h 1m ab solutely to th e lm m edlate present h e
does n ot plan ah ead or revlse,h e does n ot an tlclpate an d has no m em ory of
w hat has Ju st passed,he does n ot ponder,has no room for reflectlon 27

A s an oral p erform er: H om er becom es a creature en tlrely of th e

present.H ow ever,w hlle he Klacks tlm elhls artbecom es Ktlm elessnalso
ln th e sen se th at lt preserves th e tradltlon w lth out ch an ge, con den s-
ln g lt lnto the ever-present m om ent of perform an ce:

T h e overrldlng contlnu lty of thls stream of tlm e ln oral com p osltlon 'w lth -
outbreaklTw lthouttlm elpreservesa tlm elesstradltlon Tlm ereversesone of
1ts u su al fun ctlon s It ls th e pressure of tlm e w hlch p rotects th e tradltlon
from ch ange T h e unlnterrupted fluldlty of tlm e preserves th e flxlty of th e
tradltlon an d th e changelessn ess of 1ts tran sm lsslon through a b ard 'w h o
w lth out stoppln g m u st follow th e stream of form u las w hlch, ln th e
u nh esltatln g sp eed of h1s com p osltlon h e can n ot stop to ch ange'z8

P reclsely b ecau se th e oral p oet d oes n ot h ave tlm e to reflect an d

sh ap e hls m aterlal,h ls art becom es truly tlm eless;n ot slm ply b ecau se
he cann ot m ake any changes but also because the tradltlon ls en acted
ln th e essen tlally ahlston calm om en t of p erform an ce.H avlng def n ed

26 Ironlcaily, P arry h lm seif calls h1s m etho d fhksto rkcalz, see Parry 197 1 269:
40 8- 13
27 Lynn G eorge 1988 74,quotlng P arry 1971 332
28 Ibld 318- 19
 H om eraperParry 35
H om erlc ep lc ln su ch a w ay, P arry co u ld gro up lt w lth p oetry from
very dlfferen t p erlo d s ln h lstoty 29 T h e resu lt w as a strlkln g an d ln
m any w ays p rovocatlve m eetln g of h lth erto allen w orld s. A s ls w ell
kn ow n , P arry took ln splratlon from th e com p aratlve m eth od ln
lln gulstlcs an d ethn ologyk3o but n elth er langu age n or folklore offered
th e sam e am o un t of creatlve ten slon b etw een a vlew of culture th at
op erated on th e b asls of a coh eren t, largely E u rocen trlc n arratlve of
even ts an d actlon s; an d on e th at ob scured ln dlvldu al agen cy an d
m ultlplled tem p oralltles.T hls ten slon w as from th e beglnn lng ln h er-
ent ln P arryns prolect an d w as n ever fully resolved by hlm or th ose
ln splred by hls sch olarsh lp .
P arryns th eory w as curlou sly double-edged . For hlm , th e auth or
of a llterary w ork h ad to b e a creatlve ln dlvldual, w h ose actlvlty
w as reflected ln p erson al styllstlc ch olces. H ls ln slsten ce on th e
sl le-consclous lndlvldual as the only posslble m odel of authorshlp,
an d hls clalm th at n o su ch ln dlvldu al could h ave b een resp on slble
for H om e/ s style, led hlm to com p are H om erlc ep lc w lth p oetry
from radlcally dlfferent tlm es and cultural sph eres w lthout gettlng
d lstracted by qu estlon s of llterary gen lu sn or Kn atlon al ch aractern.
H om er could th us b ecom e th e p oln t w h ere classlcal llterature tran s-
cen d ed lts ow n clalm s to cultural h egem ony : P arryns con cep tlon of
th e Ktlm eless textnlnvlted read ers of H om er to en ter ln to a n ew aren a
of w orld tradltlon s: w h ere A ch llles rubbed sh oulders w lth Sunlata,
G esser, an d G llgam esh . Sch olars soon began to exp lore th at lan d -
scap e of tradltlon al ep lcs,w lth th e result th at H om erlc p o etry ls often
p resen ted to d ay as on e am on g m any n arratlve tradltlon s from
arou nd th e w orld .3l
P arryns legacy, h ow ever, w as m ore com plex th an m lght at f rst
ap p ear, also b ecau se ln certaln resp ects h e rem aln ed d eep ly
ln fluen ced by W estern can on s of llterary excellen ce. H ere w e m u st
rem em b er th at Part'y n ever fully em an clp ated h lm self from th e ldeas
of M atth ew A rn old .P arry h lm self w as expllclt ab out h ls rellan ce on
A rn old : K'l'h e deslre for sm ooth n ess, th at even flow of verse w h lch

29 E g P arry 197 1 437- 64, fo r d lscu sslon see D e V et 2005 270- 4

:0 Fo r dlscu sslon s o f how P arry arrlved at h 1s vlew of H om erlc p oetry see d e
L am b erterle 1997,D e V et 2005,fo r an attem p t to sketch ou t th e w ld er b ackgrou n d of
h 1s ld eas see P erad otto 19974
:1 E g Fo ley 2002, 2005, an d M artln 2005
36 Johannes H aubold

M atthew A rnold descrlbed asKKrapldlty ofm ovem entnlm ade Elllng-ln,

paddlnp lf you w ant to call lt by that nam e,a necesslt/ 3z Parry's
A rn old lan fram ew ork exp laln s, am on g oth er th ln gs, w hy h ls vlslon
of H om er seem s lln ked to th e n ln eteen th cen tury, as w ell as lookln g
fotw ard to th e tw en tleth . T h e clash b etw een dlfferen t p erceptlon s of
H om erlc p oetry led to rath er bleak statem ents ab out lts m eanlngful-
n ess.P arry n otorlo u sly ln slsted th at n o m ean ln g ln th e u su al sen se of
th e w ord w as en co d ed ln th e tradltlon alasp ects ofH om erlc p oetry an d
n on e co u ld th erefore b e retrleved .33 R ap ldlty w as th e u ltlm ate alm ,
p reven tln g b ard s from sayln g anyth ln g to o sub tle an d llsten ers from
goln g ln to too m u ch d ep th .T h at ralsed th e qu estlon of h ow exactly
m ean ln g en tered ln to H om erlc p o etry. P arry seem s to h ave sklrted
aroun d thlsproblem ,th ough ln un guarded m om en tsh e suggested th at
lt resld ed essen tlally ln th e ln dlvld u al arran gem en t of tradltlon al
b ulldlng blocks. ln oth er w ords, th e glfted bard could do som ethln g
excep tlon alw lth h ls trad ltlon ;h e co uld ,ln an act of creatlve recep tlon ,
m ake lt un lqu ely m ean ln gful:

For th e Ihad an d O dyssey Ju st as th elr con ceptlon an d th ought are th e m ost

p erfect,h ave m ade th e m ost p erfect use of thls tradltlon of w ords T h ey h ave
u sed lt to galn a depth an d u nlversallty w hlch th e later p oetry lost,to express
a b eauty w hlch H eslod ln h1s m oral straln cou ld n ot h op e for, an d to fill
lt w lth a sen se of llfe w hlch th e T heogony h ardly hlnts at A s ln th e scu lpture
of P hldlas th e genlu s of th e artlst h as blen ded w lth th at of h1s race so
ln extrlcably th at th e tw o are h ard to dlstlngulsh th ey can on ly b e reallzed
ln th e p erfectlon of th e resu lt 34

Thls extract ls taken from one of Parr/s earllest w rltlngs, hls

U n lverslty of C allforn la M A th esls.A t th at stage ln h ls career, P arry
cou ld stlll extol Kth e p erfect u senth at H om er m ak es of th e Ktradltlon of
w ord snh e ln h erlted .H om er,ln oth er w ord s,ls h lm self th e lirst gen lu s
of creatlve recep tlon , som eon e w h o d eclslvely resh ap es an d th u s
tran scen d s h ls tradltlon . L ater on ln h ls llfe, P arry b ecam e p rogres-
slvely less w lllln g to com m en t on H om e/ s ln dlvld u al con trlb utlon .

32 Parry 1971 428 For Parr/s debt to Arnold see A Parry's forew ord to Parry
197 1 p x.
x v an d esp Lyn n G eorge 1988 58-9
33 E g Parry 197 1 17 1- 2,w h ere h e d lscu sses th e tran slatab lllty o f th e flxed ep lthet,
an d 249- 50 for the Qln atten tlven ess' to th e m ean ln g of trad ltlon al lan gu age on th e
p art of b oth b ard an d llsten er
34 P arry 197 1 43 1, first pub llsh ed ln 1936
 H om erafterParry 37
Yet, th e ldea th at H om er dld som eth ln g sp eclal w lth hls ln h erlted
m aterlal lln gers on ln h ls w ork :

The finlshed slnger w 111boast that he know s 'how to saddle a horsel or 'how
to dress a herol or 'plan a battlel and w hereas one less sklllfulm lght spend
on ly a verse or so on th ese actlon s, h e h lm self w 111 glve tw en ty or fifly or
m ore verses to th em T hls great dlfferen ce ls n ever du e ln any m ore th an a
sm allp art to th e slnger's ow n m aklng u p of thln gs It com es ln stead from h1s
h avln g b een traln ed ln a rlch er tradltlon , an d, as a slnger of talent, from
h1s h avlng b een able to grasp a11 th e rlchn ess of th e tradltlon 35

Parry characterlstlcally lnslsts that slngers do not Km ake thlngs upl

or at least n ot ln large p art. B u t h e stlll con ced es th at th ere are
K
sln gers of talen f w h o grasp th e rlch n ess of th e tradltlon b etter
th an anyon e else. lt goes alm ost w lth out saylng th at H om er ls
am on g th o se. A s P art'y exp laln s: Kl-lom er, w lth h ls ovetw h elm ln g
m astery of the tradltlonal eplc stufl enrlches the course of hls story
n ow w lth on e gro up of d etalls,n ow w lth an oth er,th o u gh each grou p
for a glven actlon w lll cen ter ab o ut certaln key verses an d follow a
certaln gen eral p attern .n36
ln m om en ts su ch as th ese, H om er does after all em erge as a
creatlve artlst, n ot by com p osln g ex rl1/l1/tl b u t by ad ap tln g w h at h e
E n d s.T h ls ls n ot so very far from P arry's d escrlp tlon ofA p ollon lu s as
p rovldln g Kan ln dlvld u al ln terp retatlon of th e an clen t storyt3; P arry
h lm selfw ould of co urse n ever h ave adm ltted th at th e w ork of th e tw o
p oets h ad anyth ln g oth er th an a su p erf clalresem blan ce.B u t th e ld ea
th at H om er Km asters' th e Kep lc stu ff d o es su ggest th at h ls vlew s w ere
am blvalen t. T h ls am blvalen ce w as to p ervad e m any later stu dles of
H o m erlc p o ett'y.
For P arry, H om e/ s p oetty w as suprem ely beautlful, b ut H om er
co uld n o lon ger b e regard ed as lts au th or ln th e u su al sen se. H e w as
stlll th e b est styllst, th o ugh h e h ad n o style of h ls ow n .H ls lan gu age
w as stlll sup en or,th o u gh m any of lts w ord s h ad llttle or n o m ean ln g.
T h ls b un dle of con tradlctlon s w as b o un d to p rovoke a con tradlctory
resp on se. lf w e ask h ow P arry's vlew s d evelop ed ln th e co urse of
th e tw en tleth cen tu ry w e can m ake ou t at least tw o dlstln ctlve tren d s.
O n th e on e h an d , sch olars felt th e n eed to tackle th e con cep tu al

:55 Ibld 406 :56 Ibld 407 57 See, p 32

 38 Johannes H aubold

p roblem s ralsed by h lsw ork,esp eclally th e qu estlon ofh ow on e m lgh t

lo cate m ean ln g ln a tradltlon al text O n th e other han d, there w as a
.

strlktng reluctance to abandon Parrfscategorles,both olzthe partof

hls supporters and (m ore surpn slngly) on that ofhls crltlcs.
M any adm lrers of P arry's w ork slm ply restated w h at th e m aster h ad
foun d. A w lder range of com p arable tradltlon s w ere studled m o r e ,

ln trlcate law s of verslf catlon codlE ed .38 M eanw hlle, th ere rem aln ed
the p roblem of the tradltlonal textns m eanlng an d lts relatlonshlp to
the creatlve act.Parrfstheory had led to a herm eneutlc conundrum
w hlch dem anded to be solved:how does tradltlonal poetry com m u -
n lcate w lth lts au dlen ces? W h at d oes lt com m unlcate? ln resp on se to
th ese qu estlon s, sch olars su ch as A lb ert L ord G regory N agy, an d
,

John Foley developed sophlstlcated theorles of tradltlon al referen -

t1al1ty.39 It took som e tlm e for thls n otlon to galn acceptance b ut by ,

th e 1970s lt w as becom ln g In creasln gly clear th at tradltlon al features ,

far from obstru ctln g au dlences from decodlng a text ln fact en abled ,

th em to un derstan d th at text m ore fully an d ldlom atlcally Tradltlon - .

allty, ln oth er w ords, b egan to be seen as a cruclal factor ln the

recep tlon of th e text. T hls reallzatlon p ut p ald to the slngle m ost
lntractable problem ralsed by Parryns an alysls,an d open ed the w ay for
a m ore syn th etlc ap p ro ach to H om erlc p o etry 'lo Y et H om erlc sch ol-
.

arshlp contln u ed to b e dlvlded over th e legacy of P arry .

T h at resp on ses to P arry w ere varled ls com pletely predlctable:n ew

ln slghts m ake thelr w ay lnto m alnstream scholarshlp by fits an d
starts, dependlng on th e readlness w lth w hlch lndlvldual sch olars
accept them . T hls ls not, how ever: al1 th at can be sald W h en P arry .

E rst devlsed h ls th eory of th e tradltlon al text h e con celved of H om er

,

as th e p oln t of con tact betw een tradltlon al p o etry an d W estern

llteratu re. H om er, for P arry , w as genum ely Janus-faced, and in
m ore th an on e sen se: th ere w as lirst of all th e un den lable fact th at
H om erlc p oetry does after all survtve ln w rltln g M o reover: H o m erlc
.

p oetry served as a m alor p olnt of referen ce for P ln das A p ollonlu s ,

an d oth er p o ets of th e W estern llterary can on w h o accordln g to P arry,

,

so radlcally m lsun d erstood hlm . Fln ally, w e h ave seen th at H om erlc

:8 For exam ples and furth er b lbllography see M orrls and Pow ell 1997
39 E g Lord 1960,N agy 1974, 1979,an d 1990,Foley 19979 an d 1999
40 c!f Scodel2002,w ho sees H om er's Qrhetorlc of tradltlonallty' (her term ) as a
llterary con celt sh ared by th e narrator an d h1s au dlen ce
 H om erJf/'
crParry 39
p oetry cou ld b e seen as th e first act of creatlve recep tlo n A s th e .

unlquely glfted m aster of Kthe tradltlonal eplc stuffl H om er not

only em b odled th e ep lc tradltlon but w as also th ough tto tran scen d 1t .

W e can trace slm llar am blgultles ln th e w ork of Parryns collaborator

A lb ert L ord . L ord w orked ln cessantly ln order to p u rge H om erlc
p oetry of any rem aln lng traces of llterary authorshlp exten dln g th e,

pnnclple of tradltlonallty to w hat he called them es (l.e type scenes) .

and even entlre narratlves.'tt ln th e course of h ls prolect h e coniin ed ,

any elem en t of creatlve recep tlon to th e m om en t of p erform an ce

,

w here com p osltlon becom es Krecom posltlon nan d as such an ln tegral

p artofth e tradltlon ltself.L ord w as adam an tth atth e fncf/an d O dyssey
w ere the products of an unalloyed tradltlon of recom p osltlon ln - -

p erform an ce.Stlll,even h e felt com p elled to exp laln w h at h e p ercelved

as th e tw o p oem sn unlque beauty an d scale by postulatlng that they
w ere p roduced un der excep tlon al clrcum stan ces:KTo H om er belongs
the dlstlnctlon of h avm g com p osed th e longest an d best of all oral
n arratlve son gs.T h elr unusuallength predlcates exceptlonal clrcum -

stan ces of p erform an ce. If 1 be n ot m lstaken dlctatlon to a scrlbe

,

Provldesthlsopportunlt/ '
lz
T hrough out hls w ork, Lord em phaslzed th e tradltlonal ch aracter
of H om erlc p o etry A ccordln g to hlm , an eplc p erform an ce repre-
.

sen ted n ot an act of llterazy creatlon so m uch as a n ecessaty corollary

to oral tradltlon ltself: p erform an ces en acted th e tradltlon 'l3 Y et, .

L ordns em phasls on the special circum stan ces un der w hlch th e Ilzad
an d O dyssey ln partlcular cam e lnto belng suggests som ethlng m ore
th an m ere Ken actm en tn H om er, lt w o uld seem , on ce agaln dlstln -
.

gulsh ed h lm self by tran scen dlng tradltlon al tech nlqu es an d con texts
of p ed orm an ce. To be su re L ord insisted th at H om erlc p oetry
,

dld n ot so m uch m ark the E rst act of receptlon as the perfectlon of

a fully -form ed p erform an ce gen re 44 Isuth ls p osltlon w as am blvalen t
.

d esp lte h ls p rotestatlon s to th e con trar ,

y:

4t I-ord 1960 lz lbld l53

43 Nagy 19964 1su!gestsan analogybetween perform anceand tradltlon on the
one h an d and Saussure s lln gulstlc categorles of langue and p arole on the other
44 Lord 1960 l47 Cgl-lom erl ls not an otttslder approachlng the tradltlon w lth
on ly a sup erficlal grasp of 1t uslng a b1t here an d a b1t th ere, or trp ng to presen t a
,

''ftavor''ofthe trad tttonalyyetever th m km g m term s essenttally d tfferent from kt'T h

ks
1.
$ of course a carlcattzre of posslble altern atlve scen arlos
40 Johannes H aubold

gl-lom erl ls not a spllt personallty w lth half of hls understandlng and
techn lqu e ln th e tradltlon an d th e oth er h alf ln a P arn assus of hterate
m eth ods N o,h e ls not even 'lm m ersed'ln th e tradltlon H e ts th e tradltlon ,
h e ls on e of th e lntegral p arts of th at com plex,for u s,as un doub tedly for h1s
ow n audlences,h e ls th e m ost glfted an d fascln atln g p art of that tradltlon 45

Llke hls teach er P arty L ord w as strugglln g to account for th e

p ercelved qu allty of H om erlc ep lc: H om er w as th e trad ltlon , b u t
sto o d ou t for h 1s Kglftn.A s Step h en M ltch ell an d G regory N agy p oln t
outln thelrlntroductlon to the second edltlon ofTheSkngerof Tales,
L ord- as lndeed P arry- w as deeply steeped ln th e classlclsm of h ls
day. For hlm too, th e nam e H om er stood for exceptlon al p oetlc
q u allty. H en ce, A vd o M edled ovlc, th e b est of th e gu slars, b ecam e
the KYugoslav H om erl% Just as H om er w as not slm ply Kour Slnger of
T ales' but also the slnger of tales p ar excellence:

T hls b ook ls ab ou t H om er H e ls our Slnger of Tales Yet,ln a larger sen se,h e

represen ts all slngers of tales from tlm e lm m em orlal and un record ed to th e
p resen t O u r b o ok ls ab ou t th ese oth er sln gers as w ell E ach of th em , even
th e m ost m edlocre, ls as m u ch a p art of th e tradltlon of oral eplc as ls
H om es 1ts m ost talen ted representatw e 47

T hls extraordln ary passage, taken from th e very beglnnlng of T he

Snger of Tales,lllustrates w ellthe am blgultles w hlch Lord lnherlted
from h ls teach er.W lth H om er,h lstory collap ses lnto on e contln u ou s
present:H om er ks our Kslnger of Tales' gnote the present tensel,and
as such h e represen ts Kall sln gers of tales from tlm e lm m em on alt H ere
agaln w e en coun ter Parry's Ktlm elessn slnger, th ough L ord ls m ore
expressly encom lastlc: H om er represents oral eplc the w orld over
because he ls the m ost talented of all bards. L ord's language of
excellence an d exem plarlty h arks b ack to Parryns confu slon ab out
w hat exactly lt w as that H om er brought to hls craft. M oreover, lt
recalls conventlonal vlew s of H om er as fthe father of llteraturet'l8
lndeed:H om er becom es th e Kgenlus of tradltlon'preclsely because h e
ls also, slm ultan eously,th e lirst gen lus of W estern llterature.A s L ord
hlm self p ut lt,hls poem s Khave alw ays been recognlzed as suprem et'lg

45 Lord 1960 l47 46 M ltchell and N agy 2000 p x11

47 I-ord 1960 forew ord
48 C f B loom 1975 qu oted ln th e ln trod u ctlo n , p l
49 Lord 1960 forew o rd
 H om erafterParry 41
W e m ay w ell w on d er h ow an en tlrely tradltlon al sln ger can at th e
sam e tlm e b e th e su p rem e m aster of all tradltlon al p oetry. Surely, lf
H om er relgn s sup rem e, th en th ere m u st b e som eth ln g to set h lm
ap art from even th e m o st qu allf ed p ractltlon er of h ls craft, som e-
th ln g h e brln gs to th e tradltlon al p attern s an d p h rases ln an act of
creatlve ap p rop rlatlon ? ln fact, w e h ave seen th at b oth P arry an d
L ord adm lt as m u ch . H ow ever, lt ls also clear th at th ey h ad n o real
ln terest ln resolvln g th e ap p aren t con un dru m . To th em lt m attered
th at H om erlc p oetry w as un lqu ely b eautlful an d th elr convlctlon on
th at p oln t d erlved ln p art from h ls p lace ln th e can on of W estern
llteratu re: th ere w as llttle ln th elr vlew of tradltlon al p oetry w h lch
co uld h elp th em exp laln th at b eauty. To th ls d ay, m any sch olars of
oral p oetry E nd lt u seful to keep th e lssu e of H om er's status as an
au th or ln su sp en se,th u s en su rln g access b oth to th e tlm eless w orld of
tradltlon al ep lc an d to th e Kp reclo u s m an u scrlp tsn of W estern lltera-
ture.50 A verslon of thls strategy also becam e p op ular am on g crltlcs
ofParr/s tradltlonaltheory,though for dlfferentreasons:as Parryns
an d L ord 's ld eas b ecam e m ore establlsh ed , classlcal sch olars w h o felt
u nw lllln g or un able to co un ten an ce som e of th elr m ore rad lcal
lm p llcatlon s ln creasln gly resorted to th e su ggestlon , already p resen t
ln P arryns w ork , th at H om er h lm self w as th e lirst p oet of creatlve
gen lu s.lf th at w as so,on e co u ld freely adm lt th at H om er sto o d Kat th e
end of a long tradltlonl but could then focus on the questlon that
really m attered ,n am ely,h ow h e tran scen d ed lt.T h e follow ln g extract
ls taken from th e recen t com m en tary by A .F.G arvle on O dyssey 6- 8:

W e m u st accept th at a p oet traln ed ln a11 th e techn lqu es of oral p oetry w as

able to u se th e n ew techn lqu e of w rltln g to create th e Iltad on a scale, an d
w lth a com plexlty, th at h ad n ever b efore b een attem pted or w as even
p osslble, an d th at sh ortly afterw ards th e sam e, or a dlfferent, p oet d1d th e
sam e for the O dyssey If thls ls so,th e O lysscy b elongs to th e tradltlon of oral
p oetrs but lt ls n ot ltself a tradltlon al oral p oem 51

T h e p h rasln g ls on ce agaln strlkln gly am b lgu o u s,even to th e p oln t

of descendlng m to paradox:hom one m lght ask can a poem slm ul-
tan eou sly b elon g to an oral tradltlon an d n ot ltself b e a tradltlon al

50 L o rd 's form u latlon , cf L ord 1960 l4 l

51 G arv te 199 4 18
42 Johannes H aubold

oralp oem ? T h e p oln t,lt seem s,ls to place H om er E rm ly on th e fen ce,

th ough th ls tlm e m akm g su re th at h e lean s over to th e slde of
(w rltten) llterature.For G arvle,as for Parry and Lord,llterat'y recep-
tlon starts w h en oral trad ltlon ends: th ough h e sh lfts th e em ph asls
tow ard s llteracy, creatlvlty, an d recep tlon : H om er w as traln ed ln th e
tradltlon al technlqu es, b ut h e w as n ot hlm self a tradltlon al bard .
A lth o ugh few w ould thln k of G arvle as a P arzp st,alm ost every asp ect
of G arvle's clalm can be derlved from L ord 's th eory of oral dlctatlon :
th e excep tlon al scale an d qu allty of th e p oem s, th e lm p ortan ce of
w rltln p th e u n lq u e p o sltlon of H om er on th e cu sp b etw een tw o
radlcally dlfferent w orlds of textual productlon . O f course, th ere
are also dlfferen ces.P artlcularly lnterestln g ln thls context ls G arvle's
ln slsten ce on h lstorlcal ch ange: n ever b efore' h ad anyth lng llk e th e
lh ad an d O dyssey been attem pted or even been posslble. H om e/ s
text ls decldedly ntlf Ktlm e-lessl one ped orm ance am ong others.
Predlctably, the fact th at the Ihad an d the O dyssey w ere certalnly
w rltten d ow n at som e p o lnt ls u sed to b olster th e argu m ent: lf
H om er w as the frst bard to w n te dow n hls poem s (or have them
w rltten dow n), the end of the oral tradltlon and the beglnnlng of
llteraty hlstoty suggestlvely coln clde w lth th e lnventlon of llterature
ltself.
G arvle's vlew of H om er can b e taken to represen t th e p osltlon of
m aln stream E urop ean classlcs d urlng th e latter h alf of th e tw entleth
cen tury.52 T h us A lfred H eub eck w rltes, ln h ls lntrod uctlon to th e
com plete com m entary on the O dyssey Erst p ubllsh ed by L orenzo
V alla an d th en ,ln E n gllsh ,by th e C laren d on P ress:

T h e con clu slon that th e p oets of the Ilm d an d O dyssey took su bstan tlal
elem ents of th elr w ork & om th e oral tradltlon of th e b ards seem s to m e n o
longer op en to doubt, an d I beheve th at th e accep tance of thls h elp s us to
grasp an lm p ortant,th ou gh n ot th e declsw e, asp ect of th elr m ten tlon s an d
achlevem ents T h e fact th at they dealt w lth m aterlal already explolted ln oral
p oetrs an d th at th ey contlnu ed to sh ap e thls m aterlalby m eth ods very llke
th ose of th elr pred ecessors an d colleagu es,seem s to m e of less relevan ce th an
oth er observatlon s w hlch force th em selves on th e ln terpreter Even lf our
lack of preclse kn ow ledge of th e pre-l-lom erlc eplc m ean s th at w e cann ot

52 T he sltuatlon w as d lfferent ln th e U nlted States,th anks prlm arlly to the w ork of

A lbert Lord, G regory N agy,and John Foley
 H om erafterParry 43
prove any p artlcu lar clalm , w e can yet sen se h ow en orm ou s an advan ce
H om er m ade on h1s predecessors 53

For H eubeck, th e n dln gs of P arry an d L ord are lm p ortant n ot

b ecause th ey sh ow th at H om er ls a tradltlon alp oet.ln fact,th ey sh ow
th e exact op p oslte, n am ely th e exten t to w h lch th e H om erlc p oets
(for H eubeck they are tw o) creatlvely transform ed w hat they found.
T h ey Ktook ...elem en ts from th at tradltlonn but also tran scen ded lt,
m akln g an Ken orm ou s advan cenon th elr predecessors as th ey Ksh ap edn
th elr m aterlal. H eub eck on ce agaln d raw s h eavlly on th e ld eas of
Parry an d L ord: accordlng to hlm , the H om erlc poets em ploy
m eth o d s fvery llke th ose of th elr p red ecessors an d colleagu esn. tv ery
llkel how ever, turns out to m ean Kvet'y dlfferenf too. ln order to
lllu strate w h at h e m ean s, H eu beck revlslts a central asp ect of P arry's
th eory, hls vlew of H om er as th e Ktlm elessn bard : K'I'h e creatlon s of
oral sln gers are alw ays n em as ch an ce an d th e lm m ed late sltu atlon
dlctate; th elr songs are for th e m om en t an d eph em eral. B ut th ere ls
n othln g eph em eral about th e H om en c eplcs: th ey are m ean t to be
p erm an en t an d p erm an en tly valld .754
W h ereas Parry h ad taken H om er outslde th e fram ew ork of Eu ro -
p ean llteraty hlstoty H eubeck puts hlm Erm ly back ln hls place,
d eclarln g Kp erm an en cen th e on ly accep table w ay of tran scen dln g
h lstorlcal context:for hlm ,H om er exlsts for an d through th e hlstory
of h ls receptlon .l h op e to h ave sh ow n th at w h at ls at lssu e h ere ls not
slm ply a m lsun derstan dlng or dlstortlon of Parryns ldeas. True,
sch olars llke G an ue and H eubeck m ay app ear to be m lsslng the
p oln t w h en th ey d efen d H om er agaln st b eln g th ou gh t p rlm ltlve or
eph em eral.Yet lt seem s th at P arry an d L ord w ere n ot en tlrely averse
to th at lln e of th ln kln g elth er. For th em , to o, H om er h ad to rem aln
Kl-lom erlthe lconlc poetofW estern llterature w ho w as,for them ,also
em ergln g as p n m us knterp ares ln a U nlted N atlon s of oral-tradltlon al
p oetry.John Foley has recently spoken of the H om erlc m odel as Kthe
KK
orlgln al slnnn of com p aratlve eplc stu dles7.55 H e does h ave a p oln t,
but Kthe fallllfsuch ltw as,dld not com e aboutby accldent.For m uch
ofthe tw entleth century (and w hatw e have seen ofthe tw enty-lirst),
H om e/ s statu s as a lln k b etw een w orld tradltlon an d th e W estern

5:5 H eub eck ,W est, an d H aln sw orth 1988 l l 54 Ib ld 12

55 Fo ley 2005c l99
44 Johannes H aubold

can on w as lm p ortan t an d w elcom e.56 A t a b aslc level, H om er len t

au th orlty to an em ergln g sublect: h e co uld b ecom e an effectlve
patron b ecause h e w as p art of th e w ell establlsh ed con ceptlon s of
llterature as w ell as n ew research ln to eplcs th at m lgh t n ot be
con sldered llterature at all.B ut m ore w as at stake th an m ere exp edl-
en cy.B ecau se of h ls d u al cltlzen sh lp ln th e rep u bllc of letters an d th at
of oral eplc: H om er also cam e to play a declslve role ln th e on goln g
prolect of openlng up the canon of Kllteraturel of rethlnklng w ays ln
w h lch auth ors create an d au d len ces read an d , m ost lm p ortan tly, of
h ow texts sp eak to oth er texts acro ss tlm e.57
T h ls last p olnt ls of p artlcular lnterest ln th e p resent volu m e. A s
w l11 ap p ear from th e oth er ch ap ters ln th ls collectlon ,th e recep tlon of
H om er ln th e tw en tleth century ls n ever skm p ly a m atter of Kselectlon ,
lm ltatlon , an d ad ap tatlon ls8 T lm e an d agaln ,w e en cou n ter th e sam e
am blgu ltles th at w e h ave seen ln th e w ork of P arry an d h ls su ccessors.
A lln ear m od el of llterary recep tlon ,w h ere elem en ts of H om erlc ep lc
are creatlvely lm ltated an d adapted, ls called ln to qu estlon by th e
com p etln g an d overlap p ln g n otlon s of th e tlm eless text. Som e of th e
auth ors w h ose w ork ls dlscussed ln thls collectlon kn ew P arryns
th eory ln d etall an d en gaged w lth lt ln sop h lstlcated an d som etlm es
dlscon certln g w ays.59 M any dld n ot, b u t even w h en w e assu m e n o
dlrect kn ow ledge, tw en tleth -cen tu ty resp on ses to H om er often res-
on ate w lth P arryns con cern s.ls D erek W alcott's O m eros,for exam ple,
Kb ased ' on H om erlc ep lc? O r ls lt con tem p orary w lth lt, or b oth ?
W alcott h lm self h as exp ressed unh app ln ess w lth w h at h e p ercelves to
be the stralpacket of (academ lc) receptlon hlstoty :
I thtn k tt ts thts w h ole freshn ess of exp erten ce th at m ade m e feel th at m y
referen ces to H om er, an d a11 th e oth er w rlters I w as ln debted to ln th e b ook
g1e O m erosj,w ere perfectly valld A nd I knew lt w ould lead to a klnd of
academ lc acclalm th at I'm n ot very h appy ab out- fo h , so m u ch ls ow ed to
so-an d-so'- l h ate th at It ls a patronlzln g w ay of sap ng ab out,for ln stan ce,

56 N ot everyon e w as equ ally en th u slastlc for H om er's am b lvalen t role ln th e

so called A frlcan ep lc d eb ate'see G razlosl,pp 125- 3 1
57 It ls an accepted vlew to day that ln order to transform the repub llc of letters lnto
a w o rld repub ltc o f letters, o raltty n eed s to b e taken (nto alx ou nt, see P rend ergast
2004 p x lt seem s th at, ln th ls p rolect too , H om er m ay play a u sefttl role
58 Fo r thls w ork ln g d efin ltlo n of recep tlon see ab ove, p 32
59 See G razlosl (thls volttm e),pp 136-41
 H om erafterParry 45
R om are's w ork fl-ook at th ose black cutouts T h ey are llke G reek vases'Yes,
th ey m ay b e llke G reek vases, but th ey are stm ultaneous con cepts, n ot
chronologtcalcon cepts 60

W h ile acknow ledglng w h at h e h lm self calls h ls debtn to oth er

w rlters, W alcott ln slsts th at ln tertextu al reson an ce ln O m eros ls
ab ove all slm ultan eou s: rath er th an ch ron olo glcal.6l A s h e go es on
to explaln :Klf you thln k of art m erely ln term s of chron ologs you are
goln g to b e p atron lzln g to certaln cultures.B ut lf you thln k of art as
slm ultanelty ...then Joyce ls a contem porary of H om er.762 W hat lt
m lgh t m ean ln practlce to be Ka con tem p orary of H om e/ ln th e
tw entleth century can be gleaned from O m eros ltself (1.2.3):
an d O w as th e con ch -sh ell's m vocatlom m er w as
b oth m oth er an d sea ln ou r A n tlllean p atols,
o% a grey b on e, an d the w hlte surf as lt crash es
an d spreads 1ts slbllant collar on a lace sh ore
O m eros w as th e crun ch of dry leaves, and th e w ash es
th at ech oed from a cave-m outh w h en th e tlde h as ebb ed

H om er h ere Kech oes' from a cave-m outh , th e C arlbbean lan dscap e,

an d lts p eople an d th elr sp eech , Kour A ntlllean p atolsn. Llterary
h lstory ls sh ort-clrculted ln favour of an altogeth er m ore dlrect
exp erlen ce, an exp en en ce, w e m lgh t add, th at ls p redlcated n ot on
w rltln g but on soun ds, som e of w hlch pred ate even th e sp oken
w ord .63 A s Farrell p oln ts out, W alcott con stru cts h ls H om er Kn ot as
a p artlclp an t ln an excluslvely E urop ean scrlb al culture b ut as a
slnger of folktales w h om on e m lght fin d Ju st as readlly ln an A frlcan
or A fro-c an bb ean context as ln th at of A rch alc G reece7.64 Y et, as
w lth L ord's H om er w hose p oem s Khad alw ays been recognlzed as
suprem el for W alcott too the posslblllty of transcendlng the hlstory
of the W estern canon- an d the aesthetlc Judgem en ts attached to

68 W alcott 1997 240,em ph asls ln the orlglnal,1 am gratefttl to Em lly G reenw o od

for po ln tln g o u t thls p assage
61 For dtscu ssto n of W alcott7s ftranshtstortcal'ap p ro ach see Perez Fernand ez 200 1,
D avls (thls volum e),p 208,for Jvalcott and anclent eplc see the contrlbutlons ln
D av ls 19 9 7 :
62 W alcott 1997 24 l
6:5 C f Farrell's ob servatlon s ln 1997 257
64 F arrell 1997 254 See also H ardw lck ln C h 2 b elom esp , p 62
46 Johannes H aubold

lt- d ep end s ln n o sm all m easure on H om e/ s prlvlleged place w lthln

th at very hlstot'y.
l h ave argu ed th at M llm an P art'y n ot only lnvented th e tradltlon al
text, but also supported hls theory by contrastlng tradltlon as h e
understood lt w lth a process of creatlve receptlon w hlch h e assocl-
ated w lth the canon of W estern llterature. Tradltlon w as ln scrlbed
ln to H om e/ s langu age an d lm plled th e absen ce of sp eclfic creatlve
acts.L ater p oets, by con trast, rew orked earller m aterlal through acts
of creatlve receptlon . For P arry, llterary hlstot'y started on ce th e
'llvlng? tradltlon of eplc had en ded, though h e w as am blvalen t
about H om er's place ln that schem e. O n the on e h and,H om e/ s art
w as percelved as truly tlm eless, thus partaklng ln a pre- or para-
llterat'y w orld of m ultlple tem p oralltles an d n arratlve cultures. O n
th e oth er h an d, H om er also exem pllf ed hls tradltlon to th e p olnt of
obllteratlng lt: both ln the sen se that h e w as seen as th e first genlus
of creatlve receptlon and ln the sen se th at h e ln augurated a long llne
of readlng an d rew rltlng.Sch olars after P art'y w ere fascln ated by thls
am blgulty.W h ereas som e sought to ldentlfy th e def nlng m om ent of
arttstlc receptlon sp eclf cally w lth H om erlc p oetry, oth ers p rovlded
supp ortln g glosses for th e ld ea th at H om erlc p oetry w as a tradltlon al

art form .
To th ls day, H om erlc scholarshlp rem aln s am blvalent, as som e
sch olars em phaslze the unlque qualltles of H om erlc eplc as reflected
ln m ore than tw o m lllennla of creatlve receptlon ; w hlle others
em ph aslze lts tradltlon alasp ects.Ten slon s betw een th ese p erceptlon s
h ave gen erated som e unp leasan t exch an ges, but H om er h as also
proved useful ln n egotlatlng th e cultural landscape of the tw entleth
cen tury. ln contexts w h ere th e dom ln an ce of E urop ean culture w as
ln creaslngly called lnto questlon by dlssldent volces an d alternatlve
tem poralltles, H om er could appear both tlm eless' and en during, as
b oth a tradltlon al oral p oet an d an icon of creative w rltln p as the
father of Europ ean hterature and one local bard am ong others. A n
lm p ortant task of H om erlc studles w as an d ls to tran sform those
perceptlons lnto a coherent plcture of H om erlc poetzy
 2

Sin gin g across th e F aultlin es: C ultu ral Sh ifts

in Tw en tieth -c en tu ry R ecep tio n s o f H o m er

L orna H ardw ick

T h e year of th e fl-lom er ln th e Tw entleth C entu ry' C onferen ce, 2004,

w as lm portant for H om erlc annlversarles.T he on e hundredth ann l-
versary of B loom sday w as celebrated on 16 pun e: m arked, am ong
oth er even ts,by tours of D ublln m applng th e places vlslted ln Jam es
loyce's U lysses by B loom an d Steph en D edalu s, an d ln scrlblng th elr
O dyssean assoclatlon s lnto th e p resent-day tou rlst m ap of D ublln .
T he R eloyce D ubhn 2004 w eb slte lncluded detalls of f'l'he Land ofth e
C yclopsnw alklng tour culm ln atlng ln th e Slrens B ar of the O rm ond e
H oteland presented a plcture oftEdw ardlan D ublln rwhlchl form ed
th e b ack -drop for cat an d m ou se gam es of lntrlgu e b etw een p olltlcal
agltators,soclahsts,Fenlans:sples and lnform erstl
A lso ln m ld-2004 (29 M ay to 1 June), the publlcatlon of a new
A rablc tran slatlon of the Ilfad w as m arked by a con feren ce ln C alro,
K'l-ran slatlon and C ultural In teractlonl T hls con feren ce exam lned th e
role of E gyp t and oth er clvlllzatlon s of th e N ear and M lddle E ast ln
th e creatlon of H om erlc eplc. T h e new translatlom overseen by
A h m ed E tm an ,z h as b een p ubllsh ed ln w h at h e d escrlbes as a <11.
1.
x-
urlous edltlonn: an d w as accom panled by the relssue,by the Egyptlan
Suprem e C o un cll of C ulture, of a p ap erb ack edltlon of th e m ost

l http y/w w w reloycedubllnzoo'lcom (last accessed 16 July 2004)

2 P rofessor of C lasslcs ln the U nlverslty o f C alro an d P reslden t of the Egyptlan
C om paratlve Llterature A ssoclatlon
: P ersonal com m uncatton,Ju ne 2004
 48 L orna H ardw kck

p op u lar verslon of th e ep lc, Sollm an E l-B ostany ns 1904 verse

tran slatlon , m arku n g th e on e h u n d redth an n lversary of lts first
publlcatlon .T hls book ls sald to have m arked the m odern reln stltu -
tlon of G reek an d L atln studles ln th e A rab w orld an d 2 1 years later
th e hrst classlcs departm ent ln an Egyptlan unlverslty w as establlsh ed
by Taha H usseln .zl T h e n ew translatlon by Professor E tm an an d h1s
team (w hich he says occupled stx years ofh1sllfe) ls ln prose slnce he
con slders th at to h ave attem p ted verse Kw ould h ave un derm ln ed
preclslonts Etm anns three alm s w ere:to rem am falthfulto the orlglnal
text, to glve an accurate p lcture of H om er's art, an d to p ro d u ce a
readable book .6 A p art from th e relatlon shlp of H om er to th e A rablc
canon, a slgnlf cant them e of the C alro conferen ce w as th e Kdyn am lc
splrlt'ofthe oralsources of eplc (not only G reek but also A rablc,of
w hlch slx m alor exam ples survlve) and the lm portance of perform -
an ce p resen tatlon ln convep n g th ls.
T h e category of p erform an ce p oetry,170th ln lts ow n rlgh t an d as
a brldge b etw een th e con cep ts of com p osltlon tradltlon , an d recep -
,

tlon ,h as b een p rom ln en t ln recen t H o m erlc sch olarsh tp an d sch olars

h ave p oln ted out h ow reversal of th e p revlou s hlerarchy b etw een
com p osltlon an d recep tlon brln gs ln to p lay th e role of th e actu al or
lm agln ed au dlen ce ln th e clrcle of com m un lcatlon ; A s T ago re p u t lt,
.

T h e sln ger alon e does n ot m ake a son g

T h ere h as to b e som eon e w h o h ears
O n e m an op en s h1s throat to slng,th e oth er slngs ln h1s m ln d 8

B loom sday an d th e n ew A rablc tran slatlon sh ow h ow broad th e

p osslble fram es of H om erlc referen ce are E ach has lts ow n hlstorles
.

4 Ford lscusslo n ofthe hlsto rlcallm portance ofthe com p aratlve analysls ofG reek and
A rablc poetry and the problem s of poetlc translatton consldered ln the lntrodud lon
to E1Bostany's translatlon,see Porm ann (2006)and Etm an (forthcom lng)
5 In A rablc llteratu re verse tran slatlon w as assoclated w lth a rhythm dlctated by th e
rhym lng segm ents, an ab un dan ce o f parallellsm an d the frequen t use of p alrs of
,

synonym s T hese ch aracterlstlcs w ere tran splan ted ln to m 1d n ln eteenth century

prose tran slatlons, for exam ple th e verslon (7l85 l by Shaykh R lfa'a R afi' al Tahtaw l
of Fenelon's dldactlc novel Les aventures de Telem aque (1696) For dlscusslon of
con trastlng late nln eteen th centu ry app roaches to p ro se tran slatlon ,see Som ekh 198 1
6 So u rce ln tervlew w lth You ssef Takha, x4/ A hram W cek/y C ulture, Q
, A p ost M 1l
lenlal Iltad ' h ttp p/w eekly ah ram org eg/2004/693/c115 htm (lastaccessed June 2004)
.

7 See Foley 19974 59,cf H aubold ,C h l ln thls volum e O n m ovem ent m u slcallty
,

and com posltlon,see D avld (2006)

8 Tagore 1987 an d , for con textu al d lscu sslon , Sen 2005 89- 120
 Sktw ng across the Fau lth tw s 49

an d lts ow n lm p act on m odern llterary an d p op ular sen slbllltles as

w ell as on aw areness of the m ultlple refractlon s of H om er an d the
w ay these have been m edlated ln varlous genres of creatlve llterature,
ln tran slatlon and ln th e lntersectlons betw een th ese. E ach expresses
ln 1ts ow n w ay th e reln scn p tlon of H om er ln to m od ern con sclo u s-
ness, ln dlalogue w lth llterary tradltlons and w lth pop ular culture.
E ach sltuates H om er at the m tersectlon of tradltlons an d th us
con stru cts a dlstln ctlve slte from w h ich dlfferent p ersp ectlves on
H om er are p osslble. T hls ch apter trles to dlsentangle som e of the
cultural stran ds lnvolved ln recen t receptlon s of H om er. T agorens
w ords lllum ln ate h ow th e slnges th e song, an d th e h earers n eed
on e an oth er. T h e approach th at l sh all d evelop h ere suggests th at
n elth er Kp h llologlcal tu n n el-vlslon ' n or 'textu al fu n d am en tallsm ;
(to borrow term s used by H lnds, 1998), or hlerarchles of chrono-
loglcal or cultural genealogy can provld e an adequate account of
the dlverse an d lnterw oven stran ds ln the processes of receptlon .g
l sh all also suggest that th e content and form al ch aracterlstlcs of
th e H om erlc eplcs, ln cludlng m edlatlon through varlous kln ds of
translatlon, provlde a dlstln ctlve an d perslstent thread ln th e prac-
tlces of recep tlon .
A n lntluentlal strand ln dlscusslon of the processes of receptlon
an d con structlon of m ean lng h as been com m en t on th e ln terface
b etw een varlous asp ects of H om er as lcon ,esp eclally th e th ree typ es
lden tl ed by N letzsche.lo T h ese lconlc aspects are: H om er as a
constru ct of classlclsm ; H om er as a foundational crux w lthin the
dlsclpllne of Classlcs (the H om erlc questlon); and H om er as a
w lnd ow lnto th e pre-classlcal past of antlqulty, a w orld of vlolence,
vengean ce, an d problem atlc nostos an d so a p oten tlal source of
un settlln g and supposedly tun -classlcar values.T h e exam ples l sh all
dlscuss derlve m alnly from th e thlrd of these but they also provlde
lm pllclt com m entary on th e lirst tw o, som etlm es by th elr dlsruptlon
of tradltlonal assum ptlon s. So w e need to look for Kfuzzy conn ec-
tlon sn b etw een an clen t an d m od ern , th at ls, relatlon shlp s, chron olo -
gles, an d p attern s of m ean lng th at do n ot h ave settled crlterla across
all exam ples of transm lsslon and m edlatlon . O ne exam ple ls the
rollln g back of th e auth orlty of th e A rlstotellan approach to tragedy

9 See H m d s 1998,esp chs 2 and 3 10 D tscttssed by Porter 20049

50 L orna H ardw kck

an d ep lc.ll A s Step h en H alllw ell h as p u t lt, rlgld A rlstotellan lsm

som etlm es,Kdeprlves the gtraglc and by extenslon the eplcl genre of
th e scop e to m ove to th e edge of, an d even o utsld e th e realm of
ratlon al u n d erstan dln p or to dram atlse even ts w h ose m ean ln g can -
n ot b e en com p assed by th e loglc of p rob ablllty or n ecessltytlz

F A U L T L IN E S A N D KF U Z Z Y ' C O N N E C T IO N S

F ollow ln g from th ls, a m alor alm of m y d lscu sslon ls to fo cu s on

th e p oten tlal of H om er receptlon s to reveal fau ltlln es w lth ln an d
b etw een cu ltu res an d to en erglze ld eas an d creatlve p ractlces th at
m ove over an d b etw een th ese. B y Kfau ltlln esn l m ean th e u n d erlyln g
cracks an d E ssures th at from tlm e to tlm e b ecom e m ore p rom ln en t
an d m ark th e lm p act of p ow erful shlfts ln p ow er, practlces, an d
paradlgm s.These faultllnes m ay be betw een cultures (for exam ple,
W estern an d n on -W estern ,w lth assoclated con stru ctlon s of occlden -
tal and orlental), betw een pow er structures (w lth lm pllcatlons for
flu ldlty ln th e con cep ts of colon lzer an d colon lzed an d ln con stru c-
tlons of the postcolonlal),or w lthln grouplngs that m ay apparently
b e clo sely allled ln term s of p lace an d even lan gu ages b u t w h lch also
h ave to w ork th rou gh th e effects of E ssure ln ord er to re-en gage ln
new w ays (for exam ple, ln postcolonlal contexts after llberatlon or
betw een unlonlsts and natlonallsts ln lreland). Recent dlscusslons
o f cultural m o d els h ave em p h aslzed th e lm p ortan ce o f ld en tlfp n g
flu ld stran d s th at m ay at dlfferen t tlm es converge or d lverge, clash ,
or form hybrld s.T h ls h as b een expressed as a relatlon sh lp b etw een
Kthlckn an d Kthlnn cultures, w lthln larger groupln gs. K'l-hlcknessn lm -
p lles overlap s,convergen ces,an d d en slty;th ln n ess lm p lles d lvergen ce
th at m ay b e m asked by a ven eer of h om ogen elty.l3 T h ls essay d ls-
cu sses som e late tw en tleth -cen tury ex am p les of H om erlc recep tlon s
th at 170th lllum ln ate cu ltural an d p olltlcal fau ltlln es an d also sh ow

ll Fo r crltlclsm o fA rlstotle's vlew s on eplc ln th e P oettcs,see also G razlosl,p p 127,

an d l30 b elow
12 H alllw ell 1989 l75
1:5 For anclent w orld m odels,see D ougherty and K urke 2003
 Stnglng across the Faultllnes 51

h ow llterary p ractlces are w orkln g across th ese, creatln g som etlm es

un exp ected cultu ral sltes ln w h lch th e trem ors lm p act m several
gen res, an d cultural contexts can fracture or m ake n ew allgn m ents.
Tw entleth -century receptlons of H om er h ave h ad an lm portant
role ln ch allen glng us to m ove from th e securlty of m on ollthlc an d
un changlng concep tlons of cultures tow ards m ore fluld m odels.
A ccordlng to Paul G llroy, B rltaln : for exam ple, ls stlll sufferm g
from a p ostcolonlal m elan cholla, a sen se of the vuln erablllty of
B rltlsh culture and an anxlety about w h at m lght be lts resldual
core. T h ls m ay take th e effect of reslstan ce to ch an ge an d exch an ge
b ut G llroy argu es also th at app aren tly progresslve n otlon s of m ultl-
culturallsm m erely repllcate a m odel of cultures of dlfferen ce an d
n eed to b e rep laced by a con cep t of group lngs an d regro up ln gs,
crossovers and shared experlences and asp lratlons.l4 G llroy has also
dlscussed the n otlon of double consclousness, the aw areness ln the
sublect of h ls or h er overlapplng ldentltles.ts H ere 1 w 1ll b e probln g
th e p osslbllltles of readerly m ultlple con sclou sn ess prom oted by th e
fram ln gs an d p ersp ectlves ln som e recen t recep tlon s of H om er an d
w lll suggest th at thls ls lm portan t not Just w lthln the fram ew ork of
classlclstsn dlscusslon s but also for our un d erstandln g of th e un der-
lym g tectom c ch an ges m cultu ral p aradlgm s.
O ne thread run nlng through thls chapter ls a sen se th at the cn tlcal
language used to lnvestlgate contem p orary receptlons of H om er ls
m ore th an usually provlslon al, som etlm es sh orth an d for dlsp ersed
an d deflected m eanlngs and lnterp retatlon s. T hls provlslonallty
m arks one sen se of Kslnglng across faultllnest T he f ssures n ot only
m ark dlsrup tlon s ln cultural certaln tles an d b on dlngs but also crack
op en th e categorles th rou gh w h ich m ean ln g ls co n cep tu allzed an d
com m u n lcated . A n o bvlo u s an d falrly recen t exam p le Is th e w ay
ln w h lch th e concept of tran slatlon h as b een revlsed and extended
to a degree th at h as m ade lts u sage frequ en tly m etaph orlcal.l6 In a

14 G llroy 2004,w lth contrlb utlons to cultural d lscusslon ln varlous m ed la lnclud

1ng Start the W c
'ck (BBC Radlo 4,12 July 2004) Itls occaslonally tem ptlng to see ln
th ls m elanch olla and angst an an alogu e for a com m tm kty of classkcksts, decentred
fronz ed ucatlon al and referen tlal dom lnan ce an d m fltzence and con tem p latlng th e
fragm entatto n rep resented by seem yn gly u nco ntrollable receptlon s
15 G llroy 1993
16 See fttrther H ardw lck 2000
52 L orna H ardw kck

revealln g lecture,D erek W alcott h as sp oken of th e arch etyp al figures,

lm ages, an d m otlfs ln H om er th at p rovld e an arch lve, a resou rce,for
later w rlters an d artlsts.l; H ow th ese reso urces are u sed an d h ow th ey
are read an d h eard ralses key qu estlon s ab o u t h ow th ey h ave travelled
across tlm e, p lace, an d lan gu age an d h ow th e storles an d th e p oetlcs
th ro u gh w h lch th ey are sh ap ed an d com m un lcated en gage ln dlalo -
glcally radlcal w ays w lth b oth Kp astsn an d Kp resen tsn an d w lth th e
con cep ts an d categorles u sed to d efin e th em .
The first of these potentlally Kfuzz/ concepts that lw ould llke to
revlslt ls th at of recogn ltlon- - fl/yfkjrrltlrs iy. ln h ls ln flu en tlal stu dy,
.

T eren ce C ave to ok as h ls startln g p oln t th e ero slon of anag non sks an d

oth er A rlstotellan con cep ts p artly b ecau se of p erm lsslve u se an d
p artly b ecau se of con tam ln atlon by related term s, su ch as recogn l-
tlon , dlscovery, an d revelatlon th at w ere som etlm es u sed as equ lva-
len ts.18 A rlstotle dlscu ssed anagnon sks as on e of th e th ree con stltutlve
aspects ofplots,along w lth penpeteka and pathos (both ofw hlch w lll
also Egure ln m y dlscusslon). A n stotlens dlscusslon ralses lssues
ab ou t th e relatlon sh lp b etw een th e loglc of com m un lcatlon an d th e
ln tern al stru ctu re of th e w ork s as w ell as ab ou t th e p ro blem s o f
p lau slblllty ln w orks th at can em brace th e m arvello u s.lg
C ave argu ed th at Klf anagnon sks ls stlllto b e u sed ln crltlcalp ractlce,
the dlspersaloflts m eanlngs has to be accepted as a faktaccomphll
O n e of C avens p urp oses w as to ch art th e hlstoty of th ls drlft an d
eroslon . T h at ls n ot m y con cern h ere. l take lt for gran ted th at th e
recogn ltlon of p ersons stressed by A rlstotle h as b een sup erseded by a
m etap h orlcal u se th at elld es recogn ltlon of p erson s w lth recogn ltlon
of states of affalrs an d of states of m ln d , recogn ltlon s bro u gh t ab ou t
by ap p reh en slon of a m om en t w h en p ast an d p resen t com e togeth er
ln a m u tu ally lllu m ln atln g gestu re th at llb erates read ers an d au dlen ces
from th e con straln ts of sup p resslon an d d en lal,ln clu dln g th at of th elr
ow n relatlon sh lp tow ard s th at p ast an d th ls p resen t.
T h u s th e cu ltu ral fau ltlln es exp o sed by th ese recogn ltlon s m ay
b e several. T h e m u ltlp le fram es of referen ce ln clu d e th o se refracted

17 W alcott 1997, an d D avls ln thls volu m e, p p 207- 8

18 C ave 199 0
19 E sp ln P oettcs l6, see H alllw ell 1998,w lth n ew ln trod u ctlo n , esp at 296- 7
20 C ave 199 0 22 l
 Skngkng across the Faulthnes 53

ln th e an clen t text,th ose add ed ln lts m lgratlon s through tlm e,place,

an d lan guage an d ln th e som etlm es Jarrlng an d collldln g sublectlv-
ltles of th e recelvlng auth ors,read ers,an d au dlen ces.P eelln g back th e
layers lnvolved ln m etaph orlcal recogn ltlon s lnvolves ld entlfp n g
stran ds of cultural m em ory an d asplratlon th at problem atlze th e
n otlon of nostos. T h e process ln evltably lnvolves textu al dlsplace-
m en t,an un certaln ty about th e relatlon shlp b etw een cause an d effect
an d ab out th e processes of read ln p h earln p and recognlzln p zl
esp eclally ln th e tran sferen ce of recogn ltlon from ch aracters w lthln
th e an clen t text to readers,au dlen ces,an d sp ectators Joln ln g th e n ew
text. G lven m y rem arks ab o ut th e p rovlslon allty of crltlcal lan gu age,
lt ls w orth beln g esp eclally atten tlve to th e w ays ln w hlch artlstlc
p ractlce can ln form th eory.

H O M E R A N D C U L T U R A L F A U L T L IN E S IN IR E L A N D

To explore th ese p oln ts furth er l w an t to con slder som e exam ples

from the poetty of M lchael Longley (born ln Belfast, N orthern
lrelan d, ln 1939 of E n gllsh p aren ts w h o h ad m oved to lrelan d from
London ln 1927).ln 1958 he w ent to Trlnlty C ollege,D ublln,ln the
R ep ubllc of lrelan d, w h ere h e read C lasslcs. H e becam e a teach er ln
L on don ,D ublln , an d B elfast an d th en from 1970 to 199 1 w orked for
th e A rts C oun cll of N orth ern lrelan d .L on gley's p oetty ls sh ap ed by
h ls ln terest ln th e econ om y an d varlety of p oetlc form s. H ls m aln
th em es are n ature,w ar,p eace,love and ,an lm als,an d h ls p oem s often
lnvolve overlap s an d lnverslon s ln th em e, place, an d tlm e-sp an .
T h e exp erlen ces of L ongley's fath er ln th e Flrst W orld W ar, ln
w h lch at th e age of 20 h e com m an d ed a gro up of b oy soldlers
k n ow n as L on gley's b ab es, h ave p rovld ed a lastln g an d often u n ele-
glac fram ew ork to hls exploratlons ofw ar.A n early poem ,tW oundsl
ln x'trlExploded vipw (1972) beglns:
H ere are tw o plctu res from m y fath er's h ead-
I h ave kept th em llke secret untll n ow
Flrst th e U lster D lvlslon at th e Som m e

21 Ibld 260
 (

54 L orna H ardw kck

G oln g over th e top w lth fFu ck th e P op el'

'N o su rren derl' a b oy ab ou t to dle,
Scream ln g 'G lve 'em on e for th e Sh an kh llll'
'W llder th an th e G urkh as'w ere m y fath er's w ords
O f adm lratlon an d b ew llderm en t

(repr ln Longley 1998 36)

l have started w lth thls non-l-lom erlc extract (although lw ould not
necessarlly call lt un-l-lom erlc) because lt show s how Longley llkes
to m ove scen es, w ord s, reson an ces from on e h lstorlcal con text to
an oth er, lllum ln atln g h ow th e em otlon s Kadm lratlon an d b ew lld er-
m en f can slt alon gsld e on e an oth er ln a w ay th at ls slm ultan eou sly
n on -lu d gem en tal an d sh o ckln g to th e read er.22 T h e p o em also ln dl-
cates h ow L on gley ls sltu ated at th e ln tersectlon of tradltlon s, on e
of w hlch ls the (m alnly) Protestant and U nlonlst N orthern lrlsh
tradltlon th at h old s ln lts exp erlen ce an d ln lts cultural m em ory
th e exp erlen ces an d su fferln g of th e U lster D lvlslon of th e B rltlsh
arm y at th e b attle of th e Som m e ln 19 16.23 L on gley h as d lscu ssed ln
ln tervlew s th e lm p act of th e Flrst W orld W ar on h lm as an U lster
p o et, b oth dlrectly b ecau se of h ls fath e/ s exp erlen ces an d on h ls
lm agln atlon b ecau se of th e p o etlc ln flu en ces of E dw ard T h om as,
W llfred O w en , an d lsaac R osen b erg. T h ese ln flu en ces en able h lm
to lln k p ast an d fu tu re- KW h en l read a p o em llke KKllead M an 's
D u m pnn by lsaac R o sen b erg l feel as th ou gh lf s th e yo un g A eschylu s
or th e yo un g Sop h ocles w alkln g on th e m u d dy d u ckb o ard s.... l
th ln k th at th e p o ets h ere n eed ed som e kln d of sh ap e w lth w h lch to

22 In h 1s lm agln atlo n L on gley ln terred h1s fath er alo n gsld e three you n g Scottlsh
sold lers k tlled at a pub d u rln g the Tro ub les ln N o rth ern lrelan d ln th e last p art of th e

twentleth centurI To thlsLongley added an lm ageofayoung param llltary gunm an

('a shlverlng boy )saylng ,Sorry M lssus7to the w lfe ofa m an he shotln h1sow n hom e
For fttrth er d lscu sslon o f the cen trallty o f the po em ln L o n gley's w ork ,see the revlew
artlcle by Brearton (1998/9) and Brearton (2006),Ch 2
23 A cultural m em ory also explored by the C athollc republlcan w rlter Frank
M cG ulnness ln h1s play 'O bserve the Sons of U lster M archlng tow ards the Som m el
i rst staged at th e P eacock T h eatre, D ub lm , kn Feb ru ary 19 85 w kth m any revkvals
(publlshed text 1996 91-197) ln h1s lntroductlon to the volum e (p x),M cG ulnness
com m en ted th at h e w rote the play ln C oleraln e,ln the N orth ,w lth th e h elp of a gran t
from the Irlsh A rts C ou n cll an d th at Q1t w as an eye o pen er for a C ath ollc R epu bllcan ,
as l am ,to h ave to exam ln e th e co m plextty,dlverslty,d lstu rban ce an d ln tegrlty o f th e
o ther sld e, the P ro testan t p eo p le'
 Skngkng across the Faultlknes 55

deal w lth th e em erglng nlghtm are of the Troubles7.z4 U ntll recently,

L ongley's com bln atlon of sensltlvlty to th e lm pact of th e First W orld
W ar and hls exp osure of th e vlolen ce and p ath os of th e sectarlan
asp ects ofth e Troubles th at re-em erged ln th e late 1960s ln a N orth of
Irelan d w hlch w as stlll p art of th e U nlted K lngdom an d dlvlded
from th e ln dependen t Irlsh R ep ubllc, dlstan ced hls w ork from b oth
N atlon a1lst an d U nlonlst tradltlon s ln 1re1and .25 H ow ever, ln 2006
the revlval of the cerem ony ln D ublln to m ark the nln etleth annlver-
sary of th e 19 16 E aster R lsln g agaln st B n tlsh rule ln Irelan d w as to
be m atched by a cerem ony on l July to m ark the sacrlfice of Irlsh
soldlers, from n orth and south , C athollc as w ell as P rotestant: at
th e b attle of th e Som m e ln 19 16 . T h is su ggests a p ubllc, lf taclt,
recognltlon of th e lcon lc p arallels ln dlfferent sph eres of lrlsh polit-
lcal culture b etw een th e E aster R lslng an d th e Flrst W orld W ar,

especlally th e Som m e.26

P lap ng w lth scen es of recogn ltlon ls a key feature of L ongley's
w ork an d H om er becom es a con d ult for conversatlon s th at cross
cultural,rellglous,an d polltlcal dlvldes.T hese aspects com e togeth er
ln the w ay that L on gley has m ade lyrlc, n ot eplc, a m a/or m edlum
for H om erlc receptlon an d thls lnn ovatlon actually converges w lth
recent research on th e relatlonshlp betw een H om er and lyrlc, espe-
clally th e affim tles m rep ster: m etaphor, and form b etw een G reek
lyrlc and th e em bedded slm lle m an clent ep 1c.27 L ongley's approach
to H om er ls p arad oxlcal ln th at h ls p oetlcs lnvolves,on th e on e h an d ,
apparen tly exact use of H om er, b ased on selectlon of ep lsodes an d
som etlm es close tran slatlon s and,on th e oth er h an d,dlsplacem ent of
scen es, w ords, reson ances, from on e con text to anoth er w lth an
authorlalvolce that com blnes lack of expllcltyudgem en tw lth a tautly
constructed shock to the reader.28 In an lntervlew w lth D erm ot H ealy

21 B rearto n 199 7 3 s-9 , at 37

25 A further factor m the co m paratve lack of ln ternatlon al reco gnltlon for Long
ley's early w ork ls th at a m alor llterary crltlc ln the N orth ls E d na Lon gley, w ho by
agreem ent does n ot refer extenslvely to her h ttsband 's w ork C om pare the dlscasslon
ln Tap lln , pp 186- 7 below
26 D lscussed ln B rearto.n 2000
27 See R P M artln's sttldy ofth e affknktes,ynclud tng form alcongruenctes,betw een
epte stm tle and lyrtc (M arttn 1997,esp 166) O n H om erlc slm lles ln Longley,see also
Taplln : C h 7 ln thls volu m e
28 For dlscusslon of Longley's uses of translatlon s of H om cr,see H ardw lck 2006
 (

56 L orna J'O rflw /trk

of F orce Ten, C o un ty M ayo,29 L on gley sp oke of h ls love for early lrlsh

h alk u -llke lyrlcs, K'l-h ey rem ln d u s th at m ln latu re ls n ot th e sam e as
m lno/ (llke Chopln, Sappho, C atullus). Longley uses H om er not
slm p ly as a cu ltu ral referen t b u t as an ln tegral volce ln d lalogu e
b etw een p ast an d p resen t, m em ory an d exp erlen ce, frlen d an d
en em y, p ubllc an d prlvate. H ls reflectlon on th e con tln ulng p oetlc
p resen ce of H om er ls en cap su lated ln th e sh ort p o em Kl-lom e/ s
O ctop u s' ln w h lch p oetry ls,

L lk e H om er's octop u s
Yan ked out of 1ts hldey-h ole, su ckers
Fu ll of tlny ston es, excep t th at th e ston es
A re P reclo u s Ston es O r Sem l-p reclotls Sto n es

(Longley 1995 45)

T h e reson an ces w lth th e lm agery of m ln ln g are slgn lf can t.B u t w h at
L on gley does n ot do ln thls p lece ls allu de to th e secon d p art of th e
slm lle ln O dyssey 5 lln es 432- 5,ln w hlch th e contact w lth th e rock ln
th e co urse of h ls tro ub led Jo u rn ey tore aw ay th e skln from th e h an d s
of O dysseu s.
ln a n u m b er of h ls p oem s, L on gley's tran sp lan tatlon of recogn l-
tlon scen es lnvolves a su n d erln g of som e of th e p attern s ln H om er.
P eter G aln sford h as p ub llsh ed th e results of h ls form al an alysls of
recogn ltlon scen es ln th e O dyssey.s G aln sford b ased h ls stu dy on
E fteen recogn ltlon scen es ln O dyssey 13- 24 an d p o slted a syn tax
of typ e scen es, recordln g regu larltles of m otlfs an d h ow th ey relate
to on e an oth er, an alysln g n arratologlcal to ols, th e typ e scen e as
p erform an ce, an d th e sem an tlcs of th e recogn ltlon scen e.H e dlstln -
gu lsh ed fo u r p osslble m oves- testln g, d ecep tlon , foretellln p an d
recogn ltlon , th e last tw o b eln g form s of on e an oth er so th at n o
scen e h as b oth .G aln sford p oln ts o ut h ow ln th e E u ty klela recogn ltlon
scene ln H om er (O J. 19.361-475) the Ktestlng' elem ent draw s out
evldence of loyalty (343-68),the detrlm ental effects of absence and
th e role of th e p rotagon lst ln en ablln g loyalty to b e revealed ,
and the relatlonshlp restored lntact. Yet, ln hls poem KEutyclelal3l

29 H ealy 1995
30 G alnsford 2003,bulldlny on h1s earller chapter (G alnsford 2001)
31 Lo n gley 199 1 CEu ryclela'
 Skngkng across the Ffllg/f//rls 57

L on gley problem atlzes th at recogn ltlon . H e begln s w lth lln es closely

related to H om es
B ut O dysseu s shtfted ou t of th e tireltght, afratd
she m lght n otlce h1s scar,th e key to h1s lden tlty
A w oun d a b oar ln fllcted years back

T h e narratlve volce seeds the referen ce to lden tlty w hlch ls develop ed

ln th e secon d p art of th e p oem ln w hlch th e p oet llken s hlm self to
O dysseus, far from h om e h avln g Kfallen ln loven w lth th e w ron g
w om an (the nurse w ho reared hlm ),w ho alone rem em bers,
W h ere tn a com p ost of dead leaves th e boar con ceals
Its brlstlln g spln e an d re-red eyes an d w hlte tusks

T h e lln es h ave som etlm es been read as referrln g to th e scars left by

sectarlan conthctln thenorth ofIre1and.32H ow ever,Longle/sreson-
an ces are m any-layered an d can equ ally be read as alludln g to hls ow n
sublectlvlty or to th e p sych ology of h um an rem em berln gs of th e
traces of lden tlty. H ere ln L ongley, G aln sford 's sequen ce of testln g,
d ecep tlon , an d recognltlon lnvolves a m eta-p oetlcs w h lch can also
lnvolve a reflectlon on recogn ltlon'b oth ln H om er an d ln th e p resent.
ln a recent publlc readlng (Ledbuty H erefordshlre,England,20
M arch 2004),Longley spoke of the JliflJ as tthe great m edltatlon on
w a/ an d descrlbed th e resonan ces exten dm g th rou gh an d beyon d th e
Flrst W orld W ar to w h at h e called our ow n tacky llttle clvll w ar m
lrelan d'.N everth eless, L on gley's secon d collectlon z'trlExp loded ku w
testlfies to th e lm p act of th e vlolen ce ln th e N orth th at left hlm w lth a
sen se of dlvlded llterary an d p olltlcal ahgn m en t. ln h ls subseq uen t
p oetry h eh as draw n ln p artlcularon th ew ay ln w hlch th e .r/iflfln clud es
m om en ts awn d ln slgh ts ofp eace th at serve to p utw arln rellef,to convey
a sen se, a recogn ltlon ,of w h at ls lost.O n e exam ple ls th e sonn et tW ar
an d P eacen an lm age from w h lch p rovldes th e tltle for h ls colled lon
Snt)w J'V'
flfrr.33 T h e p oem p lcks up on th e exten ded slm lle ln Ihad
22 .139- 56:offerln g a tlash back to p eace w hlch d arken sw lth aw aren ess
of th e lm m ln ent death of H ector an d th e sufferln g th at ls to com e:

32 The edltorlal com m ent from G eorge Stelner and A m lnadav D ykm an (1996
337),refers to Qthe am blgultles and vlolence of O dysseus'hom ecom lng asan allegory
of th e B elfast con d ltlon'
33 L on gley 2004
58 L on a H ardw ck

W h ere Trolan h ou sew lves an d th elr pretty dau ghters

U sed to rln se gllstenlng cloth es m th e good old d ays,
O n w ash days b efore the G reek soldlers cam e to Troy

A s w lth other Longley respon ses to H om er, elem ents of th e poem

com e clo se to dlrect tran slatlon , yet lt ls also a n ew p o em .
Longleyns Juxtaposltlon of vlolence and dom estlclty ls also
deployed to searlng effectln t'l'he H elm et'(The G hostO rchtd).H ere,
h e creates a vlew of th e scen e ln Ihad 6 ln w hlch H ector plays w lth h ls
son A styanax (llnes 466 ff.).The vernacular ldlom groundsthe scene
ln lrelan d- th e Kw ealf ls terrlf ed by H ectorns bron ze arm our an d
especlally th e h orseh alr crest on hls h elm et.34 T h e chlldns Km am m y'
laugh s as H ector takes offh ls h elm et so th at h e can com fort th e ch lld .
T h e scen e of dom estlc bllss ls th en dlssolved by th e bltterly lacon lc
closln g lln es, w h en H ector, Kp rayed th at h ls son m lgh t grow up
b lo o dler th an h lm t
T h e n otlon of son sn em ulatlon of fath ers lln ks th e un derlyln g
causes and effects of w ars an clent an d m odern . lt plcks up the lln e
at Ihad 6.48 1 w hen H ector h opes that hls son w lll on e day Kbrlng
hom e the blooded sp olls and dellght the heart of h ls m oth ert3s
L on gley's closure subverts th e m ood of p eace an d dom estlclty b ullt
up ln th e earller lln es of the p oem . lt follow s H om er ln m oderatlng
the reglster to ln clude the seeds of future confh ct. lt ls, lf anythln p
harder an d bleaker on H om er th an H om er ls on the scen e.lt holds
ln tenslon the ldeallzlng reveren ce for H om er- especlally veneratlon
of the scen es of peace- an d th e abyss of the w orld of vlolen ce
an d vengean ce of w hlch H om er's ls on e vlslon and Longleyns ls
argu ably even w orse.36 K'fh e H elm et' forces thls gh astly recogn ltlon
on th e reader. Longleyns dlsruptlon s of tlm escale and lnverslon of
m lcrocosm an d m acrocosm create an experlence for the reader
w hlch destablllzes any sen se of ease or certaln ty about lm ages of
peace or ab out th e unproblem atlc cultural valorlzatlon of th e

:4 Lon gley also ttses place nam es an d to pograp hy to m ark H om en c alluslon s as

Irlsh,for exam ple ln Q'f'he C am p Flresl w hlch draw s on the genre scene at the end of
Iltad 8 (553-65) See Taplln ln thls volum e,pp 189-90 below
:5 In Lattlm ore's (1951) translatlon Thls follow s the H om erlc text llne by hne
and usually com m unlcates lts form al characterlstlcs
:6 See further the dlscttsslon ofN letzsche and the H om erlc abysses LdteA bgrunde)
ln Po rter 2004 9
 Skngkng across the Ftzt/lfn r/s 59

corresp ond en ces b etw een recep tlon texts an d H om er. T h ese sh ort
p oem s w lth th elr lon g lln es an d som etlm es ln trlcate syntax blen d
form al and d em otlc lan guage w lth ln th e lyrlc form to add em otlon
an d p athos to the n arratlve of w ar.37
M etaphorlcal penp eteka ls also crafted ln Longley's poem K'l'he
H orsest38 T hls eleven -lln e p oem brln gs togeth er th e th ree m aln
features of L ongley's refguratlon of H om er- lyrlc form , dlalogues
b etw een p asts an d p resents,an d use of dlrect textu alcorresp on den ces,
ln clu dln g close tran slatlon s. T h e p oem allu d es to co ntem p orary
calls for a m em on al to th e h orses ku lled ln w ar.39 T h e referen ces to

th e h orses butch ered on th e b attle eld

Sh ell-sh ocked,trlppln g up over th elr ow n lntestln es
D row n ln g ln th e m u d

ap ply to th e h orses th e lm ages of death assoclated w lth th e soldlers ln

th e Flrst W orld W ar by th e p oetry of R osenb erg, Sorley: an d O w en .
T h e op en lng lln es are a varlatlon on th ose of W llfred O w enns A n th em
forD oom ed Youthn- t'
W hatpasslng-bellsforthosewho dleascattle?1
O n ly th e m on strou s an ger of th e gun s.'40 T h e suggestlon ln K'I'h e
H orses' th at a m em orlal to th e tw en tleth -century slaughter ls to b e
foun d ln H om er ls a dlstln ctlve varlatlon on L ongley's relatlon of th e
d eath of a m odern soldler to lh ad 8, 306- 8 ln hls p oem CA Pop pyn:'ll

W h en m llllon s m arch lnto th e m ln clng m ach ln e

A n lm age ln H om er plcks out the m dlvldu al
T om m y
'L olllng to on e slde llke a p oppy ln a garden

H 1s h ead drooped un der th e h eavyk crestfallen

H elm et'tan tm age V trgtlsteals- dtzsso ptzptzvcrfz
Collo- and so do I),and so G orgythlon dles,

57 M cllon ald 2000 4 1

38 Publlshed ln the Ttm es L tterary Supplem ent, 21 January 2000, and Longley
(20009 29)
:9 M ore th an 8 m llllon h orses d led ln actlon du rm g th e F lrst W orld W ar ln 2004
th e A ntm als J// I'kr
fzr m em orlal, d eslgned by the sculp to r D avld B lack ho tzse, w as
unvelled ln Lon do n
40 W O w en, A nthem for D oom ed Youthl ln Stallw orthy 1985 76-7
41 Lon gley 20009 20 For d lscusslon of thls po em , see also Tap lln , pp 187- 8
b elow
60 L orna H f7rlw ic/f

A n d th e p oppy th at sh eds 1ts flow er-h eads ln a day

G row s m on e sum m er four hun dred m ore,w htch m ean s
Tw o th ousan d p etals overlapplng as th ough to m ake
A cap e for th e corn goddess or a soldler's soul

ln A Poppyl an im age in H om er prolects forw ard ln tlm e to the

m odern K'lb m m yt In 'T he H orsesl42 Longley dlsrupts the loglcal
chronology ofalluslon by suggestlng that Kthe bestw ar m em orlal 1
ls ln H om ern- recalllng th e m ourn ln p lm m ortal h orses of Ihad
17.423-45. T h e conlun n g of th e kleos of th e h orses becom es th e
axls for reverslng th e focu s onto th e d eath of th e h um an . T h e
p oem en ds w lth a reverse slm lle th at draw s togeth er th e lm age of
th e m em on al an d th e h orses ln hn es th at follow closely th e prose
tran slatlon of E .V R leu .43 T h e h orses are-

Im m ovable as a tom b ston e

B ecau se th ey are stlll ln m ourn ln g for P atro clu s
T h elr ch arloteer, th elr sh lny m an es b edraggled
U n der th e yoke p ads on elth er slde of th e yoke

T hls p oem ls drlven by an In tertextual an d a ch ron ologlcal dlsplace-

m en t th at Jolts th e read er lnto a trecogn ltlon'. E xploratlon of th e
relatlonshlp betw een sufferln gs h um an an d anlm al, m ortal an d
lm m ortal, an d betw een m aterlal an d em otlon al asp ects of m ournln g
tak es on an alm ost ludlc form .T h e recognltlon ls less an ep lstem o -
loglcal event th an a p erform atlve tran sgresslon of th e recelved fram e-
w orks of an throp ocentrlsm , loglc, an d tlm e. T h e vlsu al lm ages are
acute.T h e m ou rn m g h orses are actu ally llke a m em orlalfor h um an s;
th elr stllln ess ls ln ltself m on um en tal.T h e h ot tears sh ed by th e h orses
ln th e Ihad recur ln P lcasso's lm age of th e w eepln g h orse ln h 1s
G tfcrfu cc: a resp on se to vlolence an d sufferlng ln th e Sp an lsh C lvll
W ar. H om e/ s vocabulary attrlbutes to th e h orses th e qualltles of
ph yslcal stren gth and b eauty assoclated elsew h ere ln th e p oem w lth
th e h eroes, w hlle th e w ords used for th e h orsesn em otlon s an d tears
recurln 170th th e Ihad an d th e O dyssey jn sltuatlon s w h ere h um an s are
lam en tln g.H ow ever,u nllke H om er,L on gley d oes n ot m ake th e h orses
lm m ortaln or doesh e dlrectly com m ent on w h at h um an s are thlnkln g.
T h e relatlon shlp w lth th e reader ls dlrect.T h e read er ls lnvlted to en ter

42 Longley 2000: 29 43 Rleu 1966 (orlg 1950)

 Skng kng across the Fau lth nes 61

th e tran shlstorlcalw orld of th e p oem an d th u s to actlvate th e recog-

m tlon created by th e ln terw eavln g of ln tertextuallty an d th e dlsrup -
tlon of conven tlon al tlm e.ll ln L on gleyns w ork as a w h ole, H om er
p rovldes th e lntertext ln w hlch th e culturalm em ory ofth e FlrstW orld
W ar an d th e p olltlcal realltles an d vlolen ce of th e Troubles In tersect.
T h lsp artlcularp oem exem pllf es th e p oetlctech n lqu esth rough w h lch
h e creates th e sltes on w hlch th ose p ersp ectlves can m eet.

C U L T U R A L S IT E S F O R T H E O D Y S S E Y I
T H E D IS R U P T IO N S O F T E M P O R A L IT Y

ln m y n ext set of exam ples lw ant to use th ls m etap h or of recogn ltlon

an d lts close assoclatlon w lth the dlsruptlon or pertp etefa of expect-
atlon to explore th e p aradlgm of nostos an d lts p art m th e foun d atlon
m yth of th e H om erlc text.T hlsw lllalso lnvolve con sld eratlon ofsom e
of th e tran sgresslon s of H om erlc con ten t an d form th at sh ap e lts
m odern cultural lm p act. T h e resp on se to an d p artlal overthrow of
audlen ce exp ectatlon s ln th e eplsode of P en elop ens W rath ln D erek
W alcotfs T he O dyssey ' A Stage Verskon h as attracted a good d eal
of crltlcal attentlon . In returnln g to thls I shall suggest th at th e
sequ en ce lnvolves m ultlple recogn ltlon s th at relate to faultlln es ln
th e H om erlc p oem ltself, ln W alcotfs ow n sen se of dlvlded cultural
an d artlstlc lden tlty an d ln the aesthetlc an d m oral responses of the
audlen ce an d read ers ln b oth an clen t and m od ern con texts of recep -
tlon .45 Iw lll suggest th at th ere ls a dlstln ctlve kln d of reverse slm lle at
w ork here. ln classlcal receptlon s slm lles m ay m ove: as w as the case
w lth anag non sv, n ot slm p ly from ch aracter to sltu atlon b ut also to
express th e dyn am lcs w lthln th e eplc an d b etw een th e eplc an d lts
recelvlng genre, thu s p rom ottng an exchan ge of characterlstlcs and
attn butes th at tran sform s th e p ercep tlon s of readers an d audlen ces.'l6
T h e d uo -dlrectlon altralectorles of th e reverse slm lle also coh ere w lth

44 Fo r exten ded dlscusslon Of th e H om er p assagey see Scheln 2002,esp p l95 o n

vocab ulary
45 F or p revlou s d lscu sslo n , See H ardw lck 2000 l 18-25
16 F or th e lm p act of reverse skm kles m H om er see F olo r 1987 Fo r explo ratton of
th e m etap hor of receptlon as slm lle, see H ardw lck l997
62 L orna H ardw kck

the play of deslre explored ln m odern C arlbbean llterature and dram a,

w h lch h as u sed H om erlc th em es as a w ay of com ln g to term s w lth th e
b urden s an d lnlurles of th e p ast. Taken togeth er, th ese ralse cru clal
q u estlon s ab o u t cu rren t an d fu tu re sh lfts ln th e cu ltu ral role of
H om erlc ep lc an d lts cap aclty for cro ss-gen re tran sp lan tatlon .
D erek W alcottns T he O dyssey '.?1 Stage W ryitlrlw as lirst p erform ed at
th e R oyal Sh ak esp eare C om p any's Studlo T h eatre, th e O th er Place,
Stratford-upon -A von,on 2 July 1992,dlrected by G regory D oran and
d eslgn ed by M lch aelP ave1k a.47 It w as su bseq u en tly staged ln L on d on
(atThePlt,Barblcan)and ln a D anlsh translatlon ln D enm ark ln 1994
an d ln E ngllsh ln W aslu ngton ,D C .lth asalso h ad dram atlzed readln gs
ln PortofSpaln (by theTrlnldad TheatreW orkshop)and ln N ew York.
In both the staged an d p ubllsh ed verslon s th e bllnd B lues slnger/
n arrator/p ralse sln ger B llly B lu e volced th e relatlon sh lp b etw een
dlasp ora and artlstlc m ventlon . H e rep resented th e travellm g bards
of an clent G reece, an d llke th em carrled the m em ot'y of the past.H e
also represen ted th e sh ap lng volce of tw entleth -cen tury black con -
sclou sn ess,carrylng th e m em ory of a past traum atlzed by slavery and
exlle.H ls sln gln g also created an ew th e culturalm em ory of th e agony
of the experlen ce of Troy, the traces of Egyptlan w lsdom , the
creollzatlon of language an d consclousness,an d drew on th e capaclty
of th e B lu es to en gage a n ew com m un lty of llsten ers. T h e n arratlve
au th orlty an d ln slgh ts carrled by th e force of th e m u slc, gesture,
costum e, settln p an d actlng styles,w hlch d eployed C arn lval as w ell
as n aturallstlc th eatre tradltlon s,created an aesth etlcally coh eren t lield
for cu ltu ral tran slatlon an d p erform atlve exch an ge.'l8
T hls even t w as b oth tran shlstorlcal an d tran scultural an d created
ln th e audlen ce a d ouble con sclousn ess, an aw aren ess b oth th at
H om erlc lm ages, sltu atlon s an d relatlon sh lp s exert a cultu ral p ow er
an d also th at th ls cu ltu ral p ow er ls p ro blem atlc, su blect to ap p rop rl-
atlon an d de-approprlatlon an d to refguratlon . lt carrles E elds of
m ean ln g th at are n egotlable.T h ls w as exp ressed p erform atlvely ln a
n ew an d ch allenglng reversal at th e en d of th e play, ln th e sequ en ce
th at 1 h ave called P en elop ens W rath .49 In H om er, P en elop e ls a f gure

47 P ub llshed text, W alcott 1993

48 For dlscusslon of translatlonal culture, see B habha 1994 2 l2
49 H ardw lck 2000 l20 ff
 Szngzng (lcrclss the Fctflflfrlcs 63

to w h om at least a sh are ln kleos m ay be attrlbuted .so In W alcotfs Stage

V erskon P en elop e ls con stru cted as a w om an of stren gth an d ls
su clen tly em p ow ered to express w rath . H er w rath ls derlved n ot
on ly from th e cau ses ln H om er ofw h at H ann a R olsm an h as descrlbed
as h er Kln dlgn atlon ,nsl b ut also from cau ses about w hlch H om er ls
sllent but subsequ ent hlstory ls eloquen t. T h ese cau ses are tran s-
p lan ted ln to th e play through th e cataclysm lc lm p act of th e burnln g
of Troy an d carrled through th e p erform an ce ln th e lln gulstlc reglsters
of B llly B lu e,E uryclela,an d M elanth o.T h e R eh earsalText h ad N estor
say, t'l-roy w as all sm oke, w e could h ear th e black w om en w allt T h e
b urn ers of Troy: too, carrled th e effects b ack w lth th em on th elr
h om ew ard Journ ey.N ot on ly does O dysseu s'slaughter of th e sultors
tu rn th e h ou se ln to w h at P en elop e calls an ab attom sz h e ls also ln ten t
on h anglng th e servlng w om an M elanth o.
T h e h an gln g ofth e servln g w om en ln H om er h as attaln ed th e status
of a top os ln tw en tleth -century fem ln lst con sclousn ess. For exam p le,
M argaret A tw ood ln h er n ovel T he H andm akd 's Tale d eplcts so -called
dellnquentw om en hung ln a llne ln a rope cerem ony (a Salvaglng),
sup ervlsed by w om en w h o,llke E u ryclela ln W alcott's p lay, are called
A unts.53 I h ave w rltten elsew h ere ab out th e extent to w hlch W alcottns
h an dlln g of thls eplsode m lght be con sldered un ch aracterlstlcally
sym p ath etlc to th e fem ale p ersp ectlve on thls ln clden t- alth ough h e
ls of course also on record as saylng that Klnslderlsm n (w hether of
gender,race,or class) ls fatalto artlstlc developm ent.sz
lThe aesthetlc
dyn am lcs of hls p lay requlred P en elop e to b e p osltlve w lthln th e
fram ew ork of h er cultural n orm s an d th e text p lays on th e danger of
h er beln g regarded as a m arble statu e, an lm age u sed to refer to
P en elop e, an d also to an clen t culture, as an ln actlve oblect sublect
to p lllage.55 H ow eves l thln k th at m y prevlou s dlscusslon of thls crux
ln m odern classlcal recep tlon p robably overem ph aslzed th e gen der

50 O dyssey l8 255 and 19 128,for d lscu sslon see K atz 199 1 59- 68
51 R o lsm an 19 87
52 Stage Verston (W alcott 1993) Act11 Scene vl(p 153) and cf Longle/s (1991)
Q'I'he B utchersl ln w hlch the lm age of the abattolr ls assoclated w 1th sectarlan
v o lence
53 A tw o od 1987,see also A tw ood 2005
54 H ardw lck 2000 123
55 Stage V'crs/t?rl The m etaphor pervades the textA ctl Scene w (p l5) l kv l5,see
also A ct 11 Scene l11 (p l6)
64 L orna H ardw kck

slgn lf can ce at th e exp en se of th e assoclatlon s w lth race an d th e

hlstory ofslavety (one contrlbutlon ofpostcolonlaltheory and prac-
tlce has been to bn ng these tw o dlscourses together).The language
an d productlon styles ldentlf ed M elanth o, played by a black actress
an d doubled w lth N auslcaa, w lth th e enforced corruptlon of
ln n o cen ce. Fu rth erm ore, th e p ro d u ctlon w as a llve p erform an ce,
n ot a read or sp oken text. T h e sp ectators w ere presen tly lnvolved ln
th e con stru ctlon ofm eanln g an d th e text an d setlnvlted th em to relate
th e sp eech an d actlon ofth e play to p ost-l-lom erlc artlstlc conventlon s
an d h lstorles. T h ere ls an argum en t th at th e ld entlf catlon of M el-
an th o w lth th e h lstory of slavery an d P en elop ens p reven tlon of h er
h an gln g m arked a refu sal by W alcott to d ef n e th e p lay as an en act-
m en t of a hlstorlcally auth entlc sltu atlon , an d th at th ese ln n ovatlon s
p roclalm m oral Ju dgem en ts on h lstory an d on H om er. T h e asso cl-
atlon of eplc w lth p erform an ce m ade dlfferent dem an ds. lt m lgh t b e
sald th at th e rew rltln g conven lently freed th e m od ern audlen ce from
cu ltural an d voyeurlstlc com p llclty ln a h an gln g th ey w ou ld fin d
rep ugn an t.E qually,lt could be sald th at,ln term s of W alcotfs an aly-
sls, th e sequ en ce cou ld b e seen as an a rm atlon of th e d eslre to
recogn lze hlstoty but to avold becom ln g lts p rlson er.
ln W alcottns reversal th ere ls an un derlylng sym m etry w lth H om er.
ln H om er too, P en elop e h as to b e rep o sltlon ed ln accord an ce w lth
audlen ce exp ectatlon s.T h e p olltlcs of plau slblllty return ed h er to th e
u p p er ro om . ln W alcott th e an alogu e of au dlen ce exp ectatlon glves
h er at least som e say ln th e p rocess of h er redom estlcatlon . T h e
n orm s of th e n ew cultural slte h ave to b e ob served , yet th e slm lle
between the dynam lcs (rather than the content) of the sltuatlon
stlll h olds. ln H om er reverse slm lles are u sed to llnk ln dlvlduals
w h o are oth etw lse dlfferentlated .s6 T h e reversal or p erkp eteka ls, ln
W alcott, aesth etlcally sym m etrlcal w lth th e dyn am lcs of H om er b u t
w h en h eld ln com p arlson w lth H om er lt also trlggers recognltlon
th at h om ecom ln g ls p roblem atlc ln term s of con sclo u sn ess. R efrac-
tlon s of H om er are n ecessarlly dlfferent after th e ab olltlon of ch attel
slavery. lt ls also th e case th at m odern p sych ology h as th eorlzed
th e corresp on den ces betw een th e afterm ath of Troy an d beh avlour
ln duced by p ost-traum atlc stress.

56 A s ln the lnverted soclalroles and focallzatlons dlscussed by Foley (1987)

 Slnglng across the Faultlknes 65

T h e W alcott reversal ls p erh ap s p artly derlved from hls vlew th at

by attacklng a tradltlon yo u m ay m erely serve to glve lt auth orlty an d

thusperpetuate It.H e wrote ln TheA4ik-

sp ofkhstory:
In th e N ew W orld servltu de to th e m use of hlstory has produced a llterature
of recn m ln atlon an d desp alr,a hteratttre of revenge w rltten by th e descen d-
ants of slaves or a llteratu re of rem orse w n tten by th e descen dants of
m asters T h e tou gh aesth ettc of th e N ew W orlds n elth er explaln s n or
forglves hlstory It refuses to recognlze lt as a creatlve or culp able force 57

W alcott's app roach :an d esp eclally h ls d eterm lnatlon to reop en th e

w oun ds of hlstory only ln ord er to assu age th e p aln an d to en able
p oet an d reader to m ove on , h as been cn tlclzed as lnvolvln g denlal.
In hls Stage Vern on, h1s dram atlc strategy lnvolved dlsrup tlons
of h lstorlcally an d culturally con stltuted n arratlve, for exam ple by
th e lntrodu ctlon of Sh an go rltes ln th e p ream ble to th e vislt to th e
u n detw orld , w h lch w as th en represented w lth an an ach ron lstlc
soun dscap e focu sed on an un dergroun d traln .58
I h ave suggested th at W alcott's recon cep tuallzatlon of O dysseusn
return , w lth th e dram atlc n ecesslty an d cultural plauslblllty of P en e-
lop e's resp on se to th e k llllng of th e sultors and th e attem pted h an g-
ln g of th e m ald , does preserve som eth lng of th e dyn am lcs of th e
H om erlc context. H ow ever, th e rew rltln g also d raw s on W alcottns
revlslon of th e p aradlgm s assoclated w lth th e app roprlatlon of
H om er ln th e W estern tradltlon . H e h as suggested ln ln tervlew s
th at h e p artlcularly ln ten ds to dlsrup t assum p tlon s con cernln g th e
relatlon sh lp betw een cultural an d h lstorlcal con tln ulty :

T h e C an bbean w akes up every m ornlng to a sen se of com plete erasure

T h ere ls n o con tlnulty T h ere ls n oth lng to look at to confirm tlm e W h at
does th at m ean? It con cern s th e ldeology of th e W estern w orld , m term s
of tts arrogan ce, tn term s of 1ts con ceptlon of tlm e Except th at great p oets
llke H orace,llke sh akespeare, say to you repeatedly,lt doesn 't m atter about
your m on um ents 1ts th e reallty of W estern arrogan ce,of th e p resum ptlon
of p erm an en ce on th e p art of certaln cultu res, w h lch great p oets h ave
w m tten about m term s of a km d of erasu re 59

57 lhrst p ubllsh ed 1974 an d reprln ted ln W alco tt 1998 36- 64, at 35

58 W alcott (1993) Stage Verston A ctl Scene xul
59 w alcott 1997 237
66 L orna H ardw kck

lt ls thls approach th at h as m ad e W alcott def an t about errors,

ch an ges, an d con tam ln atlon of th e an clen t m yth s, p lays, an d storles
w lth w h lch h e w orks, Klts n ot w ron g ln term s of th e asso clatlon s,
h ow ever, b ecau se every n ew m y th ology h as screw ed up th e on e
p recedln g lt, gotten lt w ron g, ln clu dln g C h rlstlan lty. T h ey got lt
w ron g- an d th en th ey started som eth ln gln6o
T h e com bln atlon of thls b ellef ln th e legltlm acy an d p ow er of
artlstlc varlatlon s an d th e convlctlon th at su bm lsslon to th e con -
straln ts of h lstoty rep llcates th e lnlu stlces of th e p ast h as led W alcott
to w ork on th e p rln clp le th at w rlters can get an clen t an d m od ern ,
W estern an d C arlbb ean ,to sp eak dlrectly ln a llvln g conversatlon th at
clrcum vents th e hlerarchles of tradltlon an d th e arldlty of contested
gen ealogles,K'l-h elr p h llo sop hy,b ased on a con tem p t for h lstorlc tlm e
ls revolu tlon ary, for w h at th ey rep eat to th e N ew W orld ls lts slm u l-
tan elty w lth th e O ld .761 In b oth T he O dyssey '.?1 Stage V erskon an d ln
h ls lon g p oem O m eros W alcott d en led th e p rlm acy of th e gen ealogy
of H om er ln th e W estern trad ltlon an d allow ed for dlsrup tlon ln th e
relatlon sh lp b etw een th e Kp astn text an d lts read ln gs an d th e p resen t
p erceptlon . H ls Kfuzzy' con cept of slm ultan elty allow s presen t con -
cern s, ln flu en ced by th e ln terven ln g p asts b ut n ot lrred eem ably
con straln ed by th em , to create an u n o ccup led slte for old an d n ew
to m eet and act afresh.ln O m eros (Book 3) the C arlbbean Esherm an
A ch llle m akes a katabasks to A frlca, to dlscover th at h ls fath er d o es
n ot recogn lze h lm or kn ow h ls n am e.62 T h e ep lso d e m ay also serve as
a m etap h or for th e d eracln atlon of texts an d p erform an ces ln th e
b ro ad lield of classlcal recep tlon s an d th e assoclated llb eratlon to
p erform an ew .
W alcott h as w orked ln dram a an d p o etry, b u t an an alogo u s
ap p ro ach to th e dlsru p tlon of tem p orallty h as b een d evelop ed by
W llson H arrls ln h ls p rose w n tln g, an d h ere, to o, H om er h as b een a
catalyst.H arrls,llke W alcott,recogn lzes th at lt ls n elth er p o sslble n or
d eslrable to escap e com p letely from th e p ast.lt can n elth er b e refu ted
n or relected . B u t H arrls h as trled to vlsu allze Kth e n eed to stagger

60 w alcott 242
61 w alcott 1998 37
62 Fo r detalled d lscu sslon an d b lb llograp hy see H ardw lck 2002 236-56 For th e
them e of katabasts (descent lnto the underw orld) ln C arlbbean poetrs see D avls,
C h 8 ln thls volu m e
 Skngkng across the Faulthnes 67

th e burden of m em ory, replete w lth gullt, th at ls essentlal to th e

creatlon of a n ew age163
H arrls's ln n ovatlon s ln th e n ovel lnvolve tran sgresslng th e stralt-
Jacket of hlstorlc p attern s an d especlally the progress from m otlve
to event, w h lch W alcott ldentl ed as the m ethod by w hlch w e are
b oth taugh t ab out th e past and taugh t to read n arratlve E ctlon .64
Llke W alcott,H arrls had a colonlal classlcal educatlon (at Q ueen's
C ollege, G eorgetow n) and llke W alcott he has a Creole m eldlng
of ancestry- ln H arrlsAs case A frlcan -c arlbb ean : E ngllsh , H lndu -
lndlan , an d ln dlgen ous A m erln dlan . H ls w ork ls p erm eated w lth
alluslon s to th e O dyssey an d to G reek f gures such as P ygm allon -
w h o as h e sculpted saw th lngs planted ln th e sculpture th at h e h ad
n ot seen b efore.H arrls's con cep t of th e actlve lm agln atlon com bln es
the actuallty of the dream m otlf w lth reallzatlon of com paratlve
m ean lng an d th e recognltlon of corresp on d en ces w lth on ens ow n
llfe an d su blectlvlty.
T hls llberatlon of the lm aglnatlon allow s conn ectlon s an d Juxta-
p osltlon s to b e m ad e across artlstlc genres and reson ates w lth th e art
of R om are Bearden (tl1911-88). ln hls w ork Bearden refracted
an clen t llterary th em es as w ell as abstract con cep ts, rooted ln
cublsm .ln t'l-ro/ (The Burnlng ofTroy'from the Odysseus stfifr,
1979) and ln Kc lrce lnto Sw lnel Kslren Songl and the collage K'fhe
R eturn of O dysseusn h e drew on th e artlstlc h erltage of 170th E urop e
and A frlca to suggest th e tran scultural reson an ces of th e O dysseus
story an d th e searln g lm p act of th e destru ctlon of Troy.ln th e screen -
prlnt X oots O dyssey' (19769 see Flg. 2.1) he brought together the
p rohle tech n lque of A frlcan B en ln sculpture an d rep resented th e
outllne of A frlca as a cloud p artly m asklng the sun and overlookm g
the traum a of th e M lddle P assage. T h e techn lque of th e outhn e
d raw ln g of th e ch aln ed exlles ln th e h old of th e slave sh lp recalled
an A ttlc black -f gure vase p alntln g w hlle th e lm age of th e shlp ltself
also resonated w lth th e outhn e of an A th en lan trlrem e extant ln
a fragm ent of rellef sculpture. W alcott w as greatly lnflu enced by
B eardenns art and took as hls polnt of departure for hls reflectlons
the lm ages exhlblted ln th e room atD uke U nlverslty ln w hlch h e gave

63 H arrs 1996 83, and d tsc:u sston m B u ndy 1999 1- 34

64 W alco tt 1998 37
68 L orna H ardw kck

NxN
N.

X
''xx .N
-'xx
'
XYjt
Lk
tx
lka
k:t -x
k
N
%
x 'G 'X. k xhxxx m x%%% w x x

Fig.2.l R om are Bearden,Roots O dyssey (1976) (w 1th km d perm lsslon of

the R om are Bearden Foundatlon )

hls talk on O m eros ln sprln g 1995.65 B earden hlm self com m en ted on
th e w ay ln w hlch art w as m ade of oth er art w hlch ls th en rew orked by
th e artlst ln his or h er ow n form and sp ace, Kyo u look ln an d fin d

65 D avls 1997/ 227-8,and W alcott 1997 229-231 Cf also D avls (forthcom lng)
 S kllg kng across the Ffdlf/r/rrlc.
s 69

w hat your art n eedst66 C om m entators h ave ldentl ed w ays ln w hlch

B earden's m eth od s and m eaning ellde, especlally ln hls use of dls-
tortlon,paradox,reversat telescoplng oftlm e and surrealblendlng of
styles:valu es, h op es and d ream s7.67
H arrlsns w ork also draw s on such d lsruptlons of tradltlonal
conn ectlon s an d n arratlves and th e creatlon of n ew on es. H ls
m ean s of achlevm g thls can lnclude any art form an d can lnvolve
the dlscovery and search of an anclent m yth or story th at seem s to
resonate w lth th e artlst's ow n llfe pattern .T h us w ords becom e free to
reassoclate,som etlm es p aradoxlcally,to overcom e entrenched polar-
ltles, and to reveal h ldd en con nectlons.T h ese conn ectlons m ay not
reflect exact relatlon sh lps or loglcal assoclatlon s but rath er corres-
p ond to a play of d eslre that glves a w ay lnto deep er roots of
conn ectlvlty, reveallng com m on alltles rather th an polarltles. T he
force of H arrls's w rltlng ls to relect the overw eenlng authorlty of
th e m yth s that w ere approp rlated by em plre but also to recuperate
th em by resltuatlng them ln a confluen ce of perspectlves on m yth s
from aroun d th e w orld .T hls approach has been vlgorously contested
b ecause lt has created an aesth etlc an d culturalspace th at dem ollsh es
the dom ln ant con structs of tlm e that establlsh ed lm p erlal gen eal-

oglesand hlerarchles.68H arrls'snovelTheM ask of theBeggarusesas

lts central m otlf the dlsgulse adopted by O dysseus on hls return to
lthaca. H ow ever, the llnearltles and features of th e m ask ch ange to
reflect C hm ese, lndlan , A frlcan, and Europ ean lm m lgrants ln an
lm aglnary harbour tow n opem ng th e w ay lnto th e hlnterlan d of
South and C entralA m erlca.ln hls lntroductlon to the w ork H arrls
reflected on hls experlence: K'l'h e artlst or auth or d oes n ot have
absolute controlof hls creatlons b ut ls sublect to b elng created afresh
by the character (or character-m ask) he creates.ln thls w ay there ts
n o fin al creatlon slnce f n allty ls ceaselessly p artlal an d ls sublect to

66 R ow ell 1988 428-46 , at 446

67 D l
s cussed by Row ell (1988 436)
68 See furth er W llllam s and R lach 199 1 For dlscusslon of crltlque of thls practlce
and of the alternatlve postcolonlal approach es of w n ters such as K am au B rathw altey
see G n flith s 199 1 For dlscusston of the determ lnatlon of C arlbbean w rlters to
establlsh a dlstlnctlve cultu ral lden tlty lnd epend ent of A fn can and European pasts,

see G reenw ood 2004

 70 L orna H ardw tck

profoun dest alteratlon s.n6g T hls lm age of beln g created afresh b ut

w lth out fn allty expresses the lm pact of C arlbbean rew rltlngs on both
th e llterary an d th e tem p oral asp ects of th e H om erlc tradltlon .

ln dlscussln g Longley's transgresslon of the form s of H om erlc ep lc

an d h ls re guratlon of th elr p oetlc conventlon s l suggested th at
,

th ere ls perhaps a resonan ce w lth the lyn c on w hlch H om er drem

as w ell as an eroslon of th at tem p oral dlstan ce betw een p ast an d
present that ls a feature of m ost approaches to classlcal receptlon s .

L on gley p lays w lth tem p oral relatlon sh lp s an d valu es H e ls sen sltlv e

.

to the Kn estlngnan d the graftlng that ls a feature of H om erlc eplc ln .

M ralcotfs tran sgresslon of n arratlve con ten t th ere w as n everth eless a

reson ance w lth th e dyn am lcs of reversal an d plauslblllty ln H om er .

H arrls's fm yth lcal m ethod'takes the conn ectlons a stage furth er and
u ses th e m ask to tran sform sp ace as w ell as overtu rn ln g conventlo n al
tem p orallty.
M y dlscusslon h as em ph aslzed th e role of H om er as a catalyst ln
m odern contexts ln w hlch creatlve w rlters an d artlsts asplre to leap
across the entrenched polarltles an d un derlylng f ssures ln thelr ow n
cu ltures, as w ell as th o se b etw een cu ltu res H om erlc E gu res an d
.

th em es provlde th e raw m aterlal an d allow dlalectlc ln w hlch lltera -

ture and dram a can lnclude crltlqu e as w ell as developm ent H ow - .

ever, th ere ls a furth er elem ent. T h e effects of th e tran sp osltlon of

H om er ln to form s asso clated w lth lyrlc: dram a and the p ostm odern
,

n ovel actually seem to allgn w lth som e of the ln slghts offered by

recent research on the llngulstlc an d structural aspects of the H om -
erlc texts.Structurally,the lm portance of Kforeshadow ingnin th e epic
p oem s en ables th e slm ultan eou s exlsten ce of p ersp ectlves from p ast ,

present, an d future. ln a detalled ph llologlcal stu dy E gb ert B akker

,

h as exp lored th e op eratlon s of con sclou sn ess an d m em ory ln th e

p oem s an d h as lden tlf ed tlm e an d tem p orallty as a cruclal dlm en -
slon for detxts. H e argues that H om erlc eplc ls Kless interested in
locatlng the eplc events ln tlm e than ln posltlonlng ltseltl lts ow n
p resen t,as th e m om en t of actlvatlon of th e p ast T h e presen t can th us
.

b e seen as th e p ast's future, a m om en t of recogn ltlon th at can be

prolected by the ep lc charactenn7o B akke/ s an alysls h as been devel-
oped over m any years an d hls clzapters lnclude analysls of form u lae
,

69 H arrls 2003 pp lx-x 70 B akker 2005 p x1l

 Sznp ng across the Fflzflflincs 71

contexts,m lm esls as p erform ance,storytellln g ln th e future, slm lles:

augm en ts an d th e language of lm m edlacy.T h e study op erates at th e
lntersectlon of lln gulstlcs an d p oetlcs, con clu dlng th at H om erlc
narratlve ls (ln contrast to hlstorlcal narratlves such as that of
Thucydldes) a narratlve Qw hose now ls lts ow n narratlve presentt7i
To accept th at such argum en ts lllum ln ate th e relatlon shlp betw een
H om erlc p oetlcs an d m odern rew rltln gs ln n o w ay suggests th at th e
ap proach es of L on gley, W alcott, an d H arrls are fully con taln ed ln
H om er- w altlng only to be 'dlscoveredn- let alon e th at th elr use of
H om er relm p oses th e h egem ony of th e m on ollthlc cultural auth orlty
th ey seek ln th elr dlfferen t w ays to dlsrup t. H ow ever, lt d oes suggest
th at th e form al and lin gu lstlc ch aracterlstlcs of H om er m ake a
dlstln ctlve con trlbutlon ln en ablln g th e 'slm ultan eltynof th e con tem -
p orary p oetlc and dram atlc conversatlon s generated by cultu ral an d
p olltlcal con text an d auth orlal deslre.T h e H om erlc p oem s do ln deed
K
sln g across th e faultlln est

71 Ib ld 2005 p xu l
This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c#
. blank
 P art 11

Sch olarsh ip an d Fiction

This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c#
. blank
 3

H om er am on g th e lrish :Y eats,
Synge, T h om son

R ichard M artin

From the beglnnlngs of attested lrlsh llterature, th e lm age of G reece

and traces of G reek p oett'y regularly app ean l A t th e very start, th e
arch alc slxth -century eulop rcalled the A m ra C holukm (% CPG ln on e
p oetlc verse pralses th e salntly m onk C olum C llle for hls ablllty to
speak w lth angels an d learn G reek gram m ar- accom pllsh m ents that
w ere apparently vlew ed by the poet as beln g on th e sam e splrltual
level.2 T h e story of Troy and H om erlc eplc also left a deep lm presslon
on the m edleval lrlsh , alth ough lt reached them ln dlrectly, and
w lthout overbearln g auth orlty, leavlng room for som e lnterestlng
lnnovatlon s.3 O n e w onders, for exam ple, w h at an anclent rh apsode
w ould h ave m ade of th e condensed lrlsh verslon of th e O dyssey
called the M erugud LJCJS'E tnakc tcirfi.
s (W anderkng of Ulysses son of
Laertes), ln w hlch the em otlonal cllm ax ls provlded not by the
reunlon w lth Penelope (w hom the hero first esples ln bed w 1th
Telem achus- lnnocently as tt turns out) but by a m uch m ore com -
p ellln g scen e of recogn ltlon by O dysseu's agelng yet rob ust m ultlcol-

oured h ound dog.4

l W ell surveyed ln Stanford 1976 1- 18 and 73-89

2 Text ln Stokes l899 l23 Em endlng atgatllto athgalll,H ull 1960 250 translates
e1n the gram m ar of G reece he conversed w lth an angel of an ex G aul'
> See M yrlck 1993 for general background and for detalled study of Togatl T'
rm ,
the m ed eval Irlsh verslon of D ares,D e exa dto Trotae hv torta
4 Text ln M eyer 1958, tran slatlon ln M eyer l886 C f M yrlck 1993 78-9 w lth

fu rth er b lbllography
76 R w hard M artkn

For students of the tw entleth centu ty the stoty of H om er am ong

th e lrlsh lnvarlably has centred on a slngle book, publlshed on the
auth o/ s fortleth blrth day ln 1922,sp ortln g a cover b edecked w lth th e
blue an d w hlte of the G reek flag.Yet Joyce's U lysses ls only part of the
story; an oth er lrlsh n arratlve can b e told aroun d th e m argln of th at
rem arkable p allm p sest,b u t on ly p artlally as a glo ss on lt.A n arratlve
ln lts ow n rlgh t,lt offers a com p etln g vlew of h ow H om er ln th e early
tw entleth century w as recelved , represented , and rem ad e, com ple-
m entlng th e m ore fam ous Km ythlcal m ethodn of Joyce, Seferls, and
oth er H lgh M oderm st resh ap ers of th e H om erlc h erltage.s T h e cen -
tral ch aracters are a p erlp atetlc lrlsh w rlter an d a qu arter-lrlsh
Engllsh don . T h e lirst m an Joyce hlm self knew an d ln U lysses
fo un d occaslon to p arod y h ls style. T h e oth er w on a sch olarsh lp to
K ln g's C ollege, C am brldge, ln th e year th at U lysses w as p ubllsh ed :
w antlng to stu dy lrlsh th ere, h e h ad to settle for hls secon d ch olce,
C lasslcs.T here are plenty of slgnl can t contrasts betw een th ese tw o
m en- the dram atlst John M llllngton Synge an d the scholar G eorge
D erw ent T hom son . T he curlous resem blan ce th at brlngs th em to -
gether ls the w ay ln w hlch thelr con sclousn ess of H om er and the
h erolc tradltlon w as declslvely sh ap ed by th elr exten ded vlslts to
sm all lslan ds off the w est coast of lreland. T he resp on ses of these
tw o E gu res h ave a m ore th an local slgn lf can ce,for th ey en cap su late,
resp ectlvely,tw o m odes of h an dlln g th e H om erlc m odel,m odes th at
ap p eared through out th e tw entleth cen tury an d are stlllw lth u s m ore
gen erally tod ay.W e m lgh t call th em Klm p orf an d Kexp ort'.
M y tltle m entlons Yeats, w ho of course deserves (and has got)
w hole books devoted to hls C lasslcal reson ances.6 B ut 1 shall do
th at great m an th e dlsservlce of usln g hlm h ere only as an em blem
an d an ecd ote. A s an em blem , let hlm stan d for th e lirst m od e
Ju st m entlon ed, th e lm p ort. T h lnk of such verses ln T he G reen
H elm et and O ther Poem s (1910) as A W om an H om er Sung'or fN o
Second Troylthe latter celebratlng a beauty Knotn aturalln an age llke
thls Ibelng hlgh and solltary and m ost sternt Os from the sam e

5 T he m ethod w as first ldentlfied by Ellot ln an essay on Joyce ln 1923,reprlnted

ln E llot 19754 175-8 For an extended analysls of the m ethod ln the w ork of Seferls,
see K eeley 1983 68- 84
6 See e g A rk tn s 1990
 H om er am ong the frs /l 77

collectlon, Kpeacel w lth 1ts openlng lam ent A h, that Tlm e could
touch a form lthat could show what H om e/s age tbred to be a
h erons w aget? W h at H om er rep resen ts for Y eats ls a lo st ep o ch , a
greater age w hen herolc m en and w om en (and,by lm pllcatlon,thelr
devoted cllent bards) held sw ay.There are strong undercurrents of
n ostalgla for th e arlstocratlc p ast of hls ow n A n glo -lrlsh ascen d ancy
class.B u t p rlm arlly th ls v lslo n sees ln th e p resent-d ay lro n A ge rellcs
of a m ore dlstant G old.Joyce,w ho had no such class fantasles,w ould
turn thls to an advantage and lronlze (so to speak) hls sltuatlon-
even suggestlng th at th e H om erlc h ero w as at h eart b aslcally a
B loom , an d th e age of O dysseu s m ade of baser m etal th an w e
w ould llke to lm agln e.8 For Y eats, h ow ever, th e G olden A ge stlll
ten uously exlsted, llke th ose gh osts h e w as alw ays trylng to ralse at
h ls sean ces. lt served to en oble th ose few contem p orarles an d repre-
sen tatlve typ es w h om h e con sld ered w orthy. T h e KW om an H om er
Sun g' becam e lm m ortal becau se Yeats, th e latter-day bard, san g h er
as w ell.H elen ,M au d G onn e,A ch llles,R ob ert G regory- th e featu res
are h ard to dlstln gulsh ln th e C eltlc twullt h aze.R om an tlc bardolatry,
O sslanlc dream s, n oble savagery, an d p easan t w lsd om - th e w h ole
syn drom e,elegan tly com pressed ,em erges ln th e m ln d of early Yeats.g
T he poet km p orts- je takes H om er to lreland an d bestow s hlm llke a
blessln g on th e select fem h ls frlen d s an d h eroes.
N ow , w h eth er Yeats taugh t Syn ge thls m ode, or th e oth er w ay
rou n d :ls stlll an op en questlon . It h as been argu ed, by B ush rul, th at
lt w as Synge w h o brought Yeats to greater aw aren ess of th e folk as
th e ldeal audlen ce of th e slm ple an d un corrupted .lo A n d D eborah

7 C lted from Yeats 1983 89-92 Yeats seem s aw are th at h1s rom an tlc H om erlzln g
ls old fashloned ln th e early tw en tleth centu ry C f h1s w ry rem ark ln the 1905 preface
to Synge's The J.
'
k'
c//of theSatnts,reprlnted m Yeats 1924 375 C1fH om erw ere allveto
d ay,he w ou ld only reslst,after a d ellberate struggle,th e tem p tatlon to fin d h 1s subyect
n ot ln H elen's beau ty,that every m an has d eslred ,no r ln the w lsd om and end ttrance
o f O dysseu s,that h as been th e deslre of every w om an that h as com e ln to th e w orld ,
but ln w hat som ebody w ould descrlbe, perhaps, a.
s Qothe lnevltable contest'l arlslng
o ut o f econ om lc causes, betw een the coun try places an d sm all tow ns on the one
h an d, an d, up on th e other, th e great clty of Troy,representlng on e k n ow s not w h at
Qoten den cy to cen trallzatlon '''
8 See M lnta,C h 4 on Joyce's provocatlve adm lratlon for O dyssetfs flaw s
9 A p rob m g analysls of th e m txtu re of m flu en ces is B oyd 19 87,see also Flem m g
199 5 55- 75
10 B u shru l 1972
78 R w hard M artkn

Flem ln g th ln ks th at Syn ge hlm self b ecam e for Yeats an lm age of th at

very ldeal- tA m an w h o does n ot exlst, a m an w h o ls but a dream lll
A ccordlng to Yeats, how ever, w lthout h1s ow n lnfluen ce lohn M lll1-
n gton Syn ge w ould n ever h ave fou n d h ls tru e sublect.A s Yeats later
recalled,he had m et Synge ln a student hostelln the Latln Q uarter of
P arls ln D ecem b er of 1896.Syn ge w as 25,Y eats slx years old er.tl sald
KKG lve u p P arls,you w lll n ever create anyth ln g by readln g R acln e, an d
A rth ur Sym on s w ll1 alw ays be a better crltlc of Fren ch llterature. G o
to th e A ran lslan ds. L lve th ere as lf you w ere on e of th e p eople
them selves, express a llfe that h as never found expresslon .'n712
W e are m eant to lm agln e a d lrect tralectoty from th e m asterns
com m and to the creatlon of The J'UPP of the Saknts, Playboy of the
J'kr
srrrrl J'O /-JJ, and R kders to the Sea.
Yet w e m lght w on der w h eth er Yeatsns brllllan t talen t for self-fash -
lonlng h as n ot obscured som e of the w lndlngs of th e story h ere.
T h lngs are m ore com pllcated, an d H om er, lt can b e argued ,has an
lm portant role. It h as been ln su clently appreclated because lt w as
n ever op enly declared , and that: l suggest,w as by deslgn .Synge, one
m u st rem em b er,w as th e op p o slte of Y eats w h en lt cam e to d ram at-
lzlng th e self.l: P erh ap s h e later foun d lt conven len t to go along w lth
Y eatsns m yth ologlzln g. A t any rate, th ere are lnd lcatlons th at Synge
w as prepared before m eetlng Yeats to plunge Into the llfe of slm pler
folk,and yet dld n ot do so untll a year and a h alf after th e alleged llfe-
ch an gln g d lrectlve.ln 1896, Syn ge's m oth er rem arked ln a letter th at
Johnnle w ent to Parls Kto study soclallsm n- n ot qulte the effete
aesthete that Yeats conlures up .14 A lso, som e m onth s before h e m et
Yeats, Synge h ad becom e acq ualn ted ln P arls w lth an oth er Irlshm an
w h o w ould b e h ls llfelon g frlen d .Steph en M aclen n a,a year youn ger
th an Synge, w as an arden t n atlon allst.ls A s w lth Synge, hls m alor
w ork lay a decade or so ah ead of hlm :th e great E n gllsh tran slatlon of
the E nneads of Plotlnus, a translatlon that w ould ln turn feed the
om nlvorous Yeats ln h ls n eo -14 aton lst ph ase. M ore lm m edlately

11 Flem ln g 1995 8, exten d ln g an Ob servatlon by D eclan K lb erd

12 Y eats 1924 370
13 Qsynge w as a great m ystery solltary,detached:over educatedyw atchfttl; ln the
w ord s of Tolb ln 2002 59
14 Saddlem yer 1983 7
15 yo r b rlef b lo graphs see lb ld 57 n l
 H om er am ong the frs /y 79

relevan t, M acK en n a ln 1897 b ecam e a m od el for h ow on e p uts ln to

actlon a sch olarly love.H ls p asslon for all th ln gs G reek led h lm th at
year to Joln an lntern atlon al brlgad e E ghtln g for H ellenlc dem ocracy
agaln st th e Turks. ln th e survlvln g letters betw een th e p alr, n elth er
Syn ge n or M acK en n a elab orates on th e m otlves for th ls rath er
B yron esqu e m ove. Yet h ls clo sest frlen d ns en ergetlc ex am p le can
h ardly h ave b een lo st on th e w rlter w h o stayed b eh ln d ln P arls.
T h e secon d slgnlh can t event, ln m y reckonln p w as academ lc:
Syn ge on 18 Febru ary 1898, en rolled ln a cou rse at th e Sorb on n e
taught by the lnfluentlal C eltlclst H enrl D 'A rbols de Jubalnvllle
(1827-1910).16 The course, w hlch w as w rltten up for publlcatlon
th e n ext year, w as entltled K'l'h e clvlllzatlon of lrelan d com p ared
w lth th at of H om er'. T h e p ubllsh ed verslon sh ow s a typlcally th or-
ough an d sym p ath etlc m ln d w orklng through th e evlden ce of ln do -
E u rop ean p arallels,m aterlalcultu re,an d verb alart.17 Syn ge's n otes for
th e co urse survlve ln th e archlves of h ls alm a m ater, Trln lty C ollege,
D u blln .T h e m an u scrlp t sh elf 11st ln dlcates th at h e later u sed th e sam e
notebook to record hls lm presslons of Gllbert M urrayns H kstory of
G reek f-ifpm ft/ra l8 T h ls sld e of Syng e- th e C lasslclst- h as u su ally
b een suppressed by th e n atlvlst con cern to w rap up lrlsh auth ors ln
the green flag (rather than G reek w hlte-and-blue).Butseveralsources
attest to h ls ablllty at G reek ;lt w as ln th e fam lly, h ls m atern al gran d -
father h avlng been a tran slator of Josephus.lg A n d Flon a M aclntosh
h as draw n attentlon to Syn gens college G reek stu dles,as w ell as to th e
m any p arallels betw een hls dram as an d G reek tragedy.zo

16 Ibld p x.xl K lb erd 1979 32-7 traces Syn ge's ln terest ln Com paratlve m yth
o logy an d lln gu lstlcs to thls cou rse an d read ln g o f the sch olar's w orks Syn ge later
revlew ed translatlons of h1s Irtsh M ythologtcal Cycle (Speaker, 2 A prll 1904) and
Cuchulltn of M utrthem ne (Speaker,7 June 1902) Skelton 1971 48
17 A rbols de Jubalnvllle l899
18 M S 4378,Trlnlty College D ublln,contalns the notes see Synye 1971 40-1
19 G reen e an d Steph ens 1989 4 R obert Tralll,th e fath er of Syn ge's m oth er,dled ln
1847 of fam ln e fever S Syn ge 193 1 l38 n otes that the future playw rlght k new G reek
w ellan d n ever falled an exam ln lt T h e Trln lty C ollege en tran ce exam b o oks show h e
d 1d w ellln the G reek vw flfor h1s m ld su m m er m atrlcu latlon ln l888 see Syn ge 1959
35

20 See M aclntosh 1995 3 n 12 for the evldence ln Synge's notebooks (esp h1s
references to readlng H om er ln 1892-3) and passtm for parallels betw een Synge's
d ram as an d G reek tragedles For Syn ge's P layboy as an lnverted verslo n of O edtp us
the K tng see fttrther C on ach er 1969
80 R w hard M artkn

ln sh ort, Syn ge,w lth a u n lverslty kn ow led ge of H om er an d of th e

lrlsh lan gu age,w ou ld h ave b een w ell p rlm ed to ap p reclate A rb ols d e
Jubalnvlllens teachlng.zl Itls perhaps not accldentalthat ltw as exactly
w h en h ls H om er class en d ed , ln sp rln g 1898, th at Syn ge to ok th e
m om en to u s step of vlsltln g th e A ran lslan d s off th e coast of G alw ay
for th e first tlm e.O ver th e co urse of th e n ext fou r years,h e w ou ld go
on to sp en d a total of fo u r an d a h alf m on th s th ere,m o stly on th e less
d evelop ed m ld dle lslan d , ln lsh m aan .H e sum m ed u p th e exp erlen ce
ln hls prose w ork T he A ran Islands, to w hlch l turn now . O ne
footn ote before that, though : A rbols D e Jubalnvllle, w lth w hom
Syn ge w ould go on to study O ld lrlsh ln 1902, w ould h ave been
acqualnted w lth (and probably taught)A ntolne M elllet (1866-1936),
w h o recelved h ls d octorate from th e Sorb on n e ln 1897. ln a
n lce accld en tal sym m etty M elllet, w h o w ould b ecom e th e leadln g
ln d o -E u rop ean lst of h ls gen eratlon , som e tw en ty years later advlsed
a yo un g A m erlcan ,w h om h e m et ln P arls, to lm m erse h lm self ln th e
son g tradltlon s of Y ugo slavla, as a test for h ls n ew ly m ln ted th esls
ab ou t th e trad ltlon aln atu re of H om erlc p oetry.22 It w o uld b e fan clfu l
to lm agln e th at M elllet h ad Synge ln m ln d w h en h e coun selled
th e yo un g M llm an P arry. B u t l am sure b oth A n glo -lrlsh m an
an d W elsh -A m erlcan w ou ld b e d ellgh ted lf th ey co u ld h ave seen a
later gen eratlon of lrlsh sch olars, ln clu dln g K evln O 'N olan an d
G eorge H uxley, ap p ly th e results of P arryns E eldw ork to lrlsh h erolc
n arratlv e s.z3

Syn gens b o ok on th e A ran lslan d s,vlew ed ln on e w ay,ls an ln ten slve

exerclse ln N ln eteen th -cen tury n ovellstlc reallsm .A n oth er m lgh t see
lt as p ostm o d ern eth n ograp hy, w lth th e su blect exp llcltly em b ed d ed
ln th e ob servatlon s.Syn ge h lm self sen d s slgn als b oth th ese w ays- h e
obvlo u sly h as th e n otlon of collectln g folk tales w h en h e arrlves,
an d m ak es o ccaslon al dlgresslon s ab o ut ln d o -E u rop ean tale-typ es.zzl
Y et th e b o oks h e bro u gh t w lth h lm w ere by th e lo cal c0101.
11-1st
P lerre L tl, Flaub ert, a llfe of M aup assan t, an d D an te G abrlel

21 In 1892,alongslde H om er,he read the Chtldren offs/rand D tarm utd and Granta
ln lrlsh G reen e an d Step h en s 1989 30
22 Fo r M elllet's ln flu en ce on P arry, see L am b erterle 1997
23 O 'N olan 1968 an d 1969, H u xley 1969 19 1- 6
24 G reen e an d Step h en s 1989 84, 9 1- 3
 H om er am ong the frs /l 81

R ossettl.25 M y suggestlon ls for a thlrd vlem a m otlve ofw hlch Synge

w as p erh ap s on ly h alf-con sclous:hls A ran book ls a p ralse-p oem ln
p rose,h erolzlng th e m en an d w om en ofA ran ,through an lm pllclt but
con stan t com p arlson w lth th e w orld of H om erlc ep lc. Syn ge's su r-
n am e supp osedly com m em orated a slxteen th -centuty an cesto/ s
vocal ablllty; through hls m ln or ep lc of A ran , Syn ge grow s ln to th e
role an d b ecom es th e oral b ard , a sln ger.
A close readln g of each H om er-tlnged eplsode ln th e book w ould
take som e tlm e.L et m e p oln t to th e m ore slgn lf can t.Flrst,th ere ls th e
m eetlng w lth th e old m an w h o w ould be hls lrlsh teach er for aw hlle on
lnlshm ore- a blln d m an , full of storles, w h o h ad on ce kn ow n th e
fath er of O scar W llde. KA s w e talked,n w rltes Syn ge, Kh e sat h uddled
togeth er over th e fire,sh aklng an d blln d ,yeth ls face w as lnd escrlb ably
p llan t, llghtln g up w lth an ecstasy of h um our w h en h e told m e
anythlng th at h ad a p olnt of w lt or m allce, an d grow ln g som bre an d
d esolate agaln w h en h e sp oke of rellglon or th e falrles.726 T h e falrles,lt
tu rn ed o ut, h ad stolen on e of th e m an ns ch lldren years ago . Syn gens
en counter w lth h ls blln d gulde ls hls en tryw ay lnto an archalc w orld .
A few days later,h e says,Kas th e old m an talked contln u ally ofth e falrles
an d th e w om en th ey h ave taken , lt seem ed th at th ere w as a p osslble
lln k b etw een th e w lld m yth ology th at ls accepted on th e lslan d an d th e
stran ge b eau ty of th e w om en .727 Syn ge w as alw ays su scep tlb le to th e
fem lnln e; h e seem s h ere ready to belleve ln h alf-dlvln e fem ales, lrlsh
nym ph s, an d by exten slon ,nym ph olep sy.H e seem s, also, at th e very
start of hls vlslts to h ave looked on th e face of a local H om er.
W h en h e m oved on to th e sm aller ln lshm aan , ln search of m ore
p n m ltlve atm o sp h ere, Syn ge fo u n d h lm self ln a w orld w h ere even
tlm e w as dlfferen t.A galn ,h e does n ot m en tlon H om er,b ut th e detall
h e n otlces are preclsely of th e sort th at w ould occur to on e w h o h ad
read of the Koxen-looslng hourl or slm llar H om erlc expresslons.O n
lnlshm aan , th e w ln d con trolled th e reckon lng of tlm e, cau slng
p eople to op en south -facln g d oors, at certaln p erlod s, w h lch th en
m ad e th elr d oor-p o st ln to sun dlals.28 I w on d er,also,w h eth er Syn ge&s

25 Ib ld 89 an d skelto n 197 1 25
26 syn ge 1992 6
27 Ib ld 10
28 Ib ld 22
82 R w hard M artkn

ln ten se ob servatlon of th e fun eral lam en ts of A ran w om en , th e

caokneadh, w ould h ave been so d etalled h ad h e n ot been prep ared
by slm llar scenes m H om er (e.g.Ihad 24.719-75).KEach old w om am
as sh e to ok h er turn ln th e leadln g recltatlve, seem ed p o ssessed for
th e m om en t w lth a p rofo un d ecstasy of grlef,sw ayln g to an d fro,an d
b en dln g h er foreh ead to th e ston e before h es w hlle sh e called out
to th e dead w lth a p erp etually recurrln g ch an t of sobs,nh e w rltes.T hls
keen lng h e ln terprets as a breakthrough of th e lslan dersn lnn er con -
sclou sn ess: K'l-h ey are u su ally sllent, b ut ln th e presen ce of death all
outw ard sh ow of ln dlfferen ce or p atlen ce ls forgotten , an d th ey
sh rlek w lth p ltlable desp alr before th e h orror of th e fate to w h lch
th ey are all doom ed .729 T h e attltud e ls lm pllcltly vlew ed as pre-
C hrlstlan , even h erolc. A slm llar com bln atlon of sllen ce follow ed
by a p asslon ate o u tbu rst o ccu rs w h en som e d ays later a ten an t ls
evlcted ,w lth th e collu slon of a traltoro u s yo un g m an w h o h ad tu rn ed
p ollce ln form er. A fter lt w as over, th e m anns m oth es stan dln g on a
rock n ear th e b o at sllp , sh ook h er fist an d b egan w h at Syn ge calls Ka
erce rh ap sody ln G aellct Sh e Kgave an account of hls llfe, coloured
w lth a vln dlctlve fury l can n ot rep ro d u ce. A s sh e w en t on th e
excltem en t b ecam e so ln ten se l th ou gh t th e m an w ou ld b e ston ed
b efore h e co uld get b ack to h ls cottage.n3o It ls n ot h ard to see h ow
th ese Km agnlf cen t w ords an d gesturesn w ould be tran sferred w h ole
ln to Synge's dram as; less obvlous, p erh ap s, ls th e m y thlc tem p late,
fatally curslng m others llke that of M eleager ln the Ihad (9.566-71).
O n ce agaln , lt ls n ever stated ; It Is a m atter of focallzatlon , of w hy
som e scen es en ter Syn gens cam era w h lle oth ers fall to ap p ear. T h e
cam era ls m ore th an a m etap h os by th e w ay, for th ls style: Syn ge
m ad e th e lirst p h otograp h s ever on th e lslan d s,as w ell as ln tro d u cln g
to th e A ran p eople, so lt seem s, th at arkh kakn, th e first alarm
clo ck .
T h ere are oth er vlgn ettes th at on e w h o h as read th e Ihad an d
O dyssey w lll p au se over: th e m an ln ln lsh eer, th e u gllest Syn ge h ad
seen, w ho turns out to be the w lttlest at repartee (a Thersltes?);

29 G reene and Steph en s 1989 3 l, on co m m o n trop es and behefs m lrtsh and

G reek lam en t, an clent an d m odern , see M artln 2003 O n th e lam en t tradltlon an d
Syn ge's later u se of h 1s A ran exp erlen ce of lt ln h 1s d ram as, see B o u rke 2000
30 Syn ge 1992 46-7
 H om er am ong the frs /l 83

prophetlc dream s and apparltlons before death (the dream of

A gam em non; the death of Patroclus, om ens ln the O dyssey); the
K

suprem e catastrophenof any outrage to the fam lly hearth (the xenka
them e, O dysseus ln Phaeacla?). Synge notes the contlnual danger
from w ln d an d w ave th at m akes lt Klm p osslble for clum sy fo olh ardy
,

or tlm ld m enn to llve on A ran an d agaln n otlces th at each m an of

A ran ls a skllled E sh erm an , can m an age a curragh, can farm , burn
kelp, m ake sh oes, cradles, coflin s, an d b ulld an d th atch a h ou se- a
d evelopm en t,h e says,th at glves th e p eople m uch of th elr ln telllgen ce
and charm .3l W ere w e to translate thls lntelllgence lnto G reek m Ltks
w ould surely be th e w ord for lt,an d O dysseus lts em blem - h e seem s
n ever far from Syn gens m ln d .32
T he rlsk, of course, ls that w e assum e too m uch w as on hls m ln d .

A n d som eon e m lght oblect th at Syn ge's fallure to m entlon H om er

m ean s h e w as notreally u sln g ep lc as a fram e at all H e d o es m en tlon
.

H om er several tlm es ln h ls varlous essays an d revlew s, so th ere ls

evldence he took A rbols de JubalnvllleRs parallels to heart B ut th e .

sllen ce ls ltself slgn lf can t as a w ay of h an dlln g th e H om erlc Klm p orf .

For to m ake expllclt any an alogles w ould dam age Syn ge's p rolect ln
several w ays. Flrst, h e clearly requlres th at th e tradltlon s h e cltes be
anonym ous, the volce of the folk com lng stralght from the soll.
T h us, even w h en h e sp en ds tlm e w rltln g dow n a dozen p ages of
on e old m anns songs, Synge falls to glve us a fact h e surely m ust
h ave ellclted ,th e m an ns n am e To n am e H om er w ould b e n ot on ly to
.

sound too hlgh-class (and hls self-presentatlon ls never that of

the scholar). Besldes, lt w ould also m ake G reek poetry less of a
folk art, less an onym o us. In addltlon , w e m ust take ln to account
th e ten se envlronm en t ln w hlch Synge w as w rltlng: on th e on e h an d ,

th ere h ad already b een rldlculo u s exaggeratlon s m ad e ab o ut th e

slm llarlty of G reek to G aelby p eople llke th e am ateur 1lngulst A tkln s
w ho clalm ed G reek and Latln w ere but dlalects of C eltlc,an d Stan d -
1sh O nGrady,w ho ln 1881 ln h1s H lstory of Ireland asserted:<1n the
tlm es of w hlch H om er sanp the G reek n obles h ad yellow halr and
blue eyes. A t the tlm e w hen the herolc llterature of lreland w as

:1 Ib ld 49, 84
32 The classlc study of m etlsbyD etlenne and Vernant(1991)can be supplem ented
for the O dyssey by the observatlons ofBuchan (2004 134-6,155-80)
84 R w hard M artkn

com p osed, th e lrlsh n obles h ad yellow h alr an d blue eyes. A th en a

selzed A ch llles by h ls yellow lo cks:w h lle sh e h erself w as a b lu e-eyed
go d d ess.n33 P artly m reactlon to th ls p rop agan d a, an d m o stly
o u t of p olltlcal a llatlon , w as th e stan d taken by th e leadln g
C lasslcs professor at Syngens ow n alm a m ater. lt w as John P entland
M ah affy- o scar W llde's old teach er an d som etlm e travelllng com -
p anlon- w h o a year after Syngens first vlslt to A ran w ould argue
agaln st em p loym en t of lrlsh lan gu age ln secon d ary sch ools on th e
groun ds th at lt w as lm p osslble to fin d ln lrlsh a text th at w as
n ot ln decen t, rellglou s, or plaln sllly.34 T h e sam e M ah affy ln hls
book on Soaal f-i/'
c kn Greece once com pared H om e/s Greeks
w lth lrlsh p easan ts- b u t on th e b asls of a sh ared p rop en slty for
telllng lles.35
ln th e A ran lslan d s, th en , Syn ge su presses any overt classlclsm as
a strateglc m ove,to avold th e extrem es of th e n atlon ah sts or th e sn ob s.
H e often com es closest to m entlonln g antlqulty w h en h e ls n otlng
oddn ess, an d th en lt ls slm ply m asked w lth w ords llke Koldn- n ot
K

classlcall Ktradltlonall or even Kantlquen.O nce,on hls second vlslt,he

exclalm s,Kltlshard to belleve thatthese h ovels lcan lust see ln the south
are Elled w lth p eople w hose llves h ave the strange quallty th at ls foun d
ln th e oldest p oetty an d legen d .n A t an oth er p oln t h e says lt ls llke
a dream to b e llsten ln g to Kthls ru d e an d beautlful p oetty th at ls E lled
w lth th e old est p asslon s of th e w orld 7.36 B u t h e m akes n o furth er
com p arlson s.
At other tlm es,Synge envlslons hkm sef as the toplc offuture oral
tradltlon . A fter d oln g som e gym n astlc feats an d m aglc trlcks to
am u se hls h osts, h e says, KN o doubt th ese feats w lll be rem em b ered
h ere for gen eratlon s.?3; A n d thls ls ln fact m etonym lc for hls sltu -
atlon .ln sum , Synge w h o began by tran sp oslng th e h erolc, en ded up

33 O 'G rady ls clted ln M cA teer 2002 6l,A tktns (1892 2l) hoped to show also
'that the L attn sp eaktn g cou ntrtes o f ltals Sp am , F rance, and B rttatn alx epted the
L atln tongu e read lly b ecau se ltw as ln each case o nly a h lgh er an d m ore cop lou s form
o f thelr ow n langu age, an d gave th em th e com m and of a h lgh er llteratu re '
34 M acln tosh 1995 5
:5 Ib ld 6
36 Ib ld 69 an d 65
57 Syn ge 1992 81 R ecall th e feats of O dysseus am ong h 1s Phaeaclan h osts ln
O dyssey B ook 8
 H om er am ong the frs /l 85

a h erolc p o et, a w an d erln g H om er w h ose lth aca w as A ran .38 O n th e

resem blan ce,w e can let Y eats h ave th e last w ord s, as h e dld th e E rst:
th e year after Syn gens d eath from lym p h atlc sarcom a, Y eats h ad
already begu n to tran sm u te h lm ln to saln t, go d , an d m aster of ep lc.
KW h at blln dn ess dld for H om er,lam en ess for H ep h aestu s: ascetlclsm
for any saln t you w lll, bad h ealth dld for hlm by m akln g hlm ask n o
m ore of llfe th an th at lt sh o u ld k eep h lm llvln p an d ab ove allp erh ap s
by con cen tratlng hls lm agln atlon up on on e th ought, h ealth ltself.739
Even m ore tellln g ls th e observatlon th at Yeats m ade about Synge
earlles ln hls preface to the J'Q P of the k
Q irlfy:KH e m ade w ord and
p h rase d an ce to a very stran ge rhyth m ,w h lch w lll alw ays,t1llh ls p lays
h ave created th elr ow n tradltlon , be dl cult to actors w h o h ave n ot
learn ed lt from hls llp s.740 Syn gens resem blan ce to an oral p oet, th en ,
exten d ed to th ls: even ln a cu ltu re of w rltln p h e m ad e th e volce
tran scen d th e scrlp t.A n d thls llvlng volce dld create a tradltlon .N ot
on ly dld gen eratlon s of p easan t p lays at th e A bb ey T h eatre d erlve
from Syn gens m odel of plot an d ln ton atlon s.'ll A s far off as St Lucla,
D erek W alcott w as ln flu en ced by Syn ge early ln h ls career.H ls Sea at
D aup hkn of 1954 ls m od elled on R kders to the Sea. W h en thls p oet
of an oth er B n tlsh colon lal lslan d o u tp o st tu rn ed H om erlc, later ln
llfe, lt seem ed llke an ap p rop rlate extrap olatlon of Syn gens ow n
tralectory.zlz
l w ould llke to turn m ore brlefly n ow to th e oth er m ode of E n dlng
H om er ln th e lslan d s of th e w est,an d to th e w ork of G eorge D etw en t
T h om son , P rofessor of G reek ln B lrm ln gh am from 1937- 70. P ut
slm p ly, lf Syn ge lm p orted th e h erolc ld eal of H om er an d lm p llcltly
fram ed th e llves of th e A ran lslan ders w lth lt, T h om son exp orted
th e llves of an oth er lslan d p eop le,th o se of th e B laskets a few m lles off

38 H 1s llfe cam e to resem b le th at of a travellln g b ard , as h e sh u ttled b etw een th e

Irlsh cou n tryslde, D ub lln , an d Parls ln h 1s letters to h 1s fian cee M o lly, Syn ge
regu larly slgn ed hlm self 'T he Tram p'
39 See h1s 1910 artlcle Qlohn M llllngton Synge and the lreland of h1s Tlm esl
rep rln ted ln Yeats 1924 397- 8
40 Ib ld 37 l
41 O n Synge and the lnventlon of the Irlsh peasant play (1n w hlch D ouglas H yde
and Lady G regory also played a role) see Clarke 1982
42 O f co u rse th e latter p oet's recep tlo n o f H o m er ls a go od d eal m o re com p lex,
taktng account, as lt does, of Joyce, D ante, and a host of other lntertexts See the
In trod u ctlon y p 8 ab ove
86 R w hard M artkn

the D lngle penlnsula of K erry,an d brought them expllcltly to bear on

reth ln kln g H om er, as w ell as G reek culture ln gen eral. T h om son 's
w ell-kn ow n devotlon to M arxlsm began after a vlslt to M oscow ln
1935.B ut h ls earller d evotlon w as to lrlsh n atlon allsm .H ls m atern al
gran dfath er, a llb eral N orth ern lrlsh P rotestant, seem s to h ave b een
th e ln sp lratlon , an d h ls m oth er, M ln n le C lem en ce, en couraged
G eorge's teen age p asslon .A s T h om son later recou n ted lt,

D urln g m y sch ooldays ln L on don ,w hlch coln clded w lth th e B lack and Tan
Terror ln Irelan d,1 w as an ardent Slnn Feln er an d a regu lar atten dan t of th e
lan gu age classes of th e G aellc L eagu e In 1923, arm ed w lth an lntrodu ctlon
from R obln Flow er,I p ald m y first vlslt to the B lasket Islan d M y oblect w as
to p erfect m y kn ow ledge of the lan gu age ln order to devote m yself to th e
lan gu age m ovem ent as soon as I h ad taken m y degree 43

Robln Flow er (1881-1946),w hom Thom son m entlons,w as keeper

of C eltlc m an uscrlpts ln th e B n tlsh M u seum an d an early adh erent of
rom an tlc C eltlclsm of th e yo un g-Y eats style.44 H 1s ow n lon g exp erl-
en ce of th e B laskets, a tlny com m un lty of all lrlsh sp eakers,w as m ore
p rofesslon al th an Syn ge's exp erlen ce of A ran , an d T h om son 's ap -
proach w ould prove to be th e m ost dlsp asslon ate of all, alth ough
fullest of sym p athy.'ls H e w as n o dw eller ln th e C eltlc Tw lllght.O ver
th e course of hls four sum m ers sp ent on th e G reat B lasket lslan d,
T h om son develop ed a keen sen se of th e econ om lc realltles th at w ere
drlvln g all lts yo un g to em lgrate to p laces llke D u blln or G alw ay or
even Sprlngfeld, M assachusetts.H e dlssuad ed h ls young frlen d and
lrlsh tutor on the lsland,M ulrls O Sulleabhaln (M aurlce O nsulllvan),
from goln g to A m erlca, only by helplng hlm fin d w ork as a C lvll
G uard ln C onn em ara. lt ls falr to say that lt w as O Sulleabhaln
w ho rst m ade T hom son's n am e w ldely know n outslde of C lasslcal
clrcles, as T h om son w as to tran slate th e n ovel F kche S J//I?7 ag Fas
(Tw enty J'cflrya-G row kng),w hlch he had encouraged M ulrlsto w rlte.
T h e book w as a great su ccess on lts p ubllcatlon m 1933, w lth a

43 T ho m so n 1988, B row n ln g 1987 169,V arcl an d W llletts 1963 l 1- 12, O Lu ln g

19 80 l53
44 B lo grap hlcal detalls an d b lbllography ln H B ell 1946
45 T hom son w as only 6 years old w hen Synge dled,but he d1d m eet Synge's old
frlen d Step hen M acK en n a,ln M ay 1930 see O Lu ln g 2000 l62 H e cred lted Syn ge as
the styllstlc m odelforh1s ow n translatlon (w 1th Llew elyn D avles),ofO Stttleabhaln's
Tw enty l'
flrs fl G row tng
 H om er am ong the frs /l 87

forew ord by E .M .Forster.P rofessor J.V .Luce of Trlnlty C ollege has

an alysed th e H om erlc qu alltles of th e llfe d escrlb ed th ereln , as ln th e
other great autoblographlcal books that cam e out of th e B laskets
b etw een 1929 an d 1939- som ethlng T h om son hlm self refraln ed
from d oln g ln th e p reface.46 B ut lt w as T h om son , w lth o u t d o ub t,
w ho supplled the book's eplgraph , a phrase from the O dyssey
w lth obvlous appllcatlon to 170th lthaca an d B lascaod M or: TrLkhek'
all' agathL ktlrtpfrop llt?y- Kltough , but a good n ourlsh er of youn g
m e n 74 7
.

U n llke Syn ge, T h om son dld n ot leave an exten ded contem p orary
account ofhls stay.O nly ln hls last book notlong before hls death ln
1987, dld h e com p o se a m em om Island H om e' T he B lasket H en tage.
B ut th e ln fluen ce of thls tlny lslan d an d lts p eople on hls future
w ork ln G reek w as declslve. Portlon s of th e stot'y h ave b een told
by M argaret A lexlou- hls daughter an d Professor em en ta of M odern
G reek at H arvard ;by Sean O L uln g; an d by R lch ard Seaford .48 From
hls earllest book, on G reek f-yritr M eter (1929, 2nd edn, 1960),
through hls A eschylus and A thens (1940, 2nd edn, 1945), to hls
Studkes ;rl G reek Soa ety (1949, 2nd edn, 1954), runs a green lrlsh
thread .W h at h e h as to say about H om er, th ough som etlm es n oted,
h as n ot been glven sep arate attentlon yet ln lts w lder context.T here
m lgh t h ave been even m ore to say, h ad w e T h om son's tran slatlon
ln to lrlsh of th e entlre O flp ypy- -but th at m an uscrlp t, com pleted
w hen he w as teachlng G reek ln th e m edlum of lrlsh at U nlverslty
C ollege, G alw ay, from 193 1 to 1934, w as m lslald ln tran slt w h en h e
m oved back to resum e hls fellow shlp at K lng's C ollege,C am brldge.'lg
ln lts w ay,lt ls as grlevou s a lo ss as th e m lssln g m an u scrlp t on G reek

46 Lu ce 1969 m akes parallels to the style an d con ten t o f the H om erlc poem s,bu t
con fin es h1s specu latlon about orlgln s to th e ob servatlon that hlgh poetry can arlse
from a deep tradltlon of folk perform an ces H om er n eed n ot have b een ltke the
cou rt p oet D em o do cu s d eplcted ln th e O iiyssey
47 Thom son first vlslted G reece ln 1926,prom ptlng (1n the w ords of Brow nlng
1987 170) Qthe reallzatlon that lthaca and Blasketresem bled one another m ore than
they dlffered, and that w hat he had learned of precap1tal1st soclety ln lreland m lght
w lth profit b e ap plled to the stu dy of th e early and classlcal G reek w orld 7
48 A lextou 2000, O Lu lng 1980 and 2000, Seaford 1997, w lth goo d rem arks on
T ho m so n's valu e for cu rren t classlcal stu dles
49 O L u ln g 2000 l69
 88 R w hard M arh n

lyrlc m eter on ce com p osed by an other Engllshm an resldent ln

Irelan d, the poet G erard M an ley H opkln s s o
.

T h e first exten d ed m en tlon of th e com p arlson b etw een H om er

,

speclfcally,and the m aterlalT hom son found ln lreland com es ln the

1940 volum e A eschylus and A thens. lt ls an explan atlon for th e
excellence of the epics as w e have th em : K'fh e m asterly con stru ctlon
of th ese p oem s ls so lm presslve'says T hom son ,

th at lt h as b een addu ced as evldence of slngle au th orshlp but th ere ls ,

n o reason w hy th e sam e effect sh ould n ot have b een produ ced over a num b er
of gen eratlon s m th e con dltlon s of oraltran sm lsslon O n e m ay stlll en coun-
ter am ong th e p easantry sagas or folktales w hlch are artlstlcally perfect- n ot
b ecau se th ey are th e w ork of a con sclou s artlst but b ecau se ln th e course
of centu rles th ey h ave been progresslvely sh ap ed an d p ollshed by a sort
of n atural eroslon , w hlch h as w orn aw ay excrescen ces an d fashlon ed by
slow degrees a n al unlty A n d the h eredltary p oets of th e H om erldal w ere
con sclou s artlsts, cu ltlvated and refin ed, w h o p erfected the tradltlon al
m aterlal by lnfu slng lnto lt th elr ow n p erson al ou tlook 51

T he m etaph or m ay be dlfferent- feroslon ' ln stead of Kcrystalllza-

tlon n- b ut w e lin d ln T h om so n's acco un t a fo resh ad ow ln g of G reg -

ory N ag/s convlnclng contem porary approach to the developm ent

ofthe H om erlc eplcs.52A sls clear from thlsand later w ork Thom son
thlnks of the H om erkdakboth on the artlstlc and soclologlcallevels as
the equlvalent of lrlsh bards, those poetlc arlstocrats w ho w ere
dlspersed throughout th e countryslde on the breakup of the G aellc
order ln the seventeenth century an d w hose h elrs contlnued to m eet
ln sym p otlc-style Ksch ools' ln to th e early nln eteenth century s3 In .

such cases, as T hom son noted ln a later form ulatlon of hls ldeas ,

50 H opk m s's w ork on m etre an d th e lost m an u scrlp t are m en tlo n ed by T h o m son

(1960 p xt)
51 T hom son 1940 66
52 A s progresslvely artlcu lated ln N ap - 19964, 199611 2002 an d 2003
,

53 T hom son 1949 566 n ll4,for exam ple com p ares th e C ertam en trad ltlon w lth
,

bardlc com petltlons ln Irlsh llterature, and 1949 496 n 83 refers to the Llm erlck
bardlc m eetlngs T hom son 1940 67 refers to the G reek poets as Qm ln strels'w ho w ent
o ut am o ng the p eople after the b reak u p of M ycenaean courts Qtaktng w lth th em
,

th elr trad ltlon al tech n lqu e an d adaptln g thelr th em es to th elr n ew en vlron m en t' O n
the b ard lc d lasp ora,see C aerw yn W llllam s an d Ford 1992 192-253 an d O 'R lo rd an
,

1990,170th w lth fttrther blbllography O n the 'schools'of M unster see C orkery 194 1
,
 H om er am ong the wrri-s/s 89

Kth e con cept of auth orsh lp ls ln app llcable.

n54 H ls con cluslon ab out
H om erlc eplc ls w orth quotln g ln full:

T h ese p oem s took sh ap e out of a k aleld oscoplc b ackgroun d of lm prom ptu

varlatlon s adqu sted to th e ln splratlon of the m om ent,crystalllsln g gradu ally
as th e p ow er of lm provlsatlon falled, an d th en th ey w ere brought to rest so
gently th at ln th elr fin al con figuratlon th e slm p le realism an d natural
eloqu ence of prlm ltlve, popular poetry w as blended w lth the subtle, self-
cn tlcal ln dlvlduah sm of m ature art From th e n ature of th e case th ey could
n ot h ave b een prodtlced elth er by a slngle artlst or by a su ccesslon of artlsts
w orkln g sep arately for th elr ow n en ds T h ey w ere th e w ork of a sch ool ln
w hlch gen eratlon s of dlsclplln ed an d devoted m asters an d pu plls h ad glven
th elr llves to p erfectln g th elr ln h erltan ce 55

L et m e add th at w h at w e H om erlsts stlll n eed today are n ew an d

p reclse com p arlson s betw een oth er m ultlgen eratlon al p erform an ce
tradltlon s an d H om erlc son g-m akln g tradltlon s con sldered ln dla-
chrom c p ersp ectlve.T h om son , th ough ln dlrectly, p olnted th e w ay.
H ls attltu de tow ard th e creatlve p ow ers of dlsclp lln e w lthln trad -
ltlon w ould h ave been out of fashlon ln th e m ld -tw en tleth century,
w h en m odernlst n otlon s of dlfficult, un lqu e p oetlc genlu s h ad b e-
com e th e n orm . lt ls all th e m ore lnterestln p th erefore, to see h ow
h e groun d s th e study of tradltlon ln h ls exp erlen ce of lslan d llfe.
T h ls secon d lntellectual m ove th at T h om son m akes w lth H om er
sh ould be con trasted w lth th e w ork of a sch olar born a year b efore
h lm , th e p revlously m en tlon ed M llm an P arry. For lt com plem ents
P arry's m etlculou s an d excltln g w ork ln a m alor dlm en slon .W '
h ereas
P arry lirst sh ow ed th e lm pllcatlon s of form ulalc technlqu e ln th e
poem s, and corroborated thls w lth lieldw ork Thom son beglns
w lth hls everyday exp en en ce am ong th e p eople, an d th en relm agln es
th e form ula. T h e key p assage w as first p ubllsh ed ln M arxsm
and P oetry, th en rep rln ted w lth som e exp an slon s four years later
ln th e rst edltlon of Stud kes Jrl A na ent G reek Socw ty. T h om son

54 T hom so n 1945 34 O f cou rse,such a vlew coln cld ed w lth h1s polltlcal stan ce,
for T hom son the peasan try fto som e exten t are a11 poets H en ce th e anonym lty of
m ost popular poetry' (1945 22) A nd M arM st thought w as, after ally parttally an
exten slo n of early R om antlc n otlo ns of the kb/k an d 1ts creatlve p ow er,datlng b ack to

H erder
55 lb ld 34
90 R w hard M artkn

descrlbes h ls early lm p atlen ce w lth th e Kp rlm ltlve' rep etltlon s of

H om erlc p oetty an d th e w ay hls m ln d w as ch allged '
.sd

T h en lw ent to Irelan d T h e conversatlon of th ose ragged p easants,as soon as

I learnt to follow 1t, electrlfied m e It w as as th ough H om er h ad com e allve
Its vltallty w as m exh au stlble, yet lt w as rhythm tcal, alltteratw e, form al,
artlficlal, alw ays on th e p oln t of bu rstlng m to p oetry T h ere ls n o n eed to
descrlbe lt furth er, b ecause lt h ad a11 th e qu alltles n oted by R adlov ln
th e conversatlon of th e K lrghlz O n e day lt w as atm oun ced th at a w om an
ln th e vlllage h ad glven blrth to a chlld A s m y lnform an t expressed 1t, Ta se
tarratg the (zn/fzr atce, 'Sh e h as brought h er load from th e w est' I recognlsed
th e allu slom b ecau se oftem w h en turf w as scarce, I h ad seen th e w om en
com e dow n from th e hllls ben t double un der p acks of heath er W h at a lin e
lm age, I th ought, w h at eloqu en cel B efore th e d ay w as out, I h ad h eard th e
sam e expresston from three or four dlfferent p eople It w as com m on prop -
erty A fter m any slm llar exp en en ces, I reallsed th at th ese gem s fallln g from
th e llp s of th e p eople, so far from b eln g n oveltles,w ere cen turles old- th ey
w ere w h at the lan gu age w as m ade of,an d as I b ecam e flu ent ln lt they b egan
to tn p off m y ow n ton gue R eturnlng to H om er, I read h1m ln a n ew hgh t
H e w as a p eople's p oet- arlstocratlc,n o d oub t,b u tllvln g ln an age ln w h lch
class tn equ altttes h ad n ot yet created a cultural cleavage b etw een hut an d
castle H 1s lan gu age w as artl clal, yet, stran ge to say; th ls artlliclah ty w as
n atu ral It w as th e langu age of th e p eople ralsed to a h lgh er p ow er N o
w on der th ey w ere enraptured

N o on e w lll deny th at Parry's analysls of th e form ula as a techn lque

of com p osltlon w as an ln slght of selsm lc prop ortlon s, th e reverber-
atlon s of w hlch are stlll belng felt.57 W h at T h om son adum brates ln
th ls p assage,lw ould argu e,ls lm p ortant m yet anoth er w ay.H e ls not
con f n ed by any fascln atlon w lth techn lqu e. In stead : h e provldes
th e extern al an alysls of a total oral-tradltlon al enm ronm en t as lt

56 Thom son 1949 540 Cf K tberd (2000 539)w ho quotes the firstllnes and then
observes that Thom son lm ap ned H om er Qw n tlng g. s/d out of a tlm e w hen class
snollllcrlcsksld had notyetcreated a splttbetw een rtch and poor,and w hen there w as
stlll so m ethlng llke a com m on cultu re 'It ls do ubtftzl T h om son w o uld have appre
clated thls double dllutlon ofh1sw ord cholce C)Lum g (1980 l59) quotes from the
Irlsh verslon of T h om so nAs m em o lr the clearest statem ent ofthe scholar's vlew on the
relatlonshlp betw een h1s lrlsh stay and h1s thought QsflBhlascaod flfuatreas an
eochatr don gcetstH otm earach'(Qlfs ln Blasket that l found the key to the H om erlc
Q uestlon')
57 See L etoublon 1997 an d the blb llograp hy com p lled by Fo ley 1985,w lth up dates
ln th e Journ al O ral rrfzf//r/t)p
 H om er am ong the frs /y 91

relates to w h at w e w o uld call form ulas. T h e to tal en vlron m en t ls o f

co urse also com m u n al, p re-cap ltallst, an d lab o ur-ln ten slve ln a w ay
th at T h om son ns M arxlsm w ou ld ln creasln gly stress, as h e m oved
b eyon d H om er ln to an clen t dram a. ln th ls vlem th e form ula ls a
p art of n atu ral lan gu age,of soclal llfe,a crystalllzatlon of gen eratlon s
of exp erlen ce. lt ls at th e m lcro level w h at H om erlc eplc ls at th e
m acro :th e ep ltom e of artlstlc p erfectlon p rlzed an d tran sm ltted by a
con tln u ally creatlve p eop le. lf P arryns w ork h as lgn lted tw o gen er-
atlon s of m etlcu lou s textu al an d tech n lcal an alysls, T h om sonns h as
foresh ad ow ed- l can't say en co uraged , as lt w as n otlced less th an lt
d eserved- th e folklore, dlsco urse an alysls, an d p erform an ce ap -
p ro ach es curren tly em p loyed by a n u m b er of H om erlsts. A n d of
co urse ln recen t years w e h ave seen th e crlss-cro ssln g of th ese tw o
p ath s.
A t th e en d of th ls con trast of m en an d m eth od s, Syn gens Klm p orf
an d T h om sonns Kexp ortnof H om er,p erh ap s th e m eth o d ologlcaldlffer-
en ces are n ot so tellln g as on e oth er com m on allty- aslde from th e
fact th at each fo un d h ls ln sp lratlon on w estern lrlsh lslan d s. T h ey
sh are th e fate of ld en tlf catlon w lth th elr su blect. l h ave already
clalm ed that Synge becam e A ranns H om er. Q ulte approprlately, the
last exten d ed p lece G eorge T h om son h ad to say ab ou t H om er an d th e
Blasketshasnever (to m y know ledge)been prlnted.ltclrculatesln an
oralverslon .A n d th o u gh th ls verslon , a 1976 radlo talk ,ls o sten slbly
ab ou t T om as O C n om h th aln ,th e lslan dm an an d au th or w h ose w ork
h elp ed ln sp lre O Su llebh aln ns, lt b ears ln th e en d , a tltle th at ls
am blgu ou s: H okm ear sa B hlascaod.su A s on e llsten s to th e volce of
th e p asslon ate sch olar sp eaklng hls p erfect K erry lrlsh an d telllng
th e story of thls rough kourotrop hos, lt ls n ot dl cult to lm agln e
h earln g a p oetw h o sh ap ed h lm self ln to th e tru e b ard of th e B laskets.59

58 Avallable on a cassette produced ln 1999 (CIC L32)from Clo 1ar Chonnachtha,

Inverln , C o G alw ay
59 In the o rlgln al presen tatlon , a selectlon fro m th e tap e w as p layed at th ls p oln t
O n th e p hen om en o n o f an alysts m ergln g w lth p erfo rm ers,see G razlo sl, C h 5 ln thls
volu m e 1 w lsh to exp ress th an ks to P eter G athercole for sharln g w lth m e h1s
forth com ln g essay, A eschylu s,th e B laskets an d M arxtsm ln tercon n ectln g ln flu en ces
o n th e W rltln gs of G eorge T h om son ' 1 am also ln deb ted to E d lth H all an d R lch ard
Seaford fo r sh arln g rem ln lscen ces o f T h om son
 4

H om er and Joyce:T h e C ase of N ausicaa

Step hen M inta

T h e Ihad closes on lts audlen ce llke a great door on an em pty

cath ed ral, leavln g on ly sllen ce b eh ln d . O ver lts lon g co u rse, th e ep lc
has ralsed som e of the m ost pressln g lssues ln hum an affalrs, and,
through th e eyes an d actlons ofA chllles,ln p artlculas the herolc code
w hlch ls the foundatlon of con duct ln the eplc has been relentlessly
scrutlnlzed.N evertheless,th e p oem w orks tow ard s lts end by dlstan -
cln g th e p osslblllty of sayln g anythln g furth er. A ch llles an d P rlam
m eet ln B o ok 24, an d ,ln resp on se to P rlam 's ln com p reh en slon at th e
terrlble and unpredlctable n ature of hum an destlny, A chllles glves
hlm an an sw er w hlch ls n o answ es but w hlch ls a1lthat ls avallable ln
the w orld as he has com e to understand lt: llvayeo h e says to
Prlam , Kkeep golng' (Ihad 24.549).Even grlevlng now seem s llke a
luxury from an oth er age,an d th ere ls alw ays w orse to com e.T h e story
goes on ,of course,lnto the A ethkop ks and beyon d,but though th ere ls
a sen se ofbroodlng m enace at th e en d ofthe Ihad,th ere ls rem arkably
llttle susp en se.T h e lm p ortan t even ts to com e- th e death of A chllles,
the fall of Troy- have, ln the lm agln atlon of the audlen ce, already
h app en ed .t
lf th e Ihad ensures lts ow n En allty an d com pleteness,the O dyssey
as has often been polnted out, does som ethlng llke the opposlte.O r,

U nack now ledged translatlon s ln thls chap ter are m y ow n l am gratefttl for th e
com m ents of B arbara G razlo sl,E m lly G reenw ood , an d D erek A ttrld ge o n an earller
d raft of th ls essay
l In 1ts closlng m om ents,W olfgang Petersen's film Troy (2004) reslsts the sense of
finallty by hln tln g at a con tln uatlon of th e story throu gh the fttture career of A eneas
 H om er and Joyce.N auskcaa 93

rath es lt b oth ach leves com p leten ess of a kln d an d yet rem aln s op en
to furth er sp eculatlon an d developm en t. H om er, th at ls, offers th e
p arad ox of satlsfp n g th e tw o m o st ln slsten t an d ln n o cen t d em an d s
of stoty :to end and not to end.A nd they llved happlly ever afterl
alon gslde KTell us an oth er storyt
T h ere ls th e p o sslblllty of a rom an tlc en dln g at O dyssey 23.296, as
h as b een con troverslally suggested sln ce th e tlm e of th e A lex an drlan s.
H ere, at last, th e h ero an d h eroln e E n ally go to b ed togeth er for th e
first tlm e ln tw en ty years, w h lch ls, lf ever, th e m om en t to say : A n d
th ey llved h ap p lly ...7.B u t,to u ch ln g as lt m u st b e,a n lgh t of reflectlve
p asslon , even as p rolon ged by A th en a, ls n ot an en dln g to satlsfy
everyon e.z T h e con clu dln g lln e of B ook 24, on th e oth er h an d ,
p rovld es, from th e stan dp oln t of a m o d ern au dlen ce, p erh ap s th e
m o st dlsap p oln tln g en dln g of any m alor w ork ln E urop ean llteratu re,
m erely rep eatln g a lln e from 45 lln es earller,w h lch w as un m em orab le
ln th e first p lace.T h ls ap p aren t lack of an en dln g ln evltab ly lm p lles a
con tln u atlon , as lf th e b ard h ad on ly m om en tarlly p au sed for breath .
O dysseus can n ot dle youn p or even ln early m lddle age, becau se
T lreslas h as p rom lsed lt so. H e can n ot b e H ector or A chllles, an d
th ere ls llttle slgn th at h e envles elth er of th em th elr early d eath an d
etern al glory. lt ls O dysseus' fate to go on an d on .
H e ls th e m an w h o suffers.lf lt ls h e,rath er th an A chllles,w h o w ln s
th e w ar,w e n ever see hlm ln hls m om en t of trlum ph . ln deed, ln th e
great eplc slm lle at O dyssey 8.52 1 ff.H om er denles h lm th at m om ent
even ln retrosp ect, by lden tlfp ng hlm w lth th e van qulsh ed, n ot th e
vlctors. O dysseusn achlevem en t at Troy h as n ever been secure, for lt
w as th e resu lt: n ot of th e tran sp aren t exerclse of su p erlor p hyslcal
p ow es but th e ap p llcatlon of m ln d . T h e stratagem of th e w ooden
h orse an d all lt slgn lf es w lll p lace O dysseu s at an an gle to m o st
sub sequ en t ph ases of E urop ean culture.T h e ldea th at th ere ls som e-
thlng unfalr about th e h orse, as the m ean s of w lnnlng an othetw lse
u nw ln n ab le con fllct, lln gers arou n d th e E gu re of O dysseu s for m u ch
of h ls p o st-l-lom erlc career.O dyssean form s of clevern ess tu rn o u t to
b e lnh eren tly problem atlc, alon g w lth th e relatlvlsm th at un derpln s
th em . O dysseu s h as b een loath ed or m lstru sted for far lon ger ln th e
European tradltlon than he has been adm lred; and so to place Joyce

2 c f z eltlln 1996
94 Step hen M irlffk

alon gsld e H om er ls n ot slm ply- p erh ap s n ot even prlm arlly- to ask

how Joyce read the O dyssey but to recall how the O dyssey w as read.
Joyce fam ously asked Frank B udgen : KD o you know of any com -
plete all-roun d ch aracter presented by any w rlter?'T he correct reply,
of course, w ould n ot com e from th e w orks of B alzac, Flaubert,
D ostoevsky, Tolstoy, or even Sh akesp eare, b ut from H om er. O f
O dysseus,Joyce says: Khe ls a com plete m an ...a good m an .A t any
rate, that ls w hat l lnten d th at he shall bet O dysseus,Joyce rem arks
ap provlngly,w as Ka w ar dodger w ho trled to evade m llltary servlce by
slm ulatlng m adnesst M ost of all,K(h1e w as sublected to m any trlals,
b ut w lth w lsdom an d courage cam e through th em allt3 W e can n ot
h op e to kn ow h ow close th ls vlslon of O dysseu s m lght be to th at of
H om er,n or w h at com p lexltles m ay lle b eh ln d th e E gu re of O dysseu s
th at H om er ln h erlted, w h eth er from earller eplc or folk-tale. H ow -
eves lt w ould be eccentrlc to lm agln e th at H om er dlsllked hls
O dysseu s, an d m u ch su ggests th at h e fo un d h lm adm lrab le. T h ere
appears less of a gulf betw een th e H om erlc O dyssey and Joyce than
there ls betw een th e O dyssey and D ante's C om m edka or Sophoclesn
P hkloctetes.
T he hostlllty w hlch O dysseus encountered after H om er ls w ell
know n .'l T h ere ls th e gen eral antlp athy of A thenlan tragedy, the
negatlve vlew of V lrgll (though U lysses ls tw lce called Klnfellxl that
ls, Kunfortunatel Klll-fatedl Kunhappyn tn A enezd 3), the vlslon of
D ante ln Inferno 26,w here U lysses and D lom edes are am ong the
glvers of false coun sel,burnlng ln hell togeth er,enveloped ln a slngle
f1am e.5
T he hostlllty, on the on e han d,ls obvlous ln orlgln :O dysseus w as
seen as treacherous and deceltful,sly,ln sln uatlng as M llton's serpent
(Paradlse Lost 4.347-8). O n the other hand, there w as som ethlng
m ore com p lex . lt h ad to do w lth hls sup p osed unreadablllty, th e

: B u d gen 2004 258- 9

4 G rlflin 1987 99 Lam b erton 1997 35 n otes that the first m entlon of H o m er ln
preserved G reek llterature ls hostlle (c550 Bcr.) Stanford and Luce 1974 rem alns a
usefulgeneralsurvey of the gost H om erlc receptlon of O dyssetzs
5 U lysses and D lom edes 'groan (on account of1 Ithe ''agguato delcaval'' (''the
trlck of the horse77l' (llnes 58-9) W hlle D ante can only dlstance hlm self from the
su fferln g of O dysseus, he rem aln s deeply fascln ated by h1m and glves h1m so m e of
th e fin est lln es ln all th e C om m edta
 (

H om er and Joyce'N auskcaa 95

am blgu lty of H om e/ s p resen tatlon ; th e fact th at H om er h ad

ap p aren tly op en ed a sp ectrum , alon g w h lch O dysseu s co u ld b e
read , th at w as slm p ly to o w ld e to b e reassu rln g. lt ls often assum ed
that ltw as a characterlstlc of Joycean m odernlty to m ake a vlrtue out
of thls,and the Joycean vlew has becom e so m uch part of orthodox'y
that lt ls lm p osslble to read H om er w lthout lt. A s John Peradotto
suggests:Ko dysseu snd ellb erate abrogatlon of dlstln ctn ess ln P olyp h e-
m u sn cave dlsp lays h lm as th e n arratlve agen t p ar excellen ce, as
th erefore cap able of b ecom ln g any ch aracter ...of b eln g, ln a w ord ,
polytropos' (Peradotto 19979:391).
T h e un read ablllty, w h lch ls th e con sequ en ce of su ch p oly valen ce,
ls m arked from the outset.ltl alm ost on hls lirst appearance on the
European stage, O dysseus ls already wrohzlyvvl-rtb- tfDflt;l 1.311), he
ls already b eyon d easy sum m ary. Tran slators can on ly tak e sld es.
Kltesourcefulnsays the Loeb edltlon,Kversatllel say Fagles and Fltzger-
ald, Ksagel says Pope,all lnslstlng on the posltlve; Kcraftynsays Lattl-
m ore, op en ln g a road to th e op p oslte.6 Tran slators glve dlfferen t
m ean ln gs to th e term , d ep en dln g on th elr feelln g for th e lm m edlate
con text, an d th e resu lt ls a h lgh ly su blectlve, an d u ltlm ately u n su s-
taln ab le, p attern ln g. So, for exam p le, th e L o eb ed ltlon at Ihad 3.200
translates groA/rtn-rs as Kof m any w llesl w hereas Lattlm ore now
chooses Kresourcefull and Fagles Kthe great tactlclann (w hlch phrase
he borrow s from Fltzgerald).
Slgn lf can tly, lt ls th e Trolan en em y A n ten or w h o p ays th e h lgh est
trlb ute to th ls O dyssean ran ge or dversatllltyt ln B o ok 3 of th e Ihad,
h e recalls h ow O dysseu s h ad on ce com e to Troy on an em b assy.
W h en ever h e ro se to sp eak b efore th e assem bly, h e w ou ld lo ok
d ow n at th e grou n d an d yo u w ou ld h ave th o ugh t h lm fo ollsh
(J(Jpop(t:Ihad 3.220).But w hen he began to talk says A ntenor ln a
m arvellou s p h rase, lt w as llke Ksn ow flakes on a w ln try d ayn. T h en n o
oth er m ortal co u ld rlval h lm . T h e p roblem atlc O dysseu s of later
tlm es ls all h ere, h ls sp eech con cealln p sh ap ln g, dlstortln g. H elen ,
on th e sam e occaslon , glves h er ow n acco un t of th e elu slve qu alltles

6 rtjzs derlves from a verbalroot m eanlng Qto m easurel lm plp ng,as Chantralne
1999 su ggests, b oth k now led ge an d the ab lllty to calcu late Qsub tle' w as o n ce a goo d
Engllsh translatlon for zvogjvymwb before the w ord lost one of 1ts m eanlngs (Qcrafty,
cunnlng') ln the elghteenth century There ls a Qsubtle U lysses' ln a seventeenth
century text (M antltus 1675 lm e 773)
96 Step hen A'
lirlffl

of O dysseu s.Sh e slgn als hlm out to P rlam from th e Scaean gates an d
says (lhad 3.202) that Khe know s all klnds of t
'
iflzot' (trlcks) and
y,vlbea '
rrtplcptl (shrew d counselslt At w hlch translators, once agaln,
op en u p a vast sp ectru m of p o sslbllltles, from P op ens:

H 1s Fam e for W lsdom fills the spaclous Earth (1 264)

to Faglesn:

h e's qulck at every treachery un der th e sun-

the m an oftw lsts and turns (ll 243-4)7

A ll m lght h ave been easler ln th e p ost-l-lom erlc w orld h ad

H om er llm lted th e ran ge of th ese O dyssean attrlbutes. lf h e h ad,
for ln stan ce, llm lted th e u se of trlckery to th ose sltu atlon s w h lch
strlctly requlred lt. In O dyssey 9.422- 3, O dysseu s talks of hls m en tal
efforts to fin d a w ay o ut of th e grasp of P olyp h em u s Kl w ove all sorts
.

of 3JAOI?C and y,lrtv',he says,K4 'rc 'rrcpl (Jvyqs? (Kas you do w hen
your llfe ls at staken).That sounds reasonable,though,as a prlnclple,
lt m lgh t yet h ave b een u n accep table to gen eratlon s b rough t up w lth
th e bellef th at th ere are kln ds of llvlng w hlch are w orse th an death .

B ut H om er does n ot even allow thls slm ple correlatlon of trlckln ess

an d n ecesslty.Such a Klegltlm aten use of t
'
itiAo m lgh t w ell E gure ln th e
context of Penelopens w eb stratagem (O dyssey 2.93 and 2.106)- she,
to o, n eed s. to su rvw e- b ut th e case ls en tlrely dlfferen t at 13.293.
T h ere A th en a, fllrtatlou s an d ad m lrln p tells O dysseu s th at h e ls as
K

lnsatlable for trlcksn (for t

'
iJAf.
z)pl8 as he ls for deceltful tales,recog-
nlzlng thathe loves such tales passlonately,Kfrom the bottom of ghlsl
h eartt Som e su ch d eep -seated valorlzatlon of trlckery exp laln s, at
least ln p art, th e prlde of O dysseu s ln th e fam ou s m om ent of self-
revelatlon at O dyssey 9.19- 20, w h en h e says to th e kln g of th e

7 Com pare Lattlm ore'sC(heknowslevery m annerofshlftlnessand craftr coun

sels',and Fly gerald's Qhe knows Iallm anner ofstratagem s and m oves ln war
8 soztsr (lz' T h e ph rase ls already u sed at Iltad ll 430 A ccord ln g to C han traln e
1999,the prlm ltlve G reek sense of Sozo m ay be Qbalt' (for fishlng),as at O dyssey
12 252 lt m ay be cognate w lth Engllsh Qtalel w hlch opens lnterestlng posslbllltles
T he w o rd su rv tves u nch anged m form and m ean tn gs m to m odern G reek and (s
retaln ed by K azantzak ts ln h 1s translatlon of the O dyssey C f th e m odern G reek
!'roverb 'W lthout Sozo you cannotcatch a fishlretalnlng the dualm eanlngs of
b alt- an d -cu n n ln g -
 H om er and Joyce'N auskcaa 97

P h aeaclan s:Kl am O dysseus,son of L aertes,w ellknow n to all m en for

m y tjto ostrspt
ln such p assages as th ese, lt ls lm p osslble to sustaln an lm age of
O dysseu s as th e m an w h o u ses h ls w lts slm p ly b ecau se h e h as to .H ls
calculatlon s an d hls en ergles go beyon d th e m ere lnterests of th e
survlvor.The O xford C om m entary defantly says:KH e go dysseusl ...
h as every rlgh t to start w lth th e p roud clalm th at hls t
3JAo$h ave m ade
hlm w orld fam ouslg but the very tone of defance suggests there m ay
b e a n eed for som e sort of d efen ce. lt ls n o surp rlse th at O dysseu s
b ecam e so unloved ;n or ls lt a surprlse to fin d th at,as h e began to b e
reh abllltated ln th e E urop ean tradltlon ,th e prlce w as a dlm ln utlon of
h ls range, an attem pt to con taln hlm w lth ln th e boun ds of w h at a
p ollte soclety felt to be acceptable.lo

O D Y S SE U S A F T E R JO Y C E

Joycens U lysses ls conventlon ally dlvlded by crltlcs,n ot lnto chapters,

b ut lnto eplsodes, each reflectln g som e ch aracter or m om ent from
the O dyssey. Thls dlvlslon w as legltlm lzed by Joyce hlm seltl lf not
very p ubllcly. ln Septem ber 1920, h e sen t a plan of corresp on d en ces
to C arlo Llnatl, m arked Kfor hom e use onlyl w hlle ln 1930, Stuart
G llb ert p ubllsh ed a rath er dlfferent verslon ln h ls lnflu entlal study of
U lysses. T h ese overlappln g sch em ata ln dlcate th e H om erlc p arallels,
alon g w lth referen ces to th e Ktech n lcn of th e ep lso d e, th e colo u r,
organ , and so on to b e assoclated w lth lt.11 T h ere are elgh teen su ch
eplsod es, each o ccup yln g ab ou t an h o ur of f ctlon al tlm e, an d th e
book runsfrom 8.00 a.m .on one day (16 June 1904)to som e hour ln
th e early m orn ln g of th e n ext.
T h e term Kep lso d en com es ln to E n gllsh ln th e seven teen th cen tury.
T h e O ED def n es lt as Kan ln cld entaln arratlve or dlgresslon ln a p oem ,
story,etc.,sep arable from th e m aln sublect,yet arlslng n aturally from

9 H eubeck ,W est,an d H aln sw o rth 1990 13

10 O u tsld e a m aln stream E u ro pean trad ltlo n ,reactlo n s to trlck ery and lp n g can b e
very d lfferen t W alcot 1992, for exam ple, looks at th e evld en ce from tw entleth
cen tu ry G reek vlllage co m m u n ltles an d exam ln es lyln g as a fo rm of soclal assertlon
11 T hese schem ata are w ldely reprlnted see e g Joyce 1993
98 Step hen A'
lirlffl

ltland glvestheErstrecorded useasthatofD ryden ln 1679.From 1915,

a n ew sen se ls llsted : KE ach of th e ln stalm en ts ln to w h lch a film ,
televlslo n o r rad lo d ram a, etc.ls d lvld ed fo r tran sm lttln g as a sen est
T h ough U lysses w as lirst p ubllsh ed ln serlal form , from 19 18, lt ls
w lth th e first ofth ese tw o d ef n ltlon s th atw e are con cern ed .C u rlo u sly,
th ere h as b een relatlvely llttle crltlcal ln terest ln th e n ature of th e
ep lsod e as gen re.W h at con stltutes an ep lsod e? '
W h at ln flu en ces su b -
sequ en tw rltersto m ake an Kep lso d e'from m aterlalth ey f n d ln H om er?
Joycens approprlatlon of H om er offers n o slm ple correlatlons.A t
on e en d of th e scale, th ere ls th e ep lsod e of th e KW an derlng R ocksn
(10):12 w hlch,ln H om er: ls not an eplsode at all:m erely a detall of
m yth ologlcal geography, a p lace O dysseu s sp eclf cally avolds on hls
w ay to the lsland ofThrlnacla (O dyssey 12.59 ff.).W hlle,at the other
end of the scale,there are Keplsodesnsuch as Telem achus (1),lthaca
(17), and Penelope (18) w hlch, ln H om er, are m ore or less coter-
m ln ou s w lth th e w h ole ep lc.Far from b eln g Ksep arab le from th e m aln
sublectl they essentlally constltute lt, ln thelr lnteractlons w lth the
h ero . ln th e m ld dle gro u n d , th ere are tru e ep lsod es, ln th e sen se of
the O ED ns defnltlon: Lotus Eaters (5), Laestrygonlans (8), Slrens
(11),and so on.
N elther the stot'y of N auslcaa (13),nor the w lder narratlve of the
P h aeaclan s ln w h lch lt ls em b ed d ed , con stltu te ep lsod es ln any easlly
dem on strable w ay. T h e P h aeaclan tale ls long an d com p lex. lt ls
ln trodu ced by Z eus hlm self ln B ook 5, w h ere h e ord aln s th at O dys-
seu s w lll leave th e lslan d of C alyp so an d th at, on th e tw en tleth d ay at
sea, h e w lll com e to Sch erla, th e lan d of th e P h aeaclan s, w h o are
born near to the godsn (5.35). O dysseus lirst catches slght of thls
land- usually taken to be an lsland- on the elghteenth day (5.279),
w lth lts sh ado'w y m oun taln s,lyln p ln th e w ords of Fltzgerald, Kllke a
rou gh sh leld of b u llns h ld e on th e seat T h en h e ls b low n ab o u t by
P o seld on an d com es close to com p lete d esp alr, b efore b eln g ln ter-
cepted by th e sea-goddess L eu coth ea.H e E n ally m akes a lan dfall an d,
exh au sted , goes to sleep .
T h e P h aeaclan sectlon of th e O dyssey occup les B o ok s 6 to 13,
th o ugh B o oks 9 to 12 are alm ost en tlrely taken up w lth O dysseu sn
ow n tales of hls adventures, agaln st th e b ackdrop of th e P h aeaclan

12 T he nu m b er ln p aren th eses ln dlcates the p osltlon of the ep lso de w lth ln U lysses

 H om er and Joyce'N auskcaa 99

au dlen ce. ln th e m lddle of lln e 187 of B ook 13, th e P h aeaclan s

ab rup tly com e to an en d . T h ey are recalled ln p assln g th ree tlm es
later ln th e O dyssey but w lth n o slgn lf can ce. T h elr overall place ln
th e eplc ls too exten slve an d too com plex to be called an eplsode.lt ls,
m oreover, a narratlve lnto w hlch a n um ber of dlfferent threads have
b een w oven ,n ot all of w h lch are w h olly com p atlble- th o u gh th ls by
n o m ean s n ecessarlly lm p lles th e p resen ce of m ore th an on e au th or.
T h e P h aeaclan p erlo d glves O dysseu s a ch an ce to tell h ls story H e .

w ln s hls au dlen ce ln to sllen ce through hls b ardlc skllls an d secures a

p assage hom e to lthaca,laden w lth glfts.From th e Kp oor,bare,forked
an lm alnat th e begln nlng of B ook 6,h e becom es th e return ln g h ero of
B ook 13. T h e story, at on e level, ls about h ospltallty, th at w h lch ls
gen erou sly glven , th at w h lch ls w on . T h e su ccessful tran sform atlon
of O dysseu s th at w e observe ln th ese books ls testlm ony b oth to th e
m agn lf cence of the P haeaclan s, thelr gen eroslty, and th e pow er of
th elr reso urces,an d to th e w ld e-ran gln g skllls of O dysseu s,w h o,w lth
som e h elp from A th en a, turn s aroun d an unp rom lslng sltuatlon .
B ut thls app aren t b alan ce betw een glver an d recelver ls deeply
com p etltlve. T h e story ls also th at of th e stran ger w h o w an d ers ln to
tow n an d proceeds to test th e ln h abltants, a m otlf fam lllar from th e
K

w esternt ln the end, lt ls a story of a com plete w lnner (O dysseus)

and totallosers (the w hole of the Phaeaclan people).lf lt ls truly an
account of h ospltallty,lt ls hard to see w hy the Phaeaclans,havlng re-
en d ow ed O dysseu s w lth th e m aterlal attrlb u tes of th e h ero sh o u ld
,

sub sequently be punlsh ed by th e gods for behavlng ln preclsely the

h ospltable w ay th ey sh ould h ave d on e. T hls, desp lte all attem p ts to
exp laln lt, rem aln s a curlo u s o u tco m e. C u rlo u s, to o, ls th e llgh t lt
th row s on th e go d s.
T h e lslan d of th e P h aeaclan s lles Kfar aw ay ln th e lo u dly su rgln g sean
(6.204).The people,how eves speak G reek,they w orshlp G reek gods,
an d th e local b ard D em odocu s already h as to m ln d a son g about th e
w o od en h orse of Troy.T h e p lace ls, on on e readln p a p aradlse at th e
llm lts of th e w orld .T h e p alace w alls are of bronze,th e doors of gold,
frult rlp en s contln u ally w lth out referen ce to season s,an d th e w om en ,
blessed by A th en a,are skllled ln th e d om estlc arts.So th e stot'y looks
as lf lt m lght be an accoun t of a fall: a fall from m ythlc tlm e lnto
h um an tlm e, p erh ap s, as th e lnh abltan ts are forced to reallze
that lrrevocable H om erlc break w lth thelr status (or fantasy) of
100 Step hen M frlffl

b eln g alm ost on e w lth th e gods. O r, ln a dlfferent sen se, a colon lal
fall, as th e orlgln al tlm eless p aradlse ls lost an d th ey are drlven lnto
con fron tatlon w lth a w ld er w orld .
Som e such ld eas m ay h over around th e stoty b ut th ey d o n ot
p rod u ce a con slsten t read ln g.T h ere ls,ln d eed ,a flat co ntrad lctlo n ln
thls area. N auslcaa, p erh ap s from th e restrlcted vlew of h er age an d
sex, tells O dysseu s th at th e P h aeaeclan s are com pletely lsolated : w e
are axarot,she says (6.205),Kouterm ostl Koutslde the know n w orldl
or Kat the w orldns endn (Fagles).13 Posslbly,she m eans by thls that no
on e ever com es to see th em , b ut th e P h aeaclan m en , at least, are far
from belng lsolated .ln deed, th elr sklll at travelllng th e sea ls a key to
thelr ldentlty.W hen O dysseus,ln Book 16 (llnes 227-8),recalls hls
tlm e w lth th e P h aeaclan s, h e calls th em : Km en fam ed for th elr shlp s
(p(t?Jcua7A?J'roJ),14 w ho send other m en, too, on thelr w ay, w hoever
com es to them n (Loeb).W hlle thelr klng A lclnous,at 8.31 ff.,reallz-
ln g th at O dysseus w an ts to go h om e,says let u s Km ake h aste w lth our
custom aty escorf (A utenrleth).
H ow to read th e P h aeaclan n arratlve as a w h ole rem aln s dl cult,
an d ,ln d eed ,p erh ap s lt can n ot b e read as a w h ole.A t on e level,lt ls a
soclal com edy, a stu dy of a settled com m unlty from th e p ersp ectlve
of th e outsld er. T h ere ls m u ch h um our ln th e exch an ges b etw een
O dysseus and N auslcaa an d th en, later on , ln th e relen tless retreats
forced on A lcln ous,as th e stranger takes on th e h om e slde an d reveals
th at th ey are less th an th e ch am plon s th ey alw ays th ought th ey w ere.
O dysseus even outclasses th e b ard D em odocus, ren derlng hls en tlre
au dlen ce sp eechless w lth th e utterly convln cln g account of h ls lm -
plau slble travels. O n th e oth er h an d,thls ls a truly savage tale of th e
threaten ed destru ctlon of a clvlllzatlon .W e n ever n d out h ow b ad
th e P h aeaclan fate ls to b e: th elr story slm p ly en d s as A lcln ou s
desp erately trles to p aclfy P oseldon w lth tw elve ch olce b ulls, com -
m an dlng hls p eople to glve up all th ey h ave com e to stan d for, an d to
K
cease our conveylng of m ortalsn (13.180). The dull exchanges be-
tw een Poseldon ,w h o seeks to hlde th e P h aeaclan clty behln d a h uge

13 The Ethloplans are called cta avos(Qfartherm ost of m en') at O dyssey l 23

14 T h e eplth et ls already used at O dyssey 7 39 lt m ay b e slgn lf cant th at lt ls also
applled to the P hoenlclans, w ho appear as w lly, greedy traders ln th e O dyssey
(15 415)
 H om er and Joyce'N auskcaa 101

m o un taln , an d Z eu s, w h o ap p aren tly acqulesces ln th ls m on stro slty

o f Justlce, are, m ean w h lle, red olen t of th e m ost cyn lcal ban alltles o f
M ount O lym p us.15
ln term s of oralp erform an ce,lt m ay be th at allth ese ten slon s are of
llttle slgn lf can ce, an d th at w h at m ay seem curlou s, p erplexlnp or
con tradlctory to th e read er ls slm p ly reglstered as m ysterlo u s by th e
llsten er. T h ere ls clearly m u ch ln th e stot'y of th e P h aeaclan s th at
m lght have lnterested Joyce.B ut from lt allhe retaln s only a gen eral-
lzed sen se of m ystery,w h lch ls th en p arodlcally exp lo d ed , alon g w lth
w h at ls ln H om er a relatlvely m ln or b u sln ess: th e m eetln g b etw een
O dysseu s an d th e kln g's d au gh ter N au slcaa.
N auslcaans nam e m eans Kexcelllng ln shlpsn (H eubeck,W est, and
H alnsw orth 1988: 294). So she ls a klnd of G reek M arlna. She ls
certaln ly m ore lm p ortan t th an a slm p le p lot d evlce to tran sfer
O dysseu s fro m th e sh o relln e to th e co u rt of A lcin o u s.Sam u el B u tler,
ln deed,w as so m oved by hls vlslon of h er centrallty th at h e belleved
sh e w as p rob ably th e creator of th e en tlre ep lc.16 H ow ever, lt ls
en ough to try to lm agln e w h at a song of N au slcaa m lght be llke to
see h ow secon d ary h er p o sltlon ls.ln term s of th e reallsm of th e story,
th at ls en tlrely ap p rop rlate. Sh e ls yo un g an d n alve, even lf, on som e
readln gs: h er n alvety ls sh ared by m ost of h er com p atrlots. N o on e
w lllever brlng b'
rltowq'r(t17 to Scherla,she says Kfor w e are very dear to
the lm m ortalsn (6.203).H er fallure to understand that thls ls not so,
th at th e stran ger sh e m eets d o es, on th e con trary, th reaten a kln d of
d eath for h er p eople, con dem n s th em all. B ut h ow could sh e, or
anyon e on th e lslan d ,h ave th e ln tultlon to sen d O dysseus back onto
th e open sea,w hlch alon e m lght h ave saved th em ?
N auslcaa h as, th en , an lm p ortan t role to play, b ut an altogeth er
u n com p reh en dln g on e. For h er, th e stran ger ls n ot a th reat, b u t a
m an w h o qulckly b ecom es a p o sslble h u sb an d . ln th ls too, as ln
m o st else, sh e ls m lstaken . O n ce sh e h as adm ltted th e stran ger ln to

15 T he O xford C om m entary n otes that Poseldon's dlalogue w lth Z eus '1s a

flat copy of slm llar O lym plc scenes ln the Iltad'(H eubeck,W est,and H alnsw orth
1990 173)
16 B u tler 1967 207
17 L attlm ore tran slates Qw arllk e attack ',Fltzgerald Qw ar or p llage',th e L oeb edltlon
'h ostlllty' C f 12 257 w h ere lt ls u sed of th e d eath stru ggle o f O dysseu s' com p an lon s
as th ey are devo u red by Scylla
102 Step hen M irlffl

h er clty, h er fun ctlon ln th e story ls over. Sh e f gures bn efly at th e

begm nlng of B ook 7, th en return s for an equally brlef, th ough
entlrely m em orable, m om ent of farew ell to O dysseus ln B ook 8,
llnes 457 ff. W e see enou gh of her to reallze that thls h as certalnly
been an eplsode from h er p ersp ectlve, on e n o d ou bt to be rem em -
bered for ever, but her story ls central to n o on e e1se.18
A t th e b egln nlng of B ook 6, A th en a goes to vlslt N au slcaa ln a
dream an d plants th e ld ea of lm p en dlng m arrlage:Kyou sh all n ot lon g
rem aln a vlrglnl she tells her LH elof zosH tt
j'
,Ip grapdefpo lhaea.t,
6.33).She prom pts N auslcaa to ask her father to let her take m ules
an d a w agon ,so that sh e can go out to th e w ashlng trough s,far from
th e clty, to laun d er h er w edd ln g cloth es. N au slcaa, w h o, from th e
p ersp ectlve of a m odern reader, ls throughout a m odel of decorum ,
does as she ls told. She ls, h ow ever: H om er says, asham ed Kto speak
the nam e of oaheplv ytlrtop before her dear fathe/ (6.66).The trans-
latlon of thls G reek phrase ls problem atlc,n ot least ln th e context of
p ost-l-lom erlc readlngs of N auslcaa.H ow far d oes H om er ln slst on
th e sexualaw akenlng ofN auslcaa,how m u ch does h e allow to rem aln
as suggestlon? V erslons ran ge from Llddell and Scott's fthe m arrlage
of a youthfulpalrl w hlch ls com pletely de-sexuallzed,through Lattl-
m orens m ore neutral dshe was asham ed to speak of her Joyful )
m arrlage...) Faglesnrather clum sy and over-expanded Ktoo shy lto
touch on her hopes for m arrlage,young w arm hopesl to Fltzgeraldns
avoldance ofthe lssue altogether (<She had no w ord to say ofher ow n
w eddlngn). The m ost recent Loeb edltlon alone presses the fact of
sexu al aw aren ess: Ksh e w as ash am ed to n am e th e Joys of m arrlagen.
H ere w e are at th e h eart ofw h at w ll1 determ lne th e focus of Joycens
ow n N au slcaa ep lso d e. W h atever th e d egree of sexu al exp llcltn ess
contalned ln the orlglnatlg Joyce,w orklng through translatlonzo and
agaln st a tradltlon w hlch had sought to render N auslcaa safe from

18 Though accordlng to H ellanlcus ofLesbos ((7480-595 scll),N auslcaa ended up

as the w lfe ofTelem achus (FG I-H 4 F 156)
19 T he adlecttve dacpo m eans Qfresh'or Qstrongldervm g from the verb bagjgjto,Qto
thrlve'or 'to bloona',yam o = 'w eddlng'Itls anyon e's gu ess h ow expllcltly th e phrase
dacpo zarso m ay once h ave resonated
20 Joyce knew llttle anclent G reek and had to read H om er ln Engllsh H e used
B u tcher and L ang's verslon of the O dyssey orlgln ally publlsh ed ln 1879 See Sen n
19 84 l30
 H om er and Joyce.N auskcaa 103

any lm p u tatlon of sex u al aw aren ess, forced a con sclo u sly red u ctlve
readln g on th e story. T h e G llb ert sch em a glves th e sym b ol of th e
N au slcaa eplsode as dv lrgln' an d th e Ktechn lcn un com prom lslngly as
K'l-um escence, detum escencel w hlle the Llnatl schem a glves for the
sym b ol of th e ep lso d e: Ko n an lsm , Fem ln ln e, H yp ocn syt
T h e ch aracten stic m ovem en t ln U lysses is tow ard s com p lexlty.A s
th e n ovel progresses, lt b ecom es m ore com plex, an d, ln gen eral,
w lthln lndlvldual eplsodes, Joycens Ktran slatlon' of the H om erlc
orlgln als w ork s ln th e sam e dlrectlon .T h ls ls m o st obvlou sly ap p aren t
In hls treatm en tofth e classlc ep lsod es from th e O dyssey su ch as L otus
Eaters, Laestrygonlans, A eolus, Scylla and C harybdls. ln KN auslcaal
h ow ever, h e d o es som eth ln g llk e th e reverse. ln stead of turn ln g a
H om erlc ep lso d e ln to a com p lex n arratlve,h e tak es a n arratlve th at ls
h lgh ly com p lex ln H om er an d fo cu ses lt d ow n on to a sln gle sublect.
H azlltt h ad sald th at H om er Kdescrlb es th e b odles as w ell as th e souls
of m entzl B ut th e reh abllltatlon of O dysseu s, from th e R en alssan ce
onw ards,had ln evltably suppressed the O dyssean body.For Joyce,the
story ofN au slcaa,as h e ln h erlted lt,w as on e of evaslon ,a coy refu salto
n am e w h at sh ould be n am ed,to recogn lze w h at sh ould be recognlzed .
H ls ow n verslon w ould b e exp llclt b eyon d th e p oln t of retu rn an d ,
ln 1920,a com p laln t w as m ad e on b eh alf of th e N ew Y ork Soclety for
th e Sup presslon of V lce, cltlng th e KN auslcaa' eplsode. ln February
of 192 1, th e edltors of th e serlallzed p ubllcatlon of U lysses w ere
convlcted of p ub llsh ln g ob scen lty.
T he pattern of denlal, agalnst w hlch Joyce chose to w ork, can be
read from th e tlm e of th e A lexan drlan s to th e late tw entleth century.
W e h ave already n oted A th en ans clear m essage to N au slcaa at 6.33:
K'Yb u sh all n ot long rem aln a vlrgln .nL attlm ore suggests:K'Yb u w lll n ot
lon g stay un m arrled 7; Fagles:Kyo u w on 't stay u nw ed lon g'.B oth m ove
th e con text from th e sexu al to th e so clal.B u t w h at of H om er? W h ere
can h e be placed ln relatlon to th e sexu al asp ects of th e story h e
tells? T h e qu estlon , llke m ost oth er asp ects of th e P h aeaclan story ls,
p roblem atlc.
W h en N au slcaa an d h er com p an lon s h ave w ash ed th elr cloth es Kln
eager rlvalryn (6.92),they bathe,oll them selves, eat,and then lle ln

21 H azlltt 18 18 32
104 Step hen M irlffl

th e sun , w altln g for th e w ash ln g to dry. A fter a w h lle th ey take off

thelr vells22 an d play a ball gam e,ln the co urse of w hlch they w ake up
th e n aked O dysseu s. H e tak es a leafy bran ch to con ceal h ls gen ltals
an d step s out to see w h at ls h app en lng.T h e com p am on s are terrlf ed
at O dysseusn dreadful appearance and run off leavlng N auslcaa
to stan d firm , w lth A th en ans h elp, to face O dysseu s. O dysseus, all
calculatln p w oos; sh e falls, but alw ays w lthln th e llm lts of decen cy;
an d sh e agrees to h elp h lm .
A s w lth oth er asp ects of th e P h aeaclan n arratlve, th e erotlc ls
ch aracterlzed by often rapldly ch anglng p ersp ectlves.A clear exam ple
ls th e m om ent w h en O dysseus w ak es up an d step s out to m eet w h at
ls, for hlm , a vet'y uncertaln fate. T he p oet h ere turns to on e of th e
extend ed llon slm lles fam lllar from p assages such as Ihad 12 .298 ff.,
w h ere Sarp edon attacks th e G reek w all.O dysseu s,as m arau dlng llon ,
ls sexu ally p oten t,p hyslcally terrlfp n g.T h e au dlen ce recognlzes th at
th ere ls n o n eed for su ch a dlsplay,b ecau se h e ls only golng to m eet a
group ofyoung w om en ;but th e audlen ce also sees th at lt ls loglcalfor
O dysseus to take thlngs sen ously, sln ce h e can h ave, as yet, n o ldea
w h eth er m ore m on sters aw alt hlm ;an d th e young glrls are qulte rlgh t
to run aw ay, sln ce, to th em , h e looks exactly llke a llon seekln g hls
prey.A ll th e p artlclp ants react plau slbly,but th e audlen ce kn ow s th at
th ey h ave all got lt w ron g, an d th e effect ls com lc.
So lt ls also w lth O dysseusn great sp eech of w oolng . H ls ln ltlal
declslon ls to w ln N auslcaa w lth w ords, rath er th an to grasp h er
kn ees as a suppllant. From hls p oln t of vlem th e E rst w ords th at h e
utters could m ake all th e dlfferen ce b etw een llfe an d d eath . lf N au -
slcaa w ere to scream ,w h o kn ow s w h at m lght h app en .So h e ch ooses
on e of th e ln trod uctlon s fam lllar am ong lightln g m en : are you a
m ortal or an lm m ortal? Llke D lom ed es to G laucu s at Ihad 6.12 1 ff.
O n ce laun ch ed , O dysseu s talks for a long tlm e, flatterlng, h oldln g
o u t, alm ost from th e b egln n ln g, an ld ea of m arrlage, h ow ever
ab stracted . T h e com edy, on ce agaln , derlves from th e au dlen cens
sen se of Ju st h ow dlfferen tly hls w ords reson ate. For O dysseu s, th e
sp eech th at m ay save h ls llfe turn s, lm p erceptlbly, ln to a sp eech th at

22 B arbara G razlosl poln ts ou t to m e that the act of th row lng off th e vellw ould be
closely assoclated w lth the lm m lnen t lo ss of vlrglnlty ln th e m lnd o f an an clen t
au d len ce
 H om er and Joyce'N auskcaa l05

carrles lts ow n m om entum , lts ow n O dyssean Joy ln excess and

hyp erbole, as h e reallzes th at sh e ls takln g lt all ln . For N auslcaa
h erself, w e see th at th e sp eech can on ly con rm th e ln sln u atlon of
A th en a's d ream . lt ls as lf so m eon e h ad read th elr h oro scop e ln th e
m ornln g p ap er an d been told to exp ect a rom antlc en coun ter w lth a
h andsom e stranger; hom w hen the stranger suddenly appears a few
h ou rs later, cou ld loglc p o sslb ly b e relected ln favou r of th e m erely
coln cld en tal?
O dysseus talks on an d olz an d the com edy ln ten slfies:as he stan ds,
stlll clutchlng h ls leafy bran ch , th e p erfect contrast of th e sophlstl-
cated and the prlm ltlve.H e concludes (6.181-5) w lth llnes that the
O xford C om m en tary dlsm lsses as tm orallstlc' an d tw ldely con -
d em n edn:z3 Kl7or n othln g ls greater...th an w h en a m an an d a
w om an keep h ouse togeth er, sh arln g on e h eart an d m ln dt It ls true
th at th ere ls som e clu m sln ess of exp resslon h ere, b u t th ere ls clever-
n ess, too . T h e au dlen ce u n d erstan d s th at th e sen tlm en ts exp ressed
can on ly b e d u p llcltou s ln resp ect of N au slcaa, to w h om th ey are
ad dressed ,hln tln g at a resolutlon th at w llln ever be.B ut th e audlen ce
recogn lzes, too, th at th ere ls a fu n d am en tal tru th ln th e lln es, a
vlew of m arrlage, h om e, an d balan ce th at h olds th e entlre O dyssey
togeth er.
ln gen eral, th e H om erlc n arratlve su ggests a ran ge o f con trasts:
com edy an d hlgh serlou sn ess, erotlc p osslblllty an d form al pro -
prlety, p astoral fantasy and lntrudlng reallsm , the touchlng and th e
cru el,exp erlen ce an d ln n ocen ce.L ater com m en tators an d tran slators,
h ow ever, found lt dl cult to see th e varlety, troubled, as th ey w ere,
by a slngle fact: H om er, ln expllcably, had allow ed a young vlrgln to
talk at len gth w lth a m an w h o w as b oth un kn ow n to h er an d also
n aked .
H om e/ s N au slcaa ls already fearfu l for h er ow n rep utatlon . Sh e
lm aglnes (6.273 ff.) herself the oblect of talk am ong the Klnsolenf
m en of h er ow n p eop le, lm agln ln g th em sayln g:

'N ow w h o's th at tall,h an dsom e stran ger N au slcaa has ln tow ?

W h ere'd sh e ltght on btm ?'

(Fagles,11 303-4)

23 H eub eck ,Jv est, an d H aln sw o rth 1988 305

106 Step hen M irlffl

Sh e adm lts th at sh e h erself w ould dlsapprove of any youn g w om an

w ho behaved as she has yust done, Kassoclatlngnz'
t w lth m en (6.288)
b efore m arrlage. A rlstarch us th ought even thls w as too m uch for a
youn g lady,25 as lf h er th oughtfuln ess for h er rep utatlon seem ed
already to con E rm h er gm lt. W hlle E ustath lus, troubled at th e ldea
of youn g w om en throw ln g a ball about,trled to redeem th e sltu atlon
by sayln g: <ln th ose days, p laylng ball w as a serlous bu sln ess&.26
Pop e,ln hls ow n tran slatlon of th e O dyssey,w orked h ard to m ake
N au slcaa acceptable an d h e reach es back as far as P lutarch for
supp ort, revealln g h ow llttle h ad ch an ged ln E fteen h un dred years.
N au slcaa says to h er h an dm ald s at 6.244-5:

W ould that such a m an as thls g1e O dysseusl be called m y husband,

L lvln g h ere

P op e tran slates:

O h eav'n ! ln m y connublal h our decree

Thls m an m y spouse,or such a spouse as he1 (1l 293-4)

The schollast quoted ln the O xford C om m entary (1.308) calls these

llnes K6haowot (Kundlsclpllnedl Kllcentlousn), and Pope, ln a foot-
note: accepts that Kgt1hls passage has been censu/d as an outrage
agaln st M o d esty an d C redlblllty'. H e go es on : Kls lt p rob ab le th at a
youn g P rln cess sh ould fall ln love w lth a stran ger at th e first slght?
an d lf sh e really falls ln love, ls lt n ot an ln decent p asslon ?n H e th en
quotes from Plutarchns M orahakl7 1tl Plutarch says,N auslcaa had felt

24 The Greek verb ls (zboyvlwab,a presentm lddle sublunctlve ofmboytojmcbyvvy,b

The m lddle has both the m eanlngs 'to hold lntercourse w lth'(as here) and 'to have
(sexual) lntercourse w lthl a fact w hlch helghtens the erotlc colourlng at O dyssey
6 136,w here O dysseus,naked,ls about to consort t/z/co'tkasl w lth N auslcaa and her
handm aldens The O xford Com m entary (H eubeck, W est, and H am sw orth 1988
31l) translates thls verb w lth the neutral phrase Qassoclate w lthl Judglng the sexual
eup hem lsm to be a later u sage T h ls ts a rather con servative tran slatlon ,p ven that the
m lddle of m ebyvvy,b evld ently can have sexu al overton es already ln H om er
25 Ib ld 3 11
26 Ib ld 299 Sop hocles w rote a n ow lost p lay called QN auslcaa t?r T he W om en
W ashing C lothes'(see Sophocles 1996 224-7) Accordlng to Eustathltts,Qhe acted the
part of N auslcaa playlng the ball and he w as greatly successfttl' (1 am gratefttl to
Barbara G razloslfor the reference and translatlon)
27 Plutarch,M oralta,Cl-low the Young M an should Study Poetryl 27 A -B Plutarch
glves thls passage a.
san exam ple ofw here Ql-lom er'syudgem entlsnotclear'(3o'a$'
q)
 H om er J/7J Joyce'N auskcaa 107

for O dysseu s th e w ay C alyp so felt for hlm , th en Kh er con duct ls

blam eable; but lf percelvln g hls w lsdom by hls prudent add ress: she
w lsh es for su ch an h u sb an d ,rath er th an a p erson of h er ow n country:
w h o h ad n o b etter qu allficatlon s th an sln gln p dan cln g an d dressln p
she ls to be com m ended l
Pope ls everyw h ere on th e defenslve. H e defends N auslcaa for
w ashlng her ow n clothes (an unw orthy em ploym entl but not, he
suggests,ln anclenttlm es),he stressesher Kw rtuous and com passlon -
ate dlsposltlonl ln the face of O dysseus and hls leafy nakedness;
h e b rln gs O dysseu s h lm self lnto th e fold by su ggestm g th at h e Kis
struck w lth a rellglo us aw e at th e slgh t of h er128 KG reeke-th un drlng'
C h apm an ,zg ln hls edltlon of th e O dyssey ls less profh gate w lth h1s
an n otations,but h e,too,ls anxlous to convln ce th e reader ofH om er's
K
pletle and w lsedom el of hls Kcurlous and sw eet pletlel of Ku lysses'
m od estle to th e V lrgln st3o T h ough h e ls also cap able of lookln g ln tw o
d lrectlon s at once. A t O dyssey 6.109: for exam ple, h e ren ders th e
G reek a sh ade m ore provocatlvely th an ls n ecessary:

N auslcaa so (w hom never husband tam 'd)

Above them allm allthe beautles tlam 'd (ll 156-7)

W h lle at 6 .56, w h ere th e G reek slm ply says th at N au slcaa cam e up

clo se to h er fath er, C h ap m an h as:

A n d to h1m exhald
H er sm otherd bosom e w as (ll 80-1)
to w hlch h e th en attach es a n ote: K'l-h ls fam lllar and neare w anton3t
carlage of N auslcaa to her father, Joyn ed w lth that vtrgm m odestle
ex-prestln her after,lsm uch pralsed by th e gravest ofH om erns exposltors.n
T h e p attern contlnu es lnto th e n lneteenth century.C h arles L am b ,
w hoseAdventuresof O dysseuslirstlntroduced Joyce to H om er atthe
age of 12,glosses 6.66-7 (Kfor she w as asham ed to nam e the Joys of
m arrlage to her dear fathern) m a w ay that now seem s extraordlnary.

28 H 1s notes to 11 35 (O dyssey 6 31),l5l (6 129),and l87 (6 155)

29 T he eplthet ls ln A nton l616, C'l'he Phlosophers Stxth Satyr of M ercurfel
lln e 247
:0 H 1s notes to 11 l65 (O lysscy 6 ll5),506 (6 324),and 345 (6 218)
:
51 In the sense of Qunrulyl frebelllousl rather than Qlasclvlous' (though the w ord
has 1ts m odern sense also ln C hapm an's tlm e)
 (

108 Step hen A'

lirlffl

H e w rltes of N auslcaa Km odestly dlssem blln g h er care of h er ow n

n up tlals to h er fath e/ an d th en adds: Ka season able care about m ar-
rlage m ay b e p erm ltted to a you n g m ald en :p rov ld ed lt b e accom p an -
led w lth m o d esty an d d utlful su bm lsslon to h er p aren ts ln th e ch olce
of h er futu re h u sb an d : an d th ere w as n o fear of N au slcaa ch o o sln g
w ron gly or lm p rop erly, for sh e w as as w lse as sh e w as b eautlfu l7.32
G eorge E llot, w h o kn ew H om er w ell, an d ln th e orlgln al, h as a w ry
com m ent, ln C hapter 9 of The A4iP on the Floss (1860), on the
d elf catlon of th e yo un g N au slcaa: A s for M aggle, b ecom ln g fascln -
ated , as u su al,by a p rln t of U lysses an d N au slcaa,w h lch u n cle P u llet
had boughtasa KKpretty Scrlpture thlngnlshe presently letfallher caken.
B ut,ln gen eral,th e ton e ls relen tlessly d e-sex u allzln g.
John K eble,ln the tw elfth ofhls Lectures on Poetry 1832- 1841,calls
N au slcaa Kth e lovellest an d m ost m odest E gure ln all an clen t
p o etryt33 'W h lle M ortlm er C ollln s, w rltln g ln 1869, lam en ted a van -
lsh ed H om erlc age an d lts su p p o sed tw ln vlrtu es of slm p llclty an d
n oblllty of con du ct:

O to b rln g b ack th e great H om erlc tlm e,

The slm ple m anners and the deeds subllm e (ll 269-70)
ln su p p ort of w h lch h e offered an lm agln ed H om erlc vlslon of lovely,
ch aste, an d th oroughly arlstocratlc w om en alon gslde w lse, steadfast,
an d h erolc m en :

W h en th e w lse W an derer, often folled by Fate,

T hrough th e long furrow drave th e plough sh are stralght,
w h en N au slcaa,lovely as a dream ,
W ash ed royal ralm ent ln th e shlnlng stream l
su ch m en , su ch m alden s, are th e sort w e seek
C an Engllsh blood produce them llke the G reek? (11 271-6)34

lt ls agaln st such a background that Joyce's rew rltlng of N auslcaa

b egln s to seem alm o st reason able ln lts lcon o clasm , as B lo om , an d ,
som e say, G erty, too, m astu rb ate, alw ays at a resp ectable dlstan ce
from each other,ln the gatherlng ,jvK6q(.'
)P 5 on Sandym ountStrand.

32 L am b 1905 60 33 K eb le 19 12 :4 M o rtlm er C ollln s 1869

35 The m odern (and anclent) G reek w ord for tw lllght (llterally Qw olfllght') seem s
app rop rlate to th e co n text T he n arrator at l3 l 168- 9 thlnks of th e Fren ch equ lva
lent Qthe shepherd's hour'(Ql'heure du berger')
 H om er and Joyce'N auskcaa 109

A nyw ay m y oplnlon ls th at lf I pu t dow n a bu cket ln to m y ow n sou l's w ell,

sexu al dep artm ent, I draw u p G rlffith's an d Ib sen's an d Skeffington's an d
B ern ard V au gh an's an d St A loyslu s' an d Sh elley's an d R en an's w ater alon g
w lth m y ow n A n d I am golng to do th at ln m y n ovel an d plank th e
bu cket dow n b efore th e sh ades an d sub stan ces ab ove m en tlon ed to see h ow
th ey llke lt an d lf th ey don't llke lt I can't h elp th em I am n au seated by th elr
lp ng drlvelab ou t pure m en an d pure w om en an d splrltu al love an d love for
ever b latan t lp n g ln th e face of th e tru th 36

ln N ovem ber 1919, Jam es Joyce began w ork on the KN auslcaa' epl-
sod e of U lysses. H e n oted tow ard s th e en d of th e year th at h e h ad
already form u lated w h at h e called th e Kgen eral p lan of th e sp eclally
n ew E zzln g stylen h e felt th e ep lsod e requ lred , b ut th at h e h ad d on e
llttle else w lth 1t.37 E arly ln th e N ew Y ear, h e fam o u sly exp an d ed on
w h at th at E zzln g style w o uld b e llk e: Ka n am by-p am by Jam m y m ar-
m alady draw ersy (alto la!) style w lth effects of lncense, m arlolatry,
m astu rb atlon , stew ed cockles, p aln terns p alette, ch ltch at, clrcum lo -
c u tlo n s, etc ., etc .738
. T h e fin al etceteras, lf anyth ln g, su ggested even
m ore radlcally than w hat had preceded them Joycens sense of th e
exub eran ce ln h eren t ln th e ep lso d e:th e m ln d can on ly w on d er,w h at
m ore? Joyce w ould rew rlte the H om erlc m om ent as a serles of
op p o sltlon al ten slon s: b etw een rom an ce an d reallsm , sen tlm en tallty
an d cyn lclsm ,sexu al fru stratlon an d orgasm lc release.lt w ou ld b e an
ep lsod e of h lgh com edy th at to ok n o p rlson ers an d h eld u p a
m lrror to con tem p oraty hyp ocrlsy an d sexu al rep resslon . lt w ou ld
be a part of Joycens ongolng w ar agaln st all the forces of soclal
P u rlty.39
KN au slcaa' ls dlvld ed very clearly ln to tw o sectlon s. T h e E zzln g
style b elon gs exclu slvely to th e first,w h lch record s a m eetln g of sorts,
on th e b each to th e so u th -east of D u blln ,b etw een L eop old B lo om ,as
O dysseu s, G erty M acd ow ell, as N au slcaa, an d tw o of G erty's frlen d s,
as handm aldens (Llnatl schem a). The m eetlng ends w lth a sexual

36 Letter from Joyce to h1sbrother,Stanlslaus,l3 N ovem ber 1906,ln Joyce 1957-66

11 l9 l- 2
57 Letter to Frank Budgen (n d (? end 19191),lbld ,1 l32 ln late January/early
Feb ru ary 1920, h e sen t a po stcard to B u d gen QG lorla ln excelsls D eo l N au stkaa
eplsode finlshed'(11 458)
38 Letter to Frank B udgen ,3 January 1920,lbld ,1 l35
39 M u llln 2003
110 Step hen A'
firlffl

act, follow ln g w h lch G erty leaves th e b each an d th e style qu lckly

reverts to th e ln terlor m on ologu e w e h ave learn t to asso clate w lth
B loom .
T he style of th e lirst part ls essentlally parodlc. Joycens technlque
plays w lth th e p aradox of w h at cann ot be n am ed : creatln g a com lc
gulf betw een G erty, on th e on e h an d ,ln w h ose w orld even chlldrenns
underclothes are Kunm entlonablesn (13.56), and the reader, on the
oth er,w h o soon un derstan ds th at th e avoldan ce of n am lng w llln ever
p reven t anyth ln g from h ap p em n g. In th e en d , G erty w lll be a w lllln g
p artlclp an t ln a sexu al act, even th ough sh e w ould recoll from any
lan gu age th at m lgh t d elin e lt as su ch .
From th e m om en t th e ep lsod e b egln s, th e p aro dy ls obvlo u s: at
least ln th e con text of th e b ook w e h ave b een readln g so far: K'l'h e
sum m er evenlng h ad begun to fold th e w orld ln lts m ysterlou s
em brace. Far aw ay ln th e w est th e sun w as settlng an d th e last glow
of alltoo fleetlng day llngered lovlngly on sea and strandn (13.1-3).
A s K aren L aw ren ce says: KTo b egln th e KKN au slcaa'' ch ap ter ls to feel
th at on e h as stu m b led ln to a b ad V lcton an n oveltzlo T h e lan gu age ls
on e of rom an tlc or sentlm ental cllch e. lt suggests a w orld as com -
fortable w lth ltself as w lth h um an beln gs,th e tw o brought togeth er ln
an easy alllteratlon (Kllngered lovlnglyn). Thls apparently eternal
w orld ls m ysterlou s, but lt ls a m ystery th at h as w arm th an d does
n ot th reaten .
A t th e en d of th e E rst p aragrap h , slgn p osted by th e ap p rop rlate
cllche Klast but not leastl w e find the R om an C athollc C hurch of
M aty Star of th e Sea, a qulet place Kw h en ce th ere stream ed forth at
tlm es u p on th e stllln ess th e volce of p rayer to h er w h o ls ln h er p u re
radlance a beacon ever to the storm tossed heart of m ann (13.6-8).41
A m enns tem p eran ce retreat ls ln p rogress ln th e ch urch , an d th e
sou n d of son g an d p rayer fram es th e even ts on th e beach , ln a w ay
th at b oth reflects an d p aro dles th em .

40 L aw ren ce 198 1 l 19 lt ls often p oln ted ou t th at th e hero ln e of M arla C u m

m lns's sentlm entalnovel The Lam pltghter (1854) ls called G erty see 13 99-100 and
13 632- 4,h er n ovelM abel Va ughan ls m en tlon ed at 13 632- 4 O n th e m 1d n ln eten th
cen tu ry sen satlon n oveld eb ate an d 1ts p osslb le relevan ce to U lysses,see Leck te 1996/7
41 T hou gh w e have anoth er cllch e h ere, th ere are few ctlonal ch aracters m o re
llterally (as w ellas m etaphorlcally) Qstorm tossed'than O dysseus
 H om er and Joyce'N auskcaa 111

lf th e em otlonal w orld of lrlsh C ath ollclsm ls an lnevltable p art

of G ertyns form atlon, the w orld of fashlon turns out to be another.
W hlle th e form er suggests m odesty, th e lm p ortan ce of llm lts,
d esexuallzed love w lth out en d ,th e latter suggests,at on e level,som e-
thlng of th e opp oslte: dlsplay, dan n p an d th e tran slen t w orld of th e
flesh . A t an oth er levely h ow ever, th ey h ave m ore ln com m on : th e
p rom lse of belon glng, th e reassuran ce of rltu al en dlessly re-en acted,
of thlngs done prop erly. B oth lnfluences, m Joycens readlng, create
false lntlm acles,a cosy,desexuallzed reassuran ce about th e w orld,llke
th e sm ell of fresh bread ln a sup erm arket. B oth feed ln to G ertyns
fantasles about m arrlage: the contlnental honeym oon (13.237-81,
the husband w lth Khls carefully trlm m ed sw eeplng m oustache'
(13.236-7), the cosy llttle hom ely house; (13.239), w here tevery
m ornlng they w ould 170th have brekkyn(13.239-40).
A t som e rem ove, th e lan guage of thls lirst p art of KN auslcaa' ls a
gesture tow ards the p relapsarlan aspects of the Phaeaclan w orld .T he
sen se th at n o h arm could ever ln terrupt th e m easured flow of tlm e
an d lts con ten tm en ts h as a com p arable referen ce at O dyssey 6.74 fL ,
for exam ple. Fagles brln gs out thls asp ect w ell:

T h ey trun dled th e w agon out n om rolllng sm oothly,

b acked the m u le-team lnto th e traces,hltch ed th em up,
w hlle th e prln cess brought h er fin ery from th e room
an d p lled lt ln to th e w agon's p ollsh ed cradle
H er qte N austcaa'sl m other packed a ham per- treats of allklnds,
Favorlte thlngs to refresh her daughter's sp lrlts-
(ll 82-7)

T h e n arratlve of seem lngly u nbroken p osltlven ess is d oyln g; th e

atten tlon to a su ccesslon o f m ln or d etalls suggests th at th ere are n o
serlous lssues that m lght place them ln p erspectlve and confirm thelr
statu s as lrrem edlably m ln or. Llfe ls slm ply good an d prom lses to
contln u e so ln to an ln def n lte future.ln H om er, th ls conf d en ce an d
ln n ocen ce w lll soon b e sh attered . T h e p aradlse of th e you ng Ph ae-
aclan glrls ln flow er has a llm lt an d O dysseus w 111 be th e agen t of 1ts
collapse.ln Joyce,too,there ls a collapse,an d B loom ls lts agent,but
lt ls one w lthout con sequ en ce: except at th e level of style. T h e
K
n am by-pam by' volce h as no furth er role after th e sexual act, for lt
h as com lcally falled to h old th e w orld at b ay.
112 Step hen M irlffl

The Ksym bolnofKN auslcaanlsY lrgln'(G llbertschem a).V lrglnlty ls,

of course,th e requlred state ofallth e resp ectably unm arrled an d M ary
ls lts lm p osslble sym b ol: lovln g, atten tlve, a real w om an , yet con -
celved , accordlng to d ogm a, w lth out orlgln al sln an d so w lth out
pleasure. G ertyns sectlon of KN au slcaa' ls dom ln ated by th e clash- of
w hlch sh e ls, ap p aren tly, on ly vaguely con sclous- betw een an asplr-
atlon to h arm ony an d p erfectlon , on th e on e h an d , an d th e ln tru slve
n ature of reallty, on th e oth er. G ertyns fath er ls an alcohollc an d
vlolently abuslve (though tgw 11th all hls faults she loved hlm stllr:
13.311-12);herboyfrlend haslefther,butshefallsto confrontthefact,
as sh e falls to ackn ow ledge th at hls P rotestant fam lly m ade h1m
h op elessly ln approprlate.W h ere N auslcaa an d O dysseu s m eet ln th e
sun , th e KN auslcaa' eplsode of U lysses ls played out at tw lllght. T h e
coloursofthe eplsode are grey (Llnatl,G llbert)and blue (G llbert),but
th e blu e ls n ot th e colour of sea or sky,but an attrlb ute of th e V lrgln .
N au slcaa an d h er h an dm ald en s lay out th elr w ash ln g to dt'y on th e
b each ,Kw h ere th e sea beatlng on th e sh orew ash ed th e p ebbles clean esf
(6.94-5),w hlle G erty and herfrlendssltatlow tlde,w lth an expanse of
m u d flats b etw een th em an d th e sea, n ot far from th e m o uth of th e
Llffey w hlch p oured lts un treated sew age all over D ublln B ay.
A nd G erty herself? KBut w ho w as G erty?n (13.78).W elldressed,ln
h er ow n eyes, Kw lth th e ln stln ctlve taste of a votary of D am e Fashlon '
(13.148-9).Som ew here past the age of 17,she ls,apparently,beautl-
ful,w lth a Kw ealth ofw onderfulhal/ (13.116).42H erm outh lsKG reekly
perfecf (13.89), her arm s Kw hlte and softn (13.341), as N auslcaa ls
hevKobhevob- (Kw hlte arm edl O dyssey 6.101 and 6.186).She ls Kln very
truth,as falr a sp eclm en of w ln som e lrlsh glrlh ood as on e could w lsh
to seen(13.80-1).Llke N auslcaa,she ls offered to us asa culturallcon,
th e stan dard agaln st w hlch to m easure all oth ers. ln an exten ded
slm lle at O dyssey 6 .102 f'f.: H om er tells u s th at, as A rtem ls ls m ore
b eautlfu l th an th e lovely w ood nym p h s w h o accom p any h es so
N auslcaa ls m ore beautlful than all her beautlful han dm alden s. B ut
th e com parlson betw een th e tw o w om en soon crum bles.T h e n arrator
w h o ob setv es N au slcaa at play creates a sen se th at h e ls at on e w lth
th e p lcture h e glves.T h e narrator w h o descrlbes G erty: on th e oth er

42 See G lbson 2002 127.-49,CW aktng up ln lreland CcN auslcaa''l on the lnfluence
of con tem porary w om en's m agazlnes on thls klnd of language
 H om er and Joyce'N aun caa 113

h an d , evokes th e cllch ed lm age, only to u n derm ln e lt w lth lnvaslve

d etalls of th e km d w e n ever get ln H om er.
So, of G erty: Kl-ler E gure w as sllgh t an d graceful, ln clln lng even to
fraglllty but th ose lron lellolds she had been takln g of late had don e
h er a w orld of good ...an d she w as m u ch better of th ose dlsch arges
she used to get' (13.83-6).W here H om er talks at a dlstance of the
P h aeaclan glrls w ashln g th elr cloth es ln th e sun ,w e com e m uch closer
to G erty:A s for undles they w ere G ertyns chlef caren (13.171).43 She
talks to th e p rlest d urln g con fesslon abo ut h er f rst m en strual p erlod,
presum ably because she could say nothlng athom e (13.453 ff.);and
sh e ls so con cern ed w lth w h at ls p rop er th at th e very m entlon of th e
w ord Kb ottom ; by on e of h er fn en d s, even ln lts lnfantlllzed form of
tbeeoteetom l causes her to b ow her head and blush at such Kan
unladyllke thlng' (13.263-5).
T h ere ls real savaget'y h ere an d lt has m creasm gly troubled crltlcs.
Plullp W em stem n otes that, untll the 1980s, KN auslcaa' w as read
as Ka com lc exposu re of G ertyns dream s of her ow n u nlquen esslu
Slnce th en th e com edy h as begu n to seem m ore problem atlcls G erty
app ears so relentlessly dlssected, th e sen tlm entallzed vold of h er
rom antlc llfe so m ercllessly plllorled. W h en sh e becom es aw are of
B loom w atchlng h er on the beach,hls face seem s Kth e saddest she h ad
everseenn(13.370),and shelnstantlyfllsoutthefacem th the fantasy of
her Kdream husbandn(13.431),and the thoughtthatshem lghtend up as
Khls ow nestglrllen(13.440).Thls1s,ofcourse,a reflectlon ofN auslcaa's
ln stan t adoptlon of O dysseus as a p osslble h u sb and,b ut th e dlfference
ls cruclal: H om er n ever allow s N auslcaa's fantasles to dom ln ate h ls
p ortrayal of h er. T h e sentlm ents sh e expresses ln th e on ce n otorious
passage at O dyssey 6.244 -5 (Kv Fould that such a m an as thls be called
m y husbandn) are never repeated and,by 6.313,she lsalready reslgned
to O dysseusndeparture.'l6 In Joyce,by contrast:G erty zs her fantasles.

43 T he use of th e term fu ndles? ln a book set ln 1904 ls verglng on th e anach ro n

lstlc T h e O E D Y lirst record ed u se ls ln l906
44 W ekn stekn 199 6 l l 5
45 There ls a usefttl sum m ary (and blbllography) of crltlcal attltudes to the
QN auslcaa'ep lsode ln O ch oa 1993
46 A dm lttedly,the relevant llnes (6 313-15) are absent from m any m anuscrpts,
su ggestn g, p erh aps: th at N auslcaa's prom p t re po sltlo nm g of herself d 1d n ot carry
un lversal convlctlon It ls also th e case that ld en tlcal lln es recur ln the m o uth of

A th en a at 7 75- 7
114 Step hen M frlffl

R ecen t attem pts to rescu e G erty h ave ln evltably h ad to address th e

questlon of the n arrator of th e first part of N au slcaat W h ose ls thls
story of un rem lttln g exp osu re,lf n ot th at of an om n lsclen t n arrator?
B loom an d G erty n ever say anyth ln g to each oth es so th e n arrator's
resp on slblllty for th e lm p resslon s w e h ave ls com p lete. ln O dyssey 6,
on th e oth er h an d, N au slcaa an d O dysseu s talk a good deal; lt ls,
w lth them , all talk as Joyce m lght have felt. T he problem w lth
tryln g to dlsplace th e n arratlve vlew p olnt ln G ertyns favour ls th at,
at the slm plest, technlcal level, w e can only be deallng w lth an
om nlsclent n arratos som eone w ho know s, for exam ple, w hat ls
h app en ln g ln th e ch urch at th e sam e tlm e as w h at ls h app enln g on
the beach (13.490 ff.). A dam Parkes, how ever, attem pts a gesture
tow ards G erty:Kloyce clearly attrlbutes to gherl an elem ent of self-
con sclo u sn ess, suggestln g th at to som e exten t sh e stage-m an ages h er
ow n p erform an cel'l; W h lle M argot N orrls, m ore radlcally, su ggests:
K'l'h e volce th at sp eaks of G erty ...m akes b est sen se as a p h an tom
n arrator con stru cted by G erty's lm agln atlon t'lS
Som e w ould go yet further. For Jennlfer W lcke, G erty ls an lrlsh
herolne.H er volce ls that of Kher natlon struggllng to be bornl of the
everyday battle to keep golng Kln th e face of dom estlc vlolen ce, soclal
lnvlslblllty, an d colon lal represslont'lg In thls readlng G erty ls
em pow ered by preclsely those forces of fantasy an d consum erlsm
that ap p ear oth ezw lse to su staln h er on ly through llm ltatlon . Such
thlnklnp about ch olce, con sum p tlon , an d p ow er,ls clearly lnform ed
by d evelopm en ts ln late tw en tleth -cen tury con sum er th eory, but lts
relevan ce to th e lrelan d of 1904 ls, p erh ap s, doubtful- lts approprl-
ateness to a n ovel so cautlous about n atlon al h eroes n o less so.
A renew ed lnterest ln G ert/s sexuallty has provlded perhaps the
m ost provocatlve attem pt to rew n te h er posltlon . T hat B loom m as-
turbates w hlle w atchln g G erty h as alw ays been clear.W e know h ow
he does lt (KItw as gettlng darker buthe could see and he w as looklng
all th e tlm e that he w as w lndlng th e w atch or w h atever h e w as dolng
to lt and then he put lt back and put hls hands back lnto hls pocketsl
13.557-560).H e has an orgasm and,later, m uses on lts afterm ath
(KBeglns to feel cold and clam m y.A ftereffect not pleasant.8tl11 you
have to get rld of lt som ew ayl 13.852-3).G erty,lt has alw ays been

47 P arkes 1997 287 48 N orrls 1988 39 49 W lcke 2004 243

 H om er flnt;lJoyce'N auscaa l15

recognlzed: ls also sexually aroused by th e scen e. M ore recently,

h ow ever, crltlcs have begu n to m ake the assum ptlon that she, too,
has an orgasm .pules D avld Law w n tes, for exam ple:KG erty's exhlb -
itlom sm and orgasm brm g her segm ent of the narratlve to a close
w lth an act at once p eldlng and defiant' (Law 1990:230).
T he ldea ls lnterestm g. H om er show s us a N auslcaa lnltlally
sed uced by language an d th en aban don ed, b oth by O dysseus and
the narrator.Joyce,ln tradltlonal readln gs,sh ow s us a verslon of th e
sam e thlng)B loom uslng G erty an d th en leavlng her w lth ,at best:the
m em ory of an un fullled erotlc m om en t.B ut lf G erty h as an orgasm ,
too, n ot least lf lt ls slm ultaneous, then , som ehow , the balance ls
redressed a llttle (dat once p eldlng and deliantn).
T h e p rogress tow ards the sexual act or acts begm s at aroun d
13.349, w h ere th e gentlem an ln black'- w h o w lll only be ldentlf ed
as Bloom post-orgasm - plcks up a ballthat Jacky C affres the 4-year
o1d broth er of on e of G erty's tkvo frlen ds,h as klcked m h1s dlrectlon .
B loom throw s the ball back tow ards C lssy C affrey, but lt rolls dow n
and stops under Gert/ssklrt.Gerty klcksatltand m lsses,then llfts
up her sktrt a llttle (Kbut Just enoughl 13.362), and klcks lt agaln.
From th at m om ent on , sh e an d B loom are locked ln a m utual gaze.
T hls ball play ls an ech o of O dyssey 6.115 F .,w h ere N auslcaa lobs a
b all to one of h er h andm aldens; she m lsses her target and the ball
lan ds ln a deep w hlrlpool,w h ereupon th e young w om en cry out and
O dysseus w akes up .T he ball ls a km d of vlsualw lttlclsm , represen t-
lng th e ch an ce even t th at h ad to b e.N auslcaa m lsses w lth h er throw
and so m eets O dysseus. lt looks llke chan ce, but th e audlen ce know
th at lt ls A th ena w h o h as con trlved lt. ln th e sentlm ental w orld of
G erty: the chance arrlval of th e ball un der h er sklrt can only be a

slm llar conlsrm atlon of dlvln e n ecesslty.

A s she an d B loom gaze at each oth er, B loom m asturb atlng, G erty
fantaslzlng about m arrlage and m creaslngly aroused sexually:and the
tem peran ce w arrlors ln th e ch urch slngln g L audate D om m um om nes
gentes (KG 1ve praise to the Lord:O ye natlonsn), a tirew ork dlsplay
sud denly begln s. G erty's com pam ons run off to w atch an d th e tw o
lovers are E nally left alone together. She leans back to look at th e
firew orks Vand sh e w as trem bhng ln evet'y llm b from belng bent so far
back that he had a fullvlew hlgh up above her knee w h ere n o-on e ever
n ot even on th e sw lng or w adlng an d sh e w asn't asham ed an d he
116 Step hen A'
lirlffl

w asn7t elthe/ (13.727-30). A fter w hlch, w hat happens ls open to

alm o st any ln terp retatlon , for th e lan gu age ls, as eves p rovocatlvely
reslstan t.so

lf G erty does,ln d eed,h ave an orgasm ,th e loglstlcs are,ln gen eral,
un accoun ted for.T h e only crltlc,so far as l kn om w h o h as attem p ted
to accom m odate G ertyns supp osed orgasm w lthln som ethln g llke a
rea1lst p ersp ectlve ls P h lllp Slcker. H e cltes H avelock E llls on th e
sublectofm asturbatlon by thlgh frlctlon and arguesthatKgt1he rlslng
rhyth m s of G ertyns sexu al arou saln llft h er from cllch e ln to lyrlc self-
expresslon , p artlcularly at th e m om ent of h er cllm ax151 T h e lltera-
tu re on orgasm ls n ot, lt m u st b e sald , vet'y su p p ortlve of th ls
lngenulty (Levln 1981). M ore lm portantly, w hatever happens on
th e b each ls d escn b ed ln a lan gu age th at con tln u es to be p aro dlc:
Ksh e w ou ld faln h ave crled to h lm ch okln gly ...th e cry of a you n g
glrlnslove ...thatct'y thathasrung through the agesn(13.733-6),and
so o n . T h e sexu al act, ln w h lch n elth er p arty tou ch es th e oth er: ls a
sentlm entallzed p erverslon .sz
A fter orgasm , th e ep lso d e m oves rap ld ly ln favo ur of B lo om .
K'l-helr souls m et ln a last llngerlng glance ...an d th en they p arted
(13.762-5).H om er glves N auslcaa a fine farew ellat O dyssey 8.457 ff.,
w h ere sh e app ears,fram ed ln th e dootw ay an d erotlcally en h an ced by
th e go d s. Sh e lo ok s at O dysseu s ln w on d er an d h as tw o m em orab le
lln es of reslgn ed com posure:

'Farew ell, stranger, an d h ereafter even ln your ow n n atlve lan d m ay you

rem em b er m e, for to
m e first you ow e th e p rlce of you r llfe '

(O dyssey 8 461-2 tr M urray 1998)

5q c om pare,for exam ple,w hat the tw o French translatlons m ake of Joyce's 'A nd
then a rocketsprang and bang shotbllnd blank'(l3 736-7) H ere ls the 1929 verslon
'Etalors une fttsee s'elana slftlant et slllonnant le clel,lnvlslble encore'(Joyce 1929
II,38),and here ls the m ost recentattem pt (Joyce 2004) CEtalors une fusee pulsa et
splasha en spasm es de blancs flashes'(454)
51 Slck er 2003 93 See also Slck er 1999 850
52 T he H avelock E llls passage clted by P hlllp Slcker ls rlchly suggestlve, ln the
con text of the ln evltab le d eslre of readers to ask qu estlon s ab o u t th e 'real' d egree of
G erty's consclousness or com pllclty Ellls says that he alone, Qunnotcedl observed a
young w om an (apparently)m asturbatlng ln a provlnclaltraln statlon,and he lm plles
that, as the narrator of the event, h e alone truly know s w hat h app ened T he you ng
w om an w as, he belleved , 'serenely un con sclo us that h er m an oeuvre h ad b een
d etected ,and very p osslbly herself lgn orant o f 1ts true nature?
 H om er and Joyce'N auszcaa 117

Joyce,how ever,glves nothlng to G erty.A t the m om ent ofher leavlnp

B loom su dden ly reallzes sh e ls lam e an d th at h er statuesqu e p osture
h as slm ply been a m ean s of hldm g lt. W e h ave b een prep ared for
th ls already, ln G ertyns lan gu age: Kb u t for th at on e sh ortcom ln g sh e
kn ew sh e n eed fear n o com p etltlon an d th at w as an accld en t
com ln g dow n D alkey H lll an d sh e alw ays trled to con ceal lt7
(13.649-51).
Forced to get u p n om sh e can con ceal lt n o lon ger an d B lo om ns
th o u gh t ls slm p ly : KG lad l dldn 't kn ow lt w h en sh e w as on sh ow n
(13.775-6). A fter w hlch he goes on to thlnk about all the thlngs
B loom usually th ln ks ab out,n ot least hls w lfe an d h er adultery earller
ln the afternoon (<0 ,he dld.Into her.She dld.D onel 13.849).H ls
th oughts som etlm es turn back to G erty, but th ere ls n o em otlon al
p atternln g th at m lght glve th e even t,even ln retrosp ect,som e kln d of
lllu soty slgn lf can ce.Kl7or thls rellef m u ch th an ks ...Stllllt w as a kln d
of langu age betw een u s ...Sad about h er lam e of course but m ust b e
on your guard n ot to feel too m uch plty. T h ey take advantage ...
Exhausted that fem ale has m e7 (13.939-40; 944; 1094-6; 1253).A s
H u gh K en n er suggests: Kl7or L eop old B loom , KKN auslcaa'' kllls an
hou/.53 T he polnt,l thlnk ls that Joyce has hls targets ln KN auslcaa'
an d th at G ertyns status ln th e eyes of th e reader ls n ot hls prlm ary
care. In deed, th e form s of self-esteem h e glves to h er are p art of
h er problem : Kllrom everythln g ln th e least ln d ellcate h er E n ebred
nature lnstlnctlvely recolledn (13.660-1).G erty,llke N auslcaa,ls not
allow ed Kto nam e the Joys of m arrlagel and so, ln consequence, ls
con dem n ed to sen tlm en tallze th em .C ulturalshlfts,p artlcularly sln ce
th e 1960s, h ave tem p ered m uch of th e urgen cy,as w ell as th e exclte-
m ent, of Joycens lconoclasm . H ence, l thlnk the need of crltlcs to
m ove on som eh ow w lth KN auslcaa'. B ut to recover a sen se of th e
hlstorlcalen orm lty of Joycens prolect,w e need only recallth e fam ous
first nlght of Syngens The Playboy of the W estern J'O /-JJ ln January
1907. KW e had sent a telegram to M r.Yeats after the Erst actl w rote
L ady G regory. K- -/Kp lay great su ccessn'; b ut at th e en d w e sen t
an oth er- KA udlen ce broke up ln dlsorder at th e w ord s1-11f177.754

5: K en n er 19 87 l0 5
54 T he offen d ln g w ord s from P layboy are ln the th lrd act Qan d w hat'd 1 care lf yo u
brou ght m e a drlft of chosen fem ales,stand lng ln thelr shlfts ltself ?'Lady G regory
com m ented that Qsom e lady from th e cou ntry' had w rltten ln to say that the w ord
118 Step hen M irlft;l

KarlR elnhardtw rote ofthe O dysseus of the Phlloctetes:K(H eJ ls a

m an w h o h as so adap ted h lm self to clrcum stan ces,an d ls so m u ch a
m lrror of ch an ce fortun es,th at hls h erolc qualltles becom e qu estlon -
ablet55 c onven tlon al h erolsm exlsts only ln relatlon to th e borders
th at def n e lt. T h e struggle at th ose borders ls freq uen tly w h at h olds
our attentlon as au dlen ce, an d both th e H om erlc eplcs are fully
en gaged ln thls area. A chllles p u sh es at th e llm lts of w h at lt m ean s
to be a h ero for hls tlm e, but he ls Enally reconclled w lth the
A ch aean s.s6 It ls very dlfferen t w lth O dysseus. O n e of th e last tlm es
w e see hlm thlnkln g p olltlcally ls at O dyssey 23.12 1-2,w h ere h e turn s
to Telem ach us, after th e slaugh ter of th e sultors, an d says: tw e h ave
kllled th e m aln stay of th e clty,57 by far th e best of th e youn g m en of
Ith aca. 1 tell you, thlnk of thlsn. To w hlch Telem ach us h as n o an sw er,
for th ere ls n on e. O dysseusn actlon s, w h eth er m orally Ju stlf able or
n ot,h ave ch an ged lth aca fo r ever.T h e lslan d can n ever n ow resem b le
th e h om e h e h as th ought about for tw en ty years. N o fam lly w lll b e
untouch ed, allw lll h ate O dysseu s.T h e soclal an d econ om lc future of
th e lslan d ls h ardly lm agln able.
So O dysseu s, even at th e en d of th e O dyssey ls un con taln able,
unrecon clled . lt ls n o surprlse to lin d h lm leavln g lth aca agaln , ln
th e storles th at ap p ear from A p ollo d oru s to T en nyson . N or ls lt
stran ge to lin d th at, over very lon g p erlo d s of tlm e, O dysseu s h as
troubled readers by h1s op en -en dedn ess.H e could b e Kth at scoun drel
B astard/U lysses'as easlly as K'l'h e M an ,w h ose daun tless Soul n o Tolls
dlsm ayt58 H e w as p resum ably alw ays an u n llkely h ero .H ls m atern al
grandfatherw as a m an Kw ho surpassed allm en ln thleverylA utolycus,
Kthe w olfhlm selflprotege ofH erm es dohos (O dyssey 19.395-6).ln so

'
w as one she w ould blush to use even w hen she w as alonel G regory 1972 67 The
lrony ls th at 'sh lft' had dlsp laced 'sm ock ' from the seven teen th century as a
m ore 'd ellcate' expresslon , and w as slm llarly d lsplaced ln th e nlneteen th century b y
'
chem lse'for the sam e reason (O ED ) H ow arth 1958 23l polnts out that there ls
a p olltlcal hlstory behlnd the shlft lt w as w aved sym b ollcally ln Irlsh vlllages by
th e an tl Parn ellltes ln 189 1 to stand for K ltty O 'Shea and adu ltery
55 R eln h ardt 1979 l65
56 o n th e reln tegratlon of A ch llles, see, m o st recentls H am m er 2002
57 Lattlm ore translates Cw e have ktlled w hat held the clty together' (the G reek
w ord ls cpp.a = 'propl 'support') Fagles has 'the plllars oflthaca'(llne 138)
58 P hllllps 1678, B o ok 6,llnes 1660- 1 B roo m e 1739,lln e 24 l
 H om er and p lzcp'N auslcaa 119

far as E urop e ch ose to see hlm as a h ero,th e tem ptatlon w as ln evltably

to control an d to confne hls range. Joyce, how eves chose to allow
that range to becom e the m arker of w h o h e w as an d of w hat w as best
ab ou t h lm .H e sen t h lm to th e b each at San dym o un t to m astu rb ate ln
front of G erty M acD ow ell,and lt ls easy to em phaslze the purely lrlsh
dlm en slon of the gesture, ln the context of the sexually represslve
cllm ate of Joycens blrthplace. B ut B loom ns actlons w ould be con -
d em n ed ln any cultu re at any tlm e an d , by ed gln g h lm o ut b eyon d
allsoclalconventlon ,Joyce lsm aklng a clalm on som ethln g m ore than
th e m erely local.
T he resultlng paradox ls curlous.A fter Joyce,O dysseus seem s truly
to h ave com e h om e.R ead ers h ave learn t to b e at ease w lth thls h alf-
savage G reek and hls p asslon for trlckety an d decelt, as they h ave
w lth B lo om ns o utrageo u s sex u al p lay. T h e urb an e dlp lom at G eorge
Seferls sees O dysseus as a Egure of contln ultles, a fellow traveller
th ro u gh th ree th o u san d years of G reek lan gu age an d h lstoty A refuge
am on g th e d ead , Kw h en th e llvln g w h o are left to you are n o lon ger
enought H e ls, Enally and slm ply, o rtcydAo O bvaalab- gthe great
O dysseusnl.59 It ls tem ptlng to belleve that thls adm lrlng and pas-
slon ate acceptan ce return s us to som ethln g llke an auth entlc readln g
of H om er, free from th e cultural accum ulatlon s of centurles. B ut
th at,n o d o ub t,ls an lllu slon w h lch tw en ty-f rst cen tury read ers of th e
O dyssey w lll, at som e p oln t, be h appy to dlsp el.

59 Seferls 1967 tovrarts o' e'vfzv Jcvo owbzo' (Qlleflectlons on a Forelgn Llne of
Verse7l),82-7
 5

H om er in A lb an ia'
. O ral Ep ic an d th e
G eograp hy of L iteratu re

B arbara G raziosi

T h e place of H om er ln th e llterary and cultural landscape of th e

tw entleth century has been deeply contested.T here ls llttle agreem ent
today as to w here the H om erlc p oem s belong an d w hat km d of
relatlonshlp th ey h ave w lth oth er eplcs and w orks of llterature.
D lfferent m odels h ave been p ut forw ard- an d these reflect contrast-
1ng vlew s about the n ature of eplc an d the geography of llterature.
ln a recent artlcle, A ndrew Ford outllnes tw o apparen tly dlstln ct
ap proach es to H om er an d descrlb es som e of th elr llterary and geo -

graphlcal lm pllcatlon s:
To call the Ihad and the O dyssey 'eplcs'today can evoke tw o qulte dlfferent
sets of com p arable w orks T he first groupln g w ould put H om er at th e h ead
of a W c'srtv ?v tradttlon of llterary eplc th at run s from A p ollonlus of R hodes
through V lrgll, on to th e R enalssance and b eyond T h e second,w lth equal
Ju stlce, w ould vlew H om erlc p oetry as on e ln stan ce of a typ e of tradltlon al
oralnarratlve to be found the w orld over gem phasls m y ow n) 1

l profited greatly from Ivana Petrovlc's know ledge of anclent and m odern eplc and
w lsh to thank her for her detalled com m ents on thls chapter I am also grateful to
D avld Bellos, lngo G lldenhard, Em lly G reenw ood: Johannes H aubold, and V latka
N ercesslan for thelr com m ents and suggestlons T he partlclpants ln the D ttrham
conference,and the anonym ous reader for O U P offered helpftllsuggestlon s on earller

verslons of thls chapter

l Ford 1997 396 qu oted on p 4 ,n 12 ab ove For th e h lstory of W estern ep lc, see
H aln sw orth 199 1, for eplc tradltlon s ln the contem p orary w orld , see B elssln ger,

Tylus,and W offord 1999

 H om er ;rlA lban ka 12 1

T h ls d u al d ef n ltlon of ep lc an d of H om e/ s p lace ln con tem p orary

cu lture stem s, ln p art, from som e fun d am en tal ten slon s ln P arryns
w ork on H om erlc an d So u th Slavlc ep lc.2 H ow ever,th e ln flu en ce an d
ln slght of P arry's collaboratos th e H om erlst an d f0111101-1st A lb ert
L ord , sh ou ld n ot b e un d erestlm ated : h e o utllved P arry by several
d ecad es,an d ln sp lred a w h ole gen eratlon of sch olars w orkln g on oral
ep lcs p erform ed ln m any dlfferen t tlm es an d p laces.3 H e also left a
d lstln ctlve m ark on tw en tleth -cen tury E ctlon : h e brlefly m et th e
A lb an lan w rlter lsm all K ad are ln th e su m m er of 1979 an d ln sp lred
th e th em e an d p lot of on e of h ls n ovels, T he F CJP on H .4
T h ls ch ap ter starts by o utlln ln g som e ln flu en tlal ap p ro ach es to
ep lc ln classlcal sch olarsh lp an d A frlcan stu dles: th o se ap p ro ach es
serve as a p rolo gu e to a dlscu sslon of T he F CJP on H . K ad are's n ovel
exp lores a n ex u s of ld eas ab ou t llterature, oral ep lc an d H om erlc
p oetry- ld eas w h lch p reo ccup led m any oth er ln tellectu als ln th e
1980s.5 It seem s clear th at sch olars an d w rlters som etlm es ad op ted
slm llar strategles ln red eslgn ln g th e cu ltu ral lan d scap e of th e tw en -
tleth cen tu ry, an d H om e/ s p lace w lth ln lt. T h elr w ork can b e u sed
to d ay ln ord er to qu estlon any easy dlch otom y b etw een w orld lltera-
tu re an d th e W estern can on .6 D lfferen t p ercep tlon s of H om er
m erged , clash ed , an d sh lfted : th e con sequ en ces of th o se ln teractlon s
stlll n eed to b e w orked o u t.

G R E E K A N D R O M A N E P IC

A s h as often b een p oln ted ou t, th e dlsclp lln e of C lasslcs rests on a

p artlcu lar un d erstan dln g of th e p lace of H om er ln R om e an d ln later

2 P arry 197 1, cf H aub o ld , C h l of th ls volu m e

3 See Foley 198 1
4 E n gllsh tran slatlo n K ad are 1997 For a p ub llcatlon h lsto ry o f the n ovel, see
P P 134- 5
5 For academ lc ln terro gatlon s of th e W estern can on ln the 1980s,cf ln tro du ctlon ,
P P 15- 16
6 Ford 1997 396 d raw s atten tlon to on e p oln t o f co n tact b etw een th e tw o
ap proach es to ep lc h e ou tlln es 'Fo r all th elr d lvergen ce, th ese tw o classes of Qoep lc''
are n ot u nrelated the tradltlonal oral art em b od led ln H om er w as, after all, w hat
A rtstotle to ok as h (s exem p lar w h en h e latd th e gro u ndw o rk fo r th e th eo ry o fW estern
ep lc ln th e P oettcs'
122 B arbara G rflzitly;

Europ ean llterature.G lenn M ost has recently sum m arlzed som e baslc
assum ptlons w hlch h ave sh aped C lasslcs as an academ lc sublect:

T he first lm e of G reek ltterature ls th e openln g of H om er's Iltad,th e first h n c

of L atln llterature ls th e op em n g of Lw m s A n drom eu s? tran slatton of
H om er's O dyssey T h e C lasslcal tradltlon n eeded tw o roots, dlstln ct an d
com plem entary, one G reek one Rom an, lf tt w as to flourtsh and grow
A d aptlng th tur ow n very R om an scn se of m rtus as th e lm ltau on of p ast
m odels of excellen ce tn actlort to the very G reek n otlon of m tm ests as th e
lm ltatlon of past m odels of excellen ce m dlscourse,the R om an s bequ eathed
to the W estet.n cultural tradltlon a G reco-lkom an n otlon of m oral p erfectlon
an d styllstlc refin em en t as attam ed by the stu dy of the an ctent authors, the
lm ltatlon of th elr style, and th e tran slatlon of th elr w orks 7

T hls vlew of the classlcaltradltlon expresses som e w ell-establlsh ed

n otlons about th e relatlon sh lp b etw een G reece, R om e and W estern
culture. ln the form u latlon of those vlew s, th e gure of Llvlus
A ndronlcus, th e thlrd -century sc R om an tran slator of th e O dyssey
often plays a plvotal role. ln hls lnfluentlal G eschw htc der rtprkiyc/w
L kteratur of 1913,Frledrlch laeo,for exam ple,presented A n dronlcus'
verslon of the O dyssey as the beglnnlng of the W estern llterary
tradltlon .8 Th e llteraz'y hlstory L eo outlln ed w as on e of consclous
app rop rlatlon an d adaptation ,and Llvlu s A ndronlcus w as presented
as the firstexponentoftartlstlc translatlonlg and as the founder ofth e
lsrst Kn on -locar llterature of th e W estern cultural unlverse.lo
T he dlsclphne of C lasslcs ls predlcated on th e ldea th at G reek and
R om an llterature are equ ally valuable and fun dam entally ln sep ar-
able. Tradltlonal classlcs courses, for exam ple, expect studen ts to
d evote eq ual atten tlon to H om er an d V lrgll, th e G reek p oet and
hls R om an su ccessor.It w ou ld be hard to overem ph aslze th e lm port-
an ce of p alrlng th ese tw o auth ors togeth er for stan dard notions of
w hat constltutes great llterature. For w ell over tw o m lllennla, tbelng
llke H om er' h as generally lm plled a p osltlve value Ju dgem ent;
an d belng like H om er fundam entally lnvolved belng llke V lrgll.
T hls ls on e reason w hy P arryAs an d L ord's clalm th at H om en c ep lc
resem bled tradltion al oral narratlves from around the w orld proved

z M ost 2003 388 s Leo 19 13 59

9 T he phrase ls taken fro m A/farlottl l988
10 L eo 19 13 3,tr A B archyesl 2002
 H om er ;rlA lban ka 123

to be exploslve.ln th e C am bn dge C om p ankon to H om eT for exam ple,

w e read :

It ls an o1d can ard that H om er ls slm ply too good to b e oral C h allenged
to clte com p arable exam ples from oral tradltlon s, orallsts h ave plcked out
som e of th e m ore lm presslve blts of the P arry archlve,partlcularly th e son gs
ofAvdo M ededovlc,the fYugoslav H om erl w hlch have recelved hlgh pralse
Judgem ents w 1ll dlffer about M ededovlc, but he need hardly be H om er's
equal for the com paratlve case to be m ade If oral p oets can produ ce w orks
of con slderable subtlety an d sophlstlcatlon ,th e w ay lles op en to m aln talnlng
th at a p oet of H om er's gen lu s could h ave produ ced songs llke h1s ln an oral
en v tro n m en t 11

A ccordln g to th ls vlem H om erlc ep lc m ay b e slm llar to tradltlon al

oral p oem s, but on ly lf th e latter p rove to be equal to lt ln Ksubtlety
an d sophlstlcatlonn. lf w e ask w h at cn terla are u sed to establlsh th at
equ allty, w e qu lckly retu rn to n otlon s of great llteratu re w h lch
ultlm ately stem from a study of the relatlon shlp b etw een G reek an d
R om an ep lc. V lrgll tran slated H om er for R om e an d w as ln turn
tran slated by later p oets lnto th e can on lcal llteratures of E urop e.lz
V lrgll's A enekd lm plled a value Ju dgem en t about th e lh ad an d th e
O dyssey an d ln turn dem an ded to be m easured agaln st lts m odels.
T h e acts of evalu atlon w h lch follow ed lle at th e h eart of th e W estern
can on , llterally con celved as a Km easu rln g ro d t
ln th e tw en tleth century, an d p artlcularly th e 1980s, th e llterary
can on w as su blected to carefu l scrutlny, as crltlcs refu sed to see th e
success of can onlcal llterature slm ply as th e result of lts outstan dln g
m erlt. ln 1982, for exam p le, B arb ara H errn steln 5m 1th w rote:

T h e valu e of a llterary w ork ls con tlnu ou sly produ ced an d re-produ ced by
th e very acts of lm pllclt an d expllclt evalu atlon th at are frequ en tly lnvoked
as 'reflectlng' 1ts valu e an d th erefore as b elng evlden ce of lt In oth er w ords,
w h at are com m on ly tak en to b e th e stgns of llterary valu e are,ln effect, also
lts sp n ngs T h e en du ran ce of a classlc can on lcalauth or su ch as H om er,th en ,
ow es n ot to th e alleged tran scultural or u nlversalvalu e of h1s w orks bu t, on
th e con trars to th e con tln u lty of th elr clrcu latlon ln a p artlcu lar cu ltu re 13

11 R ob ert Fow ler 2004 223

12 O n the recep tlon Of V lrgll, see M o st an d Sp en ce 2004
13 H errn steln 5m 1th 1983 30
124 B arbara G rflzitly;

H errn steln 5m 1th w as arguln g agalnst W estern self-con gratulatory

posltlon s, w h lch could easlly b e exp ressed ln cosm op olltan term s:
H om erlc p oetry w as often thought to express un lversal con cern s,
th us effectlvely sllen cln g oth er p osslble con cern s an d exp resslon s.t'l
Yet her reflectlon on llterary m erlt ultlm ately seem s to reln force
closed n otlon s of th e W estern can on : th e valu e of H om en c p oetry
ls p laced squarely ln the m any acts of evaluatlon em bedd ed ln th e
classlcal tradltlon , w h lle 1ts p osslble slm llarltles w lth oral ep ics from
around the w orld ls denled value altogethen ls
ln recent years, a p aradlgm sh lft ln th e stu dy of classical llteratu re
has been p rop osed by scholars w orkln g on Llvlus A n dronlcus,w h ose
tran slatlon of th e O dyssey h as often b een seen as a d efim n g event m
the 'G estern llterary tradltlon . Jorg R upke, for exam ple, has argued
th at early R om an ep lc sh ould b e u n d erstood m th e E rst p lace ln lts
soclal and rellglous context: an d n ot pn m an ly as a llnk ln a lon g
hlstory of W estern llterature.t6 T h e startm g polnt, accordln g to
R up ke,m ust be the petform an ce of eplc.T h e ld ea of an oral tradltlon
of R om an song (eplc or lyrlc) dates back to N lebuhr ln the early
nlneteenth century, but has recen tly becom e th e focus of an lnten se
d eb ate.i; A lessan dro B arch lesl sees ln R upkeRs su ggestlon s a p osslble
paradlgm sh lft In the E eld of C lasslcs.B archlesl also clalm s th at thls
sh lft follow s w h at h as already h app ened ln the stu dy of H om er:

O n e could argu e th at L atln studles h ave b een focu sm g on tran slatton an d

tran sferen ce, n ot on approprlatlon an d reuse, b ecau se th e dlsclph n e w as
trp ng to (relestabllsh ltself (through m any an m ferlortty com plex) as the
m lsslng llnk b etw een G erm an H ellen ophllla and E urop ean n atlon al lden -
tttles T hts ts the ktn d of pu ll th at R ls opposln g, w lth h1s ln terest ln th e
strateglc valu e of orallty an d w n tm g an d h1s u se of soclal scten ces and
rellglous hlstory as paradlgm s N ot w lth ou t lronyk h 1s n ew attem p t b egln s
by clatm m g that there has been tn su ffictent attentlon to on e con text,a G reek
(1) context- except that now the lm portant thm g ls the analom rw tth the

14 See esp H errn steln 5m 1th 1988

15 For a useful correctlve to H errn steln Sm ltlfs p osltlon , see D am rosch 2003 8

16 R u pk e 200 1
17 O n N lebu hr, see M om lghan o l957 O n the recen t d eb ate over p erform an ce
cu ltttre m early R om e,see Z orzettl 199 1 w lth C ole 1991 and P h llllps 199 1:Suerbaum
2002 w tth G tld enh ard 2003 and Feeney 2005,H ablnek 1998 and 2005,H orsfall 1994

an d 2003
 H om er ;rlA lbanta 125

oral p oettcs of G reek eptc n ot th e focu s ort th e H ellem c culture of th e L atm

p oets, th e an alop rb etw een th e sym p oslon an d R om an convlvlum cu lture
n ot th e ldea of 'derlvatlve llteratu re' T h e qu estlon of cou rse,rem aln s w orth
,

askm g h ow m u ch 'm volv em en t vlsuallzatlon,presence' (from E Bakker's

,

tltle, C '?t l2,1993,1-29 on

.

H om erlc perform ance)w asthere ln early R om an

OP ICCIS

ln thls debate about th e study of early R om an ep lc,w e w ltn ess an

lnterestlng paradox:preclsely at the m om ent w h en R om an eplc trles
to em an clp ate ltself from th e lnfluen ce of H om er as a llterazy m odel ,

H om erlc poetry com es agaln to the fore, ln thls case as a m ean s of

explorln g oral p erform an ce. T h e oral H om er of P arry an d L ord ,

th en , ls seen as an altern atlve to L eons m odel of llterary lm ltatlon .

A F R lC A N E P lC

lssu es ab ou t orallty an d llterary valu e also em erge lf w e start o u r

en qult'y not from the can onlcal eplcs of th e W estern can on ,but from
a range of p erform an ces an d texts w hlch h ave som etlm es been denled
m em bershlp of the eplc genre. T h e exlsten ce an d nature of eplc ln
sub -sah aran A frlca h as been th e oblect of a h eated debate over th e
last three decades of th e tw entleth cen tury lg T h e con troversy h as lts
.

orlgln ln a by n ow ln fam ou s statem ent m ad e by R uth Flnn egan ln

1970.ln her sem lnalstudy O ralLkterature irlAfnca,she w rote:Kllplc
h ardly seem s to o ccu r ln su b -sah aran A frlca .
72 0

T hls statem en t lm m edlately provoked a sertes of studles w hlch set

out to prove her w rong.zlA m ong h er crltlcs w ere scholars from m any
dlfferent coun trles an d dlsclp lln es, so lt ls n ot surp n sln g to fin d th at

18 B arch lesl 2002

19 D esplte som e lm p oran t dlfferen ces ln con ceptlon , th e con troversy can be
usefttlly com pared to the debate over B lack A thena ln both cases classlclsts h ave
,

b een lnvlted to co n slder w h eth er A frlcan cu ltu re can sh ed llgh t o n classlcal clvlllza
tlon In the A frlcan eplc deb ate, how ever, no clalm s are m ad e ab out the orlgln s of
G reek epyc, the p om t at stake s kts natu re, kts skm klarkty or dlfference fro m A frlcan
eplc perform ances and /o r later classlcal eplcs For B lack A thena see B ern al 1987- 9 1,
,

Lefkow ltz an d R ogers 1996,B ern al 200 1

20 Fln n egan 1970 108
21 M ulokozl 2002 offers the fttllest overvlew
126 B arbara G m zzts ;

th ey adopted a n um ber of dlfferent strategles to refute her clalm .

B efore lookt
- n g at som e of th em ln greater detall,lt m ay,h ow ever,b e
h elpful to establlsh h ow Fln n egan reached her con d u slon ln th e tirst
place.A lthough she does n ot state so expllcltly, sh e clearly ad opts an
A rlstoteh an d elsn ltlon of eplc as a genre.A n ep lc, sh e assum es,m u st
be a long narrative m verse,deallng w lth dherolc them eslfor exam ple,
as she puts lt, Kth e blrth and trlb ulatlons of th e h ero,h1s travels and
leadershlp ofhls p eople,E nally h1s deatht22 H oldlng on to thls de nl-
tlon , she looks for exam ples ln sub-sah aran A frlca and falls to l5n d
any.H er con cluslon ls th at eplc ls a far m ore clrcu m scn bed p henom -
en on than is som etlm es assum ed :far from belng the natural expres-
slon of llllterate people,lt ls a specllic typ e of p oetry w hlch occurs ln
som e places but n ot oth ers: Kth e flp rw rk assu m ptlon that ep lc ls th e
natural form for m any non-llterate peoples turns out here Ll.e. ln
A fn calto havellttle support.
nM Eplc,she concludes,lsoneform oforal
p oetry am on g m any ; lt ls: essentlally: a local ph en om en on . lt ls
posslble to read h er w ork as an attem pt to establlsh th e lndlvlduallty
of A frlcan oral llterature and the llm lted appllcatlon of A rlstotlens
definltlon of eplc beyon d lts local con text,th at ls,th e W estern llterary
canon, b ut thls ls n ot h ow sh e w as read . R ather, she w as seen as
excludlng severalA frlcan tradltlons from a category of an alysls, pro-
vlded by the term teplcl w hlch seem ed relevant and useful to m any
sch olars,practltloners and audlences of those tradltlons.
R efutatlon of Flnn egan took m any form s. som e crltlcs accep ted
h er fram ew ork but qu estlon ed th e extent of her klzow ledge ofA frlcan
llteratu re:the B elglan anthropologIst B lebuyck, for exam ple, argued
th at th e N yanga eplcs perform ed ln w h at h ad th en recently becom e
Z alre,Kadm irably E t the standard deE nltlons and characterlzatlons of
ep lc llteraturen provlded by B ow ra, C h adw lck and C h adw lck, an d
Flnn egan h erself.z: P artlcularly lm p ortant:ln tryln g to refute Flnne-
gan's notlon at a factuallevel,w as the analysls of th e stoz'y of S urqata,
perform ed extenslvely ln W estern A fn ca ln varlous M an dekan lan -
guages.Today,Stflp clfclls acknow ledged as Kone ofthe w orldns greatest
llvln g eplc oral tradltlons' and h as b een p ubllsh ed, for exam ple, ln
th e P engm n C lasslcs Ser1es.25 ln 1970, how ever, w hen Flnn egan's

22 R n negan 19 70 109 2:1 Ibld 110

24 B ebuyck 1978 3 25 D u ran and Furn lss 1999
 H om er irlA lban ka 127

b ook ap p eared , th e on ly avallable verslon s w ere p u bllsh ed ln p ro se

an d th erefore ln stantly exclu ded Sunjata from th e category of eplc
w hlch , accordlng to A rlstotle an d Fln n egan , h ad to be ln verse.
H ow ever, th e problem dld n ot Ju st stem from th e con tlngen cles of
avallable p rln ted verslon s b ut from th e very n otlon of verse.P artly as
a resp on se to Flnn egan , th e A m erlcan 1lngulst C h arles B lrd dem on -
strated thatln the M andekan languages (ln w hlch the Sunlata eplc ls
w ldely perform ed),accentlsgenerally dependent on tone,butnotln
K
p oetryn w h ere Kaccen ted syllables conform closely to th e m uslcal
b eats,an d,ln m any cases,lln gulstlc accent w 1ll be shlfted to con form
to th e m u slcal requlrem entslz6 In sh ort, th e rhyth m of th e w ord s ln
th e p erform an ce of Sunlata w ould m ark th em off as dlfferent from
ordln ary sp eech ,but th e dlfferen ce w ould n ot n ecessarlly be captured
by tran scrlp tlon s u sln g th e alp h ab et alon e.T h ese b aslc lssu es fu n d a-
m en tally affected debates over th e exlsten ce an d n ature of A frlcan
ep lc. B ut th e problem s w ere n ot llm lted to em plrlcal deb ates ab out
w h eth er a p artlcular p erform an ce sh ould be un derstood as p oetry,
son p or p rose: th e lssu e of orallty affected, an d contln ues to affect,
th e overall con cep tu al fram ew ork of th e d eb ate.
ln a recen t stu dy of th e enanga tradltlon of th e B ah aya p eople of
T anzanla,M ugyam buso M ulokozl dlscu sses Fln n egan's clalm s from a
con ceptual p olnt of vlew an d sum m arlzes w h at h e sees as Fln n egan's
sh ortcom ln gs as follow s:

(a) Fallure to place orallty and perform ance atthe center ofthe analysls (b)
E rron eou s lm p osltlon of allen crlterla derlvln g from a w rltten tradltlon to a
totally dlfferent oral tradltlon (c) Fallure to derlve her crlterla from the
speclfic tradltlonts) belng studled, after w hlch com paratlve analysls w lth
oth er tradltlon s could th en follow 27

M u lokozlns oblectlon seem s at lirst sight devastating: ln a book on

oral p oetry, Flnn egan draw s h er def nltlon of eplc, at least lm pllcltly,
from A rlstotle, a G reek thln ker w h o w as actu ally p ecullar- ln h ls
ow n culture an d tlm e- for hls lack of ln terest ln oral p erform an ce.z8
A n d yet,on e m ay argue,th e term Keplc'ls after allG reek ln orlgln ,an d
d oes seem to b elon g to an A rlstotellan tradltlon of crltlclsm w h lch
fo cu ses on texts rath er th an p erform an ce con texts. Som e classlclsts

26 B lrd 1972 2 1l z7 M ulokozl 2002 2-3 28 H all 1996

128 S flrflrfl G razw st

m ay th us be tem p ted to turn th e tables an d dlrect M ulokozl's cn tl-

ctsm agalnst hls ow n w ork. B y ln slstln g th at th e H aya enanga trad -
ltlon , am ong others, shou ld be descrlbed as eplc, ls h e n ot hlm self
K lm p oslng allen crlterla derlvln g from a w n tten tradltlon'? T h e Issue
seem s to turn not lust on the m eam ng but on the p restlge and,
ultlm ately, th e usefulness of th e term Kep lct W e m ay w ell ask w hy
so m any sch olars ln slst th at th e term ep ic is an app rop rlate descn p -
tlon for th e A frlcan tradltlon s th ey stu dy.A t a vet'y broad level, one
can slm p ly say th at th e p erform an ces lab elled as ep lc th us enter a
sp eclh c context of frultlon :th ey start to b e dlscu ssed ln u n lversltles:
ln tern atlon al conferen ces, and b ook s. B ut on e can b e m ore sp eclilc
than that: after all, they m ay (and ln m any cases do) enter the
ln tern atlon al scen e un d er oth er d escrlp tlon s su ch as, for exam ple,
K songn Km ythn Kfolkloren Kp erform an ce artt W e m u st th erefore ask
o urselves w h at m akes th e term Keplcn a useful category for th e m any

sch olars w h o ch oose to use lt.

T h ere are m any an sw ers to thls questlon an d even a sup erf clal
un d erstan dln g of th e w h ole debate lm m edlately reveals a pleth ora of
dlfferent agen das.Yet on e lm p ortan t stran d ln th e debate ls th e w lsh
th at A frlcan oralllteratu re m ay be vlew ed as preclsely th at,llterature.
Thls lshow lsldore O kpew ho opens hls book on The Fpitrkn Afrkca,
p u bllsh ed by C olu m b la U n lverslty P ress ln 1979:
T h ere h as been som e con troversy as to w h eth er th e eplc, as a gen re of
tradltlonal oral llterature, exlsts ln A frlca Slr M aurlce B ow ra and (m ore
recently) Ruth Flnnegan, w orlung under hm ltatlons elther of vlslon or of
lnform atlon ,deny th atlt d oes R ecen t D utch -Flem lsh sch olarsllk e K n app ert
an d B lebuyck dlsagree,b ut th ey are m alnly an th rop ologlsts b y tralm ng an d
h ave been un able to address th em selves effectlvely to th e llterary argum ents
th at are,ln m y oplnlon , th e k ey to an essen tlally h terary p roblem 29

O kp ew h o goes on to p olnt out th at th e stu dy of A frlcan art

h as been subordlnated to th at of rltu al an d rellglon . T h ls ap proach ,
h e contln ues, h as m ade lt dl cult to talk about th e aesth etlc p rln -
clples on w hich the art w as executedl about the tsongs and storles
w hose prlm ary lntent ls to entertalnl about the proverbs that are
t outstandlng m ore for style th an for contentt3o l7ar from lookm g

29 o kpew ho 1979 p tx 30 Ibld l- 2 l f

 H om er irlA lban ka 129

for L evl Strauss's d eep structure or D urkh elm 's collectlve con sclence,
h e argu es th at w e sh ould focu s on th e surface, on th e ch olces
operated by the bards an d the crlterla used by audlences w ho Judge
them . O kp ew ho ls eloquent about, and crltlcal of: anthrop ologlcal
categorles- ln th e ear of th e an th rop ologlst, dlrty Jokes ln evltably
turn lnto fertlllty rltes- an d polnts out that the presen ce of a forelgn
observer w h o, pen ln han d, ln tently takes dow n m edlocre perform -
an ces m ay lnh lb lt crltlcal com m en ts on th e p art of exp ert aud len ces:
w hy spoll th e fun of th e forelgn guest?3l B ut hls oblectlons to
anthropologlcal approaches are,ln fact,m ore fund am ental stlll:

T he broad taxon om lc lnterest that guldes the studles of Levl-strau ss an d

P ropp m ew tably leads to th e th esls that- to qu ote L evl-strauss's classlc
artlculatlon of lt- fm yth s op erate m m en's m ln ds w lth ou t th elr b eln g
aw are of th e fact' T hls m ay b e tru e to som e extent bu t to close on e's
eyes to th : p ecullar contexts ln w hlch thls preverb al elem en t- th e 'deep
structure'- of th e tale ls contlnually re-created by m dlvldual perform ers ls
to deny thls art form 1ts very llfe and blood W hlle grantlnp th erefore,th at
th ere are gen eral law s to w hlch these tales are sublect, I am con tlnu ally
m oved to stress th e creatlve m an lpulatlon s w h lch th e p erform er ls ln evltably
draw n to m ake of th ose law s by th e forces op eratm g at th e very scen e of

h 1s act 32

lt ls above all ln th e stu dy of th e exp ert, creatlve m an lp ulatlon th at

th e category of eplc, togeth er w lth th e m eth od ology and crltlcal
dlscourse assoclated w lth lt, proves to be useful. ln other w ords, a
dlscourse about llterary m erlt, lndlvldual response to tradltlon , and
d lscrlm ln atlon betw een excellent an d m edlocre eplcs ls exactly w hat
ls w an ted .
O kpew h o,to be sure,has been crltlclzed by som e scholars for h1s
excesslve lnterest 1n: an d rellance on , classlcal llterature an d scholar-
shlp. Johnson, for exam ple, w n tes: Ko kpew h o ...com pares practlc-
ally every crltlcal concept to th e G reeks. H e frequently m entlon s
ldeas related to context and perform an ce ..., b ut h e falls to
dem on strate how th ese are translated into actlon by the bard .733 Yet
John son hlm self finds lt lm portant to use th e category of Keplc' for

31 o kp ew ho 19 80 433 32 O kpew ho 1979 p xu

% Johnson 1980 325,n 18
130 A flrfpflrfl G razzos

s'ffg clt;I and m any oth er tradltlons, and h1s reason s are n ot entlrely
dlsslm llar from th ose p ut forw ard by O kpew ho: he too ls lnterested
ln dlscusslng plotn Knarratlve structure3 taesthetlc tenslonl and the
Khteran z purp oses' w hlch lead m dlvldual bards to produce thelr
ow n verslon s.3: Llkew lse M ulokozl, ln hls recent an d am bltlous
dlscusslon of ep lc ln Tan zam a,exp resses an lnterest m the contn bu -
tlon of lndlvldual bard s and th e m erlts of th elr w ork as Judged by
th elr au dlen ces ln th e context of p erform an ce and agam st a w ld er

tradltlon.
It seem s, th en, th at w e h ave com e fu ll clrcle.Latlnlsts llke R up ke
argue that w e should pay m ore atten tlon to th e soclal an d rellglous
con text for th e p ed orm ance of R om an ep lc; m eanw hlle O kp ew ho,
M ulokozl,and others m alntaln th atA fn can eplc dem ands n otlust an
em ph asls on rltu al an d soclety,b ut sop histlcated llterary crltlclsm as
expressed both w lthln a local con text and ln an lntern atlonal d ebate
ab out ep lc.W e m ay w ellask w h ere allthls leaves us as far as H om er ls

con cern ed .
O n e lm p ortant asplratlon on th e part of B lebuyck, B lrd, O kp e-
w ho, Johnsom M ulokozl, and several oth ers ls th at of creatlng a
broad category of ep lc w lu ch em braces several local tradltlons:
am ong w hlch G reek eplc ls but one.35 Johzzson dlscusses the effect
of thls shlft on tb e place of H om er m contem p orary culture:<It ls m y
hope that the rlgld m odel of G reek eplc w l11 not contln ue to d om -
ln ate sch olarly thlnkm g about thls genre.G reek ep os,w hlch ls after
all on ly one of m any h erolc eplc tradltlon s around th e w orld,cannot
b e studled ln context as a llvlng trad1t1on . 736 ln thls vast an d m ultl-
form w orld of ep lc p oetrs H om er seem s sm aller and , ln lm portant
respects, delsclent:w e cann ot h ear th e sound of h1s lyre.A part from
defam lllarlzm g early G reek eplc,the w lder w orld of eplc poetry h elps
classlclsts to focus on th e fact th at th e vet'y term Kep lc' ls not
m dlgenou s to H om er. A s h as often been poln ted out: th e H om erlc
poem s do notrefer to them selves as epea,but rather as aobdl (Ksong')
or kkoslklea (Kfam el Kfam ous deedsl m klu- kto hearn): term s that

:4 R ecurrent term s (n Johnson 1980

55 T he w ork of O m as 1978 has been w fdely recogn tzed as an tm portant contrlbu

tlon tow ard s th at a1m

:6 Johnson 1980 311-12
 H om er ;rlA lban ka 13 1

obvlo u sly relate to oral p erform an ce. T o b e sure, A rlstotle takes th e

JIJCJ and th e O dyssey as m odels for h ls ow n dlscusslon of ep ,an d to
th ls exten t th e term Kep lcn ls,ln h lstorlcal term s, clo sely assoclated to
th e H om erlc tradltlon ;b u t lt rem aln s relevan t an d u rgen t to ask h ow
m u ch A rlstotle u n d ersto o d ab ou t H om er.37 ln a sen se, th en , th e
A frlcan ep lc con troversy seeks to tran sform n otlon s of th e gen re ln
w ays th at gesture tow ards M orettl's radlcal reth ln kln g of th e n ovel.38
ln b oth cases, th e geography of llteratu re tu rn s o u t to b e of cru clal
lm p o rtan ce.
C learly, classlclsts can p rof t from u sln g a n on -p aro ch lal un d er-
stan dln g of th e term ep lc.lt also seem s to m e,h ow ever,th at th e lo cal
classlcal tradltlon h as a con trlb utlon to m ak e to th e w ld er w orld of
eplc poetry.Parr/scrltlcssom etlm espresentthem selvesastrylng to
rescu e H om er from th e accu satlon of Ku n ldlm en slon alp rlm ltlvlsm 7.39
Sch olars w orkln g on A frlcan ep lc often p resen t th em selves ln slm llar
term s: rath er th an stu dyln g th e p reverb al m yth s of h um an lty, th ey
are developlng w ays of talklng about excellen t p erform ers an d p er-
form an ces w lth ln a culture, about style, techn lqu e, an d en tertaln -
m en t valu e, ab ou t th e rlvalry an d em u latlon b etw een p oets, an d th e
resp on ses of exp ert au dlen ces.
H om er, th en , can b e p resen ted as a lln ch p ln b etw een h lstorlcal
perceptlons of eplc (Kfrom A pollonlus of R hodes through V lrgll,on
to the Renalssance and beyond') and geographlcalm aps ofthe genre
(Ktradltlonal oral narratlve to be found the w orld ove/ ); but these
d lfferent ap p roach es to H o m er are b egln n ln g to co nverge. ln an
lm portant artlcle entltled K'l'he W orld R epubllc of Lettersl C hrlsto-
p h er P ren d ergast dlscu sses n ew d evelop m en ts ln sch olarsh lp by
P oln tln g ou t h ow Kln a set of m alor dlsclp lln ary an d p ersp ectlval
d lsp lacem en ts,tlm e ls m ap p ed on to sp ace,h lstoty on to geograp hyl'lo
Q uestlonlng the relatlonshlp betw een oral eplc and canonlcallltera-
tu re ls p art of th at m u ch w ld er p rolect.

57 For crltlclsm o f A rlsto tle's P oettcs, see also H ardw lck , p p 49- 50, 52
:B M o retti 200 1- 3
:
59 The phrase ls borrow ed from Calrns (ed ) 2001 v
40 P ren d ergast 2004 l
132 B arbara G rflzTosT

IS M A IL K A D A R E M E E T S A L B E R T L O R D

T h e career of lsm all K adare lntersects w lth m any of th e con cern s

outllned so far. H e ls the only A lbanlan w rlter w h o enyoys a broad
lnternatlonalrep utatlon and h em an aged to achleve ltw hllew orklng ln
an exceptlonally lsolated and represslve coun try:hls w ork offers an
extended m edltatlon on the relatlon shlp betw een an tlqulty an d m od -
ernlty,local contexts and lnternatlonal p erspectlves.T hroughout hls
w ork H om erlc poetry plays an lm portant role ln conceputallzlng
th ose relatlonshlps.K ad are bn efly m et A lbert L ord ln sum m er 1979
an d proceeded to w rlte a novelbased on the tieldw ork carrled out by
P arry and L ord ln th e 1930s.T he F f/t!on ffrepresents the m ost expllclt
and sustalned dlalogue w lth H om erlc scholarshlp ln K adarens w ork
b uthls engagem entw lth H om erextendsw ellbeyon d thatn ovel.ln thls
n alsectlon ofm y chapter lalm to explore som e ten slons and conn ec-
tlon s b etw een K adarens E ctlon an d tw en tleth -century H om erlc sch ol-
arshlp.largue th atK adare hlghllghts som e ofth e problem slnh erentln
L ordns approach to th e stu dy of eplc: an om nlvorou s ln terest m oral
tradltlons can ultlm ately sllence the ln trlcacles of localhlstoty
lsm all K ad are w as born ln G llrokastra ln 1936 an d stu dled at th e
Faculty of H lstory and Phllology at th e U m verslty of T lrana, as w ell
as at th e G orky ln sltute of W orld Llterature ln M oscow . ln 1960,
w h en A lbanla's relatlon s w lth th e Sovlet U n lon b ecam e ten se, h e
return ed to T lran a, w h ere h e llved for th e n ext thlrty years. ln
O ctober 1990 he applled for polltlcal asylum m France (a m ere tw o
m onths before the fall of the dlctatorshlp ln A lbam a);sm ce the late
1990s,he has dlvlded hls tlm e b etw een P arls and T lrana.T hrough out
hls carees he perform ed a careful balan cing act betw een w rltlng ln
A lbanlan for a local readershlp, an d placlng hls w ork w lth ln an
ln tern atlon alllterary context,m ainly through the m ed lum of French
translatlons.'ll T h e polltlcal lm pllcatlon s of h ls balanclng act h ave
been the oblect of m uch debate,42 but th ere are also m ore lm m edlate

41 K adare's com plete w orks ln A lbarllan and French translatlon are publlsh ed by

E dltlon s Fayard K ad are 1993- 2004

42 See e g the ietters publlshed by the TL S n response to R obert Elsle's artlcle
Qsub tle D lssent of a B alkan B ard' E isle 2005 K adare 1994 explores the relatlo nshtp
b etw een tyran ny an d llteratu re ln A lb an la
 H om er irlA lban ka 133

llterat'y ch olces w hlch deserve atten tlon . A recurren t th em e ln

K adare's novels ls the Egure of th e outslder w ho vlew s A lbanla
un com preh endlngly: som etlm es, the outslder ls llterally a forelgn er
(forexam ple:ln TheGeneralof theD eadArmy and ln TheFCJ:on H );
at others, an A lbanlan w lth llm lted kn
- ow ledge and experlence (a
chlld ln C hronkcle ;rl Stone ; a n ew ly w ed young w om an ln B roken

z
i/m /). These perspectlves help K adare slm ultaneously to present
A lb anla to an lnternatlon al read ershlp and to descrlb e to A lbanlan s
h ow thelr country m ay look from the outslde.lt turn s out that ln thls
kln d of prolect H om erlc p oetry plays a plvotal role.
O ne of K adarens earllest w orks, T he M onsteT takes lts cue from th e
m om ent ln w hlch th e W ooden H orse stands outsld e Troy and
exp erlm ents w lth th e ldea th at Kth e m on stern n ever en ters th e clty:
lt rem aln s o utsld e lt as a th reaten ln g p resen ce th ro ugh tlm e, even -
tu ally becom ln g a tan k at th e gates of a m odern clty.43 lt ls tem ptln g
to see ln thls lm age the threat and claustrophobla of A lbanlan llfe
un der th e com m unlst reglm e, but th e H om erlc roots of th e plot also
suggest a tlm eless, unlversal fram ew ork:n othlng changes, no m atter
w h en or w h ere you llve.
ln The G eneralof the D ead A rrrly- a novelw hlch w as translated
ln to Fren ch m 1970 an d establlsh ed K adare's lntern atlon al rep uta-
tlon- l-lom erlc po etry ls agaln used 170th to express th e A lban lan
condltlon and to forge llnks w lth th e experlen ces of outslders.u
W hen an ltallan general sets out to recover the rem aln s of hls
com p atrlots, w h o fell ln A lban la som e tw en ty years earller, h e sees
hlm self as a H om erlc hero :K1n th e task he w as n ow un dertakln g th ere
w as som eth ln g of th e m alesty of th e G reeks an d th e Trolan s, of th e
solem n lty of H om erlc fu n eral rltes7;45 b u t as h e b egln s to exp erlen ce
the dlfflcultles and futlllty of hls task (not helped by a constant
dow npour of raln), lt ls the m ountaln A lbanlans w ho exem pllfy
H om erlc rltual ln all lts solem nlty. A n clen t eplc proves to be a
com m on lan guage through w h lch th e pllght of th e ltallan gen eral
an d that of the A lbam an peasants can be expressed .T hroughout hls
w ork, K adare ls abraslve about A lbanlans w lth E urop ean asp lratlons

43 T he novel first appeared ln A lb anlan ln 1965 and w as b ann ed French transla

tlon K adare 1991
44 K ad are 2000 45 Ib ld 9
134 B arbara G razkosl

(e.g.the beautlfulM urkadez w ho changes her nam e to D olly ln The

F f/c otl f-f; or the provln clal o clals donnlng ltallan sults ln Sp n ng
Flow ers, kprlrf.
jrFrost); the real connectlon betw een A lbam an and
E uropean culture, he lnslsts, ls to be foun d ln th e rem otest and
m ost backw ard p arts of the A lbanlan hlghlan ds,Kthe w orld of legen d,
llterally the w orld of eplc that scarcely exlsts anym oret'l6 T hat w orld
slm ultan eously delin es A lb anlan lden tlty an d open s a chann el of
com m unlcatlon w lth the core of E uropean culture.
T he lm portan ce of excavatlng the p ast ls m ade clear ln K adare's
recent novel Sp rkng F low ers, kp rfrf.jr Frost.'
k7 lt open s w lth a street
gath erlng m a provln clal tow n . Som e youn gsters h ave d ug out a
hlbern atln g sn ake, w hlle a p asser-by thln ks bltterly:

W h ere b ut m A lb am a do you get m m ds as w arped as th at? N o,w e dotft get

u p m th e m ornm g to do som ethm g u sefttl,w e get u p w tth som e crazy ldea ln
our heads- u n earthtn g sleepm g sn akeslW h at've you got b etw een your ears,
you ltttle p erverts? You w ouldn't ltft a fin ger to help save th ose an tlqu e vases
or an clen t b ron zes p eople are forever dlggln g up a11 over th e place th ese
days- oh , n o, you w ouldn/t, but you donAt m lss a beat w h en lt com es to
fin dln g h orrors llke th1s'A48

A s th e w lnter snow th aw s: an d th e old reglm e glves w ay to a n ew

A lb anla,th e young resurrect a sn ak e rath er th an ,as th e p asser-by sees
lt, d olng som eth lng useful'.T h ese th ough ts read llke a com m en t on
K ad are's ow n excavatlon of A lb an la's H om erlc roots.
W h en K ad are m et A lb ert L ord at an lntern atlon al conferen ce h eld
ln A nk ara ln 1979,h e could only talk to h lm for a couple of m ln utes,
b ecause lt w as d angerous for h lm to b e seen sp eaklng to an en em y
al1en ;49 yet h e qulckly saw th e p otentlal for a n ovel b ased on P arryns
an d I-ord's research on tradltlon al eplc. D osla H lirst app eared ln
ln stalm en ts ln th e h terary revlew N enton , only a year after K adare's
m eetlng w lth L ord.A revlsed and sh orter verslon w as p ubllsh ed ln
Fren ch as Le D ossw r H ln 19899 th at verslon th en app eared
ln A lban lan ln 1990. T h e n ovel w as furth er sh orten ed and revlsed
ln 1996,ln volum e lv of K adare's com plete w orks, publlsh ed ln P arls
slm ultan eously ln A lbanlan and ln French .so T h e E ngllsh tran slatlon

46 K adare 1991 63 47 K adare 2003 48 lbld 2

49 See D B ello s; Q'lfran slator's N ote' ln K ad are 1997
50 c!f K ad are 1993- 2004
 H om er ;rlA lban ka 135

by D avld B ellos, T he 171k on 1-t first appeared ln 1997 an d conform ed

to th e 1996 Fren ch text.5l
T h e n ovel tells th e story of tw o lrlsh A m erlcan sch olars,M ax R o ss
and BlllN orton (ln Bellosnstranslatlon;M axR oth and W lllyN orton ln
the French),w ho travelto A lbanla ln the 1930s carrp ng w lth them
K
m strum ents th at record ed volce and sound- w elrd , p revlou sly
un h eard -of con trap tlon s th at w ere called tap e-recorderf sl T h e for-
elgn ers set o ut to record th e ep lc p erform an ces of th e m ou n taln
dw ellers ln an attem p t to w ork o ut h ow th e H om erlc ep lcs w ere
orlgln ally com p osed .T h e A lban lan auth orltles susp ect th em ofspyln g
an d ,ln turn ,ln stru ct tw o sples to rep ort on th em .ln th e n ovel:th elr
scholarly actlvltles m ostly em erge from the un com prehen dlng but
exp an slve rep orts p enn ed by secret agen t D ulle B axh ala.W h ereas th e
llterate elltestreatthem w lth suspicion or (1n the case ofthe prefect's
w lfe)w lth fasclnated abandon,thehlghland A lbanlansare dlgnlfed ln
th elr h osp ltallty, as th ey slng for th em th elr b eautlful eplcs. T h e
scholarsm akegood progress,untlleventstake a sh arp turn :B lllN orton
begln s to lose h ls slgh t,w hlle a Serblan m onk from K osovo convln ces
th e hlghlan d bardsto destroy th e recordln gs.T h eA m erlcan sprep areto
leave em pty-han ded, w hlle M ax R oss w onders w hether hls frlen d's
blln dn ess ls fl-lom e/ s revenge ...on th ose w h o sought to solve hls
rlddlet53 A s th elr steam er leaves th e p ort of D u rres,th ey op en a local
n ew sp ap er an d fin d ln lt th e tran scrlp tlon of a n ew eplc son g:lt tells of
th e sh attered tap e recorders.B lllN orton ,w h o ls blln d by n om rep eats
the new verses Kw lth am azlng accuracyl w hlle Kthe m onotonous tune
of h1s ch an tlng enh an ces th elr dlstan ce, m alun g th em seem to com e
from far aw ay ln tlm e an d sp ace7.54 M ax R oss th ln k s h ls frlen d ls ab ou t
to dle,butth ew ord death sudd enly Kseem ed d evold ofany slgn lf can ce.
It w as on ly a sh ell en caslng som ethlng e1se.755
K adare op enly descrlb ed h ls n ovel as an account of th e w ork
carrled ou t by P art'y an d L ord ln th e 1930s. ln an ln tervlew w lth a
Fren ch Jou rn allst ln 1990, for exam p le, h e stated :

'Yes, I m et on e of th e tw o A m erlcan s, A lb ert L ord, ln A nkara at an lnter-

n atlon al con feren ce H e b ecam e a ch aracter ln m y n ovel H ow ever, b ecau se
h e w as stlll alw e an d I w rote ab out p erson alm atters,I ch an ged h1s n am e H e

51 K ad are 1997 52 Ibld 3 5: Ibld 166

54 Ib ld l69 55 Ib ld
136 B arbara G rflzTos;

hlm self told m e, ln p erfect Fren ch , the story th at w as golng to form th e

b asls for The J4/e on H H e h ad b een ln A lbam a ln th e 1930s w lth a
frien dy w ho had sub sequen tly dled , ln ord er to study th e H om erlc roots of

A lb anlan eplc'56

T hls statem ent d eserves careful scrutlny becau se lt p oln ts to som e

lm p ortant dlfferences,as w ell as slm llarltles,betw een K adareRs vlslon
an d that of Parry and L ord .
ln th e first place,lt should be p olnted out th at although L ord d1d
travel to A lbanla ln autttm n 1937 (w lthout Party w ho w as already
dead), the eplcs he recorded there m ade close ttl no lm pact on
H om en c scholarshlp .s; T he FCJP on H takes lts cue n ot from L ord's
w ork ln A lb anla,but from P arry's and L ord's E eld trlp to Yugoslavla
ln 1933. lt ls on th at occaslon th at th e b ard M llovan V oylllc com -
posed,ln the tradltlonaleplc style:The k
stlrlg of M zltnan Parrysw hlch
detalled the yourneys and d eeds of Kp rofessor M llm an Parry the
glorlous7.s8 T h at song becam e an lm p ortan t plece of evlden ce for
H om en c sch olars,b ecause lt sh ow ed how new events could becom e
part of a llvln g eplc tradltlon .B ut V cqlllc's son g w as n ot Just a p ohte
contn bution to H om erlc scholarshlp :lt also had lts ow n polltlcaland
cultural agen da. lt d escrlb ed h ow Parry travelled through C roatla,
B osnla: H ercegovlna, and Serbla ln order to record th e songs of tour
h erolc fath erlan dtsg T h at fath erlan d had been n am ed Yu goslavla tw o
years prevlo usly,b ut lts beautles an d b ord ers w ere also b elng deiin ed
in the course ofthe song ltself.And so w as Parr/s place ln lt:Ko ur
h lstory w lll sp eak of h lm , an d rem em b er h lm for m any ages.
760 T hus
Tlte kt//g of M tlm an Parry whlle pap ng hom age to the H om erlc
professor, also seif-con sclously clalm ed Parry for Yugoslavla and, ln
an act of reclproclty, sought lnternatlonal fam e (and dlgnlty) for
V olllc him self 6l A galn st dom ln an t p ercep tlon s of th e guslars as

s6 F aye 199 1 56- 7

57 T he recordlngs are part o f the M llm an P arry C ollectlon y kept ln H arvard fo r
fu rth er lnform atlon ,see http p/w w w chs harvard edu/m pc/
58 M Vollclc,The Song of M i/vlfl/:Parry llne l5 Prlnted ln Lord 2000 272-5
59 v ollclc, Song,llne 24 , ln L ord 2000 272- 5
60 V bllclc, Song,ln L ord 2000 272- 5
61 In Serb lan oral poetry,the n am e of the bard does n ot usually app ear w lth ln the
com posltlon,thottgh lt does ln The Song of M tlm an Parry Grlffith argues that ln
anclen t G reek eplc th e nam e o f the b ard ap pears on ly w h en he ad dresses hlm self to
a specfic ln dlvldual or audlence a slm llar act of reclproclty betw een poet and
add ressee seem s to be at w ork here See G rlffith 1983
 H om er irlA lban ka 137

drun k an d greedy, V olllc deplcted hls collaboratlon w lth P art'y ln

ldylllc term s, as an act of h o sp ltallty brln gln g fam e to 170th bard an d
sch olar ln th elr resp ectlve countrles.6z C lasslclsts h ave n ot p ald m uch
attentlon to the polltlcallm pllcatlons ofthe Song of M Tlrrlflrllk rry;
they have preferred to see lt slm ply as a new m anlfestatlon of an age-
old tradltlon . Yet, preclsely b ecau se of lts tradltlon al qu alltles, th e
song w as extrem ely successfulln lnscrlblng Parry w lthln lts p artlcular
w orld -vlew : to thls day, P arryns n am e ls E rm ly lln ked to th at of a
coun try, Y ugoslavla, w h lch h ad th en Ju st b een created and n ow n o
lon ger ex1sts.63 T he F TJP on H relects V olllc's vlslon :w h lle ln sld e th e
n ovel a Serb lan m on k en su res th at th e A lb an lan tap es are sm ash ed to
p leces, K ad are hlm self quletly sub stltutes A lbanla for Serbla as th e
locatlon of ch olce for travelllng H om erlsts.
W e do not kn ow w hat exactly L ord told K adare w hen they m et ln
1979. C ertalnly, K ad are's statem en t th at P arry an d L ord w ere lnves-
tlgatln g Kth e H om erlc ro ots of A lb an lan ep lcn ls n ot an accu rate
d escrlptlon of th elr p ubllsh ed research . L ord hlm self w rote, ln a
dlfferent context, th at P arry Kdeslred to extract from th e collected
m aterlalm aln ly w h at h e n eeded for H om erlc researchl6zlH e h ad llttle
ln terest ln stu dylng th e m od ern eplcs ln th elr ow n rlght, far less ln
dlscusslng thelr orlglns or antlqulty.A preoccupatlon w lth roots sults
K adare's ow n w ork b etter th an th at of P arry an d L ord, th ou gh lt ls
very posslble that Lord chose to descrlbe hls ow n research ln a w ay
th at w ould app eal to th e w rlter.65 B e th at as lt m ay, by th e tlm e

62 By the tlm e Parry m etVollclc,there had been a long (and often fraught)hlstory
of collab oratlon b etw een oral bard s an d llterary scholars ln Serb la ln the early
nlneteen th cen tu ry, V u k Stefanovlc K aradzlc prod ttced a very ln flu entlal ed ltlon of
Serblan eplcs (crltlcal edltlon 1988) h1s collectlon played a central role ln the
d evelopm en t of Serb lan llterature, lt w as translated ln to G erm an very soon after 1ts
orlglnalpubllcatlon and had a m alor lm pact on G oeth e,w h o then w ent on to deveiop
h1s con cept of W eltltteratur,cf Introductlon p 3 V U.
Ik Stefanovlc K aradzlc also w rote
about h1s deallngs w lth the guslart (esp ln the preface to the second edltlon of h1s
N arodne srpskc plesm e,grulted u4 W enna ln 1823-33),he com plalned bltterly abottt
the need to brlbe them ln order to extractsongs (a problem ,because he w as notrlch
hlm self),and generally descrlblng them as terrlble drunks D rlnk and brlbery (or
com yensatlon) also feature ln the accounts of Parry and Lord see, for exam ple,
Lord's Forew ord ln Foley (1987)
63 R ob ert Fow ler,for exam ple,uses Lord 's phrase Qthe Yugoslav H om er'as a m atter
o f cou rse R ob ert Fow ler 2004 223, qu oted on , p l23
64 F rom L ord's F orew ord to F oley 1987 13
65 R lchard M artln tells m e that w ou ld not h ave been ou t of character, for Lord
138 B arbara G rflzitly;

K ad are cam e to w rlte h 1s n ovel, h e h ad clearly galn ed an accurate

plcture of Parry's an d Lordns w ork on Serbo-c roatlan eplc.H ow h e

ch ose to deplct lt ls a dlfferen t lssue.

T he first edltlon of D osla f-t publlsh ed ln ln stalm ents ln 1980- 1,
descrlbed ln great detall the ln slghts of P arry an d L ord lnto the
n ature of oral tradltlon al p oetry, and tacltly applled them to th e
study of A lbanlan eplc.In fact,K adare w as enthuslastlc about w ork-
ln g out a P arry-style approach to A lb anlan eplc an d later th ought hls
enthuslasm had clouded hls llterary Judgem ent as far as th e n ovel
ltself w as con cern ed .W h en h e revlsed D osla H an d p ubllsh ed lt as a
book ln French (1989)and A lbanlan (1990),he took the opportunlty
to cut som e forty p ages w hlch dealt w lth th e technlcalltles of oral
p oetry.ln an lntervlem h e adm ltted th at w h en h e revlsed th e novel,
he w as horrlfied' by the am ount of detall on oral com posltlon
technlques.66 H e th en revlsed th e novel one m ore tlm e ln 1996 and
shortened lt even furth er:yet even th at verslon contaln s an accurate,
lf llght-touch , d escrlptlon of the n ature an d alm s of the research
carrled outby Parry and Lord.TheslgnlfcanceoftheSong ofM il/J.
/crl
P arry n ever escaped K adare. ln hls n ovel, the quest of the tw o
A m erlcan H om erlsts ls descn bed specl cally as a search for a n ew
song com p osed ln the tradltlon al eplc style.Yet K adare dld n ot Just
appreclate th e slgnlf can ce of V olllcns Song for H om erlc research;h e
w as also sen sltlve to lts p olltlcal vlslon .
A fter A ustrla-l-lungary w as defeated ln th e Flrst W orld W ar: the
V ersallles p eace treaty den ed a n ew pattern of state boundarles ln
the B alk ans: th e K ln gdom of Serbs, C roats, an d Slovenes w as
foun ded. ln 1929, K lng A lexan der l ch anged th e n am e of th e state
to Yugoslavla, the lan d of the southern Slavs; yet Serbs stlll dom ln -
ated governm ent, and thls fostered resentm ent, partlcularly am ong
the Croats.For exam ple,the Croatlan natlonallstM llan lufflay,who
w as also an em ln ent professor of A lbanlan hlstoly an d culture,
veh em en tly opp osed th e un lon of Serbs an d C roats: h e w as beaten
to death w lth a m etal rod ln 193 1. Four m en from an organlzatlon
called tYoung Yugoslavlanw ere lm pllcated ln the m urder.67 T h e Song

66 Faye 199 1 4 1
67 B ecause Stlftlay w as a w ellk now n sch olar,th e lncldent w as w ld ely reported and
crltlclzed ln the lnternatlonal press cf N ew lb rk T tm es,6 M ay 193 1
 (

H om er ;rlA lban ka 139

ofhhlm an Parry com posed ln 1933,deplctsa harm onlousfatherland

w h ere C ro ats, B o sn lan s, H ercegovln lan s, an d Serb s llve togeth er
u n d er KB elgrad e o ur cap ltal, sln ce tlm e lm m em orlal o u r crest7.68
T h ere can b e n o clearer ex am p le of h ow th e trad ltlon al reglster of
oral p o etry p resen ts as tlm eless a n em an d con tested , sltu atlon .69
T he F flron H tells a dlfferen t story.W h en th e tw o A m erlcan s op en
th elr n ew sp ap er, th ey read : K'l'h e h an d th at w leld ed th e crow b ar th at
struck dow n the Yugoslav scholar M llan lufflay ln a Zagreb back
street som e ten years ago dld n ot trem ble at th e prosp ect of slayln g
tw o H om erlc research ers from acro ss th e A tlan tlc.770 In th e con text of
the 1980s, a statem ent llke that w as slm ply lnflam m atory. lufflay
d led for th e cau se of C ro atlan ln d ep en d en ce,an d w as on e of lts m o st
p rom ln en t ld eologu es. ln 199 1, C ro atla d eclared lts ln d ep en d en ce,
an act w hlch led to a brutal con fh ct betw een C roats an d Serbs.A t th e
d aw n of th at n ew con fllct,K ad are so ugh t to rew rlte th e p lace of P arry
ln B alk an h lstory.7l A galn st V olllc's vlslon of P arty Kln o ur h erolc
fath erlan d ' w orkln g p eacefully u n d er th e rule of B elgrad e, K ad are's
n arratlve suggests th at th e Serbs m lght, un der sllghtly dlfferent
clrcum stan ces, h ave b eaten h lm to d eath . A s ever, K ad are's B alkan
p olltlcs are carefully callbrated : th e suggestlon ls presen ted as th e
ln feren ce of an A lb an lan n ew sp ap er,an d th e A m erlcan s d o n ot dw ell
on lt.T h ey are far m ore ln terested ln oral tradltlon al p o etry an d ,ln a
sen se,so ls K ad are h lm self.Serblan an d A lb an lan ep lc are,ln K ad are's
vlslon ,p olar op p o sltes:Ka b allad ln on e of th e tw o lan gu ages ls llke an
up slde-d ow n verslon of th e sam e ballad ln th e oth er lan gu age: a
m aglc m lrror, m akln g th e h ero of th e on e th e an tl-h ero of th e
oth e/.72 B u t th e p olltlcal an d eth n lc ten slon s evld en t ln h ls n ovel
are n ot th e o n ly o n es:th ere ls also a fu n d am en tal qu estlo n ab ou t o ral
ep lc an d th e advan ce of m od ern lty.T h e n ew oral son g p rln ted ln th e
n ew sp ap er exp resses th e b ard sn un certaln ty ab o u t th e A m erlcan s'
tape recorders:KA black aprath rose from the wflvs Isom e . SJJJ zt
cam eforourgood IItwil!bnng tlrTl.;zgnef .
SJCJ the others ISom e.SJCJ

68 Vollclc,The Song of M tlm an Parry llnes 57 ff,ln Lord 2000 272-5

69 O n the tlm elessness of oral poetry, cf H aub old , C h l ln thls volu m e
70 K ad are 1997 l67 K ad are's n ovel ls set ln the 1930s, Su ftlay's death ls lm pllcltly
d ated b ack to th e 1920s alth ou gh h e actu ally d led ln 193 1
71 H 1s attem p t w as p artly su ccessfttl see th e Q'Fran slator's N ote' ln K adare 1997
72 K ad are 1997 l02
140 B arbara G rfzits ;

flbrngsfrozen nlghtlngales to hfe lBy God Tffreezes f/clahuta satd

the othersL7s So m u ch for V olllc's un reserved com m ltm ent to th e

A m erlcan sch olar.

T h e ten slon beh veen th e lndlvldual vltallty of a local cultu re and
th e drlve to m ake lt p art of a w lder, ln tern atlon al con text p ervades
the w ork of lsm allK adare.For hlm ,th e past ls an lm portant resource
ln presen ung a sense of local ld entlty.B efore the fall of the com m un -
lst reglm e ln A lbanla, he m ade th e follow lng rem ark about The

0
/
.l
ic7f
k/of the D r
rf
zrr
l Pal
ace,a novelsetln the O ttom an em pl
r e:
.

T h e ltteratures of th e coun trles ln th e eastern block an d th at ofA lb anla often

dlsplay com m on tralts w h en th ey treat con tem p orary llfe, yet w h en th ose
sam e llteratures d1g lnto th e depth of p ast centurles th ey b ecom e u tterly
dlfferent A lb an lan hteratu re ls slm llar to th at of th e Sovlet U m on ,B ulgarta,
and P olan d w h ertltw an ts to deplct th e sam e soclal system ,bu t w h en lt dlves
lnto theabyssoftlm e,everythlng changes TheO#b ;7/of theD rctzo,
?Palacels
u nm atched tn Sovlet llteratu re b ecau se, as H eraclltus p olnts out, w h en w e
are aw ake w e are togeth er, but w h en w e sleep w e are sep arate D lfferent

p eoples h ave slept sep arately 74

Yet th e p ast ls a m ean s of reslstln g w estern , as w ell as eastern ,

E urop ean conform lsm .A recurrent th em e,ln K adare's n ovels,ls th e
vaculty of techn ology,fashlon , the lntern et. Sh allow ch aracters w h o
are taken by th at klnd of th ln g are stand ardly set agaln st th e p easan t,
hlghland A lbanlan s w ho,ln fact,h old the key to E urope's roots.T h e
hlghlanders are llke th e G reeks.K adare's analogy ls based on a dlrect
con n ectlon w h lch elldes th e long h lstory of th e classlcal tradltlon
through R om e and C hrlstlan lty.W hen asked about R om an llteratu re
ln an ln tervlem h e declared:
'A lb am an h teratu re has m any llnks w lth L atm llteratu re O n e sh ould m ake a
dlstln ctlon , h ow ever the splrlt and ph llo sophy of th e great w orks of A lb a-
n lan llterature h ave m ore ln com m on w lth an clent G reek th ought In th e
M lddle A ges,th e edu cated elite had closer lm ks w lth L atln llteratu re w e are
tallu ng ab out C ath oh c prelates,close to the V atlcan an d 1ts p ecullar cultu re,
ln any case, the C ath oh c church had n o great aftin lty w lth anclent G reek
llteratu re or, m ore gen erally, classlcal G reek culture th ey are tw o dlfferent

w orlds R75

75 K ad are 1997 16 7- 8 74 F aye 199 1 29 75 Ib ld 2 1-2

 H om er ;rlA lban ka 14 l

H ere w e fin d, expressed w lth utter clarlty, a qu estlonlng of the

classlcaltradltlon w hlch m u st,by n om be fam lllar.T h e spllt b etw een
G reece an d R om e d escrlbed by K ad are ls also at th e h eart of Parry's
an d L ord 's w ork on H om erlc eplc,76 an d h elp s to explaln w hy h e
found th elr w ork so attractlve.B ut K adarens dlscusslon of H om er ln
A lbanla ls n ot exh austed by a com p arlson w lth the scholarshlp of
P arry an d L ord .O n e lm p ortan t th em e th at em erges from h ls w ork ls
th e dl cult n egotlatlon betw een local p ersp ectlves an d ln tern atlon al
contexts. A n oth er ls th e fraught relatlon shlp betw een an tlqulty an d
m odern lty. A thlrd ls th e dlalogu e betw een oral eplc an d m odern
f ctlon .
A t the end of T he F i/c on f-t K adare com poses som e lln es ln the
tradltlon al eplc style; hls verses replace, ln term s of n arratlve
functlon, the Song of M klm an Parry because they prove to the
A m erlcan s th at th ey are w ltn essln g a llvln g ep lc tradltlon . Som e
m ay be tem pted to call K adarens bluff:he ls n o llllterate bard w orklng
w lthln an oraltradltlon;hls Keplcnbelongs to a sophlstlcated m odern
novel.ButKadare lnvltesusto seehow the Song of M klm an Parry too
ls m aklng careful n egotlatlons betw een local an d ln tern atlon al
contexts, betw een th e bards an d the scholar, an d betw een dlfferent
p erceptlons of th e Yugoslav lan dscap e. V olllcns plcture of polltlcal
h arm ony an d p erson al frlen dshlp w lth P arry ls m ore fraglle th an hls
tradltlonal phraslng m lght suggest. K adare's spoof eplc lln es
expose that fraglllty an d suggest altern atlve storles. T he next four
ch ap ters ln th ls b o ok exp lore ln greater d etall h ow dlstan ce from
H om er ls exp ressed th rough ch olces of gen re an d form ; b u t for n ow
l m u st draw som e con clu slon s.
T he ongolng debate over the nature of H om erlc, R om an , and
A frlcan ep lc exem p llE es h ow lo cal ep lc trad ltlo n s are p laced ln
relatlon to on e an oth er ln a w ld er geograp hy of tw en tleth -cen tury
llterature. K ad are's novel T he FCJP on H expresses som e of the paln
an d un certalnty lnvolved ln n egotlatln g th at geography.A t on e level,
h ls n ovel can be taken as an explan atlon for th e curren t state of
H om erlc sch olarshlp : classlclsts lgnore th e A lb anlan eplc tradltlon
because a Serblan m onk m ade sure n o record of lt survlved. A t

76 H aub old po ln ts ou t th at the spllt ls n ot co m plete ln P arry and L ord , see C h l

ab ove
142 B arbara G rffz/tM f

an othes lt a rm s the vltallty an d ln depen dence of A lbam an culture

as expressed 170th ln th e oraleplc tradltlon an d ln K adarens ow n w ork.
T h e A lban lan bards ultlm ately d1d n ot w an t th elr son gs to be trapp ed
ln a tap e record er an d taken aw ay.In stead,th ey taught th e blln d B l11
N orton a n ew ep lc song.T h e survw al of th elr son gs looked precar-
lous- as dld N orton's health- but th e death of A lbanlan eplc w ould
prove to be donly a shell encaslng som eth lng elset77

77 K adare 1997 169 P arry w as con vln ced th at w lth out h 1s record m gs:Y tlgoslav
epkc w ould be lostforever ForParry's'salvage folklorelcf M ttchelland N agy ln Lord
2000 pp xx tl-xxlll K adare em phaslzes the connectlons betw een tradltlonaleplc and
contem porary fictlon ln h 1s ow n w ork
 P art III

D istan ce an d Fo rm
This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c#
. blank
 6

L ogu e's Tele-v ision : R eadin g H om er

from a D istan ce

E m ily G reenw ood

T h ls ch ap ter ex am ln es C h rlstop h er L ogu e's on goln g ad ap tatlon of

th e Ihad as a stu dy ln th e cu ltu ral p olltlcs of readln g H om er ln
tran slatlon over th e last fifty years.l A s an orlgln al ad ap tatlon of
H om er by a G reekless p o et th at h as b een h alled as a classlc of E n gllsh
llteratu re ln lts ow n tlm e, L ogu e's H om er ln tersects w lth th ls vol-
u m ens exp loratlon of th e p olltlcs an d p oetlcs of th e recep tlon of
H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tu ry. T h ls ls H om er from a dlstan ce:
L ogu e ro u tes H om er th rou gh th e can on of E n gllsh llterature an d h ls
p oem crackles w lth th e ln terferen ce of m o d ern -d ay tech n ologles.
L ogu e's acco un t of th e Ihad alm s to brln g lts au dlen ces clo ser to
th e w orld of H om erlc ep lc by recreatln g th e lm p act of readln g
H om er as p o etry. T h rou gh th e com bln ed u se of cln em atlc n arratlve
tech n lqu es an d p o etlc so u n d effects,th e actlon of th e Ihad ks brou gh t
u p clo se ln full volu m e.B u t at th e sam e tlm e, th rou gh careful u se of
lrony, L ogu e's H om er p o em s reflect on th elr ow n statu s as ad ap ta-
tlon s an d m easu re th elr dlstan ce an d d lfferen ce from H om er. T h ls
p arad oxlcal Kclo se-u p dlstan cenw orks for th ree reason s.

1 w ou ld ltke to th ank th e partlclp an ts ln th e D u rham con feren ce for h elpfu l co m

m en ts on m y pap er 1 am also gratefttl for lnvltatlo n s to speak ab o u t L o gu e's H om er
at the fo llow ln g ln stltu tlon s th e U n lverslty o f St A n drew s, th e U n lverslty o f M an
ch ester, an d th e In stltu te of C lasslcal Stu d les ln L on do n
l N ot qu lte fifty years L ogu e's p ub llsh ed ad ap tatlon s of th e Iltad sp an the p erlod
1962-2005 (1959,lf radlo broadcasts are taken lnto account) For the publlcatlon
h lstory o f L ogu e's adaptatlo n s o f H om er,see th e A p p en d lx at th e en d of th e chapter
146 E tnly G reenw ood

Flrst:th e cln em atlc tech n lques conlu re up th e lm m edlacy ofvlsu al

n arratlve so th at,ln splte of frequ en t lron lc n arratorlal ln terventlon s
that rem lnd us that Kthls Is not H om erl readers cannot help but Kseen
th e Ihad unfoldlng b efore th elr eyes.
Secon dly, dlfferen ce and d lstan ce are th em selves ln tegral features
of H om erlc n arratlve. W h en L ogu e's n arrator lnvltes th e read er to
envlsage th e battlef eld betw een Troy an d th e A ch aean s'dltch as a fan ,
w lth the Trolansscuttllng acrossthe splnes ofthe fan Kllke crabsn(KSee
lfyou can lm aglne how lt lookedn),Logue concedes that an effort of
th e lm agln atlon ls requlred to bn dge th e tem p oral dlstan ce b etw een
the present day and the w orld of H om erlc eplc (note the past tense
Klookedn).2 H ow ever,thls sam e effort oflm aglnatlon and equlvalence
ls already presen t ln H om er, as th e n arrator search es for term s ln
w h lch to convey th e n atu re an d scale of a bygon e h erolc w orld to
con tem p orary audlen ces, w h eth er through slm lles w hlch tran slate
th e w orld of h erolc w arfare ln to m und an e term s, or th rough a scale
of converslon th at m easures up w arrlors of th e p ast to m en of th e
present, or relates th e dlm en slon s of th e gods to th ose of m en .3
T hlrdly,ln contrast to conven tlon al tran slatlon s,w hlch preserve a
E ctlon al equlvalen ce betw een th e tran slatlon an d th e source text;
L oguens ad ap tatlon lnvltes readers to revlew th e relatlon shlp betw een
H om er an d th e account th at th ey are readln p as w ell as to reflect on
th e m any dlfferent verslon s of H om er th at are avallable to th e
con tem p orary reader. T h e dlscrep an cy betw een dlfferen t verslon s
alerts u s to th e fact th at th ere ls n o un m edlated an d p rlstln e
H om er: ln stead H om er ls an accretlon of edltors, com m en tators,
tran slators, an d th e lnn um erable artlsts w h o h ave refashlon ed h ls
ep lcs. O n e of th e p rem lses of th ls volu m e ls th at H om erlc ep lc ls
con stan tly ch angln g; lts classlc status ls du e n ot to th e fact th at lt ls
u n ch an gln g b u t:co nversely:to lts ab lllty to acco m m od ate ch an ge- a
prop erty of tran slatable texts th at M aurlce B lan ch ot term ed Kself-
dlfferen cel'l Furth erm ore, L ogue's lron lc ad ap tatlon prom p ts a
reassessm ent of H om er th at reflects som e of th e sh lfts th at H om erlc

2 L ogu e 200 1/ l53

: See,e g Iltad 5 302-5 (D lom edes llftlng a boulder),and 5 767-72 (the dlstance
covered by H era's horses ln each bound)
4 Blanchot 1990 84 See also Borges 1999 69 (orlg 1932) for the ldea oftransla
tlon s as Qa p artlal an d p reclo u s d ocu m en tatlon o f th e ch an ges the text su ffers'
 Logue's Tr/r-vu m rl'H om erfrom a D vtance 147
sch olarsh lp un d etw en t ln th e tw en tleth cen tu ry,th e m ost selsm lc of
w h lch w as th e sh lft tow ard s ln terp retln g th e Ihad an d th e O dyssey as
oraleplc,a shlftthatlohn Foley h asllkened to a cultureshock.slteaders
an d au dlen ces of J'm r M uskc are con fron ted w lth an oral/au ral p o em
th at proclalm s ltself as m u slc.ln so far as L ogu e's H om er blurs dlffer-
en t m od es of n arratlve an d sem lotlc system s, an d exlsts b oth as an
oralp oem an d as a prln ted text,lt dem on strates a p olnt n ow unlver-
sally ackn ow ledged ln H om erlc sch olarsh lp : th at th ere can b e n o
ab solute d lstln ctlon s b etw een oral n arratlve an d w rltten n arratlve ln
H om erlc ep lc.
Llke th e w rltten texts of th e H om erlc eplcs, edltlon s of L ogu e's
H om er are texts that echo an absent p erform ance.T he soun d effects
of L ogu e su ggest a dlfferen t H om er from th at of conven tlon al verse
an d prose tran slatlon s,son orous th ough th ey m ay be.A n d,alth ough
L ogu e's soun d effects can n ot reprodu ce h ow H om er soun ded , th ey
convey th e effect of eplc as m u slc an d,accordln gly,en courage readers
to revlse th elr un derstan dlng of th e kln d of p oem th at th ey th ought
th ey w ere readlng. A n oth er polnt of convergen ce b etw een L ogue's
ad aptatlon an d sch olarshlp h as been th e ln creasln g em ph asls on
ln terpretln g th e Ihad as a w ar p oem . Slm on e W ellns p olgn ant essay
The TDJJ or the Poem of Force (wrltten ln 1940;publlshed ln 1945),
w hlch read th e Ihad m th e sh adow of th e w orld w ars,p olnted th e w ay
for paclfst (m lslreadlngs ofthe poem .6M ore recently,Jonathan Shay
h as stu dled th e Ihad an d O dyssey ln term s of th e ph en om en on of
com b at traum a am on g V letn am W ar veteran s an d th e dl culty of
reln tegratln g th ese veteran s ln to Kclvlllzed n so clety. Sh ay argu es th at,
for all the forelgnn ess of H om erlc eplc, the p sych ology of m odern
com b at ls broadly com p arable w lth th e p sych ology of com b at th at h e
lden tlf es ln th e Ihad,an d th e corresp on dlng trlals of relntegratlon ln
the O dyssey 7 ln a dlfferent veln,Jam es Tatum 's T he M ourner's Song'

5 T he ldea of the process of com ln g to grlp s w lth the w orld of oralpoetry- a w orld
from w h lch m o st m o dern W estern aud lences are allenated- as a 'cu ltu re shock'
com es from Foley 2002 l l
6 See W ell 2003 ln the blbllography, ln h1s lntroductlon H oloka dlscusses the
Ju dgem en t of W ell's w ork by H om erlc sch olars, see esp p p 10- 1l w lth n n 4 1, 42,
an d 45 O n W ell's prolectlon of a C h rlstlan pacl sm o nto the Iltad,and th e m lsread
1ng that th ls entalls,see Scheln 1984 82- 3
7 A chtlles Crlm etnam Com bat Traum a and the Undotng of Character (1994),and
Odysseus tn Am ertca Com batTraum a and the Trtals ofH om ecom tng (2002)
148 E m kly G reenw ood

J'kr
flr and Rem em brancefrom the TDJJ to m etnam (2003) approaches
th e lhad as a study ln th e artlstlc com m em oratlon of w ar an d th e
dl cult balance betw een the afterm ath of w ars an d the afterllfe of
thelr w arrlors/soldlers. T he exlsten ce of parallel dlalogues ln schol-
arshlp an d artlstlc receptlon ls n eatly lllustrated by th e fact th at
T atu m sln gles o u t L ogu e's ad ap tatlon , ackn ow ledgln g lt as an ln sp lr-
atlon .8 ln addltlon , one of the endorsem ents on the back cover of
Tatum ns w ork ls from Logue hlm self.LogueDs renderlng of the Ilfad as
a p oem of w ar ls d ouble-volced '. lt recreates th e vlsceral brutallty
of the lh ad 's battle scen es an d glves volce to the glory of w as w hlle
at th e sam e tlm e lntey ectln g p ath etlc n otes ln m ln or k eys th at
exp ose th e devastatlng futlllty of th e cycle of death .g som e of th ese
path etlc n otes clearly stem from the plty expressed ln th e poetty of
the w orld w ars and from p ost-w ar paclfism .lo In addltlon , from hls
van tage p oln t ln th e late tw entleth cen tury,L ogue conveys a p alp able
dlsen ch antm ent w lth w ar an d a w arln ess of all th e w ars th at h ave
b een fought sln ce the m ythlcal w ar that ls the sublect of the 1l2ad.33
T h e an achron lstlc ln curslon of subsequ ent w ars ln to L ogu e's account
of H om er stlm ulates u s to ask w h at dlfferen ce th e w ars of th e
tw entleth century have m ade to readersnlnterpretatlon s of the 1l2ad.31

8 Tatu m 2003 7 1 an d 144...6

9 Fo r a less ch arltab le vlew of thls equlvocatlon ,see B ed lent 2004 243 o n Logu e
2003 QA ll D ay P erm anent R ed h esltates b etw een a stud led aw e of b attlefield b ravery
an d 1ts ow n b attle b ellttlln g show m an shlp '
10 Logu e has m ade m uch of h1s subverslve m llltary career as a P rlvate ln th e B lack
W atch and h1s credentlals as an antl w ar protestor are lm peccable (Logue 1999)
C rltlcs have grappled w lth the vlolence of Logue's H om er, m any Judglng lt gratult
o usly b lood thlrsty H ow ever, L ogu e h as do ne th e com m u n lty of H om er's read ers a
servlce ln forcm g dlscu sslon ab ou t the vlo len ce th at ls u n d en lab ly a featu re o f the
Iltad and w h lch has been ob fttscated an d san ltlzed by th ls text's statu s as a classlc of
w orld llteratu re See H ardw lck 2004 348- 9
11 Intervenlng w ars that feature ln Logue's H om er lnclude the N apoleonlc W ars
(200lfl 94), the Flrst W orld W ar (speclfically G alllpoll (200lfl 27) and Frlcourt
(2005 10)), the Second W orld W ar (A lam eln (200lfl 13), Stallngrad, Iw o Jlm a,
O ktnaw a (all2005 10)),not to m entlon generlc references to w ar at dlfferentstages
of hlstory (e g the Rom an lm perlalarm y rldlng out to subdue a provlnce- zoolfl
145) and the aw fttl technologles of m odern w arfare (e g 'Btktnl flashllghtlng the
Pac1fic7- 200lJ.124)
12 Fo r further d lscusslon of the an achron lstlc ln terference created by these battles,
see pp 168-71below 1take O llverTaplln'spolnt(p l82 below ),thatQanachronlsm 'ls
a b lun t term an d th at 'tlm e tenslon'b etter d escrlb es the process at w ork
 Logue's Tck-vislon'H om erjrom flD lsfflntrc 149
ln th e sam e w ay th at th e w orldns w ars h ave m ade th elr lm presslon
on L ogu e's accou nt of H om er: th e lnterven lng ep lc tradltlon h as
also m ad e 1ts m ark. I-ogu e's H om er draw s on th e full exten t of th e
E n gllsh eplc tradltlon , leadln g to a creatlve ten slon betw een w h at ls
Kl-lom eric' and w h at ls Kep lct For exam ple,ln L ogue's verslon of JlTfld
1.57 1- 600,w h ere H ep h aestu s d efu ses a row b etw een H era an d Z eu s
on M ou n t O lym p u s, L ogu e ln tey ects a qu otatlon from P arad kse L ost
(1.740-6):
A n d as th elr laugh ter lilled th e sky,
H eph aestu s lum ped aw ay rem em b erln g h ow ,
A ngered at som e unw anted fact of hls,
G od tossed h1m ou t of H eaven ln to th e vold,
A n d h ow - ln w ords so falr th ey shall for ever be
Q uoted ln Paradlse 'from m orn
To n oon h e fell, from n oon to d ew y eve,
A sum m er's dap an d w lth the settlng sun
D ropp ed from th e zem th llk e a fallm g stas
O n L em n os' ln an arc th at left
H 1m pln cer-h an ded w lth crab -angled legs

(Logue 20014 42)

A d ap tln g H om es L ogu e su p p lan ts H om er w lth M llton - an ep lc
su ccessor. A n d yet th e qu otatlon from M llton ltself d erlves from
H om er. ln deed, M llton draw s on th e vet'y p assage th at L ogu e ls
adaptlng (speclfcally lhad 1.590-94):
jbx) ztlp Jze rcg,2JAAOT. 'vjetly,evatrzerzatra
/;4e =o3 ze,raztlar tl= /v Ao: eczrec/oo
'
zrav b''rzap (Jeplptzyv,Jrza 3'ZIeAJI,I rcarg/vr
mvrvreo'ov lv zzlzira(,),tsA/zo 3'l'vt g?,rzl lvbev
T h e fact th at lt ls M llton's w ords th at are slngled out rem ln ds th e
reader th at th ls verslon of H om er ls rooted ln a localp oetlc tradltlon
of E ngllsh p oetry th at h as lts ow n hlstory of readlng an d ad aptln g
H om er. A n oth er ln tlm atlon of th e quotatlon from Paradv e Lost ls
th at M llto n h as tru m p ed H o m er.ls ln con trast to th e JIJCIJ,L o gu e h as
H eph aestu s rem em berln g a text, as op p osed to an ln clden t. L ogu e's

1: See K lrk's com m entary on these llnes (1985 113) C'l'he descrlptlon ls full of
ch arm and sub tle m ean ln g, an d lt ls a slgn of M llton's gen lus th at h e could even
lm p rove o n 1t'
150 E m kly G reenw ood

H om erlc H ep h aestu s looks back to M llton ,rem ln dln g u s th at w e are

n o t ln H om en c tlm e- as d o th e referen ces to C h rlstlan th eolop r
(Kheavenn and Kparadlsen).H ow ever, even w lth thls lntertextual play
L ogu e m ay n ot b e all th at far from H om er. ln th e G reek text th e
tem poraladverb '
t'
;bv)(Kalreadyn) occurs atthe beglnnlng of llne 590.
A s w ell as referrlng to an even t,thls adverb m ay allu de to accounts of
th ls even t ln an exlstln g oral trad ltlon , or m yth lc tradltlon , or even a
verslon p op ularlzed by a p artlcular b ard . T h ls p assage em ph aslzes
th e dlstan ce betw een H om er, M llton , an d L ogue, w hlle at th e sam e
tlm e p lacln g th em w lth ln a con tln u o u s ep lc tradltlon , reach ln g b ack
b eyon d H om er.

O W N E R S H IP /F ID E L IT Y

ln sp lte of th e glarln g dlfferen ces an d th e obvlo u s d lstan ce th at

sep arates L ogue from H om er, m any cn tlcs h ave ln slsted on h oldln g
L ogu e's free ad ap tatlon to th e rlgo urs an d strlctures of tran slatlon .
T h e varlable acad em lc recep tlon of L ogu e lllu strates th e con test for
th e ow n ershlp of H om er an d th e con trol of hls legacy. A t th e sam e
tlm e,lt reveals th e cultural p olltlcs lnvolved ln readln g H om er ln th e
tw en tleth cen tu ry. C lasslclsts m ay feel th at o ur kn ow ledge of H om er
quallfies u s as com p etent read ers of L ogue, glven th at H om erAs Ilkad
ls th e m o st lm p ortan t Kso u rcen text for L ogu e.l'l B y evokln g th e
reprovlng dlscourse of tran slatlon , w hlch takes Kfalthfuln essn as th e
p aram o u n t crlterlon of excellen ce, classlclsts attem p t to clalm ow n -
ersh lp of L ogu e's H om er. A s Sh een rem arks, Klid ellty crltlclsm ls
p erh ap s m ost ap p rop rlately seen as a rh etorlc of p ossesslonlls
L ogu e h as trled to outw lt thls rh etorlc by referrlng to hls H om er
p o em s as Kaccoun ts' of H om er. H ow ever, ln th e In tro d u ctlon to th e
200 1 edltlon of W r M uskc,C h rlstop h er R eld ob serves th at L ogu e h as
n ot been taken at hls w ord, an d th at academ lc crltlcs h ave p erslsted

14 See L ogu e's w ord ln g ln th e A u th or's N ote to th e 200 1 edltlon of J'kk r M uslc
(p v11) 'W flrM ustc,a dram atlc poem dependent on the Iltad,ls a w ork ln progress'
15 Sh een 2000 3
 Loguehs Tfrffr-kkslclrl'H om erfrom flD tstance l5l
ln treattn g the p oem s as Ktranslatlon stl6 P aradoxlcally, th e freer
p ractlce of adaptatlon can p rovoke even m ore hostlle reactlon s
th an conventlonal translation because lt ls p ercelved to u nderm ln e
dlsclplln ary p rerogatlves. L orn a H ardw lck h as explored th ls p he-
n om en on ln th eatre studles, w h ere academ lc crltlclsm of p erform -
an ces of G reek dram a ls frequ ently un com fortable w lth th e blurrln g
of th e conven tlon al categorles used to ln dlcate th e n ature of th e
relatlon shlp betw een th e G reek texts and th e stage prod u ctlon s.l;
A s H ardw lck n otes, th e aesth etlc crltlclsm of m od ern th eatre pro -
d uctlon s of G reek dram a ls equ ally a dlscusslon abo ut cultural
p olltlcs; she also extends the sam e observatlon to C hrlstop h er
L oguens adaptations ofthe JlTflft notlng that the debates over Loguens
H om er Ksh ow th at lt ls n ot only translation al norm s but also the
classlcal tradltlon ltself w h lch ls iiercely contestedtt8
I-ogue adm lts to playlng gam es w lth th e cultural ow n ersh lp of
H om er.In an ln tervlew ln 1993,h e stated th at,ln p rlvate,h e referred
to W t
'
rlr M un c an d K tngs as Km y KKl-lom er p oem s';7 b ut th at ln p ubllc
h e opts for th e m ore n eutral phrase Kan accoun t'of H om en lg In fact,
over the 47 years durln g w hlch L ogue h as been rew orkln g H om er,
h e h as varled hls rhetorlc of adaptatlon . T h e cover of th e 1962
Scorp lon P ress edltlon of Pflfrcv lcft;l an n ou nces the w ork as 'B ook
X.
V I of H om e/ s Ihad adapted by C h rlstop h er L ogu et ln slde th e
cover, th ls w ordlng ls m odlf ed to KB ook 16 of H om er's lliad freely
ad ap ted ln to E ngllsh by C h rlstoph er L ogu et C onversely: th e 1967
R app & C arroll edltlon of Pax h as tB ook X lX of T he J/CJJ tran slated
by C hrlstopher Loguel B y the tlm e of th e 1981 ponath an C ap e
edltlon of J'tr
flr M usw the rhetorlc has shlfted to A n A ccoun t of

16 R eld 200 1 xl C1n each case, L ogu e m ad e clear th elr relatlon shlp to H om er's
orlp n al b y sub tatllng th em QtA ccou n ts'' Y et lt h as b een th e fate of all th ree to b e
d lscussed and assessed as translaton s, w th every th m g that w o rd tm p ltes of the
au th or's resp o n stb tltty 170th to a m aster text and to a trustln g readershlp N ot Just
b ecause Lo gu e- now at w ork o n a fou rth volum e- stlllcan not read H om er's G reek,
th ls ls to get th e w ron g end of the stlck T h e Ihad ls a co nstan t througho ut h1s poem ,
ofcourse,and a lln e for llne p arlty can som etlm es be traced ,b ut w hat L ogue adds of
h1s o w n ,w hat h e leaves out, an d w h at h e d oes b y w ay of restru cturlng and enh an ce
m ent are a11 of th e essence'
17 H ardw ck 200 1 23 18 H ardw tck 2000 6 1
19 See U nd erw ood 19989 82
152 E m kly G reenw ood

B ooks 16 to 19 of H om er's llad.'* T h e term Kaccount'ls preserved ln

the 2001 Faber and Faber edltlon ,w hlch also dlsplays the forthrlght
tltle l-ogue's H om er' on the fron t cover. T he possesslve gen ltlve
Logue H om er lays a strong clalm to cultural ow n ershlp : thls ls
H om er accordlng to L ogu e, an d L ogu e com es first. T h e lssu e of
dlsclplln ary know ledge an d p ossesslon of the archlve of classlcal
llterature ls hlnted at ln Logue's m em om P n rlce C //fkrrrli/g, ln a
p assage w h ere, looklng back to th e 1950s, h e n um b ers hlm self
am ong the Klow lltlsts;ln the face of the prepossesslon of the educated
ellte w ho w ere hostlle to the approprlatlon of llterary texts by those
w lth out a unlverslty educatlon . Logue uses classlcs as an exam ple:
<O f course lt ls com m on for those (llke m e) w ho prefer Sophocles
(ln translatlon) to Boffocles (ln the orlglnal) to share a sm lrk at
th e exp en se of th e B offocleslan s glorp n g ln th elr p erform ers.nzl
N ot only has L ogue taken p aln s to dlstance hlm self from th e
Kfidellty schooln of translatlon , but he also approaches H om er as
poet to p oet.A s p oet,h e ought n ot to be sublect to th e hlerarchlcal
scale of auth orsh lp w h ereby th e tran slator ls seen as an lnferlor
auth or. ln fact L ogu ens credentlals as a p oet back up hls adaptatlon
of H om er, w h lch , w h atever else lt d oes, p uts th e p oetry- lackln g ln
m any tw entleth -century tran slatlon s- back lnto th e 1l2ad.11 It ls
slgnl cant th at w h en L ogue attem pts to locate hls adaptatlons ln a
broader taxonom y of translatlon theory,he appeals to Sam uelJohn-
sonns crlterlon , as rep orted by B osw ell: KW e m ust try 1ts effect as an
E n gllsh p oem , th at ls the w ay to Jud ge th e m erlt of a tran slatlonn

(Logue 200lfl:p.vl1l).
C rltlcs are ln con slsten t ln app laudln g Logu ens dazzlln g orlglnallty
at on e m om ent, an d th e next m om ent holdln g hlm to a H om erlc
straltlacket. L et m e glve an exam ple from an essay-length revlew by
M ary M axw ell, publlshed m 2004. M axw ell refers to Logue's ldlo-
syn crasy, an d h ls m averlck recom p osltlon of th e Ihad '. H er p ralse
ten ds to be equlvocal, as th ough sh e can n ot let go of th e dlscon cert-
lng thought th at 'thls lsnnt H om ern. T h us, on the sublect of Loguens
A chllles,M axw ellrefers to 'Logue's hubn sl w hlle concedlng that Khls

20 For a dlscusslon of Logue's chotce of Qaccount'ln relatlo n to d lfferent dlscourses

o f translatlon and adaptatlon ln oth er tw entleth century engagem ents w lth th e

classlcs,see H ardw lck 1992 242-6

21 L ogtte 1999 84 22 See G ed des 1998 196- 7
 Logue's Tr/r-viym /y'H om erfrom a D zstance 153
A chllles sw ays w lth th e unexp ected syn cop atlon of a llvlng souln
(p. 49). ln term s of an lm plled hlerarchy of authorshlp, perhaps
m ost telllng ls M axavelrs oblectlon that Y ot only have th e
ln stalm en ts been slow ln com ln p th ey h aven nt com e ln ord e/
(p.41).To crltlclze Logue for taklng the books of the Ihad Kout of
order' ls llke ch astlsln g H om er for beglnnlng hls narratlve m th e
tenth year of th e Trolan W ar an d h avln g flash backs such as th e
tew hoskop fa ln B ook 3 of th e Iltad. T hls ls to tell the p oet that he
h as m lsm an aged hls ow n p oem : w h en ln fact th e p oem h as n o llfe
outslde of th e poefs con ceptlon and com p osltlon . For this vet'y
reasom L oguens recom posltlon of the Ihad can help us to un derstan d
H om e/ s approach to plot ln th e Ihad,ln so far as the latter also h ad
to declde h ow to m ake an exlstlng b ody of m yth h ls ow n .A s N lck
L ow e rem ln d s u s:
G reek poets regularly fotln d th em selves faced w lth th e problem of ldentlfp
tn g a b eglnnln g an d en d m a story excerpted from m yth ,w h ere th e au dlen ce
w ould be w ell aw are of oth er even ts ln th e hves of th e ch aracters an d th elr
fam llles th at could ln prln clple exten d th e ch aln of story lnd elinltely lnto

p ast and futu re 23

ln addltlon to p laylng gam es w lth th e dlscourse of tran slatlon an d
ad aptatlon ,L ogue h as also occaslon ally ln corp orated Iron lc m eta c-
tlon al com m en ts on th e relatlon sh lp b etkveen hls accoun t an d th e
H om erlc Korlgln ar lnto th e p o em s.F or ln stan ce,ln th e 1962 edltlon
of Patroclela, Logue con cludes Patroclusn fateful entreaty to A chllles
(Ilkad 16.21-45) w lth the follow lng llnes:
In thls w as ln w ords
som ethln g hke th ose w rltten ab ovez
Patroclu s begged for death 24

T hls lrom c lntervention does double duty. O n on e level, lt p olnts

kn ow ln gly to th e llbertles th at L ogu e h as taken w lth H om er;thls ls an
accoun t, w lth all th e scop e for m ere Kglstn th at thls term m lgh t
lm ply.25 H ow ever, at an oth er level lt lm plles th e h ctlon allty of
H om e/ s accou nt:w h o know s w h at p reclse w ords Patroclus sald to
A chllles, assum ln g th e f ctlon th at th ey b oth exlsted? lrony of thls

23 L ow e 2000 l09 24 Lo gu e 1962 5

25 See Eco 2003 3 o n th e concept of translatlon as Qdlsgulsed ln dlrect dlsco tlrse
toorl'he author so and so said m hs/her language so and so'7l'
154 E m kly G reenw ood

kln d recalls Slm eon U n d etw o od ns d escrlp tlon of Kl-ogu e's m o d ern lst
crltlque of the orlglnall26 w lth the provlso that H om er also has hls
m etaf ctlon al m om ents, such as th e p assage th at lntrod uces th e
catalogue of shlps ln Book 2 of the Ihad (2.484-92), w hlch som e
crltlcs read as a taclt com m en t on th e E ctlon allty of th e accou n t
th at follow s.27 T h e lron lc n arratorlal lntetv entlon dropped out of
sub sequ en t verslon s:ln th e 1988 Faber an d Faber edltlon ,th ese three
lln es h ave been collap sed lnto on e lln e,A n d so h e begged for d eath'.28
A n oth er ln stan ce of exp llclt m etatextu al com m en t d rop p ln g o u t ln
later edltlon s occu rs ln th e catalogu e of M yrm ld on s, also ln th e 1962
edltlon of Patrocleka, ln w h lch th e n arrator com m ents: A bout th e
other com m anders w e know llttlen (ln later edltlons the catalogue of
M yrm ldons ls om ltted).29 The use of the first person plural ls
am blgu ou s as to w h lch com m u m ty ls b em g evoked .ls th is a sch olarly
k
w e' an d , lf so, to w h at en d ? ls th ls L ogu e p layln g w lth th e au th orl-
tatlve volce of sch olarshlp ? A ltern atlvely, w e m lght read thls state-
m en t as a play on th e rh etorlc of accuracy,lm plylng th at allth e oth er
ln form atlon ln th e p oem ls correct. T h en agaln , on e could read
thls phrase as a shorthand dlsclalm er (Kw e know so llttlen) for the
rem oten ess an d obscurlty th at surroun ds th e w orld of th e Ihad an d
Kl-lo m erlcn G reece.
T h e ld ea of th e rem oten ess of H om erlc G reece ls reln forced by th e
cover-art u sed for several of th e edltlon s of L ogu e's H om er, w h lch
proclalm s, ln qu asl-ethn ographlc fashlon , th at H om erlc G reece ls a
forelgn cou n try. T h e cover lllu stratlon for th e 1969 Scorp lon
Press edltlon of Patrocleka (Logue's verslon of Book 16 of the Ihadl
features a sep la p h otograp h of a K enyan w arrlor by M lrella R lcclardl
(thls photo w as reused for subsequent edltlons ofLogue's H om erl.3o
A ltern atlvely, th e cover lllu stratlon for th e A m erlcan edltlon of W r
M slsitr(publlshed ln 1987 by Farras Strausand G lroux)featuresa stlll
ph oto of th e robot w om an from Fn tz I-angns M etrop ohs. T hls lm age
eq u ates H om erlc sublect m atter w lth sclen ce E ctlon : th e p ast ls n ot
Ju st a forelgn co un tty b u t an allen on e at th at. W h at ls m ore, th e
cholce of M etropohs suggests Kanclentl rather than futurlstlc sclence

26 U n d erw o od 19989 84 27 See e g M acleo d 200 1 299

28 L ogu e 1988 8 = L ogu e 200 1f: 142 29 L ogu e 1962 10
30 See F1g 6 l p l55
 Logue's Tele-m sw n'H om erfrom a D kstance 155

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Fig.6.l M lrella R lcclardl,photograph of a K enyan w arrlor lm age u sed as th e

cover lllustratlon for C Logue Patrocleta (Scorplon Press,1962,repr 1969)

Ectlon (the orlglnal verslon of M etropohs w as released ln 1927).

C om m en tln g on th e sclen ce E ctlon th em e, Step h en B urt h as su g-
gested th at som e of th e o utlan d lsh n am es th at L ogu e h as d evlsed for
hls m lnor w arrlors (e.g.Q ulst,C hylabborak C orlot) are rem lnlscent
of th e blzarre n am es favo u red by sclen ce E ctlon auth ors an d h elp to
K
establlsh th at th ls b ookns w orld ls n ot o ursl3l
T h e qu estlon of th e p o em ns cu ltu ral referen tlallty sh ou ld glve u s
p au se. T h ls m ultlm ed la, gen re-cro ssln g p o em ch allen ges conven -
tlon al ld eas ab ou t dlsclp lln ary kn ow led ge an d gen re con trol. ln th e
case of L ogu e's H om er, lt ls n ot lm m edlately obvlo u s w h at kn ow -
led ge or b ackgrou n d ls assum ed by th e au th or,or w h o th e Ked u cated n
or Kcom p eten f read er of L ogu e w o uld b e.32 A ll acad em lcs,ln so far as
th ey ln slst on tradltlon al d lsclp lln ary stan d ard s, are ln d an ger of
m lyudglng Logue's w ork w hlch reaches out to an audlence w ho

31 B u rt 2003 Lo gu e has also d escrlb ed h lm self as b eln g Qat the Qosclen ce fictlo n ''
end ofEngllsh verse'(lntervlew w lth T1m Kendall 1994/5)
32 See E co 2003 l 12 o n the Qn alve' vs th e Qco m peten t'/oed u cated reader'
156 E m kly G reenw ood

m ay b e Kn alven readers of G reek an d R om an classlcs, b ut w h o

h ave am ple cultural llteracy, broadly defin ed .3: T hls ls a w lder lssue
for th e stu dy of tw entleth -cen tury adap tatlon s of H om er an d th e
exp ectatlon s th at m o d ern au d len ces brln g to th elr readln g of
H o m erlc ep lc.34
ln th elr 1962 collectlon of cn tlcal essays on H om er, G eorge Steln er
an d lkobertFagles dlstlngulsh ed,rath erartlficlally,betw een theschola/ s
H om er an d th e w rlte/ s H om er. T hls ten slon b etw een a con tex tu al-
lzed, h lstorlclzed H om er an d Kl-lom er as llterature' h as often been
reflected ln H om erlc sch olarsh lp .Tran slatlon an d ad aptatlon of G reek
an d R om an texts are flashp olnts th at lllum ln ate the am blguou s rela-
tlon sh lp of C lasslcsw lth th e broader au dlen ce th at lt n eeds to ad dress ln
order to survlve as a dlsclplln e.lfH om erlc eplcw ere ofp urely hlstorlcal
ln terest, w e w o uld n ot stlll be readln g lt today. B ut lf w e cease to
hlston clze G reek an d R om an llterature, th en the dlsclplln e loses lts
rav on d 'Ltre. T hls am blgu ou s relatlon sh lp ls seen m ost clearly ln th e
case of film lc adaptatlon s,w hlch tran sp ort the eplc lnto a com pletely
dlfferent sem lotlc system an d E lter th e p o em th ro ugh con tem p or-
ary referen ces.T h ese adap tatlon s con stltute a dlscon certln g m lrror for
th e dlsclplln e ln w hlch w e see fnm lllar language and term ln ology
refracted ln dlfferent form s. A n d th ls ls at th e level of prod u ctlon-
stu dyln g th e film s as ad aptatlon s of H om er.T h e plcture becom es m u ch
m ore ch aotlc w h en w e attem p t to an alyse au dlen ce resp on ses to th ese
E lm s as part ofth e lncreasln gly rem ote receptlon ofclasslcs.35A cadem lc
resp on ses to these film s often read llke an exerclse ln genre con trol,as
crltlcs debate w h atshould an d sh ould n otbe allow ed to con stltute teplcn
an d 'H om e/.
T h ere ls a lon g tradltlon of n egotlatlng th ese ten slon s ln tran sla-
tlon . ln h ls tran slatorns n ote,w h lch w as p ubllsh ed as a p ostscrlpt to
h ls 1963 tran slatlon of th e O dyssey R ob ert Fltzgerald lo cates th e art

33 See Pu rk ls 1992 2,flleaders of H om er today,depen dln g on thelr gen eratlon and

culturalbackground,have looked at plctures of the Trolan H orse,acted ln Toad of
Toad H all,w atch ed C aptaln K lrk gettlng lnto dlflicu ltles on televlslon ,or seen Stan ley
K ub rlck's film o f A rthu r C C larke's n ovel 2001- A Space O dyssey A n d th ere are
strange th lngs to b e encoun tered ln the O dyssean h ero es of co m pu ter gam es'
34 See G old hlll,p 260 below
35 see the pertanent com m ents of M lchelakts (2004 200-1) on the com plextty of
film lc ad aptatlo n s of classlcal texts, speclfically th e Qm u ltlp le lln gu lstlc, au dlo vlsu al,
an d cu ltu ral cod es'
 Logue's Tc/p-viym rl'H om erfrom a D vtance 157
of tran slatlon as an essentlal stage ln a classlcal tradltlon- the
recep tlon of all th at ls go od from th e p ast:

W hy care ab out an o1d w ork ln a dead langu age th at n o on e reads,or at least

n o on e of th ose w h o, glan clng at th elr R olex w atch es, gulde u s ln to th e
futu re? W ell, I love th e future m yself an d expect everythlng of lt b etter
artlsts th an H om er, b etter w orks of art th an th e O dyssey T h e prosp ect of
lo okln g b ack at ou r p lan et from th e m oon seem s to m e to p rom lse a
m alv elou s enlargem ent of our vlew s B ut let u s hold fast to w h at ls good,
h opln g th at lf w e do anythlng any good th ose w h o com e afler u s w 111p ay tls
th e sam e com p llm en t 36

From th e p ersp ectlve of th e tw enty -first cen tury F ltzgerald&s com -

m en ts are dated :sp ace travel w as stlll burgeom ng an d R olex w atch es
w ere th e epltom e of techn ologlcal ln n ovatlon . ln fact, Fltzgerald
lnvltes readers of the future to look back on hls tran slatlon of
H om er, w hlch ltself represen ts a dlookln g backn to H om er. Fltzger-
ald's w ords h ave p roved oddly prophetlc. T he clalm that H om er ls
stlll relevant ln a w orld ln w hlch space travel ls vlable ls m ade
lm pllcltly by th e cover lllu stratlon to Stanley L om b ardons tran slatlon
of the O dyssey (2000),w hlch features a photo of the Earth (KEarth-
rlse') taken on N A SA S A pollo 11 m lsslon. The cover lllustratlon
sltuates Lom bardo's tran slatlon ln the context of Stanley K ubrlck's
2001' -4 Space O dyssey (1968), w here the odyssey has becom e a
m etaph or for th e last fron tler rem alnln g to be kn ow n . T hls n otlon
th at sp ace travells vlable eplc curren cy ls also lm plled by C hrlstop h er
L ogu e ln W f
'lr M uskc,w h en h e llken s A chllles'h orses n sln g to a sp ace
shuttle taklng off at C ape Kennedy (A nd as ln dream s, or at C ape
K ennedy, they rlse').37 In fact, one could even trace the analogy
b etw een sp ace travel an d th e excltem en t of H om erlc ep lc to K eats's
sonnet KO n Flrst Looklng lnto C hapm an's H om e/ (1816), w here

:
56 Fltzgerald 1987 (orlg 1963) 50
57 Logue 200 14 208 O ne should note that the ldea of m lraculous, supra hum an
technology lsalready presentln the H om erlc eplsode on w hlch thls lsbased (l9 408-
17),see the dlscusslon of thls passage ln W llls 2003 pp xvl-xvll A chllles'talklng
horses are clearly out of the ordlnary (see Zeus'speech to the horses at 17 442-55)
Slm llarly, A ch klles' w on d rou s sh keld ks m anu factu red m H ep h aestu s; lab o rato ry
alongslde proto robots (Iltad 18 372-9)- for dlscusslon of H ephaestus' autom ata
as fcybernetlc creatlons? ln th e con text of m odern sclen ce fictlon , see Llveley 2006
2 78- 9
158 E m lly G reenw ootl

K eats com pares the thrlll th at he got from hls lirst en co un ter w lth
G eorge C h ap m anns tran slatlon of H om er to th at of an astron om er
ld en tlfp n g a n ew p lan et.38 T h e ln tru slon of sp ace-age tech n ology
ln to L ogue's accoun t of H om er suggests th at H om er h as kept p ace
w lth m od ern sclen ce.

S E N S O R Y T R A N S L A T IO N

T h e orallty of H om erlc eplc w ould seem to be on e of the areas w h ere

tran slatlon s an d adaptatlon s of H om er are boun d to lose the plot,
reluctant as translators are to com m lt them selves fully to the rep etl-
tlven ess of oral form ulae,an d pow erless as they are to reproduce w hat
John Foley has descrlbed as fthe lnterdependence ofm eter and phrase-
ologf m H om erlc eplc.39 In thlscontextChrlstopherLogue provesto
be a fellcltous adaptor,preclsely because he draw s on the rhythm s and
m uslc of hls ow n poetry.T he fact that Logue term s hls adaptatlon s of
H om er J'Uflr M um c h app en s to reflect an ever ln creasln g em ph asls on
the oral and m uslcal perform ance of H om erlc eplc, and the acknow -
ledgem ent that poetty ln anclent G reece beglns as m ouskkk n Llke
H om erlc eplc, albelt ln a vet'y dlfferent style, Loguens poetry on th e
prlnted page goes agalnstthe gram ofverbalnarratlve.A s a textthath as
lts on gln s ln a com m lsslon for radlo, Jir
fzr M usc con tin ually alludes to
oralp erform ance and,con sequently,keeps the orallty of H om erlc eplc
ln focu s.
O n e of th e w ays ln w hlch Logue experlm ents w lth n arratlon ls
th rough typ ography; m ost n otorlously by spreadlng th e w ord
A pollo' ln m asslve typ e bold capltals across tvvo p ages to suggest
A pollo's eplph any at Ihad 16.788 8 .41 C rltlcs relate the m an lp ulatlon
of typ ography to L ogu e's lnvolvem ent w lth p oster p oetty ln th e
1960s. ln th e case of Logue7s H om er, th e varlatlon ln font slze trles
to reprod uce vlsually: on the prlnted page, th e m odulatlon ln th e
readlng volce th at ls a feature of lts oral p erform an ce. A lthough

:8 'Then feltlllke som e watcher ofthe skles 1W hen a new planetsw lm s lnto h1s
ken ,'(see p l66 below )
:9 Foley 19979 l48 40 See Ford 2002 41 L ogue 20014 162-3
 Logue'
s Tele-m non.H om erfrom a D lstance 159
an clen t G reek p erform an ces of H om erlc ep lc are lrretrlevably lost to
us, the shlfts ln graphlc expresslon ln Jzsk r M un c, correspon dln g to
th e ch an geable exp resslven ess of th e p oem ns orald ellvery,can p rom p t
thought experlm ents about how rhapsodes llke lon (ln Platons dla-
logue) could m ove hls audlences to terror and tears.Logue's H om er
freely dlverges from th e sou rce text, but as a su stalned exerclse ln
adaptatlon, lt conveys a p ow erful lm p resslon of h ow L ogue w as
m oved by H om er and the potentlal of H om erlc eplc to m ove
readers/audlen ces ln tran slatlon .4z
W e w rote to C hrlstop h er L ogue to lnvlte hlm to p artlclp ate ln th e
conferen ce on w hlch thls volum e ls based;ln hls reply,h e asked u s to
throw op en th e questlon of w h at J'kr
flr M usw ls: KW h at you m lgh t do
for m e ls to ask KtW h at is J'kb r M uskd '' Som etlm es l d on't feel at a11
sureto T h ls u ncertainty about h ow to deE ne W flrM tfsTcarlses from lts
relatlonshlp to th e Ihad as source text, lts m anlfold lntertextuallty
w lth oth er p o em s,an d from lts n arratlve p rom lsculty.L ogu e's H om er
hasbeen called a tm ultlm edla Ilkad'(U nderw ood 1998/:62).W rltlng
ln 1976 on th e ran ge o f con celvable n arratlves from th e p ersp ectlve o f
film th eory, R ob ert Sch oles llsted : oral, w rltten , dram atlc, m lm ed,
statlc vlsu al lm ages, cln em atlc m ovln g p lctures, w lth or w lth ou t
soun ds,speech ,m uslc:an d w rltten langu age.44
L ogu e avalls h lm self of all of th ese typ es of narratlve ln J'Uflr M zfsia
Flrst, th e p oem p artakes m oral n arratlve ln several w ays. T h e m ost
obvlou s resp ect ln w hlch thls ls tru e ls th e fact th at th e p oem h as a
slm ultaneous exlstence as an audlo recordlng (zllgt t?/tx tfp- Logue
200114. H ow ever, the w n tten text ltself also assum es and m lm lcs
features of oral dellvery.C h rlstoph er R eldns ln trodu ctlon to th e 200 1
edltlon of J'kb r M usw en ds w lth the com m and Klust llstent45 Logue
h as w rltten of hls lirm bellef ln soun d as an ln allen able qu allty of
verse: K'l'h e Iu terat'y volce ls a fabrlcatlon .ln verse, soun d an d sen se
are ln extrlcable. R ead sllently, or alou d, p oem s p erform tzl6 T hls
ln terest ln th e m u slcal quallty of w ords an d th e convlctlon th at

42 See M o st 2003 384 on th e tran slatlon s of p oets as Qan attem pt to oblectlfy an d

to exp latn ,for them selves and for others,yttstw hy and p recsely how they w ere m oved
by som e text;
4: W rltten correspondence w lth Chrlstopher Logue (11 June 2003)
44 Scholes 1985 390 45 R eld 200 1 p x1ll
46 L ogu e 1999 242 C f also U nd erw o od 19989 82
 160 E m kly G reenw ood

p oetry an d th e sp oken p erform an ce of lt are ln sep arable are

accredlted to chlldh ood elocutlon lesson s .
47

ln AllD ay Perm anentRed,the reader lstold to:Kl-lear the Chlld l

Sh outlng the sh outs of an herolc lordt48 M uch of Logue's lm agery
ln corp orates both sound an d slght, w lth the w ords achlevln g a p er-
cusslve effect.O n e of the best exam ples ln L oguens recent adaptatlons
of H om er ls th e suppressed slm lle ln w hlch the G reek arm y rlsln g to
1ts feet ls com p ared to th e rattlln g tractlon of a V en etlan blln d :

T hln k of a raked sky-w lde V en etlan blln d

A dd th e recedlng tractlon of 1ts slats
O f 1ts slats of 1ts slats as a h an d draw s lt u p
H ear th e G reek arm y gettlng to 1ts feet 49

A s lf th e soun d effects of the poetzy w ere n ot suggestlve en ough , w e

are told, expllcltly, to Khearn the arm y.R ecalllng th e tltle W f 'lr M t:sic: ,

th e m otlf of m uslc p ervades th e p oetry H en ce, on th e sam e p age as

.

th e V en etlan blln d,L ogu e th row s ln flutes Kscreech ln g ab ove th e grave

percu sslon n of the arm yns feet, an d th e Kreverberatlon: of the horses:
h ooves.so
In th e w rltten text of W f'lr M usw , features of oral n arratlve m erge
w lth vlsual narratlve as the narrator dlrects the reader to Khearl as
w ell as to Ksee' dlfferen t asp ects of th e text T h e sequ en ce of W f
. 'lr
M uskc entltled Patrocleka beglns w lth th e com m and: KN ow hear
thls:n- a gam blt to catch the audlencens attentlon as w ell as th e
reade/ s eye,sln ce th e lnltlalcap ltalletter of th e w ord KN ow nls p rln ted
ln bold .51 T h ese vlsual effects are com p lem en ted by p am tln g ln
p assages w here L ogue sketch es out scen es w lth daubs of llgh t:
K'l-roy/-l'h e A crop olls /-l'h e m orn ln g llght b eh lnd th e Tem ple's colon -
.

n ade152 O r w hen he p ves us a perfect vlslon ofA ch llles'face ln anger

(A chlllesnface $lsllkea chalkpitfrm ged wlth roarm gwheaf),orthe
faces of H era and A thena (W lth faces llke N O EN TRY
slgns they hurrled through the cloudsn).55 '
V lsual lm agery ls also

47 L ogue 1999 18 48 L ogue 2003 20 49 fjld 9

50 See G eo rge Stelner's com m en t Qo n e can easlly lm ap n e p arts of h s Qol-lom er''
b eln g declalm ed to an ln ten sely syn cop ated, percusslve accom panlm ent'(2002 6)
51 Logue 200 14 l4 l
52 lb ld 85 U nd erw ood 19989 86 draw s an an alop rw lth lm presslo nlsm
5: L ogue 200 14 2 1 and 98 resp ectlvely
 Logue's Tele-m sw n'H om erfrom a D vtance 161
ln corporated lnto the text ln the form of stlll ph otography. ln Vkrtlr
M uskc A gam em n on 's arm y ls llken ed , ln p aren th esls, to sep la p h oto -
graph s of th e troop s at G alllp oll:

K lng A gam em n on's arm y stan ds

(A s ln the seplas of G all1po11)54
ln fact, ln C old C flpy- th e latest ln stalm en t of J'kb r M uskc- fo a
bn ef perlod th e n arrator b ecom es the ph otograph er,as Logue reflects
on th e p ow er of th e p h otograp hlc lm age ln Journ allstlc coverage of
m odern w arfare.ln L ogue's verslon a character called N yro ls decapl-
tated by A en eas ln b attle an d A en eas'm ln d er,M ow gap takes th e h ead
as a souvenlr.T h en L ogu e cutsto an lm age of elsew h ere,to th e scen e of
th e grlef of N yrons m oth er w h en sh e h eard about th e death of h er son .

W h en N yro's m oth er h eard of thls

she shaved her head,she tore her frock she w ent outslde
R lpplng h er fin gern alls through h er ch eeks
T h en dow n h er n eck, h er ch est, h er breasts,
A n d bleedlng to h er w alst ran rou n d th e sh op s,
Sobbln g

L ogu e p uts th e ph otograph er lnto th e p oem ,boastlng about th e sh ot

th at h e h as taken :

'1 saw h er run nlng roun d

I took th e ph otograph
lt sum m ed the sltu atlon up
H e w as h er son
T h ey put lt out ln colou r R lght?
M y plcture w ent around the w orld ' (Logue 2005 l2)
T h e ph otograph er-n arrator's b o ast th at KM y p lctu re w ent arou n d th e
w orld'ls a cynlcaland noveltake on the renow n (kleos) that the eplc
p oet recoup s from recordlng the deeds of w ar.
T he flm lc qualltles of C h rlstopher Logue's adaptatlon s of H om er
are w ldely recognlzed, an d n um erou s crltlcs h ave plcked up on
the use of clnem atographlc term lnology an d techn lques ln hls
n arratlve.ss R evlew dlscu sslon s are qulck to rem ln d readers th at

54 Ib ld 27
55 see R eld 2001 p xll: U n derw ood 1998/ 62 an d 1998: 87, Steln er 2002 6,
H ardw lck 2000 59, B urt 2003
162 E m kly G rcprlw t?t?fl

Logue has w rltten screenplays hlm selt and to com pare the layout of
th e text on th e p age to a screenplay.s6 It ls also com m on for revlew ers
to com p are L ogu e's p oetry to m od ern w ar lilm s: p artlcularly ln
revlew s of A // D ay Perm anent R ed.57 L ogu e's m an lp ulatlon of E lm lc
n arratlve ls subtle and varlable; as w ell as loud, stereop h om c clnem a
he also evokes sllen t film , p aradoxlcally brou ght on by an excess of

n o ls e :

T h e n otse th ey m ake w htle fightln g ls so lou d

T h at w hat you see ls llke a sllen t lm 58

Som etlm es Logue alludes to tw o (or m ore) dlfrent form s ofnarra-

tlve slm ultan eou sly: ln W -
flr M uskc h e com bln es th e langu age of film
edltlng (qulck cuts) w lth theatre llghtlng (follow -spottlngl.sg J/kr
pr
M k-wcp artlclp ates ln dram atlc n arratlve ln anoth er sen se,as w ell.lt ls
lm p osslble to sep arate th e oral p erform an ce of th e text from dram a-
tlzatlon .T h ls ls exem pllfled by th e su ccess th at th e p oem h as enloyed
on th e stage, m ost n otably as read , dram atlcallyy at L ondon th eatres
such as th e A lm elda an d th e N atlon al by th e actor A lan H ow ard .6o
L ogu ens Vkr
flr M usw h as also been adap ted for th e stage an d p erform ed
by V erse T h eatre M anh attan .6l
A lth ough con f nln g h ls n arratlve to th e w rltten w ord, L ogu e's
w ord s, as verb al slgn s, com e w lth lm ages attach ed an d rep eatedly
go agaln st th e gram of verbal n arratlve. A ll of th ese allu slons to
alternatlve sem lotlc system s are rooted ln th e w rltten w ord . ln fact,
lt ls th e arran gem en t ofw ords on th e p age,th e use of typ ography,an d
th e u se of p un ctuatlon th at en ables th e reader to envlsage th e text as
cln em a, as m uslc, on th e stage, as ph otography, or as a p aln tm g.

56 o 'L eary 199 7 l53

57 Fllm s to w hlch A ll D ay P erm an en t R ed ha: been com p ared ln d ud e Stan ley
K ub rlck's F ullM crflzJacket,and Steph en Splelberg's Sfw lng P rw tzfc ltyfln
58 L ogu e 2003 37
59 Logue 20014 187 Qo ulck cuts llke these m ay pve JSom e definltlon to the
m lnd'swlld eye lThatfollow spotsAchlles'sacred patr- '
60 See H ardw lck 2000 57
61 See H ardw lck 's revlew of a p erfo rm an ce of JVJ/-M ustc by V erse T h eatre M an
hattan drected by Jam es M tlton (14 M arch 2003) Thts revtew ts avatlable onllne
from f'f'h e R eceptlon of th e Text and Im ages of A nclent G reece ln late Tw en tlcth
C en tury D ram a an d Poetry ln Engllsh D atab ase' h ttp //w wm ,2 op en ac ttlt/c lasslcal
Studtes/G reee lays/Revtew s/z67o htm (last accessed A prll2006)
 Logue's Trk-vkym rl'H om erfrom a D vtance 163
L ogu e borrow s from th e vlsu al m edla ln order to m ake th e act of
n arratlon rlch er.H e succeed s ln beln g th e w rlter as cam era.62
A t th e sam e tlm e, L ogu e's cln em atographlc ap proach to ad aptln g
H om er con stltutes an In terestln g exam ple of slm llan ty ln dlfferen ce.
l h ave suggested th at the m uslcal quallty of Loguens poetry serves as a
com m entary on scholarly debates about the orallty of H om erlc eplc.
T hls ls also tru e of h ls rep eated use ofvlsu al n arratlves.A lth ough th e
m edlum of film ls com pletely allen to H om en c eplc, film syn tax
p roves extrem ely apt for clarlfp ng asp ects of th e tech m qu es and
p ersp ectlves of narratlon ln th e Ihads su ch as th e godsn eye vlew , or
th e w ay ln w hlch the n arratlve p ans from the vlew dow n on th e plaln
to the gaze of a sp ectator on the w all of Troy, or vlce versa.63 M any
sch olars h ave con structed an alogles b etw een th e volce of th e ep lc
n arrator an d th e cam era. W rltln g ab out m edleval ep lc: Su zan ne
Flelschm ann observes th at: Kthe prlm at'y bulldlng block of n arra-
tlve- th e even t- ls typ lcally fragm en ted ln to lts con stltuen t acts:
w hlch are n ot n arrated b ut descrlb ed, as lf seen th rough th e len s of
a vldeo cam era.
n6't Sch olarsh ip on H om er ls ln creaslngly llkely to avall
ltself of film ln order to lllustrate devlces of plot an d narratlve. For
exam ple, ln h1s study of th e classlcal p lot ln W estern n arratlve:
N lck Low e uses clnem atlc term s and technlques such as tm ontagel
flashback' tilll-lnl Kscem ngl and cutsnto lllustrate the Jliflflns radlcally
econom lcal app roach to plot.65
From a sllghtly dlfferent angle (cognltlve psychology), Ellzabeth
M m chln h as studled tech nlqu es of m em orlallzatlon ln H om erlc
eplc and h as draw n attentlon to th e extent to w h lch th e H om erlc

62 see sch oles 1985 399

63 For the god's eye vkew ,see the epithet czsptlo-r-r: (w yde seem g) used of Zeus,or
the descrlptlon of the gods lookm g dow n at the A chaeans'defenslve w all (7 443-4)
For hum an characters looktng dow n at th e plaln , see th e 'rrolan lookout Pohtes ln
Book 2 (792-4),or Cassandra ln Book 24 (697-703) The developm ent of H om er's
laten t cln em atograp hy ls also evldent ln E llzabeth C ook's verslon of the story of
A chtlles See e g her descrv tto n of the Troyan sold ters 'T he Trolan so ldlers- w h at's
left of th em - are scu ttlln g b ack b eh lnd th e w alls H ow sm all th o rlook ln fllght,m en
w h o even yesterday sh one w lth p ow er as th ey pou red across th e b each T he w om en
w atchlng from the ram p arts see the sm allw ounded dots hau llng thelr w ay up the h1ll7
(2001 36) lt w ould be productlve to study llnes of lnfluence from Logue to other
ad aptors o f H o m er,such as C oo k
64 Flelschm an 1990 273 65 Low e 2000 ch 6
l64 E m kly G reenw ood

n arrato/ s m em ory ls a vlsu al m em ory.66 A ccordlng to M ln chln ,

H om erlc slm lles: all of w hlch are Kplctureable' play a cru clal role ln
holdln g the text of the poem together and ln en surlng lts m em or-
ab lllty- for th e au dlen ce as w ell as for th e p erform er.6; A s Slm eon
U nd erw ood h as ob served , alth ough L ogue h as ch osen to cut m any
H om erlc slm lles m th e lnterests of th e p ace of th e narratlve, h e
retaln s the plctureable fun ctlon of th e slm lles th rough h1s u se of
vlsual n arratlve- w h eth er cln em a, ph otograph , p alntln g, or typ og-
raphy.68 T h ose slm lles th at L ogu e retaln s, or th ose th at h e lnvents,
m axlm lze the play on th e senses that ls a feature of the m ost vlvld

H om erlc slm lles.

ln hls adaptatlon of th e slm lle th at com p ares th e E ghtlng over
Sarped onRs corp se to the soun ds produced by w oodcutters felllng
trees ln a m ountaln glen at Ihad 16.633- 7, Logue reproduces th e
sound to fulleffect (com m unlcatlve translatlon),and throw sln other
sen sot'y stlm ull as w ell.

Try to recall th e p au se, th ock, pau se,

M ade by axe blades as they pace
E ach oth er throu gh a valu able w ood
T h ough th e w ork takes place on th e far
slde of a valles and th e axe strokes are
M u ted by d epth s of w arm , stlll stan dln p alr,
T h ey th rob , th rob , closely ln your eas
A nd n ow and th en you catch a phrase
E xch anged betw een the m en w h o w ork
M ore th an a m lle aw as w lth p erfect clarlty

Llk ew lse th e soun d of sp ear on sp ear,

sh leld agaln st sh leld , sh leld agaln st sp ear
A round Sarped on's b ody 69

The nouns denotlng sounds ln the H om erlc passage (lpvy,ayb6,

jot-fgro) are am plllied ln the evocatlve phrase tpause,thock pausel
t

w hlch conveysthe stllted rhythm ofthe axe-fall(Logue'spoem alludes

to lts ow n pace here).The axe-strokes are fm utednand tthrob,throbl
and to the sense of sound,Logue adds touch (the Kw arm l <stlll7alr).

66 M ln ch ln 200 1 ch 4
67 T he p lcto rlal qu allty of H om erlc slm lles h as long b een reco gn lzed, see e g

Frankel 1997 (= 1921) 112-17

68 U n d erw ood 19989 87 69 L ogu e 200 1/ l59
 Logue's Tclr-l/riy/tl/l'H om erfrom a D vtance 165
Furth erm ore,to th e sound of th e axes ln th e H om erlc slm lle:L ogue
ad dsvolces- sn atches ofth e w oodcuttersnconversatlon .T h e n arrator
th en hlnts at th e su ccess of hls ow n slm lle ln th e phrase tp erfect
clarltyn. Loguens adaptatlon also relnforces M m ch lnns w ork on the
m em orablllty and plctureablllty of H om erlc slm lles ln the
lm p eratlve th at trlggers th e slm lle: K'l'
ry to recallt T hls evocatlon of
sh ared know ledge, of a com m on m em ory, con stltutes a Kcultlvatlon
of lntlm acynbetw een speaker and llstener,w h lch M lnch ln descrlb es as
on e of the key functlon s of H om erlc slm lles.70

L O O K lN G lN T O L O G U E 'S H O M E R

A lthough Loguens prom lscuou s approach to dlfferent types of n arra-

tlve can b e attrlb uted to a m ultlm edla age, an d to tw en tleth -century
llteraty m ovem en ts,such as lm aglsm ,lt h as an lnterestln g an teceden t
ln the poetry of John K eats. K eats's sonnet KO n Flrst Looklng lnto
C hapm anns H om e/ (w rltten ln O ctober 181671) ls an approprlate
lntroductlon to Logue because K eatsns descrlptlon of th e exp erlen ce
of readlng C hapm anns H om er unw lttln gly foreshadow s th e textual
exp erlen ce of L oguens H om er, p artlcularly ln th e stress placed on th e

S e n se s .
lt ls also lnterestln g to n ote th at th e crltlcal debate over L ogu e's
declslon to adapt H om er w lthout know lng G reek echoes the contro-
versy over G reekless K eats's presum ptlon ln w rltlng about H om er.A t
th e tlm e, m any crltlcs vlll ed K eats as part of a broader backlash
agaln st Kc ockn ey C lasslcs'.72 T h e resp on se of m any of K eats's con -
tem p orarles h ad m ore to do w lth cultural polltlcs th an w lth the
p oem ns aesth etlc m erlts.73 K eats's p oetlcs are p olltlcal;74 ln fact th e
sonn et lnvltes a debate about the cultural polltlcs of tran slatlon by

70 M m chln 2001 138

71 T hls sonnet w as first Cpubhshed 'w hen lt w as quoted by Lelgh H unt ln an essay
o n 'You ng Poets' ln T he F xflvlfr/crk l D ecem ber 18 16 See K and l 200 1 1
72 See R o e 199 7 60- 7 1
75 R o e 1997 an d G o ldh lll 2002 189-90
74 See N ew ey 199 5 184.-4
166 E m kly G reenw ood

assertln g C h ap m an 's tran slatlon over P op ens tran slatlon- th e latter

th e ch olce of th e soclal ellte.A s K an dl n otes,th e revlsed seven th lln e
of th e son n et ls a p aro dy of P op ens tran slatlon of H om er.75
D lscu sslon s of L ogu e's H om er often refer cursorlly to C h ap m an ns
H om er (1611),as C hapm an w as one ofthe five translators ofH om er
w h ose w ork L ogue con sulted as a prop aldeutlc for hls ow n adapta-
tlon .76 It ls a slgn of L ogu e's llterary su ccess th at h e h as b een
asslm llated ln to th e tradltlon of C h apm an , as w ltn essed by th e fact
th at several crltlcs h ave ap p ro ach ed h ls w ork vla K eats's p oem KO n
Flrst L o okln g In to C h ap m alfs H om erl A go od ex am p le Is G eorge
Steln er,w h ose revlew of W f
'lr M usw for th e T km es L kterary Supp lem ent
(15 Feb.2002)appeared under the edltorlalheadlng Kltealm sofG oldn.

K eats, O n F iryf L ookkng irlftl C hap m an's H om er

M u ch h ave I travell'd ln th e realm s of gold,

A n d m any goodly states an d klngdom s seen ,
R oun d m any w estern lslan ds h ave I b een
W hlch b ards ln fealty to A p ollo h old
O f1 of on e expan se had I b een told
T h at deep -brow 'd H om er ruled as h1s dem esn e,
Yet d1d I n ever b reath e 1ts pure seren e
T 1l1 I h eard C hapm an sp eak out lou d an d b old
T h en felt I llk e som e w atch er of th e skles
W h en a n ew plan et sw lm s lnto h1s ken ,
O r llke stout C ortes w h en w lth eagle eyes
H e star'd at th e P aclfic- an d a11 h1s m en
L ook'd at each oth er w lth a w lld surm lse-
Sllen t u p on a p eak ln D arlen

K eats's aesth etlc resp on se to C h ap m an ls syn aesth etlc: hls p oem

alternates betw een the senses of hearlng (told, heard) and seelng
(seen, w atcher, ken, eyes, sta/d), as w ell as the sensory reactlons
lm plled by th e verbs Kbreath en an d Kfelt7.77 E ch oln g th e proem of th e
O dyssey (1.3),78he hasseen Km any goodly states and klngdom s'ln the
w orks th at h e h as read, b ut h e h as also h eard tell of th e w orld of
H om er. T h rou gh h earln g/readln g C h ap m an ns tran slatlon of H om er,

75 K an dl 200 1 l- 3 76 See L ogu e 200 1f?- p v11

77 O n K eats's Csyn aesth etlc lm agery'see Fo gle 1964
78 See G old h lll 2002 l86
 Logue's Tr/r-J?riym /'H om erfrom a D vtance 167
K eats breath es th e H om erlc w orld an d lt com es lnto h ls vlew .79
N ow h ere ln th e sonn et ls th e prlnted w ord m en tlon ed expllcltly.
T hls m ay reflect th e fact th at K eats's ln ltlal en counter w lth C h ap -
m anAs H om er took th e form of h ls frlen d C h arles C ow den C larke
readlng extracts out lou d to hlm .lt h as been argued th at th e son n et's
tltle, w hlch sp eaks of Klookln g ln ton C h apm an , as opp osed to Kread -
ln gn h lm ls p art of th e son n ef s p rovo catlon , an d slgn lfies K eats's
opp ortu n lstlc use of H om er as an outslder E gu re.80 H ow ever, th e
flooklng'm en tlon ed ln th e tltle ls also contln u ou s w lth th e lan guage
of th e son n et an d lts fo cu s on sen sory stlm u ll. K eats's sllen ce ab ou t
th e p rlnted w ord also collap ses th e dlstan ce b etw een th e b ook cultu re
of th e nln eteenth century an d th e oral m edlum of th e on gln al
H om en c eplc (note the reference to bards ln hne 4).The lm pact of
C h ap m anns tran slatlon ls vlsual: th rough hean ng th e w ord s, K eats
sees a new w orld .K eats llken s th e effect to an astron om er gllm p sln g a
rlpw planet and to C ortes gllm pslng the Paclfic (the so-called N ew
W orld).8l A further detall ln these slm lles ls that the processes of
look lng b elng descrlb ed lnvolve far-slghtedn ess.W e assu m e th at th e
astron om er ls usln g a telescop e, an d C ortes stares at th e P aclE c w lth
K eagle eyesn. T h e referen ce to So uth A m erlca ln creases th e geograp h -
lcal ran ge of th e p oem . C h ap m an's H om er afford s K eats a fantastlc
vlew . ln th e E rst lnstan ce h e sees th e p rlnted text on th e p age: an d:
through thls, a dlstant w orld . K eatsns readln g of H om er- albelt ln
tran slatlon- f n ds a curlous con lirm atlon In C arolD ough ertyns book
The1tfl
# oj O dysseus,ln w hlch she draw s on slxteenth-century travel
n arratlves an d Sh akesp earens Tem p estto elu cldate w h at sh e sees as th e
N ew W orld an d G olden A ge assoclatlon s presen t ln th e ethn ography
of th e O dyssey.ul

79 B en net 1994 58 d tsiu sses the conftatto n of read m g and w rttfng n K eats and
th e trope of breathln g as a process of dlrect lnsp lratlon that tran slates ln to w rltln g
O n read lng as lnh alm g m K eats see K u cch 200 1 l86 ln a su ggesttve readtng of
Ellzabeth Cook as reader ofH om er through Keats,Zayko (2006 65) relates the verb
Qb reath e' ln th ls son net to th e Qtransform atlve potentlal of llterary ld entli catlon'
th ro ugh read lng f'I'h e w ord ffbreath eA? ln the seventh lm e ls u nexp ectedly vlsceral
an d lm plles th e tak tn g of th e text lnto th e b ody of th e speak er and 1ts sub sequ en t
expulslo n T h e cro ssln g of h 1s body's b ou ndarles leaves the sp eaker transfigured he
ls n ot the sam e p erso n he w as b efore'
80 N ew ey 1995 l8, G oldhlll 2002 l87 B oth autho rs d raw on Levln son 1988
81 See p 166 82 D otlgh erty 200 1 ch 4
168 E m kly G reenw ood

A s C arl W oodrln g h as observed, K eats's son n et m akes th e clalm

th at lt ls as lf th e reader of C h apm anns H om er ls llstenln g to H om er,
or even lan dln g on lth aca w lth O dysseu s.83 K eatsns en th u slasm for
th e lm agln atlve reach of C h apm an ech oes th e aesth etlc crltlclsm
ap plled to th e p erform an ce of th e bard D em odocus ln B ook 8 of
th e O dyssey un G ood p oetry ls p oetry w h ere th e b ard convln ces th e
llsten er/read er th at h e w as th ere hlm self.
A ccord ln g to K eats, th e sallent ch aracterlstlcs of th e exp erlen ce of
readlng C hapm anns H om er are sensory vlvldness (partlcularly slght
and sound) and novelty. lf the effect of Chapm an struck K eats as
b em g akln to looklng th rough a telescop e ln th e early n ln eteen th
cen tury, th en th e effect of L ogu e ln th e tw entleth an d tw enty- rst
cen tu ry ls llk e a televlslon , relayln g H om er ln slgh t an d so un d .
L ogu e's vlvld ad aptatlon trlcks th e read er lnto a E ctlon al fam lllarlty
w lth H om er- a fam lllarlty w hlch n on e of us p ossesses.H ow ever, so
th at w e do n ot get too fam lllar, L ogu e rep eatedly lnterrupts thls
con celt w lth dellb erate hlstorlcal lron les, w hlch rem ln d th e read er
th at th ls ls n ot H om er, an d th at w e are n ot H om erlc G reeks.

H lS T O R lC A L lR O N Y

T h ese hlstorlcal lronles slgn al L ogu e's aw aren ess of th e hlstorlcal an d

llteraty tradltlon s w lth ln w hlch h e ls w rltln g.ln a scen e th at rew rltes
th e acrlm onlous assem bly deb ates betw een A gam em n on an d
A ch llles ln B o ok 1 of th e Ih ad, L ogu e h as A gam em n on- ad d ressln g
th e A ch aean assem bly- say th e follow ln g lln es:

A chllles sp eaks as lf I foun d you on a vase

so leave h1s ston e-age valu es to the sky 85

T hls dlvldes the hlstorlcal w orld agalnst ltself w lth A gam em non
hlstorlclzlng hlm self an d yet sp eakln g as a m odern at th e sam e
tlm e. W e are rem lnd ed of th e fact that, for th e dlfferen t cultures

s: w ood rlng 1990 34

84 Odyssey 8 489-91 s' ??r yap x'awa sotyrtor Azaba)v osvor (lc53c5?Ioo'o'cp/ar w'
cvrador vc a'asoo'o'Jrtozno'arA'zabob,Its 'rc ' zrot?'
q alvo vrapctsr v)az
u ot?(Ltcovo.a
85 L ogu e 200 14 26
 Logue's Tele-m sw n'H om erfrom a D kstance 169
w h o recelved H om er ln an clen t G reece, th e A ch aean w arrlors
d ep lcted ln th e Ihad often w ere p reclsely th at: h eroes on vases. A t
an oth er level, th ls p h rase setv es as an lron lc com m en tary on th e
black -f gure vase p alntlngs often ch osen as cover lllustratlon s of
books on anclent G reece, or of translatlons of H om er (see, for
exam ple, th e cover-lllu stratlon for M artln H am m on d's p rose tran s-
latlon ofthe 1had4.s6A nd lt m ay also slgnalLogue's dlvergence from
th e lm age of a statlc G reek golden age frozen on p ottery as envls-
aged by K eats ln hls Ko de on a G reclan U rnt
L ogue also m an lp ulates th e hlstorlcal dlstan ce betw een th e w orld
of H om er an d the w orld of the reader by p laylng gam es w lth tense.ln
A llD ay P erm anent R ed,th e n arrator gets cau gh t u p ln b attle lu st an d
lm pllcates th e reader by uslng second p erson pronoun s. H ow ever,
the em pathy ls straln ed w hen the reader has to lm aglne hlm self or
h erself w leldln g an U zl, ln Troy:

A n d h ere lt com es
T h at u nprem edltated Joy as you
. - -
-fh e U z1 sh udd erln g w arm agaln st your h 1p
H appy ln danger ln a dangerou s place
You rself an oth er self you foun d at Troy- 87

T h e sequ en ce ls dlscon certln g, b oth b ecau se of lts an ach ron lsm an d

ln con slsten cy, b ut also b ecau se lt p rolects th e fervou r of w ar u n to u s
as read ers.T h e n arratlve th en sw ltch es to K lng R lch ard lll ln Sh ake-
speare's play and to a R usslan hero at the battle of K ursk (on the
eastern front ln the Second W orld W ar). O f thls Russlan hero the
n arrator ask s:

W h ere w ould w e b e lf h e h ad lost?

A chllles? L et h1m sulk
B ack to today se

A galnst the unlversal pan oram a of w as A chllles pales lnto ln slgm f -

cance. 'W hen Logue w rltes tBack to todayl w hlch present ls he
referrln g to? T h e obvlou s ln terp retatlon ls to con stru e Kto d ay' ln
n arratlve tlm e- th at ls, back to th e Trolan W ar- b ecau se w e are
p lun ged back lnto th e battle. H ow ever, glven th at th e n arrator h as
Ju st d lsd aln ed th e slgn lf can ce of A ch llles for m ore recen t h lstorlcal

86 H am m on d 1987 87 L o gu e 2003 29- 30 88 lb ld 29- 30

170 E nu ly G reertw ood

battles, thls ttoday' also p ulls us b ack tow ards th e present ln th e

tw enty -E rst century. T h ese hlstorlcal lron les m ake expllclt th e p ro -
cess of n arratlvlty h ow th e n arratw e acts on us an d how w e enter
lnto lt- that ls ln operatlon throughout kfr flr M usw . From th e
m om ent th e reader p cks up th e b ook and starts to read, she/he
becom es lm pllcated ln a dlalogue th at osclllates betw een past and
present. T hls ls seen clearly m the latest m stalm ent of Logue's
H om er- cbll C alls- w here L ogue reverses h lstorlcal ch ronology
an d h as exp erts from tw entleth -century theatres of w ar com m entlng
on the m llltary tactlcs of th e Troyan W ar.89

A 11 tlm e exp erts ln h an d-to-h an d actlon-

Frlcourt,O km aw a,Staltngrad W est-
C ould n ot b elleve th e b attle w ou ld gam
B ut lt d1d 90
A lso ln C old C alls Logue deploys a slm lle th at prom p ts th e read er
to com p are G reeks stam p edlng tow ards Troy w lth a charge ln a

W estern :

R ecall those sequ en ces

W h en h orsem en n de out of the trees an d dow n m to a stream
Som ew h er: ln K an sas or M lssou rl, say
so- save th ey w ere th ou san ds, m ostly on foot- th e G reeks
lnto Scam an der's ford 91
A s w lth H om erlc slm lles, L ogue app eals to the aud lenceAs shared
fram e of reference (see p. 165), only to poke holes m lt w lth the
p arenth etlcal quahf cation 'save they w ere thousandsym ostly on foot'.
In oth er w ord s, th e stam pedln g G reeks looked nothlng llke h orse-
m en n dm g acrossthe screen ln a W estern (com pare Taplln,pp.178-9
belom on dlsslm llan ty as a property ofH om erlc Slm lles).
A dlfferent ktnd of lrony ls present ln Logue's verslon of th e self-
reflexw e m om ent ln Ilkad 9 .185-9, w h ere A chllles sm gs of 'the

renow ned deeds of m en':

N ow they cam e b esld e th e sh elters and sh lps of th e M yrm ldon s
an d they fou n d A chllleu s dehghtllzg hls heart ln a lp 'e, clear-soun dln g,
splen dld an d carefully w roughtyw lth a bm dge of sllver uport1t,

89 o n th ese references to dlfferen t th eatres of w ar,see also n ll ab ove

90 t ogu e 2005 10 91 lb ld 23
 Logue's Trlr-vkyitlrl'H om erfrom a D vtance 171
w hlch h e w on out of th e sp olls w h en h e ruln ed E etlon's clty
W 1th thls h e w as pleasurlng h1s h eart, an d slnglng of m en's fam e 92

ln L ogu e's com pressed verslon , thls becom es:

T h ey find hlm ,w lth gultar,

Sm gln g of G llgam esh 93

H ere th e lrony lles m th e ln sln uatlon th at H om erlc eplc ltself

looks back to (and up to) Babylonlan eplc, w hereas tradltlonally
th e referen ce to Km en's fam en ls taken to refer to a G reek tradltlon
of th e klnd ln w hlch A chlllesn fam e ls presen red ln th e Ihad. H ere
L ogu e's H om er agaln converges w lth th e curren t shlft ln H om erlc
sch olarshlp tow ards em ph aslzlng th e relatlon shlp betw een H om erlc
eplc an d an clen t N ear E astern eplc.94
A n oth er facet of Logue's lronlc attltude to hlstory ls the w ay ln
w hlch h e scram bles th e n arratlve tlm e of H om erlc eplc. ln A ll D ay
P erm anent R ed, L ogue com p ares H ector w eep ln g for hls loyal ally
P alt, to th e blln d C yclop s:

B lln d as th e C yclop s w lth fratern al tears

P rln ce H ector prayed 95

ln H om erlc eplc, th e C yclop s' blln dn ess ls con sequ ent up on hls
en counter w lth O dysseu s, w hlch w lll p ost-date H ecto/ s ow n death .
T hls lntertextu al lrony reflects one of th e lronles of lntertextu al
studles of H om erlc eplc; for, as John Peradotto rem ln ds us, ln a
survey of m odern th eoretlcal app roach es to H om er: tth e prlor com -
p osltlon of th e Ihad h as h ad n o solld proof'.96

R E M O T E T R A N S L A T lO N

P aradoxlcally, ln L ogu e's ren derlng som etlm es th e fam lllar H om erlc
ep lth ets are present ln th elr absen ce.H en ce H era ls cast as Kl-leaven's
cream y queen'(Logue 2003:13).M y lirst thoughtw as that thls ls an

92 Translatlon by Lattlm ore (1951 203) 93 Logue 2005 40

94 See W est 1997 (on w hlch see D avls,pp 193-4 below ),and H aubold 2002
95 Lo gu e 2003 18 96 P erad o tto 1997/7 392
172 E m kly G reenw ood

echo ofthe eplthetlotjbyrtb-(Kox-eyedn),w hlch lsfrequently applled to

H era and hard to translate lnto Engllsh asa com pllm ent(for exam ple,
H am m ond has Kthe ox-eyed Q ueen H era').Kcream y'w ould then be
llke a tran sferred ep lth et, carrled acro ss from th e cow - th e oblect of
com p arlson ln th e H om erlc eplth et.97 H ow ever, on rereadln g W r
M uskc, l n otlced th at L ogu e refers to H era as Kcream y-arm ed H era'
(2001: 110), polntlng to the eplthet vjevKoqvjevo (w hlte-arm ed) ln
H om er. B ut p erh ap s, w lth brllllan t econ om y, th e p h rase Kl-leaven 's
cream y qu een n ln A ll D ay P erm anen t R ed ls m ean t to evoke b oth
lotjbn'tb-and hevKobhevob'.The polnt here ls not that the reader needs
G reek to m ake sense ofthe eplthet'cream ylw hlch m akesgood poetry
an d p erfect sen se In L ogu e's E n gllsh verslon ; rath er, read ers w lth
kn ow ledge ofH om erlc eplth ets m ay lin d th at L ogue's lan guage evokes
H om e/ s lan gu age w lth o u t Ktran slatln gn lt.
E lsew h ere, L ogu e's ad ap tatlon ls an accurate ln terp retatlon , even
w h en at som e rem ove from th e text. ln a scen e m odelled on Ihad 3,
lln es 4 14- 17,L ogu e h as A p h ro dlte sn ap at H elen - as sh e d o es ln th e
fDJJ- w lth w ordsthatare slm ultaneously falthful(ln term s ofsense)
and unfalthful (ln term s of the H om erlc order of narratlve,reglster,
and supplem entarlty):
Try n ot to p lay th e th anld ess b ltch
'Such a m tstake to leave m y land, m y k/ppyw /nk '
W h at stuff M llllon s w ou ld glve th at 1ot
For h alf th e looks th at I h ave gtven you

T h e p hrase Kth ankless bltchn allu des to tw o p assages ln th e Ihad

(3.180 and 6.356),w here H elen, full of self-plty,refers to herself as
a Kbltchn (a7/t,?p),w lth suspect slncerlty.Logue's handllng of H elen's
p erson lf catlon en talls exp llclf catlon - a term u sed ln tran slatlon
th eory to refer to th e process w h ereby a tran slatlon or an adaptatlon
ren d ers expllclt w h at ls m erely suggested/lm p lled ln th e source text.
V ery few readers of H om er are taken ln by H elen 's self-deprecatlon ,
b ut th e n arrator of th e Ihad ch ooses,very dellberately, n ot to blam e
H elen expllcltly. B oth th e verb Kplayn an d A phrodltens sarcastlc ren -
dltlon of H elen's sp eech exp ose H elen as beln g Kn ot for realn- w h lch
ls an ln tlm atlon th at com es th rough stron gly ln H om er ln th e Ihad

97 Llke Qox'ln Engllsh,the Greek noun lov ls of lndeterm lnate gender,and can
app ly to elther the fem ale com or th e m ale b ull
 Logue's Tele-m sw n'H om erfrom a D vtance 173
an d O dyssey B ook 4.L ogu e h as lnven ted tw o lln es th at h ave n o exact
counterp art ln H om er,but w h lch glve a falr accoun t of th e deplctlon
of H elen ln th e Ihad.
W h at ls m ore,w h en P arls defen ds hls abdu ctlon of H elen , L ogue
glves h lm a lln e th at sum m arlzes th e receptlon of H elen ln G reek
llteratu re:

N ot to h ave fallen ln w lth H elen

W ould h ave b een free, orlgln al, and w rong '98

T h e langu age of freedom calls to m ln d th e w ay ln w h lch H elen's

con du ct w as u sed to debate th e llm lts of h um an agen cy ln G reek
llteratu re from H om er to lso crates;w h lle th e referen ce to orlgln allty
takes ln th e coun tertradltlon , exem p llf ed by Steslch oru sn Pahnode
an d E u rlp ld es' H elen, accordln g to w h lch H elen n ever w en t to T roy
an d a ph an tom took h er p lace. lt also hlnts at th e w ay ln w hlch th e
E gu re of H elen stan d s for th e ap p rop rlatlon of H om er ln th e h lstory
of W estern llterature,as explored by M atth ew G um p ert.99 L astls th e
d lscourse of Kw ron g or rlghf calls to m ln d th e eth lcal an d legal
con slderatlon s th at w ere brought to b ear on th e con duct of H elen
ln th e w orks of E urlp ldes, G orglas, an d lsocrates.
For th e crltlc w h o com plaln s th at L ogue's H om er lgn ores th e
source culture atthe expense ofthe targetculture (w lth the references
to pow er-statlon outflow cables,llpstlck balaclavas,alrcraft carrlers,
p lan e-crash bodles, uzls, car-w ash es, m lcroph on es, sp oon s, runw ay
llghts,taxls,and pp am as) there are also plenty of detalls that evoke
th e source culture- w h at w e m lgh t call con textu allzatlon- as w h en
N estor dlsdaln s to m arsh al hls troop s w lth th e com m on A ch aean
E gh tln g rabble, com m en tln g:

B etter b e b orn a w om an , leaks llkln g to lo se,

O r a decent h orse, th an on e of th em 100

T h e referen ce to leaky vessels evokes sch olarly lnterest ln recent

d ecades ln th e representatlon of w om enns bodles ln an clen t G reeceilol
thls ls an oth er exam ple of h ow L ogue can h elp to con textu allze
H om er ln a w ay th at m any llteral tradltlon s do n ot. O n a related

98 L ogu e 200 14. 95 99 G u m p ert 2001 100 Lo gu e 200 14 64

10l See e g H an son 1990 an d K ln g 1998
174 E m zly G reenw ood

note,w hen M akon (H om erlc M achaon) draw sthe arrow head out of
M enelau sn groln L ogu e w rltes:

N ow for th e tn cky part A s Jlca parts th e arch ,

M akon w 1l1 u se h1s teeth/hls n eck to draw
th e h ead ou t of the grlstle by th e stu m p
H 1s face goes dow n H e breath es H e bttes H e stgn s
A n d sm oothly as a fighter-plan e p eels off
f aha >(m y G od,that m an takes paln
A s w ellas w om en do) lord Jlca has the bones apart 1n2
T h e com m en t ln p aren th esls ech oes th e p op ular m yth th at w om en
h ave a h lgh er p aln th resh old th an m en- a m yth th at d erlves,p rlm ar-
lly, from th e exp erlen ces of m en struatlon an d chlldblrth . T h e refer-
en ce to thls bellef at thls p oln t ln th e text un dercuts th e all-m ale
atm osph ere of th e b attlelield .T h e placlng of thls clalm b ecom es even
m ore subverslve lfw e detect ln lt an allu slon to M edeans statem ent th at
sh e w ould rath er stand ln th e front lln e of b attle three tlm es,th an glve
blrth on ce.103 T hls could be explaln ed as an lronlc m odernlst cn tlque
of th e source text an d culture on L ogue's p art:but p erh ap s th ere ls a
H om erlc exp lan atlon .ln th e Ihad,th e blood gu shln g out ofM en elau s'
w oun d w h lch staln s h ls th lgh , ls llken ed to th e effect of a M alonlan
w om an staln ln g a plece of lvory to m ake a ch eekbon e for a race-h orse.
lt ls a dlsson ant lm age th at Juxtap oses a w om an's h an dlcraft w lth a
m anns w ar w oun d an d forces a m om entary shlft ln perspectlve.Logue
seem s to be ech oln g th e craft slm lle w h en h e d escrlb es th e arrow ln
M enelaus'groln asKln pastltsbarbs,Iawooden needlerestlng ln red
w ooln (Logue 2001J: 130), and perhaps the lronlc com m ent about
w om en's cap aclty for p aln has 1ts sou rce m the stn kin g Juxtap osltlon
betw een a m an ns w oun d an d fem ale craft con taln ed ln th e H om erlc
slm lle.Even m ore rem otely, L ogu e m ay b e fuslng th e d escrlptlon of
M en elau s'w oun d ln Ihad B ook 3 w lth th e descrlptlon of A gam em -
n on's w oun d ln B ook 11,w h ere th e sharp p aln s that sh oot from the
w o un d are llken ed to labo ur pan gs.104

ln2 Lo gu e 200 14 l3 l
IB:
& Etlrlpldes M edea 250-1 (I) 'rps (ul '
lvap' clc,
rfssa o''rsva: cosp.' av j.t4/ov T
'rcvc-
fr tzzra/
l04 Iltad l l 269- 72
 Logue's Tr/r-viym rl'H om erfrom a D vtance 175

C O N C L U S IO N

T h e dram a an d m u slc of L ogu e's p oetty are un denlable, but th e

obvlou s oblectlon ls th at lt ls great p oetry, b ut lt ls n ot H om er.
H ow ever, l h ave argu ed th at L ogu e's p oem often ln tersects n ot Ju st
w lth H om er,b ut also w lth m any of th e con cern s of H om erlc sch ol-
arshlp ln th e presen t day.A t th e sam e tlm e,L ogu e's rem ote ren dltlon
of H om er rem ln ds us th at m any of H om e/ s con tem p orary readers
an d audlen ces read an d know H om er ln far-flun g verslon s, such as
film lc adaptatlon s or th e genre of fan tasy E ctlon an d th at th ese
verslon s are an ln allen able p art of w h at H om er h as becom e ln th e
tw enty-h rst cen tury. ln L ogu e's verslon of th e p rayer th at C h ty ses
offers to A p ollo ln B ook 1 of th e Ihad,askln g th e G od to vlslt carn age
upon the Greeks,he lnvents the lnvocatlon kl-ord of M itz, lJ'kr/lt/yp
reach m akes dkstance rrlyf/f.T h e ph rase Kw h ose reach m akes d lstan ce
m ythnls a E ttlng epllogu e for L ogue's ad aptatlon of H om er,w hlch-
llke a televlslon- m akes dlstan ce m yth .

A pp en d ix :P ub lication H istory of L ogu e's

A d ap tation o f H om er's Iliad

1959 fFrom Book X X.I of H om er's Ihad ' gl-ogue's accotlnt of A chllles'
fight w lth th e rlver Scam an der C om m lsslon ed for B B C R adlo an d sub se-
quently publlshed ln Selected Poem s (Faber and Faber, 1996) l34 - 41 1
1962 Patrocleta Book .X'F'
f of H om er's .
P/JJ adapted by Chnstopher Logue
(Scorplon Press,London) glkeprm ted 1969 1
1967 Pax B ook X 1X of th e T he J//IZJ, tran slated by C hrlstopher Logue
(R app & C arroll) gFlrst publlshed ln 1967 as a llm lted edltlon by Turret
Books,London 1
1981 W i
'lr M unc (Jonathan Cape) gcom prlses Prologue,Patrocleta, GAH ,
and T'/xl,(Faber and Faber,1988)
1991 Ktngs (Faber and Faber)
1994 H usbands (Faber and Faber)
1997 J'kbr M unc An Account of Books 1-...4 and 16-19 of H om er's J//JJ
(Farrar, Straus and G lroux) gu nlverslty of C hlcago Press edltion of this
w ork publlshed ln 2003 1
176 E m lly G reenw ood

20 0 1
J'kbrM ustc A n A ccountof Book's 1-...4 and 16-19 of H om er'sJ//JJ (Faber and
Faber) glkevlsed text com prlses revlsed verslons of J'kbrM ustc (1981),Klngs
(l99l),and The H usbands(1994)and contm nsrevtstonsthatare notpresent
ln th e 1997 Farrar, Strau s an d G lroux edltlon , or th e 2003 U nlverslty of
C hlcago Press Edltlon 1
20 0 3
A llD ay Perm anentRed (Faber and Faber)
2 00 5
Cold Calls (Faber and Faber) LAw arded the 2005 W hltbread Poetry Prlze 1
 7

Som e A ssim ilation s of th e H om eric Sim ile in

L ater Tw en tieth -c en tu ry P o etry

O liver Tap lin

E p lc slm lles seem easy en ough to recognlze.A n d lt ls gen erally taken

for granted th at th ey m alntaln a tradltlon, th e l-lom erlc slm llel
d escen ded m ore or less dlrectly from H om es through V lrgll,
D an te, Tasso, M llton to Tennyson an d ...P hlllp P ullm an .l A baslc
tem plate w ould lay dow n th at eplc slm lles are long;th at th ey corres-
p on d closely,som etlm es m ultlply,to th elr n arratlve settlng;th at th ey
m ay contaln self-generated detall an d orn am ent, w and erlng dlgres-
slvely ; an d th at th ey d raw on th e fam lllar w orld of th e p o et an d
au dlen ce rath er th an th e rem ote w orld of th e eplc n arratlve.A n d yet
th ere are slgn lf can t w ays ln w h lch th ls tallle-u n lqu ensk etch d oes n ot
apply to m ost of the slm lles ln H om er- ln other w ords the slm lles of
H om er are not stralghtfotw ardly Kl-lom erlc' slm lles. Yet lt ls th e
p ecullarly H om erlc, rath er th an gen erally eplc, features th at h ave,
as l h op e to sh om been m ost produ ctlvely absorb ed or asslm llated or
co un terp oln ted by som e con tem p orary p o ets, esp eclally C h rlstop h er
L ogu e, M lch ael L on gley, an d D erek W alcott.
T he lirst cllche to ch allenge ls that of the decoratlve m eanderlng.
Ever sln ce an clen t tlm es th ere h as been talk of h ow H om erlc slm lles

l T here ls fine palr w hen the tw o leadlng arm oured bears have thelr great duel ln
Pullm an (1995 350-4) H ere fs the second Qlskke a w ave that has been bm ldm g ts
stren gth over a tho u san d m lles of ocean ,an d w hlch m akes llttle stlr ln the d eep w ater,
butw hlch w hen lt reaches the shallow s rears ltselfhlgh lnto the sky,terrlY lng the
shore dw ellers,before crashlnr dow n on the land w lth lrreslstlble pow er- so Yorlck
Byrntson rose up agatnst lofur'(353)
178 O hver Tap hn

w an d er on th elr ow n sw eet w ay, em bracln g m u ch m aterlal th at ls

lrrelevan t an d even ln app oslte.'W h at seem s m ore an d m ore evlden t
to m e,u n d er th e ln flu en ce n o d o ubt of th e crltlcal m ovem en ts of th e
last co u p le of d ecad es, ls th at an effectlve slm lle d o es lts w ork
th ro u gh J iyslm llarlty n o less th an , or even m ore th an , slm llarlty
lt n eed s b oth . D lsp arlty h as advan tages, p rovld ed lt ls an ch ored .
T h ere ls a p assage d urln g th e p u rsult of H ector ro u n d th e w alls of
Troy that com es close to spelllng thls out (lhad 22.158-66, m y
translatlon):
A fin e m an fled ln fron t, an even greater follow ed sw lfl b ehln d-
sln ce th ey w ere n ot com p etlng for som e trophy b east or leath er shleld,
prlzes set u p ln run nlng races,but for th e llfe-blood of H ector
A n d as prlzew ln nlng stalllon s straln roun d th e racetrack
tu rn ln g-p osts at fu ll tllt, gallop ln g for a p restlge p rlze
at som e rlch m an's fun eral gam es- a trlp od or deslrable w om an-
so th ey w hlrled three tlm es roun d th e clrcu lt of th e clty of P rlam ,
sp rln tln g flat ou t

lt ks llke a prlze race they run round a track the spectators are
ln ten t on th e o utcom e an d at th e sam e tlm e lt ls cru clally dlfferen t
(Kslnce they w ere not com petlng for...7):a cherlshed llfe ls at stake.z
T h ere h as to b e th e p ersu aslve slm llarlty to an ch or lt, b ut, on ce th e
com p arlson h as b een a set u p ,th e ln terest lles n o less ln th e ten slon s,
ln th e m lsm atch es.T h ls ls on e lm p ortan t reason w hy so m any of th e
slm lles are u n exp ected , un p redlctab le, an d set ln far dlfferen t so clal,
econ om lc, an d ton al reglsters from th e n arratlve. A s l see lt, each
slm lle sets up a ch allen ge to th e h earer/read er to w ork o ut th e
ten slon s as w ell as th e slm llarltles.3 A n d each ls th e m ore ln terestln p

2 Transform ed w lth characterlstlc gulle by D erek W alcott at O m eros (1990 v 111

(32)) Qeveryone knew thelr m arathon Is1x tlm es round the vlllage,thatthe true
bounty was IH elen,nota shleld nor the ham saved for Chrlstm as'
3 T here has b een qu lte a varlety of good p ub llcatlon s o n H om er's slm lles ln recen t
years, ln clu d ln g M artln 1997, M ln chln 200 1, N an n ln l 2003, an d B u xton 2004 T h e
eflicacy ofsom e slm llesforcontrastlsoften recognlzed ln the scholarly llterature (due
credltshould be glven to D H Porter 1972),butthe notlon thatthere ls a perslstent
ch allen ge to w o rk ou t an d th lnk th rou gh dlsslm llarlty h as n ot b een b rou gh t ou t as
su ch 1 sh ou ld llke to ack n ow ledge th at 1 h ave b een partlcu larly help ed to ap p reclate
th ls by su p ervlsln g the D P hll o f K ath leen M clwau ghlln ,w h lch ls b eln g tran sfo rm ed at
p resen t ln to an O xford C lasslcal M on ograp h u n d er the p rovlslon al tltle o f C hallenge
and In teractton M etap hor and R ela ted P hen om ena Crl the Iltad and the O dyssey
 Asslrnllflfltlns oj the H om erc Slrrllle 179
m ore ch allengln g, b ecau se th e ten slon s are n ot explaln ed , b ut left
op en to th e ltsten erns lnterp retatlon . lt ls th e scop e of th e ch allen ge
th at keep s th e ln terplay of slm llarlty an d dlsslm llan ty allve.
T h e secon d blan d ,only h alf-tru e cllch e ls th at th e slm lles b elong to
Kthe w orld ofthe audlencel slnce thls ls usually taken loosely to lm ply
th at for H om er th e audlen ce ln questlon Is th at of abo ut 700 scy:
w h en th e p oem s w ere belng freshly coln ed ln p erform an ce. B ut ln
fact th e con ten t of th e great m alorlty of th e slm lles ls n elth er E xed ln
tlm e n or located ln place: th ey do n ot belon g to H om e/ s first
audlen ce p artlcularly m ore th an any oth er au dlen ce.A hlgh prop or-
tlon of th em w ould b e fam lllar to m ost aud len ces ln m ost places an d
at m ost tlm es: lnclu dlng m ost audlen ces stlll even today. T h ere are
excep tlon s, of co urse- m araudlng llon s, ch arlot-m akers- b ut n ot a
h lgh p rop ortlon . lt ls th ls accesslblllty of th e slm lle-p lctures, even a
sen se ln th e au dlen ce of daw n in g recognltlon ,th at h as th e fu nctlon ,
w hlch I take to be a cruclal, of draw lng th em lnto th e p oem .4 In deed,
1 am ln clln ed to see th e slm lles as p aradlgm atlc of th e coexlsten ce of
slm llarlty an d dlfferen ce w h lch ls at th e core ofth e p ow er of H om erlc
p oetry as a w h ole: as w ell as all th e dlfferen tn ess of th e old h erolc
w orld at Troy, set sp eclf cally ln tlm e an d place, th ere Is also a great
ran ge of slm llarltles b etw een th e w orld of th e p oem and th e w orld-
or rath er w orlds- of lts au dlences. T h e slm lles act as a ktnd of
con dult to th e slm llarltles.
T h e local an d tem p oraln on -sp eclf clty of H om er's slm lles ls w orth
elab oratlng.N ot only ls th ere n ot one slngle slm lle ln H om er w h lch
can be tled to th e p oet p erson ally, th ere are rem arkably few th at are
fixed ln tlm e, or w hlch even refer to p eople placed w lthln th e
con tln u um of tlm e.T h e on e at B ook 18.59 1-2,llken lng th e d an cln g
tloor on th e Shleld of A chllles to th at w hlch D aedalus con structed at
K n ossos for A rladn e ls a rare excep tlon . It ls p osltlvely stn kln g th at
you do n ot get slm lles com p arlng th e n arratlve to earller celeb rated
m ythlcalstorles (ofH erakles or Jason:or w hoeverl- the herolc past
ls ln ap p rop rlate b ecau se p ast, lt seem s. N o less strlkln p th ere are
rem arkably few w lth any sp eclf clty of place. T h e slm lle at B ook
2 .459-68,llk en lng th e troop s assem blm g m th e plam of Skam an dros

4 c!f M ln ch ln 200 1 32- 60

180 O hver Tap hn

to flocks of b lrds ln th e w ater-m eadow s of th e rlver K aystrlos,ls agaln

an u n typ lcal excep tlon .T h ese rarltles p rove th e rule.
B u t th ese Kru lesnln H om er ab o u t tem p orallty an d lo callty are by n o
m ean s tru e of slm lles th rou gh o u t th e ep lc tradltlon .T ake th e secon d
an d thlrd exten ded slm lles ln Paradv e L ost, w hlch m ay seem H om -
erlc enough at first glance.Satan takes up hls m lghty shleld (that ls
H om erlc allrlghtl:s
T h e broad clrcum feren ce
H u ng on h1s sh oulders llke th e m oon ,w h ose orb
T hrough optlc glass th e Tu scan artlst vlew s
A t even ln g & om th e top of Fesole,
O r ln V aldarn o, to descry n ew lan ds,
R lvers or m ountalns ln h er sp otty glob e

A n d a few lln es later Satan's leglon s are descrlbed as lylng en tran ced,

T hlck as au tum n al leaves th at strew th e brooks

In V allom brosa,w here th e E trurlan sh ades,
H lgh overarch ed em b ow er, or scattered sedge
A float,w h en th e fierce w ln ds O rlon arm ed
H ath vexed th e R ed Sea coast,w h ose w aves o'erthrew
B u slrls an d h1s M em phlan chlvalrs
W hlle w lth p erfidlou s h atred th ey pu rsu ed
T h e solourn ers of G osh en , w h o b eheld
From th e safe shore th elr floatlng carcasses
A n d b roken ch arlot w h eels, so thlck b estrew n
A blect an d lost 1ay th ese, coverln g th e flood 6

H ere ls th e sp ecl clty of p lace- th e R ed Sea co ast, V alom bro sa,

Flesole, an d so forth .A n d th ere ls th e sp ecl clty of tlm e:th e blbllcal
E xod u s, typ lcal of M llton 's u se of th e reson an t O ld Testam en t, a
com m on sou rce of m aterlal for h ls slm lles.E ven m ore stn kln gly th e
referen ce of Kth e T uscan artlsf ls p erson alto G allleo.lt ls kn ow n th at
M llton h ad probably vlslted G allleo ln ltaly,m ost llkely ln 1638; an d
h e m ay w ellh ave vlslted hlm durln g hls lm prlson m ent n ear Floren ce
ln the A rno valley (Valdarno).

5 P aradtse L ostB ook 1,286- 9 1,clted fro m A Fow ler 1998 77- 80 T h e sam e po ln t
cou ld be lllustrated from V lrgll, thou gh n ot qu lte so strtkln gly
6 Ib ld B ook 1: 302- 12
 Ass'm 3latwnsof the H otnerzc U
SJVIJJP 181
So th e w ays ln w h lch th ese slm lles draw on Kthe w orld of the
au dlen cen ls veo r dlfferen t from th at foun d ln H om er. A t th e sam e
tlm e,the un derlylng challenge to con sld er the dlsslm llarltles togeth er
w lth the slm llarltleslsthe sam e (m utahsm utandts).Take G allleo and
h1s telescope, the latest ln sclentlfic dlscovery com pared to th e prl-
m eval an d dark threat of Satan an d hls shleld . T hls m ay op en up
questlon s ln th e readerns m lnd :ls G allleo a superlor ratlonallty? O r ls
h e an exam ple of h um an overreach ln g, dangerously trylng to rlval
G od? O r how does he relate to Satan ? lnterpretatlon ls lnvlted .
W h atever th e ten slon through slm llarlty an d dlsslm llan ty, h ow ever,
th e beauty of th e V aldarn o an d Flesole ln G od's seven teen th -century
w orld surely con trast w lth the prlm eval sw am p of Satan , an d thus
em ph aslze tts d ark h orror.
N ow to turn to th e three m odern poets, n on e of th em youn g any
longer,but allofthem stlllallve (ln sprlng 2006):and allstlllhapplly
p roductlve of p oetry.Flrst C h rlstoph er L ogue,w h o w as born ln 1926.
T hrough out the 45 years an d m ore of hls fragm ented refashlonln g
of th e Ihad, l-lom erlc'slm lles have been a con splcuous an d strlklng
feature.B ack ln Patrocleka, rst publlshed ln 1962,but rst broadcast
ln 1959,th ere ls about on e slm lle for every tw o p ages,several of th em
plcked out by use of ltallc typeface (though thls ls dropped ln later
edltlons). M any of these slm lles follow the orlglnal Ihad Book 16
pretty closely:l have a count of seven w hlch are close to H om er- and
five ln H om er w h lch are n ot follow ed by Logue.A nd ,at thls stage of
hls enterprlse, h e dld not add m any of hls ow n : th ere ls one that
seem s to b e draw n from R om an lm pen al w arfare and on e about
lem m m gs. l can, how eves tind on ly one preced ent back ln 1962
w hlch polnts tow ards w h at w lll becom e posslbly the m ost character-
lstlc feature of Logue's slm lles (and thls m akes lt the m ore curlous
that, for w hatever reason , thls slm lle w as cut w hen Patrocleka w as
reprm ted as part of Jo r M uskc). T hls ls planted near the end, as
Patroclus goes on h ls last kllllng spree; and on th e next page A pollo
w llllnten-ene- ln huge letters.; The slm lle (set ln ltahcs) reads:

F(?t/krlpw from l/otp/f.

sand talkmgptctures,
H ow ptople wtthoutjirearm ssetabout

7 Blgger ln the 1962 prlntlng lpp :

52-:
5)yw 1th low er case letters tw o lncheshlgh,
than ln m ore recent edltlons
182 O hver Tap hn

.
Ri///rl< a rw cr that has grow n too old
Tt?p rey on antelop e or zebra and
M ksrcollhne 1rs dLetrp f/1c slpw cr
A'
nf.
nltz/s ltke '
lw fz?l Follow m g /ts spoor,
They ng a Iong funnelof rlefwrl,g up
(?n sptkes (ltkepotnted clothes-props) and the lean
A r/p t?p beast ys dn ven dow n )ts th roat by gongs
T he net /s sh ut -4nl w hc?y the beast s tlred out
T he hum ans ktll tt C?l thetr ow n good tp' nc
BufSf fllc .
.
nctIvctzksnlany lltfolfl'
nsdteS
'W h at l m ean by tth e m ost ch aracterlstlc feature' of L ogu e's slm lles ls
th e evocatlon of m od ern techn ology w lth a polnted tlm e-ten slonn
(tanachronlsm ' ls not the proper w ord). lt ls lnterestlng,how ever,
th at b ack ln th at ilrst H om erlc foray L ogu e u sed th e less an om alous
Ktalklng plctures'rath er than Kfilm n or Kclnem an or Ktelevlslont KB ooksn
an d Kf rearm s'brln g ln oth er less con sp lcu ou s tech nologlcal tem p oral
ten slons. T h ere ls also h ere another related tradem ark of Loguens
slm lles:the Kbuttonhollng'u se of the second person ln Kyou w lllh ave
heardn (16).A nd the appeal to the exotlc non-European settlng ls
an oth er,th ou gh less ublqu ltous.
l sh all n ot attem p t any system atlc dlachronlc survey tracln g h ow
th e L ogu eom erlc slm lle develop s, but m erely glve som e strlkln g
sam pllngs.Som e years later ln Pax (1967)w e have thls brlef com pa-
rlson to th e rearln g of A ch lllesn h orses: tas ln dream s, or at C ap e
Kennedy,they rlse (Slowly ltseem s...19 The alluslon to the lncan-
descent rocket-laun chlngs of th e 1960s- and to a recen tly dead
hero- ls fleetlng yet vlvld. A noth er fourteen years after th at ln
GBH (1981), a rapld sen es of short slm lles, lntroduced w lth the
buttonhollng Kc on slder...7 ls m ore expllclt ln lts technologlcal
tlm e-ten slons that ln clude avlatlon ,m eteorolop r,surnp an d skllng
as w ell as lm -edltlng an d hghtlng.
C on slder plan es at tou ch dow n- h ow th ey p olse,
O r p alm s bcn eath a n um bercd h urrlcan e,
O r blrds w h eeled sldew ays over w lnd sw ep t h elgh ts,
O r b urly salm on ch allenglng a w elr,
R lght-angled ,dream y tlters,as th ey rlde
T h e tn step of a dp n g w ave, or trace
D lagon als on sn ow slop es

% L o gu e 1962 3 1 9 to gu e 1967 2:
 A sskm klatkons of the H om enc kv rrlilr 183
Jum p cuts llke these m ay glve
Som e de nltlon to th e m ln d's w lld eye
T h at follow -sp ots A chllles; h oly p alr 10

A llD ay ptrrpltrlr/w lRed (2003),finally,ls thlckly setw lth slm lles;and

gen erally th ey contln ue an d develop th e characterlstlcs of the earller
volum es. T h e techn ologlcal tlm e-ten slon ls th ere ln th e very first:
K'l'he arm les hum jAs pow er-statlon outflow cables do ...' (5)4ory
later, A s m any arrow s on hls posy shleld I As m lcrophones on
polltlclans;stands; (23).A nd several slm lles seem to be draw n dls-
tln ctlvely, th ough n ot expllcltly, from lm ages seen on televlslon as,
for ex am p le:

T h ln k of
a stadlum w h ere m any b oards are ralsed
A n d m any faces ch anged to on e vast face
So,w h ere th ere w ere so m any m ask s,
N ow on e G reek m ask gllttered from strlp to rldge 11

T h e T V n ature docum en taz'y evokes vlolen t or startlln g scen es of

w lldllfe, ln a w ay n ot unllke th e orlglnal H om er, th ough w lth an
ad ded geographlcal exactltu de.lz For exam ple th ere ls a 12-lln er of a
llon p oun clng on a herd,beglnnlng:

See an E ast A frlcan llon

N ose t1p to tall tuft ten , eleven feet
Slou chlng tow ards you 13

And Kconslder hom when sought,IThe cllff-head whales thatfre-

quent jThe sunlltradlusofAntarctlca...7(20).
Lastly a p artlcularly lin e slm lle, w hlch draw s on an aw esom e
force of n atu re, th e qu ln tessen tlally H om erlc storm at sea, yet w lth
m odern m an -m ade m ega-fabrlcatlon s breakln g ln n ear th e begln -
n lng an d en d .T h e context ls th e con certed G reek coun terattack:

10 G BH w as first publlshed ln 1981 by Jonathan C ape, but som e revlslons

w ere m ade ln the 1988 Faber and Faber edltlon T he latter edltlon has Qo ulck cuts'
lnstead offluznp cuts'
,and Q
A chllles'sacred palr'ln place ofA chllles'holy palr'(Logue
1988 58)
11 L ogu e 2003 9
12 lt ts only P fzfroc/clfl,h ow ever,th at th e detatled sttblect m atter of th e stm tles of
H om er ls carrled over
1:5 L o gu e 2003 15- 16
184 O hver Tap hn

T hlnk of th e m om en t w h en far from the land

M olested by a m tle-a-m lnu te w lnd
T h e ocean starts to roll,th en reas th en roar
O ver ltself ln rank on ran k of w aves
T h elr sldes so steep th elr sm oky crests so hlgh
300,000 plunglng ton s of alrcraft carrler
D are n ot sp ort 1ts b eam

Just as those w aves

G row n closer as th ey m ount th e con tln ental sh elf
L lft ln to b reakers scoop th e blu e and th en
Sm oth er th e gllstenlng shlngle
su ch ls th e fury of th e G reeks
T hat as th e arm les yotned
N o Trolan lord or less can h old h1s grou n d ,an d
H apless as plan e-crash b odles tossed ash ore
stlll b elted ln th elr seats
A re th ru st d ow n -slop e 14

T here ls here,l thlnk a partlcularly H om erlc com blnatlon of slm l-

larlty and dlsslm llarlty. W arrlors on a battlef eld are glvlng w ay to
other llvlng m en ,as lrreslstlble as the elem ental force of h uge storm -
breakers; but they are also llke the chan ce vlctlm s of the destructlon
of an out-of-controlm achln e,a passenger plane.T hat ls n ot a n atural
dlsaster,b ut a technologlcalfallure,an d one of th e m ore nlghtm arlsh
deaths th at our m od ern w orld h as to offer h elpless as w ell as
Kh aplessn. 'W h at L ogu e h as don e ls to draw on th e n ew h orrors of
our era, an d m ade h ls Trolan W ar accesslble through draw ln g hls
readers lnto lt through the slm ultan eous slm llarlty and dlsslm llarlty
of slm lle.Llke H om er as w ell as unllke H om er.
l do n ot hesltate to call D erek W alcottns O m eros th e greatest verse
eplc of m odern tlm es. lt also h as com plex and deeply am blvalent
a n ltles w lth H om erlc eplc: as ls slgn alled by lts very tltle.15 T h ere

.4 Lo gue 200 3 27- 8

15 O m eros,the M od ern G reek n am e for H om er, has the stress on the first syllable,
w hereas lt ls clear that W alcott's tltle shottld be stressed on the second- see 1990 11 111
(14),where Qom eros'lsrhym ed wlth Qm erwasIboth m otherand sealn ourAntlllean
patols'tsee H anbold,p 45 above) M y arttcle,Taplln 1991,w rltten w lthln stx m onthsof
the f rst pub hcatton of O m eros, has been sttgm atlzed as typ lfp ng the 'trad ltlo nal
classlclsf w ho trles to contaln or subdue W alcott w lthln E uropean term s and typ es l
stronglydlsavow thatattltude,and deny ltlsto befound ln m y arttcle lwould,how ever,
defend the appllcatzon of 'eplc'(as ln 'our eplc horlzon'ln W alcott l990 1111 (13),cf
D avls 19979
 Asskm klatzons of the H om erkc k
bl/z
rli/r 185
are w lthln lt, h ow ever, few er long l-lom erlc; slm lles than m lght
h ave been expected. A lm ost a11 th e slm lles are sh ort, often p ven a
characterlstlcwltty - 1st,such asKH lsstubbled chln lcoarse asa dry
sea-urchlnn (chln/sea-urchlnlil6 or the sea fas flat as a gold credlt
card' (repudlatlng the toun stlc plastlc m oney that threatens the
lntegrlty of the lslands).i7 There ls even a short slm lle, w lth a
breathtaklng half-rhym e,ln the p en ultlm ate lln e of the w hole p oem :

A fu11 m oon sh on e llke a sllce of raw onlon

W h en h e left th e b each th e sea w as stlll golng on 18

T hlssp arslty oflong slm llesm ust,lthlnk,be dlrectly related to W alcotfs

fecund abun dance of m etaph or,w hich is ln contrast w lth H om er, of
course.'I'he challenges and surpn ses of hls poett'y 1le m ore w lth these
m etaph ors th an w lth slm lles.lt m ay also be that,Just as there are m any
few er long slm lles ln th e O dyssey th an m the Ihad,because,or at least
p artly because: th e w orld of th e slm lles cann ot be set ln su ch telllng
con trastw lth th e w orld ofthe n arratlve,so too W alcottdoesn otw antto
draw a contrastlng w orld prom lnently m to the poem - already vlvld
enough- through vlvld slm lle-plctures.T here are,n one the less,a fem
an d th ey are,1 sh all suggest,slgm licantly placed w lthln the p oem .
Tw o com e ln close sequ en ce,ln H om erlc fash lon ,and posltloned
at on e of th e key m om en ts of th e w h ole p oem , th e curlng of
Phlloctetens w ound (X1w1X :I-11 (246-8)):
H 1s m u scles loosen ed hke th ose of a b row n rlver
th at w as dam n ed w tth stlt,an d th en stlkens tts b ou lders
w lth refreshlng strength H 1s rlbs th udded llke a h orse
canterln g on a b each th at b ursts lnto full gallop
w htle a b oy yan ks at tts retn w tth terrlfied 'W h oasl'lg

lt m ay w ell b e th at both th ese stm lles w ork m ore throu gh slm llarlty
than dlfferen ce,m ost notably th e boy on th e beach ,w hts rath er llke
the lone focallzlng figure w lth ln som e of H om er's slm lles, suggests
P h lloctetens reluvenatlon and aston lsh m ent m ore th an any con trast.

16 W alcott 1990 1111 (13)

17 lbld xtaz11 (229)- on the them e of tourlsm m O ' m crossee M elas 2005
1'
i W alcott1990 t.xlv 111(325) The w ay thatfgolng on'follow s Qonltln'ensuresthat
th e last w ords are spoken w lth a rlslng cadence of u nfinahty
i: Ibld xt.lx 11 (247)
186 O hver Tap hn

A n oth er, lon ger, slm lle com es ln th e sequ en ce w h en A ch llle h as a

vlslon th at takes hlm back to A frlca an d to th e capture of hls
an cestors by slavers. T h ere h e lin ds a grlot, a bard, w h o ls equ ated
w lth Seven Seas, th e old storyteller on St L u cla. H e ls p lctu red llke
thls (X XV ll:lll (147)):
O n e h an d claw ed th e plle of ash es, th e oth er list thu dded on
th e dru m of h1s ch est, th e rlb s w ere llke a caved-ln can oe
th at rots for years u n der th e ch anglng leaves of an alm on d,
w hlle th e b oys w h o played w ar ln lt b ecom e grow n m en w h o
w ork m arly an d dle, untll th elr ow n son s ln turn
rock the rotted hulk or race ln 1t,pretendlng to rom
as A chllle h ad don e ln th e m an chln eel grove as a b oy
Seven Seas w as llke th at can oe,w lth th e b llge of h1s prow
ch oked w lth o1d leaves, o1d w ords,by a blu e, sllent b ay

A chllle does n ot w alt to h ear w hat the grlot h as to say,but selzes an oar
from hls h ut to use as a w eapon .L ow er dow n the sam e p age,stlllln the
course ofhlsvlslon ,he gruesom ely kllls a m an- th e closest th at O m eros
ever com es to th e f/ifltilw lth lts vlolence of w ar.lt m ay,l suggest,be n o
colnclden ce th at w h ere th e p oetry ls rapldly m ovlng tow ards vlolent
kllllnp w e com e on thls beautlful, lelsurely slm tle of th e retlred, dls-
card ed can oe ln w hlch gen eratlon s of b oys Kplay w art A n d p erh ap s th e
vet'y phrase Kchoked w lth old leaves,old w ordsnm ay suggestthe am blva-
lent com pllcatlon ofW alcotfs relatlon shlp to H om er an d hls slm lles?20
Fln ally l tu rn to M lch ael L on gley, a p oet w h o h as, l b elleve, b een
gen erally un dervalued untll vet'y recently. O n e reason for th ls ls th at
h e h as been oversh adow ed,h ow ever regretfully,by hls great con tem -
p orary, Seam u s H ean ey- ln B elfast ln th e 1960s, after u n lverslty,
th ey w ere ln fact frlen ds an d m utual en couragers. L on gley w en t to
an urban P rotestant sch ool an d th en read C lasslcs at Trln lty C ollege,
D ublln ; an d thls p edlgree h as p robably counted agaln st hlm , alon g
w lth hls E ngllsh p aren tage,alth ough h e h as llved ln B elfast allhls llfe.
T h ere ls also the w ay that he hasbeen contln ually haun ted an d obsessed
by the Flrst W orld W ar, ln w hlch hls fath er fought- a chapter w hlch ,
u n tll recently at least, w as an em blem of con fh ct b etw een th e tw o

20 I ow e thls n lce ld ea to E m lly G reenw ood H ardw lck 1997 h as dlfferent,th ough
com p atlb le, ln terests ln the slm lle an d W alcott
 Asskm klatkons of the H om erkc k
SC/JJCJP 187
com m unltles ln N orthern lreland . Furtherm ore, after m aklng an
early m ark ln the 1960s and 1970sasa lyrlc and erotlc poet (declarlng
aflinltles w lth Propertlus and O vld), Longley fell vlrtually sllent
d urlng th e 1980s, th e d ecade w h en th e leadln g p oets of hls gen er-
atlon, not least H eaney, w ere consolldatlng thelr reputatlons (cf
H ardw lck p.55 above).
lt ls, ln fact, ln hls 1991 Kcom e-back' collectlon , G orse Firx that
there ls rst a slgnlf cant H om erlc presen ce ln Longley's poetty .Sln ce
th en th ere h ave b een fl-lom er p oem s'ln each of th e three subsequen t
collectlon s, ln cludlng th e latest, k srlt?w J'krflfpri p ubllsh ed ln 2004 .
W h at all of hls 20 or m ore H om er p oem s do ls to take a p assage of
th e O dyssey or Ihad an d m ake a lyrlc m ln lature out of lt, n ever m ore
th an tw o p ages lon p often ln sonn et form , som etlm es th ough n ot
u su ally rhym ed . Som e p arts of th ese p oem s are m ore or less close
translatlons, others contextuallze or n arrate; lnvarlably there are
contem p orary touch es m th e lan gu age, often suggested by lrlsh
dlalect or locatlon .T h ese tlm e-ten slons also brldge H om er w lth the
present,asfor exam ple ln the w ell-know n Kc easefirelzlw here A chllles
lays out H ecto/s corpse, Kln unlform , ready for Prlam to carry I
W rapped llke a presenthom e to Troy atdaybreakf Q ulte often,ashere,
th ere are short slm lles w hlch are added lnto the H om en c tran slatlon .
For exam ple, O dysseus em braces L aertes Kan d cradled llke dn ftw ood
the bones of hls dw lndllng fathern; and T heoklym en os sees h1s vlslon
of the h ou se dn pplng w lth blood Kllke bran ch es after a cloudbursf.
lt ls n ot surprlsln p then , that Longley rellsh es the long H om erlc
slm lles w h en th ey occur w lthln hls ch osen p assages- th e dead
sultors llke fish, th e souls ln th e un derw orld llke bats, and so forth .
ln ksrlt?w Jzsb fpr th e po em called KW ar an d P eace' beglns:22

A chllles hunts dow n H ector llke a sparrow -haw k

Screechlng after a horror-stru ck collared-dove
T h at flalls Ju st ln front of h er executlon er 23

T here ls,how ever,one poem w hlch ls n ot extracted from H om er,and

yet ls w holly m ade roun d a H om erlc slm lle: th ls ls A Poppyn from

21 L on gley 1995 39
22 L on gley 2004 4 1
23 In a radlo ln tervlew L ongley told m e th at on ly the sparrow h aw k attacks 1ts p rey
horlzon tally rather than vertlcally- hence the ornlthologlcal speclficatlon
188 O lw cr Tflp lin

T he W eather irlJap an.ln T he poppy ls of course em blem atlc of the

FlrstW orld W ar;an d lt can h ardly b e a coln cld en ce th at on th e facln g
p age th ere ls a p oem about th e death of L ongley's h ero E dw ard
T h om as.H ere ls th e w h ole p oem :

W h en m llllon s m arch ln to th e m ln clng m achln e

A n lm age ln H om er plcks out the ln dlvldu al
Tom m y an d th e d oughb oy ln h 1s d ou ghb oy h elm et 25
'L olllng to one slde llke a p oppy ln a garden
W elghed dow n by 1ts seed cap sule an d ralnw ater,
H 1s h ead drooped un der th e hean r, crestfallen
H elm et'(an lm age V lrgllsteals- /css/ papavera
(Jtlddo--at'td so do I),and so G orgythlon dtes,
A nd th e p oppy th at sheds 1ts flow er-h eads ln a day
G row s ln on e sum m er four hun dred m ore,w hlch m eans
Tw o th ou san d p etals overlappm g as th ou gh to m ake
A cap e for th e corn goddess or a soldler's sotll

l su ggest th at w h at L on gley d oes h ere ls to d evelop a w h ole sh ort

p oem out of th e dlsslm llan ty or Km lsm atchnth at w as already lm pllclt
ln th e slm lle ln H om er.A t Ihad 8.300 ff.,w h en Teuce/ s arrow plerces
G orgyth lon , th ere are already th e m lsm atch -h ln ts of th e gard en , th e
seeds, an d th e sprlng raln s: th e th ough t th at ls n udged ln to m ln d
ls th at th ere are so m any seeds ln a p oppy-h ead th at th e tlpp ln g
flow er w lll h ave p rofuse p rogeny, w hlle th e beautlful young m an
G orgythlon w lll h ave n on e. L on gley llgh t-f n geredly Kstealsn th ls
from the Ihad, adds the pathetlc w ord-play ln tcrestfallenl and th en
tap s ln to th e ln evltable m o d ern assoclatlon ,un foreseeable for H om es
b etw een p opp les an d w ar:th e E elds of Flanders.O ut of th e cornE elds
an d w ar-m em orlals th at n ow cover th e Flrst W orld W ar b attle elds
th e slm lle m akes a p rotectlve cover, a cap e, for th e future, a future
w hlch w lll ch erlsh both agrlculture an d th e m em ory of th e w ar-dead .
In th e Ihad th e fertlllty ln th e slm lle m lsm atch es th e sterlllty of
G orgyth lon's d eath :yet th e Ihad h as p roved teem ln gly fertlle ln later
p oetry, an d L ongley reflects th ls ln E n dlng a future for th e soldle/ s
soul an d for th e b attlef eld grow lng un dern eath th e p op py-flow ers.z6

24 Lon gley 2000 9 20- n ot p erh aps one of Lon gley's best poem s: bu t of speclal
lnterestfor thls dlscusslon (cf H ardw lck,pp 59-60 above)
25 Qllou ghb oy' ls a colloqu lallsm for an ln fantrym an ln the U S A rm y
26 T hls sentence respond s to E m lly G reenw ood 's qu estlo n , Q1s th ere also a sen se
h ere of an organ lc m etap h or for th e ro le o f H om erns p oetry ln llterary regen eratlo n ''
 A sskm klatkons of the H om enc k
slr?7f/r 189
1 sh all con clude w lth an oth er slm lle also draw n , as lt h app en s,
from lh ad 8:the w ell-know n descrlptlon of the Trolan cam p -fres at
the end of the book (8.553-65, of w hlch 555-9 ls the slm lle ltself).
Longleyns poem K'l'he C am p-Flresl from The G hostO rchkd,strlkes m e
as one of the best of hls H om er poem s.27 It ls not far from a llne-for-
lln e tran slatlon lnto a klnd of unrhym ed son n et-llke form :

A ll m ght cracltlm g cam p -tires b oosted thetr m orale

A s th ey dozed ln n o m an 's lan d an d th e kllllng elds
(There are balm y m ghts- not a breath,constellatlons
R esplen den t ln th e sky aroun d a dazzllng m oon-
W h en a clearan ce h lgh ln th e atm osph ere ulw ells
T h e b oun dlessn ess of sp ace, an d a11 th e stars are out
L lgh tlng u p h lll-top s, glen s,h eadland s, vantage
P olnts llke Ton akeera an d A lleran w h ere th e tlde
Tu rn s ln to K lllary,w h ere th e salm on ru n from th e sea,
W h ere th e sh eph erd sm lles on h1s lu m m ou s tow nlan d
T h at m any cam pfires sp arld ed ln front of Illum
B etw een th e rlver an d th e shlp s, a th ou san d fires,
R ound each fifty m en relaxm g ln the fire-llght )
Shuffhn g n ext to th e charlots, m u n chlng shlny oats
A n d b arley,th elr h orses w alted for th e sunrlse

A m on g m any fin e touch es, tw o m ayb e stand out for th elr p oetlc
effectlveness- and, secon darlly b ut relevantly, for thelr dep arture
from H om er. Flrst, Kln no m an's land and the kllllng Eeldsl w here
the G reek has som eth lng llke Kon th e brldgeh eads of battlen: thls
tersely lnvokes th e m on stro us m ech anlzed slaugh ters of tw en tleth -
century w ar.A nd , second , th e geograph lcal p artlcularltles of Kh ead -
lands,vantage IPolnts llke Tonakeera and Alleran where the tlde (
T urn s ln to K lllary, w h ere th e salm on run from th e seat H ere ls th e
centralslm lle ofthe H om er (ln m y attem pt at a translatlon):
A s m any as th e stars th at shln e aroun d th e m oon
ln a clear nlght sky- th e m n dless a1r ls stlll,
m oun taln top s an d slop es appear sh arp ln sllh ou ette,
an d th e w h ole of h eaven ls sp read op en ,
each star stands dtsttn ct, and the shepherd ls lapped w lth elatlon

27 L on gley 1995 37
l90 O hver Tap hn

L on gley h as m oved forw ard th e lln es about th e op en ln g of sp ace an d

the distm ctstars,and then used the Km ountaln tops and slopesn(Ehlll-
tops,glensn) to Klnterpolate'tw o llnes about the headlands and lnlets
of a rem ote stretch of th e C oun ty M ayo coast ln w estern lrelan d .T hls
llttle-kn ow n an d un tourlsted p art of th e w orld h olds a sp eclal place
ln th e h eart of th e p oetz8- th at ls focallzed by th e sh eph erd w h o
K
sm lles on hls lum lnous tow nlandl w hereas h1s H om en c ancestor
slm ply relolces ln th e n lgh tscap e.T hls local sp eclf clty of place ls,as l
h op e w lll be clear by n om profoun dly t/rll-lom erlc: an d yet, th rough
thls blen dln g of slm llarlty an d dlsslm llarlty, lt brln gs a fresh an d
p ow erful dlm en slon to th e p oem .T h e cosm lc b eauty of th e slm lle,as
ln H om es tak es th e llsten er far from th e w ar at Troy, far from th e
earth ben eath ; th en ln L ongleyns reform atlon lt m akes a kln d of
Klan dln gn at a sp ecl c, tran qull, salm on -n urturln g coastlln e. ln thls
w ay th e m lghty p ersp ectlves of w arfare an d of H om er glve a brlef an d
p olgn ant gllm p se ln to th e p erson al llfe of th e p oet ln th e 1990s.
l h ave b egun to b rln g out,l h op e,th e lnten slty w lth w h lch L on gley
en gages w lth H om er an d th e ln ten slty of hls dlfferen ce.N ot on ly ls h e
a lyrlc p oet, a m aker of E n ely crafted sh ort p oem s, but h e ls also an
ln ten sely p erson al p oet,full of referen ces to hls ow n exp en en ces, hls
ow n loves an d h ates,hls troubled h om elan d,an d hls ow n lan dscap es
w lth th elr p artlcular flora an d faun a.T h e sp eclh clty ofh ls slm lle,llk e
th at of M llton an d G allleo, takes local an d tem p oral root ln th e very
tlm elessness an d placelessness of th e slm lles ln H om er.

28 T he perso nal slgnlfican ce of th ese places em erges ln several p oem s from Snow
W flrcr Evlden tly M lch aelL ongley and h1s fam lly have a cottage th ere at a place called
C arrkgskeew au n ln on e p oem h e w rtes h ow h e w ants h :s ash es to b e bu rted m a p tle
o f sto nes on a p rom ontory there- a k tnd of ru stlc tran sferen ce of A chllles'ch olce of
the p laclng of h 1s bu rlal m o und A n d m anoth er p oem called fl-leron ' w lth the
epgraph :/74 m em ory of Kenneth ftbchl he agaln em ploys the Anglo H lbernlan term
Qtow nlandlw hlch m eans an area or parcelofland ltbeglns (Longley 2004 6l) You
dled the day Iwasdrlvlng to Carrlgskeewaun l(A rem ote townland ln county M ayo,
1explaln,IM eanlng,so far as Iknow the Rock ofthe W allFern)
 8

'H O m ecom in gs w ith ou t H om e''

.
Representations of (Postlcolonial nostos
(H om ecom ing) in the Lyric ofA im e
'C e
'saire
an d D erek W alcott

G regson D avis

T he francophone lsland of M artlnlque an d the predom lnantly anglo -

phon e lslan d of St Lucla are sltuated ln close proxlm lty to each oth er
ln th e L esser A ntllles- so close, ln fact, th at f sh erm en from both
lslands w h o com e lnto frequen t contact at sea m anage to com m unl-
cate ln a French -based Kpatols' w lth a m lnlm um of lln gulstlc code-
sw ltchln g.W hlle the E sherm en have routln ely an d ch eerfully lgnored
natlonal boundarles (w hether colonlal or postcolonlal) and have
foun d ln th e creole lan guage a m ean s of tran sn atlon al com m un lca-
tlon , the m alorlty of the lnh abltants of th ese adlacent lslan ds ln th e
archlpelago cherlsh th e lllu slon of radlcal cultural dlfference.
Follow ln g th e lead of th e C arlbbean E sh erm en ln th elr dlsregard
for b ord ers both p olltlcal an d cultural, l p rop ose to n avlgate th e
them atlc w aterw ays that unlte four exqulslte lyrlc com p osltlons
produced m the reglon : C ahw r d 'ull retour f/t/p ays rlfkff! and Ksplr-
ales' by the M artlnlcan A lm e C esalre, an d Kl-lom ecom m g: A n se La
R aye' an d O m eros by th e St Lu clan N ob ellaureate D erek W alcott- a
group of com p osltlon s th at are dem on strably ln debted ln regard to
thelr cardlnal m otlfs to H om erlc arch etypes, especlally th ose ultlm -
ately derlvatlve of th e O dyssey. A com prehen slve an alysls of m alor
H om erlc m otlfs sh ared betw een the tw o length ler, m ore lntrlcate
192 G regson D flviy

com posltlons ln the ensem ble (C esalrens Cahw r d'un retour au pays
pyflfflfland W alcottns O m eros)w ould certalnly take us on a Journey to
realm s far b eyon d th e h orlzon s of th ls ch ap ter.l sh all th erefore focu s
m y observatlon s on th e adaptatlon of th e cen tral O dyssean m otlf of
th e h erons return Journ ey to hls lslan d h om e ln th e p oem of A lm e
C esalre, an d on D erek W alcottns p arallel refash lon ln g of H om erlc
antecedents ln both the shorter lyrlc, Kl-lom ecom lng:A nse La R ayel
an d ln select p assages from th e lon g p o em , O m eros.A p rlm e alm of
m y brlef exp loratlon of p ertln ent p assages from th e w orks of th ese
tw o great C arlbbean verbal artlsts w lll be to clarlfy th e scop e of th e
rhetorlcalleverage,so to speak that they are able to obtaln through
th e skllful adaptatlon of certaln fun dam ental n arratlve p attern s ln
th e tradltlon of E urop ean eplc- th ose p attern s th at con stltute w h at
W alcott h as fellcltou sly term ed ln O m eros th e Kl-lom erlc sh adow lz
B y w ay of prelude to m y dlscusslon l offer a few rem arks of a
ph llologlcal n ature. l am n ot p lann ln g to engage ln th e kln d of
an alysls th at h as com e to b e lab elled Kln tertextu aln ln th e n ow vu lgar
sense (l.e.as a synonym forw hatused to be called Kalluslonn).lnstead,
l sh all be con cen tratlng on th e broader strategles by w hlch certaln
cen tral H om erlc m otlfs are reco dlf ed ln con tem p orary term s. D es-
plte th e w ell-kn ow n fact th at b oth C esalre and W alcott recelved an
ellte edu catlon th at ln clu ded fam lllarlty w lth th e C lasslcal langu ages,
esp eclally L atln , an d m ay th erefore w ell h ave read su ch auth ors as
H om er an d V lrgll ln th e orlgln al lan gu ages,3 m y crltlcal len s ls
orlen ted , n ot at dlsclo sln g sub tle ech o es an d a n ltles b etw een th e
C arlbbean p oem s an d H om erlc texts, but rath er at revealln g m alor
aspects of them atlc resonance w lth, and rem odelllng otl tlm e-
h on oured n arratlve m otlfs. M y m odest ltln erary w lll be llm lted to
explorln g th e related eplc m otlfs of H om ecom ln g an d th e V lslt to th e
U nderw orld (nostos and katabasv,respectlvely,ln the anclent G reek

l H ereafter abb revlated as C ahter

2 W alcott(1990)I-lv 11(271) Forthe convenlence ofthe reader1have follow ed the
cltatlons of the poem by chapter and subchapter (rom an num erals) w lth the page
references to thls edltlon (arablc num erals ln parentheses)
3 For Cesalre's educatlon (w hlch lncluded the prestlglous Ecole N orm ale Super
leur) see D avls 1997f: 6-7 W alcott undoubtedly read portlons ofV lrgll's A enetd ln
the orlglnal Latln (a staple of the secondary school currlculum ln the Brltlsh W est
Indles of h1s chlldhood), but h1s fam lllarlty w lth the H om erlc poem s ls filtered
throu gh E n gllsh translatlon s
 H om ecom kngs irl C esakre and J'krfl/tr ff 193

vocabulary), as these are redeployed by C esalre and W alcott ln key

p assages ln th elr early lyrlc uvre. lt ls, of course, axlom atlc, b ut
n everth eless w orth rep eatlng,th at H om erlc m otlfs are often en coun -
tered ln later w rlters, su ch as C esalre an d W alcott, ln form s th at are
d o u bly or even trlp ly m edlated , m o st typ lcally vla p restlglo u s ad ap -
tatlon s by V lrgll, D ante, an d M llton .
ln th e O dyssean p aradlgm of th e deferred h om ecom lng, th e h ero
m akes prellm ln ary contact w lth th e w orld of th e d ead at a slgnlf cant
Jun cture ln h ls Journ ey.T h e lntervlew w lth th e sh ad es proves to be a
plvotal ph ase ln th e h om ew ard progress of th e w an d erln g h ero ln th e
sen se th at lt prep ares hlm ,ln em otlon al n o less th an cogn ltlve term s,
for h ls eventu al reun lon w lth hls h ouseh old . W h en th e C arlbb ean
p oets, C esalre an d W alcott, set out to refashlon th e nostos m otlf to
m eet th elr ow n th em atlc an d m oral exlgen cles,th e w arrlor-f gure of
ep lc saga ls tran sform ed , ln on e of several reln carn atlon s, ln to th e
E gu re of th e p o et ln h ls qu est to reun lte w lth h ls local, ln su lar
au dlen ce. ln sh ort, th e prolon ged Journ ey of deferred h om ecom ln g
b ecom es, for th ese m alor w rlters, a b aslc trop e for th e vagarles of
recep tlon , an d, n o less slgn lf can tly, for th e auth orsn n ecessary re-
artlculatlon of th e dlsp arate cultural h orlzon s th at threaten to sep -
arate th e return lng artlst from hls n atlve com m unlty.W lth thls broad
ln terpretatlve fram ew ork as a rough gulde, let us first glan ce at th e
treatm ent of nostos an d katabasks ln th e C esalre texts.
A s a polnt of departure,a brlef (and hlghly selectlve) overvlew of
th e m otlfs as th ey recur ln several an clen t h erolc saga tradltlon s w lll
h elp to establlsh a tran scultural p ersp ectlve.T h ough I h ave elected to
use G reek labelsfor the m otlfs (nostos and katabasks),lt ls lm portant
to em p h aslze at th e outset th at th e un derw orld eplsode ln th e context
of th e h erolc q u est ls com m on to a large n u m b er of m yth ologlcal
tradltlon s,n ot all of w hlch are hlstorlcally related .For ln stan ce,lon g
b efore lts occurren ce ln th e varlan t w e fin d ln H om e/ s O dyssey
katabasls w as a stan dard ep lsod e ln n arratlves lnvolvln g h erolc Jour-
neys ln several llteratures of the A nclent N ear East (e.g. those of
Sum erla and Babylonla).A s the em lnent C lasslcalp1111010g1st,M .L.
W est h as recen tly rem ln ded u s w lth scrup ulou s eru dltlon ln hls
com paratlve study, The East Face of H ehcons the Greek llterary
tradltlon , ln p artlcu lar, ow es a great d eal to far m ore an clen t clvll-
lzatlon s of th e eastern M edlterran ean w lth w hlch lt cam e lnto
194 G regson D flviy

fertlllzlng contact at a form atlve stage (W est 1997). C esalre w as

generally aw are of thls H ellenlc (and, by extenslon, fW estern7) debt
to th e cu ltu res of th e Fertlle C rescen t, as w e kn ow from th e tltle, n o
less th an th e su blect, of on e of h ls sh ort lyrlc p o em s from th e
collectlon , C adastre :Ktlep u ls A kkad ,d ep u ls E lam ,d ep uls Su m er ...7.
W lth ou t laun ch ln g ln to a m ore exten d ed com p aratlve tran scu ltu ral
an alysls at th ls p oln t,lt w lll b e u sefu l to sketch ou t a few of th e m o st
sallen t features of th e recu rren t ep lsod e of katabasks ln th e b lograp hy
of th e an clen t M edlterran ean h ero as a first p ort of call ln o u r
dlscu sslon of C esalrens ad ap tatlon of th e O dyssean p aradlgm .
W e m ay d lstln gulsh tw o m aln typ es of katabasks ln th e an clen t
M edlterranean narratlves:(fl) the actualnJourney ln w hlch the hero
of saga ls portrayed as descendlng to the w orld of the dead (often
located ln the extrem e w estern borders ofthe cosm os) and (b4 w hat
m ay be called the Kvlrtualn Journey, or Knecrom antlc encounterl ln
w h lch th e h ero ls d ep lcted as sum m on ln g up th e sh ad es by rltu al
m ean s ln ord er to ln terrogate th em . T h e latter typ e ls n ot, strlctly
speaklnp a true katabasv ln the llteralsense ofKgolng dow nl slnce the
sh ad es are conlu red forth from th e un d erw orld to m eet th e h ero, an d
th e Ktrlp nth ereby assu m es a m en tal or sp lrltu al dlm en slon .T h ls ls th e
typ e b est kn ow n ln th e E u rop ean tradltlon from th e ep lsod e ln th e
H om erlc O dyssey w h ere th e G reek h ero ls rep resen ted as h avln g
offered ap p rop rlate sacrlf ces to th e un d erw orld d eltles p rlor to
com m u n ln g w lth an array of slgn lf can t so uls, ln clu d ln g h ls d ead
form er com rad es ln th e T rolan W ar,su ch as A ch llles an d A J= .M arcel
Cam usnclasslc N ew W ave lilm ,O rfeu N egre (Black O rpheus),bnlll-
an tly su cceed s ln con cep tu ally brldgln g th e tw o typ es; for ln th e
G reek m yth of O rp h eu sn d escen t as reco u n ted m o st m em orably by
th e L atln p oets V lrgll an d O vld , th e arch etyp al artlst-m u slclan
u n d ertakes h ls verslon of katabasks to brln g th e d ead E u rydlce b ack
to th e w orld of th e llvln g,w h ereas ln th e m o d ern film varlan t of th e
m yth lcal ep lso d e O rp h eu sn en co u n ter w lth h er llfeless sh ad e ls
effected d urln g a sean ce, ln w h lch sh e ls m ad e to ap p ear by th e
n ecrom an tlc o ces of an A fro -B razlllan cadom ble p rlestess. D erek
W alcottns O m eros em p loys yet an oth er m o d allty of th e m en tal u n d er-
w orld trlp ln th e eplsode ln w hlch h ls E sh erm an -h ero,A ch llle,m akes
a su bm arln e Jou rn ey to th e A frlcan con tln en t ln th e form
of an h allu cln atlon after h e su ffered severe sun stroke. ln certaln
 H om ecom kngs irl C esare and J'kr
fkltr ff 195

n eo-A frlcan eschatologlcal bellef-system s th e souls of th e deceased

A frlcan ln th e N ew W orld w ere th ought to return to th elr ancestral
h om e ln W est A frlca.4 T he dream -llke quallty of A chllle's experlen ce
of katabaszs m ay be com pared to th e am biguous account ln the
A eneld ln th e fam ous p assage ln w h lch V lrp l casts retrosp ectlve
d oubt on th e ontologlcal status of A en easn un derw orld vlslt by
representlng h1s hero as leavlng the realm of Pluto through th e
gates of lvory, or false dream s.
ln w hatever form lt occurs,the vlslt to the dom aln of the deceased
en talls lm p ortan t rep ercu sslon s for th e m aturatlon of th e h erolc
figure, slnce lt obllges hlm to com e to term s w lth th e un alterable
clrcum stan ce of h um an m ortallty.lf w e llm lt o ur p u rvlew to th e tw o
ch lef can onlc eplc n arratlves ln th e G raeco-lkom an tradltlon ln w h lch
the m otlf ls prom ln ent- th e O dyssey and the A enekd- w e m ay read
th e h erons ln tercourse w lth th e sh ades b elow as op en ln g th e door to
greater self-k n ow ledge an d a clearer sen se of com m un al resp on slbll-
lty,ln addltlon to th e broader m etaphyslcal lnslght th at com es w lth
th e accep tan ce of on ens lrreverslble m ortallty. ln thls regard th e
katabasv n arratlve ln th e A enekd ls esp eclally effectlve ln th e w ay lt
en ables th e h ero to galn cruclal ln slght ln to h1s ow n ch aracter an d
em otlon al vuln erabllltles, as w ell as hls d estln ed role ln h lstory,
through th e dlalogue w lth th e gh ost of hls fath er, A n chlses. O n th e
latter p oln t,w e m ay n ote a transparent m otlf a nlty w lth anoth er of
W alcottns m ultlple katabaseks ln O m erosl th at of th e p oet-n arrator
w ho m akes contact w lth hls dead fath er ln th e course of a som n am -
b ullstlc prom en ad e th rough th e gh ostly streets of C astrles,th e cap ltal
of St Lucla.5
T h ls very sch em atlc accou nt w lll suffice to set th e stage for ou r
exam ln atlon of a m odern varlan t of th e m otlf ln th e p ages of
C esalrens C ahzer.W e can be sure th at C esalrens profoun d asslm llatlon
of th e E urop ean llterary canon durlng hls rlgorous program m e of
study at the E cole N orm ale ln Parls guaranteed hls close en counter as
reader w lth these prlm e exam ples of th e descen t to th e un derw orld ln

4 T he eschatologlcalm otlfls m em orably portrayed ln Joseph Z obel's novel,La R ue

C ase N egres, as w ell as ln Eugene Palcy's aw ard w lnnlng film rendltlon of the sam e
w ork
5 W alcott (1990) xII (67-76)
196 G regson D flvrs

th e context of an clent ep lc n arratlve.ln w hat follow s,l hope to show

h ow h e explolts th e reade/ s acqualntance w lth th e m aster paradlgm
of katabasks for at the end of th e day th at b ep ns ln th e early daw n of
the poem 's openlng (au bout du petit-m atlnn), lt ls the successful
em ergen ce of th e artlst-h ero from th e ln fern o of colon lal reallty th at
slgn als the cllm actlc fin ale of th e C aherw here lm ages of ascenslon
tow ards a utoplan ldeal replace the earller ones conveylng a d escent

ln to h ell.
T h e Cb hicrp urports to ren d er an accoun t- or better yet,avlslon-
of th e speaker's lm aglned return from the colonlal m etropolls,P arls,
to hls lsland Khom e' ln the C arlbbean archlp elago- hen ce ostenslbly
to th e sun llt w orld of th e llvln g. ln a sp ectacular reversal of our
expectatlon ,h ow ever, the poem 's lm agery lnvests th e d estlnatlon of
th e Journ ey,M artlnlqu e,w lth a pleth ora of m etaph ors th at evoke th e
m orlbun d an d the dead .So pervaslve are th ese un antlclp ated death
m etaph ors th at lt ls n o exaggeratlon to say th at th e en tlre return
Journey (or, as l have descrlbed lt elsew here,the serles of repeated
Journeys or falled returns) can be read as a trope for a vlslt to a land,
n ot of th e llvm g,but of un derw orld shades.T hus post-second W orld
W ar colonlal M artlnlque ls percelved by th e returnlng artlst as th e
reposltory of a dead an d burled culture th at ls ln desp erate need of
resurrectlon .6 Lugubrlous lm ages of decay and dem lse accum ulate
rapldly ln th e openlng scen es and set've to b ulld up a prevalllng
plcture of stasls an d llfelessn ess. ln th e course of the C ahw r w e are
repeatedly brought face to face w lth a splrltualterraln that ls bereftof
all slgn s of culturalvltallty.T h ese repeated scenes are carefully organ -
lzed In such a w ay as to deflate sen tlm en ts of h op e and Joy, for th e
poem ns em otlon alrhythm proceeds by sequen ces or loops,com p osed
of elatlon p u nctu red by brusque dlslllu slonm en t.

6 T he sam e optlc ls evldent ln the program m atlc poem 'M aglquel the rst ln
C esalre's lyrlc collectlo n y C adastre, ln w h lch th e lslan d hom e ls represen ted ln th e
gure of a fem ale corpse (D avls 1984 30-6) The culm lnatlng event enacted ln
the poem ls the m ap calreblrth of the corpse through the lnstrum en tallty of a poten t
A frlcan lncantatlon T he role of the author as necrom ancer ls com m on ln the
llterature of the black A tlan tlc dlaspora w here, w hether sttm m oned or already pre
sen t,the figures of revenan ts and phantom s m ay be aflillated w lth the lconlc M lddle

Passage concelved as a lu nd of llm bo

 H om ecom kngs irl C esakre and W f
'lftr ff 197

lt ls at th e en d of on e su ch cycle of h op e an d desp alr th at th e read er

lirst en counters exp llclt referen ce to th e n eth er reglon s,th e abodes of
people w ho are Kundonen by a Eguratlve death (to purloln Ellotns
phraseology from The Vkr
tu lp Land).The speaker has been construct-
lng a brlght plcture of a Chrlstm as celebratlon (and N oel ln M artl-
n lqu e ls surely an occaslon for n ostalglc ln dulgen ce lf ever th ere w as
one),only to bnng us brutally dow n,notto earth,but even low er,to
the dark am blence of hell (16):
A rrw ee au som m et de son ascen ston ,la Jote creve com m e un n u age
L es ch an ts n e s'arrten t p as, m als 11s rou len t m aln ten an t ln qulets et
lourds p ar les vallees de la p eus les tunn els de l'an golsse et les feu x
de lRen fer
E t ch acun se m et a tlrer p ar la qu eu e le dlable le plu s proch e,Jusqu'a ce
qu e la p eur s'abollsse ln sen slblem ent dan s 1es l'in es sableu rs du rve, et
l'on v1t com m e dan s un rve verltablem en t, et l'on b olt et l'on crle et l'on
ch an te com m e dan s u n rve;
(A t the apex of 1ts n se ?oy bursts forth llke a cloud The songs
do n ot cease,but n ow th ey roll anxlou s an d hea'vy throu gh th e
valleys of fear, th e tunn els of an gulsh an d th e Jlam es of h ell
A nd each creature starts to tug th e n earest devll by th e tall
untll fear gradu ally dlsslp ates ln th e fin e-graln ed san d of dream s,
and you llve truly as ln a dream , and you drlnk an d you sh out
and you slng as ln a dream l8
A s th e scen e un folds even th e top ography of th e lslan d ls tran sm uted
lnto a V lrglllan underw orld (17):
A u b out du p etlt m atln ,la vle prostree, on ne salt ou d epch er ses rves
avortes, le fleuve de vle desesperem ent torplde dan s son llt, san s
tu rgescen ce nl depresslon ,ln certaln de flu er,lam entablem ent vld e,la
lou rde lm p artlallte de l'enn ul, repartlssant l'om bre sur tou tes ch oses
egales, l'alr stagn an t san s un e trou ee d'olseau clalr

(At the close offoreday m orm ng,ltfe prostrate,you do not

kn ow w h ere to dlsp atch your aborted dream s, the rlver of
llfe d esp erately Styp an ln 1ts b ed ,n elth er sw ollen n or low ,
un sure of 1ts flow , sadly draln ed,th e bu rden som e n eu trallty
of b ored om ,dlsp en slng d arkn ess on a11 th lngs lndlscrlm m atels
the a1r stagnant,lm pelvlous to a blrd's beam ofllght )
7 T he text of th e C ahter ls h ereln clted ln the excellen t ed ltlon of 'laxlm ln and

C arpentler (C esalre 1994)

8 E n gllsh verslon s of th e C ahter are m y'ow n
198 G regson D flvs

T h e en tlre p assage from w hlch th ese tw o excerpts h ave been taken ls

suffu sed w lth lm ages evo catlve of an exlsten ce th at recalls th e w ell-
k n ow n ln scrlp tlon th at D an te p laced over th e entran ce to h 1s infern o :
Kl-asclate ognlsperanza,volchnentratel'(A bandon allhope,you w ho
enterln).The sam e paragraph ln w hlch w e are show n denlzens ofhell
p u llln g th e n earest d em on by th e tall also con taln s an allu slon to a
to rp ld rlver resem b les th e slu gglsh Styx of G raeco -R om an m y th .
W h eth er th e p oet of th e C ahw r ls h ere alludln g dlrectly to th e
subterran ean lan dscap e of th e A eneld, or ls cog urlng up th e ln fern al
reglon s as m edlated by D an tens cantos,th e effect of hls recodlf catlon
ls extrem ely Jarrlng.The colonlzed M artlnlcan tow nshlp (vJPc) ls
revealed as flat an d ln ert, an d w h atever llfe lt on ce contaln ed ls n ow
totally draln ed aw ay.
T h e em otlon al an d sp lrltu al d escen t w e h ave tracked ln th e ltln -
erary of th e C ahzer ls stru ctu red , m etap h orlcally, n ot ln rectllln ear
term s, but rath er as a serles of loop s or splrals. T h e geom etrlcal
dlstln ctlon ls th em atlcally slgn lf can t, b ecau se ln a sp lralllng m ove-
m en t, as op p osed to a stralgh t lln e, th e Jo u rn ey forw ard ls con tln u -
ally beln g reversed, th ough only ln part, w lth each loop, as the
traveller ls m ad e to re-cross con to urs already traversed . T h u s th e
sp lral trop e com bln es an overall forw ard p rogress- at th e level of
m acro-stru cture- w lth regular m lcro -structural regresslon s. T h e
overarchlng m ovem ent artlculated ln th e long p oem ls condensed
by C esalre ln th e E guratlve m ln l-lourn ey h e en cap sulates ln th e sh ort
Poem Ksplralsn (<Splrales7).9
A t a plvotal Jun cture ln th e tralectory of th e lattes th e sp eaker
(plurallzed as nous),w ho has been represented as cllm blng upw ards,
ab ru p tly veers d lrectlon an d p lum m ets d ow nw ard from a m on tan e
lan dscap e lnto th e turbulent, w atety depth s. ln th e m lddle of th e
poem the llne,Kw e ascendn(Knous m ontonsn) ls lm m edlately follow ed
ln the text by Kw e descendn (Knous descendonsn). The uncharted
depths ln w hlch th e speaker and reader togeth er su dd enly lind
th em selves h ave a recogn lzably D an tesqu e sh adln p an d lt soon
b ecom es ap p aren t th at w e h ave been tran sp orted lnto a n asty,
seeth ln p colon lal ln fern o :

9 T he French text and Engllsh tran slatlon are clted from D avls 1984 42
 H om ecom ngs J/ C esare (CI/CJ 'I,iW /ctpll 199

n o u s m o n to n s
nou s descen don s
1es cecroples cach en t leur vlsage
et leurs son ges dan s le squelette de leurs m aln s ph osph orescentes
1es cercles de lRentonn olr se referm en t de plu s en plus vlte
c'est le b out d e l'enfer
n ou s ram p on s n ou s flotton s
n ous enrotllon s d e plu s en plus serres 1es gouffres d e la terre
la ran cun e des h om m es
la ran coeur des races
et les ressacs abyssaux n ou s ram en en t
dan s un p aqu et de llan es
d'etolles et de frlsson s

(w e ascend
w e descen d
lm b aub as con ceal th elr faces
an d th elr dream s ln thelr skeletal ph osph orescent hands
th e clrcles of th e funn el n arrow m ore rapldly
w e are at th e b ottom of h ell
w e craw l w e float
w e coll m ore and m ore crow d ed ln th e gulfs of th e earth
ln hum an h ate
ln raclal h atred
an d th e u n dertow s of th e abyss lead u s b ack
w lthln a b un dle of llan as
of stars and shlvers)
T h ls cltatlon from Ksplrales' allow s us to hlghllght th e rh etorlcal
strategy of C esalre ln hls th um bn all refashlonlng of th e gran d,
D antesque vlslon ln seculas non -theologlcal term s, for at the very
bottom of the lnsular lnferno there lles, not the lm prlsoned body of
Luclfer, but the tum ultuous gulfs of raclal hatred (Kla rancune des
races').W e m ay recallthat:for C esalre,raclsm ls no m ere eplpheno-
m en on of the class struggle, as lt tended to be treated ln M arxlst-
L en1nlst thought, but ls enscon ced at the very core of the c010111a11st
system of oppresslon.C esalre had publlcly broken hls alleglan ce w lth
th e Fren ch C om m un lst P arty ln large m easure over thls vet'y lssu e,
an d 170th ln th e Letter to M aun ce T horez an d ln th e D kscourse t?n
C olonkahsm h e m akes clear h ls fun dam ental convlctlon th at cultural
d ecolon lzatlon ls destln ed to rem aln a vlrtu ally ln tractable problem
w lth out th e con curren t ellm ln atlon of raclsm .A t th e very bottom of
200 G regson D flviy

th e last sp lral, th en , w e fin d ou rselves truly lm m ersed ln a seeth ln g

abyss u n tll w e are allow ed to re-com m en ce th e red em p tlve u pw ard
Jo urn ey. A s ln th e V lrglllan varlan t of katabasks w h ereln d escen t ls
fam ously characterlzed as easy (Kfacllls descensus Avernon), C esalre
lm p lles th at th e w ay d ow n , th ou gh p reclp lto u s, ls far easler to
n egotlate th an th e p ath to th e llgh t of th e up p er alr. W e m ay also
n ote ln p assln g th at th e traveller ln C esalrens m ln latu re katabasks
actu ally b egln s w lth an ascen t th at ls abrup tly reversed , as ln th e
openlng canto ofD antens Inferno.
T h e corresp on dln g p oln t ln th e evolutlon ofth e C ahkes ln m y vlem
ls th e ep lsod e th at m ay b e lab elled KD e P rofun dlsn after C esalrens ow n
tag from the Latln vulgate ofPsalm 130 (KD e profundlsclam avln).The
lm m edlate n arratlve con text of th e ep lso d e ls th e sp eake/ s adm lsslon
th at h e h as been dlstan clng hlm self from th e splrltu al degradatlon h e
h as b een d escrlbln g w lth su ch relen tless ln clslven ess, an d h e an -
n o un ces h ls n ew resolve to face h ls ow n ln adverten t com p llclty ln
thatdegradatlon,and to dlspensew lth allexculpatlng ego-props (34):
P ar u n e ln atten du e et blenfalsante revolutlon lnterleu re, J'h on ore m aln -
ten ant m es latdeu rs rep ou ssantes

A la Salnt-lean-B aptlste, des que tom bent 1es prem leres om bres sur le
b ourg du G ros-M orn e,des centaln es de m aqu lgn on s se reunlssent dan s
la ru e D e P rofun dls,dont le n om a du m oln s la fran chlse d'avertlr d'u n e
ru ee des b as-fon ds de la M ort E t c'est de la M ort verltablem ent, de ses
m llle m esqulnesform eslocales (fnngaleslnassouvlesd'herbe de Para et
rond asservlssem entdes dlstlllerles) que surgltvers la grand'vle declose
l'etonn ante cavalerle des rosses lm p etu eu ses Et qu els galop slqu els h en -
n lssem en tslqu elles sln ceres u rln eslqu elles fien tes m lrob olan tesl

(By a surprlslng and self-servlng lnvolutlon I am no longer aw are of m y

u gls rep ellen t asp ects
A t the feast of St John the B apt1st,as soon as the first shadow s fall on
th e h am let of G ros-M orn e,hun dreds of horse-dealers assem ble on fD e
P R o yu x o ls' street, a n am e th at at least glves clear n otlce of an ln flu x
from th e sh allow s of D eath A n d lt ls from D eath ln very tru th ,death ln
1tsthousand lgnoble localform s (unappeased hungerfor Para grassand
routlne subm lsslon to the dlstlllerles) that there surges forth from the
b arrlers tow ards th e great race of llfe th e staggerlng cavalry of lntrepld
n ags A n d w h at a sh ow of galloplng, of n elghln g, of op en u rln atln gl
W hat stupendous deposlts of excrem entl)
 H om ecom kngs irl C esakre and JAW JtY // 201

T h ls scen e ls, on th e surface, a carlcature of a h orse-falr ln colon lal

M artln lqu e,ln w hlch a sly h orse-trad er p aw n s off hls m lserable n ags
un der th e preten ce of sellln g fin e breeds. T h e f gu ratlve slte of th e
h orse-p arade,how ever,ls preclsely located ln a m etaphyslcald om aln :
KD e P rofundls Streett Furn lsh ed w lth th e auth orlal gloss on th e
n am e, w e are un am blgu ou sly placed ln an ln fern al settlng, w h lch
the poet expllcltly characterlzes as the tshallow s of D eathn (les bas-
fonds de la M ortn). The w ord D eath (M tvr) ls capltallzed ln the
French orlglnal: so th at w e are left ln n o un certaln ty as to w h ere w e
are,even lf w e m lssed th e street-slgn on th e w ay ln .T h e tlm e,n o less
than the place,ls also clearly slgnposted:lt ls the feast of St John the
B aptlst, an d th e read er ls th ereby cu ed ln to m akln g ln feren ces from
th e blbllcal subtext regardm g th e destlny of th e players. B ehln d the
reference to the feast day of John the Baptlst,for lnstance,m ay lurk
n ot only th e grlm d ecapltatlon of th e proph et- pref gurln g th e
p oetns Klosln g hls h eadn- but also th e p resage of a future redem p tlon .
T h ough th e Egure of an even tual redeem er ls ellded ln th e p oem ,w e
kn ow from th e text of th e p salm th at th ere lles latent ln th e scrlpt a
d esp erate, th ough stlfled , plea for redem p tlon from sufferln g.
ln w h at sen se ls thls a plvotal m om en t ln th e C ahker W e learn ln
th e segm ent lm m edlately follow lng th at th e sp eaker ls n ow ready to
confront hls ow n p sychlc depth s- to recogn lze, ln sh ort, hls ow n
subllm ln alcom pllclty ln th e p erp etuatlon of th e colon lalb on dage.ln
a p ow erful p assage th at acqulres th e aura and ton e of a confesslon al,
th e ch asten ed sp eaker goes on to recount a sh am eful ln cldent ln hls
ow n llfe w h en h e Joln ed fellow travellers on a m etrop olltan tram w ay
ln derldln g a pltlful, decreplt black m an .T h e vlgn ette m arks a turn -
ln g-p oln t ln th e sp eake/ s m oral develop m ent,for h e,a black protag-
0111st, ls n ow cap able, ln retro sp ect, of seeln g h ls d erlslve reactlon as
ultlm ately self-degradln g an d ,m ore lm p ortantly,h e com es to lden tlfy
hlm selffully w lth the personled 'dead'tow n (C esalre 1994,36-8):
E t m ol, et m ol,
m o1 qu 1 ch antals le p olng du r
11 faut savolr Ju squ'ou Je pou ssal la lch ete
U n solr dan s un tram w ay en face de m ol, un n egre
C 'etalt un n egre grand com m e un p ongo qu 1 essayalt de se falre tout
petlt sur un ban c de tram w ay 11 essayalt d'abartdonn er sur ce b an c
crasseux d e tram w ay ses Jam b es glgan tesqu es et ses m aln s trem blantes
2 02 G regson D flviy

de b oxeur affam e Et tout l'avalt lalsse,le lalssalt Son n ez qu1 sem blalt u n e
penln sule en derade et sa n egrltu de m m e qu1 se decoloralt sous l'actlon
d'u n e ln lassable m egle E t le m eglssler etalt la M lsere U n gros orelllard
sublt dont 1es coup s de grlffes su r ce vlsage s'etalent clcatrlses en lots
scableux O u plu tt, c'etalt un ouvn er lnfatlgable, la M lsere,travalllant a
qu elqu e cartou ch e hldetlx
E t l'en sem ble falsalt p arfaltem ent un n egre hldeux, u n n egre grogn on ,
un n egre m elan collqu e,u n n egre affale ses m aln s reu nles en prlere sur un
b ton n ou etlx U n n egre en sevell dan s un e vlellle veste ellm ee U n n egre
com lqu e et lald et des fem m es dern ere m o1 rlcan alent en le regardan t

11 etalt co M lq u s ET LA lo ,
co xflq u s F,T LA lo p ou r sfzr
J'arboral un grand soun re com pllce
M a lch ete retrouveel
Je salue 1es trols slecles qu1 soutlennent m es drolts clvlques et m on sang
m ln lm lse

M on h erolsm e, qu elle farce!

C ette vllle est a m a tallle
E t m on m e est couchee C om m e cette vllle dan s la crasse et dan s la boue
cou ch ee
C ette vllle,m a face de b ou e

(A nd 1,and 1
I w h o w as sln gln g w lth clen ch ed fist
you sh ould kn ow Ju st h ow far I pu sh ed m y cow ardlce
O n e even ln g, ln a streetcar op p o slte m e, a n lgger
A nlgger ashu ge as a p on go w astryln g to m ake hlm selfsm allon th eb en ch
ofa tram car H ew astrp n g to sh ed,on thlsfilthy tram carb en ch,h1sglgantlc
legs an d h1s sh akln g, starved b oxer's h an ds A n d every b odlly p art h ad
deserted,w as desertlng h1m h1s n ose,w hlch resem bled a p enln sula adrlft,
even h1s blackn ess,w hlch w as b ecom lng dlscolored un der th e actlon of a
relentless taw lng A n d th e taw er w as n on e other th an P overty- an en or-
m ou sb at from h ellw h ose claw m arks on hts face h ad scarred ttw tth tslets of
scab O r rath er,P overty w as an untlrm g artlsan w orkln g on som e grotesqu e
cartou ch e
T h e n et effectw as th e p erfectlm age of a hldeou s n lgger,a su llen nlgger,a
m elan ch oly m gger, a spraw lm g m gger, h1s han ds lom ed m prayer on a
gn arled stlck A nlgger burled ln an o1d tattered coat A nlgger com lcal an d
ugly,an d som e w om en seated behln d m e snlckered at th e slght of h1m

H e w as c o xflc ytl- A x o IJG I-Y

co xflcytl- A x o IJG I-Y th at's for su re
I spread a bran chlng sm lle of com pllclty
M y cow ardly self redlscovered l
 H om ecom kngs irl C esakre and J'kr
fl/tr ff 203

I salu te th e three centurles th at su staln m y clvll rlghts an d m y devalu ed

blood
M y h erolsm , w hat a farcel
T hls tow n ls m y m easu re
A nd m y splrlt ls prostrate Llke thls tow n prostrate ln 111th an d m u d
Thls tow n,m y face of m ud )

T hls can dld, p aln ful ackn ow ledgem ent on th e sp eake/ s p art of a
p revlo u sly d lsavow ed corn er of h 1s ow n p sych e ls a Kd efin ln g m o -
m en f- to u se a curren t cllch e- for th e p oet of negn tude. A s ls th e
case ln th e closln g lln es of th e p oem Ksplralsn th at w e h ave dlscu ssed
ab ove, th e p aten t obsesslon dlsplayed ln th e m erclless tram w ay
vlgn ette ls w lth th e ven om ou s exp erlen ce of raclsm ln b oth con sclou s
an d un con sclo us form s. ln thls lnflexlon of the th em e, how ever, lts
d eep er exploratlon ln clu des th e ln tern allzatlon , on th e p art of th e
black sp eaker: of raclallst attltu des, an d th e con sequ en t dam age th at
thls ln sldlou s process ln fllcts on th e m ln d of th e colonlzed sublect.
H ell h as an lnterlor correlate,ln oth er w ords, an d at thls Jun cture ln
th e splrallln g m otlon of C esalrens m asterp lece w e recognlze, alon g
w lth th e h ero of th e katabasks, th at th e true Journ ey h om ew ard ls
n othln g lf n ot lnw ard an d profoun dly lntrosp ectlve.
T hls ln slght lnto th e p sych o-dyn am lcs of h om ecom lng lln ks u s
w lth th e can on lc eplc verslon s of katabasks th at p rovld ed th e start-
ln g p olnt of our dlscu sslon . T h e exam ple of A en eas ln th e un der-
w orld ls esp eclally egreglo u s. ln th e fam ou s ep lsod e ln w h lch th e
Trolan h ero en coun ters th e sh ad e of D ld o ln th e un d etw orld h e ls
m ade to lnterrogate hls ow n (form erly unacknow ledged) com pll-
clty ln h er traglc sulcld e as sh e dlsd alnfully w alks aw ay from h lm ,
p reclu dln g all dlalogu e. A s ls w ell know n , th e V lrglllan account of
D ld ons relectlon an d eloqu ent sllen ce ls dlrectly ln debted to th e
H om erlc scen e ln w hlch O dysseus m eets th e m u te, unforglvlng,
sh ade of th e w arrlor A J= . ln V lrgll's recodlf catlon of th e en coun -
ter: th e qu estlon of th e h erons gullt an d resp on slblllty h overs over
th e sp ectacle of hls fru strated attem pt at a sym p ath etlc dlalogu e
w lth th e queen's retreatln g sh ade. T h e en coun ter, ln brlef, lm p oses
a certaln ln tern al m ovem ent tow ards m oral self-evalu atlon an d self-
reflectlon .
C esalre's m om en t of self-crltlclsm ln th e depth s of a colonlal h ell
ls p rofou nd ln lts p sych ologlcal m essage, an d th e course of th e
p oem from thls p oln t on m arks lt as a cruclal stage ln th e p alnful
2 04 G regson D fyviy

debunklng of the grandlose herolc role (KM y herolsm - w hat a

farceln).Thls unlnhlblted self-debunklnp and the lnvoluntary hum l-
llatlon th at accom p an les lt, are also trad ltlon al features of som e
an clent, p re-G reek , n arratlves of katabasu .ln th e A ltkadlan story of
the Kllescent of lshtar to the N ether W orldllo for lnstance, the
goddess of L ove ls llterally strlpp ed bare of h er glorlous trapplngs
as sh e en ters an d m akes h er w ay fotw ard ln th e w orld of th e dead .
W e m ay com p are thls p hyslcal den udatlon of th e p ow erful A ltka-
dlan I-ove G oddess w lth th e ligure of O dysseus arrlvlng stark n aked
ln Ph aeacla after sh lpw reck ,an d w lth th e splrltualh um lllatlon th at ls
represented m D erek W alcottns poem ,Kl-lom ecom lng:A nse La R ayel
to w h lch l w tll now devote a brlef an alysls.ll ln th ls fh om ecom ln g'
th e un recogn lzed return lng artlst-h ero en dures a p alnful relectlon
by obllvlous yo un g chlldren on a St L uclan beach w h o m lstake hlm
for a to un st, an d h e proceeds to m ak e hls w ay h om ew ard p ast
dead fisherm en playlng a gam e of draughts (a W est lndlan verslon
of the board gam e checkers).The eplsode of hum lliation ls a neces-
sat'y p recon dltlon of th e w rlter-h erons successful nostos, lf h e ls to re-
establlsh a m eanln gful exlsten ce m a recon stltuted 'h om en. T h e first
tw o stan zas evoke th e faded w orld of th e H om en c nostos w lth
rlppllnp dlffused ech oes of th e bard ns form ulalc dlctlon :

W h atever else w e learn ed

ln sch ool, llke solem n A fro -G reeks eager for grades,
of H elen an d th e sh ad es
of b orrow ed an cestors,
th ere are n o rltes
for th ose w h o h ave return ed,
onls w h en h er loom s fad e,
drllled m our skulls,th e doom -
surge-h aunted nlghts,
only thls w ell-kn ow n p assage
un der th e cocon uts'salt-ru sted
sw ords,th ese rotted
leath ery sea-grap e leaves,
th e seacrabs'bn ttle h elm ets, an d
thls b arb ecu e of b ran ch es,llke th e rlb s

10 See translatlon ln P rltch ard 1958 80-5

ll T he text of the poem ls clted from W alcott 1984 127-9
 H om ecom kngs irl C esakre and W flk tlff 205

of sacrlfical oxen on scorch ed san d,

only thls tish-gut-reeku n g beach,
w hose fn gates tack llke bu zzards overh ead,
w h ose splndls su gar-h ead ed ch lldren race
p eltlng u p from th e sh allow s
b ecau se you r cloth es,
y ou r p o stu re
seem a to u rlst's

T h ey sw arm llke tlles

roun d your h eart's sore

T h e alluslon to Ksh ades of b orrow ed an cestors'ln th e op enlng lln es

foresh adow s th e lugubrlou s atm osph ere th at ls furth er exp an ded ln
th e second stan za, ln w h lch th e b each em erges as th e rep osltory of
d efun ct an d p utref ed ep lc refuse, p atrolled by buzzards. T h e
sp eake/ s h eart, w e learn : b ears a sore aroun d w hlch th e chlldren
K
sw arm llke fllesl and he has a prem onltlon,as they approach ,of the
dlsappolntm entand sense ofallenatlon thatlsto follow (llne 32-40):
for on ce,llke them ,
you w anted n o career
but thls sh eer llght,thls clear,
ln fin lte,b orln p p aradlsal sea,
but h op ed lt w ould m ean som ethlng to declare
todas I am your p oet,you rs,
all th ls you kn em
b ut n ever gu essed you'd com e
to kn ow th ere are h om ecom ln gs w lth out h om e

L lke th e C esalrean h ero -artlst w h o return s h om e p uffed up w lth

p rlde an d n ostalglc h op e for a m eanlngful recep tlon ln th e lan d of
h ls blrth ,th e w oun ded p oet on th e St Lu clan beach ls deflated by th e
kn ow ledge th at th ere are h om ecom ln gs w lth out h om et T h e chll-
d ren , w h o rep resen t th e yo un ger gen eratlon of a p utatlve ln su lar
au dlen ce, sum m arlly rep u dlate th e figure on th e beach w h om th ey
n ot only fall to recognlze, but, to th e p oefs ch agrln , assum e to b e a
tourlst an d exp ect a h an dout:

Y ou glve th em n oth ln g
T h elr cu rses m elt ln am
T h e black cltffs scow l,
th e ocean su cks 1ts teeth
2 06 G regson D flviy

A fter th e ch lldren d ep art ln dlsgu st th e sp eake/ s agony ls elab orated

ln lm ages th at un m lstakably evoke a dream -llke, m en tal katabasw

D azed by th e sun
you tru dge b ack to th e vlllage
p ast th e w hlte, salty esplan ade
u n der w h ose p alm s dead
fish erm en m ove th elr drau gh ts ln sh ade

T h e Kd ead E sh erm en' of th ls early W alcott lyrlc p o em from th e

collectlon The G ul
f m ay be sald eventually to com e to llfe ln
th e p ages of th e later, exu b eran t p seu d o -ep lc, O m eros w h o se m aln
ch aracter, a E sh erm an n am ed A ch llle, exp erlen ces, as w e h ave n oted
ab ove,a h allu cln atory katabasv on a subm arln e Jo u rn ey to h lsA frlcan
Khom etlz In the narrow er horlzon of Kl-lom ecom lng:A nse La R ayel
h ow ever, w e fin d th e conlu n ctlon of nostos an d katabaszs th at also
m arks th e glo om y am blen ce of th e C ahkeT w h ere a to u rlst p aradlse-
a sunny w hlte-san d C arlbbean b each- ls tran sm uted ln to a dlsm al,
h eart-w ren ch ln g aren a p op u lated by sh ad es of th e d ead .
D erek W alcotf s d azed p o et-h ero w h o se nostos ls m arred by allen -
atlon an d relectlon h as d eep aflin ltles w lth A lm e C esalre's dlslllu -
slon ed sp eaker w h o con fron ts a m orlb u n d h um an lan d scap e ln h ls
n atlve M artln lq u e.ln b oth ln flectlon s of th e return ln g h ero m otlf th e
nostos an d katabasks are collap sed ln to a sln gle am blvalen t exp erlen ce
of local receptlon, ln w hlch a (postlcolonlal soclal reallty ls sub-
sum ed un d er a d om ln an t ch th on lc lm agery.
To co m p lete o u r fo cu sed d lscu sslon of nostos an d kflffllpflsls ln
C esalrens C ahker, lt ls ap p o slte to p o se th e qu estlon , Kw h at ls th e
P lace of kkneg rktude'' ln th ls convulslve Jou rn ey d ow n ln to, an d ou t
of, th e colon lal ln fern o?n A s l h ave argu ed elsew h ere, negn tude ls
n ever actually defn ed ln th e text of th e C ahker.'s T h e p oem con -
stru cts lts ow n elab orate m y thos or m yth lcal n arratlve, b ut lt d oes

12 T he h allu cln atory u n d erw orld Jou rn ey of A ch llle ls th e m ost elab orate o f th e
m u ltlp le D escen ts w oven ln to th e n arratlve textu re o f O m eros A m o n g th e m o re
slgn lfican t ls the n arrato r's tou r of th e St Lu clan vo lcan o , Sou frlere, led by th e b lln d
H om erlc bard at I-vlll1 (289) The D antesque m odel ls expllclt the tourlng poets
(narrator and gulde) encounter the souls of dam ned,venalpolltlclans/traltors w ho
w elter ln the M alebolge (so nam ed here and asslm llated lnto the sulphurous fttm a
roles on the slopes ofthe m ountaln)
15 See D avls 19974. 20-6 1 fo r an extended an alysls of th e p oem 's argu m ent
 H om ecom kngs irl C esakre and W f
'lk tlff 207

n ot do so, as M arx fam ously sald of th e m akln g of hlstory, Kout of

w h ole clothn. T h e lntetw eavlng of arch etyp al m otlfs of an clent d erl-
vatlon (pre-l-lom erlc,H om erlc,and post-l-lom erlc) enables the poet
to explore th e ln fern al terraln of varlou s, culturally con structed ,
black lden tltles. N egrktude, lt tran sp lres, ls n ot a m on ollth lc m ask,
an d as all th e ready-m ade black lden tltles are su ccesslvely adopted
an d dlscarded along th e w ay,w e com e to th e p erceptlon ln th e course
of th e p o em 's voyage of self-exp loratlon ,th at lt ls th e very p ro cess of
self-refash lonlng th at brln gs ab out red em ptlve ln slgh t.T h at Journ ey,
as w e have seen, ls centrally (or em blem atlcally) represented as a
katabasks th at ls ln terw oven w lth th e gran d m otlf of a colon lal nostos.
B y w ay of conclu ston l w ould llke to place th e ph en om en on of th e
C arlbbean w rlters' em brace of H om erlc m otlfs w lth ln th e w lder
p ersp ectlve of th e exp an slon of th e E urop ean llterary can on ln th e
last decades of th e p revlou s century.P erh ap s th e m ost vlvld clarlf ca-
tlon of th e use of H om er on th e p art of contem p orary p oets ln th e
reglon ls to be ascrlbed to n on e oth er th an D erek W alcott. ln a
p ubllsh ed talk h e dellvered at D uke U n lverslty ln sprlng 1995,W al-
cott sp oke extem p oran eou sly on th e H om erlc O dyssey ln lts deep er
sym b ollc relatlon to O m eros.'n

g'rhen tool there are very few em blem s- ln llterature and, I thlnk, ln a11
art T h ere are p erh ap s on e or tw o lcon lc em b lem s th at rem aln O n e of
th em 1s, of cou rse, som eb ody sh outlng at G od T hls ls th e source of a11
reb elllou s figures, so th at ln essen ce th e defian ce of G od b egln s w lth
Lu clfer, contlnu es through P rom eth eu s, through D aedalu s, through Fau st,
through any num b er of figures w ho relect G od's auth orlty A n d thls ls an
em blem atlc, lcom c figu re V ery few lcon s have b een created by th e w rlter
w lth out legen d
N ow h ere's w h at I m ean th e O lyssey ls th e sto ry o f so m e m an w h o
w an dered around, an d th e story of w an derlng ls th e classlcal eplc Eplc ls
aboutw anderlng ln search ofsom ethlng and findlng (or notfindlng)lt You
kn ow the kn lght leaves, goes forth an d en counters dlfferen t dragon s, et
cetera, on h 1s qu est T h en th ere's h 1s retu rn , or fallu re to retu rn , Ju st llk e
w lth O dysseu s W h at w e h ave becau se of H om er- perm anen tly because
of H om er (and w lthout havlng read the book already know lng that there
ls such a figurel- are tw o em blem s, at least O ne ls The M ost Beautlful
W om an ln th e W orld H elen T h at's ln destru ctlble,lconlc,p erm an ent for a11

14 see w alco tt 1997 235

2 08 G regson D flviy

cultures th at sh are thls p art of hlstory T h e oth er em blem , of course,ls T h e

M ovln g Sall, alon e on th e ocean , n ot a sh lp b u t som eth ln g sm all on a large
expanse ofw ater,trp ng to get som ew here- the lm age ofthe w anderer (call
h1m O dysseus) m ade em blem atlc by the great poet

lt ls clear from thls typ lcally robust exp resslon of hls vlew s th at
W alcott sees th e H om erlc ep lc n arratlves fu n d am en tally as a m atrlx
of archetypal figures,lm ages, and m otlfs (hls preferred eplthets are
K
em blem atlcnand flconlcn) that constltute a klnd of archlve for later
w rlters an d artlsts ln th e W estern can on , of w hlch A n gloph on e
C arlbb ean llteratu re ls an exten slon . Su ch a vlew p oln t carrles lm p ll-
clt tran sh lstorlcal, as w ell as tran scultu ral, ram lf catlon s ln regard to
h ls readln g of H om er.
To begln w lth th e tran shlston cal, lt ls obvlo us th at W alcott reads
H om er syn ch ronlcally,rath er th an dlach ron lcally.T h e syn ch ronlc or,
as W alcott elsew h ere d u b s lt, Kslm ultan eo u sn readln g of H om erlc
m otlfs an d em blem atlc E gu res en talls a vlrtu alelllp sls ofth e h lstorlcal
or ch ron ologlcal axls.A s E m lly G reenw ood p uts lt ln h er artlcle KKt'W '
e
sp eak L atln ln Trlnldadn': U ses of C lasslcs ln C arlbbean Llterature:'
KW alcottns aesth etlc, w h lch w rests llteratu re aw ay from th e clutch es
of hlstory,ls an altogeth er m ore radlcalargum ent th an th e clalm th at
all p eoples, at all tlm es an d ln all places h ave a stake ln th e p ast.715
lf th e elllp sls of tlm e ls th e Kn ecessary lictlonn th at un derlles thls
w ay of readln g a can on lc text, th en w e are faced w lth th e corollary
that the borders betw een cultures (e.g.A nclent G reek and contem -
porary C arlbbean) are also notlonally dlssolved ln the ldealreceptlon
of th e llterary w ork . O n th e su rface, at least, su ch an ln terp retatlve
stan ce threaten s to flatten gross,lf n ot n u an ced,cultural dlstln ctlon s,
an d to take u s to th e verge of w h at w e n ow refer to as a Kglob allzed n
outlook (ln fine, w hat w e used to refer to ln an earller era as
K
unlversar).H ow ever m uch w e m ay be dnven to focus our attentlon,
ln our readlng of am bltlou s C arlbbean p oets on th e order of C esalre
an d W alcott,on th e unlqu en ess of th e cultural an d p hyslcalw orld of
St L u cla or M artln lqu e,w e n eed con stan tly to rem ln d o urselves th at
th ese recen tly can on lzed p oets u ltlm ately alm to dlsclo se w h at
they understand to be the transcultural and kpso facto Kunlversal'
sub stratu m ln th e p artlcu lar con dltlon s th ey d escrlb e w lth su ch

15 G reenw o od 2005 72
 H om ecom tngs ;/J C csatre and W alcott 2 09

fresh n ess an d p reclslon ln th elr p oetry. ln C esalre's w ord s: KM y

con ceptlon of th e u nlversal ls of a um versal rlch w lth th e p artlcular,
rlch w lth all p artlculars, th e deep en lng and coexlstence of all p ar-
tlculars.
nt6 8 0th p oets ultim ately h ark b ack to H om erlc m otlfs as
lcon s of um versal valu e, and to th ls extent th e nam e Kl-lom er' fu n c-
tlon s as a slgn iE er,or better yet,a p rlstlne em blem of th at w h lch , ln
greatpoetry,appears to transcend (and,paradoxtcally:to be relncar-
nated 1n) the Eshlng-nets of the hlstorlcal and the cultural.A s the
father of the w ord (lf not the concept) of negrktude puts lt ln the
p rayer sequ en ce th at m trodu ces th e E n al m ovem ent of th e C ahker

(44-5):
n e faltes p oln t de m o1 cet h om m e de h aln e
P our qu 1Je n'al qu e h aln e
car p om 'm e can ton n er en cette u m qu e rac.e
vou s savez p ou rtan t m on am ou r tyran m qu e
vou s savez qu e ce n 'est P oln t P ar h aln e
des autres races qu e Je m 'exlge bch eur
de cette unlque race
tlu e ce que le veux c'est p our la falm unlverselle
p our la solf un lverselle
la som m er hbre enlin
d e produlre d e son lntlm lte close
la su cculen ce des frm ts
(D o not m ake of m e that m an ofhate
for w h om I h ave on ly h ate
For th ou gh I am sequ estered m thls untqu e race
you kn ow n on eth eless m y desp otlc love
you kn ow th at lt fs n ot & om h atred of oth er races
th at I m ake m yself th e h u sban dm an of thls unlqu e race
th at w h at 1 m ost d eslre
to m eet th e u nlversal h un ger
th e un lversal thlrst
ls to com m lt m y race, free at last,
to produ cln g from 1ts closed m tlm acy
the succulence offrm ts )

16 C esalre 1956 15 T h e E n gllsh verslon ls m ln e

 9

T h eo A n gelop oulo s in th e U n derw orld

F ranoise L toublon
(w ith the collaboration of Caroline Eades)

Slnce the O dysseys th e Journey to the U n derw orld has becom e an

obllgatory them e ln eplc,as w ellas ln m any other llterary genres,also
because lt entalls the ultlm ate form of voyage: on e w hlch leads the
traveller to confront a radlcal O ther, an d to expen en ce the llm lts of
the hum an con dltlon . T hls could account for the fact that m any
heroes: W rgtl's A en eas, D ante ln T he D fvir/rC om edy an d Fenelon's
Telem achos, have follow ed O dysseu s: step s, an d for th e fact th at ln
m odern tlm es,slnce Joyce an d Proust,llterature and the arts h ave not
shunned H om er's N ekukas even lf the rew rltln g of thls ep lsode h as
often purposely taken m any llbertles w lth the orlgln al m odel. T he
film s ofthe G reek dlrector A ngelopoulos are h aunted by tw o kln ds of
sh adow s, constantly lntertw ln ed ln hls w ork: the shadow s m et by
A ngelopoulos ln hls ow n un derw orld, w lth som e an alogles w lth
th ose m et by O dysseus ln hls Journ ey, an d H om e/ s shadom a
p etv aslve o n e ln llterature, sln ce an tlqulty.l

l See B oltanl 1994 12 Q1 w ould ltke to start w lth Cfsubstantlal shadow sA? O ne
em erges from U lysses'story of hls adventures d urlng h1s ten years return Jrolza Troy
to lthaca,recoun ted ln th e O tlyssey the sh adow of th e Journ ey to H ades and d eath
T h e oth er ts th e sh adow w h tc:h seeps qm etly out of th e m yth ,coverln g the w hole of
our cu ltu re the U lysses w ho ls relncarn ated ,ln dlfferent form s and bearm g dlfferent
values,ln poetry an d hlstory throu gh the centu rles,from H om er to the present day
T hls con stan t presen ce an d 1ts con tln aln g h old over th e lm ap n atlon are slgn s that lt
rep resen ts ottr destlny as hu m an b etngs7 ln th ts quotatto n , B o ftant quo tes E u genlo
M ontale's poetry collectlon,O sstdtsepta (1925)
 T heo zb Tgp/tpp tlt/fts kn the U nderw orld 2 11

T hls chapter bullds on prevlous studles of A ngelopoulos's film og-

raphy,w hlch C arolln e E ades an d lh ave p ubllsh ed togeth enz T h e central
ldea ln those studles w as that A ngelop oulosns film s contam recurrent
elem ents w hlch w ork llke the Ktyplcalscenesnand Kform ulasnof H om en c
eplc: for exam ple, tables dressed for a m eal w h lch w lll rem am un -
touched,black um brellas un der torrentlal ram ,G reek tradltlon al cafes,
and yellow ralncoats.(The latter vlsual cue appears,agaln,ln Eternlty
and a D fky w hlch w as released after our 1999 study ofthatm otlf:a serles
of three shots sh ow s three m en ln yellow ollskln s, n lng at the snm e
speed on slm llar blkes, th elr faces entlrely covered by the ram coat
hood- perhaps a collectlve and anonym ous allegory of m odern socl-

e>&)
A n gelop oulos first read H om erns w orks at school, as m o st G reeks
stlll do today, although n ow largely through m odern G reek transla-
tlon s.H e told u s ln lntervlew th at h e d1d n ot llke H om er at th at tlm e,
b ut th at later on h e reallzed h ow m u ch G reek culture ow es to th e
H om erlc eplcs, esp eclally th e O dyssey.s T h e first p art of hls career
(from The ReconstructlonlA naparastassk ln 1970 to The H unters/l
Jf'
yrlig/l; ln 1977) w as m ostly lnfluenced by the O resteka; references
to the O dyssey first becam e obvlous ln hls 1984 film vt
'lyugr to
Cythera.ln A ngelopoulosns w ork antlqulty never appears as a dlrect
source, for h e constantly tran sform s anclent them es ln to m odern
on es, often com blnlng th em w lth contem porary polltlcal references:
ln J'byflgp to C ythera, for exam ple, th e O dyssey ls a filter th rough
w hlch A ngelop oulos vlew s th e return of a form er com m un lst to hls
h om elan d after a 30-year exlle ln th e U SSR .4 A ngelopoulos thus
ad opts a very dlfferen t stan ce tow ards an tlqulty from th at of oth er
G reek film -m akers such as C acoyanm s.s H e ts deeply lntlu en ced by
m odern w rlters w h o h ave th em selves rew rltten the O dyssey ln th elr
ow n w ork:D ante,Joyce,Ellot, Seferls, and, arguably, Proust- w ho,

2 E ades and Letoublon 19994, 19999, and 1999:, E ades, Letoublon , and R ollet
(2002),Letoublon and Eadesln D em opoulos(2003) Seealso Letoublon (forthcom lng)
3 T he ln tervlew s w lth A ngelopoulos w ere conducted durlng the perlod 1994-2003
(n several d tfferen t lo catto n s
4 For a slm llar use ofthe O dyssey cf Qpenelope's D espalr'(1968)by Yannls Rltsos,
dlscussed by R lcksy pp 243- 4
5 A nttgone (1961) and Elektra (1962),starrlng lrene Papas,are the m ost fam ous
exam ples of C acoyannls7s adaptatlons of anclent G reek tragedy See Solom on 201)1
260- 7
2 12 F ranokse L etou blon

ln Rem em brance of Thkngs Past, offers a beautlful rew rltlng of the

H om erlc N ekuka, very far from B lochns p ath etlc H om erlsm s.6 O th er
film lc ad aptatlon s also n eed to be con sldered : th e N ekuka ls an
lm p ortant th em e ln th e w ork of oth er film -m akers as w ell as th at
of A ngelop oulos.;
lt seem s th at, ln A n gelop oulosns n arratlves, th e th em e of Kth e vlslt
to th e und erw orld'first em erged w hen h e turn ed to H om er,after h1s
'l-raglc'perlod w here he resorted m ostly to A eschylean references (as
ln,for exam ple, The Travelhng Players (1974/5),a film w hlch estab-
llshed hls reputatlon ln Europe).A s stated earller,references to the
O dyssey an d the N ekuka seem to have first appeared ln J'r
tlyflgr to
Cythera (ln the form of a few subtle alluslonsl.8 They becam e m ore
frequent and expllclt ln U lysses'G aze (1995) and Eternkty and a D ay
(1998). Flnally, the figure of O rpheus, w ho ls also lm portant for
A n gelop oulos's con ceptlon of th e un derw orld ,ls dlscreetly evoked ln
hls m ost recent t'ilm , The W eepkng M eadow (2004).9
Let u s begln w lth th e elem ents of O dysseusnvlslt to the un den vorld
w hlch seem essentlalto A ngelopoulos's lnterpretatlon of the m yth :lo

@ T he dep arture polnt ls the countty of the C lm m erlan s, w h o n ever

see the sunlll a country subm erged ln fog and perm anent darkness.
* A ccess to the W orld of Shadow s ls provlded by a n etw ork of rlvers,
ln a d am p atm osph ere,located ln the w est w here the sun dlsappears
every even ln g .lz

6 O n Proust's N ekuta, see Letoublon and Fralsse 1997 G regson D avls dlscusses
the dlstlnctlve form taken by the Journey to the underw orld (katabasts) ln the
C arlbb ean trad ltlon and argues that lt ls lnform ed by n eo A frlcan cosm ology, as
w ell as N ear E astern ep lc C h 8 ab ove
7 Eades 2002 231.-45 H oltsm ark (2001) focuses on w esterns,thrllers,sclence
fk tlon m ovles and film s on the V letnam W ar 170th authors d eal ln partlcu lar w lth

C op po la's A p ocalypse N pw
8 O n the N ekuta ln kbyfl.g'
c to Cythera, see R ollet 2003 esp 65- 8,and 142- 55
9 In thls t'ilm ,the protagonlst's father hears hls son play the accordlon and says to
hlm self 'thls young m an could m ove the trees w lth h1s m uslcl w hlch can be
con sld ered an ob vlo us alluslon to O rph eu s T h e acco rd 1on 1st ls d eterm ln ed to
retrleve h1s beloved several clu es suggest th at h1s qu est ls p artly cast as a vlslt to
the underw orld
10 M any of these elem ents are also part of the O rphlc D escent and R eturn See
Strau ss 1971 and B runel 1974
11 B oltanl 1994 l3,Qper um bram ad um bras'
12 Ib ld 14
 T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nflcrw tlrlfl 2 13

* T h e u nd etw orld ls lnh ablted by w an derln g souls, of sp ectral

app earan ce, w h o n eed to dn n k blood ln ord er to com m un lcate
w lth th elr vlsltor.
@ Sp eclfic en coun ters take place w lth ln dlvldu al dead ch aracters
(O dysseusnm other A ntlclela;the seer Tlreslas;O dysseus'contem -
p orarles w h o dled ln th e Trolan W ar: A chllles an d A gam em n on ;
m yth lcal ch aracters w h o are beln g p unlsh ed for th elr p aradlgm atlc
cn m es:Tltyus,Tantalus,Slsyphus).
@ O dysseu sn en counters h ave a stron g em otlon al lm p act: h e trles to
h ug hls m oth er three tlm es, exp erlen ces th e lm p osslblllty of a true
contact w lth th e souls of th e d ead, an d recelves from A ntlclela
an oral explanatlon' of w h at death ls.H ls en coun ter w lth A ch llles
also tu rn s ln to a lesson ln m etap hyslcs.l3

T h ese essen tlal elem en ts are com bln ed w lth elem ents taken from th e
m yth of O rph eu s: th e latter ls attested ln later G reek an d L atln
llterature, but could be as o1d as th e H om erlc eplcs. W h atever lts
date,ln A ngelopoulos's w ork as ln m any other artlstsl O dysseusnand
O rph eu s'Journ eys to th e un derw orld ten d to m erge.D escent ln to a
d ark place, und erground rlvers, and w and erln g souls are elem en ts
com m on to 170th . Yet th e m yth of O rph eu s, ln lts m ost develop ed
form as attested ln O vld's M etam orp hoses, also ln cludes elem en ts
absen t from th e O dyssey:

@ The posslblllty of a Ksecond chancel represented by the return to

llfe of th e dead w om an O rph eu s h as com e to rescu e.
@ T h e fatal gaze w h lch sen ds h er back to death .
@ T h e return of a m ournln g O rph eus.
@ N atu re as a p artlclp an t ln h ls m o u rn ln g, an d as a sou rce of
em otlon al sup p ort.
@ The furlous M aenads (and the Klnventlon' of hom osexuallty by
O rpheus- accordlng to the O vldlan verslon).
@ T h e dlsm em berlng an d b eh eadln g of th e h ero.
@ T h e descen t of hls h ead dow n th e H ebrus rlver.
@ O rp h eusn son p w h lch tran scen ds h ls ow n death .

13 See G erm atn 19 54 33 1- 70 O n O dysseus'encou nter w tth A ch tlles,see G erm aln

1954 343-6 G erm aln also acknow ledges a parallel w lth G tlgam esh
2 14 F ranolse L etoublon

Several of th ese elem ents can be foun d ln T h eo A ngelop o ulosns film s

either as expllclt alluslons (ln U lysses,G aze and Eternzty and a D ay)
or at a d eep er level, ln th e con cep tlon of th e story itself.t't
In U lysses'G f/ztr: a film -m aker kn ow n slm ply as A . com es b ack to
hls n atlve tow n of Florlna, after h avln g p ursued a career ln th e
U nlted States. O n lu s retu rn , h e starts a search for three fllm reels
sh ot by th e M an ak ls broth ers ln th e B alk an s at th e b eglnn lng of th e
tw entleth cen tury. O n hls q uest, h e h as to travel th rough m any
cou n trles, u sln g varlou s m ean s of tran sp o rt: taxl, traln , b oat. H e
d ecld es to travel to Saralevo after gath erlng som e u seful lnform atlon
ln B elgrade,w h ere an o1d fn end , a Jo urn a11st, d escrlb es Y ugoslavla to
hlm as a country full of rlvers.ls H e th en m eets a peasan t w om an
w h o offers to take h im to a place near Saralevo by boat. She sh ow s
h lm th e ltln erary sh e h as ch osen by draw lng a m ap on a dlrty
w ln d ow , an d m en tlon s th at th ey w l11 travel up th e E vros n ver: ln
th e m yth , lt ls on thls very rlver that O rph eusn h ead floated, un tll lt
reached the A egean sea and the lsland ofLesbos (sym bollcally glvlng
blrth to lyn c p oetzy th e art favoured by th e tw o m ost fam ous p oets
ofthe lsland,A lcaeus and Sappho).The w om an,dressed ln black has
A .b oard h er boat by m ght, an d n avlgates by stan dln g at the p rom
w lth out row ln g: sh e can b e read as an lm age of 170th C h aro and
M olra, an d also of th e P h aeaclan s, w h ose sh lp s sall by th em selves
w lth out the help of oars or ru dder. Later ln th e t-ilm , th ls ch aracter
w lll turn ln to a N au slcaa w ash m g h er laun dry, an d also a C lrce/

C alyp so lonp n g for carn al un lon .

In Saralevo,A .ls told th at th e fog w hlch som etlm es en gulfs th e clty
ls a relief for th e p eop le llvlng there,becau se lt p revents sn lp ers from
alm m g at th em . D urlng a w elcom e foggy day, A . an d h 1s friend lvo
L evl atten d varlo us celebratlon s, m ostly art events: a con cert of
classlcal m uslc and a perform ance of R om eo JAIJ l'
ulw t by am ateurs,
w h o p lay lt ln th elr ow n lan gu age.A .rep eats Sh akesp eare's w ords ln a
1ow volce, as lf h e w ere h um m ln g a fam lllar m elody.H e h ap p en s to
attend the scene w here R om eo trles to leave pullet on tlm e,after both

14 E ad es and L etoublon 1999 c

15 B efore th e co un try ceased to extst, ld eallzed descrip ton s of Y u go slavta often
em phaslzed 1ts naturalbeautles (m cludkng kts rw ers),here they m ark the underw orld
ln a w ar torn cotm try For an kdealtzed d escrtptton o f Yu go slav geographs see
Grazlosl'scom m entson The Song OJM I/AIIIJ.
JIParry pp 136-7 above
 T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nderw orld 215

lovers h ave b een w arn ed by th e son g of a b lrd , a n o ctu rn al n lgh tln -

gale accordlng to her,an early lark ln hls descrlptlon .Fln ally,lt ls stlll
m th e fog th at h e com es across an outdoor ballw h ere h e m eets L evlns
d aughter, dan ces w lth h es an d prom lses to com e back an d take h er
aw ay from a tow n sh e cann ot stan d any longer.A .falls to un derstan d
th e om en of Sh ak espeare's blrds: th e m odern lullet w lll b e kllled,
togeth er w lth h er w h ole fam lly, ln th e fog- a fog w hlch can n ot
lm palr the m achlne gun s of a m otorlzed p atrol.
A fter seto ng foot ln Saralevo,A .n eeds a gulde ln order to fin d 1vo
L evl:the keep er ofthe M an akls reels:l6 h e m eets a chlld w ho know s Levl
and hls lalr- hem lght be hls grandson- an d follow s hlm to a sort of
shelter for the hom eless,w here the old Levl usually gets hls food.T he
chlld sh ares several features w lth the H om erlc N auslcaa, w ho leads
O dysseu s to h er fath e/ s palace.Later on , th e boy asks A . to help hlm
carty p alls of drlnk lng w ater,a rare treat ln a clty at w ar.ln llght of th e
O dyssey w e reallze that thls preclous w ater, for w hlch hum an belngs
constantly rlsk thelr llves,ls atthe sam e tlm e the food and drlnk offered
by N auslcaa to th e stran ded hero and the blood offered by O dysseus to
the thlrsty shadow s of the undetw orld .T he w hole t'ilm ls, ln a sense,
cast as an lnfern al Journ ey, but the m ost com plex references to the
N ekuka are perhaps to be found ln tw o sequ en ces:th e descent lnto L evfs
dark hldden archlve,and the encounter w lth A .7s m other.Flrst,let us
look at th e lnfern al archlve: ln order to m eet L evl, A . m ust reach hls
klngdom , th e old film archlves, w hlch h ave b een devastated by w ar,
but stlll serve as a shelter and a house. O ne can access the place
throu gh a gaplng hole ln the w all; th ere are a few seats left ln the
screen lng room , but som e oth er room s seem lntact, as for ln stan ce
L evfs office. lt ls m ostly w hen Levl drags A . outslde to celebrate the
arrlval of the fog that the film archlves app ear as som e sort of
und erground cave on e can exlt by follow lng a p ath tow ards an ever
lncreaslng brlghtness.T hls ls the passage through w hlch O dysseus and
O rpheus entered and left the undetw orld. A t the sam e tlm e, Levfs
place w as on ce th e slte of prolected lm ages, a Platon lc cave w hlch
ls now deserted by th e shadow theatre, but lnhablted by sun uvlng

16 Ivo Levl gu ldlng A through Saralevo could be a rem lnder of C lrce leadlng
O dysseu s to H ades and T resias,as w ell as of V rp l gm dng D ante du rm g h :s vtstt to
th e O ther W orld ln the D tvtn e C om edy
2 16 F ranotse L etoublon

shadow s.l7 O n the w alls of the film archlves,a few m ovle posters attest
to the persistence of lm ages,as an lronlc rem lnder otl but also as a
h om age to,th e artlstlc tradltlon of th e seventh art.t8
It ls ln thls place th at L evl w l11 succeed ln bn np n g b ack to llfe th e
th ree film reels shot by the M an akls broth ers. H e uses a sp eclal
form ula ln order to p rocess th e film th e develop m ent of th e reels
evokes th e O dyssean bath through w hlch th e n urse E uty clela recog-
n lzes O dysseus. B efore goln g o ut ln th e fop L evl and A . are sh ow n
togeth er lau gh ln g and relolclng at the slght of the lm ages th ey h ave
unvelled .Ivo L evlth u s b ecom es th e ln carnatlon of th e beloved n urse
w ho recognlzes O dysseus thanks to hls cunnlng (he ls the one w ho
requ ested to be glven a h osp ltallty bath by a very o1d w om an ,
know lng perfectly w ell that Penelope w ould select Euryclela) and
w h om h e asks to stay sllent ab out h ls ldentlty. B ut A ngelop oulosns
ch aracter Is also close to th e sooth sayer T lreslas b ecause h e h as th e
ab lllty to tu rn lnvlslble lm ages lnto vlslble on es.19
A s E m lly G reenw ood su ggested to m e, th e film arch lves could
stan d as a sym b ol of tw o dlfferent m od els for th e recep tlon of
antlqulty: on th e on e h an d, th e statlc: frozen rem n an t of th e p ast,
w h lch can be revlew ed ,but not revlslted and:on the other hand,the
con tln uln g, evolvln g rew rltlng of th e p ast ln th e p resent.zo T h e

17 In the lntroductlon to ClasstcalM yth and C ttlture ln the O nem a,W lnkler (2001
11-14) uses Cornford and Przyluskl to suggest an lnterestlng parallelbetw een the
clnem a and P lato's cave Q'rhat th e shadow y ex lsten ce of actors o n th e screen ls a close
p arallel to the exlsten ce of th e p eople ln P lato's C ave w h ose sh ad ow s app ear on
1ts w allbecom es clear ln th e follow ln g d escrlptaon b y L ulglP lran dello,on e of th e first
m odern autho rs to address th ls asp ect of cln em a '
18 O n e could suggest th at f lm arch lves h ave th e sam e fttnctlon ln a m ed la
orlen ted cultu re as H om er do es ln m od ern llterature th ey are th e rep osltorles of
lm ages and ston es,told or w rltten ln th e Saralevo film arch lves,th ere are also b ooks
on shelves,nextto the posters,butthe tltlesofthebooks (and ofthe t'ilm posters) are
n ot sh ow n ln anoth er scene, A and a frlend drlnk ln th e m ld dle of a street m
B elgrade to the w om en they once loved ln Parlsyto Jazz m uslcm ns and poets (Charlte
M lngus, Tsltsanls C avafy), to a strange polltlcal trm lty (Che G uevara, M ay 68,
Santorlnl),and finally to film m akers (M urnau ,D reyer,W elles,Esenstem )
19 Sylvle R ollet observed thatLevlls played by Erland Josephson ,better know n for
h 1s parts ln B ergm an's t'ilm s th ls m ay end ow h is ch aracter m A ngelopou lo s's film
w lth an aura of sllen ce,m ystery,knvkskb khty an d m etap hystcs
29 ln Vpyfzgc to Cyfhcrsocopkes of ancent statues (Caryattds from the Acropolts),
m ade ln plastlc or stu cco ,are carred tn th e h ortzo ntal po sttto n by techntctans w h o
p rep are a set for th e sh ootkn g of a pertod fllm T h ts ts the seqtten ce du rtng w hlch the
m am ch aracter,A lexand ro s,first sees h (s fatherAs shad ow
 T heo A ngelop oulos J?; the U nderw orld 2 l7

O dyssey th u s ch anges ln accordan ce w lth th e p olltlcal an d hlstorlcal

lan d scape:ln thls chan gln g vlew of th e textns receptlon ,D an te exlled
from Floren ce can see h lm self as a m od ern O dysseus as w ell as a
B loom w alklng th rough D ublln from on e p ub to an oth er untll,lyln g
n ext to h1s unfalthfulM olly,h e eventu ally dream s of another po sslble
Journ ey. ls th e Krealn H om er a p reserved , statlc H om er, as close as
p osslble to th e Korlgln aln as w e can m an age? O r ls h e th e ch angln g
H om er of th e presen t day w h o reflects th e ch an glng, shlftln g lan d -
scap e of E urop e ln U lysses' G tzzp? lt ls p osslble th at A n gelop oulosns
m odelof H om erlc receptlon lles som ew h ere betw een th ese tw o p oles,
an d th at m ean lng ls to be foun d ln th e ten slon betw een a frozen ,
statlc,lost p ast, an d a p ast th at n on eth eless contln ues to be used an d
reson ate ln th e p resen t.
T h e ten slon b etw een th ese tw o con ceptlon s of th e p ast can b e
p ercelved also ln th e en coun ter w lth th e m oth es w hlch ls artlculated
ln tw o step s. Flrst, d urlng h ls Journ ey,h .'s m em ory ls trlggered by a
stop ln a traln statlon.(The sequence evokesRem em brance of Thkngs
fk yf- w hlch ls on e ofA ngelop oulosns favourlte w orks of llterature,as
he told us ln an lntervlew ).The follow lng scene show sA .seated next
to hls m oth er ln a traln h eaded for C on stan ta,w hlch ls both th e clty
of hls chlldh ood an d th e M an akls broth ers' h om etow n .T h e protag-
on lstns m oth er ls a very elegan t an d beautlful lady. Sh e ls p ortrayed
later on d urlng a long-sequen ce sh ot w hlch descrlbes a serles of three
successlve N ew Yea/ s Eves celebrated by a G reek bourgeols fam lly
llvlng ln exlle ln the Pontos (the Black Sea, Pontos rttzzirltls the
Khospltable sean of antlqulty).Thls sequence portrays the lncreaslng
trouble faced by thls fam lly :th e m llltla ln terrupts th e celebratlon s to
arrest an un cle an d th e fath es th en to selze th elr prop erty, ln p ar-
tlcular th e plan o w hlch h ad been used for fam lly en tertaln m ent.
T h e m ost rem arkable asp ect of th e sequ en ce ls th e fact th at th e
m other (played by M ala M orgenstern- w ho also plays the other key
w om en ln the film ,that ls, all the w om en A .loves) never changes,
n ever gets old .Sh e looks th e sam e ln th e traln ,d urlng th e lm agln ary
en counter provoked by th e m on oton ous p ace of th e Journ ey an d th e
travelle/ s daydream s, as sh e does ln th e first N ew Yea/ s Eve scen e,
th en th e second , and fin ally th e th lrd , w h lch all b elong to th e
p rotagonlstns m em oty . A s for A ., h e keep s hls contem p orary look
through out,th at ofa m an ln h ls slxtles,a film -m aker of G reek orlgln ,
2 18 F ranokse L etoublon

w h o ls A m erlcam zed an d alm ost alw ays sp eaks E n gllsh- as on e

w ould exp ect from H arvey K eltel, w h o p lays th e p art. A . travels
from th e clvllw ar ln Saralevo m th e 1990s to fam ily llfe ln C onstanta
ln th e 1950s: th e settln g an d costu m es place ln dlvldual scen es ln a
hlstorlcal sequen ce, but events an d m em ory are also slm ultaneous.
T h us A . takes hls fathe/ s place to dan ce w lth h1s m oth er- w ho ls
alw ays sm lllng,but seem s ab sent or dlstant,ln splte of h er affectlon -
ate attentlon tow ards lum .2t
T here ls a notable exceptlon to these m lxed tem poralltles, how -
ever:d urlng on e of th e N ew Yea/ s celebratlon s,a ph otograph er takes
a tradltlon al fam lly p ortralt.zz In th at con text, A . app ears as a
teen ager of th at tlm e,a b lt stlff ln h ls form alw eas am on g h ls glgglln g
teen age couslns an d th e other relatlves w ho take thelr places ln front
of the cam era.lt seem s that the exceptlon can be explalned preclsely
by th e use of ph otography : w e cann ot represen t ourselves ln o ur
m em ory as others saw us (except for sm all detalls,such as clothes);
n or can w e exp erlen ce exterlor ch anges ln our b odles ln th e sam e w ay
as oth ers see them .A . sees h lm self danclng w lth hls m other durlng
on e of the N ew Yea/ s Eves ln C onstanta as he percelves hlm self today,
durlng hls Journ ey through the B alkan s.Yet the m em ory of a photo-
graph taken dun n g on e N ew Yearns Eve forces hlm to recall th e
physlcal app earan ce of h ls relatlves, an d to see hlm self ln th e w ay
h e w as p ercelved by oth ers. T h e cam era p rovldes a supp osedly
oblectlve an d h lstorlcal vlew ln g. In th ose overlap pln g p ersp ectlves,
th e m ost lm p ortan t even t rem aln s th e en co un ter w lth th e m oth er:
A . sees h er as sh e w as th en : n ot an old w om an or th e youn g glrl h e
h as n ever kn ow n , but a m ature an d rem arkable beauty: carefully
m ade-up and dressed .H e speaks to h er,but she hardly says anythlng:
sh e ls n ot ultlm ately hls m oth er, but a sh adow th at h e cann ot h ug
an d w lth w h om h e cann ot com m un lcate.

21 T hou gh h e does not refer to any film by A n gelopoulos,l fou nd read m g C avell
(1979) very lnterestlng ln thls context,especlally on the subyect of the relatlonshlp
b etw een clnem a and tlm e, th e vlslble and the lnvlslble, clnem a an d ph otography
(23-5), tdeas of orp n (.37-41): the end of M yths (.60-8), the w orld as m ortal
(74-80),and the them es ofexhlbltlon and self reference (118-26)
22 T hls scene m ay ech o th e b ep nnm g of th e film , w h ere a blu e sh p ts bem g
p hotograp hed by one of the M anakls bro thers B o th scen es renalnd us o f A ngelo
poulos's fond ness for old stlll and m ovle cam eras,w h lch he sees as w ltnesses of th e
h tstory of cm em a
 T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nderw orld 2 l9

E ternkty and a D ly agaln evokes the O dyssean N ekua by deplctln g an

en coun ter w lth th e m oth er an d by reflectm g on m em oto p h otography,
and physlcalchange.T h e protagonlst ls aw rlter kn ow n only by hls first
nam e,Alexandros (a m an ln h1s slxtles, rem im scent of 170th A . ln
U lysses'G aze and A ngelopouloshlm self).H e ls dlagnosed w lth cancer
and,before checklng lnto the hospltat pays a vlslt to hls m other,w ho
llves ln a retlrem ent hom e and probably h as A lzhelm e/ s dlsease.T he
vlslt ls fram ed by A lexandros's m em orles,w here hls m other features
togeth er w lth h 1s deceased w lfe A n na: 170th w om en app ear to h lm as
they looked w hen A lexandrosns daughter w as born ,that ls,thlrty years
before the tlm e ln w hlch the m aln n arratlve ls set.A lexan drosns m other
seem s to b e llvlng w lth th e young couple w h o h ave Ju st h ad a b aby,
w h ereas A nn ans parents only com e to vlslt for a celebratlon ,prob ably
the babyns ch rlstenlng.A lexandrosns m other ls sllghtly older than A .'s
m other ln U lysses'G aze but she too ls beautlful;she w ears dark clothes
w hlch m ay lndlcate thatshe ls a m dow ,butsh e lsn ot dressed ln black as
old G reek w om en u sed to d o at th at tlm e. Sh e ls sh ow n rockln g th e
baby ln h er cradle under the protectlve roof ofaw hlte gazebo faclng the
sea,ln front of a beautlfulbourgeols house located on an lsolated part
ofthe seaslde near Thessalonlkl.W e are told atthe beglnntlzg ofthe film
th atA lexan dros and h1s fam lly reslded there w hen he w as a chlld;n ow
h e llves by h lm self ln a com fortable b ut ordlnat'y apartm ent ln dow n -
tow n T hessalon lkt,surrou nded by th e sou nds of the nelghbourh ood.
ln the sequen ce set thlrty years prevlou sly, A lexan drosns m other
w ears an elegant large-n m m ed straw hat, w lth a black rlbbon . Later
on, durlng A lexandrosns vlslt to th e retlrem ent h om e, th e lnterlor of
h ls m oth erns room ls brletly sh ow n :lt looks qm te ordm aty but,on a
chest of draw ers, there ls a photograph of A lexan dros's m other taken
som e thlrty years ago an d,n ext to lt,the hat she w as w earlng th en :tw o
rem n ants of a dlstant past, apparently forgotten by a11 except A lexan -
dros.23 T h e old lady ls seated w h en h e arrlves: sh e d oes n ot seem to
h ear w hat h e says, even to recogm ze hlm . H e h elp s h er lle dow n , or
rather puts her to bed, as she contlnu es her m on ologue, dem andlng
her sllvetw are, and appearlng m ore gen erally obsessed w lth oblects
(w hlch ls a characten stlc ofA lzhelm e/s dlsease,butls also an lm port-
antthem e ln the film l.H e gestures affectlonately tow ards her,but she

23 Those tw o detalls m lght com e from Prot1st,see Letoublon (forthcom lng)

220 F ranokse L etoublon

does not respond;he slts nextto her on her bed and beglns:hlm seltl a
q u asl-ln ten or m on ologu e exp ressed ln a low volce.
A lexan dros's m on ologue ls, ln lm p ortan t w ays, dlsengaged from
th e extgen cles of dlrect com m um catlon . H ls w ord s evoke typlcal
scen es ln A n gelop oulos's film s,w h ere p oem s em erge from m om ents
of lsolatlon an d sllen ce.In U lysses'G aze,for exam ple:a R llke p oem ls
presented tw lce ln th e orlgln al G erm an :zzl th e t'irst tlm e,A .h as fallen
asleep from exh au stlon , and lvo L evl, alon e b ut stlll aw ake, recltes
out loud th e p oem recorded on a tap e-record er;later on ,A .,thls tlm e
alon e too,tu rn s on th e tap e recorder an d brln gs to llfe th e volces of
Levl an d the Poet, as lf th ey h ad both com e back from th e W orld of
the D ead, th anks to a m aglcal technology. l have already dlscussed
h .'s recttatlon of Sh akesp eare ln U lysses' G aze E terntty fk/# a D ay
also ln cludes a poem by Solom os, an oth er G reek artlst ln exlle,w h o
com es back h om e,but h as to learn hls ow n G reek lan guage:a youn g
w om an addresses hlm as Kpoet, llght-shadow ed m anl probably an
allu slon to Soph oclesn A ntlgone and P ln d ar.Som etlm es,A n gelop ou -
los ln cludes p oem s h e h as w rltten hlm self, as at th e en d of U lysses'
G azelth e closlng p oem com bln es varlous scen es of recogm tlon taken
from th e O dyssey and expresses a certaln trust, ln th e m ld st of
desp alr, ln th e future of a couple sep arated by death . A galn , ln
E ternkty and a D ay, a trlple readlng of A n n a's letter sup erlm p oses
th e volces of A lexan dro s, A nn a as h e rem em b ers h er, an d th elr
daugh ter.ln th ose cruclal scen es, T h eo A ngelop oulos en tru sts som e
ofh1s characters (alw ays posltlve figures:though not alw ays protag-
on1sts),25 w lth a poetlc m om ent w hen thelr volces seem to com e

24 The poem Qlch lebe m eln Leben ln w achsenden R lngen' (1 Llve m y Llfe ln
G row m g C lrcles)w as publlshed tw lce by R alner M arla R llke,firstln D te G ebete (The
Prayers), then ln the first part of Stundenbuch (Book of H ours) See addltlonal
references ln Ead es and L etoublon 1999 / 647-56
25 I am th lnk tng of th e taxl dn ver ln U lysses' G aze w ho, after a toast w lth A ,
corltem plates the vlew from a h lgh pass ln th e m oun talns ln northern G reece, and
refers to hls co untry as beln g 'to o old ' In som e cases,th e poetlc volce ls collectlve for
exam ple,so m e yo un g w ln dow clean ers from A lb anla perform a funeral rlte for on e of
thelr frlends, Sellm ,w ho has been k llled ln an accld en t ln T h essalonlk l T h elr w ord s
seem glfted w lth so m e sort of m aglc, w hlch provld es th e d ead youngster w lth
add ltlo nal m o m en ts o f llfe by the callln g of h1s nam e and th e farew ell n tual T hls
poem /so ngy altho ttgh perform ed ln a dreadful park ln g lo t, elevates th e yotm g m an's
fu neralto the levelo f the so lenan rltuals perform ed by A rab n om ad s ln th e d esert, or

H o m ertc hero es tn the ll'ad

 T heo A ngelop oulos Jrl the U nderw orld 22 1

from elsew h ere, or n ot to address any p artlcular audlen ce. lt ls as lf

th e p oetlc volce w as tlm eless, an d an en d ln ltself.26 A lexan dros's
m on ologue em ph aslzes th at on e can en coun ter hls or h er ow n
m oth er an d feel as lf sh e w ere stlll allve, w h ereas sh e ls actually
d ead, as attested by th e fact th at com m un lcatlon ls n o lon ger p os-
slble. T h e en counter d escrlb ed ln E ternkty and a D ay ls clearly
m odelled on th e O dyssey but even m ore dram atlc:A n tlclelans sh adow
seem s to h ear an d un derstan d w h at O dysseu s tells h er, an d O dysseus
can h ear w h at sh e says ab out dead p eoplens flesh .
U lysses' G aze an d E ternkty and a D ay both contaln scen es th at are
ch aracterlstlc of a nekuka, an d both can be ln terp reted as Journ eys to
th e un detw orld an d th e p ast. ln U lysses' G aze, h .'s return to G reece
an d th e B alkan s h as an exp llclt m otlvatlon : th e search for th e Kfirst
gazen sym bollzed by th e M an akls broth ersn film on dally llfe ln a
G reek vlllage at th e begln nln g of th e tw entleth cen tury. B lack-an d -
w hlte footage of th e M an akls docum en tary ls actu ally sh ow n , at least
three tlm es, at th e b eglnn ln g of U lysses' G aze. T h e sequ en ce alm ost
lm p erceptlbly m oves from black an d w hlte to colour as on e of th e
M an akls b roth ers, h ls h ead covered by th e black c10th of h ls old
cam era,tak es a ph otograph of a sh lp w lth blue salls glldln g alon g th e
h orlzon .27 Yet A .'s seach for p rlm ltlve lm ages an d for h ls ow n p ast ls
accom p am ed by th e quest for a soul-m ate,a lost E urydlce.ln Florln a,
A .leavesa screenlng ofa prevlousfilm ofhls (the film lsnever show n
to us,butthe soundtrack ofAngelopoulosns TheSuspended Step of the
Stork (1991) can be heard ln the background, as A .w alks behlnd
sp ectators h oldln g black um brellas- a slgn ature vlsu al form ula ln
A ngelopoulosns film ography).A s he leaves,A .ls m et by a dem on-
stratlon of fun dam entallsts led by a cross an d gold cap es, w alkln g
tow ard s th e film vlew ers. A galn , th e scen e ls autoblograp hlcal: lt
evokes A ngelop oulosns trouble w lth th e blsh op of Florln a durln g
th e sh ootln g of hls ow n film , U lysses' G aze. A . th en sees a w om an
un der an um brella,w h om h e app ears to recogn lze.H e trles to attract

26 A n gelop ou los's use of th e p oetlc volces could b e related to K an t's d efinltlon of

Beauty ln A rt,or Jakobson's poetlc functlon of language
27 T hls ls a qu otatlon from M agrltte's paln tlng The Sed ucer th ere ls n o su ch th ln g
as a first gaze, sln ce th e ob lect seen by th e ph o tograph er ls already an artefact T h e
sequence also suggests th at lm ages can be deadls sln ce the p hotograph er slu m p s
dead on th e seat b ehln d h1m at th e very m om en t h e trlggers h 1s cam era
222 F ranozse L etou blon

h er attentlon ,b ut sh e does not turn aroun d, and th e dem on strators

separate her from hlm .E urydlce runs aw ay from O rph eus w h o w lll,
from then on , try to find her ln her varlou s ln carn atlon s em bodled
by th e sam e actress: th e passer-by m Florlna, the curator of the
Skople film archlves, th e p easant w h o takes hlm up th e Evros rlver
In h er boat, 1vo L evlns daugh ter, an d even , as w e m en tlon ed earller,
the m em ory of hls ow n m other. T h ls search for an en coun ter w lth
th e loved on e could account for the film 's ep lgraph,a quotatlon from
P lato's A la blades w h lch ls- lm pllcltly- reln terpreted ln th e llght of
lts use by Seferls: probably A ngelopoulosns favoun te G reek p oet.28
W hen A .hears the sound of the m achlne gun s used by the snlpers
agaln st th e L evl fam lly dun ng th elr p eacefu lw alk alon g the rlves and
w h en h e fin ds th em dead ln th e snow , lt ls h ls ow n death that h e
expen ences. H e had recen tly dan ced w lth L evl's daughter an d Jok ed
about the d ay w hen he w ould com e an d take h er aw ay from th e
w arrm g city; n ow h e t'in ds hlm self alon e, ln the cave/film archlves,
w atchlng th e lm ages develop ed by L evl.W h en th ey had screened the
M anakls film togeth er th ey h ad laugh ed and Joked hke cluldren,
w hereas the solltary prolectlon n ow only ralses tears. O n ce agaln ,
as film view ers,w e are robbed of the lm ages, slnce w e can only see
th elr reflectlon ln h .
's eyes.A .cann ot see hlm self reftected m the eyes
of th e beloved;rath er, th e docum en tary lm ages ln hls eye force us to
rejkcton the em phem eralcharacter oflove,and on the nature ofA .%
gaze as he vlew s th e orlglnal gaze of the M anakls brothers.
ln E ternkty JFIJ a lIlfw th e Journ ey to the underw orld ls llkew lse
cast slm ultan o usly as an lnvestlgatlon of th e p ast and an antlclp atlon
of the m aln characterns death .A lexan dros spen ds on e day w anderlng
through T h essalonlkl before bem g adm ltted lnto th e h ospltal w here

28 lf Eterm ty (t11J (z D ay ts a trtbute to Solom os (Esteve 1998 177-87), Seferls's

p recu rso r and the atttho r of a poem dedlcated to freedom w hlch has becom e the
G reek N attonal A nthem : lt ls Seferls hlm self to w hom Ulysses'Gaze pays holzzare
through the quotatlon from Plato atthe very beglnnlng ofthe :11' 11 (the use ofSefcrls's
verslfk atlon and o f the m o dern G reek accen tual system ten d to colafirm thls ln ter
pretatlon) 'a'asvzy (clrsczAcyvcoowaoaatTz'
/zs lcl Svx'
qv law.'iJo czrzctpr
tztnd,lfthe sotfllsaboutto know ltselfkltm ustgaze lnto the soul)ln ' A rgonautsltbe
fourth poel'
n 114 M ythlstorem a,Seferls used the sam e qtzotatlon (accoznpanled by a
note referrllag to Plato's A lclbtades 133b)ybtzt also added the follow lng verses 'The
enem y alnd the forelgner lW e saw h1m ln them lrrorAl return to thlslntertextatthe
end of th e chap ter,pp 226-7
 T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nderw orld 223

h e w lll dle.ln a sen se,h e ls already a sh ad ow :som e ch aracters stlll see

h lm , w h ereas for oth ers h e ls already dead . H ls old m ald O uran la
averts h er gaze to hlde h er tears,an d an sw ers hls farew ell w lth a few
trlvlal w ords: about h avln g prep ared th e dogRs dln n er. D urlng hls
w alk on th e pler alon g th e w h arf ln T h essalom kl,h e com es across hls
d octor w h o does n ot even dare ask h ow h e feels an d p olltely sh orten s
th e conversatlon . A lexan dros th en goes to h ls d augh te/ s place ln
ord er to leave h ls d og w lth h er an d glve h er a letter w rltten by hls
w lfe, A nn a, durln g h appy tlm es, or th e retrosp ectlve llluslon of
h appy tlm es. ln actu al fact, at th at tlm e A nn a h ad called hlm a
ttraltorn an d h ad lm plored hIm to glve h er only on e day, as a
sup plem ent to th e etern lty m entlon ed ln th e film tltle.29 A lexan dros's
d aughter refuses to keep th e d og ln h er luxuty ap artm ent, full of
p reclous and fraglle oblects. A lexan drosns son -ln -law com es out of
th e sh ow er ln hls b athrob e an d p ays even less atten tlon to A lexan -
drosns last vlslt: n elth er asks hlm th e reason for hls un exp ected call,
an d h e ln cldentally learn s from th em th at th ey h ave sold th e beautlful
seaslde h om e of hls youth , w h ere all th e lum ln ou s seqtlen ces ln th e
film take place. B ut th e m ost su staln ed referen ce to A lexandrosns
d eath ls p rovlded by hls dog- a figure th at m u st be read agaln st
th e O dyssey an d A ngelop oulos's earller film s.
ln J/byflgr to Cythera, th e protagonlst, an old p artlsan w h o em l-
grated to th e U SSR after th e C lvll W ar, return s to hls h om e after
thlrty years.W h en h e arrlves n ear hls old h ouse, h e ls m et by a dog
expllcltly n am ed A rgos.ln A ngelop oulos's film s,th e d og ls alw ays an
O dyssean figure,butln Eternkty and a D ay the (unnam ed) dog turns
out to b e an lnverse lm age of A rgos. ln th e O dyssey th e dog dles at
th e very m om en t hls m aster return s: th e scen e ls th e on ly sp on tan -
eou s recogn ltlon ln th e w h ole eplc; all oth er ch aracters- E uryclela,
Telem ach u s, E um aeu s, P en elop e, L aertes, an d so on- n eed extern al
p roof of O dysseu sn ld en tlty b efore th ey recognlze h lm . ln E ternkty
and a D ay ch aracters fall to recogn lze th e p llght of th e dog an d hls
m aster.A lexan dros can n ot leave th e dog w lth hls daugh ter an d,as h e
cann ot entrust anybody else w lth hlm an d can n ot take hlm to th e

29 A reference to Shakespeare QForever,and one day' tz1s l'

br/Ltke fr,1V 1) See
further Eades and Letoublon 19994 265 Letoublon (forthcom lng) dlscusses a
posslble allu slon to the first scene ln Shakespeare's L ove's L abour's L ost
224 F ranolse L etou blon

h osp ltal, h e goes to see h ls m ald : O uran la, w h o ls celebratln g th e

w eddln g of a son or daughter,w lth allth e p om p th at can be brought
to thls cerem ony ln a very p oor soclal envlrtm m en t.A lexan dros an d
hls dog dlsturb th e celebratlon, but O uranla accepts her em ploye/ s
d og and h e leaves, obvlou sly relleved .T h e m verslon of the O lysscy 's
m otlf Is clear: the dog w l11 survlve w laereas A lexandros w 1ll dle.
A n en gagem ent w lth A n gelop ou losns earller film ography Is essen -
tlal ln order to un derstan d oth er echoes of the N ekuza them e ln
E ternfty K//CJ a D ay O n e aspect of th e film l h ave n ot yet dls-
cussed- but w hlch ls m fact central- ls the relatlon shlp betw een
A lex andros and an A lb anlan chlld .T h elr m eetlng ls cast ln llterary
term s:yust as th e poet Solom os b ough t G reek w ords from th e p eople
he m et durlng the W ar of Llberatlon ,A lexandros: a fam ous con tem -
porat'y w rlter (hls fam e em erges from the w ords of an adm lrer he
happens to m eetdurlng h1sJourney),buys w ords from an Albanlan
ch lld w ho speaks an archalc G reek dlalect full of savoury w ords.Th e
N ekuza th em e resonates in a sequence w here A lexandros follow s
som e young crlm ln als to th e clan d estm e locatlon w h ere th ey sell
ch lldren to rlch forelgn ers, w h o select th em as ln a superm arket;
th e place looks hke a m odern lnferno on earth .
A lexan dros proceeds to b uy th e ch lld h e h as already rescu ed ln
th e streets of T h essalon lkt, an d drlves h 1m to th e A lb an lan b ord er,
ln ord er to send h1m back hom e. Yet, after w ltnesslng a strange
scen e at th e b order,h e tak es th e ch lld b ack to T h essalon lkl:w e see
fences, search tow ers w lth arm ed guard s, and m otlonless m en are
clln gm g to th e border fen ces at varlou s helghts. It ls n ot clear
w h eth er th ey are d ead or allve. ln vlsu al term s, th e scen e evokes
the last shot ln The Suspended Step of the Stork w here telephone
w orkers dressed ln yellow ralnw ear cllng to telep hon e poles ln a
slm llarly foggy lan dscap e. T h e m en on top of th e p oles are all
lden tlcal an d stran gely allgn ed ln som e kln d of avlary geom etry,
w hlch p erhaps refers to the tltle.M ore om ln ously, th e blrd -m en ln
E ternty J/CJ a D ay seem trapp ed, electrocuted at th e very m om ent
th ey trled to cross th e bord er.A lexan dros drlves th e ch lld b ack to
the hospltable clty of T hessalonlkl:after taklng hlm to the w orld of
th e D ead, h e brlngs hlm b ack to llfe, as a n ew varlatlon on the

O rph eus m yth .

 T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nderw orld 225

ln th e can onlcal ep lcs of th e W estern tradltlon , h eroes are allow ed

only on e Journey to th e undetw orld.3o O dysseus, A eneas, H erakles,
O rph eu s, D ante, an d th elr m odern reln carn atlon s com e back from
th e D ead only on ce: th elr status as h eroes ls relnforced by th elr
adven ture, an d for each on e of th em lt ls a un lque exp erlen ce.
T h elr Journ ey to th e un derw orld u sed to be con sldered an O dyssean
lnn ovatlon . O dysseus' exp erlen ce could th en be ln terpreted as a
sym b ol of th e m odern lty of th e O dyssean m odel ln relatlon to earller
ep lc tradltlon s. N ow w e know th at th e G klgam esh ep lc ln cludes a
Journ ey to th e un derw orld .T h e stot'y predates th e O dyssey by alm ost
on e th ousan d years an d could lm ply th e exlsten ce of an ln do -E uro -
p ean an d N ear E astern m yth .3l
T h ls un lque feature of an clent eplcs p arad oxlcally seem s to m ultl-
p1y w lthln A ngelopoulos's ow n film s and from on e film to the
oth er- at least in th e m ost recent p erlod of h ls w ork , w h ere O dys-
seu sn Jo urn ey to th e un d erw orld an d H om e/ s sh ad ow coln cld e. In
U lysses'G aze,before reach lng Saralevo and lts cave full of tm ages,th e
film -m aker vlslts th e form er curator of th e B elgrade film archlves, ln
ord er to ask hlm about th e w h ereabouts of th e M an aklsn lost reels.
T h e curator llves ln a retlrem ent h om e w lth oth er eld erly p eople,an d
th e favourlte p astlm e of thls com m unlty of souls w h o are su sp en ded
b etw een thls an d th e O th er w orld, ls to w atch lm ages on a televlslon
screen . T h e Saralevo film archlves are th erefore foresh adow ed, ln a
rath er d erlslve m an n er, by a retlrem ent h om e ln B elgrad e.L ater on ,
ln Saralevo ltseltl A . w ltnesses a horn fp ng scene w here, dun ng a
snlp er attack , th e lnh ab ltan ts of a h ou se located at a street corn er
leave th elr h om e, a11 dlsh evelled an d dlstraugh t: th ey seem to be
ln m ates ln a p sych latrlc w ard,or an old p eoplens h om e.32 For vlew ers
w ho are alert to the overall coherence of A ngelopoulosns w ork the
retlrem ent h om e w h ere A lexander's m oth er llves ln E ternkty flnfl fl

30 See G lrce's w ord s at O dyssey 12 2 l-2

31 A ccordlng to Sam uel K ram er (K ram er 1957),the Babylonlan eplc Gtlgam esh
b orrow ed several elem en ts o f 1ts sto rs ln clud ln g the D escent to the U nd erw orld,
fro m an old er Su m ertan poem See also, D av ts,p p 193-4 above
:2 For som e tlm e,A n gelop ou los has been plan nlng a film w here the actlon takes
p lace ln a hom e for the bllnd ,du rln g the n lght of 3 1 D ecem b er 1999 T h e thresh old of
th e year, th e centu ry an d th e m llen nm m are lm k ed m A ngelop ou lo s's perso nal
lm agln ary to th e them e of the Jou rn ey to h ell sym bollzed by d ark ness, blln dness,
m ad n ess an d agelng
226 F raniov e L etoublon

D ay ls a rem lnder of both the retlrem ent hom e ln B elgrade, w here

the form er curator of the film archlves ln th e form er capltal of
Y ugoslavla llves,an d th e Saralevo retlrem ent h om e w h ose occup ants
are exp elled lnto a clty w h ere danger ls perm an ent an d w here the
m ost vuln erable are left totally pow erless.
T h e th em e of th e Journey to th e undetw orld ls therefore llnked to
the presen ce ln th e Kreal'w orld of sh adow s com lng from beyond,and
to the spectrallm pact of lm ages ln T h eo A ngelopoulos's ow n cln em a.
A s w e argued ln an earller study,ln Jzrtpylilgrto Cythera too th e descent
to the klngdom of the dead an d the ablllty to see the shadow s of th e
dead ln the realw orld are tw o sldes of th e sam e adventure.33 T h e film
archlve becom es a cave, th e retlrem ent h om e a sh adow th eatre.
T he referen ce to Plato ln the dedlcatlon for U lysses'G aze seem s to
refer to Seferlsns p oem tltled A rgon auts,w hlch quotes P latons A la bk-
ades but also ad ds a lln e w hlch changes the overall m eanlng of th e
quotatlon :K'l'h e enem y an d the forelgn er,w e saw hlm ln the m lrron'
P lato's m yth of the cave ls a reflectlon on the relatlonshlp b etw een
reallty and appearance,the need to know on eself through th e repre-
sentatlon of th e self ln th e m lrror, or rather ln the eye of the O ther.
Seferls radlcally ch anges th ls ld ea by lntroduclng th e concept of self-
h orror:th e self ls seen ln th e m lrror as a xenos ln th e an clent m eanln g
of the term , w hlch w as am blguous and d eslgnated b oth a forelgn er
(and potentlalenem y) and a guest.34 A ngelopoulos provldes usw lth
a new readlng of the O dyssey through Seferls (as w ell as through
other poets,notably Ellot and Rllke).35 In the llterary w orks analysed
by D avld R lcks ln thls volum e,s6 a dlstln ct feature of th e descrlptlon
of post-w ar G reece ls the recurrent presence of shadow s an d gh osts.
T hls could be the con sequen ce of th e Second W orld W ar an d lts

33 E ades, Letoublo n yand R ollet 2002 177-97 Sylvle R ollefs Ph D th esls focused
on A ngelopoulos's kbyflgc to Cythera a revlsed verslon h as b een publlshed as R ollet

20 0 3
34 See B envenlste 1969 87- 10 1,an d Letoublon 2004 468- 506
35 E llot's verse 'M y end ls m y beglnn lng' ls quoted by A ln the film , and by
A ngelopoulos ln lntervlew O n R llke's poem , see p 220 above,w lth n 24 Ellot and
R llke seem to express alm ost th e sam e ld ea llfe ls no t a stralgh t llne b ut a clrcle,so th e
Journ ey from Flon na to Saralevo ls not to be consldered as a serles of new experlences
for A In deed ,n o m atter w here he goes,he alw ays m eets the sam e w om an ,the w om an
h e has n ever ceased to love an d to search for ln all places
56 See C h 10 below
 T heo A ngelop oulos irl the U nderw orld ll7

afterm ath, clvll w ar an d dlctatorshlp : m em orles of h ard tlm es are

h aun tln g th e collectlve lm agln ary through th e presen ce of gh osts an d
sh ad ow s ln texts an d lm ages w h lch are con stan tly reflectln g an d
resh ap ln g on e an oth en 3;

57 T hls them e m ay be llnked to th e film m aker's p erson al h lstory an d,lnd eed ,the
hlstory of a w hole gen eratlo n of G reeks as h 1s father d1d n ot lm naed lately return
hom e from w ar,A ngelop ou los and h1s m other w ere su m m oned to com e and lden tlfy
h 1m ln a room w here dead b odles had been exposed T hey could n ot find hlm ,b u t,
som e tlm e later,on a d ay w h en yo un g A n gelop ulos w as plap n g ln th e street,h e h eard
th e volce of h1s fath er callln g h 1m from arou nd th e b lock the volce o f a gho st
This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c#
. blank
 P art IV

P olitics an d In terp retation

This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c#
. blank
 10

H om er in the G reek C ivil ar (1946-1949)

D avid R icks

I learn ed m y H om er ln A lb an la
u p ln th e M etsovo m oun taln s m antled ln flr-trees
an d w rapp ed ln a bltter w ln d from T hrace
w hlle ln th e dlstan ce th e can n on ech oed
w lth a sou n d llke torrents ln m ld-w ln ter hurllng
th em selves agaln st th elr n arrow -slded gorges
a sh eph erd stopp ed to llsten-
'T he dlstant sh eph erd
trem bllng h ears th e soun d'-
as,th ou san ds of years ago, h e stood an d heard lt 1

ln th ese lln es by th e G reek p oet and cultural crltlc Z lsslm os L oren -

zatos (1915-2004), personal experlence and llterary experlence are
yoked togeth er Just as H om er h ad yoked togeth er p eace an d w ar ln
the slm lle quoted (Ihad 4.452 ff.); and though the passage refers to
th e A lb am an cam p aign of 1940- 1 rath er th an to th e lntern ecln e w ar
w hlch w ould be w aged ln th e sam e reglon , an d beyon d, later ln th e
decade, the verses m ay be seen to ush er ln a new p erlod of G reek
w rltersnen gagem en t w lth th e H om erlc p oem s.z T h e royalroad of th ls
en gagem ent: ln lnd ep en d ent G reecens m alor p o ets b efore 1940, an d

l ln A rp rrlou 1979 23 1, first p ubllcatlon 1955 A l1 tran slatlon s are m y ow n

2 L orenzatos also of cou rse p lays w lth a paradox w hy w o uld a G reek- the
p rlvlleged h elr to H o m er, as lt m lgh t seem - n eed to Qlearn h 1s H o m er' ln A lb an la,
a rugged place w lth a b arbarou s ton gue? L orenzatos's father pro du ced a H om erlc
d lctlonary the son 's llnes are n ot a reproach , b ut do contaln a clear sen se th at
llteratu re ls exp erlenced throu gh th e fttrrow s that llfe plough s o n on e's back T he
Iltad's referen ce to th e h ard w ln ters of D o d on a, w lth 1ts u nw ashed ln hab ltan ts
232 D avkd R itr/cs

ln p artlcular ln th e w ork of C . P. C avafy, A n gelos Slkellan o s, an d

G eorge Seferls,h as b een th e su blect of d etailed treatm en t ln m y b ook
The Shade of H om er (Rlcks 1989).The alm ofthe present chapter ls
to ln troduce som e m aln lln es of th e story as lt develop ed d un ng w h at
h as been called a T hlrty Years W ar, 1944- 74.N ot surprlslngly, G reek
w rlters contln ued to resort to H om er, b ut n ow ln resp on se to th e
grlevo u s con d ltlon s of fratrlcld al strlfe an d a su b seq u en t Kc old C lvll
W arn.T h e ran ge of llterary resp on ses to th e C lvll W ar h as b een w ld e,
b oth artlstlcally an d p olltlcally, an d o ur case stu dy of H om erlc
approprlatlon s m ay best be han dled by glan clng ln turn at four
em b lem atlc figures: Lycaon , H ector, E lp en or, an d P en elop e.3 F lrst,
h ow ever, a p oem from 1959 w hlch shln es an un forglvln g llght on th e
questlon,w hat sort of G reek llterary respon se to H om er ls llclt at a11
ln the post-clvllW ar years (A lexandrou 1991:113):
M edltatlon s of Flavlu s M arcu s
O f course you m ay tran slate verses of H om er
T hls ls an occup atlon legltlm ate, som etlm es of profit,
at any rate lt h elp s you p ass ln th e eyes of som e
for a m an of letters and- n ot w tth out a certam n ote of con descertston-
for a con n olsseu r of p oetrs grosso m odo a p oet
Tran slate w lth zeal, alb elt w lth care
O n e thlng alon e ls to b e avolded
T ake care n ot to tran slate ln to you r llfe
th e dem ean our an d th e p asslon s of th e h eroes
h ow ever m u ch th ey seem to b e you r ow n
h ow ever certaln you m ay b e th at you cou ld h ave fallen b efore the w alls of
T roy
R em em b er your b ellef your kn ow ledge your convlctlon
th at ultlm ately
on en terln g th e clty
y ou
w ould h ave foun d
sm oke an d ash es

ln n atlon allst dlsco urse, culm ln atln g ln th e h eady b u t traglcally

short-llved excltem ent over G reece's rep ulse of ltallan forces ln the

sleeplng on the ground (l6 234-5) m ay also be latenthere W ellaw are ofthe llterary
p osslb llltles o f b rln gln g H om er an d A lb an la to gether ls o f co u rse Ism all K adare,
d lscussed by B arbara G razlosl ln C h 5 of thls volum e

3 Cf Gregson D avls'sdlscusslon ln the presentvolum e tjnp 207-8 above)ofD erek

W alcott's co n cep tlon o f H om er as a so urce of Qlcon s' an d 'em blem s'
 H om er irlthe G reek C ivi!J'kbr (1946-1949) 233

w lnter of 1940-1,H om erlc echoes ofthe m ost superficlalklnd (Ko ne

om en ls best,to defend the fatherlandn)had been com m onplace,and
th e even ts cam e to b e kn ow n , d eservedly b ut lnlu d lclo u sly, as Kth e
A lbanlan eplct A rls A lexandrou (1922-78) partlcularly dlsavow ed
su ch rh etorlc b ecau se of th e b elllcose p en -n am e h e h ad sad d led
h lm self w lth as a youn g 5ta.11111st;an d as a P etersb u rg-b orn tran slator
of th e R u sslan classlcs h e w as p aln fu lly con sclo u s of th e d elu slon s of
gran d eu r w h lch w alkln g am on g m lgh ty llterary p rotagon lsts can
ln d u ce. So h ere, w lth a d ty n ess of a Z blgn lew H erb ert- b ut m o st
relevantly, of course, w lth an echo of Cavaffs treatm ent of hls
eplc poet m anque Phernazes ln the poem Ktlarlusn (K avafis 1978:
ll.18-19).--hls speaker w arns hlm selfagalnst approprlatlng H om erlc
m an n erlsm s ln llteratu re, let alon e llfe.A lexan drouns p oem - p erh ap s
uncon sclou sly--evokes th e Ktran slatlonn exerclses from G reek pre-
scrlbed by such R om an authors as C lcero (D e oratore 1.155), Pllny
the Younger (Letters7.9),or Q ulntlllan as a m eansofacqulrlng culture
an d rh etorlcal faclllty. B ut h ere a h orror of b elatedn ess stan ds o ut,
accentuated by the fact that here a (m odern) G reek poet adopts the
p erson a of a R om an- w h o ln turn lm ap n es h lm selfln to b eln g a G reek .
T /liyA chllles, thv O dysseu s fin d th elr con qu ered Troy to b e ash es ln th e
m outh , as th e typ ograph lcally staggered an d em otlon ally stu m bllng
last lln es suggest.H ere th e m ost ln n ocu ou s an d belletrlstlc rew n tln g of
H om er proves ln sep arable from th e rellvlng of a m ore recent past.
A dlsslden t auth or, th en , long ln tern ed by th e R lgh t, too lon g cold -
sh ou ldered by th e L eft w rltes ln th e sh ad om n ot on ly ofth e G reek C lvll
W ar bu t also of th e lnvaslon of H u n gaty three years p revlou sly- th e
latest act ln a p rotracted p an -E u rop ean clvll w ar. N o on e h ad kllled
H om eri'l b u t h e co uld , ln llteraty term s, be don e to death- an d
for reason s w hlch com p el our atten tlon to th e p olltlcal con text.

lf ad op tln g certaln p erson as, even ln th e vlcarlo u s m an n er of th e

m an of letters, w as a m ark of false con sclo u sn ess, th en to w h lch
H om erlc figu res m lgh t reco u rse b e h ad d urln g or after a clvll w ar, lf
th e ch arge KW h atns H ecu b a to h lm ?nw as to b e avold ed ? O n e u n h erolc
figure brlefly en d ow ed w lth an exem p lary statu s w h lch n ever qu lte
d evelop ed m ore w ld ely w as Lycaon . T h e you n g p oet w h o ad op ted

4 c f H an son an d H eath 1998

234 D avkd R ic/cs

hlm , ln th e op enln g p oem of hls t-irst book ln 1945, w as T . D .

Frangopoulos (1921-95), then m uch under the shadow of Seferls
(Frangopoulos 1975:11-12):
W e H ave Taken R oot
W e h ave taken root ln th ls lan d b ecau se a h eart fu ll of plan e leaves
alw ays seeks a flttln g sky
b ecau se th e earth ls w arm w lth ou r b loo d an d each m em ory of ou r
sow ln g b estow ed on lt
w e h ave taken root ln th ls lan d b ecau se th e m ou n taln -top s call u s
w lth ou t th reats to th e untrod den h elgh ts
fu11 of early sprlng an d late sum m er,
a11w e w anted w as a b 1t of lan d an d a llttle seaw ater an d our h eart w e
kept fu11 of plan e leaves
an d Ju st en ou gh flre to b u rn ou r d ead an d th e dream s w hlch n o
lon ger b u d even lf ou r roots grow bloo dy w lth th e drlp drlp

o f exp erlen ce
w e h ave taken root ln thls lan d
b ecau se lt w as h ere w e 1ay w lth th e vlrgln w e m ad e ou r m oth er an d

w h o w as n ever o u rs agaln
b ecau se lt w as h ere w e lald to rest our llttle broth er Lycaon un der th e

d aw n of th e cypresses
un d er th e daw n of a b attle w lth th e lnfm lte w hlch started to seem as lf
lt w ould n ever fln lsh w lthout a desertlon
un d er th e alm ond b ough on th e plaln of M arathon

w e h ave taken root ln thls land

becau se our feet w ere of clay an d our h eart of clay an d ou r h alr of
clay m ade by the eternal rhyth m of th e stars
how ever w ell u p I am ln m yth ology I can't rem em b er th e n am e of
E rechtheu s w ho spran g serp entln e and lnd estru ctlble from th e sam e
du sty clay w hlch holds our llttle b roth er Lycaon
w e hold thls earth u nder our p easant nalls from P an orm os to N au cratls
to C olchls and feel th ls earth un ltln g us
soll an d seaw ater a feath er's w elgh t ln th e stru ggle for som eth m g m ore
than a m dre tom orrow or a slm ple d eslre for d escend ants
earth and w ater seaw ater w hlch m ake thls land our hom e our sout
L ycao n
W e flgh t on

T he p oem ls callom verb ose,an d a llttle confu slng;but th at som eon e

w h o becam e a p rom ln ent w rlter ch ose to begln hls w ork w lth our
llttle broth er Lycaon'sh ow s th at figure's p otentlalln a tlm e of p ltlless
w ar.T h e poem ls, on th e on e h an d ,an outgrow th of Seferlsns attem pt
 H om er irlthe G reek C ivi!J'kbr (1946-1949) 235

to envlsage a futu re for A styan ax ln th e p o em th at b ears h ls n am e

from 1935,w lth a n um b er of oth er p o sslbly u n con sclo u s ech oes of th e
old er p o et- lu st as th ere are ln Fran gop ou lo sns m any oth er allu slon s
to th e Trolan W ar.5 B ut lt w ou ld b e falr to say th at th ere are also
resonances from the Lycaon eplsode ln the Ihad (21.34-135).W hat
m akes Lycaon an exem p lary figu re for Fran gop o u lo s's p u rp o ses?
(Q ulte dlfferent purposes,lt m ay be sald,from A rnoldns use of the
eplsode asa touchstone (1907:246)- m uch closer,perhaps,to R obert
Low ellnsdeclslon to open hls 1961 collectlon Im ktatw ns(2003:197-8)
w lth K'l'he K llllng of Lycaont) There ls clearly the elaborate level of
detall ln hls death, the dw elllng (Ihad 21.122-7) on hls corpse's
p hyslcal ab sorp tlon ln a n atu re red ln t0 0th an d claw ; b ut w e m ay
also see ln Lycaon a furth er reson an ce: h e ls th e m ost elab orately
d escrlb ed H om erlc case of a h ostage. O n e of th e m o st rep reh en slble
features of th e arm ed con fron tatlon b etw een G reeks d urln g an d after
th e A xls O ccup atlon ,w h lch h elp ed to draw th e co un tty ln exorably ln to
w h at h ad to b e called clvllw ar,w as h o stage-takln g.6 I d o n ot th lnk lt ls
over-readln g to see Fran gop ou losns Lycaon ln thls llght,esp eclally sln ce
hls death appearsJust after the capture ofthe tw elve young m en (Ihad
21.27) w ho are to be sacnficed for Patroclus.Reference to Lycaon ln
1945 ls a rem ln der th at w e are ln a w orld of repn sals:Lycaon p ath et-
lcally p leads th at h e ls on ly H ecto/ s h alf-broth er,an d th e ep lsod e ls th e
epltom e ofpltllessness:asLowellnsAchlllescrles:Kyou m ustdle,Iand
dle an d dle an d dle.n

Lycaon , th en , m ay fitly stan d for th e m ore or less ln n o cen t an d

en tlrely b em u sed vlctlm s of ln tern ecln e con th ct; b ut h ls lon g sp eech
(21.74-96) begglng for hls llfe seeks slm ply to tug at A chlllesnfellow
feelln p rath er th an artlculatln g a vlew ab o ut th e conven tlon s of w ar
ltself.ln th e Ihad,lt ls Lycaon 's h alf-broth er H ector- as of co urse lt ls
A ch llles- to w h om lt ls glven to artlcu late th e m ean ln g of h erolsm .
W e h ave n oted A rls A lexan dro u's cau tlon ary ap p roach h ere; b ut to

5 Seferls 1982 64, o ther obvlo u s echo es ln clu d e th e p lan e leaf from Q'I'h e K ln g o f
A slne'(185-7),dlscusslon ln Rlcks 1989 158-71 ln h1s earller w orks,Frangopoulos
tu rn s agaln an d agaln to th e Trolan W ar e g ln th e sequ en ce QE p llo gu e to Troy'
(Frangopoulos 1975 153-60)
6 P erson al experlence of thls ln 1944 by the shlpow ner an d Su rreal1st A n dreas
Em blrlcos (1901-75) ellclted from hlm ,fully tw o decades later,the pow erfttlpoem ,
Q'I'he Road'(Em blrlcos 1980 15-18),though the alluslonsln the poem are to the W ar
o f In dep en den ce an d th e D llessl M u rd ers of 1870 rath er than to H om er
236 D avkd R it:/cs

ascrlb e, n ot to on eself, b u t to an oth er, th e q u alltles of a H ector

m lgh t n ot n ecessarlly ru n th e sam e d an gers. In fact, ln a n ovel
ab ou t th e C lvll W ar w lth th e glarln gly H om erlc tltle Tekchom achka,
first p ub llsh ed ln 1954, Fran gop ou los attem p ts p reclsely to en d ow a
vlctlm of vlolen ce ln early 1944 w lth th e lln eam en ts of a H ector.
T h e n ovel,for all lts sh ortcom ln gs, ls of n ote as on e of th e earllest
fictlonalresponses to the ClvllW ar (M ackrldge 1988),and lts rather
h eav y-h an d ed u se of H ector m akes a foll to th e subtler rew orkln gs of
H om erlc m aterlal to w h lch w e sh all atten d later ln th ls ch ap ter. T h e
n ovel also m akes clear th at l h ave n ot llllcltly con n ected th e figu re of
Lycaon ln Fran gop ou los's 1945 p o em w lth th e C lvll W ar. T h e G reek
C lvll W ar ls conven tlon ally d ated 1946- 9; b ut as Fran gop o u lo s
bltterly em phaslzes (1977: 141), there w as, from 1943, durlng the
O ccup atlon , a d egree of arm ed con th ct b etw een C om m un lst-
dlrected grou p s an d oth er G reeks w h lch co uld n ot u n reason ab ly b e
h eld to m ark th e clvll w a/ s ln cep tlon .;
T h e n ovel ls so llgh tly fictlon allzed , d esp lte th e cu stom ary dls-
clalm ers, th at lt rep resen ts th e auth orns attem p t to en d ow a real
figure, K ltsos M altezo s-M akrlyan n ls, w lth H om erlc con tou rs-
th o ugh th e w ays ln w h lch lt d o es so are, from a n arratologlcal
polnt of vlem dlsappolntlngly unenterprlslng. (C ontrast the dell-
clous elaboraten ess, ln th e w ake of Joyce, but qulte dlfferently han -
dled , of K osm as P olltlsns 1938 n ovel E row a, w lth lts su staln ed an d
lron lc llladlc p arallels: a grou p of ad olescen ts p o ssesses an d llves
out H om erlc qualltles lost w lth thelr loss of sexual lnnocence.l8 It
ls lndlcatlve that the tltle Tekchom achka (repeated ln the tltle of
chapter 12), rather than referrlng to Ihad 12 speclfically (as ln the
conventlonal later tltle of that book) and the ram part bullt by the
A ch aean s,relates rath er to th e role of H ector as lt culm ln ates ln B o ok
22 an d th e p u rsu lt ro u n d th e w alls of Troy.T h e ex1sten tlallst p resen -
tatlon of H ector, m oreover, an d som e verb al h ln ts, su ggest th at th e
fight seen from the w alls lsm ost dlrectly lndebted to Cavaf/s poem

7 See W ood h ou se n d T h ls classlc stu dy,w h atever 1ts gap s an d b lases, evokes th e
p rob lem s w lth a vlvld n ess an d u n flln ch ln g reallsm w hlch sh ow a d eep ln tern allzln g of
T hu cydld es by a recen t C lasslcs grad u ate h u rled ln to th e tu rb u len ce of m o dern G reek
ev e n ts
8 P olltls 1982 A b rlef sam p le, w lth a p arody o f Iltad 237s fttn eral gam es, ls to b e
fou n d ln R lcks 2003 235- 9
 H om er irlthe G reek C ivi!W f
'lr (1946-1949) l37

K'l-rolans'(Kavafis 1978:1.26)w here an unnam ed H ecto/spredlcam ent

stan ds for th e h um an con dltlon of lrresolutlon .T h e bookns h ero ls a
w ell b orn b ut m oth erless an d lon ely A th en s U n lverslty stu d en t w h o
takes th e lead ln a rlght-w ln g organlzatlon on cam p u s an d ls sh ot
d ead by an oth er p rom lsln g stud ent from th e L eft. Slgn lfican tly, th e
h ero ls descen d ed from G en eral M akrlyan nls,w h ose m em olrs of th e
G reek R evolutlon w ere lnvested by Seferls w lth H om erlc gravlty ln an
essay later translated by Frangopoulos (Seferls 1966:25-65).Early ln
the novel, K ltsos M akrlyannls (and thls ls one of tw o prom lnent
novels ln w hlch he appears; see M ackrldge 1988) ls presented as a
H ecto r:

For ln slde h1m th ere w as alw ays a llvln p large-as-llfe H ector, th at hu m an

H ector,fu11of optlm lsm ,noblllts darlng gthlsw ord from Cavaf/s poem l,
m anlln ess, w h o w as yet destln ed to kn ow on ly blttern ess, the deep est
dlslllu slonm ent, th e m ost degradln g defeat A n d yet he b ore thls, for a11
th at h e kn ew 1t,h e cou ld b ear th e kn ow ledge th at h1s attem pts w ere ln valn ,
h e cotlld b ear b etrayal,h e cou ld do b attle w lth h1s fate,for a11 th at h e kn ew
lt H e w as a hum an , a11 too hu m an H ector, an d lf h e h ad en em les, an d lf
ln th e en d th ey kllled hlm , th at h app en ed b ecau se m ost p eople couldn't
dlscern h1s n lhlllstlc m an lln ess, an d th e rest b ecau se lt w as preclsely th at
m anllness they couldn't forglve (Frangopoulos 1977 36-7)

Follow ln g an eplc battle ln th e student refectory th e h erons fate ls

sealed, an d lf thls H ector ls sublect to th e m orale-threatenlng atten -
tlon s of w om en lt app ears h ere ln th e rath er dlsagreeable form of a
glrlfrlen d w h o lnterferes w lth hls dutles an d p erh ap s betrays hlm
(Frangopoulos 1977: 169-72, 193-5).A s he approaches hls destlny,
th e eyes of all are set on hlm , th e on e w h o kn ow s th at all of th e
p olltlcal organlzatlon s,R lght an d L eft, are rotten ,b ut w h o m u st take
a stan d agaln st th e gro up ln th e ascen d an t, E A M , th e left-w ln g
N atlon al Llberatlon Fron t. T h e an alysls of th e h erons predlcam en t
m ay b e som ew h at lab oured , but th e w h ole cllm ate sh ow s h ow n at-
urally such a real-llfe figure could be lnvested w lth th e garb of
H ecto r:

U p on th e w alls,everyon e w as n ow w atchlng h1m For u s th e w ar had ceased

to exlst all th at du st, a11 th at fatlgu e, a11 th at agons w as h1s It w as h e by
w h om w e w ere llb erated of a11 th at,w e kn ew th at, an d for th at very reason
w e w ere unable to resolve gc avatsy agalnl to help h1m In the beglnnlng,he
238 D avkd .R cC./cs

couldn't b elteve tt,h e th ou ght som e door w ould op en to hlm ,th at lt w as out
of th e questlon that h e couldn't op en som e door hlm self, b e lt w lth h1s
fln gern alls L ater h e grasp ed th at un relen tlngls m ercllessly the w all w as
h ere W hy ln th at case dldn't h e stop for th em to n all h lm ? W hy d1d h e
seek to flee llke a hunted an lm al? O utslde EA M , or ln EA M , on the w est-
ern or th e eastern slde of th e w alls of Tros w as th e sam e desp alr, th e sam e
terror,the sam e 111luck there w as no w ay out,how ever narrom no doubt or
h op e ln th e sllghtest W hy d1d you set to run aroun d th e w alls,H ector? W hy
d1d you go to th e Scam and er gate and b eat at lt ln a frenzs and th e Illum
gate an d b eat at lt ln a frenzs an d th e Slm ols gate an d b eat at lt ln a
frenzy? W hy d1d you go to R A N , to E SA S, to P arth enlou, w h en you kn ew
th at at your heels w as your A chllles, ln escapable an d w lth a th ou san d
m ouths,Treachery herself? (1977 197)

lt ls not bellttllng the hum an tragedy (or the apposlteness of the

w all eplsode to a sltuatlon ln w hlch b ourgeols cen tral A th en s foun d
ltselfrlnged by arm ed and bearded lnsurgents)to find the sym bollsm
p on d ero u s:lf a n lh lllsm of H om erlc p roven an ce w ere to b e exp lolted ,
A chlllesngreat sp eech of Ihad 9.308-429 w ould p rovld e a m u ch rlch er
S e a rn .

Ko ur llttle brother Lycaonl then: m ade a prom lslng but fleetlng

ap p earan ce; w hlle H ector w as p erh ap s lll-ch osen for th e C lvll W ar
p erlod .B ut am on g H om erlc figures ln p ost-w ar G reek w rltln g prlde
of place goes to th at of E lp en or, w hlch Seferls h ad suggestlvely
establlsh ed ln hls ow n ln ter-w ar uvre an d ln hls lon g p oem kl-hrush'
ln 1947 (1982:217-29).ln the openlng poem of Takls Slnopoulos's
first collectlon W atershed (1951) Elpenor, ln a poem bearlng hls
n am e, assu m es p rogram m atlc slgn lfican ce. T h e p oem w as w rltten
ln 1944, and the poet (1917-81) testlfied (Plerls 1988: 249) to lts
gen esls ln a m ldd ay vlslon of a young p oet w h o h ad been tortured
an d kllled by th e G erm an s ln P atras tw o years b efore.g T h ls vlslon ,
Sln op oulos ackn ow ledged,set lts seal on th e greater p art of hls w ork.
H ere ls the poem (Slnopoulos 1976: 11-12),w hlch m arks hls first
en counter w lth th e sh ade of E lp en or:

9 It ls a strlk tn g featu re o f th e p oem s fro m th ls p erlod that th ey sh ow u s sh ad es

from (or evoktng) H om er,never the shade of H om er (see H unter 2004 on anclent
m odels ofH om er asfather),asthelr m odern father D lonyslos Solom oshad done tltlcks
l989) Thlsform sa.n lm portantpolntofconnectton w lth thew lderlssue ofgeneal
' op rand
H om er ratsed ln the lntroductton to thlsvolum e (pp 7-8)
 H om er ;?7 the G reek C ivi!W f
'fr (1946-1949) 239

E lp en or

E lp enor, Jlt?w J/J you get here

H O M ER

L an dscap e of death P etrlfied sea black cypresses

th e low sh ore ravaged b y th e salt and llght
th e h ollow rocks th e un relen tlng sun above
an d n ot a rlpple of w ater or w ln g of blrd
only a b oun dless u nw rlnlded vlscou s sllence
It w as on e of th e escort w h o en countered h1m
n ot th e oldest L ook, th at m u st b e E lp en or
Sw lftly w e turn ed our eyes O dd w e rem em bered
n ow m em ory h ad dn ed up hke a rw er m sum m er
lt w as ln deed E lp en or am ong th e b lack cyp resses
bllnded by th e sun an d by h1s m edltatlon s
scrabbllng ln the san d w lth h1s chopped-off flngers
A n d th en 1 called out to h1m ln a Joyful volce E lp en or
E lp en or w hat brm gs you to thls coun try?
You m et your en d dark lron deep b etw een your rlb s
last w lnter and w e saw the congealed blood on your llps
as your h eart drled ou t n ext to th e b oat ln th e yard
Togeth er w lth a broken oar w e bu rled you at th e shorelln e
to h ear th e m u rm ur of th e w m d th e gurgle of the sea
H ow do you n ow com e to b e so allve? W h at brlngs you to thls coun try
blln ded by blttern ess an d by you r m edltatlon s?
H e d1d n ot turn to look A n d so I called on ce m ore
trem bllng to th e core Elp en or,w h o h ad a b1t of h areskln
h un g round your n eck as an am ulet Elp en or
n ow lost ln th e boun dless p aragraph s of hlstory
I sum m on you an d ltke a cave m y ch est retu rn s the ech o
h ow d1d you get here frlen d of yore h ow w ere you able
to overtake th e deep black shlp w hlch brln gs u s h ere
as w and erlng corpses und er th e sun m ake som e reply
lf lt b e your h eart's deslre to com e w lth u s m ake som e reply
H e d1d n ot turn to look H e n ever h eard Sllence resu m ed 1ts grlp
T h e hgh t w lth 1ts ceaseless dlggln g h ollow ed out th e groun d
T he sea the cypresses the shore al1 petrlfied
ln a deathly m otlonlessn ess A n d only th at E lp en or
for w hom w e had been searchlng w lth su ch dedlcatlon am ong o1d
m an u scrlp ts
oppressed by th e blttern ess of h1s etern al lon ehn ess
240 D avd R fcks

the sun falllng on th e gap s ln h1s m edltatlon s

blm dly scrabbllng ln the sand w lth h1s ch opped-off fngers
started to flee llke a vlslon an d slow ly dlsapp ear
m to the em p ty unw lnged echo-less blue ether

Leavlng aslde the (dlspensable) H om erlc eplgraph, the poem ls

ln debted- ten sely so- to Seferls, an d m ost of a11 to K'fh e K lng of
A slne' (Kfor w hom w e have been searchlngn echoes the final lm es of
the older m anns poem , Seferls 1982: 185-7); but there is also a
conversatlon wlth Cavaf/sKcaesanonlwhere the doom ed prlncellng
ap p ears to th e n arrato/ s vlslon the m ore vlvldly becau se Kln hlstory
only a few lines are to be found about youn (K avafis 1978:1.69-70,
w lth R lcks 1989: l14-18).lt ls clear from the eplgraph to another
poem , K'l-hat Phlllpl Kl7or he ls no longer endow ed w lth flesh and
bonel both that Slnopoulosns grasp of the H om erlc orlglnal ls tenu-
ous (he m lsquotes O dyssq 11.219 at 1976:27) and thathe pow erfully
lnvests hls Elpen or figure w lth th e gulse of th e D ead B roth er of th e
fam ous ballad- l have argued elsew here (R lcks 2003) that thls rev-
en ant, w h o returns from th e underw orld to fulfil hls vow to hls
m oth er, ls a figure w h o h aun ts th e entlre n atlon al llterature ln a
w ay th at n o an clen t figure does.A furth er varlatlon on th e H om erlc
Elpenor ls w orth m entlonlng:th at hls fallure at thls Juncture to turn
to hear echoes A lax's turnlng aw ay from O dysseu s w lth unforglvlng
prlde ln the underw orld (O dyssey 11.563-4).lt ls thls,and not only
the esp eclally vlolent death of Slnopoulos's E lpenos th at len ds hlm

such dark contours.

Elpen or, that lnslstent, unpropltlated ghost, reapp ears m anoth er
poem of the sam e collectlon, W ake for Elpenor' (N ekrodefptkos p f
ton F/pirltlrff) (Slnopoulos 1976: 23-6). Falllng asleep over a sage
book (lm pllcltly: the O dyssey; m uch as Low ellns persona d1d over
the A enefd In a poem from the sam e year (2003: 91-3)- a poem
w hlch sets off m em orles of a C lvll W ar m uch further back ln the
past),the narrator finds a crow d of m ute figures floodlng hls slttm g
room an d refuslng to be chased aw ay by threats; fteelng to th e
b edroom , he fin ds a llght breeze blow lng th e sh ades m th ere too.
H ere ls th e p oem ns d en ou em ent:
T h en terror loosed rrly kn ees an d m em ory
stlrrln g deep ln m y exlsten ce drew to th e surface
ltke a dtver from th e d eep som e an clent
 H om er ;?0 the G reek Cw llJikr (1946-1949) 241
forgotten prom lse to m y dead fn en d E lp en or
A nd suddenly llke a tm y llght ln a deep
dark gallery approachln g ever larger
so ln m y troubled m ln d h1s llken ess w as enlarged
an d uprtght b efore m e ltvely of eye th ere stood Elp enor
H ls gaze w as On l'n e sw eet, u n w averln g
l-lls llp s m oved an d closed up on ce m ore
an d I th ou ght 1 h eard approachm g m y h earlng
h1s m uted m urm urlng volce Frlen d
you h ave lon g forgot m e N o w ake for th e dead on e
n or a year's m ln d h ave you ever vow ed E lp en or
B ltter m y d eath contlnues
an d bltterer stlll an d blacker stlll torm ents m e
as tlm e goes on R edeem m e frlen d
I h eard an d rem orse stood uprlght llke a storm clotld
before m e an d m y eyes grew d1m
of a sudden w lth dark tears llke a rw er
sw ollen ln autum n w lth abu n dan t raln s
A n d w h en th e tears h ad ru n dry an d 1 w lp ed
m y eyeh ds w tth m y palm an d llfled m y eyes
to see E lp en or I could see n othln g
A nd th e b edroom an d slttm g room h ad su ddenly em ptled ou t
T hrough th e op en w ln dow s a h ot w ln d w as blow ln g
T h e llght p ow dered an d deathly ln 1ts dulln ess
poured everyw h ere an d th e orderly
brlgh t w hlte ln h1s tunlc u tterly ln substan tlal
w as p aln stakm gly arran gln g th e m aglc h erb s
neatly ln lln es on th e top sh elf

T he openlng lln es of thls sectlon are m arkedly H om erlc ln thelr

p hraseologp w lth out belng rem ote from n orm al exp erlen ce or rlsk -
ln g any rlng of m ock -ep lc.to T h e last are a rem in der of Sln op oulosns
professlon as a doctor attached to the n atlonal forces ln the C lvll
W ar: th e exp erlen ce haunted hlm an d glves dlstln ctlve contours to
h ls un derw orld- lf th ere ls a m oly w h lch can set ln tram th e Journ ey
to the underw orld (O dyssey 10.305):lt can never avallto brlng back
the shades or dlsp el th em from th e m ln d. T h e on e thlng w hlch can
ach leve th e latter ls w eeplng ofH om erlc coplousness and ln deed w lth
a H om erlc slm lle (A gam em non at lhad 9.13-15).ln fact,the w hole

10 E sp eclally lf w e detect a sub m erged m em ory of the k tlllng of C eb rlones, w h o

p lun ges from h 1s charlot fllke a dlver' at Iltad 16 742
242 D avkd R it:/cs

ep lsod e brln gs to m ln d , n ot so m u ch th e fleetln g b u t ever-reson an t

en cou n ter w lth E lp en or ln th e O dyssey as th e ap p earan ce of P atro -
clu sn gh o st to A ch llles ln Ihad 23.62- 107, Kth en cam e th e sh ad e of
poorPatroclus,(llkehlm ln a11thlngs,ln helghtand ln hlst-
ineeyes,(
and ln hls volcen (65-6).K'Ybu sleep,but you have been forgetful of
m e,A chlllesl Patroclus rem onstrates w lth hls frlend.A n em brace ls
fru strated , an d w lth lt th e p o sslblllty of h avln g th elr fill of grlef, an d
P atroclu snso ul dlsap p ears llk e vap ou r.
lt co uld b e argu ed , accordln gly, th at E lp en o/ s n am e ls m lslead -
ln gly attach ed to th e gh ost, an d th at KW ake for P atro clu sn w ou ld
fu rn lsh a m ore fittln g tltle. T h at th ls ls n ot th e case reflectlon w lll
qulckly show . (A nd w e m ay dlscount a fear of uslng w hat has
hlstorlcally b een en dow ed w lth a h om oerotlc h ue, recen tly ln C ava-
ffsK'l'he H orsesofAchlllesn;see Rlcks 1989:91-7.)Forw here there ls
a P atroclus th ere m u st be an A chllles, an d n o n arrator w ould w lsely
ad op t th at p erson a, as A lexan drouns p oem w lth w h lch w e b egan so
eloquently w arned. (For that m attes Seferls, also w rltlng ln 1951
(1982:245), speclfically ruled out the use of Patroclus ln an age of
total w ar w lth the phrase, Kand plty ls dead as Patroclusl) There ls
llttle doubt that Elpenor ln post-w ar G reek llterature (lncludlng
dram a) has had staylng pow er preclsely because of hls lack of char-
acter;an d p erh ap s for h ls op eratln g as a sym b ol of th e m lscarrp n g of
tradltlon ,a case of a figure w h o d o es n ot b en efit from - b ut w h o also
escap es th e tram m els of- a gran d n arratlve.
E lp en or rem aln s w lth Sln op o u los rlgh t th ro ugh h ls uvre, as
the late G .P.Savldls show ed ln an eloquent essay (1991).The m ost
elab orate, b ut som ew h at dlffu se, ap p earan ces are ln som e C an to s
publlsh ed ln 1953,w here a debt to Poun d ls clear an d on e to Joyce
acknow ledged rather pedantlcally ln endnotes (Slnopoulos 1976:
83-4). lt w as m any years later that Slnopoulos cam e to establlsh
a d eep en ed en co u n ter w lth th e sp lrlt rath er th an th e letter of th e
H om erlc neky ka, an d h e dld so th rou gh a dlscreet b ut p ow erfully
orlglnalrevlvalofH om erlc C atalogue form (a C atalogue ofW om en
as w ell as of otherw lse unknow n soldlers) ln N ekrodekpnos (com -
pleted 1970),w hlch I have dlscussed elsew here.ll

11 R lcks 2004, cf T h eo A n gelop ou lo s's u n d erw orld , as d lscu ssed by Fran olse
L etoub lon ln C h 9 of the p resen t volu m e
 H om er irlthe G reek C ivi!W f
'lr (1946-1949) 243

T h e G reek C lvll W ar en ded w lth som e 120,000 dead . A m on g th e

m any form s ln w h lch th ey w ere m o u rn ed or lnvoked , allu slon to th e
H om erlc p oem s h as a sm all but central p lace. B ut th ere w ere also
m any survlvors w h o return ed h om e, often after p erlo d s of exlle or
ln tern m ent, an d lt seem s to m e qulte ten able to read th at celebrated
poem Kpenelopens D espal/ (1968) by Yannls Rltsos (1909-90), as a
post-l-lom erlc postscrlpt to the C lvllW ar (R ltsos 1989:69):
It w asn't th at sh e h adn't recognlzed h1m by th e flrellght,lt w asn't
th e b eggar's rags, th e dlsgulse- oh n o, th e m arks w ere clear en ough
th e scar on h1s kn ee, th e m anly vlgour,th e cun nlng of h1s eye Startled,
slum p ed agaln st th e w all, sh e sou ght som e Ju stlflcatlon ,
Ju st a llttle b argaln ln g tlm e, n ot to h ave to rep ls
n ot to h ave to glve h erself aw ay W as lt th en for h1m sh e'd
squ an dered tw en ty years
tw en ty years of w altlng an d dream s, for thls w retch ed ch aracter,
thls blood-sp attered w hlteb eard? Sh e sank sp eechless ln to a ch am
looked slow ly roun d at th e slaugh tered sultors on th e floor, as lf lookln g
at al1 h er deslres dead A n d 'W elcom e b ack' sh e sald,
h earln g her volce allen , dlstant In a corn er,h er loom
filled th e cellln g w lth b arred sh adow s, an d a11 th e blrds sh e h ad w oven
ln brlght red thread on green follage, su ddenls
on thls nlght of retu rn , tu rn ed grey an d b lack
flp ng low on the level h orlzon of h er fln al p erseveran ce

T h e p oem , p art of R ep etktkons, clearly takes O dyssey 23.85 ff. as lts

ln n ocu ou s-lookln g cu e.O n th e on e h an d,th e serles tltle seem s to lay
em p h asls o n h ow h lsto ry rep eats ltself:h en ce R ltso s's p reoccup atlo n
w lth an clent m yth ologlcal an d hlstorlcal exem p la as oracles to con -
sult.A t th e sam e tlm e,Kltep etltlon s'ls also a cap tatw benevolenh ae for
a p oet osten slbly dlsclalm ln g orlgln allty.C ertaln ly,ln un ravelllng th e
questlon of tradltlon an d th e ln dlvldu al talen t h ere,th ere ls m u ch to
ponder, w lth W allace Stevensns K'l'he W orld as M edltatlon' (1997:
441-2) as the m ost lntngulng com parlson.ln the case of Rltsos,w e
are bro ught lnto an en cou nter w lth a subtle rew orklng an d dlsorlen -
tatlon of O dyssean m aterlal,th e m ore p aln ful as lt ls ln th e th lrd ,n ot
th e first,p erson .B loodthlrsty old E uryclela th ought P en elop e w ould
h ave re/olced ln th e slgh t of O dysseu s covered ln blo od an d gore llke
a llon (23.47-8): here, lt repels her. Prlvate and publlc space are
m erged as P en elop e's lo om fin d s ltself ln th e h all- or, to p ut lt
an oth er w ay, th e m anh ood prop er to th e h all fin ds ltself ln h er
244 D avkd R itr/cs

b edroom , p olsed for a secon d act of d efloratlon .M ore radlcally, th e

sp ace ln w h lch h u sb an d an d w lfe m eet ls on e w h lch h as n ot,as ln th e
H om erlc verslon , been clean sed, h ow ever callously, of th e sultorsn
rem alns (22.448-9).A nd for present purposes let us not fallto note
th e p lace an d date app en ded to th e p oem : Kl-eros 2 1.G .681 ln tern ed
u n d er th e C olon elsn reglm e, R ltso s n ot on ly, as often , su bverts th elr
ldeology of Kl-lellen o -c hrlstlann fam lly values but also- m ore boldly,
l thln k- lm agln es hlm self lnto th e p osltlon of th e w lfe w h o w el-
com es b ack a rlgh teo u s exlle w lth blo od on h ls h an d s. H ere th e
blood -sp attered h ero of O dyssey 23 takes on som e of th e ch aracter-
lstlcs of th e p olltlcal detaln ee of th e 1940s an d after,an d R ltsos sh ow s
an aw aren ess of th e p aln of th e C lvllW ar w hlch ls often ellded ln hls
w ork .12

R ltsos's acute eye an d som etlm es relen tless ch eerfuln ess foun d
m any m ore p osltlve th ln gs to draw on , from th e O dyssey rath er
m ore than the Ihad (Rlcks 1992).Yet the clvllw ar and lts protracted
afterm ath seem ed to call forth a p artlcular vexed resourcefuln ess
from p o ets ln th elr relatlon to H om er, m u ch as th e lrlsh p o et
M lch ael L on gley h as p ro d u ced verslon s from th e latter p art of th e
O dyssey steep ed ln th e ldlom of th e Troubles- an d p aln fully con -
sclou s of th e p oetns P h em lus-llke p osltlon .l3 lt ls n ot p erh ap s sur-
prlsln g th at, ln th elr recourse to H om er, G reeks w rltln g after th e
h orrors of th e 1940s drew so m u ch on th e darker slde of th e eplcs.ln
seekln g ln th e w ake of clvll w ar to en ter th e rep ubllc of letters
p resld ed over by H om er, G reek w rlters dld ln d eed fin d sm oke an d
ash es- but l h op e lt w lll be agreed th at th ey foun d m ore th an th at.

12 T hat beau tlful po em R om tostnt can Justly b e accu sed o f thls For the type of
p oem ou t o f R ltsos's m tlteu w h lch fo regrou n d s th e retu rn of th e p olltlcal exlle ln an
unm ythologlzed w ay see Rlcks (1996) A n extended but dlffttse and abstractvarlant
on the them e ls th e lon g poem from 1963 Qo dyssey B ook 25'by Tasos Lelvad ltls 199 1
348-60,w h lch b ears as 1ts eplgrap h the last seven llnes o f the O dyssey T hls deserves
m en tlo n as a rare m odern attem pt to b ulld on the prob lem atlc part of the O dyssey
follow lng A rlstarchus' telos (23 296),but nothlng m uch ls m ade of the questlon of
clvll w ar as lt arlses ln th e an clen t text N o r, for that m atter, ln th e llteratu re m ore
w ldels has anythlng been m ade ofthe posslbllltles ofthe H om erlc am bush (lochos),
especlally as recalled b)rN estor,as analogtte to guerrllla w ar
13 See O lver Taph n's contrbu to n m C h 7 of the p resent volu m e
 11

N aked an d O B rother, ere A rt T hou ?

T h e P olitics an d Po etics of Ep ic C in em a

sim on G oldhill

T hls ch apter com p ares an d contrasts tw o film s, 170th of w hlch are

deeply engaged w lth H om e/ s O dyssey. T h e tw o film s are th e C oen
B roth ersn O B rother, VkrJlcrc A rf T houp an d M lke L elghns N aked.T h ere
are, of course, m any film s w hlch quote from or ad apt or reuse the
O dyssey b ut th ls stark , rh etorlcal Juxtap osltlon h as th e b en eE t of
reveallng tw o p artlcular sets of questlons,w hlch have a w lde lm pll-
catlon for the study of the receptlon of H om er ln m odern m edla.
T h e tirst lssu e ls w lth th e gen erlc resources of th e O dyssey. lt ls
stn kln g th at ln an clen t h terature th e O tlyssey feeds ln to both tragedy
an d com edy, 170th lnto later eplc and into the low er tradltlons of
reallsm . Even a scen e as app arently h orrlfic as th e C yclop s ep lsod e
can becom e com edy, as Eurlpld esn satyr play, th e Cyclops, m ost
lm m edlately dem on strates.T hls ls m atched by m y tw o film s,w here
on e ls as brutal an d dl cult to w atch as any m odern film , th e oth er a
successful m aln stream com edy.T h e flJfIJ or th e A CJICJJ does n ot h ave
qulte such a blfurcated receptlon,I thlnk how ever laughable Troy ls
(and w hatever burlesques w ere produced ln V lctorlan Brltalnl.i
W h at ls lt about th e O dyssey th at allow s su ch m ultlp le readlngs?
A n d w hat dlfferences does su ch a hlstoty of recep tlon m ake for the
p osslblllty of u sln g th e O dyssey ln m odern w rltlng an d E lm -m akln g?

1 T here ls a go od treatm en t of V lcto rlan B u rlesqu e ln H all an d M acln tosh 2005

3 50 - 90
246 Skm on G old hkll

T h e secon d set of qu estlon s ls ab o ut th e ln terface b etw een th e

lon g classlcal tradltlon an d th e m od ern au d len ce. l h ave ch o sen to
exam lne tw o lilm s w here lntertextuallty ls broad an d fragm ented.
N elther retells the O dyssey ln any stralghtfotw ard sense. T he sh ow s
th at h ave trled to d o a stralgh t verslon of th e O dyssey su ch as th e
A ndrel K onchalovsky verslon for A m erlcan TV (1997),have largely
been regarded as artlstlc and lntellectual fallures by both m aln -
stream revlew ers an d acad em lcs. T h e m ost su ccessful verslon s- ln
the theatre ln the m alnz- have slm ply relected any attem pt at cap -
tu rln g a p rlstln e H om er- a strategy also brllllan tly em b odled ln th e
llteraty sph ere by D erek W alcotfs O m eros and Jam es Joycens U lysses,
say. T h ls lead s to at least tw o ln terrelated an d p ressln g lssu es: lirst,
h ow m u ch H om er ls beln g cu ed an d by w h at cues? Secon d , h ow
m uch H om er ls beln g recelved an d by w hom ,lf w e are ln deed to use
the m odelof receptlon? T hls chapter em phaslzes th at these Elm s m ay
h elp u s- or requlre us- to rethln k th e baslc m odel of receptlon ,
d ep en d en t as lt all to o often ls on ld eas of tran sm lsslon , accep tan ce,
an d u n lform recogn ltlon .
l w lllb egln ,llk e th e G reat D lonysla,w lth th e tragedy an d m ove on
to the com edy.N aked w as released ln 1993,and stars D avld T h ew llss
as Johnny, an allenated an d vlolently dlsaffected young m an, w ho
w anders the streets of Lon don . lt ls w ldely recognlzed as a m aster-
p lece of lilm -m akln p an d a p ln n acle of M lk e L elgh's soclal vlslon .
Lelgh w on B est D lrector at C ann es, an d D avld T h ew llss best actos
for th ls w ork .
lt w as som ethlng of a surprlse,how ever, to m e at least,that w hen
the film cam e out, n ot on e of the publlshed revlew s of N aked m en -
tlon ed H om er. lt ls tru e th at as a classlclst l am m ore llk ely to b e
surprlsed by su ch an om lsslon th an som e oth er contem p orary
m ovle-go ers. B ut th ls w ld ely dlscu ssed film to ok L elglfs w ork aw ay
from the dom estlc satlre for w h lch he ls best know n, from A bkgakl's
P arty ln th e 1970: to Secrets flnfl L kes ln th e 1990s,an d n ot only d1d lt
w ln m alor aw ard s at C an n es, b u t w as also w ld ely p ercelved to b e
l-elghns gran dest an d m ost sym bollcally ch arged- an d vlolen t-
prolect.A n d ln su ch cases revlew ers are rarely slow to parade a blt of

2 Such as D erek W alcotfs O dyssey staged by the R oyal Shakespeare C om pany ln

L on do n ln 1993
 The fbnfltz and Poetws of Fprc O nem a 247
classlcalkn ow ledge.lt ls even m ore surp n sln g th at,w lth furth er tlm e
an d dlstance for reflectlon, th e stan dard academ lc dlscusslon s of th e
lm from th e field of lilm stu dles h ave rem aln ed resolutely sllent on
th e O dyssey s
M y surprlse stem s Erst and slm ply enough from the plot ltseltl
w h lch ls red olen t of H om e/ s ep lc.T h e cen tral ch aracter of th e lilm ,
w h o travels through a serles of en coun ters ln th e w lld w orld of th e
urban landscape of Lon don, ls never nam ed beyon d Klohnnyn- th e
Engllsh for andra,Km anl first w ord of the O dyssef - an he actually
d oes say <1 am n obody' an d refu ses to glve h ls n am e w h en asked .H e
ls travelllng to an d from hls falthful glrlfrlen d , w lth w h om h e ls
recon clled ln th e p en ultlm ate scen e, on ly to set off lm m ed lately,
h lttln g th e road agaln . H e m eets tw o b ew ltchln g fem ales w h o try-
an d su cceed- to d elay h lm w lth sex an d dru gs an d drln k .A s h e says
to the first,Sophle (played by K atrln C artlldge),A re you aw are ofthe
effect you h ave on th e average m am m allan M an cunlan ex-w lly ch ro -
m osom ed slaverlng lusty m ale m em ber...of the specles?nKYeahl she
replles, w lth studled ln sou clan ce.s A th lrd younger glrl glves h lm a
b ath an d food, but sen ds hlm aw ay w lth out sex, for all th elr dls-
Joln ted talk ab o ut b oyfrlen d s an d d ogs. A s h e travels d ow n w h at h e
calls th ls Kvla d oloro san of clty llfe, h e m eets m on stro u s E gu res w h o
b eat hlm up, an d leave hlm w lth out p ossesslon s; ligures w h o offer
advlce an d dlscu ss death , rellglon , an d tlm e. T hrough out th ese
en counters, th e h ero m aln taln s a vlolen tly bltter an d sarcastlc com -
m en tary on even ts. L lke O dysseu s, h e ls th e m aster of w ord s an d
d eceptlon . Llke O dysseus, h e ls a hlghly am blvalent E gure w h o

3 Carney and Q uart 2000 The chapter on N aked (2000 227-38) ls prlm arlly
con cern ed w lth 1ts po rtrayal of ch aracter and w lth 1ts polltlcal attack on T hatcher's
Brltaln (A certaln lack ofsensltlvlty to the lntensely preclse localuse oflanguage ln
thls film m ay b e m arked ln the A m erlcan author confusln g the tw o En gllsh expres
slons Qtake a plss'and Qtake the plss' 228) See also Coveney 1996 19-34,w hlch ls
good on o ther llterary an d film lc ln flu ences, esp D osto evsks H am let and R eno lr's
B oudu H e does use the suggestlve phrase Qantl odyssey' (p 20) For a selectlon of
lntervlew s w lth Lelgh on th e film , see M ovsh ovltz 2000
4 O n the slgnlficance of andra, see G oldhlll 1991 l-5 Qlohn' and Qlohnny' are
often used ln Engllsh as a representatlve (and thus undlfferentlatlng) nam e,cf 'John
B u ll'
5 A ll tran scrlp tlon s are m y ow n , ch ecked agaln st the p ub llsh ed screen p lay, w h ere
avallable, th ou gh u su ally w lth m y ow n stage d lrectlons to m ake the actlon clearer
w h ere n ecessary
248 Skm on G old hkll

attracts an d rep els ln equ al m easu re, as h e b oth tran scen d s an d

corrupts th e exch an ges of soclal llfe. T h ere are, w h atns m ore, also
th e su ltors, or on e exem p lary su ltor- an alm o st p aro dlc, p urely evll
p ortralt of a P orsch e-drlvln g, su lt-w earln g, qu all-eatln g, m on ey-
w avln g, T h atch erlte bu slnessm an , w h o enters th e h ou se w h ere th e
glrlfrlend llves and, after raplng Kthe m aldservantsl refuses to leave.
W hy h e stays at a11 ls glven n o m otlvatlon ln th e film , an d lt ls
p erh ap s b est exp laln ed ln term s of w h at R olan d B arth es called th e
requlrem ents of dlscourse- by w hlch l m ean H om erlc dlscourse-
rather than any requlrem ent of character. Sultors m ust stay to m eet
th elr O dysseu s.
A s l h ave d escrlb ed lt- w lth all th e sh ortcom ln gs th at su ch a
trun cated an d form a1lst acco un t m ust lnvolve- th ere w o uld be a
p rlm a facle case to see th e O dyssey as a d om ln an t m od el of L elgh 's
m yth lc w orld . B ut w h at m akes m e really su rp rlsed th at H om er h as
n ot en tered dlscusslon s of N aked are th e expllclt cu es ln th e film . ln
the N auslcaa eplsode,as 1711calllt,Johnny has been taken hom e by an
unn am ed glrl w orkm g ln a cafe. Sh e offers hlm a bath an d b aked
beans to eat (both the act of bathlng and w hat you eat get strlklng
them atlc prom lnence ln both the O dyssey and N akes .The bath and
th e m eal are, as ln H om er, sp eclf cally an d n ecessarlly restoratlve for
the battered traveller.A fter hls bath, Johnny enters the slttlng room
of th e flat w h ere th e glrl llves. lt ls d ecorated w lth kltsch G reek
statu es, objets J 'flrf, an d a llb rary of b ooks. T h ls p rom p ts a typ lcal
reactlon from Johnny, w hose flood of questlons and com m ents ls
b arely p u n ctu ated by th e glrlns d am aged p asslvlty :

Jo u x x v W ho lw es h ere, th en ? Z eu s? Is al1 thls stu ffyou rs?

G IR L N o
Jo u x x v A l1 these p seu do-D orlc m ldgets w lth th elr n ovelty un derp an ts
O h look at thls one Lpotnts at clock decorated w /r/lspear-carrp ng G reek
w urr/t?rl Touchlng tlm e w lth a barge pole Iw ouldn't Ll-eans on m antel-
pw cej Is he a hom eow ner-sexual,yeah?
G IR L W h at do you thlnk?
Jo u x x v W h ere ls 'e?
G IR L T h ey're ln A m erlca
Jo u x x v T h ey?
G IR L Y eah
Jo u x x v W h en are th ey gettln ' b ack ?
 The fbDfitz and Poetws of Fp trO nem a 249
G IR L D u n n o
Jo u x x v A n d th ey're Ju st lettln' you stop h ere for n othlng?
G IRL Yeah fzl/sd Idon'tknow them
Jo u x x v I don't kn ow I fin d a11 thls a b1t sad
G IR L w hy?
Jo u x x v N o, I don't m ean th at to soun d h om oph oblc I m ean I llke th e
fl1(zl A nd the O lysscy gf-fltfg/lsl D 1d you get that?
G IR L N o
Llohnny turns/l/s attenhon to a well-stocked tm /fs/lctf-l
Jo u x x v So 'ave you , er, read m any of th ese b ooks?
G IR L N o, I h aven 't
Jo uxx v Oh l've read qulte a few Oh,look LTakes a copy of H om er's
Odysseyfrom theshel
f and holdsyrto cam erajD o you getltnow?D o you
know thls? (SheshakeshcrheadjIbetyou do You've m ostllkely done ltat
sch o ol Y ou Ju st can 't rem em b er You kn om llke, u h , A ch llles' h eel, th e
w ooden h orse, H elen of Troy You kn ow th em ?
G IltL Y eah
Jo u x x v Yeah W ell,that's a11lt ls G ood stuff Cyclops O h hello Lpotnts at
statuette of dtscus r/lrtlwcrl It's,er,Plzza D ellverym an
G IR L D o you w an t th o se b ean s?
;o u x x v O h yeah I forgot

A s an expllclt ln tertextu al m arker, to h old up a book to cam era

and to ask an audlence lf they have they Kgot ltl and do they
rem em ber dolng lt at sch ool, con stltutes a stn kln gly bold ln dlcatlon
to 'l-hlnk H om er' (see Flg.11.1).The tltle of the volum e (1t ls E.V
R leu's Penguln translatlon) ls clearly readable and held to cam era
lon g en o ugh to be clearly read .d T h e absen t gay co up le, w h lch
m otlvates th e KG reekn d ecoratlon s, w h lch ln turn p rom p ts th e Jok e
about Kl-lom er-phoblal are allthere to fram e the copy ofthe O dyssey.
H av e yo u go t lt yet?
T hls scen e also reh earses several of th e k ey strategles of th e f lm .
T h e lead ligurens sn ow storm of w ords goes over th e h ead of hls
lnterlocutor. Sh e m ay be Ktoo w oun ded an d allen ated to m ake any
hum an connectlonl; but every fem ale character ln the film becom es
the butt of Johnnyns verbal pyrotechnlcs. H 1s com m entaty veers

6 B lzarrely, the publlsh ed screenplay lndlcates th at lt ls a text of the Iltad ln th e

film ,lt ls clearly the O dyssey
7 C arney and Q uart 2000 230
250 Skm on G oldhkll

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Fig.11.1 M lke Lelgh,N aked Johnny holdm g a book (H om er,The O dyssey

Penguln) (W 1th km d perm lsslon of Fllm Four )

between anger and banalJokes (Kthe Plzza D ellverym ann);between

the teaslngly m etaphyslcal (Ktouchlng tlm e w lth a bargepole, l
w ouldnnf) and the llterary:A chlllesn heel,w ooden horse, H elen of
Tro/ ); between the strlklngly phrased aphorlsm (Kthe D orlan
m ldgets ln thelr novelty unden vea/ ) and the trlvlal necessltles
(Ktheynre lettlnnyou stop here for nothlngn).Thls vertlglnous,aggres-
slve o utp o urln g ls a11 ln an attem p t p artly at least to h azard a
sedu ctlon- of th e glrl an d of u s th e au dlen ce. lt ls p art of th e E lm ns
u n settlln g lm p act th at th e au dlen ce rem aln s som eh ow sym p ath etlc
tow ards the vlolent,m lsogynlstlc Johnny, an d to the paln that fin ds
expresslon th rough h ls seeth ln g verbal dem olltlon of th e ln adequ a-
cles of th e w orld aroun d h lm .8

8 QW e h ate hlm : w e p lty hlm , w e love hlm , he's a paln , he's a pheno m en on , h e's
a repulslve bastard, he's a prophetlc salnt, he's verm ln,he's the llfe forcel enthuses
C o ven ey 1996 3 1
 The Polltlcs J/JJ Poetlcs of Eplc O nem a 251
T he H om erlc fram e, how ever, ls used also to artlculate the
dlstan ce and allen atlon of th e scen arlo and lts p artlclpants. T h e
ldeallzatlon of H om erns Phaeaclan eplsode has been th oroughly
lnverted . T he closest w e w lll get to that ldyll com es sllghtly later
w h en Johnny says,Klfs p eaceful h eren- a rem ark w hlch lm m edlately
p rom pts th e glrl to burst lnto tears an d th row h lm out. H om er's
N au slcaa ls paradlgm atlcally the p rln cess em bedd ed ln a fam lly
context, w h o h as an establlsh ed soclal place m arked by h er com -
m ltm ent to th e proprletles of m arrlage.H ere th at E gure h as b ecom e
a dlsplaced and unhlnged young w om an , llvm g ln th e h ouse of an
ab sent gay couple sh e d oes n ot even know .T h e seductlve lnn ocen ce
of th e G reek m odel h as b ecom e veln ed w lth a dlscon n ectedn ess an d
an lnablllty to com m unlcate. Johnny w lll start to go hom e here
only because he ls ku cked out. N auslcaans last w ords to O dysseus
are celebrated for th elr restraln t an d b eauty: as ls O dysseu s' reply

(O J. 8.461-8):
'Fare th ee w ell, gu est, so th at you m ay rem em b er m e w h en you are
In your h om elan d, sln ce to m e first you ow e th e rew ard for your llfe'
O dysseu s of th e m any w lles an sw ered h er
fN au slcaa, dau ghter of great-h earted A lcln oos,
M ay Z eu s,th e thu nder-god,hu sb an d of H era, thtls n ow
G rant m e to com e to m y h om e and see th e day of m y return
T h en I w ould pray to you th ere, as to a goddess,
A ll m y days For you h ave restored m y llfe, m alden '

A s Johnny leaves,he scream s at the glrl Kl h ope that w hen you are
tu cked up ton lght all sn ug an d w arm un dern eath your tear-sodden
fu cklng d uvet ln your E m lly B ronte w ln dlng sh eet th at you sp are
a thoughtfor m e wlth m y head ln a puddle of cold dofs plss,and
l hope that you w ake up scream lng an d l h op e that allyour chlldren
are born blln d, bow legged, halrllpped, hom eless h un chbacks.n T he
blessln g of N auslcaa and h er fam e and fam lly b ecom e a vlolent curse
on gen eratlon , m em ory, physlcallty.g If N auslcaa an d O dysseu s are
a co uple th at cann ot be,lt ls because of a com m ltm en t to th e valu es
of h um an culture. Johnny and th e glrl cannot couple because of a
breakdow n of soclalexch ange lnto th e paradox of sollp slstlc vlolence.

9 C o m pare Step hen M ln ta on the perverslo n o f H o m er's N auslcaa ep lsode ln

Joyce's U lysses,ln C h 4 of thls volum e
252 Skm on G old hkll

lt w ould ln d eed be p osslble to travel through th e film ln such a

n arratologlcalm anner an d w ork through such strategles of rew rltlng.
A lth o ugh th ere are scen es w h lch seem to h ave com e from a dlfferen t
ep lc altogeth er, th ere are a w h ole raft of p olgn an t an d p oln ted
exam ples of such rew n tln g, w hlch con stantly deepen our poten tlal
understandlng ofthe lilm .For exam ple,Johnn/sglrlfrlend,Loulse,
sh ares a h o u se w lth Sop h le- p en elop e w lth C lrce as lt w ere, w h lch
certaln ly fo cu ses th e H om erlc ten slon b etw een th e tw o E gures ln
relen tlessly m od ern term s: Sop h le rep eatedly offers dru gs, llves Kd ay
to dayl and offers responslblllty-free sex; Loulse repeatedly offers
cups of tea, has a Job, an d Enally asks Johnny for- preclsely-
a cuddle, and slngs hlm a song about Kgolng hom el nostos.A s w lth
H om e/ s C alyp so, Sophle w lll be relected, an d tearfully asks
h ow P en elop e/l-ou lse co uld b e p referred to h er. T h e th lrd glrl ln
the house ls Sandra, w ho ls- tof coursel l am tem pted to add-
a n urse.H er m edlcal books an d unlform decorate th e h ou se an d she
arrlves ln th e fin al scen e from h ollday com lcally to clean up th e m ess
an d debau ch ery, alth ough sh e rem aln s as ln artlculate as th e oth er
fem ale ch aracters ln th ls lilm .
T h e lon gest cen tral scen e- th e un d erw orld as lt w erelo- takes
Johnny to a huge deserted and unused o ce block em blem of
1980s econ om lcs, gu ard ed by a securlty m an . T h e d oorkeep er lets
h lm ln an d ln ltlates a lon g conversatlon ab o u t d eath , tlm e, an d th e
afterllfe. lt ls Johnny, h ow ever, w h ose stream of w ords re-educates
th ls E gu re of th e n lgh t to learn th e m essage th at KW enre n ot fu ckln g
lm p ortan tt M an ns llfe m ean s n oth ln p th at ls, th ere ls n o kleos
everythln g ls h eadlng tow ards destru ctlon , an d even to h op e ln th e
future ls to m lsun derstan d th e prom lsed ap ocalyp se of m odern
soclety.A s befts the apocalyptlc vlslon of the w ork there ls ln thls
alon e of M lke L elghns lilm s exten slve dlscu sslon of god .ll T h e h ero ls
readln g alo u d th e B lble- th e p rop h ets- w h en h e en ters th e securlty
gu ard ns realm . T h e m allgn lty of god tow ard s h u m an s ls a con stan t

10 M tke Lelgh ,ln an lntervlew w lth G raham Fuller,ln h1s characterlstlcally dlflicult
m an n er, ln d lcated th e lm po rtan ce of th ls ld ea for th e film Qln N aked, lt seem ed
approp rlate,at a levelw hlch shou ld n't b e taken too serlo usly b ut neverth eless exlsts,
thatJohnny ls lm pllcltls lnternally on a descentlnto the Inferno'Lelgh 1995 p xxxtx
ll A p ocalyp se' ls rep eated ly u sed by Lelgh to d escrlb e th e vlslon of N aked see
L elgh 1995
 The ptlnfitz and Poetws of Fp trO nem a 253
refraln . A n d there w lll be no theodlcy here. W h en Johnny craw ls,
b eaten an d bleedlng, b ack to L oulse's door, h e ls too lnlured to do
anythlng to the sultor, Jerem y, w hom h e sees as alm ost as an epl-
phanlc gure.lz A ren't hum ans pathetlc?l com m ents Jerem y.lronlc-
ally en o ugh , th e su ltor leaves qulte u n p u n lsh ed ln h ls P orsch e.
To explore thls sen se of lntertextu allty furth er, I w ant to look ln
d etall at on e brlef sequen ce from th e begln nlng of th e film , w hlch
also d em on strates L elghns H om erlc Juxtap osltlon al tech n lqu e.
Johnny has com e to Loulse7s flat and m et Sophle (Loulse ls at
w ork). W enll plck up the narratlve after Loulse has returned and
foun d Johnny an d Sophle glggllng together. She m akes them tea.
Johnny ls sm oklng a clgarette, Sophle a Jolnt.L oulse perches on the
arm of th e sofa w h ere Johnny ls slttlng.E ach one of Loulse's lln es ls
dellvered w lth an exhausted and apprehenslve dulln ess.Johnny splts
hls w ords w lth aggresslon and sarcasm throughout (Flg. 11.2):
To u x x v 'O w 's y er m am ?
L o u Is y, Fln e 'O w 's you rs? Stlll p u llln g p ln ts?
Jo H x x v She's dead She's stllla good fuck though 1 m ean,the rates are a
b1t extortlon ate, b ut I do get a dlscount, w h at w tth b em g th e son an d
everyth ln g
s o p H Iy, A pp aren tls rlght,you sh ouldn't stlck anythlng up your cunt th at
you can't p u t ln you r m ou th
Jo H x x v gto Loulsel G lve us that m ugl
Lsophte gtgglesj
s o p H Iy, C an 1 try your coat on Johnny?
Jo H x x 'v' Y eah
ksheproceeds to do sDj
L o u Is y, So,w h at've you b een up to? 'A ve you seen anyb ody?
Jo H x x 'r H ave you seen anyb ody? H ave you sp oken to anyb ody from
M an ch ester?
Lo u ls y, Yeah,I phon ed Jun e a couple o'tlm es
Jo H x x 'v' A n d w as June lnterested ln w hat you had to say?
Lsophte s/rs Jt?w ?l tn an arm chatr p;7l/scl
Fu ckln? h ell'I/ve seen m ore llfe ln an op en grave C om e on '
L o u ls y, W h at?

12 Fuller suggests (1n Lelgh 1995),and Lelgh agrees,thatJerem y can be vlew ed as

the D evll 'Jerem y' ls also know n as Sebastlan ln the film l have called h1m Jerem y
throughout rather than Jerem y/sebastlan
254 Skm on G old hzll

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Fig. l1.2 M lke Lelgh, N aked Johnny addresslng Loulse (W 1th klnd per-
m lsslon of R lm Four )

Jo u x x v W hat?l I m ean ,you don't seem very pleased to see m e

L o u ls y, I am pleased to see you l
Jo H x x v A re you too good for u s? N ow you've got a p osh Job ln th e b1g
f
shltty'? I m ean , m e an''er are on th e fu ckln' dole, aren't w e?
s o p u Iy, R lgh tl
Jo u x x v' A n d you're a career glrl- are you happy w lth th at?
t,o u Is y, Y eah
Jo u x x v' A re yo u su re?
t,o u Is y, Y eah
Jo u x x v' I'm dellghted
Lshe ynv/rcs h3m to see her room H e stum bles up to /r,and J/s/-rl/sscsttlurrcr/yl
O h 1 It's de-lovelyl I see you've got a cellln g at th e top w lth a floor on th e
low er level, an d a w all on elth er slde A n d on ly a slngle b ed Sad,really
E-/O J he leavesher,lonely,/?lthe hghtfrom thecarson thestreet,ashestum bles
back Jt?w ?y to st?p/l/cl
.
 The l/fificyand Poetws of fpitiCknem a 255
W e cut from th ls brutal exch an ge to a scen e ln a plu sh , can dle-llt
restaurant,w here Jerem y has taken th e m asseuse,w h o h ad prevlously
refu sed to date lu m .Sh e h as on a vet'y low -cut dress,h e ls d ressed ln
a sm art but tren dy style.A scan tlly dressed w altress ls standm g by th e
table openlng a bottle of cham pagne (F1g.l1.3). Jerem y speaks
throughout w lth studled lnsolen ce, the m asseuse w lth aggresslve
dlscom fort'
.

JF,R F,M 'E Y ou've got w on d erful b reasts

M x s sB u ss D o n 't y o u m ean ttts?
JF,R F,M 'E A re th ey b oth th e sam e slze, or ls on e b lgger th an th e oth er?
M A s ss u ss I don't kn ow D 'you w an t to w elgh th em ?
(The W altresspops the ct?rkl
JF,R F,M V Is th at a p rop osltlon ?
M A s ss u ss N o, lt's a threat

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Fig.11.3 M lke Lelgh,N aked the restaurant (W 1th klnd perm lsslon ofFllm
Four )
256 Skm on G old hkll

T he m ealcontlnues w lth Jerem y pulllng apart a sm allblrd,cooked

very rare, an d eatln g greedlly.

M w s ss u ss A re you rlch ?
Tsa swfv Llfe ls for enyop ng LH e doesn'tlook ather)
M w s ss u ss W h at ab ou t fam lls h ave you any broth ers or slsters?
JB R B M V I try n ot to rem em b er
M x s ss u ss You're sexu ally frustrated, aren't you?
Llerem y looks ather and p ggles unpleasantlyj
W h at's fun ny?
rs R E M z A re yo u a fem ln 1st?
M w sss u ss N o
JB R B M V D o you llke fuckm g?
M w s ss u ss D o you llke w an kln g?
JB R B M V N ot on m y ow n , n o
Lhe Dtl/fs fzwfzy H 3seyesstay on heras he ncksh3sshckyhngers1
T h e lm age of relatlon shlp s ln th ese Juxtap osed scen es ls typlcally
brutal an d unpleasant.Johnny uses hls C lrce to hurt hls Penelope-
an d Sophle's request to p ut on Johnnyns coat ls also a pow er-play
agaln st Loulse;Jerem y alm s atvlolent fn anclalan d soclaldom lnan ce
of th e m asseuse- th ough h e w lll en d up raplng th e w altress w h o
poured the ch am p agn e after she com es back to hls flat. For hlm ,
w om en are exchangeable oblects of lust an d hum lllation .T h e paral-
lels betw een the tw o trlangles ralse th us un com fortable questlons
ab out m ale sexuallty, fear, an d an ger- an d also ab out fem ale com -
pllclty an d vlctlm age.W here H om er w ork s all too h ard to separate
O dysseus from the sultors,Lelgh allow s thelr slm llarltles to em erge.l3
Johnnyns glbe about Kcareer glrlnech oes Jerem yns A re you a Fem lnlst?'
For allth e obvlous dlfferences betw een the glltzy sham of Jerem y and
the squalour of Johnny, one constant ls m ale rage and vlolence
tow ard s w om en- an d th e strategles of com p llclty th at p revent th e
w om en escaplng from lt. T he con sum p tlon of Jerem y- the bloody
m ealan d hls brutallzatlon of w om en- epltom lzes th e sultorsnm lsu se
of fo od an d b od les, an d ,for m e at least,h ls od dly u n pleasan t lau gh ,
llke a m an vom ltlnp recalls th at strange phrase ln the O dyssey of th e

1: For the consclous parallels betw een Jerem and Johnny see Lelgh's ow n com
m en ts ln M ovsh ovltz 2000 68- 9 O n H o m er s separatlon o f O dysseu s an d th e
'
p eop le'see H aub o ld 2000, esp 100- 44
 The Jb/ifitz and Jbrlfc.
sof l'
pfc O nem a 257
sultorsn reactlon to T h eoclym en u s; proph ecy of d oom : ta b lzarre
rlctus dlstorted thelr facesl os m ore llterally, Kthey laughed w lth
othered Jaw sl gnathm oksk ffpt?frit?si, as Kthey ate blood-deled m eaf
(O J.20.347-8).lt ls the pullofthe O dyssey's narratlve m odelw hlch
brlngs Jerem y an d Johnny togeth er. lt ls not really explaln ed w hy
Jerem y arrlves at th e flat to have vlolent sex w lth Sophie,but the logic
ofth e eplc m odel dem ands thatJerem y/sultors and Johnny/o dysseus
should m eet.14 T he sam e eplc m odel defn es th e lrony of thelr n on -
vlolent lnteractlon (after allthe lnter-gender vlolence of thls film ).15
In th ls an tl-o dyssean ap ocalyp tlc, th e sultors llve on ,an d th e h ero ls
stlll w an derln g ln beggarns cloth es, b eaten an d brulsed, at th e en d of
the lilm .T hls sam e n arratlve thrust underglrds Johnnyns and Loulse's
recon clllatlon- an d Johnny's departure. A n d lt constructs th e des-
cent lnto th e clty as a search for kn ow ledge.A lth ou gh th ere are scen es
w hlch do n ot easlly lit lnto any O dyssean story, the film rep eatedly
d evelops lts norm atlve pow er through lts vlolent rereadlng of the
stru cture of ep lc n arratlve.
T hls ls far m ore than a narratologlcal or Kllteran / gam e. W hat ls
m o st relevan t an d p ow erfu l ls n ot a p utatlve, sch em atlc m ap p ln g of
th e lilm on to th e O dyssey b ut th e lilm ns broad lntertextu allty w lth
ep lc n arratlve, lts recon stru ctlon of th e w h ole slgn lfp n g system . lt ls
th e v ery categorles of H om erlc ep lc th at are b em g fully an d sign -
lf can tly lnverted . O n e co uld look at alm o st any asp ect of ep lc valu e
an d see h ow lt h as been turn ed ln slde out ln thls film :h om e; return ;
n ature/culture; th e god s; m orallty; tlm e;fam elw ealth ; th e b ody.F or
th e p urp oses of thls ch ap ter, 1 w l11 sketch yust on e vezy brlefly.W h en
asked lf he has any brothers or slsters, Jerem y replles, Kl try n ot to
rem em ber'.T h at ls th e closest w e get to a fam lly stru cture ln thls film .
Johnny says hls m um ls dead,an d then m akes an obscene Joke about
her.(Johnny goes on to relect sex w lth an older alcoholic w om an by
tauntlng her sad deslre w lth K'Ybu look llke m y m othert)Even Loulse,
w hen she says Kl w ant to go hom el lm m edlately adds Kl don't m ean

14 Jerem y, under the nam e of Sebastlan, seem s to have arranged for the nurse,
Sandra,to h ave ren ted thls flat,and m ay be the landlord or land lord's agent W hy he
ls vlsltln g at th ls tlm e ls u n clear
15 It ls lron lc, esp eclally ln vlew o f som e of th e less reflectlve crltlclsm s of th e film
for m lsogyny,that Jerem y only leaves w hen threatened finally by Loulse w lth a knlfe
and a threat to castrate h 1m
258 Sm on G oldhkll

w lth m y m u m an d dadn. T h ere are only erased , dead , or denled

parents. C hlldren? lerem y taunts Loulse: &D o you w ant chlldren?
l h ate th em .
' L oulse and Sophle h ave both h ad abortlon s.Even Bloom
ln U lysses, for all h 1s falled relatlon sh ip w ith M olly, E n ds Step hen
D edalu s.ln N aked,n o fam lly relatton shlp s are p osslble.T he O dyssey's
p resen ce ln th ls E lm rem ln ds u s rep eatedly of how lts n orm atlve
p rolectlon of fam lly an d h ou seh old llfe ls ruthlessly destroyed ln
L elgh's vlslon of th e m odern clty.T h ere ls n ot a trace of th e redem p -
tlve fam lly canng thatls so lm portantto the pathos ofLlfe z Sweet,
Secrets and L les, or even J/pr/ D rake. M oreover, w e h ave seen h ow
each relatlon shlp b etw een ln dlvld uals ls m arked by vlolen ce, m lsun -
derstan d4n g, h atred and m lstrust.Every act of sexual contact ln th ls
film features vlolen ce; every suggestlon of som eth lng b etter ls lm m e-
dlately p un ctured .W h en asked to d eiin e an ldealrelatlon sh lp ,L oulse
com es up w lth n o m ore th an : Ksom eon e w h o stlll talks to you after
younve b onked .
n So m u ch for th e O dyssean ldeal of rlclrllclp rlrtlstfrlc:
the llke-m lndedness betw een a m an and w lfe whlch ls joy to thelr
frlends and a paln to those that hate them ; (O J 6.183-5)- an ldeal
em bodled ln th e m om ent w h en O dysseus an d P en elop e return to
th elr bed at th e centre of th e h ouse, an d w h ere, Kafter enloyln g th elr
pleasurable love-m akln p relolced ln ston es, sp eakun g to on e

anothernto l 23.300-1).
T h e sam e sort of an alysls co uld be provlded for each asp ect of
th e O dyssey's m oral vlslon of th e w orld and soclety.T h e h om e ls n o
m ore th an tem p orary ren ted accom m od atlon, or a w h olly lost p ast;
w ealth ls only a slgn of corruptlon ;th e god s rem aln resolutely absent;
an d th e p assage of tlm e brlngs n o m ore th an an exp ectatlon of
contm u m g desp am L elgh uses h ls ep lc fram e to explore a p lctu re
of th e w orld ln decay, a p lcture of th e p olls as slte of vlolen ce an d
dlsorder an d lon ely m com preh en slon . H ls p olltlcal vlslon ls of th e
collap se of soclety lnto a serles of ln dlvld uals clashlng ln aggresslon
or w lth draw ln g ln to desp alr. It ls an lm m en sely bltter an d forceful
attack on th e soclal lm pllcatlon s of th e ldeology of In dlvfd uallsm
w hlch dom ln ated E ngllsh p olltlcs of th e T h atch erlte era, an d w h lch
also un derlles m uch of th e gen tler soclal satlre of L elghns verslon s of

bourgeols culture.
M an a W yke h as utlllzed th e term Keplc cln em a'for th e w ay dlfferent
lslm lc cultures, esp eclally p ost-w ar H ollyw ood and p re-w ar ltalian
 (

The fbnficy and Poetws of FpitrO nem a 259

p rod uctlon s: ad opt th e p ow er of th e classlcal ep lc to app roach th e
ldeology of em plre an d the value of culture.l6 Sh e focuses on lilm s set
ln th e classlcalp ast- l prlH u s for ex am p le.W h atw e see w lth N aked ks
a qulte dlfferent use of the resources of classlcal eplc. A fter Joycens
U lysses,th e O dyssey h as becom e th e m odern lst eplc m odel p ar excel-
len ce.L elgh takes th e p ow er of ep lc to con stru ct a n orm atlve p lctu re
of the w orld- but portrays a w orld w hose vet'y values an d structures
stan d agaln st th at ep lc gran d vlslon .T h e lm m en se an ger w lth w h lch
thls film ls E lled ls th e en ergy p roduced by th e ten slon b etw een th e
ep lc stru cturln g w lth lts sym bollcs an d th e vlolen t,p etty ln teractlon s
w h lch ln h ab lt lt an d E n ally d estroy lt.
M y f rst concluslon ,th en ,ls th at a lilm such as N aked ls extrem ely
ln structlve for thln kln g about h ow classlcal eplc fin ds a m odern
adaptatlon w hlch ls nelther Brechtlan eplc theatre (desplte lts pollt-
lcalrage),nor the Keplc clnem anofBen H uT nor the D lsneyfed falry-
tale of H ercules, nor th e trlvlal reflectlons on Em plre that glve Troy
th e b arest sh een of p olltlcal lm p act. lt ls h ere, l suggest,th at Kclasslcs
an d film n cou rses co uld fin d p artlcularly p ow erful an d ln terestln g
cases:w h at do th ese very dlfferent en gagem en ts w lth th e classlcalp ast
tell u s ab o ut m o d ern ltyns lnvestm en t ln th e p ast for lts p resen tatlon
(or avoldance) of contem porary polltlcs? W hat do these dlfferent
takes on th e resources of ep lc,ln dlvdu ally an d togeth er,tell us ab out
th e n orm atlve p ull of n arratlve ltselg O f th e p lace of n arratlve
m o d els ln soclety an d lts p lctu rln g to ltself of lts p resen t an d p ast?
C an even th e p ow er of N aked escap e lts com p llclty w lth th e old
n arratlve p attern s of h om ecom ln g an d adven tu re?
ln deed, the vet'y phraslng of these qu estlon s ln thls w ay op en s a
fu rth er cru clal an d ln terrelated lln e of en qulry. B en H ur an d W ykens
oth er exam p les of th e d eplctlon of th e an clen t w orld clalm to slgn lfy as
h erolc and polltlcal n arratlves for m odern audlen ces ln w ays that she
has show n w ell:they becom e allbls for explon ng the polltlcs ofEm plre,
m llltan sm , and th e place of th e m od ern n atlon state ln h lstoty Slm l-
larly,w orks as dlverse as Joycens novel U lysses,W alcottns poem O m eros
an d A n gelop oulosns film U lysses'G aze exp llcltly p roclalm th elr affin lty
to th e H om erlc n arratlves to en gage ln a p olltlcs of n atlon an d culture.
ln deed, A n gelop ou lo s can u se H om er- rep eatedly, as H orton h as

16 W yke 1997,see also Joshel,M alam ud ,and M cG ulre 2001,and W lnkler 2001
260 Skm on G oldhkll

sh ow ed , and as h e h lm self d eclaresl7- to explore m od ern G reece's

relatlon to lts p ast,w hlch can thu s speak dlrectly about m ythlc m odels
an d th e con stru ctlon of th e presen t,an d th u s u se G reece to con stru ct a
m ore gen eralm essage.B ut L elgh's kndkrectallu slvlty p rovokes ln a m ost
develop ed w ay the qu estlon of h ow - at w h at levels an d w lth w hat
strategles- classlcalp aradlgm s can enter a m odern dlscurslve sp ace.A s
Classlcs changes (as an academ lc field and as a culturalvalue),so too
does the lnterface b etw een classlcs an d the m odern m edla.lt ls n ot clear
how m uch H om er ls (to be) seen ln N aked,or w hether any partlcular
audlen cens m ore or less lnform ed readlng sh ould be prlvlleged. T h ese
d l cultles,w h lch are centralln som e form to any d lscu sslon of allu slon
or lntertextuallty, h ere b ecom e p art of a w lder p olltlcs of m ean m p of
th e qu estlon of w here m eanlng ls produ ced. A n d of how classlcal
p aradlgm s are tran sm ltted ln m od ern cultural form s an d w lth w h at
p ow er or ln flu en ce. O r: w h at lnvestm en ts are w e to h ave ln su ch
classlcal p aradlgm s, or ln h elplng oth ers see the m odelllng by w h lch
storles are told? D oes lt m atter that cn tlcs or an audlen ce are unable or
u nw lllln g to see th e H om erlc structu rlng ln N aked
To explore th ese qu estlon s, l started m y ow n llttle odyssey,w hlch ,
as w lth O dysseu s, n ever really got h om e. l sp oke lirst to an asslstan t
prod ucer of th e film , w h o w as am azed th at l th ough t th at th e film
h ad anythlng to d o w lth th e O dyssey.R ath er depressed, l th en asked
th e produ cer, Slm on C h ann lng-W llllam s, lf lt w as b ased on th e
O dyssey w h o rep lled , KO f co urse. W h y else h old u p th e b o ok?n l
th en h ad a rath er lacon lc corresp on den ce w lth th e dlrector M lke
L elgh ,w h o agreed th at th e lilm w as dellberately eplc,but th at he h ad
n o on e eplc ln m ln d, an d th at l sh ould glve up any h op e of Kw rltln g
a P IA.D .on lf.ln prlnt,L elgh h as b een equ ally d lsm lsslve of attem pts to
tle d ow n dlrect ln flu en ces of su ch a sort,an d rep eatedly ln slsts on th e
film 's com m ltm en t to reallsm . T h e lntellectual gam es of allu slon , as
L elgh seem s to see lt,m ay dlstract from th e film ns raw reallsm ,th ough
lt ls h ard to see h ow th e film ns soclal vlslon could w ork w lth out
a stron g sen se of th e p ast.A ny argu m en t ab o ut auth orlal ln ten tlon ls
furth er com pllcated by L elghns w ell-kn ow n reh earsal techn lques,
w hlch lnvolve exten slve lm provlsatlon by th e actors. T h e room
w lth lts G reek d ecoratlon s w as p u t togeth er also by th e d eslgn er,

17 H o rto n 199 7
 Thefbnfitz and Poetkcsof F./uc Cknem a 261
A llson C hltty. lt w ould seem th at dlfferent E gures lnvolved ln th e
E lm h ave qulte dlfferen t un derstan dln gs of lts Km ean ln gn. So too
dlfferent audlen ces, from the C lasslcs p rofessor to lilm cn tlc to
gen eral p u bllc h av e dlfferent readm gs of th ese d lfferen t ln ten tlo n al
stru ctures. O n th e on e h an d, thls sh ould glve u s som e p au se for th e
w ay m eanln g often gets talked ab out w lth regard to, say, an clen t
dram a;b ut on th e oth er h an d, an d m ore lm p ortantly for m y curren t
argum entns p urp oses, lt em p haslzes n eatly the lssue of th e lnterp lay
betw een taclt exp resslon , lnherlted m lsrecognltlons, and expllclt
llterary w ork ln h ow w e m lgh t talk about th e role of C lasslcs ln
m odern artlstlc productlon s. R eceptlon m ust b e too blunt a term
for thls com plex an d m ultldlrectlon al dynam lc.
ln th e argum ents over the role of C lasslcs ln th e currlculum ,a film
llke N aked, ln sh ort, can ralse central qu estlon s about th e un sllen ce-
able relatlon s betw een C lasslcs an d con tem porary culture,and ques-
tlons about the role of the crltlc ln (determ lnlng) such a process.
L elgh's horrlfic and angry vlew of m odernlty ls w rltten- film ed-
through a lost p ast: lts p olem lc con stltutes a u se and ab u se of eplc,
an d lt engages each vlew er at the lnterface of polltlcs and narratlve,
th e very provln ce of eplc.Even lf I-elgh hlm selfw lsh es to dlstance hls
Elm from a llterary tradltion in the nam e of a real sufferlng,w e stlll
h ave to recogn lze th e p ow er of tradltlon al n arratlve form s to stru c-
ture th at sufferlng,to m ak e lt vlslble and com preh en slble:to h ave an
ldeologlcal bearlng on the film ns m eanlng.A s such, l suggest th at lt
offers a w ay of th lnklng about eplc- w 1th lts ldeology of contlnulty,
ln h erltan ce,an d v lolen ce- ln an d fo r m o d ern lty.
It w ould be hard to lm agln e a film m ore dlfferent ln ton e from
N aked than O h B rother,W '
/yrrrA rtThtlt/?(2000),a charm lng rom an-
tlc ro ad com edy w lth an adm lxtu re of m aglc an d rellglon ; an d
G eorge C loon ey. B ut thls film too u ses th e bluntest of lntertextu al
cues to m ark lts relatlon to H om e/ s ep lc. lts op enln g sequ en ce p uts
on screen an E n gllsh quotatlon of th e first three hn es of th e O dyssey
to th e background m u slc of th e chaln gang,w h ere th e actlon starts
(see Flg. 11.4).(N aked delayed the expllclt reference to the O dyssey
an d th us ch anges th e stru cture of alluslon , w lth a d em and for
rereadlng and rethlnklng.) The C oen Brothers fam ously clalm ed to
h ave read only a cartoon verslon of th e O dyssey - o even n ot to h ave
262 S km on G old hkll

Fig. ll.4 C oen B roth ers, O B rother, W '

/lcrc A rt Thou l openlng quotatlon
(W 1th km d perm lsslon ofU nlversalStudlos )

read lt at all.So w hy do th ey ln slst,from th e lirst sh ot of th e lilm , on

telllng u s to read lt through th e O dyssey
lt ls not Just a booklsh Joke (as lt w ere).The references are clear
en ough an d ln m any cases cruclal to th e plottln g of the m ovle.T he
h ero has th e n lcely d actyllc n am e of U lysses Everett M cG lll, an d h e
bran dlsh es hls nam e w lth all th e flourlsh of th e H om erlc an noun ce-
m en t ezm ' O J N-SPN.F L aertlades. T h e n am e U lysses ls fam lllar en ough
ln the U SA (Ku lysses S.G ranf),but lt m akesthe connectlon w lth the
h ero of th e O dyssey ln th e m ost dlrect m an n er.U lysses ls m arrled ,of
course,to Penny (played by H olly H unter).H ls m arrlage ls threat-
en ed an d hls p atrlm ony at rlsk by a South ern gentlem an called
V ern on T .W aldrlp .'W h en w e rst m eet th ls ch aracter, each tlm e h e
ls m entloned,M cG lll's young daughter lntones Kl-le's a sultorl ln case
w e don't get lt.U lysses M cG llltravels w lth som e falrly foollsh crew ,m
a desp erate race to get h om e ln tlm e. O n his w ay, he m eets m o st
obvlously the Sirens and the Cyclops w ho threaten to delay hlm (at
 The fbnfitz and Poetkcs of Fp trO nem a 263
least).There are w hat appear to be m ore casual references too:the
tw o p olltlclan s,for exam ple, h ave th e first n am es H om er an d M en e-
lau s.A n d th ere are also sw eet p asslng Jokes on th e p atrlarch al drlve of
th e O dyssey su ch as th e fact th at U lysses h as seven daughters ln stead
of on e son ,or th e fact th at th e Sultor ls a m u ch better fighter th an h e
ls.Kl am th e p ater fam lllas,n ln slsts M cG lll forlorn ly. M ost enloyably,
P en ny ls qulte h appy to rem arry,ln slsts to th e chlldren th at U lysses ls
dead (Khltby a tralnn),and,even w hen U lyssesreturns,dlsm lsses hlm
as a drlfter.W h en U lysses M cG lll,ech oln g A gam em n on ln th e O dyssey
tellshlscom panlon,Knever trusta w om ann(Ka deceltful,two-faced she-
w olfl a lylng lnconstant succubusn),the reversal of the paradlgm of
th e p asslve an d ever falthful P en elop e h as been th oroughly undon e.
T h e lon g scen es w lth the K lu K lux K lan or w lth the baby-faced ban dlt
are m uch less easy to fit lnto a slm ple O dyssean n arratlve,though easy
to see as p art ofth e film ns travelthrough th e deep South ,and ,ab ove all,
through th e p ostm odern love of fragm en ts of film lc tradltlon w hlch
m ake up the Km em orylasltw ere,ofthe pastln and aspopular culture.
T h e ech oes of prevlous film are as m uch a part of thls lilm ns engage-
m ent w lth th e past as lts hlstorlc settln g.
A n d h ere ls m y p oln t.T h e lilm dem ands ln tertextu al readln g an d
flaunts lts ln slsten ce on film lc h lstoty W hy ls lt called O h B rotherj
J'kr/zrrrA rt T /m t/?? It ls because of a P reston Sturges lilm of 194 1 called
Sulhvan's Travels.ln th ls hlghly self-con sclous an d self-reflexlve film ,
set ln the D epresslon, a film dlrector,John Sulllvan,w ho has alw ays
su ccessfu lly m ad e th e flufliest of rom an tlc com edles, d ecld es th at h e
w an ts to m ake a film of grltty so clal reallsm , an d con sequ en tly h e
dresses up as a tram p- m uch to th e ann oyan ce of h ls produ cers-
an d w lth a dlm e ln hls pocket sets o ut on the road . W h at follow s ls
a com edy, of cottrse, as th e dlrector dlscovers m u ch m ore th an h e
h ad ln ten ded, largely through h ls fluffy rom an tlc en counters w lth
V eronlca L ake. W h at the d ow ntrodden n eed , the tilm decld es w lth
n ot a w h olly M arxlst p olltlcal slan t, ls laughter. T h e tltle of th e film
th at Sulllvan th e dlrector h ad ln ten ded to m ake, but does n ot, ls
KO h B roth er W h ere A rt T h o u ?n
So th e C oen B roth ersn com edy film , set ln th e D epresslon , allu des
kn ow ln gly to a film ln w hlch a dlrector w an ts to m ake a serlous film
ab ou t th e D ep resslon bu t can n ot escap e fro m h 1s ow n gen re. l take
264 Skm on G oldhkll

th at to b e a com m ent ab out gen re, an d th e C oen s' sen se of th elr ow n

com edlc verslon of th e D epresslon , and th elr ow n lronlc n od b ack -
w ards to th ose screw ball com edles of 1940s H ollyw ood . A n d th ere
are plen ty of su ch referen ces to th ls film lc tradltlon ln th e E lm ,from
the m uslc to the baby-face bank robber,w ho ls (to keep the D epres-
slon them e golng) cllnlcally depressed.
l su sp ect, h ow ever, th at only a really sen ou s E lm buff w ould
lm m edlately appreclate the tltle of O B rother, J'krk rc A rt T hou? B ut
w h o ls th e Joke alm ed at? T hls proved to b e a h ugely p op ular lilm ,
w lth a vet'y b ro ad au d len ce.W h at ls fascln atln g to m e ls th at ln th ls
com edy, n o less th an ln L elghns ep lc, th ere ls a gam e w lth spllt au dl-
en ces: fragm en ted com preh en slon .l8 tl-lave you got lt yet?n becom es
th e key q u estlo n of th ls co m edy of alluslo n .T h ls ls th e op p o slte of th e
com pllclty of can n ed laughter.lt dem an ds a hyp er-kn ow lngn ess an d
an ln evltable exclu slvlty. T hls ls on e reason w hy th e C oen B roth ers
get cu lt status,th e ultlm ate accolad e of excluslvlty,b ut lt ls fascln atln g
to see su ch ellte ln slder com edy ln a m ass-m arket film .
A com edy ls n ot a d etectlve story,b ut p erh ap s U m b erto E co's T he
N am e of theRose (or even D an Brow nns TheD a J/irltu Code)m lghtbe
lnstructlve here. The N am e of the Rose w as a huge popular success
desplte th e stan dard p ubllshlng w lsd om th at A rlstotle an d m edleval
th eology w ould allen ate a p op ular au dlen ce. So p erh ap s an audlen ce
can all p leasurably sh are th e sen se of a code of referen ce beyon d
ln dlvldu alsecure com preh en slon .ln th e d etectlve story,of course,an
au dlen ce m u st revel ln th e process of d ecodln g.ln a com edy,w lth lts
dlfferent dyn am lcs of n arratlve pleasure,th e recogn ltlon th at th ere ls
a further hldden Joke to be enloyed m ay n on etheless prove to be p art
of a film 's cach et.
L et us look at h ow thls com edy ofexcluslve alluslon w orks w lth th e
prlm ary text of H om er.L et m e start w lth a sln gle Joke,b efore w e look
at a scen e.W hlle travelllnp U lysses Everett M cG lll records a son g for
a blln d m uslc produ cer,keen to collect told -tlm e m uslcl O dysseus, as
a m aster of son g an d of th e recordln g of kleos p erform ln g for a blln d
con troller of th e clrculatlon of son g, ls a w on d erful verslon of w h at

18 T hls ls n ot a p rodu ct Just of m od ern lty, tho ugh lt ls a partlcu larly beloved
strategy of the pastlch e an d fragm entatlon of 20th an d 2 1st century art an d
llteratu re R u th Scod el, for on e,w ould see th ls already ln H o m er Scod el 2002
 The fblfffcscrlt;lPoetwsJJFJUC O nem a 265
h asb ecom e th e arch etyp al m od ern lst con cern w lth O dyssean p oetlcs,
th at Kold -tlm e m uslctlg ln th e E lm , th ls son g becom es a great h lt:
w hlch U lysses gets to p erform ln fron t of hls w lfe,am ong oth ers, at a
polltlcalrally.(1t also becam e a realhlt for the m uslclans.) Everyone
ls tran sfixed by th e son p as everyon e ln H om er ls tran sh xed b y
O dysseusn tales of h ls troubles. T h e song ls called Kl am a m an of
con stan t sorrow t A ll H om erlsts w l11 ln stan tly recogn lze thls tltle as
m ala d 'triF?ip tp/l/-ltprytp-s one ofthose phrases O dysseus uses alm ost as
a m arker of hls ldentlty w hen ln dlsgulse before Penelope (19.118).
W h at oth er p op song w ould O dysseus sln g th an Kl am a m an of
con stan t sorrow '? B ut thls ls a Joke on ly for th at m ost exclu slve
audlen ce, th e professlon al H om erlst. H ow dlfferen t ls thls Joke
from th e lilm b uff's Joke of th e tltle?
T h e w lder scop e of a scen e ch an ges th e dyn am lcs of alluslon ,as w e
can see from th e C yclop s eplsode, on e of th e broadest com edlc
m om en ts ln th e E lm . T h e C yclop s, a on e-eyed blble salesm an , called
B lg D an Teague, played by John G oodm an, lures U lysses and h ls
com panlon,D elm ar,lnto a deserted rural ldyll (see Flg.11.5).D an
Teague h as seen U lysses bran dlsh a w ad of bank n otes, an d assum es

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Fig. 11.5 C oen B rothers, O B rother, W /lcrc A rt Tht?l/l B 1g D an Teague ln a

ruralsettm g (W tth km d perm tsston ofU ntversalStudlos )

19 see G oldh lll 199 1 1-68

266 Slm on G old hkll

th at th e sh oe-box w hlch th ey are carryln g ls full of m ore m on ey.T h ey

are actu ally carryln g a toad, w hlch th ey th ln k ls th elr frlen d, tran s-
form ed ln to a b east by th e Slren s as a p u nlsh m en t for forn lcatlon .
Teague breaks a bran ch of th e tree under w h lch they are plcnlckm p
an d beats both U lysses an d D elm ar to th e groun d . H e steals th elr
m on ey, an d op en s th e b ox, on ly to lin d th e to ad . H e d uly squ lsh es
th e to ad ln h ls fist, an d th row s lt m ercllessly agaln st th e tree. H e
drlves h ap p lly ln to th e sun set.
A t one levet the reference to H om er ls blunt and obvlous. The
C yclops ls on e of the m ost fam lllar E gures of G reek eplc,for Johnny
ln N aked,as for m ost p eople.A on e-eyed m onster- G oodm an w ears
a large p atch over on e eye to m ake th e p oln t vlslbly- th reaten s an d
brutahzesthehero on h1sJourney hom e.A cartoon character,then ...(1t
ls p erh ap s an oth er com m ent on gen re,n ot least b ecau se G oodm an ls
also fam o u s fo r p layln g Fred Flln tsto n e:th at th e m o n sterns extt lln e ls
Ksee you ln the funny paperst) But even the m ost cursory know ledge
of th e C yclop s story w ould ln clud e th e fact th at O dysseu s outw lts th e
m on ster w lth a Joke. P art of th e com edy h ere ls th e reversal of th at
exp ectatlon . T h ere ls n o cave to escap e from ; th e C yclop s, n ot
O dysseus, uses the bran ch as a w eapon; O dysseus ls robbed,hum lll-
ated,and leftln the ruralldyll,w hlle the Cyclops drlves offlchuckllng
to hlm self.ln deed,th e m onster decelves O dysseus.W h en they m eet,
U lysses M cG lll says,Kl d etect llke m e yo u are en d ow ed w lth th e glft of
the gabl and Teague replles, Kl flatter m yself that such ls the casen.
O dysseu s an d C yclop s are eq u ally verb ally ad ep t- or rath er, p art of
th e p leasu re of th e scen ens com lc reversal ls w atch ln g th e C yclop s
o u tw lt th e self-p ralsln g an d m lscom p reh en dln g O dysseu s: as h e ls
ab out to beat hlm over the h ead w lth th e bran ch ,Teague ann ounces
that Kl propose to glve you a lesson (ln psychologyl rlght now l and
M cG lll rep lles com fortably Kl llke to th ln k th at l7m a p retty astu te
ob server of th e h um an scen e to o, B lg D an t
T h ere ls ln d eed con sld erable p oten tlal for a rath er soph lstlcated
readlng of th e com lc lnverslon of thls scen e. ln H om er, th e C yclop s
kllls O dysseus' com panlons Kllke pupplesl and eats them , m arrom
bones, and all, ln an anlm allstlc fashlon (Kllke a m ountaln llonn).
H ere,Teague eats a chicken frlcassee,suckson the bone,(Kl am a m an
of large appetltesn), and then squlshes w hat the travellers thlnk ls
 T he P oh tlcs and P oetlcs tp/lr
.
/uf7O nem a 167
thelr com panlom although lt ls only a toad,as w e dlscover ln th e n ext
scene. A s H om er plays w lth the categorles of m an , anlm al, and
m onstes so ln a dlfferent w ay do the C oen B rothers, for com lc
effect. T h e professlon al c1asslclst m ay, of course, also h ear an lron lc
echo of llne 3 of th e O dyssey w h en U lysses declares hlm self to b e an
Kastute observer of th e h um an scen e': O dysseus tvlslted th e tow n s
rastea? of m any m en,and knew thelr m lndst So Just how far ls the
Joke of allu slon to b e p ush ed?
T h e gam e of alluslon here lnevltably ralses a qu estlon of m ultlple
au dlen ces:a questlon w h lch could be expressed ln term s of exclu slon ,
elltlsm ,an d know ln gness, or w hlch could be expressed as a questlon
of h ow closely a com edy sh ould be read.B ut,as w lth N akcd, 1 w ould
also suggest that th ere ls a culturalpolltlcs atw ork h ere.T hls com edy,
hke l-elgh ns traglc vlslon , ls a p ostm od ern p astlch e verslon of th e
w orld, a w orld form ed th rough llterary fragm ents and iilm lc cllp s.
B oth iilm s w ork to d establllze th e p resent, on e pleasantly,th e oth er
vlolently. T h ere is no secure lntertextual fram e, only ever recedlng
clrcles of kn ow lngn ess. T h ls ls w hy Kreceptlon' ls a p oor m odel for
C lasslcs today, un less recep tlon can escap e from an assum ptlon of a
p asslve or n ecessary receptlvlty of an audlen ce, un lform lty of com -
prehen slon, and unldlrectlon al tran sm lsslon of unlf ed m ean lng.
lt ls also w hy th e O dyssey ls th e arch etyp al text for so m uch
m odernlst engagem ent w lth th e classlcal p ast: lts alw ays already
fragm ented an d m ultlform receptlon sults th e m oderm st prolect all
too w ell. W '
h en A rlstotle ln th e Poetzcs called th e O dyssey pep lep
rrlcrlcs > Kcom plexn> Klnterw ovenn> Klntrlcaten1 he w as evoktng ln part lts
n arratlve techn lque of flashback and lnset story, ln part lts love of
dlsgulse, m anlpulatlon , an d trlckery, ln part the textns van atlon s of
tone and dlrectlon (Poetws xxuv 1459b). It ls not by chance that
L elghns N aked,llke poycens U lysses,for a11th e bleakn ess an d aggresslon
of1ts vlslon ,ls also very funny.T h e O dyssey ls p artlcularly b ew ltch lng
told -tlm e m uslc' for th e confh ctlng and confllcted volces of th e
m odern lst artw ork .
By allow m g us to see thls fragm ented , dlffuse, and m ultlple w ork
of alluslon w lthln the p oetlcs an d polltlcs of eplc reson an ce, N aked
and O B rother W /lprp A rt T /yt?t/a, for a11 thelr m anlfest dlfferences,
together provlde a p aradlgm atlc m odel, I w ould suggest, of how
H om er enters the lm age w orld of the tw en tleth century.
 12

A n A m erican H om er for th e
Tw entieth C entu ry

Seth L . Schein

T h ere p rob ably h ave b een m ore read ers of th e Illad an d O dyssey ln
un d ergrad uate h um anltles and great b ook s courses ln th e U n lted
States sln ce th e 1920s th an ln th e 500+ years sln ce th e E rst p rlnted
ed ltlon s of th e H om erlc ep lcs- m ore,p erh ap s,th an sln ce th e tlm e of
th e A lexan drlan edltors. O ver 100,000 stu dents take su ch courses
an n ually, and th e slgn liican ce of th ese cou rses as a n ew m stltutional
an d soclal context ln w h lch to read H om erlc p oetry ls p erh ap s th e
m aln factor ln th e A m erlcan recep tlon ofH om er du rm g th e tw entleth
(and now the tw enty-Erst) centurles.tThe only rlvallsln the realm of
popularculture,w here Elm sand TV Kspecialsnloosely based on (parts
of) the Iltad and O dyssey attract even larger audtences (e.g. U lysses,
Contem pt,O Brother,J'krhcrcA rfThtlzf?,Troy,the O dysseyj,and other
E lm s seem to assum e som e degree of fam lllarlty w lth or m terest ln
H om erlc ep lc, for exam ple T he f'
ftfrrlflrl Stazn, w h ere a p rofessor ls
sh ow n dlscussm g th e JDfIJ w lth u ndergradu ates.z T hese p op u lar
recep tlons, h ow ever, d o n ot lnvolve the sam e km d of engagem ent
w lth th e ep lcs th em selves as do the h um an ltles an d great books
cou rses th at are th e sublect of thls chapter.

l w ould llke to thank Em lly G reenw ood for d etalled co m m en ts and crltlclsm th at
lm proved thls essay I also am grateful to C aesar A d am s, P enelop e A d am s, B arb ara
G razlosl,N ancy Felso n ,an d E m lly W llson for th elr en cou ragem en t an d su ggestlon s
l A noth er l50 ,000-200,000 studentsperyear read allo rparts ofthe Ihad,the O dyssey
or bo th eplcs ln h lgh schoolo r college courses ln M lrtholop ror C lasslcalLlterature
2 O n the polltlcs ofclasslcalreceptlons ln film ,see G oldhlll (Ch ll above)
 An Am erwan H om erfor the20th Century 269
T he great books courses l have ln m lnd are usually taught not
only by classlclsts b ut by ln structors from varlou s hu m anltles dlsclp -
lln es as a hlstorlcalsequen ce of texts read ln tran slatlon ,reflectln g th e
K
rlsen or Kp rogressn of W estern clvlllzatlon . A t th e sam e tlm e, even
the oldest of these texts,w hlch ten d to be the Ihad an d O dyssey are
consldered to em body fundam ental an d p erslstent values, n ot
on ly of W estern clvlllzatlon but som etlm es of h um an clvlllzatlon
gen erally. G reat b ooks courses are usu ally h oused ln stltutlon ally
outslde of C lasslcs an d other llterature departm ents, an d th ey are
relatlvely un con straln ed by dlsclp lln ary kn ow ledge or d evelop m ents
ln sp eclallzed sch olarsh lp- a dlstln ctlvely A m erlcan arran gem en t.
ln Fren ch , G erm an , ltallan , and B rltlsh unlversltles an d sch ools,
th ere tradltlon ally h ave b een n o su ch courses, an d H om er an d oth er
classlcal authors have been taught by classlclsts un der th e ausplces of
C lasslcs d ep artm en ts or facu ltles.3
ln thls ch apter l lirst trace th e backgroun d an d hlstoty of th e great
books courses,ln an effort to sltuate the readlng of th e H om erlc eplcs
ln th e U n lted States durln g th e tw en tleth cen tury ln a broad hlstor-
lcal context. T hen l con slder brlefly th e rem arkable num ber of
translatlons these courses have ellclted, especlally slnce the Secon d
W orld W ar. Fln ally, l attem p t to sh ow h ow readln g H om er ln tran s-
latlon ln these courses, often ln snlppets an d usually ln llght of such
supposed natlonal values as Krugged lndlvlduallsm l has affected th e
w ay ln w hlch the Ihad and O dyssey have been ln terpreted an d
un derstood by tw en tleth -cen tury A m erlcan readers.
T h ere w ere th ree m aln cau ses of th e developm en t of great b ooks
courses ln th e 1920s and 1930s:lirst,th e d eslre to reslst th e G erm an
un lverslty m odel, w lth lts sp eclallzatlon an d professlon al em ph asls,
th at h ad becom e dom ln an t ln th e U n lted States ln th e tin al qu arter of
th e n ln eteen th centuryi4 secon d, th e quest ln th e late nln eteenth an d
early tw entleth centurles to replace 170th a Ksterlle classlclsm sym bol-
lzed by ...gG reek andlLatln entrance requlrem entgsl15 and a m alor
p artof the undergraduate currlculum w lth m ore vltalofferlngs ln th e
Kh um anltlesni6 thlrd, the changlng ch aracter of the student body:

1
5 Cf Stray (1998) for the qtute dlfferent hlstory of classlcal cttrrlcttla ln Brltlsh
u n tversftes and sch ools: 1830- 1960
4 L evln e 1996 4 5- 7, W ln terer 2002 153-.6 , 174- 8
5 B ell 1966 13 6 'W lnterer 2002 l 18- 32
270 Seth Schekn

especlally at ellte ln stltutlons,as the chlldren of C athollc and Jew lsh

lm m lgran ts from so uth ern an d eastern E urop e grew m ore n u m ero u s
an d b egan to d om ln ate ln tellectu ally.;
U n tll th e early n ln eteen th cen turs th e Ihad an d O dyssey h ad b een
read ln A m erlcan colleges ln G reek ln selectlons chosen m alnly for
th e exam p les th ey p rovld ed of gram m ar an d syn tax, th e stu dy of
w hlch w as con sld ered to traln th e m ln d ln d eslrable w ays. T h e
ln flu en tlal Yale U n lverslty rep ort of 1828 d efen d ed th e tradltlon al
classlcal currlculu m agaln st p rop o sals for ch an ge th at em p h aslzed
th e lm p ortan ce of sclen tlf c kn ow ledge an d th e ch arge th at a classlcal
ed u catlon dld n ot ad equ ately serve th e n eed s of th e p eop le:

fam lllarlty w lth the G reek an d R om an w rlters ls esp eclally adapted to form
th e taste an d to dlsclplln e th e m ln d, b oth ln th ou ght an d dlctlon , to th e
rellsh of w h at ls elevated, ch aste, an d slm ple Every facu lty of th e m ln d ls
em ployed, n ot only th e m em ors Ju dgm ent, an d reasonlng p ow ers, but th e
taste an d fan cy are occupled an d lm proved 8

B y th e 1820s an d 1830s, h ow ever, a n ew gen eratlon of classlcal

lan gu age p rofessors h ad already b egu n to ch an ge th e w ay ln w h lch
G reek and Latln, especlally G reek w ere taught and the reasons for
w h lch G reek au th ors w ere stu dled . T h ese w ere th e lirst sch olars to
brln g th e valu es of G erm an sch olarshlp to th e U nlted States an d
to ln corp orate m o d ern h lstorlclsm ln to th e cu rrlcu lum .Su ch E gu res
as E dw ard E verett an d C urtls C onw ay Felton , at H arvard , an d
C h arles A n th on , at C olum bla, p ro d u ced n um erou s ed ltlon s of
G reek auth ors, lexlcon s, an d gram m ars b ased clo sely on G erm an
m o d els,to b e u sed as u n d ergrad u ate textb ooks.g U n d er th e ln flu en ce
of Johann Joachlm W lnkelm ann an d A ugust W llhelm von Schlegel,
ln p artlcu lar, th ey also ln fu sed th elr w n tln gs an d teach ln g w lth
aesth etlc ap p reclatlon s of G reek llteratu re an d art. U n llke W ln kel-
m an n , h ow ever, w h o saw G reek art, esp eclally classlcal G reek scu lp -
tu re, as exp ressln g tlm eless, tran scen d en t, an d un lversal b eauty th at
cou ld b e kn ow n , enloyed, an d vlrtu ally w orsh lp p ed , th e A m erlcan

7 B ell 1996 3, 19-2 1, 25, G lazer 1988 271- 2, Sh lls 1988 228- 9, Levln e 1996
57- 6 0 , l3 3- 9
8 D ay an d K ln gsley l829 328- 30, cf Steven son 1988 16 1-2
9 Everett 1826, Felton 1833, A nth o n 1838
 An Am erwan H om erforf/lfr20th Century 271
H ellenlsts tn ed to sltuate w orks of G reek llterature and art ln thelr
hlstorlcal an d soclal contexts.lo
From th e 1830s on , m ost stu den ts read H om er ln Felton's edltlon
of selected books of th e Ihad,th e text of w hlch w as based on th at of
Frledrlch A ugust W olf ll Felton stated ln h ls lntrod uctlon th at h e
w lshed to Klead the young student to read the poem ,n ot ln the spm t
of a school-boy connlng a lesson to be fKconstruednn an d KK arsednn
but ln dellghtful con sclou sn ess th at h e ls em ploylng hls m ln d up on
on e of the noblest m onum ents of th e genlus of m ant H e w ent on,
h ow ever,to say th at h e h op ed to Kprom otenln hls stu dents Ka h ablt of
analytlcal cn tlclsm ltz and ln a revlsed edltlon,l: lnfluenced by the
lirst volum e of G rotens H kstory of G rvtz,l'
l Felton devoted m ore
attentlon to the H om erlc Q uestlon and the effort to place H om er
ln a hlstorlcal context, on the groun ds th at studylng H om er hlstor-
lcally h elp ed stu d en ts to un d erstan d th e p o em s as llterature.To asslst
students ln cultlvatlng th elr llterary sen slbllltles, Felton lnclu ded ln
h ls edltlon m any of Flaxm anns lllustratlon s,w hlch ,he argued,though
m odern , represented the splrlt of the H om erlc age an d sh ow ed
artlstlcally w hat H om er's language revealed llterarlly. T he study of
art and llterature togeth er, he clalm ed: w ould help stu dents to
un derstan d H om er Kln a llberal w aytls
ln th e last h alf of th e nln eteenth century, th e tradltlon al un d er-
graduate llb eral arts colleges, ln w hlch Felton7s approach to H om er
an d G reek llterature gen erally h ad flourlsh ed, w ere tran sform ed
by the rlse ln lm portan ce of the sclen ces and soclal sclen ces. T hls
tran sform atlon p robably orlgm ated ln th e ever-expan dlng lnd ustrl-
allzatlon of th e age an d lts con com ltan t utllltarlan lsm an d sclentlsm .
lt w as catalysed from 1876 on by the foundlng and lncreaslng lm por-
tan ce of graduate sch ools, w lth speclahzed doctoral program m es
m odelled on an d lm bued w lth th e scholarly values of G erm an
un lversltles, ln clu dlng th e lm p ortan ce of research rath er than p eda-
gogy as the chlef goal of the unlverslty. (The lirst such doctoral
program m e w as ln C lasslcs at the new ly founded Johns H opklns
U nlverslty (1876),w lth BasllA .G lldersleeve as Professor of G reek.)

10 W ln terer 2002 52- 7 11 Felton 1833 an d 1848

12 F elton 1833 pp 111-1v, quoted by W ln terer 2002 88-9
13 Felton 1848 14 G ro te 1846-9 15 Felton 1833 p v11
272 Seth Schetn

T he organlzatlon of know ledge lnto auton om ous dlsclpllnes, organ -

lzed along professlon al lln es,w as com plem ented by a new system of
m alors an d electlve cou rses alm ed at p rod u cln g sp eclallsts even at th e
undergraduate leve1.16
ln resp on se to th ese d evelop m en ts, ln th e fin al q u arter of th e
n ln eteen th cen tury, th e Kh u m an ltlesn cam e ln to b eln g as a slgn lf can t
ln tellectu al dom aln w lthln th e m odern A m erlcan college. T h ese
th um anltlesn w ere n o longer th e tradltlon al stud ka Jlt/rrlfprTiffkfs ,w lth
th elr em ph asls on th e G reek an d L atln langu ages an d llteratures.
R ather, ln the context of college currlcula, the Khum anltlesn cam e to
m ean Kth e elevatln p h ollstlc study of llterature, m u slc, an d arttli
T hey w ere dlstlngulshed from studles ln the sclen ces and soclal
sclences by a categorlcal refusal of econ om lc an d soclal utlllty;
ln stead,th e h um am tles em ph aslzed kn ow ledge for th e sake of kn ow -
ledge an d learnln g as a p ath to lnw ard reflectlon an d self-cultlvatlon .
B y th e turn of th e cen tuty th e academ lc study of th e h um anltles,
especlally of C lasslcs and even m ore esp eclally of H om er, Sophocles,
an d P lato n ow read ln tran slatlon , w as an lm p ortan t p art of th ls
p rocess of self-cu ltlvatlon , w h lch cam e to b e seen as an an tld ote for
sclen tlsm an d m od ern lty.l8
T he rlse of the h um anltles w lthln th e academ y w as parallel
to slm llar d evelop m en ts ln A m erlcan so clety gen erally. For exam p le,

on e of th e great d em o cratlc m ovem en ts of th e n ln eteen th cen turyn

w as th e develop m ent of th e Kp arlo/ as a stan dard feature of th e
m lddle-class A m erlcan h om e. T h e p arlor w as Ka testam en t of
the fam llyns refnem ent gandl proof that they understood how
to be p ollten; Klts furnlshlngs stood for repose, pollsh, econom lcally
u seless kn ow ledge, b eauty, an d d ecoratlve actlvltyn an d alm ost
alw ays ln cluded Ka book-case Elled w lth w ell selected and w ell
b oun d volum esn reflectln g th e fam llyns Km ental culturetlg It ls n o
accldent that Thom as Bullinch, ln The x4grof Fable'or, Stones of
Godsand H eroes(1855),frequently republlshed asPart 1 ofBu# twh's
M y thology an d stlll ln p rln t, referred to h ls w ork as Kn ot ...a
study but a relaxatlon from studyl Ka C lasslcal D lctlonary for the

16 Levln e 1996 46- 7, W ln terer 2002 l52- 7, l75- 8, B ell 1966 16- 18
17 W lnterer 2002 ll7 18 Ibld ll8- 19
19 B ushm an 1992 273,251,264,280
 A /CA m erwan H om erforthe20th Ck/yft/ry 273
p arlor...th at m 11 lm part a kn ow ledge of an lm p ortan t braxn ch of
ed ucatlonn to Kth e read er of elth er sexn w h o h ad n ot studled th e
classlcal lan guages.zo In effect,B ulf n ch alm ed to dem ocratlze m yth -
ology by op en lng up lts m ysterles to w orkln g-class p eop le an d
p ersons of both sexes w ho dld not attend secondary schools or
colleges w h ere G reek an d L atln w ere studled .zl H 1s effort to m ake
classlcal m yth ology avallable to readers w h o w ould prevlously n ot
h ave h ad access to lt b oth p arallels th e developm en t of th e Kp arlo/ as
an archltectu ral an d social phen om enon ,an d an tlclp ates the gen eral
ed ucatlon an d great books courses of th e tw entleth century.
T h e second m aln reason for th e n se of great books courses w as n ot
so m uch acad em lc as ldeologlcal.T h e earllest su ch course orlgln ated
at C olum bla U n lverslty durlng th e FlrstW orld W ar as a Kw ar lssu es'or
t w a r a lm s n c o u r se
,
an d the ldea spread to m any oth er un dergradu ate
ln stltutlon s. T h ls course w as actually m ore h lstorlcal an d p olltlcal
th an llterary, m ore a clvlllzatlon th an a h um anltles offerlng. lt w as
sp on sored by th e Stu den t A rm y Tralnln g C orp s, an offsh oot of th e
federal governm entns C om m lttee on E d ucatlon an d Sp eclal Tralnln p
an d lt alm ed to explaln to sold lers an d to th e gen eralp op ulatlon b oth
th e un derlylng an d th e lm m edlate cau ses of th e w ar.22 T h e w ar lssu es'
or w ar alm sn course reflected th e W llson lan n otlon of a struggle
b etw een en llghtenm en t an d barbarlsm , dem ocracy an d autocracy,
ln w hlch th e U nlted States, B rltam , and Fran ce w ere on on e sld e
an d G erm any on th e oth er, w lth th e future of clvlllzatlon ltself
hanglng ln the balance.ln The Openkng of the A m encan M CFIJ,Leo
L evln e quotes from a represen tatlve lecture by P rofessor E dw ard
R . Turn er: Kth e E n gllsh , m ore th an any oth er p eop le ln th e w orld,
except th e Fren ch an d ourselves ...h ave th e h um anltarlan splrlt, a
d eslre for falr play an d to do w h at ls rlgh t, to h elp p eople w h o are
w eaker th an th em selves, n ot to take advan tage of w eaker p eop le, ln
oth er w ords to do to oth ers as th ey w ould be d on e byl T h e G erm an s,
on th e oth er h andy Kcarry on w ar as th ey h ave ln Fran ce an d B elglum
b ecause th e G erm an p eople do n ot h ave th e h um an ltarlan splrlt of
falr p lay, w hlch th e E n gllsh , A m erlcan s, an d Fren ch do h ave'.23 T h e

20 B ulfin ch 1979 p p v1,vll,vlll 21 C leary 1993

22 H eck el 19 19, B ell 1966 14- 15, L evtne 1996 54- 7
2:5 L evln e 1996 55
274 Seth Schezn

valu es of th e clvlllzatlon for w h lch th e A m en can s, E n gllsh , an d

Fren ch supp osedly w ere E ghtln g w ere traced back to th e G reeks,
th o ugh th ere w as an effort to avold th e G erm an N ew H um an lsm ,
w lth w h lch th e stu dy of G reek llterature, esp eclally of th e H om erlc
ep lcs,w as asso clated .zzl
A t th e en d of th e w ar, C olum bla renam ed 1ts course Kc on tem p oraty
C lvlllzatlon' an d added a KG en eral H on orsn course develop ed by
John Ersklne that began w lth the Ihad and O dyssey and w as prlm arlly
llteraty T h ese coursescontln ued to serve p atrlotlc purp oses,presentln g
W estern clvlllzatlon ,esp eclally th e clvlllzatlon of th e U n ited States and
w estern Europe,as ln effect the telos of w orld hlstoty or at least of all
w orld hlstory that counted. (N elther C ontem poraty Clvlllzatlon nor
G eneralH onorsm cluded any readlng from an A slan orA frlcan cultttre.)
T h ey blen ded th ese patrlotlc p urp oses w lth the un dergradu ate collegens
goal of com batlng th e electlve system , w hlch C olum blans Presldent,
N lcholas M u rray B utler: o n ce lts ard ent su pp orter, n ow accused of
destroylng Kthat com m on body of know ledge and sym pathy w hlch
h eld m en togeth er ln sym p ath etlc understandlngn.T h ey also alm ed to
sh ap e th e currlculum ln resp on se to w h atw as,even by 1920,an ln creas-
lngly dlverse student pop ulatlon .zs
T hls Kdlverse student pop ulatlon' ls the thlrd m aln reason for the
developm ent of th e great books courses.T h ere w as a p ercelved n eed
to em ploy a revam p ed con ceptlon of th e Kclasslcaln ln th e effort to
acculturate th e n ew m ultltu des of students, m any th e chlldren of
C athollc an d Jew lsh lm m lgrants from southern an d eastern Europe:
w h o ow ln g to th elr 1ow statu s an d exclu slon from Kh u m an lstlc'
ed ucatlon ln th e coun trles from w h lch th ey h ad em lgrated, could
n ot be exp ected to b e fam lllar w lth tradltlon s an d valu es th at classlcal
llterature h ad hlstorlcally tran sm ltted . T h e alm , th o ugh , w as n ot
slm ply to lntrodu ce n ew kln ds of students to texts, values, an d
tradltlon s w lth w h lch th ey w ere unfam lllas b ut to m ak e th ese stu -
dents sufflclen tly W estern an d acculturated to take th elr place ln at
least th e low est levelof th e soclalellte,th e m lddle class,to w hlch th elr
college ed u catlon s w ere b ou n d to adm lt th em . O n e resu lt w as th at
classlcal culture ln creasln gly cam e to b e seen by th e stu dents th em -
selves as a com m odlty, th e con sum ptlon an d con splcuou s dlsplay of

21 G rub er 1975 2 14- 19 , 238- 42 25 L ev ln e 1996 58, l84 n 6

 zirlA m erwan H om erfor the20th Century l75
w h lch co u ld p rom ote th elr upw ard so clal m oblllty. T h e p ow er an d
fun ctlon of classlcal culture, as tran sm ltted ln great books courses,
are an alogous to th e role of classlcal currlcula ln soclal stratlh catlon
ln G erm any, Fran ce, an d esp eclally B rltaln ln th e nln eteenth an d
tw en tleth cen turles.z6
lt ls n o accldent that th e developm ent m th e 1920s an d 1930s of
great books cou rses, featu rln g classlcal llteratu re an d alm ost alw ays
beglnnln g w lth th e Ihad or O dyssey w as con tem p oran eous w lth th e
rlse of an other ln stltutlon alm ed at aw akem np and th en satlsfp n p
a deslre for the classlcs an d for books gen erally as a m arker of m lddle-
class culture an d soclal status.l refer to the Ksetsn of classlcs sold to the
gen eral p ubllc an d to th e book clubs that sprang up ln th e 1920s an d
1930s, w lth the B ook-of-th e-M onth C lub an d the R eaders' G ulld
leadlng the w ay. A s Janlce R adw ay has polnted out, the classlcs
w ere classlcs b ecau se th elr legltlm acy an d ,as lt w ere,th elr ed u catlon al
an d m oral u se value had been establlshed by accepted edu catlon al an d
rellglous authorltles. T hey galn ed addltlon al Ksym bollc w elghf n ot
only from th etr conn ectlon w lth th ese sam e auth orltles, but b ecause
th ey Kcam e to be assoclated con ceptually w lth the sort of people w h o
could afford to buy th em n an d to atten d the colleges w here they w ere
read .27 T h ls Ksort of people'used th e classlcs ln th elr h om es vlrtually as
a com pon en t of lnten or decoratlon ,to dem on strate to them selves and
others thelr status asw elleducated,econom lcally w elloff and soclally
w ell placed . T h ey dlsplayed th em ln attractlve, unlform ly b ound sets
th at could be sh elved con splcu ously ln a place of h on our ln th elr llvlng
room s,28 llke B ulf n ch's Kc lasslcal D lctlon ary for th e p arlo/. T he
prototype of such sets w as th e H arvard C lasslcs, th e fam ous Klive-
foot sh elfn of books first sold by H an rard U nlverslty ln 1909, w lth a
gen eral lntrodu ctlon by H arvard's P resldent, C h arles W . E llot, on e of
the countrfs leadlng culturalcntlcs.Early advertlsem entsfor thls set
em ph aslzed n ot o n ly th e ed u catlon al bu t th e econ om lc advan tages
of readlng the classlcs for even Efteen m ln utes a day: KD o you kn ow
h ow m uch m ore you could do an d earn lf you gave yourself a real
ch an ce? ...Yo u can get from these KKl-lazv ard C lasslcsn th e culture,
th e kn ow ledge of m en an d llfe, an d the broad vlew p olnt th at can

26 Stray 1998 30-45 27 R adw ay 1997 l63 28 Ibld 147- 5 1

276 Seth Schekn

alon e w ln for you an ou tstan dln g an d solld su ccess7.29 T h e actu al

con ten t of thls Kkn ow ledgen an d Kbroad vlew p oln f th at could lead to
upw ard m oblllty w ere n ot speclfied but taken for granted,ln the sam e
w ay lt w as taken for granted ln great b o oks cou rses th at on e sh o uld
read the Ilkad an d O dyssey through the len ses of con tem p oraty A m en -
can valu es.ln b oth cases,th e classlcs w ere m ass-m arketed as fetlshlzed
com m odltles w hose lnherent pow es m ystlque,or Kaural to use W alter
B enlam lnns term ,could h elp readers fulfil thelr m ost ardent ln dlvldu al
an d soclal d eslres.3o
M any b o ok club s,ln clu dln g th e B ook -of-th e-M on th C lu b an d th e
R eaders' G ulld , w ere less ln terested ln m arketlng th e classlcs, w h lch
after all w ere finlte ln n um ber, esp eclally w h en sold ln sets, th an ln
arou sln g an d satlsfp n g a d eslre ln th elr su b scrlb ers for n ew b o oks,of
w hlch th ere w as a p oten tlally en dless qu antlty. N everth eless, a sur-
prlsln g n um b er of b ook club s dld em ph aslze th e classlcs, ln cludln g
th e top of th e lln e H erltage B o ok C lu b an d th e som ew h at less sh ow y
W alter J.Black C lasslcs Book C lub and C arleton Book C lub (to both
of w h lch m y ow n p aren ts su b scrlb ed an d w h ose b o oks th ey dlsp layed
on our sh elves as a m arker of th elr h ard -w on status as m em bers of
the first college-educated,m lddle-class generatlon ln thelr fam llles).
T hese books w ere certalnly lnten ded for dlsplay at least as m uch as
for read ln g. T h ey often w ere gllt-edged , w lth gold to oled leath er
b oard s an d gllt letterln g on th e sp ln e, th o u gh som etlm es th ere w as
a bu dget verslon ln c10th ; th e b ooks of th e H erltage B ook C lub also
cam e ln dlstln ctlve sllp cases.
T h e Ihad an d O dyssey w ere alw ays am on g th e earllest offerln gs of
th ese classlcally on en ted book clubs. T hey also w ere featured ln
M ortlm er A dle/ s an d R ob ert M . H u tch ln s's G reat B o ok s of th e
W estern W orld (w hlch lncluded 443 lndlvldualw orks by 74 authors
ln 54 large, double-colum ned volum es). Thls canonlcal set w as
p ubllsh ed by th e E tw yclop aedka l riffprlrlitw an d sold door-to-door,
llke th e en cyclop aedla, alon g w lth A dle/ s Syntop kcon, an ln dex an d
gu lde to th e m aln ph llosoph lcal and m oral ldeas ln th e G reat
B ooks.3l lt ls n o accldent th at thls collectlon w as a by-produ ct of

29 Ibld 146, cltln g A m ertcan M agaztn e, Feb ru ary 1926 l95

:0 B enlam ln 1969 22 1- 3, 245 n 5, R adw ay 1997 166, 376 n 42
:1 A d ler 1952
 zirlAm erwan H om erjor the20th Century l77
th e ln stltutlon of great books cou rses by H utch ln s, A dler, an d
R lch ard M cK eon at th e U n lverslty of C hlcago an d by Strlngfellow
B arr and Scott B uchanan at St Johns C ollege,A nnap olls,tn 1937-
co urses th at w ere based on C olum blans G en eralH on ors course.T h ese
courses,llke th e Kl-lu m anltles X course ln stltuted at C olu m bla also ln
1937, w ere year-lon g gen eral ed ucatlon co urses requlred of a11 f rst-
year students.(At St Johns a canonlcalset ofgreatbooks:ofW estern
classlcs, w as, an d stlll 1s, p rescrlbed for all stu den ts for all four
years.32) These general educatlon courses w ere w ldely copled and,
llke th e H arvard C lasslcs an d th e sets of books sold by classlcally
orlented book clubs: th ey app ealed to th e m lddle-class deslre for
culture 170th for Its ow n sake an d for th e sake of th e status to w hlch lt
contrlb uted an d testlE ed . Perh ap s th ls ls w hy at C olum bla, H um an -
ltles A cam e to b e kn ow n as Llterature H um anltles, abbrevlated Llt.
H u m .an d th u s su ggestln g O xford U n lversltyns L kterae H um an kores.ss
T h e tran slatlon s of th e Ihad an d O dyssey offered by th ese book
clubs,p erh ap s becau se th ey requlred n o p erm lsslon fees,w ere alm ost
lnvarlably th e A n drew L ang, W alter L eaf, an d E rn est M yers or th e
Sam u el B utler Ihad an d th e A n drew L an g an d Sam uel H . B utch er,
th e Sam uel B utler, or th e G eorge H . P alm er O dyssey. R an dom
H ou se's M od ern Llbrary,n ot actually a book club but a b udget-prlced
serles of llteraty an d p hllosop h lcal classlcs alm ed at a w orklng- an d
m lddle-class audlen ce, w as exceptlon al because lt ln cluded n ot only
th e L an p L eaf, an d M yers Ihad an d L ang an d B utch er O dyssey
avallable ln ln dlvldual volum es an d ln on e M odern Llbraty KG lan t'
w lth an ln trodu ctlon by G llbert H lgh et,but also th e verse tran slatlon s
by th e South C arollnlan p oet an d classlclst E n nls R ees.
ln th e U nlted States ln th e tw entleth cen tury, th e prod uctlon of
n ew tran slatlon s of H om er w as largely a by-produ ct of th e contln u -
ln g p op ularlty of great b ooks cou rses ln un d ergrad u ate colleges,
elth er as requ lred com p on en ts of gen eral ed u catlon cu rrlcula or as
a com m on m ean s by w hlch stud ents could satlsfy Kdlstrlbutlonn or
Kbreadthn requlrem en ts ln ten ded to gu arantee th at even lf th ey sp e-
clallzed ln areas outslde th e h um anltles, th ey w ould h ave som e
K
exp osuren to th e so -called Km asterplecesn of W estern llterature, cul-
ture,an d th ough t.A s l h ave sald,p robably m ore p eople h ave read th e

:52 B ell 1966 14- 15, 26- 7, L evln e 1996 47- 53 :H W llson 2005
278 Seth Schekn

TDJJ an d O dyssey ln th ese courses over th e p ast slxty or seventy years

th an ln th e precedln g five centurles, and the su clently w ldespread
ad optlon of a p artlcular tran slatlon as a textb ook can be resp on slble
for sales of m any thousan ds of coples per year. Sm ce the end of th e
Secon d W orld W as n o few er th an elght n ew tran slatlon s of th e Ihad
an d th lrteen of th e O dyssey h ave b een p ubllsh ed ln th e U n lted States,
m o st o f th em con celved , com m lsslon ed, an d m ark eted at least p artly
w lth sales to undergraduate readers ln m ln d. T h ese tran slatlon s
ln clude verslon s of both p oem s by E nnls R ees,R lchm ond Lattlm ore,
R obert Fltzgerald, R obert Fagles, an d Stan ley L om bardo, an d ver-
slon s of th e O dyssey alone by A lan M andelb aum , A lbert C ook,
R odn ey M errlll, an d E dw ard M cc rorle. T h e lntrod uctlon s to th ese
tran slatlon s an d th e n otes, glo ssarles, an d ln d exes are ad dressed
p rlm arlly to stu d en t read ers. Sln ce th e p ub llcatlon ln 1976 of M al-
colm W lllcockns C om p ankon to th e tran slatlon of R lchm on d L attl-
m ore,34 lt ls n ot un u su al for oth er tran slatlon s to be accom p anled by
slm llar stu dent alds, as w ell as by Kcourse n otesn or Kstudy guld es;
ln ten ded to h elp studen ts p ass exam ln atlon s an d w rlte p ap ers on th e
poem s (w lthout necessarlly readlng them ). Som e of these transla-
tlon s,such as th ose of Fltzgerald an d Fagles,h ave also been m arketed
to n on -acad em lc gen eral read ers ln trad e edltlon s, bu t l su sp ect th at,
at least from a p ub lish erns v iew p oln t, th ey w ere m eant ln th e E rst
p lace for un d ergrad u ates.
lt ls strlklng th at alm ost all th e A m erlcan tran slatlon s of th e
H om erlc eplcs h ave b een ln verse, w h lle m ost B rltlsh verslon s
sln ce the V lctorlan perlod, ln cludlng those of L ang et a1., B utler,
P alm es W llllam R o u se, E m lle R leu , W alter Sh ew n n p an d M artln
H am m ond,have been ln prose.T hls m ay have som ethlng to do w lth
the fact th at the m alorlty of B rltlsh tran slatlon s are alm ed m alnly at
non-academ lc general readers:w hose fam lllarlty w lth the novel m ay
h ave been th ough t to m ake a prose tran slatlon of th e Ihad or O dyssey
m ore accesslble an d satlsfp n g th an on e ln verse. O n th e oth er h an d,
m o st A m erlcan tran slatlon s sln ce th e Secon d W orld W ar h av e b een
ln ten ded prlm an ly for studen ts ln h um anltles and great books
courses, w here eplc as a genre ls clearly dlstlngulshed from the
n ovel,of w hlch prose ls a m alor delin ln g ch aracterlstlc.Furth erm ore,

:4 w lllcock 1976
 A n A m erwan H om erfor the20th Century l79
ln th e U nlted States, p oetry ln an d of ltself ls a slgn of h lgh culture
an d h elp s to con fer th e status th at great bo ok s co urses alm to
P rovld e.
W h en th e Ihad an d O dyssey are read ln great books courses, th ey
u su ally are de-contextu allzed an d de-hlstorlclzed .Except w h en clas-
slcal sch olars teach th ese co urses- an d n ot alw ays th en- th ere ls
llttle or n o attem pt to un d erstan d th e p oem s as produ cts of a lon g
oral tradltlon or to sltu ate th em ln a late elghth -, early seventh -
century hlstorlcal and cultural context. ln stead, th ey are taugh t ln
relatlon to oth er b o ok s ln th e co u rses, as lf th ey p o ssessed , ln
com m on w lth th ese texts, tlm eless llterary an d eth lcal qu alltles th at
m ake th em exam p les an d exp resslon s of th e en d urln g valu es of
W estern cultu re an d clvlllzatlon . T h e elem en t of th e p o em s m o st
dlstorted by such de-contextu allzlng ls th e O lym plan gods, w h o are
rarely con sldered ln llght of a Kcosm lc hlstoryn recoverable from th e
p oem s of H om er an d H eslod , ln clu dln g th e H om erw H ym ns an d th e
fragm ents of th e ep lc cycle.35 A s a result, relatlon s betw een dlvlnlty
an d h um an lty ln th e Ihad an d O dyssey ten d to b e lnterpreted an a-
chronlstlcally, for exam ple ln term s of fate an d free w lll, an d th e
actu al conn ectlon s betw een dlvlnlty, fate, n ature, an d p oetlc n arra-
tlve are ob scured .
A s John G ulllory says, KB y suppresslng th e con text of a cultural
w ork's productlon and consum ptlonl the great books course creates
Kthe llluslon that ga1 culture ...ls transm ltted slm ply by contactw lth
th e w orks th em selvest36 A n H om erlc ep lc,h ow ever,as taugh tln th ese
courses, does n ot prlm arlly express a culture ofW estern clvlllzatlonn
or even w h at m lght b e con sld ered Kl-lom erlc valu esn. R ath er, lt ex -
p resses th e culture an d valu es o f th e ed u catlon al ln stltutlon s th at
offer th e course- ln stltutlons th at, llke slm llar ln stltutlons at least
sln ce an clen t R om e, h ave en d ow ed certaln w ork s w lth can on lcal
statu s an d th elr readers w lth soclal p ow er by ln clu dlng th em In
th elr currlcula.3; T h e stud ents w h o, throu gh th e n ln eteen th century,
read H om er ln G reek garn ered a p artlcular kln d of cultural capltal,
w hlch w as on e m arker of upp er-class status. N ow ad ays th e great
b ooks courses, w h ere th e readlng ls don e ln tran slatlon , p rovld e a

:5 G razlosl an d H aub old 2005 35-93 36 G u lllory 1994 43

57 Ib ld 51
280 Seth Schekn

w atered -dow n verslon of su ch cultural capltalfor a far larger n um b er

of m ld dle-class an d w ould -be m lddle-class readers.
lt ls n ot su rp rlsln g, glven th e orlgln s of great b o oks co urses as
courses ln KW ar A lm sn or KW ar lssuesl that, even w hlle they express
th e culture of th e edu catlon al ln stltutlon s ln w hlch th ey are offered,
th ey also h ave b een tau gh t ln w ays th at h elp to con stru ct or reln force
a n atlon al culture an d n atlon al ldeology. ln p art thls m ode of
ln terp retatlon sp rln gs from th e assu m p tlon th at th e U n lted States
ln the tw entleth century w as, as lt w ere, the goal tow ard w hlch
W estern h lstory h ad b een ten dln g . G lven th ls assu m p tlon lt m akes
,

sense that A m erlcan core values, esp eclally those havlng to do w lth
ln dlvldu al rlghts an d freedom s, sh ould be ld entlf ed w lth or pro -
Jected onto th e values ln th e books taken to be th e fcoren of W estern
culture. T herefore, ln readlng an d teachlng these w orks ln great
b ooks or Kcoren courses, stu dents an d teach ers all too often lin d
th em selves dlscoverln g an d a rm ln g su p p o sed n atlon al valu es an d
th e actlon s th at follow from th em .
For exam ple,there ls frequ en tly a ten den cy,w hen teachlng the Ihad,
to see th e ln dlvldu alw arn or vs.th e com m un lty or soclety as th e m aln
th em e ofth e p oem an d to pn vllege the ln dlvldu alover th e com m unlty
or soclety. T hls ls a p rolectlon of th e Krugged ln dlvlduallsm n that ls
supposed to be a dlstlnctlvely A m erlcan value (though the focus of
W estern llberalculture generally hasalw aysbeen on the lndlvldual).In
any case,th e p n vllegln g of th e ln dlvld u aldlstorts th e H om erlc eplcs,ln
w hlch the values and actlon s of th e ln dlvldu al h eroes are n ot only, or
n ot so m u ch ,ln opposltlon to those of th e com m unlty as they are the
com m unltyns values and actlons taken to an extrem e. ln oth er w ords,
lndlvldualherolc values are soclalvalues.Even w hen A chllles ln B ook 9
of th e Ihad calls som e of th em ln to qu estlon an d ln so d olng seem s to
stand agam stthe Kcom m um tynor Ksocletf ofthe Greek arm y,he does
so because, as the w arn or h ero p ar excellen ce: h e p aradoxlcally takes
soclalan d com m unalvalu es m ore serlou sly than do others ln the arm y,
an d ln th at w ay h e ls m ore, n ot less, so clal. To p u t lt ln G reek term s,
A chllles ls characterlzed as m uch by phklots (Kfnendshlpl Ksoclal soll-
darlty') as by m nks (Kw rathn), and lt ls slm pllstlc to vlew hlm one-
dlm enslon ally as an ln dlvldual h atefully opp osed to th e com m unlty.
R ather,hls h atred ofA gam em non and lnten se solldarlty w lth Patroclus
are both expresslons of hls p hklots m anque. N evertheless, especlally
 An Am erwan H om erfor the20th Century 281
becau se ln great books courses, len gthy w orlts llke the Ihad are often
read only ln selectlon s the em phasls ls frequently placed on A chlllesn
lndlvldual em otlon s and actlon s ln B ooks
- 1: % and 24,w lth the result
th at the com m unlty to w hlch he belongs ls relatlvely n eglected.
T h e ldeolop cal an d ln stltutlon al assum p tlon s of great b ook s
courses lnvlte th ls k lnd of slm pllf catlon , as th ey lnvlte th e Ktlm elessn
approach of w hlch l sp oke earller.ln b oth cases stu dents are lnvited
or taught to read w ith com placency groun ded m th e assum ptlon that
the poem and lts values are transparently fam lllar and recognlzably
contem porary. T he problem ls esp eclally acute, because m any
teachers of great books courses are n ot classlclsts an d n d lt dl cult
to hlston clze thelr treatm ent of H om erlc eplc.
If an em ph asls on con tem p oran elty an d on th e ln dlvldu alleads to
on e lo n d of lnstltutlon al slm pllficatlon and m lsunderstan dlng of
H om erlc eplc, an oth er, qulte dlfferent w ay of slm pllfp ng an d m ls-
un derstandlng th e Ilkad and O dyssey ln great books courses sprm gs
from th e desire of m any ln structors, esp eclally non -classlclsts from
m odern llterature departm ents: for a slngle, progresslve n arratlve
that w ll1 unlfy the course an d h elp lt m ake sen se to them selves and
th elr students. T h ey yearn for a story of successlve shlfts ln th em es,
values,and narratlve m odes,for exam ple,from H om er (honour and
sham e) to V lrp l (em plre and colonlzatlon) to D ante (Chn stlanlty)
to the novel (m odernlty, econom lcs, soclal stratlhcatlon). Erlch
A uerb ach's M km esls and M lkh all B altlm n's KEp lc an d N over are
favourlte sources for su ch un lfp ng narratlves. A s a result, gener-
atlons of students have been told , w rprlgly, that ln H om erlc eplc
Knothlng ls left ln darkness or unexternallzedl there ls no narratlve
p erspectlve or depth,and a11phen om ena take place ln fa brlghtly an d
unlform ly lllum lnatedn foreground, an Kexcluslve presen tni38 or that
th e eplc, ln con trast to th e n ovel, ls too un sophlstlcated a genre to
Klncorporate extrallterary heteroglosslal to be Kcrltlcal and self-
cntlcall to expose the dlchotom y between Qm anyts) ...surface and
h ls center, b etw een h ls p otentlal and h ls realltyt3g T h e urge for a
h lstorlcal n arratlve ln w h lch to sltu ate th e varlou s texts m a great
books course, lncludlng th e JIJfIJ and O lyssy can generate Just as
slm p llstlc a m lsun derstan dln g of H om erlc p oetry as a presum ptlon

:58 A uerbach 1957 2, 3, 5 .

39 B akhtln 1981 7, 10, 34- 5
'

282 Seth Schezn

of th e su p p o sed ly tlm eless qu alltles of th e p o em s or an em p h asls on

th e ln dlvld u al.
T h e Ihad an d O dyssey llke alm ost every b ook read ln a typlcal
great b o ok s co urse, ln th elr ow n tlm e called ln to q u estlon , or p rob -
lem atlzed ,th e ln stltutlon s an d valu es of th e cu ltures th ey rep resen ted
an d th o se ln w h lch th ey w ere created , w h eth er to su bvert or, ln th e
en d,to rea rm an d reln force th em .W h en ,h ow ever,th ese w orks are
ab sorb ed ln to a tradltlon an d establlsh ed as p art of a can on ,th ey lo se
th elr crltlcal edge,ln p art b ecau se th elr valu e n ow seem s self-evld en t.
ln th e U n lted States, at least ln great b o ok s co urses ln w h lch th ey are
u su ally read ln on ly a w eek or tw o, th e H om erlc ep lcs are typ lcally
tran sform ed ln to d ocu m en ts at th e b egln n ln g of a p rogress tow ard
(and Justlfcatlon of) Kournow n supposed W estern values and selves,
esp eclally w h en , as all too often h app en s, th ey are stu dled as p art of
a serles of texts ln relatlon to on e an oth er,w lth ln su clen t atten tlon
to th e so clal, cu ltu ral, an d h lstorlcal con texts ln w h lch th ey w ere
p rod u ced . T h u s, at th e m o st slm p le-m ln d ed level, stu d en ts m ay b e
lnvlted to vlew A chllles ln the Ihad as Ksellishl unpatrlotlc, and
th erefore ln th e w ron g, w lth out con slderln g w h at self shn ess or
p atrlotlsm m lgh t an d m lgh t n ot m ean ln th e w orld of th e p oem ,
or w h eth er th e ep lc rep resen ts or lm p lles dlfferen t n otlon s of rlgh t
an d w ron g from th e stu d en tsn ow n , or w h eth er rlgh t an d w ron g are
even relevan t categorles of an alysls an d ln terp retatlon .
T h e O dyssey as tau gh t ln great b ooks cou rses can b e su blect to
slm llar ld eologlcal or self-servln g ln terp retatlon s. For exam p le,
O dysseusn destru ctlon of th e Sultors ls seen as ln dlcatln g n ot only
h ls ow n ln dlvldu alp row ess but also a con ceptlon of soclalJu stlce th at
allow s so m asslve an assau lt by a h erolc ln dlvld u al on a com m un lty,
w h en lt ls d on e ln d efen ce of th e h erons ow n p rop erty- th at ls, h ls
w lfe, h ls h om e, h ls h erd s, an d h ls kln gd om . lt ls n ot to o far-fetch ed
to say th at th e O dyssey as taught ln th e typ lcal great books or
W estern h u m an ltles cou rse, ls th e earllest extan t w ork ln sup p ort of
p rlvate p rop erty as an ln stltu tlon an d of h erolsm as ln tlm ately b ou n d
u p w lth th e d efen ce of th ls ln stltutlon .'lo In th ls read ln g, P en elop e's
loyalt'y to O dysseu s an d resou rcefu l p reservatlon of h 1s p rop erty an d
T elem ach u s' ln h erltan ce, alon g w lth Telem ach u sn ow n grow ln g

40 H I'o rter 1962 15- 16

 A n A m erwan H om erfor the20th Century 283
aw aren ess w lthln th e p oem of th e n eed to defen d h1s rlght to thls
ln herltan ce, are further expresslons of the prln clple of prlvate prop -
erty.ln a great books course,B ook 24 ls an approprlate endln g of the
p oem m aln ly becau se lt ls n ecessary to establlsh th at th e gods really
d o en d orse O dysseu sn un preced en ted d ef an ce of com m un al n orm s
ln th e ln terest of a h lgh er Ju stlce th at allow s h lm to get aw ay w lth
klllln g 108 Sultors, alth ough , as h e tells Telem ach u s at 23.117-22,
u su ally w h en som eon e kllls even a slngle m an , h e m ust go lnto
ex1le.41
lt w ould be p osslble to lnterpret O dysseus' slayln g of th e Sultors
d lfferen tly, for exam p le, by foregro u n dln g A th en a as an ln strum en t
ofZ eus (asln the O resteka),w ho helps O dysseusto take vengeance ln
ord er to establlsh a n ew kln d of Ju stlce. ln a great books course,
h ow ever, such a readlng, w hlch subordlnates the lndlvldual to the
p urp oses of dlvlnlty,w ould b e p uttln g th e cart b efore th e h orse.T h e
p oem ls never m ore A m erlcan ldeologlcally th an w hen O dysseus
ln fllcts on th e Sultors fron tler Ju stlce an d sh ow s by su ccessfuldefen ce
of h ls prlvate ln terests th at h e h as god on h ls sld e. ln an essay lirst
p ubllsh ed ln 1956, rep rln ted several tlm es, an d frequ en tly draw n on
by teach ers of great books courses, G eorge D lm ock elucldates th e
m eanlng of O dysseusn nam e by com parlng hlm to Ka character ln
agn A m erlcanl w estern m ovlen w ho says, Klust call m e Trouble:
strangerl ldentlfp ng hlm self as Ka hostlle type w ho m akes trouble
for oth er p eople, an d so presum ably for h lm self alsot42 Slm llarly:
H ow ard Porter,ln an ln trodu ctlon to a 1962 p ap erback reprlnt of th e
G eorge H . P alm er tran slatlon , com p ares th e lonlan soclety repre-
sented ln the poem to that of the KW lld W estl presum ably w lth
O dysseus as the Kfastest gunl and says of H om er: K'l'he experlence of
h ls ow n p eople w orked on hlm - as th e frontler on th e A m erlcan
w rlters of th e nln eteenth centuryt43
ln GreatBooks'M y Adventureswif/lH om erjRousseau,W btl/ f,and
otherIndestructzble J'krrlfpryof the J'kr
ryfrrrlJVP/-ll,D avld D enby quotes
C olum bla Professor Edw ard Tayler as asklng the students (both m ale
and fem ale) ln hls sectlon of the Llterature H um anltles course,Y ou
are all Telem ach u s, aren't you7?44 D en by's book ls a p aean to great

41 Ib ld 18 42 D lm o ck 1956 57, cf 67-8, 70

4:5 H Po rter 1962 l7, 19 44 D enby 1996 76
284 Seth Schekn

b ooks courses as featurlng w orks w h ose pow er supp osedly exlsts

an d m akes ltself feltln depen dent of any ldeology or lnterpretatlon .Yet
D enby hlm self proudly asserts that Kgtlhe great thlng about W estern
cultu re ls th at any A m erlcann- and h ere h e actu ally ls sp eak m g
of A frlcan -A m en cansl- Kcan stand on lt, or on som e sm all part of
lt. ln thls countty w e take w hat w e w ant an d m lx lt w lth our ow n
com p osltlonn'ts
A s typ lcally tau ght, great b ooks courses are 170th dem ocratlc an d
un dem ocratlc: they are free from the con straln ts and know ledge of
any partlcular dlsclpllne and reflect an ldeology of Kllberal educatlonl
of kn ow ledge and culture that are op en and accesslble to all; at th e
sam e tlm e, th ey take for gran ted, as p re-texts, tradltlon al A m erlcan
m yths and (supposed)W estern values,and ln thlsw ay they are hlghly
con straln ed an d llllberal.46 G reat books courses tran sform the H om -
erlc eplcs (and other requlred texts) from w orks that ln thelr ow n
hlstorlcal and cultural contexts had problem atlzed tradltlon al lnstltu-
tlon s an d values, lnto Km asterplecesn that, as part of a tradltlon ,
a11 too easlly lose thetr edge an d becom e slm pllstlcally a rm atlve
expresslon s of Kou/ KW esternn cultural h erltage. A ll too often , thls
transform atlon m ystlf es the role of th e educatlon al lnstltutlon , ln
w hlch a glven course lstaught (and often requlred),ln the productlon
an d con su m ptlon of cultural capltal an d en co urages stu d en ts to read
com placen tly an d un crltlcally.
G reat b ooks co urses con tln u e to flo un sh ln A m erlcan colleges an d
unlversltles.A t C olum bla,w h ere lt all started,th e C olum bla U nlver-
slty R eglster, th e off clal volce of th e unlverslty, on th e seven ty-f fth
an n lversary of th e G en eral H on ors course referred to 1ts great books
courses as lts Kslgnature, lts lntellectual coat of arm s7.47 A G oogle
search for great b ook s co ursesn yleld ed 5,280,000 results, ln clud ln g
th e G reat B ooks Foun datlon , th e electronlc Journ al Teachkng G reat
B ooks an d th e Top 100 B ooks C lub .T h ere ls also an A ssoclatlon for
C ore Texts and C ourses, w hlch , llke acad em lc dlsclplln ary assocl-
atlon s, h olds an n ual m eetlngs w lth a p rogram m e sp read over several
days an d ls dedlcated to th e p edagogy of th e great books.

4, D en by 1996 462
46 I ow e thls lnslght an d w ordln g to E m lly G reenw ood
47 C olu m b la U n lverslty 1994
 ArlAm erwan H om erfor the20th Century 285
G lven th e contlnu lng p op ularlty an d p revalen ce of great b ooks
co urses ln A m erlcan un dergrad uate ed ucatlon , w h at can be don e to
lm prove th e teach ln g of th e H om erlc eplcs? O n e an sw er ls th at
teach ers sh ould take th e tlm e, even w h en th ere are only a few classes
ln w hlch to Kcove/ the Iltad or O dyssey to help studen ts un derstan d
h lstorlcally h ow an d w hy lt and th e oth er texts ln th e course b ecam e
great bookst T h ls m lght productlvely lnvolve a dlscusslon of A ulus
K

G elllusn w ell-kn ow n approprlatlon of th e socloecon om lc term clas-

yitrt/y for th e km d of w rlter w h ose w ork sh ould b e read by young m en
b eln g groom ed to get ah ead ln bfe- classw us adskduusque flngt/i. s
scrkptos Fltp/J proletarlus (Ksom e classlcat landow nlng w rlter, not a
proletarlan onel N octesA tttcae 19.8.15).lt also w ould touch on the
subsequent hlstory of the w ords Kclasslcn and classlcaln ln relatlon to
educatlon al ln stltutlon s.'l8 A hlstorlcally lnform ed dlscusslon of th e
w ords tclassn and culture: along th e llnes sketch ed by R aym ond
W llllam s ln K eyw ords, also w ould be productlve.'lg Even brlef con -
slderatlon of the m eanlngs and h lston es of these w ords m lght h elp
stud en ts to read w lth h lstorlcal aw aren ess and crltlcal en gagem ent.
Fln ally, an em phasls on the confhctln g values an d dlscourses w lthln
th e Iltad an d O dyssey w ould h elp both teachers and students to reslst
th e slm pllstlc, on e-dlm enslon al lnterpretatlons often fostered by
great b ooks courses, an d to en gage w lth th e com p lex, ch allengln g
p oem s w h ose m eanln gs are n ot slm ply p ven but hlston cally con tln -
gent an d con structed , th e p oem s th at ln dlfferent w ays b elon g to
m any cu ltu ral h erltages.

48 Sch em 1999 288-91 49 R W llh am s 1953 60-9 ,87-93

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This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c#
. blank
 Index of H om ericpassages

. P/JJ 2 1 34- 135 235

l 3 1l 95 2 1 74- 96 2 35
l 590- 4 l4 9 2 1 122- 7 2 35
l 57 1- 600 l4 9 2 2 139- 5 6 57
2 4 5 9- 68 l79 2 2 158- 6 6 l78
2 4 84- 92 l54 2 3 6 1- 10 7 24 2
3 l80 l72 23 85 ff 242
3 20 0 95 2 4 7 19- 7 5 82
3 20 2 96
3 220 95 O dyssey
3 4 14- 17 l72 l l 247
4 452 ff 23 l l3 166, 267
5 30 2- 5 l4 6 n 3 l 23 l00 n 13
5 76 7- 72 l4 6 n 3 2 93 96
6 l2 l ff l04 2 l06 96
6 35 6 l72 5 35 98
8 30 6- 8 59 6 31 l0 7 n 2 8
8 55 3- 65 l89 6 33 102- 3
9 13- 15 24 l 6 56 l0 7
9 18 5- 9 l70 6 66 102 , l0 7
9 30 8- 42 9 238 6 92 l0 3
9 56 6- 7 1 82 6 l0 l l 12
ll 269- 72 l74 n l04 6 l02 ff l12
12 298 ff l04 ff 6 l09 l07
16 2 1- 45 l53 6 l15 ff l07 n 30, l15
16 2 34- 5 2 32 n 2 6 l2 9 l0 7 n 2 8
16 6 3 3- 7 164- 5 6 l3 6 l0 6 n 24
16 74 2 24 l n 10 6 l5 5 l0 7 n 28
16 788 ff l58 6 18 1- 5 l05
17 4 2 3- 4 5 60 6 18 3- 5 2 58
17 4 4 2- 5 5 l5 7 n 37 6 l8 6 l 12
18 3 72- 9 l57 n 37 6 20 3 l0 l
18 5 9 1- 2 l79 6 20 4 99
19 4 0 8- 17 l5 7 n 3 7 6 20 5 l0 0
21 27 235 6 2 l8 l0 7 n 30
314 Index of H om encpassages
6 244- 5 106, l13 12 59 ff 98
6 273 ff l05 12 525 96 n 8
6 3 l3 l 13 13 l80 l0 0
6 32 4 l0 7 n 30 13 l87 99
7 39 l00 n 14 13 2 93 96
7 75 l 13 15 4 l5 l00 n 14
8 457 ff l02 16 227- 8 l00
8 4 6 1- 2 l 16 19 l 18 2 65
8 4 6 1- 8 25 l 19 3 95- 6 l 18
8 4 8 9- 9 1 l68 n 84 2 0 34 7- 8 2 57
8 52 l ff 93 23 47- 8 243
9 19-20 96 23 85 ff 243
9 42 2- 3 96 2 3 l 17- 2 2 2 83
10 30 5 24 l 2 3 12 1- 2 l 18
11 2 l9 2 40 2 3 2 96 93, 24 4 n 12
11 5 63- 4 2 40 2 3 4 4 8- 9 2 24
12 2 1- 2 22 5 n 30 2 3 30 0- 1 258
 G eneralIndex

A chllle (character ln W alcott's U lysses'G aze 212,214-22,

O'
Jrncros) 66,186,194-5 225-7,259,lfilm archtves
A chllles 92,152-3,160,168-9,213, 1n) 215-7,225-6
233, 235, 238, 242, 28J Voyage to Cy thera 2 11, 22 3, 22 6
A dler,M ortlm er 276-7 A nten or 95
syllfop lco'
n 276 A n ttd eta 213, 221
A donls tsyrlan poet) 2 n 3 A nton,Charles 270
A eneas 195,203,225 aphrn (gr ) 95
A enetd, see V lrgll A pollodoru s 118
A eschylus, O restesa 283 A p ollontu s of R h odes 4, 5, 30,
aesth etlc Ju dgem en t, see hterary .
32, 37, 38
valu e A rablc 47- 8
A ethtop ts 92 A ran lslan ds 80-6,91
A fn ca 125-31,155,194-5 A rbots de Jubam vllle,H enrl 79,
A gam em n o n 83, 168, 174 , 2 13, 24 1, 80 , 83
263,280 A rgos (O dysseus's dog) 75,223
A lb anla 121, 132-42, 224, 231 A rlstarchu s 106
A lexan drou , A rts 232- 3, 242 A rlstotle
fM edltatlons of Flavlu s A rlstotehanlsm 50
M arcu s' 232- 3 P oettcs 13 1, 267
A lexlou,M argaret 87 A rn old ,M atth ew 35-6
allu ston 10, 260 A styan ax 58,235
A n dron lcu s, Llvlu s 122-4 A tw ood, M argaret 24, 63
A ngelop oulos 2 10-27, 259- 60 A u erb ach, E rlch 28l
L ttrntty and a D ay 211,212, auth orshlp 30-40 , 89
2 14 , 2 19- 2 7
The H unters 2 1l B akhtln , M lkhall 281
The R tconstruchon 2 1 l B akker, Egb ert 70- 1
The Suspended Step of the Barchtest,Alessandro l24
Stork 22 1,224 B arth es, R olan d 248
The Travelhng P layers 2 l2 B earden , R om are 8, 44-5, 67- 9
The W eep m g M eadow 2l2 B ellos, D avld 134-5
typlcal scen es m 21 l B h abh a,H om l ll
3 16 G eneral Index

B lebuyck ,D anlel P l26 C hrlstlanlty 66, see also C ath ollclsm

Bllly Blue (character ln W alcott's Clcero 233

T he O dyssey ..4 Stage cln em a 146, 154- 7, 162- 3, 182,
V'
t?rs/tpn) 62 210-27,245-67,268,see also
B lan ch ot,M aurlce l46 W estern m ovles
B lasket Islan ds 85- 7 C lrce 2 14, 252, 256
B loom ,H arold 1-2, l4,40 C ivil W ar, G reek 226-7, 231-44,
th e B lu es 5, 62 Sp an lsh 60, see also th e
B oltanl,P lero 9,2 l0 Troubles,Yugoslavla
B ow ra, S1r M au rlce 126, l28 class 23, 285
B recht, B ertold 259 classlclsm 84,274-5,285,s:e also
B row n ,D an 264 class
B u lfin ch , T hom as 272- 3, 275 th e classlcal tradltlon l0, 122,
B u rt, Steph en l55 157, 246
B u tch er, Sam u el H 277 C lasslcs 26 1, 267, 269
B u tler,N lch olas M u rray 274 C loon ey,G eorge 26l
B u tler, Sam u el 277,278 C oen B roth ers 245,261-7
O B rother, W hcrc A rt T /l()l/? 245,
C acoyannls,M lch ael 2 1l 261-7,268
C alyp so 2 14, 252 cogn ltlve sclen ce 29
can on ,W estern 3, 15- 16, 30, 35, C ollln s, M ortlm er l8, l08
43- 5, 124, 125, 207- 9 colon lallsm , 199, see also
C arn b ean p oetry 45, 65, 191-209 p ostcolonlallsm
C ath ollclsm , l10- 11, l40 C olum bla U nlverslty 270, 273, 274,
C avafy; C on stan tln e P 8, 232- 3, 277, 284
236- 7 com m u n lsm , see m axlsm , so clallsm
fc aesarlon ' 240 com p aratlve eplc 2,28- 9,43,125- 3 1
fD arlus' 233 C ook A lbert 278
f'I'he H orses ofA chllles' 242 C ook Ellzabeth 13
f'frolan s' 236- 7 C yclop s 17 1, 262, 265, 266, see also
C ave, T eren ce 52 P olyp h em u s
C esalre, A lm e 19 1- 20 9
C ahw r 191-2, 195-6, 198-9, D ante 4,28, 94, 177, 193, 198-200,
200- 4 , 20 6, 20 9 2 10- 1 1, 22 5
D tscourse on C t?/t??2,;?!s ??: l99 D em odocu s 99- 100, l68
Letter to M aun ce T horez l99 D enby,D avld 283
Sp trales 191, 198-9 D errlda,Jacqu es 28
C h am olseau ,P atrlck 24 D ldo 203
C h ap m an , G eorge 13, 107, 157- 8, D lm ock , G eorge 283
165-8 D lom edes l04
 G eneral f/lfv x 3 17

dolos (gr) 96,97 R tzgerald,Robert 102,

D ough erty, C arol l67 156- 7, 278
Flem m p D eb orah 78
E ades, C arolln e 210,2 1l Flow er, R obln 86
E co,U m berto 264 Foley,John M lles 29,38,43, l47
Ellot, C h arles W 275 Ford,A ndrew l20
E h ot, G eorge 108 form ulas 2 l,29,32, 33, 90,
E llot,T hom as Stearn s 13- 14,27, 211, see also oral p oetry
197, 2 11, 226 Forster,E dw ard M 87
E llts, H avelock 1l6 Fou cau lt,M lch el 28
E lp en or 232, 238-42 Fow ler,R ob ert 5 n 13, 30- 1, 123
E plc Frangop ou los, T h eophllos D
A frlcan eplc 125-31 234-5, 236-8
A rlstotle's defm ltlon of eplc Tetcllom achta 236- 8
126- 7, l3l fW e H ave T aken R oot' 234-5
com p aratlve stu dles of eplc 28-9 fun eral lam ent 82

En gllsh eplc 149

epos (gr ) l30 G alnsford,Peter 56-7
G reek an d R om an eplc 12 1-5,l30 G alllel, G allleo 180- 1
N ear E astern eplc 171, 193-4, G alllp oll l6l
204, 225 G an ue,A F 4 1-2
E tm an ,A h m ed 47-8 G elllus,A u ltls 285
Eum aeu s 223 gen der p olltlcs l12- 17, 173,243-4,
E urlpld es 173 249-58, see also fam lly
Euryclela 63, 216, 223, 243 valu es,fem ln lsm
E urydlce 22l G lldersleeve,B asll A 27l
Eu stathlu s l06 G tlgatnesh, see N ear E astern eplc
Everett,E dw ard 270 G llroy,Paul 51
G latlcu s l04
Fagles,R obert 96, 100,102, l11,l56 gods, an clent 24 n 63, 149, 160,
fam lly valu es 2 17-2 1, 257- 8, 171-2, 204,283
282-3 G oethe,Johann W olfgang von 3
Fantasy Flctlon 6, 175 G oodm an,John 265
Farr, D avld 13- 14 G orglas 173
Farrell,Joseph 45 G orgythlon l88
fem lnlsm 63, see also gender G orky In stltute of W orld
p olltlcs Llterature l32
Felton , C urtls C onw ay 270,27l O 'G rady,Stan dlsh 83
Flnn egan ,R u th 125- 8 G rote, G eorge 27l
Flrst W rorld W ar 53-5,59-61, 161, G ulllory,John 279
186, 188,273-4 G u m p ert, M atth ew l73
318 G cnrrfll Index

H alhw ell, Steph en 50 T he O . #@c/(z/of theD ream

H am m on d ,M artm 169,278 Palace 140
H ardm ck ,L orn a 32, 15l l rokc'n A prll l33
H arrls,W llson 66-7,69-70 C llro'
nlclc 1,
n sfo?1e l33
H arvard U nlverslty 270,275 The Gepcrlzlofthe D crlt
l-lalv ard C lasslcs 275-7 A rm y l33
H ean ep Seam u s l87 T he M onster 133
H ector 58, 178,232,238 katabasls, see U n derw orld
H elen 95-6, 172-3 K eats,Joh n 13, 157-8, 165-8,169
H erltage B ook C lub 276 K eble,John 1O8
H errnsteln 5m 1th,Barbara 123-4 kleos / klea (gr ) 130,161,252,264
H esfod 36,279 Ktm chalovsky,A ndrel (The O dyssey
H eubeck,A lfred 42-3 TV adaptatlon) 246
H tgh et, G llbert 277 K ubrlck, stanley l57
H tn ds, Step hen 49
H tstortctsm 12 L ac ap ra, D om ln lck 16
H om ecom m g 49 , 53, 6 1, L am b , C h arles 107- 8
191-209,252 Lang,A ndrew 277, 278
H om ersc H ym n s l79 L an g ,Frttz 154- 5
H om er Slm p son 6-7 L atm 270- 3
H opkln s,G erald M anley 88 Lattlm ore,R lchm ond 95,278
The H um an 5,1://1(dlrected by Leaf,W alter 277
R obertB enton) 268 Lelgh,M lke 22-3,245-61,267
H un ter,H olly 2 62 A btgatl's Party 246
H utchlns,RobertM 276,277 Lfe fsswccr 258
N aked 2 45- 61, 2 66-7
ln tertextu allty 10, 246, 260 Secrets antl L les 246, 2 58
Irelan d 18-9, 50, 53-61, 75- 91, W r/ D rake J58
see also Joyce,Longleyk the Leo,Frledrlch 122, 125
T rou bles lln gulstlcs 29
Isocrates l73 llterary valu e 40, 88, 122- 4
L ogu e, C hrlstoph er 12- 1.
3, 145- 76
Johns H opkm s U ntverstty 271 A IlD ay Perm anentR ed 160, 162,
Joyce,Jam es 8,45,47,76-7,93-4, 169-70, 171-2, 183
97- 119,210- 11,217,242, an achrom sm tn 148,168,171,l82
246 , 259 , 267 A tfllo/tlgtfc 159
cm em atli techm qu es m 146,
K ad are,lsm all 2, 121, 132-42 182-3
Th t .F//: on H 121, 132-9, C old C /lls 161, 170- 1
141-2 G BH 182
Sp n ng F low ers, qsp r/p.jrF rost 134 K m gs 151
 G eneralIndex 319

Patrocleta 151, 153, 154, 160, l8l M arxlsm 86, 89, 9l, 199-200, 233
P ax 15 1, 182 M axw ell, M ary 152- 3
Prm ce C htzrl-nl'
ng l52 M cc rorte,E dw ard 278
slm lles ln 146, 181-4 M cK eon , R lch ard 277
J'Q r M ustc 145-76, 181-4 m dea pukna (gr) 96
Lom bardo,Stanley 157,278 M edledovlc,A vdo 40, 123
L ongley, M lchael 15, 53-61, M elllet,A n toln e 80
186-90,244 M elanth o 63-4
A Poppy' 59-60, 187- 8 M eleager 82
A n Exp loded v kcw 53,57 M enelau s 174,263
f'I'he C am p Ftres' 189 m m s (gr ) 280
fc easeflre' l87 M errlll,R odn ey 278
T uryclela' 56-7 m etam orph osls 12
Gorse F/rcs l87 M etropohs (dlrected by Frlz
fl-lom er's O ctopus' l5,56 Lang) 154-5
s'
now W tzfcr 57,l87 M tlton ,John 4,28,94,149-50,177,
The G host O rchld 58, l89 180, l93
f'I'h e H elm et' 58 M ln ch ln ,E llzab eth 163-5
f'T'h e H orses' 60 M ltch ell, Steph en 40
The W eather />7Japan 188 M oderm sm 13,76,267
f'W ar an d P eace' 57, 187 M orettl,Fran co 7, l3l
W oun ds' 53-4 M orrls, 1an 5 n 13, 30- 1
L ord,A lb ert 39- 45, l5, 132-41 M ost, G len n W l22
L oren zatos, Z tsstm os 231 M ulokozl,M ubyam bu so 127-8, l30
L ttl, P lerre 80 M urrayk G llb ert 79
L ow e,N lck 153, 163 m yth lcal m eth od 70,76
L ow ell, R ob ert 235, 240 M yers, E rn est 277
Ly caon 2 32- 8
Lynn -G eorge, M tch ael 34 N agy, G regory 38,40,88
lyrlc p oetry 55, 187, 190 N au slcaa 64, 98, 100- 17, 248, 25 1
L u can 4 N ear E astern ep lc 35 , 17 1, 193- 4 ,
Lu ce, John V 87 204,225
Lu th er,A n dreas 9 negn tude 206- 7, 209, see also race
N ekum (gr ),see U nderw orld
M ach aon 174 N estor 173
M acln tosh , Flon a 79 N letzsch e, Frledrlch 49
M acllenna,Stephen 78-9 nostos (gr ),see hom ecom lng
M ahafh; John Pentland 84
M akrlyan nls, G en eral 237 O dysseu s 93- 107, 111-16, 118- 19,
M an delb aum ,A lan 278 233, 247, 251, 256- 8, 264- 6,
M artln dale, C h arles 8 282,283
 320 G eneral Index

O kp ew h o, Isld ore 128-130 p ostcolonlallsm 11

, 2 8, 5 1,
oral p o etry 3- 4, 33-7, 48, 90- 1 19 1-2 09
on p n ahty 17, 30-7 p ost
O traum atlc stress dlsorder 64
-

rp h eus 2 12- 15,224,225 Poun d E zra 242

,

O ttom an em plre 14O Pow elt Barry 5 n 13 30- 1

,

O vld 213 P rlam 92 96

,

O w en ,W llfred 54, 59 Proust M arcel 2 10- 12

,

P ullm an , P h lllp 177

p acllism 148, see also w ar P ren dergast C hrlstoph er 3, l3l
,

P alm er, G eorge H 2 77-8 283

, P ygm ah on 67
A n th em for D oom ed Youth ' 59
Parls (Tro?an prlnce) l73 Q ulntlllan 233
P arly M llm an 5 I6, 2 7-.-46, 89- 9 1,
,

12 1- 3, 12 5, 13 1-2 ,134 - 9 , 141 R adw aykJanlce 275

P atrod us 83, 153, 181,235 , 242 , 2 80 race I7 see also negn tude ,

P en elop e 24, 62-4, 75, 96 98,2 16,

, receptlon 6- 7 9- 10 , 15- 16,.30- 3 1, , .

22 3, 243- 4, 2 52 2 5 6, 2 58,
, 33 , 42>44 -6,24 6,2 59,
2 63, 2 65, 2 82 2 6 1 2 67
,

Peradotttw John 95, 171 recognltlon 52 3, 55- 7, 6 1, 75, -

penpeto a (gr ) 52,61,64 223 ,

246
P haeacla, th e P h aeaclan s 98- 101 , R eesy E n n ls 2 77- 8
l 11, 251 R eld C hn stoph er 150- 1, 159
,

Phlloctet: (character ln W alcott's Relnhardt K arl l18 ,

O m eros) 1S5 repetltlon l0 90 y

phtlots (gr ) 280 revlslon 10

photography 161 2 18- 19
, revlvlficatlon 1 1 12 -

Plcasso (G uerntca) 60 RleuyEm lle V 60 , 249, 2 78

Pln dar 3.
% 38,220 R llke R am er M arla 220, 226
,

P lato 159, 2 72 R ltso s

, Yannls (T enelopeRs
A lctbtades 222,226 D espalr') 243 4 -

1on 159 R o sen b erg Isaac 54 , 59

,

m yth of th e cave 226 R ou se Jv llllam 278

,

P llny the Younger 233 R upke

, lorg 124, 130
P lu tarch 106- 7
Polltls,Kosm as (Etm ca) 236 Saralevo 214-16 , 22 5- 6
P ollard, C h arles 2- 3 14
, Sarp edon 164
polutntts (gr ) 95 Schlegel A u gu st W llh elm von 270
,

polutvopos (gr ) 95 Scholes R ob ert 159

,

P olyph em us 96, see also C yclop s Secon d W orld W ar 147 -

8,
P op e, A lexan der 106- 7 170
, 22 6, 2 32- 3,
P orter,H ow ard 283 238 2 7 8
:
 G eneral .
J/J/V .X 32 1

seferls,G eorge 8,76, 119,2 11,222, P h jloctetes 1 18

226,232,234-5,237-8, Sp en ser, E dm und 4
240,242, Stefan ovlc K aradllc, V uk
f'rhe K m g of A sm e' 24Q 137 n 62
fT hrush' 238 Stem er, G eorge 8-9, 156, l66
Serb la, see Y ugoslavla Steslch oru s l73
seven Seas (character m W alcott's stevens,W allace 243
O m eros) 186 sturges Preston 263
shakespeare,W llllam 167, 169, O 'Sulllvan,M aun ce (M uln s O
214-15,220 sulleabhaln) 86,91
Shay,Jonathan l47 sultors (O dysseyj 253,256-7,283
Sheen ,Eh zab eth 150 Sunlata 126- 7
Sh ew m np W alter 278 Synge,John M lllm gton 76-85, 117

Slck er,P h lh p 116

slkeh an os,A ngelos 232 T agore,R ab ln dranath 48
slm lle l77- 90 T an talu s 2 13
reverse slm lle 6 1 Tassth Torqu ato 4, 177
eptc stm tles 177-81 Tatum ,Jam es 147-8
hon stm tles 104 Tayler, Edw ard 283
w orld of th e H om en c Telem achu s 75, 223, 282- 3
slm lles 179-80 Tennyson ,A lfred l18, l77
slm llarlty and dlsslm lllarlty textu al f-undam entallsm 49
ln 178-9, 181, 184-5, T h atch er, M argaret 258
188, l90 T h ew hss, D avld 246
slm lles ln C hrlstopher T hom as,E dw ard 54
L ogu e 181-4 T h om son , G eorge D erw en t 76,
m M tch ael L on gley 186-90 85- 9 l
ln D el-ek W alcott,see W alcott, tlm e an d ttm elessn ess 12- 13,
D erek 34-46, 6 1-7 1
sln op oulos T akls 235-42 T lreslas 213,2l6
fE lp en or' 238-40 T ltyus 213
fW ake for Elp en or' 240-2 tradltlon al poetry 29-30, 42
Slren s 262, 266 tran slatlon s 1, 30y 35- 6, 4 7- 8, 5S,
Slsyphu s 2l3 95, 10U, 102, 106, 146,
soclah sm 78 150- 8, 272, 277-9, see also
Solom os 220, 224 entm es un der m dtvtdu al
som m e,B attle of th e 55 tran slatol-s
Song ofhhlm an Parry see Vo?llc, Troubles,The (N orthern
M llovan Ireland) 55,61
Sophocles 272 Troy (dlrected by W olfgang
A nttgone 220 Petersen) 9,245,259,268
322 G eneralIndex

Tu rn er, E dw ard R 273 W ar, O dysseu s as w ar

typ e scen es 2 l,2 1 1, see also dodger, 94
form u las, oral poetry W ell, Slm on e 9, 147
recognltlon scen es 56- 7 W eln steln ,P hlllp l13
W est, M artln L l93.-4
U nd erw orld 66, 192-206, W estern can on , see can on ,W estern
2 10- 27, 242 W estern clvlllzatlon 269, 274, 279
U n derw ood, Slm eon 154, 164 W estern cultu re l1, 280,284
W estern hterature 1, l5, 30,
V lco, G lam b attlsta 33 n 25 40- 1, 43
V letn am W ar l47 W estern m ovles 170, 283, see also
V lrp l 4, 5, 28, 30, 94, 122- 3, 193, cln em a
195, 197,203,2 10 ,281,fv lrg' W estern valu es 269,282 ,284
as a N ew England farm er 7 W lcke,Jennlfer l14
A enetd 94, 123, 195, W llcock M alcolm 278
198, 245 W llde, O scar 84
V olllc,M llovan 136-4 1 W llllam s,R aym on d 285
The Song of .Az
.
9 /?'
rl;7/:Parry W lnkelm ann,Johann Joachlm
136- 9, l4 l 2 70
W olf, Frledrlch A ugu st 33, 271
W alcott,D erek 1,7, 8, l7,28y44- 5, w orld llterature 3-4, 12 l
52, 61-8, 7l, 85, 191-3, W orld W ar 1, see Flrst W orld W ar
204- 8,246,259 W orld W ar I1,see Second W orld W ar
fl-lom ecom lng A n se L a W orld W ld e W eb 6
R aye' 191, 204-6 W yke,M arla 258- 9
O tn eros 1, 7, l7, 2 3, 44- 5, 66- 8,
177, 184- 6, 19 1- 2, 194- 5, Y ale U n lverslty R ep ort 270
206- 7, 245, 259 Y eats,W llllam B u tler 76- 8,
T he O dyssey .?t Stage F a's/t??l 6 l- 6 85- 6
slm lles ln 185- 6 Younp P hlllp H 8
TheM use of Ihstory 65 Yugoslavla 136-41,214-16,
The Sea at D aup htn 85 225- 6
w ar 57, 188- 9, 280, see also C lvll
W ar,FlrstW orld W ar, 2001 .A Space O dyssey (dlrected by
Second W orld W ar,V lem am Stanley Kubrtck) l57