DIPLOMARBEIT

Titel der Diplomarbeit

Comparison of Grammar
in Austrian and Spanish English Language
Teaching Textbooks

Verfasser

Philipp Kamhuber

Angestrebter akademischer Grad

Magister der Philosophie (Mag.phil.)

Wien, 2010

Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt: A190 344 482

Studienrichtung lt. Studienblatt: Lehramt Englisch, Bewegung und Sport
Betreuerin: Ao. Univ.-Prof. Dr. Christiane Dalton-Puffer
 Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 4

2. APPROACHES AND METHODS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING ................................................ 6

2.1. A HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING ........................................................................................... 9

2.2. THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD .................................................................................... 10
2.3. THE REFORM MOVEMENT: .......................................................................................................... 12
2.4. THE DIRECT METHOD: ................................................................................................................. 13
2.5. THE METHODS ERA ..................................................................................................................... 16
2.6. THE NATURE OF APPROACHES AND METHODS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING ................................... 17
2.7. THE ORAL APPROACH AND SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING ............................................... 21
2.8. AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD ............................................................................................................ 24
2.9. ALTERNATIVE AND CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES AND METHODS TO LANGUAGE TEACHING... 32
2.10. CURRENT INFLUENTIAL APPROACHES AND METHODS IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING ....... 33
2.11. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING .................................................................................. 34
2.12. THE NATURAL APPROACH ......................................................................................................... 42
2.13. CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION................................................................................................. 47
2.14. TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING ......................................................................................... 54

3. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS IN AUSTRIA AND SPAIN ............................................................ 63

3.1. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN SPAIN ......................................................................................... 63

3.2. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN AUSTRIA ..................................................................................... 67
3.3. SELECTION OF THE AGE LEVELS OF THE AUSTRIAN AND SPANISH ELT TEXTBOOKS .................. 69
3.4. THE AUSTRIAN CURRICULUM ...................................................................................................... 72

4. DESCRIPTION OF THE FOUR ELT TEXTBOOKS ................................................................. 74

4.1. EVERYTHING FOR ESO 2 STUDENTS BOOK ................................................................................ 74

4.2. UNITED. ENGLISH FOR ESO STUDENTS BOOK 2 ......................................................................... 74
4.3. MORE 2 STUDENTS BOOK........................................................................................................... 75
4.4. YOUR TURN 2. TEXTBOOK ........................................................................................................... 76

5. CRITERIA FOR ANALYZING GRAMMAR IN ELT TEXTBOOKS ...................................... 77

5.1. THE ROLE OF GRAMMAR IN THE FOUR ELT TEXTBOOKS ANALYZED ......................................... 79
5.2. AMOUNT OF GRAMMAR EXERCISES PER ELT TEXTBOOK ............................................................. 80
5.3. GRAMMAR CHECK-UPS ............................................................................................................... 86
5.4. GRAMMAR SELF-CHECKS ............................................................................................................ 88
5.5. GRAMMAR LEARNING STRATEGIES ............................................................................................. 90
5.6. GRAMMAR DRILLS....................................................................................................................... 91
5.7. TRANSLATION EXERCISES ........................................................................................................... 92

Page 1
 5.8. FILL-IN-, COMPLETION-, MATCHING-, ORDERING-, ETC. EXERCISES ........................................... 93
5.9. GROUP WORK AND PAIR WORK .................................................................................................. 95
5.10. CONTEXTUALIZATION OF GRAMMAR EXERCISES ...................................................................... 97
5.11. LEARNER-ORIENTATION OF GRAMMAR EXERCISES ................................................................... 99
5.12. GRAMMAR TASKS .................................................................................................................... 101
5.13. LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................................... 104
5.14. DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE GRAMMAR TEACHING ................................................................ 105
5.14.1. Deductive Grammar Teaching ........................................................................................ 105
5.14.2. Inductive Grammar Teaching ......................................................................................... 107
5.15. PRESENTATION AND GRADATION OF GRAMMAR ..................................................................... 112

6. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 113

7. REFERENES .................................................................................................................................. 117

8. APPENDICES................................................................................................................................. 120

Page 2
Abstract

The topic of this diploma thesis is the comparison of Austrian and Spanish
ELT textbooks in respect to grammar teaching. In the first part of this paper,
approaches and methods in foreign language teaching are introduced and
criteria relevant for the analysis of grammar in ELT textbooks are derived from
them. Further, a number of additional criteria analyzing grammar at a more
general level are included in the analysis of this paper as well. For the
textbook analysis, which is presented in the second part of this paper, two
ELT textbooks written for the Austrian market and two ELT textbooks written
for the Spanish market have been chosen. It will be analyzed if the four ELT
textbooks follow the principles of one single approach or method or of more
than one approach or method to language teaching. Further, it will be
analyzed to what extent the ELT textbooks adhere to these principles and if
the recommendations made in the Austrian curriculum concerning the
teaching of foreign languages are fulfilled in the ELT textbooks. Finally, it will
be analyzed if there are any differences in terms of grammar teaching
between the Austrian and the Spanish ELT textbooks analyzed in this paper.

Page 3
1. Introduction

As future teacher I found it useful and practical to write my diploma thesis

about a topic in language teaching. Since in many foreign language teaching
classrooms the ELT textbook plays a major role, I wanted to focus on a
textbook analysis in my paper (Dendrinos 1992: 23). McGrath, for example,
stresses the absolute centrality of materials in language education (McGrath
2002: 204). For the actual textbook analysis I considered different aspects of
language teaching which could be analyzed and came to the conclusion to
analyze grammar teaching in ELT textbooks. In my time at school and in
many foreign language classes today grammar plays a very important if not
central role. The dominant role of grammar is also reflected in most
approaches and methods to language teaching: a defining criterion of an
approach or a method always has been whether or not grammar is taught and
if so in which form. There have also been various attempts to abandon
grammar from language classrooms and textbooks, however, as Scott
Thornbury points out [i]f grammar ever went away, it was only very briefly
and not very far (Thornbury 2000: 23).

The latest developments in approaches and methods to language teaching,

such as the Communicative Approach and Task-Based Language Teaching,
have raised new issues for discussion about teaching grammar, as for
example teaching grammar through language functions etc. I also wanted to
explore these recent developments in language teaching and to analyze if and
to what extent these developments are already implemented in recent ELT
textbooks. Hence, in this research paper one of the main aims is to find out to
which approach(es) and method(s) the ELT textbooks chosen for this analysis
adhere, if they adhere to one single approach or method, or to more than one
and to which ones. According to Swaffar, Arens and Morgan in textbooks the
philosophy of a given method or approach is not strictly followed (Swaffar,
Arens & Morgan 1982). Whether this is also the case in the textbooks
analyzed in this paper will be explored. As I have spent my summer semester
2009 in Santiago de Compostela in Spain, I considered it as quite interesting

Page 4
to compare Austrian ELT textbooks to Spanish ones and to analyze whether
there are any differences in terms of grammar teaching between the ELT
textbooks of the two countries. For the textbook analysis in this paper, I have
selected two ELT textbooks published especially for the Austrian market and
two ELT textbooks published for the Spanish market.

When analyzing the concept of grammar it is worth considering definitions of

grammar at first. Thornbury writes in his book How to teach grammar (2000)
that all language in use can be analyzed at each of the four levels: text,
sentence, word and sound. A text consists of sentences, which themselves
consist of words, and the words, when spoken, consist of sounds. Thus
studying grammar, in part, means to look at the way these four forms of
language are arranged and patterned (Thornbury 2000: 1). Traditionally,
grammar has been concerned almost exclusively with the analysis of
language at the level of the sentence (Thornbury 2000: 1). According to
Thornbury (2000: 3) most language teaching textbooks and grammars are still
firmly grounded in the sentence grammar tradition. In the analysis of grammar
of this research paper this basic definition of grammar, as a description of
the rules for forming sentences, will be considered (Thornbury 2000: 13).
Further, aspects of more recent views on grammar teaching, such as the
meaning making potential of grammar, as expressed for example through
functional terms, will be regarded as well in the textbook analysis of this paper
(Thornbury 2000: 3).

This research paper consists of three main parts: namely the presentation of
approaches and methods to language teaching, the educational systems in
Austria and Spain and the actual ELT textbook analysis. In the first part, in
which influential approaches and methods in language teaching are
presented, criteria relevant for analyzing grammar in textbooks are derived
form these approaches and methods. Thus, when analyzing these criteria, it
can be inferred to which extent the ELT textbooks analyzed follow which
approach(es) and/or method(s) in respect to grammar teaching. In the second
part of this paper, the educational systems of Austria and Spain are
presented. This is important since the years of learning English in school have

Page 5
to be considered for the selection of the grade levels of the textbooks. In the
end, however, the selection of the grade levels of the Austrian and Spanish
ELT textbooks has been mainly based on the grammatical content taught in
the textbooks of Austria and Spain. A great similarity in terms of grammatical
content between grade levels has been regarded as crucial for comparing the
textbooks. The grade level of the Spanish ELT textbooks has been chosen at
first and the Austrian textbooks have been adjusted to the Spanish ones in
terms of similarity of grammatical content. This issue is explained in more
detail in chapter three. In the third main part of this research paper, the
textbook analysis is carried out. In this analysis, the criteria derived from the
approaches and methods to language teaching in chapter two are analyzed,
as well as certain additional criteria relevant in analyzing grammar. Finally, in
the conclusion the research questions of this paper will be answered and the
results of the textbook analysis will be summed up.

2. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching

In this chapter approaches and methods in language teaching are discussed,

especially with respect to the role of grammar in the different approaches and
methods. Many authors have written books or texts on the topic, however,
most authors have approached it quite differently. For bringing the
approaches and methods to language teaching in a sequence a number of
books have been considered:

Scott Thornburys briefly describes in his book How to Teach Grammar (2000)
the main approaches and methods relevant for the development of grammar
teaching: these are the Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method,
Audiolingualism, the Natural Approach and Communicative Language
Teaching including Task-Based Learning. Thornbury basically arranges the
approaches and methods chronologically and particularly discusses the role
of grammar in each approach or method (Thornbury 2000: 23).

Page 6
Bessie Dendrinos adopts in her book The EFL Textbook and Ideology (1992)
a quite different way of arranging the approaches and methods to language
teaching. At first Dendrinos deals with the role of the textbook in education
and then examines the educational value systems in respect to foreign
language teaching: these value systems are Classical Humanism,
Reconstructionism and Progressivism. Under Classical Humanism Dendrinos
describes the Grammar-Translation Method and the Cognitive Approach. 1 In
Reconstructionism she describes the Audio-Lingual and the Communicative
Approaches. In the educational value system of Progressivism the Task-
Based Approach, the Process Syllabus and the Procedural Syllabus are
discussed. In examining the different approaches and methods to language
teaching Dendrinos always describes a typical syllabus adhering to the
discussed approach. She further critically comments especially on
contemporary approaches to language teaching. Hence, certain aspects of
her book are considered as well in this research paper. However, arranging
approaches and methods to language teaching according to educational
value systems might be rather confusing for most readers on the one hand
and it does not allow a chronological perspective, which, in my opinion, shows
most clearly how the different methods and approaches came into being. A
chronological perspective further shows which movements motivated different
innovations in language teaching and especially in grammar teaching.

Such a chronological sequencing has been adopted by Richards and Rodgers

in their book Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2007). They
divide their book into three main parts, namely: Major trends in twentieth-
century language teaching, Alternative approaches and methods and Current
communicative approaches. In the first part of their book Richards and
Rodgers briefly report on the beginnings of language teaching and on first
approaches and methods to language teaching. Further they distinguish
between the concepts of approach and method and outline how these two
concepts are related. Then they discuss the Grammar-Translation Method,
the Oral and Situational Approaches to language teaching as well as the

1
Dendrinos calls it Grammar-Translation Approach in her book The EFL Textbook and
Ideology (1992).

Page 7
Audiolingual Method. In the second part alternative approaches and methods
to language teaching are examined. However, as the authors point out, the
great majority of them did not influence mainstream language teaching
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 72). This is also true for contemporary teaching
materials, such as the four ELT textbooks analyzed in this paper and
therefore most of these alternative methods and approaches are not
discussed in this research paper. In the third part current communicative
approaches to language teaching are described, namely Communicative
Language Teaching, the Natural Approach, Cooperative Language Learning,
Content-Based Instruction and Task-Based Language Teaching. Richards
and Rodgers make the chronological sequence of the development of the
approaches and methods very explicit and thus their way of sequencing
approaches and methods has been adopted in this chapter.

Further Richards and Rodgers arrange every method or approach in basically

the same way: after a general introduction to the method or approach they
divide it into three main parts, namely Approach, Design and Procedure. In
the Approach-part theories of language and learning underlying the approach
or method are described. In the second part, Design, the objectives of the
approach or method as well as a typical syllabus are described. Further, types
of learning and teaching activities, learner and teacher roles and the role of
instructional materials are discussed. In Procedure Richards and Rodgers
describe classroom procedures typical for the described approach or method.
The other books described above do not make explicit how they have
arranged the approaches and methods described. Richards and Rodgers
arrangement of the approaches and methods is quite logical and makes it
easier for the reader to follow the main arguments and to understand that
approaches and methods consist of theories of language and learning which
form the theoretical base and of adequate teaching material and procedures.
Therefore, in this paper basically Richards and Rodgers way of arranging the
approaches and methods has been adopted, although a number of other
books and articles have also been considered in describing them, of course.
Diane Larsen-Freeman adopted in her book Techniques and principles in

Page 8
language teaching (2000) a quite similar approach as Richards and Rodgers.
Insights of her book have been included in this chapter as well.

Finally, it has to be said that not all of the existing approaches and methods to
language teaching are described in this paper. Only those, which influenced
mainstream language teaching and teaching materials, are discussed in
detail. These mainstream approaches and methods are covered by most of
the books considered in this chapter. Based on the view of Richards and
Rodgers (2007: 67), these are:

the Grammar-Translation Method

the Direct Method
the Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching
Audiolingualism
Communicative Langue Teaching
the Natural Approach
Content-Based Instruction
Task-Based Language Teaching

2.1. A History of Language Teaching

The 20th century was characterized by many changes and innovations in the
field of language teaching ideologies. In the history of language teaching
approaches and methods, there was a move away from methods that focus
on writing and reading to methods that stronger concentrate on the skills
speaking and listening. Even the actual questions concerning language
teaching that are debated have already been discussed throughout the history
of language teaching (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 1-3).

Actually the first teaching methodology for acquiring a foreign language was
the one applied for learning Latin. Due to the fact that Latin was the language
of education 500 years ago its study was immensely important for educated
learners. The detailed study of grammar, as for example studying

Page 9
conjugations and declensions, doing translations and writing sample
sentences was seen as central in the teaching methodology at the time. The
teaching methodology used for learning Latin was, after its decline from a
spoken language to a school subject, adopted for learning foreign languages
in general. This approach to foreign language teaching became known as the
Grammar-Translation Method (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 3-4).

2.2. The Grammar-Translation Method

This method was mainly advocated by the German scholars Johann

Seidenstcker, Karl Pltz, H. S. Ollendorf and Johann Meidinger and became
known in the USA as Prussian Method first (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 5). As
the name already suggests, grammar was seen as starting point for
instruction (Thornbury 2000: 21). One of the main components of the
Grammar-Translation Method was its focus on the detailed study of grammar
rules, followed by the application of the learned rules in translation-exercises
first into and then out of the target language (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 5;
Dendrinos 1992: 106). In terms of the four language skills, the main focus was
on writing and reading, whereas little attention was paid to speaking or
listening (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 6). Accuracy was an important feature of
this method as well, since students were expected to achieve high standards
in translating sentences, which was tested in written exams (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 6).

Learning in a classroom in which principles of the Grammar-Translation

Approach were taught meant learning

to understand the rules underlying the sentence constructions, to

memorize paradigms, to analyze sentences in their constituent parts, to
classify these in terms of grammatical categories and to be able to
produce new sentences on the basis of the grammar and vocabulary
taught (Dendrinos 1992: 106).

In the Grammar-Translation approach grammar was taught deductively

(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 6): in a typical lesson the grammar rule was at

Page 10
first explicitly stated and followed by translation exercises (Thornbury 2000:
21). Grammar was also taught in a systematic and organized way, which was
reflected in the syllabus where grammar items were sequenced from easy to
more complex (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 6). For the explanation of grammar
rules and for instructions the language used in class was the native language
of the students (Richards & Rodgers 2997: 6). In grammar exercises pupils
had to apply the learned rule by completing already constructed sentences
and then by formulating new ones, showing that they had understood how the
rule had to be used (Dendrinos 1992: 107).

The Grammar-Translation Method was very popular and dominant in Europe

from the 1840s to the 1940s and is, according to various authors (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 6; Dendrinos 1992: 106), still used in modified form in certain
foreign language classrooms even today. The method may be frustrating for
students but on the other hand expects little qualifications of teachers, since
the teacher basically just has to know the rules of grammar (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 6). There is no language theory available on which the method
is based and on which it is justified. This is due to the fact that the method
was adopted from a time when Latin was the most important language, 500
years ago and at this time no language teaching theory seems to have
existed. It is no wonder that in the mid- and late 19th century the Grammar-
Translation approach was questioned and a reform movement in Europe laid
the basis for other, at the time new ways of language teaching (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 6-7).

After having presented the cornerstones of the Grammar-Translation

Approach we are in a position to derive an analysis of grammar exercises.
The relevant criteria of the Grammar-Translation Approach in respect to
analyzing grammar exercises are:

Page 11
 translation exercises
deductive grammar teaching 2
L1 is used for explaining grammar rules
focus on writing and reading skills
typical grammar exercises: completing already constructed sentences,
then formulating new ones, filling-in exercises, matching exercises, etc.

2.3. The Reform Movement:

During the Reform Movement the discipline of linguistics was revived again
and in this period the discipline of Phonetics was established, which brought
new insights into speech processes. In the same period of time, namely in
1886, the International Phonetic Association was founded and the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was designed to make it possible to
transcribe sounds. One of the goals of the association was the improvement
of language teaching and one of its concrete claims was an inductive
approach to grammar teaching. There were many debates going on at the
time about what was the best way or method to teach foreign languages. The
linguist Henry Sweet advocated in his book The Practical Study of Languages
(1899) among other things to arrange the learning matter in terms of the four
skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. He also wrote that the
learning material should be graded from simple to complex (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 9-10).

In contrast to the principles of the Grammar-Translation Method, the

reformers believed that spoken language was, primary and should be
reflected in an oral-based methodology. They also advocated the findings of
phonetics should be applied in teaching foreign languages and that the
learner should first hear the language before seeing it in written form. Another
point, which is relevant for this research paper, was that they recommended
that words should be taught in sentences and sentences should be practiced

2
Deductive grammar teaching means an explicit statement of the rule and afterwards
examples follow in which the rule is applied (Thornbury 2000: 29). For further explanation see
Textbook Analysis.

Page 12
in meaningful contexts and not in isolation. Even more relevant for the
research paper is the suggestion of the reformers that grammar rules should
be taught after the students have met the grammar points in context, in other
words that grammar should be taught inductively. The reformers also stated
that translation should be avoided, although it was considered as acceptable
to use the mother tongue to explain new words or to check comprehension as
for example in the explanation of grammar rules (Richards & Rodgers 2007:
10).

These principles provided the basis for applied linguistics, the study of foreign
language teaching and learning. However, none of the proposals ever
achieved the status of a method as a widely known and accepted concept of
language teaching. At the same time of the Reform Movement there was
another movement favoring the naturalistic principles of language learning.
Out of this movement finally emerged the Direct Method, a natural method of
language teaching (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 10-11).

2.4. The Direct Method:

This method was developed at the end of the nineteenth century and
challenged the views on grammar teaching held by the Grammar-Translation
method (Thornbury 2000: 21). The language teaching expert F. Gouin and
other reformers tried to create a method based on the insights drawn from the
observation of child language learning (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 11).
However, the attempt to teach a foreign language somehow like a first one is
not particularly new. Already in the 16th century, for example, Montaigne
explained that he was just spoken to in Latin the first years of his life, since his
father wanted him to speak Latin well. L. Sauveur (1826-1907) who used
intensive oral interaction as main means of instruction. In his language school
in Boston in the late 1860s his method became known as the Natural Method
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 11).

Page 13
Sauver and other advocates of this method maintained that language could
be taught without translation or the use of the learners mother tongue if
demonstration and action was used to convey meaning. F. Franke (1884), a
German academic, wrote about the psychological principles of direct
association between forms and meaning in the target language and provided
a theoretical justification for monolingual language teaching in this work. He
argued that a language could be best taught to students when using it actively
in class and he was against techniques that focused on the explanation of
grammar rules (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 11). The learner was supposed to
pick grammar up like children in their L1, simply by being exposed to the
language, that is inductively (Thornbury 2000: 21). Further, no textbook was
used in the first years of learning and the teacher was the main medium of
instruction (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 11). Consequently a textbook used in
the first years of learning focused mainly on oral skills, in contrast to the
Grammar-Translation method, which focused mainly on writing (Thornbury
2000: 21). These language learning principles were the basis of the Direct
Method, the most popular of the natural methods (Richards & Rodgers 2007:
11).

In practice, the main principles of the Direct Method were:

Classroom instruction was only given in the target language. Thus, the
native language of the students was not used at all.
Only what was considered everyday vocabulary and sentences were
taught.
Oral communication skills were shaped in a carefully graded process in
form of question-and-answer exchanges between teacher and pupil.
Grammar was taught inductively.
New teaching items were introduced orally first.
If possible, vocabulary was taught through demonstration, actual
objects or pictures. Abstract vocabulary was taught via association of
ideas.
Speech and listening comprehension were taught.
Correct pronunciation and grammar were regarded as crucial.

Page 14
 (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 12)
However, the Direct Method was also strongly criticized. Richards and
Rodgers (2007: 12-13) point out that the method failed to consider the
practical classroom realities: for example, the Direct Method required teachers
who were native speakers or spoke with a native-like fluency. Thus, the
success of the method depended on the teachers skills. It was further
criticized that the method lacked a basis in applied linguistics and was the
product of enlightened amateurism (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 13). It was
also criticized that the exclusive use of the target language was sometimes
counterproductive since it was often easier to translate a word or phrase
instead of performing verbal gymnastics, as the Harvard psychologist Roger
Brown (Brown 1973: 5 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2007: 13) has pointed
out.

For mainly these reasons the Direct Method declined by the 1920s in Europe.
According to the British applied linguist Henry Sweet, the method gave
innovations at the level of teaching procedures but lacked a clearly defined
methodological basis. Sweet and other applied linguists advocated for the
integration of sound methodological principles as basis for language teaching
techniques. These developments led to Audiolingualism in the United States
and Situational Language Teaching in Europe. According to Richards and
Rodgers the Direct Method can be seen as first teaching method to be
recognized by teachers and language teaching experts and its proposed
methodology moved language teaching into a new era, which they call the
methods era. Nevertheless the Direct Method will not be considered in the
analysis of the four ELT textbooks since the method can be seen as
forerunner of Situational Language Teaching and Audiolingualism, in which
major principles of the Direct Method are reflected. Audiolingualism and
Situational Language Teaching had a greater impact on language teaching as
will be seen in this chapter and hence these methods will be considered in the
analysis part of this paper (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 13-14).

Page 15
2.5. The Methods Era

The history of language teaching shows that the various proposed methods
and approaches experienced ups and downs throughout the twentieth
century, as Richards and Rodgers point out. However, common to most of
them are the following assumptions (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 14-15):

An approach or method refers to a theoretically consistent set of

teaching procedures that define best practice in language teaching.
Particular approaches and methods, if followed precisely, will lead to
more effective levels of language learning than alternative ways of
teaching.
The quality of language teaching will improve if teachers use the best
available approaches and methods.(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 15)

The various approaches and methods to foreign language teaching, that

emerged mainly in about the last 60 years had often very different
characteristics. However, they all share the same belief that they will bring
about improvements in language teaching through improvements in teaching
methodology. Between the 1950s and the 1980s the most active period of
changes and developments of language teaching methods and approaches
took place. In the 1950s and 1960s the Audiolingual Method and Situational
Language Teaching experienced their period of greatest popularity.
Nevertheless, they were both replaced by the Communicative Approach.
During the same period other methods also attracted some attention, however
not as great as the methods just stated above. Among these nevertheless still
well known methods were the Silent Way, the Natural Approach and Total
Physical Response. In the 1990s, Content-Based Instruction, Task-Based
Language Teaching and Competency-Based Instruction were introduced.
Further, approaches like Cooperative Learning, Whole Language Approach
and Multiple Intelligences, which were originally developed in general
education, were extended to foreign language teaching as well. Finally, in the
1990s applied linguists and language teachers turned away form the view that
newer and better approaches could solve the problems in foreign language
teaching and sought alternative ways for understanding the nature of

Page 16
language teaching. Richards and Rodgers (2007: 16) call this phase the post-
methods era (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 15-16).

While developing new ways in foreign language teaching methodology

reformers asked themselves the same basic questions:

What is the aim of language teaching? Should the course teach

conversational proficiency, reading, translation or some other skill?
What is the basic nature of language and how does it affect teaching
methodology?
How is language content selected in foreign language teaching?
Which principles of organization, sequencing and presentation of
material best ease learning?
What is the role of the native language in the learning and teaching
process?
What processes do learners use in mastering a language and can
these be incorporated into the language teaching method?
What teaching techniques work best and under which circumstances is
this the case?
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 14)

2.6. The Nature of Approaches and Methods in Language

Teaching

According to Richards and Rodgers (2007: 16) it is fundamental to distinguish

between the notions of method and approach since these two terms might get
confused by readers and do not refer to exactly the same thing. First of all, it
is important to distinguish between approach and method and to clarify their
relationship (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 16). When describing methods it is
important to distinguish between a philosophy of language teaching at the
level of theory and principles and a package of derived procedures for
language teaching (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 19). The American applied
linguist Edward Anthony suggested a schema for this in 1963. He introduced

Page 17
three levels of conceptualization and organization, which he labeled
approach, method and technique (Anthony 1963: 63-67 quoted in Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 19). Following Anthonys model, approach is the level at which
assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are
described. Method, on the other hand, is an overall concept for the
presentation of teaching material which is based on the underlying approach.
Method is therefore the level at which theory is put into practice and at which
choices are made about which skills should be taught, the content to be
taught and the order of presentation of the content. At the level of techniques
the actual classroom procedures are depicted. Techniques must also be
consistent with a method and by implication with the respective approach
(Anthony 1963: 63-67 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2007: 19).

By looking into the past it can be observed that the Reform Movement was an
approach to language teaching and the Direct Method a method that was
derived from this approach. Anthonys model is a useful model for
distinguishing the relationship between underlying theoretical principles of
language teaching and learning and the practices derived from them
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 19). However critique on Anthonys proposal
comes form Richards and Rogers (2007: 20) who comment that in Anthonys
model the nature of method itself is not discussed explicitly enough.

Richards and Rodgers extended Anthonys original model: they discuss

Anthonys terms method and approach under their term design. At the level of
design objectives, syllabus and content are defined and the roles of teachers,
learners and instructional material is discussed as well. At the level of
technique in Anthonys model, Richards and Rodgers proposed the according
to them more comprehensive term procedure. They sum up the relations
between the terms of their model in the sentence:

[A] method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally

determined by a design, and is practically realized in a procedure
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 20).

Page 18
In their book Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching they adopt this
model for describing the different methods and approaches in language
teaching. In this research paper, basically the model introduced by Richards
and Rodgers will be used to describe the methods and approaches as well.
On the one hand, Richards and Rodgers make the thoughts and the logic
behind their model transparent in their book, in contrast to many other authors
which often do not even introduce a model for describing methods and
approaches to language teaching at all. Further, their model clearly
distinguishes between the terms method and approach, which is crucial in
describing them. Therefore this distinction will be employed in the following
sections as well. The diagram on the next page visually shows the
interrelation of the terms approach, design and procedure, used in Richards
and Rodgers model:

Page 19
Figure 1 (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 33)

Page 20
2.7. The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching

After having introduced Richards and Rodgers revised model of Anthony

(1963) for describing methods and approaches to language teaching this
model is will be used to describe the approaches and methods discussed in
this research paper. First of all, two of the major approaches and methods of
the twentieth century, namely the Oral Approach and Situational Language
Teaching will be described (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 1). The Oral Approach
was developed by British applied linguists from the 1930s to the 1960s. Two
of the most prominent leaders of the movement were the British linguists
Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 36). Their aim
was to develop a more scientific oral approach to language teaching than the
Direct Method with the result of a systematic study of the principles and
procedures that could be used for the selection and organization of the
language content (Palmer 1917, 1921 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2007:
36).

The role of grammar and vocabulary were very important in the Oral
Approach. Vocabulary was seen as central component of reading proficiency
and grammar was seen as crucial as well since it caused the foreign language
learner problems, according to Palmer. He assumed that there was a
universal grammar common to all languages. The aim of the teacher was to
express this universal grammar in the foreign language. The grammatical
structures were classified into sentence patterns which should help students
to internalize the rules of the sentence structure of the target language
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 36-38).

Concerning teaching methodology the Oral Approach consisted of principles

of selection, gradation and presentation. Selection means the principles on
which the grammatical and lexical content is chosen. Gradation specifies the
sequencing and the organization of the content. Finally, presentation means
the techniques used for the presentation and practice of the items learned in
class. Richards and Rodgers draw attention to the fact that the Oral Approach
must not be confused with the Direct Method: although both lay emphasis on

Page 21
the teaching of oral skills the Direct Method lacked a systematic basis in
applied linguistic theory and practice, Richards and Rodgers (2007: 38) point
out.

The principles of the approach developed over a 20-year period and one of
the main principles was that new language items or points should be
introduced in situations. Thus, the name Situational Approach was
increasingly used instead of the term Oral Approach. Further additions were
made and the term Situational Language Teaching came into usage and has
been extended to a method. In this research paper the term Situational
Language Teaching is used as well and includes also the Oral Approach
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 39).

Approach

The underlying theory of language of SLT is called British structuralism.

Speech was viewed as the main component of language and the basic
grammatical structures were regarded as central to speaking ability. In the
British view of structuralism the link between a grammatical structure and an
appropriate situation, in which the structure could be practiced was its
distinctive feature and mirrored the functional trend in British linguistics since
the 1930s. Thus, and in contrast to American views (see Audiolingualism)
language was seen as purposeful and related to aims and situations in the
real world (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 40).

The theory of learning to which SLT adheres is Behaviorism: language

learning is the learning of correct speech habits and this can be achieved,
according to this view on language learning, through drilling exercises.
Grammar teaching was carried out, like in the Direct Method, inductively. This
means that generally no grammar rules are explained and the learner picks
up the grammar by the way the structures are used in different situations.
Explanation of grammar points or vocabulary are thus discouraged. The
learner then should be able to apply the language learned in real life

Page 22
situations outside the classroom. Basically this is the same process as
children learning their native language (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 40-41).

Design

The main objective of SLT is the teaching of the four language skills, a goal
shared with most methods and approaches to language teaching. However, in
SLT the four skills are approached via structure. Further, accuracy is seen as
important for grammar and pronunciation teaching and errors should be
avoided whenever possible. Automatization of basic structures and sentence
patterns is seen as the basis for the teaching of reading and writing skills,
which are tackled through speech work. In SLT a structural syllabus is the
basis for teaching. The syllabus lists the basic structures and sentence
patterns of English. Moreover, structures are always taught within sentences
and vocabulary is chosen according to how well it is compatible with the
sentence patterns to be taught (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 41-42).

Typical types of learning and teaching activities are sentence pattern drills.
The situations in which the drills are placed are carefully guided so that the
learner can certainly infer the correct meaning of what he hears. By situation
the use of concrete objects, pictures and realia together with actions and
gestures by the teacher are meant. The function of the situation is to
demonstrate the meaning of new language items. The teaching techniques
usually include guided repetition and substitution activities, chorus repetition,
dictation, drills and controlled oral-based reading and writing exercises.
Sometimes, group and pair work is incorporated into the exercises as well
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 42-43).

Learners have no control over what is learnt and their main duties are to listen
to and repeat what the teacher says. The teacher, on the other hand, serves
as a model and sets up situations in which the target structure can be
practiced. The teacher is regarded as skillful manipulator who uses
questions, commands, etc. to elicit correct sentences from the pupils
(Richards & Rogers 2007: 43). The teacher is central to the success of the

Page 23
method, since the textbook only describes exercises for the teacher to carry
out in class (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 44).

Procedure

Concerning the procedure of SLT, there is a move from controlled practice to

freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentence pattern to their
automatization and their use in speech, reading and writing. As already said,
drills are likewise embedded in situations. To illustrate this, the pattern
Theres a NOUN + of (noun) in the box shall briefly be considered: the
teacher takes things out of a box that he has placed on a table in the class
and the class repeats: Theres a bottle of ink in the box. Theres a pencil in
the box. etc. (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 44-45).

Conclusion

SLT is a method that is an extension and further development to the earlier

Oral Approach. The central component of SLT is the P-P-P lesson model: in
this model a lesson has three phases: presentation of a new language item,
controlled practice of the item and finally a freer production phase. Textbooks
written on the basis of SLT are still widely used today, especially when
materials are based on a grammatical curriculum. However, SLT was later
called into question and finally led to Communicative Language Teaching,
which will be discussed a little later in this chapter. The main principles of
SLT, namely the strong emphasis on oral practice, grammar and sentence
patterns offer a practical methodology to counties in which the national
curriculum is grammar based (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 47).

2.8. Audiolingual Method

One of the reasons for the development of the Audiolingual Method was the
entry of the United States in World War II. Personnel were needed who spoke
foreign languages like French or German fluently. Thus, the government

Page 24
appointed American universities to develop foreign language programs for
military personnel (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 50). One main aspect of this
Army Method was intensive oral drilling (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 51).
Moreover, as the United States emerged as international power, there was a
growing demand for teaching English to immigrants and foreign students. In
the Audiolingual method most emphasis was put on the mastery of the formal
properties of language, which means good grammatical habits (Dendrinos
1992: 113). Grammar or structure was the starting point of teaching and
language was manifested by its basic sentence patterns and grammatical
structures (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 52). Language was mainly taught
through intensive oral drilling and by paying attention to pronunciation. As can
be observed, the Audiolingual Method is quite similar to SLT. However, the
two methods and their underlying approaches developed independently. The
major difference between the two approaches is that the American one was
closely connected to American structural linguistics and its applied linguistic
applications.

The Audiolingual Approach consisted of remarkable linguistic analysis but

contained very little pedagogy. The Aural-Oral Approach, which was proposed
by linguists at Michigan and other universities, emphasized the priority of
aural training in language teaching. Through the inclusion of the Aural-Oral
Approach, insights taken form behaviorist psychology and contrastive analysis
the Audiolingual Method was developed (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 53). 3

Approach

The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism is structural linguistics.

The theory was proposed by American linguists in the 1950s and was a
reaction to traditional grammar teaching. In structural linguistics language was
seen as system of related elements for the encoding of meaning (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 54-55). The elements were of a phonemic, morphological and

3
Contrastive analysis of two languages: Potential problems concerning differences in
grammar and phonology of the two languages could be predicted more easily (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 52).

Page 25
syntactic nature and were structurally interrelated. Therefore language
learning meant the learning of the elements of the language and the rules by
which the elements could be combined. Another very important aspect of
structural linguistics is the primacy of speech: speech is language (Richards
& Rodgers 2007: 55). Similarly to SLT, it was argued that children learn to
speak before to write and hence speech should have a priority in foreign
language teaching as well (Dendrinos 1992: 115; Richards & Rodgers 2007:
55).

In the period in which the Audiolingual Method was developed the school of
American psychology, termed behavioral psychology, was said to explain all
the processes of human learning (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 56). It
considered language simply as form of behavior to be learned through the
formation of correct speech habits (Thornbury 2000: 21). This learning theory
was the basis of Audiolingualism and had the goal to duplicate native
language habits in learners through a stimulus-response-reinforcement
teaching methodology (Dendrinos 1992: 114). These three central elements,
stimulus, response and reinforcement, fulfilled different functions: the stimulus
serves to elicit a behavior of a student, the students response is caused by a
stimulus and reinforcement serves to grade the response as being
appropriate or inappropriate (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 56). Thus
reinforcement encourages or discourages repetition of the given answer by
the student. Reinforcement maybe is the most important of the three
components since it increases the possibility that the desired behavior of the
student will occur again and finally become a habit. It is the approval of the
teacher or fellow students that tells the pupil if his behavior was appropriate or
inappropriate (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 56). The stimulus-response-
reinforcement scheme is visually well-described by Richards and Rodgers
below:

Page 26
Figure 2
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 57)

Design

The Audiolingual method required a complete reorganization of the foreign

language teaching curriculum. A return to speech-based instruction was
proposed with the main goal of oral proficiency and the dismissal of the study
of grammar or literature as main goals of foreign language teaching (Richards
& Rodgers 2007: 58). According to Thornbury (2000: 21), although explicit
grammar teaching was rejected, the sentence patterns to be learned were
nevertheless grammatical in origin. The objectives of the Audiolingualism
were a focus on oral skills in the early stages of learning with the gradual
inclusion of other skills as learning develops (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 58).
Oral proficiency was understood in terms of accurate pronunciation and
grammar and the ability to answer quickly and accurately in speech situations
such as conversations (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 58).

Audiolingualism is linguistic, or structure-based. Hence its syllabus is a

linguistic one (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 59). According to Dendrinos (1992:
113) it contains items of grammar and syntax, phonology and lexicon of the
target language. Thornbury (2000: 21) writes that the Audiolingual syllabus
consists of sentence patterns, which need to be practiced in class through
pattern-practice drills. The four language skills are taught in the order of
listening, speaking, reading and writing (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 59).
Listening shall help the student to identify basic sound patterns. In early
stages language is usually presented exclusively orally (59). After the student

Page 27
has recognized and differentiated between the heard sound patterns, he or
she has to imitate, repeat and memorize them (Brooks 1964: 50). Only after
the student has mastered these patterns his or her vocabulary will be
enlarged as well. Further, accuracy should be achieved before fluency
(Brooks 1964: 50). When reading and writing is introduced, students learn to
read and write only what they have already mastered orally. Generally, in
speaking and writing, the risk of making mistakes should be kept to an
absolute minimum (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 59).

Basic learning and teaching exercises of the Audiolingual Method are

dialogues and drills. Through dialogues structures are contextualized and
cultural aspects of the target language can be included as well. Moreover,
dialogues are used for repetition and memorization of sentence structures.
Correct pronunciation, stress, speech rhythm and intonation are seen as
crucial. After the students have memorized the dialogue, specific grammatical
patterns are selected and practiced in pattern-practice drills (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 59). Richards and Rodgers point out that the use of drills and
pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the Audiolingual Method (Richards
& Rodgers 2007: 60). Further, Richards and Rodgers as well as Dendrinos
mention various kinds of drills, such as repetition drills, completion drills,
substitution drills, etc. (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 60-62; Dendrinos 1992:
114-115). The drills of the four ELT textbooks analyzed are mainly repetition
drills in which students repeat utterances aloud as soon as he or she has
heard it (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 60). However, in a certain number of drills
of the textbook analysis students hear a conversation, a song or a couple of
sentences before they have to repeat them. Hence, there is no one-to-one
match between the drills of the ELT textbooks analyzed and the category of
repetition drills as mentioned by Richards and Rodgers. The other types of
drills mentioned by them clearly do not correspond to the drills in the
textbooks. Hence, in the textbook analysis the category of drills will not be
differentiated and analyzed in general and not according to these types just
mentioned.

Page 28
The role of the learner in Audiolingualism was a reactive one. He has to
respond to stimuli and thus has little control over the content, pace or style of
learning. In behaviorist learning theory the learner is seen as organism that
produces correct responses through the teaching techniques proposed by the
method. Hence Audiolingualism, as SLT, is a teacher-dominated method. The
teacher plays the more active part, as he is central in the learning and
teaching process (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 62). According to Richards and
Rodgers the teacher models the target language, controls the direction and
pace of learning, and monitors and corrects the learners performance
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 62). Language learning is viewed as the outcome
of verbal interaction between the teacher and the students (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 63).

The instructional material used in the Audiolingual Method was therefore

teacher-oriented as well. Textbooks for students were often introduced after
the elementary learning stages of the pupils, in which pupils tasks were
mainly to listen, repeat and respond. When textbooks are introduced to
students, they usually contain dialogues and drilling exercises. Moreover, tape
or CD recordings and audiovisual material are crucial in an Audiolingual
course (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 63).

Procedure

The process of teaching mainly focuses on intensive oral instruction. Students

are supposed to produce immediate and accurate speech. Only little time is
spent for the explanation of grammatical structures or talking about the target
language. Usually the target language is the medium of instruction and
translation exercises as well as other uses of the learners native language
are dismissed (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 64). According to Richards and
Rodgers (2007: 64) in typical lessons students first hear a model dialogue,
which they have to repeat and to memorize. Then, the dialogue may be acted
out by the students (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 65). After that, key structures
of the dialogue are selected and practiced in the form of pattern drills. After

Page 29
that, different follow-up activities may follow, including other language skills as
well (Richards and Rodgers 2007: 65).

Dendrinos (1992: 115) writes that in a typical lesson language patterns, which
are related to specific themes, may be first presented as well. Students have
to learn these by heart and only after they have done so does the teacher
provide the literal meaning of the learned patterns, avoiding the mother
tongue at all costs. Then follow drills in which the language structures are
further practiced. After that a reading passage may follow, which is
accompanied by comprehension questions. Moreover, a conversation is also
presented in a typical unit, which has to be memorized and then acted out by
students (Dendrinos 1992: 115). Finally, more drills follow which are less
controlled as well as a series of completion, fill-in and reconstruction
exercises providing students with further practice (Dendrinos 1992: 116).
Dendrinos (1992: 114) further distinguishes between the Audiolingual
Approach and the Audiovisual Approach. She points out that in the
Audiovisual Approach many illustrations complement the new language so
that pupils are always aware of the meaning of the language and hence
parrot-learning is tried to be avoided more deliberately (Dendrinos 1992:
114-116). In this research paper the term Audiolingualism or Audiolingual
Method will be used including both of these forms.

The decline of Audiolingualism

Audiolingualism was most popular in the 1960s, particularly in the United

States. Nevertheless, the method was criticized on the one hand because the
theories of language and learning were viewed as unsound and secondly
because the effects on language learning did not show as the method
promised, Richards and Rodgers point out (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 65).
The main problem was that students could not transfer the skills learned in
class to communicative real life situations. On the theoretical basis, critique
mainly resulted from changes in American linguistic theory in the 1960s. The
well-known linguist Noam Chomsky rejected both the structural approach to

Page 30
language teaching as well as behaviorist learning theory (Richards & Rodgers
2007: 65). According to Chomsky

[o]rdinary linguistic behavior characteristically involves innovation, formation

of new sentences and patterns in accordance with rules of great abstractness
and intricacy (Chomsky 1966: 153 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2007: 65).

Chomsky further argued that languages were not learned by repetition but
were generated from the students underlying knowledge of abstract rules
(Chomsky 1966: 153 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2007: 66). By this he
meant a conscious focus on grammar and the learning of grammar rules and
a focus on the abstract mental processes in learning rather than seeing
learning just as habit formation (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 66).

It is obvious that there are many similarities between Audiolingualism and SLT
(67). The order in which language skills are introduced, namely from aural and
oral to reading and writing, the focus on accuracy via drills and practice of
basic sentence patterns are common to both methods. However, Richards
and Rodgers state that Situational Language Teaching was a development of
the earlier Direct Method [] and does not have the strong ties to linguistic
and behavioral psychology that characterize Audiolingualism (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 67). The common views of the two methods on language
theory and learning were, although quite similar, developed from different
traditions (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 67). Nevertheless, the criteria for the
textbook analysis in this paper will be the same for both methods since they
are very similar in terms of teaching methodology, which is relevant in the
textbook analysis of this paper. The criteria derived from Situational Language
Teaching and Audiolingualism are the following:

drilling exercises (repetition of structures, including dialogues with the

instruction to repeat them or to act them out)
no use of the L1 (in explaining grammar rules)

Page 31
 inductive grammar teaching 4
main focus on listening and speaking skills

2.9. Alternative and Contemporary Approaches and Methods

to Language Teaching

Although Chomskys theory was quite influential no methodological guidelines

emerged for it and the lack of an alternative method to the Audiolingual
Method led to a period of experimentation and also some confusion in
language teaching in the 1970s and 1980s (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 66-
67). Several alternative methods and approaches were proposed but none of
them influenced mainstream language teaching and foreign language
teaching with a lasting effect. These alternative methods include Total
Physical Response, the Silent Way and Counseling-Learning. According to
Richards & Rodgers (2007: 67), these proposals attracted some attention, but
never reached a significant level of acceptance. Other proposals have
mirrored developments in general education and other fields of study outside
language teaching. These proposals are Whole Language, Multiple
Intelligences, Neurolinguistic Programming, Competency-Based Language
Teaching and Cooperative Language Learning (Richards & Rodgers 2007:
67). Richards and Rodgers point out that

Mainstream language teaching since the 1980s, however, has generally

drawn on contemporary theories of language and second language
acquisition as a basis for teaching proposals. The Lexical Approach,
Communicative Language Teaching, the Natural Approach, Content-
Based Teaching, and Task-Based Teaching are representative of this
last group (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 67).

These contemporary methods and approaches to language teaching will be

discussed in this research paper in detail, since they are relevant for the
textbook analysis in chapter four. The methods and approaches that Richards
and Rodgers have labeled alternative, will not be described in this paper nor

4
In an inductive approach first language examples are presented from which a rule is
inferred. For more detailed explanation see Textbook Analysis.

Page 32
included in the textbook analysis, since they have not had much impact on
mainstream language teaching (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 67).

2.10. Current Influential Approaches and Methods in Foreign

Language Teaching

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), as discussed on the following

pages, stands for a concept of language teaching that focuses on the
functional and communicative potential of language (Richards & Rodgers
2007: 153). CLT is an approach that can be interpreted and adapted in many
different ways (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 157). According to Richards &
Rodgers, this is due to the fact that teachers and language teaching experts
from different educational traditions can identify with it, and consequently
interpret it in different ways (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 157). Nevertheless,
the key characteristic of Communicative Language Teaching is
communication: Language learning is learning to communicate (Finocchiaro
& Brumfit, 1983: 91).

The Natural Approach is another current approach to language teaching,

although not as widely established as CLT. Krashens theories of language
learning, which underlie this approach, have had a great effect on the debate
about language learning theories, particularly in the United States. The issues
addressed by the Natural Approach are still in the centre of debates about
learning methods today (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 151). Cooperative
Language Learning, Richards & Rodgers (2007: 151) point out, has its origins
outside of language teaching, however is compatible with the principles of
CLT and thus a straightforward way of foreign language teaching and
learning. Content-Based Teaching, on the other hand, is a logical
development of some of the core principles of Communicative Language
Teaching, particularly those that relate to the role of meaning in language
learning (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 151). Task-Based Teaching can be seen
as development of a communicative methodology, in which communicative

Page 33
methodology and recent theories of second language acquisition are
combined (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 151).

On the following pages, CLT, the Natural Approach, the Lexical Approach,
Content-Based Teaching and Task-Based Teaching will be described more
closely, since these are the current approaches that have had a more lasting
effect on foreign language teaching (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 67).

2.11. Communicative Language Teaching

The origins of CLT can be found in changes in the British language teaching
tradition (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 153). The Situational Approach (see
SLT) had run its course and predicting language on the basis of situational
events was called into question (Howatt 1984: 280). According to Dendrinos
(1992: 116) it was mainly criticized that predicting which language students
would need to use in specific situations was extremely difficult. Further it is
also very hard to say which specific situations students will be likely to
encounter in their later life or which will be important in their later profession
(Dendrinos 1992: 116). Moreover, Noam Chomsky stressed in his book
Syntactic Structures the importance of the creative and unique potential of
language (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 153). At the time, British linguists further
viewed the communicative and functional potential of language as central in
foreign language teaching and language teaching in general. They saw it
more useful to focus primarily on communicative proficiency and not, as
proposed in SLT and Audiolingualism, on the mastery of grammatical
structures (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 153).

According to Richards & Rodgers (2007: 155), today European and American
language teaching experts view CLT as an approach, and not a method which
has communicative competence as its goal of language teaching and which
seeks to include all of the four language skills into communicative exercises. 5

5
CLT is considered as an approach and not a method since it is compatible with many
teaching methods. There is no specific teaching methodology available for CLT. The

Page 34
The great coverage of the Communicative Approach and the great range of
teaching and learning procedures and exercises compatible with it, however,
make it hard to compare CLT to other approaches and methods: for some
CLT simply means the teaching of grammar and functions, for others it means
using classroom procedures such as pair or group work, in which a problem
has to be solved or an information-gap between the two parties has to be
mastered (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 155).

Some scholars, such as Thornbury or Howatt distinguish between a weak or

shallow-end version of CLT and a strong or deep-end version of CLT
(Howatt 1984: 279; Thornbury 2000: 22). In weak or shallow-end CLT, which
is according to the authors todays standard, grammar is still the main aspect
of the syllabus, although it is often dressed up in functional labels: asking the
way, talking about yourself, making future plans etc. (Thornbury 2000: 22).
Some of these functions just cited are also found in some of the ELT
textbooks analyzed, as shall be seen later in the analysis part of this paper. In
the strong version, which Thornbury (2000: 22) referred to as deep-end CLT,
explicit grammar instruction is rejected and instead a syllabus of tasks is
proposed. It is no wonder that this was the predecessor of the Task-Based
Approach to language teaching, Thornbury points out (Thornbury 2000: 22).
The Task-Based Approach to language teaching will be discussed later in this
chapter. In this text rather the shallow-end or weak version of CLT will be
described. After having introduced many different views on CLT, what can
definitely be stated is that CLT involves some form of communication, which is
manifested in communicative exercises and moreover the functional potential
of language is viewed as crucial (c.f. Richards & Rodgers 2007: 153).

Approach

availability of a teaching methodology would be typical for a method (Richards & Rodgers
2007: 172).

Page 35
The underlying theory of language of CLT logically views language as
communication. The goal of teaching is to develop communicative
competence (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 159). There are rules and regularities
governing the relationship between the linguistic form of a message and other
constituent parts of the speech event. Hymes points out that there are rules
of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless (Hymes 1971:
278). For him rules of use are rules of appropriacy linking forms of language
to contextual features (Hymes 1971: 279). These rules depend on the roles
and relationships of the participants, the physical setting, the psychological
scene, the topic, the purpose, the attitudinal key, the channel of
communication, the code of language variety, the norms of interaction, the
physical distance, the norms of interpretation and the genre (Hymes 1971:
278). The aim clearly is to develop learners communicative competence
(Dendrinos 1992: 118). Referring to the role of grammar Thornbury states that

Communicative competence involves knowing how to use the grammar and

vocabulary of the language to achieve communicative goals, and knowing
how to do this in a socially appropriate way (Thornbury 2000: 18).

In contrast to the various works that have been written on the theory of
language very little has been written on the theory of learning in CLT
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 161). However, some CLT practices can be
defined as theories of learning: according to Richards and Rodgers (2007:
161), these are the communication principle (exercises that emphasize real
communication promote learning), the task principle (exercises in which
language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks encourage learning) and
the meaningfulness principle (meaningful language supports the learning
process) (c.f. Johnson 1983). 6 Others have tried rather to describe theories of
the language learning process, which are compatible with CLT. For example
Steven Krashens theory of language learning and acquisition, which is not
directly associated with CLT, stresses that language learning takes place by
using language communicatively (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 161-162).

6
Task principle: see also Task-Based Language Teaching.

Page 36
Design

The objectives of CLT, as represented in the curriculum, incorporate aspects

of communicative competence in accordance with learners proficiency level
and their communicative needs. Learners needs are defined in terms of four
language skills of reading, listening, writing and speaking, and each skill is
approached from a communicative perspective (Richards & Rodgers 2007:
163). Wilkins (1983) divided the syllabus into two main parts, namely
semantic-grammatical categories and categories of communicative functions.
His work was adopted by the Council of Europe and expanded in terms of the
situations in which adult learners might typically be involved (travel, business,
etc.), the topics of interest (education, shopping, etc.), the language functions
learners might have to perform (requesting information, describing things,
agreeing and disagreeing, etc.) the notions used in communication (time,
frequency, etc.) and finally the needed vocabulary and grammar for
performing these speech acts (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 163). The outcome
was published in Threshold Level English by van Ek (1980). According to
Richards & Rodgers the Threshold Level should specify what was needed in
order to be able to achieve a reasonable degree of communicative proficiency
in a foreign language, including the language items needed (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 163). However, this type of syllabus was also criticized. For
example, Widdowson (1980) expressed the opinion that the Functional-
Notional Approach does not deal with language in context but only with
concepts and functions in idealized isolation. He states that notional
syllabuses are notional rather than structural isolations, but they are isolates
all the same (Widdowson 1980: 248). Such teaching materials do not take into
account that

communication does not take place through the linguistic exponence of

concepts or functions as self-contained units of meaning, but as discourse
whereby meanings are negotiated through interaction (Dendrinos 1992: 119).

The learners are seen as individuals with unique interests, styles of learning,
needs and goals, which should be considered in instructional materials and by
the teacher (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 158). According to Breen and Candlin

Page 37
the CLT learner is a negotiator between the self, the learning process, and
the object of learning (Breen & Candlin 1980: 110). Further, within the group
the learner is joint negotiator, as for example in classroom procedures and
group work (Breen & Candlin 1980: 110). Not surprisingly it is also argued that
some of these CLT principles may cause confusion among learners. This is
especially the case, when the preconceptions of learners of what teaching
and learning should be like are not met (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 166).
Therefore learning procedures have to be introduced consciously and
carefully. For Richards and Rodgers (2007: 167) in CLT the teacher takes
over the roles of needs analyst, counselor and group process manager: the
teacher is responsible for finding out about learners language needs. This
can be done via one-to-one discussions with students, via a needs
assessment test or any other procedure that might help the teacher to find out
about students needs. (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 167). As counselor the
teacher is supposed to

exemplify an effective communicator seeking to maximize the meshing of

speaker intention and hearer interpretation, through the use of paraphrase,
confirmation, and feedback (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 168).

As group process manager the teacher has to organize the classroom as

setting in which communication and communicative activities can take place.
Further the teacher monitors group processes, encourages students to speak
and helps students in mastering gaps in vocabulary, grammar and
communication strategies (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 168).

The role of instructional materials in CLT is quite clear: they have to promote
communicative language use. Richards and Rodgers (2007: 168) have
defined three kinds of materials in CLT: text-based materials, task-based
materials and realia. Text-based materials are for example textbooks that are
written around a mainly structural syllabus, but have adapted their exercises
to be regarded as communicative (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 169). Task-
based materials are role plays, games and communication exercises in which
students have to perform certain tasks (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 169).
Realia are authentic, real life materials. They contain language like it is

Page 38
actually used in real life. Examples of realia are signs, magazines,
advertisements, newspapers, etc. (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 170). The
difference between text-based and task-based materials according to
Richards and Rodgers is quite fuzzy and ambiguous, since it is not clear if, for
example, pair work is regarded as text-based or task-based material or as
both. Hence in this paper exercises will be regarded as communicative if at
least two parties are involved, which is usually the case in group or pair work.

Procedure

According to Richards and Rodgers (2007: 170) a number of procedures can

be brought in connection with CLT as for example group work, language
games or role plays. However, none of these exercises are used in CLT
classes exclusively. In a typical lesson teaching points such as for example
the function making a suggestion are introduced via dialogues. Then the
grammatical items are practiced in isolation. After the controlled practice freer
activities are provided such as group or pair work. In group and pair work the
practice of the language functions and forms is encouraged. Further the
context and situation in which the dialogues and exercises take place are
described as well: people, roles, setting, topic and degree of formality or
informality of the language used (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 170-171).
Richards and Rodgers (2007: 171) observe that such teaching procedures
have much in common with those adhering to Audiolingualism or SLT.
According to them traditional procedures are not rejected but are
reinterpreted and extended in CLT (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 171).

Others such as Savignon (1983) reject that learners should first practice items
in a controlled way before striving for freer production. She suggests that
communicative practice should be given from the beginning (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 172). Dendrinos (1992: 121) critically comments that textbooks
claiming to be communicative frequently include exercises which drill in
language patterns as realizations of particular language functions. However,
such exercises are in fact not in any significant way different from those of a
structurally based textbook concerned exclusively with learners ability to

Page 39
produce grammatically correct sentences (Dendrinos 1992: 121). In order to
make an activity really communicative, Dendrinos (1992: 122) emphasizes
that learners need to be provided with the sociolinguistic parameters of the
communicative event, such as setting, scene, topic, purpose, roles and
relationships of the participants. Then learners could develop the knowledge
necessary in order to use language appropriately (Dendrinos 1992: 122). An
example of such an exercise is the following:

Figure 3 (Dendrinos 1992: 61)

Page 40
Conclusion CLT

CLT is an approach, which emphasizes the communicative potential of

language and which is compatible with a great variety of classroom
procedures and which according to Richards and Rodgers (2007: 172) can be
best described by the following principles:

Learners learn a language through using it to communicate.

Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of
classroom activities.
Fluency is an important dimension of communication.
Communication involves the integration of different language skills
Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and
error (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 172).

Further, CLT includes procedures which identify learners needs and

classroom exercises which promote communication such as group work, task-
work, information-gap activities etc. (Richards & Rodgers: 173). Richards and
Rodgers (2007: 173) state that these principles today are largely accepted in
foreign language teaching, also because they are very general. According to
them, a large number of textbooks and other teaching materials have been
based on principles of CLT, although to different degrees (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 173). Dendrinos (1992: 123), however, supports the view that
communication is an unpredictable process and therefore attempts to predict
learners communicative needs do not make much sense: the Communicative
Approach claims to consider learners individual needs since it is related to
what learners wish and are able to do. However, Dendrinos argues, this is not
the case because curricula and syllabuses are designed for large groups of
pupils who are presumed to have common needs because of their similar
characteristics like their age. Furthermore, the interests of the market also
have their say on the topic (Dendrinos1992: 124). Especially multinational
publishers want to appeal with their textbooks to a large audience (Dendrinos
1992: 124).

She points out that textbooks in which such predictions of communicative

needs of students are taken into account provide

Page 41
only samples of stereotypical exchanges among people in [their] dialogues
and will never allow learners to develop the verbal strategies, which go along
with being a person in a new language (Di Pietro 1976: 53 quoted in
Dendrinos, 124).

Nevertheless CLT has influenced many other approaches and methods to

language teaching as will be seen on the following pages (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 174). After having described and discussed different views on
Communicative Language Teaching in great detail a number of generally
accepted criteria will be derived form this approach for the textbook analysis
in this paper:

group or pair exercises (debates, discussions, role plays, tasks, etc.)

inductive grammar teaching
language functions (grammar presented in the form of language
functions)
contextualized grammar exercises (forms of language linked to
contextual features)
learner-oriented exercises

2.12. The Natural Approach

The Natural Approach was developed by Tracy Terrell, a Spanish teacher in

California and by the well-known applied linguist Steven Krashen (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 178). Terrell introduced, in her opinion, a new philosophy on
language teaching, which she called the Natural Approach (Terrell 1982: 121).
Krashen provided with his influential theory of second language acquisition
the theoretical base for the Natural Approach. He believed that people are
naturally equipped for language acquisition (Thornbury 2000: 21). Together
they published their book The Natural Approach (1984). Main principles of the
approach were that language was used in communicative situations without
any help of the mother tongue and grammar teaching was rejected. Although
quite similar at first glance, the Natural Approach has to be distinguished from

Page 42
the Direct Method (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 178). 7 What they have in
common is that both try to replicate the conditions of first language acquisition
(Thornbury 2000: 21).

However, in the Natural Approach less attention is given to

teacher monologues, direct repetition, and formal questions and answers, and
less focus on accurate production of the target-language sentences (Richards
& Rodgers 2007: 179).

In the Natural Approach input rather than practice is in the main focus of
teaching and learning (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 179). Innate processes
would then convert this input into output (Thornbury 2000: 21). The central
role of comprehension in the Natural Approach links it to comprehension-
based approaches, such as the Total Physical Response Method (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 179).

Approach

Regarding the theory of language underlying the Natural Approach Krashen

and Terrell view communication as main function of language. Thus they call
their approach a communicative approach to language teaching (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 179). Further, they emphasize the importance of meaning,
since according to them the lexicon mainly defines language and grammar
only inconsequently regulates how the lexicon has to be used to produce
messages (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 180). Nevertheless lexical items in
messages or texts are grammatically structured and more complex messages
or texts entail more complex grammar. Krashen and Terrell note that there are
grammatical structures involved, however in their view it is not necessary to
explicitly teach grammar, since it is picked up like children pick up the
grammar of their native language (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 180).

7
The Direct Method has been discussed earlier in this chapter.

Page 43
Krashens theory of language acquisition provides the theory of learning of the
Natural Approach. He lists five main hypothesis in his theory which will be
briefly described: in his Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis he states that
acquisition is an unconscious process and the natural way of learning a
language, like in children learning their first language. It involves processes
that develop language proficiency through understanding language and
meaningful communication. Learning, on the other hand, is a process in which
language rules are consciously developed. Formal teaching as for example
correcting errors helps learners to develop learned rules. However, learning
cannot lead to acquisition. In his Monitor Hypothesis Krashen states that
conscious learning can only function as a monitor or editor that controls and
repairs the output of the acquired linguistic system. He claims that conscious
learning has only this monitor function (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 181).

In the Natural Order Hypothesis Krashen describes that grammatical

structures are acquired in a predictable and hence natural order. He backs up
this statement by research findings in first language acquisition. He further
points out that a similar natural order is found in second language acquisition.
In the Input Hypothesis Krashen discusses the relationship between input and
acquisition. According to him, acquisition best takes place when learners are
exposed to input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 182). Krashen calls this input in combination with
the situation, context and the students knowledge of the world
comprehensible input. Krashens 5th hypothesis is the Affective Filter
Hypothesis. It states that the learners emotional state or attitude strongly
affects learning. Successful learning also depends considerably on the
motivation, self-confidence and anxiety of learners. Thus a relaxed and
secure atmosphere should exist in class (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 182-
183).

Page 44
Design

Concerning the syllabus, typical aims for language classes primarily

emphasize oral communication skills, such as requesting information,
obtaining lodging in a hotel, etc. (Krashen & Terrell 1983: 67). Communication
goals are described in terms of situations, functions and topics, which are
most likely to be useful and interesting for beginners (Krashen & Terrell 1983:
67). Therefore the aims of a class are based on an assessment of student
needs (Krashen & Terrell 1983: 71).

The learning and teaching activities of the Natural Approach focus mainly on
the presentation of comprehensible input in the target language. To minimize
anxiety among learners they do not have to say anything until they feel ready
to do so. Until then they have to respond to teacher commands or questions
in other ways, for example physically (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 185).
Charts, pictures, advertisements or other realia serve as form of
comprehensible input and can be used by the teacher to ask questions which
students at the beginning respond with yes or no or with single words
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 186). Pair and group work may also be carried out
in class in which meaningful communication takes place. Command-
techniques, borrowed from Total Physical Response, are implemented in
classrooms as well. Further, Direct Method exercises such as mime, gesture
and context are also used to receive answers form learners. Richards and
Rodgers (2007: 186) point out that in the end there is nothing new in the
Natural Approach concerning teaching procedures and techniques. Hence the
approach is characterized by

the use of familiar techniques within the framework of a method that focuses
on providing comprehensible input and a classroom environment that cues
comprehension of input, minimizes learner anxiety, and maximizes learner
self-confidence (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 186).

The learner role in the Natural Approach is quite active since the learner
decides on when he feels ready to speak, what to speak about and which
linguistic expressions to use (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 186). The teacher on

Page 45
the other hand has the function to provide the comprehensible input for the
learners. Moreover, the teacher has to create a friendly and interesting class
atmosphere (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 187). He or she also has to decide on
group sizes, content and context of the exercises carried out (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 188). The instructional materials have the main function of
making classroom activities meaningful by supplying situations and contexts,
which help the learners to understand and hence acquire (Krashen & Terrell
1983: 55). Pictures and other visuals are often used in classrooms based on
the Natural Approach as well as games, which are regarded as useful
activities, since students then concentrate on what they are doing more
deliberately and are using the language as tool to play the game (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 188). However, the Natural Approach is quite demanding for
the teacher since he or she has to collect and select materials, which provide
learners with comprehensible input (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 188).

Procedure

The activities suggested in the Natural Approach are all essential components
in other approaches and methods such as SLT, CLT, Total Physical
Response and other methods (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 189). This can be
seen by looking at a typical lesson: first of all Total Physical Response
commands are given to which students have to respond physically such as
first touch your nose, then stand up (Krashen & Terrell 1983: 76). Then
students have to answer questions as for example What is your name? with
single words (Krashen & Terrell 1983: 76). Visuals such as magazine pictures
are used to introduce new vocabulary items (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 189).
Then the new vocabulary is combined with commands of the Total Physical
Response Method such as Jim, find the picture of the little girl with her dog
and give it to the woman with the pink blouse (Krashen & Terrell 1983: 77).
All these activities have in common that they should provide learners with a
flow of comprehensible input and provide the necessary vocabulary,
appropriate gestures, context, repetition and paraphrase to make sure that
students understand the input (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 190).

Page 46
To sum up, the Natural Approach does not introduce any new teaching
procedures and techniques. It rejects explicit grammar instruction and the
organization of the syllabus around grammatical categories. The Natural
Approach can be viewed as a method that emphasizes comprehensible and
meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect
utterances and sentences (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 190). Since the
method does not introduce any innovations in terms of language teaching
materials or grammar teaching materials, the method will not be considered in
the analysis part of this paper (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 190).

2.13. Content-Based Instruction

Developed in the 1980s Content Based Instruction (CBI) draws on principles

of CLT and is a further development of it (Richards & Rodgers, 204). The
difference between CBI and CLT, however, lies in their focus (Larsen-
Freeman 1986: 137). In CLT a lesson is typically centered on giving students
opportunities to practice the learned communicative functions. CBI on the
other hand does not mainly focus on functions or on any other language item
but it gives priority to process over predetermined linguistic content (Larsen-
Freeman 1986: 137). In the words of Howatt, rather than learning to use
English pupils use English to learn it (Howatt 1984: 279). A CBI course is
typically organized around the content, the subject matter to be taught and not
a linguistic, grammatical or other syllabus type (Richards & Rodgers 2007:
204). As the main focus of the CBI approach lies on the teaching of content it
is easy to conclude that the teaching aim is to convey meaningful content to
students (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 204). Language is used to teach the
subject matter and the language itself is acquired as a by-product of learning
about real-world content (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 205).

Page 47
Figure 4
(Larsen-Freeman 1986: 138)

Henry Widdowson (1978) advocates the implication of CBI in language

classes and states that in schools topics from other subjects should be taught
in English. According to him

simple experiments in physics and chemistry, biological processes in plants

and animals, map-drawing, descriptions of historical events and so on

should be taught in English (Widdowson 1984: 16). The reason for adopting
such a teaching methodology is according to Widdowson that

if such a procedure were adopted, the difficulties associated with the

presentation of language use in the classroom would, to a considerable
degree, disappear (Widdowson 1984: 16).

In other words, the teacher would not have to think about how to place the
language learned in class in a meaningful context. However, as shall be seen
later, the CBI teacher has to carry out a number of other quite demanding
tasks. CBI is a common teaching practice in many different areas of language
teaching (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 205). Nevertheless, as Larsen-Freeman
points out, Using content from other disciplines in language courses is not a
new idea (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 137). For years there have been
specialized language courses for particular professions or academic
disciplines, which have included content relevant for them. For example, the

Page 48
content of a language course for an airline pilot is different from the one for a
computer scientist (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 137).

Approach

CBI is based on two basic principles:

People learn a second language more successfully when they use the
language as a means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in
itself.
Content-Based Instruction better reflects learners needs for learning a
second language (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 207).

In school the needs of the learners are the teaching content of other subjects
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 210). Concerning the underlying theory of
language Richards and Rodgers propose three basic principles:

language is text- and discourse based

language use draws on integrated skills
language is purposeful
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 208)

The first assumption holds that in discourse or in texts as they occur in the
real word, language normally consists of more than single and isolated
sentences, as practiced in some traditional language teaching exercises.
Cohesion and coherence are important concepts within text and discourse.
Thus, it makes sense to teach texts such as letters, reports, essays etc. or
speech events such as meetings, lectures or discussions (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 208). The second assumption, that language draws on
integrated skills, states that like in real communication outside the classroom
more than one language skill at a time has to be carried out. Grammar is for
example not an individual component in real communication but part of
language and a component of other skills. Thus activities in CBI usually
incorporate more than one skill to be practiced, since this best reflects
language use in the real world. What concerns the teaching of grammar, in

Page 49
CBI grammar can be presented, however it is the teachers task to identify
relevant grammatical and other linguistic focuses to complement the topic or
theme of the activities (Richards & Rodgers, 2007: 208). Hence, explicit
grammar teaching is compatible with CBI. The third assumption states that
language is purposeful: this means that language is used for specific
purposes such as academic or social ones. The purpose gives direction,
shape and meaning to discourse and text. According to Richards and
Rodgers (2007: 208) learners can benefit far more when the purpose is in
tune with the learners own interests. However, they point out, to make the
learning content comprehensible for students teachers need to make
adjustments and simplifications, like native speakers do when talking to
foreigners (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 209). Similarly Larsen-Freeman (1986:
138) states that when students study subjects in a nonnative language they
will need a great amount of assistance in understanding subject matter texts.
These modifications by the teacher include:

Regarding the theory of learning CBI is based on the already cited two core
principles: students learn a foreign language more successfully when the
focus is on acquiring information and not on the language itself (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 209). This statement is supported by a number of studies such
as the one by Scott (1974 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2007: 209). The
second principle, that CBI better reflects learners needs for learning a foreign
language is supported by the view that students learn a second language
most successfully

when the information they are acquiring is perceived as interesting, useful,

and leading to a desired goal (Richards and Rodgers 2007: 209).

This claim is as well backed by studies that justify the increase of motivation
among learners when the learning content and goal of learning are perceived
as relevant and interesting (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 209). Another principle
in learning theory is that some content areas are more useful as a basis for
language learning than others (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 211). For example,
geography is often one of the first topics of a CBI course, since the subject is

Page 50
highly visual, spatial and contextual; it lends itself to the use of maps, charts,
and realia, and the language tends to be descriptive in nature with use of the
to be, cognates and proper names (Corin quoted in Stryker and Leaver
1997: 288). This example of teaching content clearly shows that grammar has
its place in the selection of topics, since at the beginning of a language course
a teacher would rather choose language containing simpler grammatical
structures than at an advanced level.

When instruction reflects learners needs, as the second principle introduced

at the beginning suggests, students learn best. This assumption emphasizes
the CBI concept and if a CBI approach is chosen in school for example, the
needs of the students are those of the curriculum content of the different
subjects (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 210). A last principle of the learning
theory of CBI is that teaching should build on the previous experiences of the
learners (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 211). The teacher has to start a lesson
from the point where the students are standing, in other words from what
they already know about the content (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 211). This
learning principle is quite common, not only in language teaching but also in
other subjects in school.

Design

As already stated, the objectives of a CBI course are described in terms of the
content to be taught. Language learning on the other hand takes place more
or less incidentally (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 211). The syllabus in CBI is
usually derived form the content areas to be covered and is thus a theme-
based one. As the name already suggests the syllabus is built around specific
topics and subtopics (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 212). According to Larsen-
Freeman (1986: 138), the selection and sequencing of language items
depends on the communicative needs of the learners and is not
predetermined by the syllabus. She further states that there must be clear
language objectives as well, besides the content learning objectives since
students need a great amount of assistance in understanding the non-native
language content (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 138). Brinton et al. (1989: 35) state

Page 51
that the topics or units of the syllabus are designed and sequenced so that
they relate to one another so as to create a cohesive transition of certain
skills, vocabulary, structures, and concepts (Brinton et al. 1989: 35).
Typically, the first units are themes of generally high interest that are easily
accessible. Later units deal with more complex themes that require the
mastery of certain skills, vocabulary, grammatical structures and concepts
(Brinton et al. 1989: 35). This shows that grammar has its place in the CBI
syllabus. As already stated, topics, which require more complex grammatical
structures are typically introduced in later units.

Learner and teacher roles

The role of materials in CBI is quite straightforward:

materials that facilitate language learning are the materials that are used
typically with the subject matter of the content course (Richards & Rodgers
2007: 215).

It is suggested to teach a variety of material types as long as they are

authentic. Authenticity can be understood in two ways: firstly, it refers to the
teaching material used in native-language instruction. Secondly, it means any
kind of material not originally produced for instruction, such as magazine and
newspaper articles or any other media materials (Brinton et al. 1989: 17).
Further, CBI the use of realia such as tourist guidebooks, technical journals,
railway timetables, newspaper ads, radio and TV broadcasts etc. is
recommended in CBI (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 215). The role of the
textbook, if the textbook should have a place at all in a CBI class, is a rather
insignificant one. Stryker and Leaver state that textbooks are contrary to the
very concept of CBI and good language teaching in general (Stryker &
Leaver 1993: 295). Alongside the concept of authenticity, comprehensibility is
another key concept in CBI. Instructional materials may have to be modified
by the teacher in order to ensure maximum comprehension among students.
This may include linguistic simplification or adding redundancy to text
materials (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 215). According to Brinton et al. (1989:

Page 52
17) this means providing guides and strategies for students which help them
understand the materials.

Procedure

In a typical lesson students might study geography and English through

content-based instruction (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 138). The teacher first asks
the students what a globe is. Then the teacher takes out a globe and puts it
on the desk and asks the pupils what they know about it (Larsen-Freeman
1986: 138). The teacher writes the answers of students on the blackboard
(Larsen-Freeman 1986: 139). When students have problems explaining a
concept the teacher supplies the missing language. Next, the teacher hands
out a sheet that he or she has prepared based on the video Understanding
Globes. On the handout the most important vocabulary items are listed which
the teacher says aloud and students have to listen. The handout also contains
text in which students have to fill in blanks as they watch the video. After
checking the answers the teacher draws the students attention to particular
verb patterns in the cloze. The teacher explains that these are examples of
the present passive, which will be studied during the next lessons. He or she
explains the function of the passive, namely that it is used to defocus the
agent or doer of an action. Afterwards the teacher explains how latitude and
longitude can be used to locate any place in the world. By saying This city is
located at latitude 60 north and longitude 11 east (Larsen-Freeman 1986:
139) the teacher integrates the present passive and the content at the same
time. Then students play a guessing game where in small groups students
write down coordinates of five cities. The other students then have to guess
the correct city (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 139). This sample lesson shows that
grammar still is an important, if not the main feature, of it.

Conclusion

To sum up, CBI is an approach to second language teaching which is,

according to Richards and Rodgers one of the leading curricular approaches
in language teaching today (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 220). CBI is a

Page 53
development of the Communicative Approach and, as the name suggests,
focuses on the content to be taught, rather than on the language itself. Hence,
instructional exercises that focus on language itself are generally rejected.
Further, teaching and learning materials need to be authentic, in other words
taken from the real world, such as articles of magazines, newspapers, etc.
Textbooks are contrary to the principles of CBI and therefore principles of this
approach are hardly found in textbooks. Nevertheless, in most ELT textbooks
the teaching of content and not just language itself is today standard. Further,
CBI also permits explicit grammar instruction, however the teacher is
responsible for deciding when to do so. Grammar exercises, as analyzed in
the four ELT textbooks, are not part of CBI and consequently the approach
will not be considered in the textbook analysis of this paper. However, the
principle of integrating of more than one skill into an exercise will be
considered in the textbook analysis (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 220).

2.14. Task-Based Language Teaching

The Task-Based Approach to language teaching was introduced in the 1980s

and is a logical development of CLT, since it draws on a number of CLT
principles such as:

Activities that involve real communication are essential for language

learning
Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks
promote learning (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 223)

In the Task-Based Approach (TBA) it is assumed that these principles can be

best implemented in class through tasks (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 223).
Advocates of the TBA argue that

[e]ngaging learners in task work provides a better context for the activation of
learning processes than form-focused activities, and hence ultimately
provides better opportunities for language learning to take place (Richards &
Rodgers, 223). In the TBA language tasks are the core unit of organization
and instruction in language teaching (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 223).

Page 54
The definition of a task varies from author to author, however, a generally
accepted definition is that

a task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding
a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, making a
telephone call, writing a letter, or reading a set of instructions and assembling
a toy (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 224).

According to Skehan tasks

are activities which have meaning as their primary focus. Success in tasks is
evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome, and tasks generally bear
some resemblance to real-life language use (Skehan 1996: 20).
Feez differentiates between tasks which learners might need in real life and
those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom (1998: 17
quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2007: 224).

Figure 5
(Larsen-Freeman 1986: 145)

Approach

The TBA primarily draws on theories of learning, however several

assumptions about the theory of language underlie Task-Based Language
Teaching: firstly, it is viewed, that the main function of language is making
meaning, as is expressed in other forms of CLT as well (Richards & Rodgers
2007: 226). Skehan argues that in carrying out tasks meaning is primary,

Page 55
since it is the outcome in terms of content of the task that is being assessed
(Skehan 1998: 98). Another principle of the TBA is that it incorporates
structural, functional and interactional models of language (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 226). For example, in determining the linguistic complexity of
tasks, structural criteria are often employed for doing so, which is a very
traditional way of sequencing language teaching material (Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 227). Other researchers have proposed to focus on the
interactional dimension of tasks: Pica, for example, distinguishes between
interactional activity and communicative goal (1994 quoted in Richards &
Rodgers 2007: 227). Another principle of Task-Based Language Teaching is
that conversation is seen as key element in acquiring a second language
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 228). Thus, the majority of tasks within the TBA
involve conversation.

Concerning the theory of learning the TBA shares the general assumptions
about the nature of language learning, that underlie CLT. Nevertheless, some
additional learning principles are incorporated in the task-based theory of
learning: many language teaching experts assume that both input and output
processing are necessary for successful second language acquisition. They
emphasize that comprehensible input alone, as proposed by Krashen (see
Natural Approach) is not enough (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 228). Others
considered the negotiation of meaning as the vital element in acquiring a
second language (Plough and Gass 1993: 36). The negotiation of meaning
also involves the learners attention to certain aspects of utterances, as for
example pronunciation, grammar, lexicon, etc. which need to be modified by
the learner (Plough and Gass 1993: 36). Tasks are considered to fulfill both of
these functions, the input and output process and the negotiation of meaning,
although not every task has to involve all of these functions. Another learning
principle of the TBA is that tasks are said to heighten the motivation among
learners and hence improve learning (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 229). The
reason for this is that

they require the learners to use authentic language, they have well-defined
dimensions and closure, they are varied in format and operation, they typically

Page 56
include physical activity, they involve partnership and collaboration, they may
call on the learners past experience, and they tolerate and encourage a
variety of communication styles (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 229).

Another claim for the implementation of tasks in language teaching is that

they can be designed to focus on particular aspects of language or uses of
language (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 229). For example, tasks can be
designed to focus on a specific language structure, thus on form or accuracy.
However, as Skehan points out, task designers have to make a compromise
between accuracy and fluency or meaning. Skehan views both aspects,
accuracy and fluency, as important features of tasks (1998: 97).

Design

A task-based syllabus then consists of tasks to be carried out by learners

(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 231). Nunan (1989:) proposes a syllabus that
specifies two types of tasks:

Real-world tasks, which are based on a needs analysis of learners and

reflect tasks that learners are likely to encounter later in the real world
Pedagogical tasks, which have a psycholinguistic base in second
language acquisition research and theory but do not necessarily reflect
tasks which might occur in the real world
(Nunan 1989: 40-41).

Using the telephone would be an example of a real-world task. An

information-gap task, as defined on the following pages, would be an example
of a pedagogical task (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 231). Norris, Brown,
Hudson and Yoshioka (1998 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2007: 232) give
examples of representative real-word tasks grouped according to themes. An
example would be the theme planning a vacation and the adequate tasks
would be

decide where you can go based on the advantage miles,

booking a flight

Page 57
 choosing a hotel
booking a room
(Norris et al. 1998 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2007: 232).

In contrast to a task-based syllabus, Richards and Rodgers also describe a

conventional syllabus in order to mark the differences between the two
syllabus types (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 230). A conventional syllabus
specifies the content of a language course in respect to the following
categories:

language structures
functions
topics and themes
macro-skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking)
competencies
text types
vocabulary targets
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 230)

This syllabus type reflects the table of contents of many contemporary ELT
textbooks, which is also true for the four ELT textbooks analyzed (see
textbook analysis). The conventional syllabus type describes learning content
and outcomes and can be used as basis for classroom teaching. In contrast to
that, the task-based syllabus focuses more on processes of learning than on
specific content and skills that should be acquired through these processes
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 231).

As already explained at the beginning of this section there are various views
on the definition of a task. Hence, there are quite a number of different
descriptions of learning and teaching activities in a TBA (Richards & Rodgers
2007: 233). Prabhu states that a task is an activity which requires learners to
arrive at an outcome form given information through some process of thought
(Prabhu 1987: 24). Pica, Kanagy and Falodun (1993) proposed a classifying
scheme of tasks according to the type of interaction which is involved in the
fulfillment of the task:

Page 58
 Jigsaw tasks: These involve learners combining different pieces of
information to a whole (e.g., three individuals or groups may have three
different parts of a story and have to piece the story together).
Information-gap tasks: One student or group of students has one set of
information and another student or group has a complementary set of
information. They must negotiate and find out what the other partys
information is in order to complete an activity.
Problem-solving tasks: Students are given a problem and a set of
information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem. There is
generally a single resolution of the outcome.
Decision-making tasks: Students are given a problem for which there
are a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through
negotiation and discussion.
Opinion-exchange tasks: Learners engage in discussion and exchange
of ideas. They do not need to reach agreement.
(Pica, Kanagy & Falodun 1993 quoted in Richards & Rodgers 2007:
234).

The grammar exercises in the analysis part of this paper will not be analyzed
in respect to these task types, since the definitions of these task types are not
applicable for all the tasks analyzed. However, it can be stated that most of
the tasks analyzed belong to the category information-gap tasks, which
generally seems to be the most frequent task type.

In the TBA a number of roles are assumed for the learner, some of which
overlap with those of CLT. Richards and Rodgers view the learners as group
participant, monitor and risk-taker and innovator (Richards & Rodgers 2007:
235). In carrying out tasks learners mostly work in groups, thus group work is
more frequent than in other approaches or methods. What concerns the role
of monitor, tasks have to be designed in a way so that learners can notice
how language is used in communication (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 235).
There has to be an example or model of how to use the language
appropriately. Finally, the learner is also a risk-taker and innovator, since
many tasks require learners to understand and produce messages for which
they lack full linguistic resources. However, exactly this is the point of such
tasks because paraphrasing, restating, etc. will be needed in order to carry
out the tasks (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 235).

Page 59
The teacher, on the other hand, takes over the roles of selector and
sequencer. He has to choose or create appropriate tasks for students and to
bring them into a sequence, considering learners needs, interests and
language skill level (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 236). Another teacher role is
that he has to prepare learners for the tasks. In the TBA it is suggested that
before carrying out a task learners should accomplish pretask activities first
(Richards & Rodgers 2007: 236). Such activities may include topic
introduction, clarifying task instructions, helping students to learn or recall
useful words and phrases and to provide partial demonstration of task
procedures. As already stated in the beginning, in current views of the TBA
learners should focus on form as well (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 236). This
means that learners need to attend to or notice critical features of the
language they use and hear (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 236). According to
advocates of the TBA this does not mean doing a grammar lesson but it
means

employing a variety of form-focusing techniques, including attention-

focusing pretask activities, text exploration, guided exposure to parallel
tasks, and use of highlighted material (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 236).

These focus on form activities which are designed to draw the attention of
learners to specific language items are overall referred to as consciousness-
raising tasks or discovery learning activities and are a feature of inductive
grammar teaching (Thornbury 2000: 24, 29).

The instructional material used in the TBA can be best divided, as Nunan
suggests (1989), into pedagogical material and realia. Pedagogical materials
play a very important role in the TBA because such tasks provide the basis of
classroom activities and a sufficient supply of appropriate classroom tasks for
the teacher (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 236). However, as Richards and
Rodgers point out

Page 60
many contemporary language teaching texts cite a task focus or task-based
activities among their credentials, though most of the tasks that appear in
such books are familiar classroom activities for teachers who employ
collaborative learning, Communicative Language Teaching, or small-group
activities (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 236).

They suggest looking at teacher resource books as for example the one of
Willis (1996) in order to get an idea of task-based activities. Realia, on the
other hand, are authentic materials (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 237). In the
TBA the use of authentic material is recommended wherever possible.
Popular media used in the classroom are newspapers, the TV and the
Internet. Students are asked, for example, to prepare a job-wanted ad using
examples from the classified section in a newspaper (Richards & Rodergs
2007: 237). An example of authentic language use with the help of the
internet would be that students have to find a cheap hotel in New York via a
search engine and then write an e-mail in which they book a room for a
number of nights. Further they would have to decide what they wanted to do
during their stay in New York, how much money to spend, etc.

Procedure

The way in which tasks are carried out in class always depends to some
extent on the tasks themselves. Not every task requires the same form of
preparation or preparation at all for fulfilling the task. Richards and Rodgers
(2007: 238) propose a three-stage model: pretask activities, task activity and
posttask activities. In pretask activities usually the topic of the task gets
introduced, as well as the situation. Afterwards a role-play task, a problem-
solving task might follow. Learners then might read a dialogue on a related
topic, which serves as a model for appropriate language use. After that,
students carry out the main task, as for example a role-play. A posttask
activity would be listening to a recording of native speakers carrying out the
same role-play (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 238).

Willis (1996: 56-57) proposes a quite similar sequence of task-activities. In her

pretask phase Willis mentions in the context of grammar teaching that the

Page 61
teacher may highlight useful words and phrases, but would not preteach new
structures (Willis 1996: 56). While students afterwards carry out the main
task, the teacher walks around and helps students to express themselves but
he will not correct errors of form. Only after students have accomplished the
task the teacher draws their attention to correct language forms. Concerning a
language focus Willis divides between analysis and practice. In the analysis
section she suggests that students should perform some language-focused
tasks, based on texts or recordings which students have heard before.
Instructions could be of the following kind: Find word and phrases related to
the title of the topic or text., Read the transcript, find words ending in s or s,
and say what the s means., Find all the verbs in the simple past form. Say
which refer to past time and which do not. (Willis 1996: 57). In the practice
section Willis states that exercises could include choral repetition of the
identified phrases, in other words drills, sentence completion, matching the
past-tense verbs (jumbled) with the subjects or objects they had in the given
text, etc. (Willis 1996: 58).

The description by Willis shows that a TBA favors inductive grammar

teaching, in which students have to find out the rules underlying the language
themselves. It further shows that even a TBA is compatible with grammar
drills, which are commonly regarded as main component of Audiolingualism.
Further sentence-completion, matching, etc. often occurs in exercise types
associated with the Grammar-Translation Method (see Grammar-Translation
Method). It can be followed that the different aspects of the approaches and
methods overlap with each other in certain dimensions and are compatible. If
this is also true for the ELT textbooks chosen in this research paper, will be
seen in the textbook analysis.

Conclusion

According to Richards and Rodgers (2007: 240), the pedagogical value of

tasks for promoting communication and authentic language use in second
language classrooms is widely and generally accepted. For the analysis part
of this paper, the main criterion for identifying the TBA are tasks. It will be

Page 62
analyzed if there are any grammar tasks in the four ELT textbooks, or in other
words tasks with a language focus, as outlined by Willis (1996: 56-58) above.
The role of authentic material will be also considered, if realia are used to
mainly teach certain language structures, which is, rather unlikely. Richards
and Rodgers finally note that the assumption of Task-Based Language
learning to be more effective for teaching a language than other teaching
approaches or methods, however remains in the domain of ideology rather
than fact (Richards & Rodgers 2007: 241). After having discussed Task-
Based Language Teaching in detail, the following two criteria for identifying
the TBA in respect to grammar teaching can be derived:

inductive grammar teaching

tasks (teaching a grammatical feature)

After having discussed the most important approaches and methods in foreign
language teaching, in the following chapter the educational systems of Austria
and Spain will be looked at and the selections of the age levels of the Austrian
an Spanish ELT textbooks chosen in this analysis will be explained.

3. Educational Systems in Austria and Spain

3.1. The Educational System in Spain

In Spain the educational system is divided into four phases: Infant Education,
Primary Education, Obligatory Secondary Education and Post-Obligatory
Secondary Education. Infant Education starts for children in their first year and
lasts until the age of 6. Infant Education is not obligatory and it is divided into
two cycles. Each cycle lasts three years: the first cycle can be attended from
children of zero to three years and the second cycle from three to six years. In
the second cycle, from three to six years, a foreign language may be included
as well in the teaching of that phase and the Ministry of Education and
Science advocates the teaching of a foreign language, usually English,

Page 63
starting at the age of three (Ministerio de Educacin 2006. Educacin
infantil, Disposiciones generales).

However, a foreign language is obligatory in the Spanish curriculum at the

second cycle of Primary Education. Primary Education lasts form six to twelve
years and is divided into three cycles at which every cycle lasts for two years.
Thus at the age of about eight the learning of English is obligatory for Spanish
pupils, as it is manifested in the DCB (Diseno Curricular Base), which is the
Spanish General Curriculum valid for the ESO. The teaching and learning
objectives for students are to understand and produce short messages, also
contextualized ones and to be able to adapt the covered themes age-
adequately and in respect to students interests and experiences. For
example, students should be able to identify the sounds of the English
language as well as the correct spelling. Further, students are supposed to
acquire basic vocabulary of the foreign language such as the numbers, colors,
family, food, etc. Another aim is that pupils develop a positive and interested
attitude towards the language (Ministerio de Educacin 2006. Educacin
primaria, Objetivos de la Educacin primaria).

After the Primary Education Spanish students enter the Obligatory Secondary
Education, called ESO (Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria). The ESO is
divided into two cycles and each one lasts two years and is attended by
students from twelve to sixteen years. Together with the Primary Education,
the ESO forms the ten years of schooling, which is obligatory and the same
for all Spanish pupils. In the ESO some subjects, as for example foreign
languages, are obligatory. However, there are also four optional areas: natural
science, graphic and visual education, music and technology. Another foreign
language may be implemented as optional course in the second cycle as well.
After the ESO students have the option to enter the world of work, or to
continue to attend school (LEY ORGNICA 2/2006 de Educacin).

The last phase of Spanish Education up to eighteen years is called Post-

Obligatory Secondary Education. It incorporates the Bachelor-Program and
Professional Education, which last both form sixteen to eighteen years. After

Page 64
having achieved the Bachelor-degree students have the options of attending a
university-entrance examination, continuing with the upper stage of
professional education or to leave school and enter the world of work. In the
LOGSE (Ley de Ordenacin General y del Sistema Educativo), the legislative
structure of the Spanish educational system, it is manifested that students
have four modalities in the Bachelor-Program: Natural Sciences and Health
Sciences, Social Science and Humanitarian Sciences, Arts, and Technology
(Ministerio de Educacin 2006). Two of these four areas have to be selected
by students. The learning of a foreign language, and a number of other
subjects, are common to all students attending the ESPO, no matter whether
they are attending the Bachelor-Program or the Professional Education-
Program (Ministerio de Educacin 2006 Bachillerato).

The Professional Education-Program (middle stage) results in the

achievement of the title Technical. With this title pupils can continue the
professional formation and achieve the title Technical Superior, they can enter
the labor market or they can attend University-entrance examinations. As can
be seen, students of the Bachelor-Program and the Professional Education-
Program basically have the same options after having obtained their degree
(Ministerio de Educacin 2006. Qu puedo estudiar en Formacin
Profesional). The Spanish educational system is also visually shown on the
next page. The ESO grades are shown in turquoise. On the right hand side
of the graphic the ages of pupils are shown when attending the different
grades. The Bachillerato can be compared to the Austrian Matura and
completes pre-universitary education in Spain.

Page 65
Figure 6
(http://www.educacion.es/mecd/estadisticas/educativas/cee/2007A/Organigra
ma.pdf)

The two Spanish ELT textbooks chosen for the textbook analysis in this
paper, namely the United 2 Students Book and the Everything for ESO 2
Students Book, belong to the third phase of the Spanish educational system,
namely the Obligatory Secondary Education, called ESO. As already stated,
the ESO consists of two cycles, each one lasts two years. The two textbooks
chosen are of the second year and hence belong to the first ESO cycle. In the
ESO the teaching of a foreign language is obligatory and usually English is
the foreign language chosen. Students attending the ESO 2 are thirteen to
fourteen years old, as can also be seen in the graphic above.

Page 66
3.2. The Educational System in Austria

In Austrian Infant Education, the Kindergarten can be attended from children

in their first year until children of 6 years. After that, Primary Education starts,
which is obligatory and has the function to provide an elementary education
for all children. Primary Education is divided into two cycles, each one lasts
two years. The teaching of a foreign language starts in the first year of
Primary Education and is obligatory: in the first and second year 32 hours per
year of the foreign language, usually English, has to be incorporated by
teachers in the teaching of the other subjects and hence English is no actual
subject. In the second cycle of Primary Education, in third and fourth grade
the teaching of a foreign language is manifested with one hour per week.

After Primary Education students in Austria enter Secondary Education, which

is divided into two parts: Secondary Education I is attended by students from
ten to fourteen years and Secondary Education II is attended by students from
fourteen to eighteen or nineteen years. In Secondary Education I students can
attend a Secondary Modern School or a Grammar School. The Secondary
Modern School or Grammar School lower stage are attended by students
from ten to fourteen years. In these two school types the teaching of a foreign
language is obligatory. In general there are four lessons of a foreign
language, usually English, per week in the first and second grade. In the third
and fourth grade there are three lessons of English. However, schools may
decide autonomously how many hours per week a foreign language or other
subjects are taught, as long as the requirements of the curriculum can be
fulfilled within the amount of lessons on which has been decided.

In Secondary Education II students can choose among a Polytechnic School,

a Professional School, the upper stage of Grammar School, Vocational
Schools or Schools for Social Education. After a Polytechnic School or a
Professional School students usually enter the labor market. After having
attended the upper stage of Grammar School or another school type, which
finishes with a graduation degree, university can be attended. The teaching of

Page 67
a foreign language is common to all school types of Secondary Education II
(Bundesministerium fr Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur 2008).

Figure 7
(http://www.bmukk.gv.at/medienpool/17146/bildungsentwicklung_07.pdf)

Page 68
The Austrian ELT textbooks selected for the analysis are the Your Turn 2
Students Book and the More 2 Students Book. These two ELT textbooks are
of year two of Secondary Education I and may be used in Grammar Schools
or Secondary Modern Schools. Students attending the second grade of these
two school types are eleven to twelve years old and thus two years younger
than their Spanish fellow students of ESO 2 who are thirteen to fourteen years
old. Nevertheless, ELT textbooks of these two different grades have been
chosen for the textbook analysis since in terms of grammatical content these
two grades show the greatest amount of similarities, as will be seen on the
following pages.

3.3. Selection of the Age Levels of the Austrian and Spanish

ELT Textbooks

Having considered the educational systems of Austria and Spain it seems

quite logical to select ELT textbooks of both counties of the same age group
or grade. In Austria as well as in Spain the teaching of a foreign language,
usually English, is obligatory when students turn eight (see Educational
Systems in Austria and Spain). Before, the teaching of English is either
optional or done within the other subjects and only to a very limited degree.
Consequently, students are exposed to the same amount of years of learning
English. 8 However, the grammatical features taught in the same age groups in
Austria and Spain differ considerably and therefore it does not make much
sense to compare textbooks of the same grades of the two countries, since
the textbooks are not comparable in terms of grammar content and the results
of the analysis might be skewed in certain categories of the analysis. On the
other hand, it has to be admitted that the difference of two years in the age of
students also might lead to certain differences in terms of teaching content,
such as choosing age-adequate contexts for the presentation of grammatical
structures. Nevertheless, these differences are not relevant in the analysis,
since it will, for example, be analyzed whether or not grammar exercises are
contextualized and not in which kinds of context they are presented. If the
8
The amount of hours per week and grade level of English could not be obtained for the
Spanish educational system.

Page 69
grammatical content of the textbooks analyzed was totally different a textbook
analysis might be difficult, since different grammatical features often require
different amounts and types of grammar exercises (as presented in the
textbook analysis of this paper), grammar rules, etc. The textbooks analyzed
have a large number of grammatical features in common. However, also
features, which were taught only in some of the textbooks analyzed or only in
one single textbook have been included in the analysis as well, since in my
opinion a textbook analysis should consider the whole textbook in order to be
able to draw reliable conclusions.

I have already stated that the grammatical content of the same age levels of
the Spanish and Austrian ELT textbooks differs considerably. Thus I
considered the grammatical content of Austrian ELT textbooks of one grade
below the Spanish ones, such as of the Your Turn 3 and compared it to the
grammatical content the Spanish ELT textbook Everything for ESO 2. Below,
it can be seen that there are not many grammatical features in common.
These are:

first conditional
should
could
will-future
going-to future

In terms of complexity of the grammatical items the Spanish ELT textbooks of

ESO 2 are generally more similar to the ones of second grade in Secondary
Education I of the Austrian school system, although Austrian students are two
years younger than the Spanish ones. For example, the present perfect is
taught in Austria in most ELT textbooks in the third and fourth grade of lower
secondary. In the same grades in Spain, ESO 1 and 2 the present perfect
does not appear in most ELT textbooks. Therefore the grades ESO 2 in Spain
and the second grade of lower secondary in Austria have been chosen for the
textbook analysis. The grammatical features common to all four ELT

Page 70
textbooks chosen for the analysis, namely the ones of the Spanish ESO 2 and
the Austrian secondary lower stage, are the following ones:

past tense
going-to future
will future
comparatives and superlatives
should and shouldnt
mustnt
countable and uncountable nouns

Further, there are also a number of grammatical features common to three out
of the four ELT textbooks analyzed:

quantifiers
adverbs of frequency
present continuous
past continuous
must
present simple
irregular verbs
past simple: regular & irregular verbs
past simple: negation
like (doing)

There are also certain grammatical structures common only to the Austrian
ELT textbooks:

have to / dont have to

asas comparison
adverbs from adjectives (adverbs of manner)
So do I., Neither do I., Do you?, I dont.
present perfect

Page 71
Finally the grammatical structures common to the Spanish ELT textbooks are
listed below:

can and cant ability

can and cant permission
have got
present simple: to be
wh-questions
love, like, hate + ing
expressions of frequency
there was /were
think and dont think + will

It can be seen that the amount of grammatical features common only to the
Spanish ELT textbooks is with nine grammatical items not insignificant,
nevertheless the grammatical items common to all four ELT textbooks or
common to three out of the four ELT textbooks analyzed is with 17
grammatical features clearly higher. It is in some way surprising that in terms
of the grammatical content to be taught there is a difference of two years
between the two countries teaching similar grammatical features. The reason
for this difference may lie in the different conditions in the two countries, as for
example the different mother tongues. After having discussed the educational
systems in Austria and Spain, considerations concerning grammar teaching
made in the Austrian curriculum will be looked at on the following pages.
Unfortunately, the Spanish curriculum of teaching foreign languages could not
be obtained, due to lack of data.

3.4. The Austrian Curriculum

The Austrian curriculum is divided in a general part, the General Curriculum,

and a subject-specific part, or what Dendrinos calls subject-specific curriculum
(Dendrinos 1992: 102). The Austrian General Curriculum and the subject-

Page 72
specific curricula are designed on a national level. Furthermore, both curricula
are split up in lower secondary and upper secondary: lower secondary
includes the fist four years of Grammar school or Secondary Modern School
and upper secondary the second four years of Grammar school. For the
analysis of the Austrian ELT textbooks of second grade lower secondary in
this paper, the curriculum for the teaching of foreign languages of lower
secondary English will be looked at more closely concerning what is written
about grammar teaching. Whereas the General Curriculum refers to basic
teaching principles the curriculum for teaching foreign languages gives clearer
guidelines concerning language teaching methodology and guidelines.

In the foreign language curriculum the importance of the teaching of the four
language skills is emphasized. Moreover, the teaching of learning strategies is
seen as crucial in foreign language teaching, since especially in their later life
students might have to acquire knowledge about languages by themselves.
Under didactic cornerstones (didaktische Grundstze) it is stated that
communicative competence, which is a criterion of Communicative
Language Teaching (see Chapter two), is the most important goal of learning
(Lehrplan Unterstufe Lebende Fremdsprachen 2000). Further, the
contextualization of vocabulary and grammar is demanded as well as the
interconnection of the language skills and grammar and vocabulary. Another
claim made concerning grammar teaching is that functional grammar teaching
has priority over formal grammar teaching. It is stated that where purposeful,
grammar should be presented without teaching the appropriate grammar rules
(Lehrplan Unterstufe Lebende Fremdsprachen 2000). Moreover, inductive
grammar teaching is favored. Concrete language learning goals are described
in terms of the criteria of the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages. The goals are basically described in terms of the four language
skills. Grammar goals are not explicitly mentioned in this framework (Lehrplan
Unterstufe Lebende Fremdsprachen 2000).

Page 73
4. Description of the Four ELT Textbooks

4.1. Everything for ESO 2 Students Book

The ELT textbook Everything for ESO 2 Students Book has been written by
Rodrigo Fernandez Carmona and Jim Lawley and was first published in the
year 2007. The textbook is a Richmond publication and, as the title already
reveals, it has been written for Spanish pupils learning English. The ESO of
the title stands for Educacion Secudaria Obligatoria, which stands for
Secondary Education in Spain and has already been explained in chapter
three. The textbook consists of 88 pages which cover nine units and three
consolidation sections (A,B,C), in which mainly grammar is practiced. On the
final pages of the book additional two pages of reading strategies, a grammar
reference section, called Quick grammar reference, and a phonetic chart are
included as well. Other materials available for students are a Practice Book
with Language Builder, a Students Multi-ROM and a Spooky Times DVD and
Magazine. Teachers can order a Teachers Book, Class CDs, Mixed-ability
Worksheets and tests from the publishing company. Further there is also a
Class Pack available, consisting of Grammar Worksheets, a Picture
Dictionary, Posters, a Songs CD and Worksheets, a Spooky Times Teachers
Guide and a Test Generator CD-Rom.

4.2. United. English for ESO Students Book 2

The United. English for ESO Students Book 2 has been written by Nick Beare
and by course consultant Maria Jesus Paramo and was first published in the
year 2004 by Macmillan Education, Oxford UK. The Students Book chosen
for this analysis is a 2008 publication. As the ESO of the title tells, the
textbook has been published for the Spanish market as well. It consists of 119
pages, including nine units, and at the end of the book a grammar summary,
containing mostly grammar tables and rules, a list of irregular verbs and a
wordlist. Further, the United 2 textbook contains three review sections in
which grammar is mainly practiced. After every unit, a consolidation page is

Page 74
included, in which mainly grammar exercises are presented as well. The
Students book is accompanied by a CD-Rom and a United Magazine. Further
available are a Workbook, Self-Study Worksheets, a Teachers Book, a
Teachers Resource Pack and Audio CDs.

4.3. More 2 Students Book

The More 2 Students Book is a Helbling Languages publication of the year

2008. It has been written by Gnter Gerngross, Herbert Puchta, Christian
Holzmann, Jeff Stranks and Peter Lewis-Jones and has been designed
especially for the Austrian market. The textbook contains an annotation on the
second page that the textbook fulfills the requirements the actual Austrian
curriculum for foreign language teaching in grammar schools and secondary
modern schools of the second grade.

The More 2 Students Book consists of 172 pages covering 20 units, four
Progress checks, a CLIL section (Content and Language Integrated
Learning), a wordlist, a list of irregular verbs, a list of the typical language
used in the classroom and a phonetic chart. In addition to the textbook there
is also available: a More 2 Workbook, an Audio-CD, a SbX Schoolbook
(containing interactive exercises to do online), a Teachers Book, a test-folder
including an Audio-CD and a CD-ROM and a DVD-ROM with a test-trainer.
For some exercises free audio-recordings are available, which students can
download from the Internet.

Further, the exercises of the textbook are marked as easy, average and
challenging. Moreover, exercises that teach content belonging to the core part
of the Austrian curriculum for teaching foreign languages are especially
marked as well. According to the explanations in the textbook, exercises
which are not marked as belonging to the core part of the curriculum can be
left out without any problems, as for example due to lack of time. After every
5th unit a progress check is implemented which always consists of a listening,

Page 75
reading, grammar, vocabulary and dialogue exercise covering the main
learning matter of the previous five units.

4.4. Your Turn 2. Textbook

The Your Turn 2 Textbook was first published in 2008 by Langenscheidt,

Vienna and has been written by Jeremy Harmer and Ana Acevedo. The
textbook has been published for the Austrian market and, similarly to the More
2 the Austrian Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture has approved the
textbook as adequate for the teaching of English second grade lower stage in
Austrian grammar schools and Secondary Modern Schools by a notation on
the second page. In this notation, the ministry confirms that the Your Turn 2
Textbook adheres to the actual standards of the Austrian curriculum for
teaching foreign languages. The textbook contains of 164 pages including an
introduction, 24 units which are divided into blocks A to F, and an X-tra unit
which consists of an X-tra English magazine, additional exercises called
secrets, a wordlist, a list of irregular verbs and a pronunciation table.
Additionally available are a Your Turn 2 Workbook, an Audio-CD, a DVD, a
CD-Rom, an online-addition for the textbook, Your Turn 2 Clues (free to
download), an exams CD-Rom, a Your Turn in Action DVD, a Teachers
Guide and a Memory Lifter (a vocabulary trainer).

Page 76
5. Criteria for Analyzing Grammar in ELT Textbooks

In order to carry out the analysis of the grammar exercises in the four selected
ELT textbooks, a number of criteria, which focus on certain aspects of
grammar exercises, are necessary to do so. In the chapter Approaches and
Methods in Language Teaching a number of criteria have already been
derived form the introduced approaches and methods to language teaching.
These criteria, of course, have been adapted in respect to analyzing grammar
exercises in ELT textbooks. In addition to these criteria derived from
approaches and methods to language teaching, a number of other criteria
relevant for analyzing grammar exercises have been selected as well. These
additional criteria shall help to give a larger picture of grammar teaching and
grammar exercises in the textbooks analyzed. Both, the criteria derived from
approaches and methods to language teaching and the additional criteria are
listed below and explained in more detail throughout the analysis on the
following pages:

1. Criteria derived from approaches and methods to language teaching:

Grammar-Translation Method:

translation exercises
deductive grammar teaching
use of L1 for explaining grammar rules
focus on writing and reading skills (in grammar exercises)
typical grammar exercises: completing already constructed sentences,
then formulating new sentences (instructions: fill-in, match, order,
complete, etc.);

Situational Language Teaching & Audiolingualism:

drilling exercises (repetition of structures)

no use of the L1 for explaining grammar rules

Page 77
 inductive grammar teaching (generally no explanation of grammar
rules)
main focus on listening and speaking skills
presentation of grammatical structures first orally and later in written
form

Communicative Language Teaching:

group and pair exercises

inductive grammar teaching (discovery learning, consciousness-raising
activities, etc.)
language games (in which a grammatical item gets practiced)
language functions (grammar presented in the form of language
functions)
contextualized grammar exercises (forms of language linked to
contextual features)
learner-oriented exercises

Task-Based Language Teaching (in addition to CLT)

tasks (teaching a grammatical structure)

2. Additional criteria for analyzing grammar in ELT textbooks:

How many grammar exercises are presented in relation to the total

number of exercises per textbook? (role of grammar)
grammar check-up
grammar self-tests
grammar learning strategies
grammar tables (in addition to grammar rules)

In the following analysis the criteria are not presented in the above order,
since certain criteria would have to be mentioned a number of times which

Page 78
might lead to confusion among readers. Instead, first of all the role of
grammar in the ELT textbooks is looked at. Then the relative amounts of
grammar exercises in the four ELT textbooks are determined. These identified
grammar exercises are the basis on which the criteria that follow are
analyzed. These criteria are analyzed at the level of grammar exercises as for
example group and pair work in grammar exercises or contextualization of
grammar exercises. After that, criteria focusing on more general aspects of
grammar are analyzed such as deductive and inductive grammar teaching or
gradation and presentation of grammar. Finally, in the Conclusion the main
findings of this textbook analysis are summed up and interpreted in respect to
the research questions posed in the Introduction of this paper.

5.1. The Role of Grammar in the Four ELT Textbooks

Analyzed

The role of grammar in the four ELT textbooks is a quite central one. This can
be seen by looking at the table of contents of the textbooks: in all ELT
textbooks grammar teaching is explicitly mentioned for each unit. The
Everything for ESO 2 Students Book, for example, contains six categories
describing each unit: these are vocabulary, grammar, reading and writing,
listening & speaking. In general, all six categories are interrelated: this can be
clearly observed by looking, for example, at unit six: in the grammar section
the past simple and in the writing section summarizing a story are taught. The
listening & speaking section teaches Telling a story. These examples
evidently display the interrelation of the six categories. Also the vocabulary
and grammar sections are closely connected to the other categories: for
example in unit four The weather and future time expressions are taught. In
the grammar section the will-future and question tags are taught which is
done mostly through exercises in which students have to make predictions
about the weather (See e.g. pg. 31: 5, 6;). In the writing section students learn
to write about the future and in the listening & speaking section they listen to
and make weather forecasts.

Page 79
Considering the examples just given, it can be seen that the whole syllabus is
organized around the grammar items to be taught in each unit. Depending on
which grammar items are taught in the unit, appropriate texts and topics are
chosen and all the other categories are organized around them. In the
conventional syllabus type described in chapter two, explicit grammar
teaching also has its central role (c.f. Richards & Rodgers 2007: 230).
Thornbury calls this syllabus type a multi-layered syllabus and states that
such syllabuses specify not only the grammar areas to be taught, but include
functional and topical areas as well (Thornbury 2000: 11). Nevertheless,
these syllabuses show, as in the case of the four ELT textbooks analyzed, a
strong grammar basis (Thornbury 2000: 23). This central role of grammar is
also valid, besides in the Everything for ESO 2, in the other three ELT
textbooks analyzed.

5.2. Amount of grammar exercises per ELT textbook

Analyzing the relative amount of grammar exercises per ELT textbook gives
an idea of the position of grammar held in the textbook. As already
mentioned, by taking a closer look at the table of contents of the four ELT
textbooks, it becomes obvious that, although the four language skills and also
pronunciation etc. are explicitly taught, the majority of exercises in which the
four language skills are practiced are organized around the grammatical
feature of the specific unit and often one of the main purposes of such
exercises practicing one of the four language skills is to practice a
grammatical item. In the analysis of the amount of grammar exercises per
textbook the total number of exercises per book and the page-length have to
be considered as well as can be viewed in the table below:

Page 80
Textbook Your Turn 2 More 2 United 2 Everything
for ESO 2
exercises 222 (X-tra not 297 (CLiL not 361 390
total included) included)
pages 164 pgs. 171 pgs. 119 pgs. 88 pgs.
Table 1

By looking at this table it can be seen that the two Spanish ELT textbooks
contain significantly more exercises than the Austrian ELT textbooks.
However, the Austrian ELT textbooks have got a greater number of pages.
This is the case because the exercises in the Austrian textbooks are generally
more complex and often include a number of sub-exercises. In these longer
exercises consequently more language skills get practiced, as for example
speaking and writing or listening and speaking. For example, exercise three of
unit 10 on pg. 53 of the Austrian Your Turn 2 textbook (see next page!)
actually consists of three different exercises: in the first exercise, students
have ask about now and 15 minutes ago, practicing present continuous and
past continuous. In the second sub-exercise they have to listen to words that
sound quite similar and to tell the difference. Then they have to repeat the
sentences they hear. Thus the second sub-exercise falls into the category of
pronunciation and contains elements of drilling exercises as well. Finally, the
third sub-exercise is called SECRETS 3 and has to be carried out on the final
pages of the book. This grammar task contains an information-gap and has to
be carried out in pairs. 9 In terms of grammar teaching its aim is to practice the
past continuous.

9
SECRETS exercises are counted as single grammar exercises in the analysis because they
are independent in terms of situation, content, etc. from the rest of the exercise.

Page 81
Figure 8
(Your Turn 2 2008: 53)

The exercises of the two Spanish ELT textbooks usually contain of only one
instruction or skill per exercise, and never more than two. In the United 2 ELT
textbook a typical grammar exercise is exercise seven of unit six (pg. 63). The
instructions are quite short. The others exercises of the textbook, no matter
whether grammar exercise or not, are quite similar in terms of complexity. In
the other Spanish ELT textbook, the Everything for ESO 2 basically the same
is true as for the United 2.

Page 82
Figure 9
(United 2 2008: 63)

Another difference between the Austrian and the Spanish ELT textbooks is
the labeling of the exercises. Whereas in the Spanish ELT textbooks grammar
exercises are explicitly labeled, there is no labeling of grammar or any other
exercise types in the Austrian ELT textbook. In the Everything for ESO 2
textbook there are two pages called Grammar and vocabulary in each unit. In
this section exercises in which grammar is explicitly taught are found. In other
words, this section contains many completion, fill-in, etc. exercises, which are
features of the Grammar-Translation Method (c.f. Richards & Rodgers 2007:
107; see also chapter two). Similarly, the United 2 textbook contains a
Language Focus A and a Language Focus B in each unit, in which the same
type of grammar exercises is shown. However, many other exercises of the

Page 83
Spanish textbooks, although no labeled as grammar exercises, mainly teach
grammatical features as well. A good example of this is exercise seven of unit
three in the United 2 textbook on page 35. This exercise is labeled as
speaking exercise. However, the two main grammatical features of the unit,
namely the present continuous and some and any, are practiced as well:

Figure 10
(United 2 2008: 35)

This exercise is an example of a grammar exercise, although not labeled as

such in the textbook. Further, this exercise actually includes two exercise
types: namely a grammar drill and a pair work exercise. Hence, the exercise
will be attributed to each of the two categories in the analysis. All the other
categories have been analyzed the same way. Which exercises are
considered as grammar exercises and which not has been selected according
to the following definition:

In the exercise students have to reproduce the grammatical feature in a

certain form (e.g. speaking, writing, filling it in, ordering it, matching it,
writing a text containing this feature, etc.)
The grammatical feature has to be reproduced at least three times.

Page 84
This definition has been applied to all the exercises of all the four ELT
textbooks, no matter how the authors have done the labeling. Since the
definition of a grammar exercise is the same for all four textbooks the results
can be compared to each other more easily:

Textbook Your Turn 2 More 2 United 2 Everything for

ESO 2
exercises 222 (X-tra 297 (CLiL not 361 390
total not included) included)
grammar 111 60 203 134
exercises
percentage 50 20 56 34
of grammar
exercises
(rounded)
Table 2

This table shows that grammar plays a very central role in the Your Turn 2
and the United 2 textbooks. In both textbooks around 50 percent of all the
exercises are grammar exercises. In contrast to that, the Everything for ESO
2 contains only 34 percent of grammar exercises. The More 2 textbook
displays least grammar exercises, with only 20 percent. The reason why the
United 2 textbook contains most grammar exercises also lies in the number of
grammar review sections presented in the textbook. After every unit a
consolidation section is included and further three review sections mainly
teaching grammar are incorporated as well (see grammar check-ups below).
The Your Turn 2 generally includes more than one tasks or instructions in one
exercise. Therefore, it is more likely that grammar is among these sub-
exercises and the exercise is then counted as grammar exercise.
Nevertheless, the number of grammar exercises of the Your Turn 2 is quite
high, especially many communicative exercises are included in which a
grammatical feature gets practiced. The More 2 generally contains many texts
and dialogues combined with comprehension exercises. Grammar seems to
play a minor role in this textbook. The relative amount of grammar exercises
in the four ELT textbooks is also visually shown in the bar chart below:

Page 85
 Relative Amount of
Grammar Exercises

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Your Turn More United Everything
for ESO

Figure 11

5.3. Grammar Check-Ups

A reason for the differences in the amounts of grammar exercises in the four
ELT textbooks is the number of consolidation or grammar review sections.
The United 2 includes a one-page long consolidation section at the end of
each unit. Moreover, the textbook contains three review sections as well.
These consolidation and review sections mainly consist of grammar
exercises, accompanied by a few vocabulary exercises. The Everything for
ESO textbook does not contain consolidation sections at the end of each unit.
However, after every third unit a consolidation section is included, in which
mainly grammar exercises are displayed on three pages per consolidation
section. The Austrian ELT textbooks contain grammar check-ups as well. The
Your Turn 2 textbook has got five units which are called Big break. Every
fourth unit is a Big break unit and in these units the grammatical features of
the previous three units are revised again. However, only the two last
exercises of every such unit focus especially on grammar teaching. One
exercise is called Mini test in which all the grammatical items learned get
practiced, however at the expense of a meaningful context.

Page 86
Figure 12
(Your Turn 2)

The other grammar exercise of the Your Turn 2 is called Question time. In this
exercise students have to match the first and the second parts of questions, in
which the grammatical features are displayed as well. Often, there is also an
exercise in which students have to make sentences out of given lexical junks.
Every Big break unit also consists of a cartoon at the beginning of the unit
followed up by a number of comprehension exercises. On average there are
three to four grammar exercises per Big break unit in which the grammar of
the previous units gets repeated. This suggests that the Your Turn 2 textbook
generally contains more grammar exercises in the units themselves, since it
does not contain many grammar exercises in its grammar review sections.

In the More 2 ELT textbook 5 progress checks are included. After every 5th
unit comes a progress check which always consists of a listening task, a

Page 87
reading task, a grammar task, a vocabulary task and a dialogue. Mostly, just
one or maximal two exercises of theses progress checks are grammar
exercises and throughout the textbook not many grammar exercises are
included either. Consequently, the relative amount of grammar exercises is
with 20 percent the lowest of all four ELT textbooks analyzed.

5.4. Grammar Self-Checks

After having analyzed grammar check-ups, another significant feature of such

grammar revisions will be analyzed, namely self-check-ups. In the Austrian
curriculum it is stated that students should be encouraged to learn
independently and should become independent learners (Lehrplan Unterstufe
Lebende Fremdsprachen 2000). A way of giving students the chance to learn
independently is trough grammar self-tests. The defining feature of a self-test
is that it can be corrected by students themselves. McGrath points out that
self-assessment raises learners awareness of what they can do themselves
to become more efficient learners (McGrath 2002: 207). Grammar self-tests
according to this definition were only included in the Everything for ESO 2,
one self-test per Consolidation Section. In this self-checks students are given
sentences which they have to correct. The correct answer to the sentence has
to be found in the textbook afterwards. The page number on which the correct
sentence can be found is given next to the sentence. Moreover, there is a
spelling exercise as well, in which students have to correct words if they are
misspelt. Similarly, the page number is indicated on which students can check
whether or not they have spelt the words correctly. Finally, students are given
a marking scheme for their total score, indicating them if they should do the
test again or not. A self-check of the Everything for ESO 2 is shown below:

Page 88
Figure 13
(Everything for ESO 2 2007: 72)

Page 89
The Progress Check in the More 2 textbook contains a marking scheme of the
total score of students as well, but students do not have the possibility to
check their answers themselves. There is a link, however, to the web-page of
the textbook www.more-online.at on which grammar exercises about the
previous units can be practiced and for which the solution is given as well.
Nevertheless, the grammar exercises of the Progress Check in the textbook
itself cannot be corrected by students.

5.5. Grammar Learning Strategies

Besides grammar self-tests, learning tips and strategies are another way of
helping students to learn individually and to optimize their learning. In the
Austrian curriculum the importance of including learning strategies in teaching
procedures is explicitly mentioned. Learners shall be able to learn individually,
especially after having finished school (Lehrplan Unterstufe Lebende
Fremdsprachen 2000). Whether this claim is also made in the Spanish
curriculum could not be analyzed, due to the lack of data. However, it can be
assumed that this is also the case, since only the United 2 Students Book,
which is a Spanish ELT textbook, contains a grammar learning strategy. The
other three ELT textbooks analyzed do not contain grammar learning tips or
strategies. The grammar learning strategy in the United 2 Students Book is
exercise eight on pg. 57. Students are advised in this exercise to make a
grammar section in their notebook and to use it for special grammar points:

Page 90
Figure 14
(United 2 2008: 57)

5.6. Grammar Drills

A grammar drill, which is a typical feature of Audiolingualism (see chapter 2),

is considered as an exercise in which the grammatical item is first presented
to the students orally and then has to be repeated by them (Littlejohn &
Windeatt 1989: 167 quoted in Mc Grath 2002: 206). Usually, the grammatical
feature appears in sentences, texts, poems or conversations. Hence,
conversations with the instruction to repeat them or to act them out are
considered grammar drills in this analysis as well. However, students have to
listen to the conversation before acting it out. If they just have to act it out an
important feature of a grammar drill is missing, which is listening. In such
cases the exercises has not been counted as grammar exercise in this
analysis. Critique on drilling activities comes from Littlejohn and Windeatt who
bring drills in connection with power relations in class and state that the
students role while performing drilling activities is a powerless one since they
simply repeat sentences after the teachers prompts and they mechanically

Page 91
follow instructions (Littlejohn & Windeatt 1989: 167 quoted in McGrath 2002:
206). The bar chart below shows the relative amount of grammar drills of each
textbook in relation to the total amount of grammar exercises in the textbook:

Grammar Drills

25

20

15

10

0
Your Turn More United Everything
for ESO

Figure 15

As can be viewed, the More 2 textbook contains with over 20 percent the
most grammar drills in relation to the total number of grammar exercises of
the textbook. The United 2 Students Book contains with 10 percent about half
of the relative amount of grammar drills as the More 2 textbook. The Your
Turn 2 textbook contains 5 percent grammar drills and the Everything for ESO
2 contains with only slightly below 1 percent the least grammar drills in
relation the total amount of grammar exercises in the textbook.

5.7. Translation Exercises

A feature associated with the Grammar-Translation Method is the use of

translation exercises (see chapter two). Translation exercises can be carried
out by translating sentences or a text into or out of the mother tongue. The
only textbook that contains translation exercises is the Everything for ESO 2.
In each unit there is one translation exercise, therefore the textbook contains

Page 92
9 translation exercises in which decontextualized sentences have to be
translated into the mother tongue:

Figure 16
(Everything for ESO 2 2007: 37)

5.8. Fill-in-, Completion-, Matching-, Ordering-, etc. Exercises

Another exercise type, which is brought in connection with the Grammar-

Translation Method, is an exercise type typically considered typical grammar
exercise. In such exercises students have to complete already constructed
sentences and then formulating new sentences, or to fill-in the correct
grammatical form in a text with blanks, or to choose between two grammatical
options in order to complete a sentence, etc. (c.f. Richards & Rodgers 2007:
107; see chapter two). According to the definition adopted in this paper such
exercises are carried out by students individually and do not involve speaking
skills. Some of these exercises may be contextualized, others may not. Some
may involve listening others may not. Moreover, this exercise type does not
involve free production and there are always sentences constructed at first or
some example is given. Such exercises often lack a natural content of
language use and do not involve the learner personally. The results of the
textbooks analysis can be viewed in the chart below:

Page 93
 Fill-in, Complete, Match, etc. Exercises

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Your Turn 2 More 2 United 2 Everything
for ESO 2

Figure 17

This chart shows that the United 2 clearly contains with 64 percent most
completion-exercises. In the Everything for ESO 2 43 percent of completion-
exercises are included. The Austrian ELT textbooks contain significantly less
exercises of this type: the Your Turn 2 contains with only 17 percent the
lowest relative amount of completion-exercises and the More 2 also contains
with 23 a quite low percentage of completion-exercises. The reason why the
United 2 contains that many completion-exercises also lies in the high amount
of grammar review sections which are included in the textbook: after every
unit comes a consolidation section with a high amount of grammar exercises
and after every third unit a two page long grammar review is presented. The
Everything for ESO 2 also contains three grammar review section and further
includes many completion-exercises in the units of the textbook, which is also
true for the United 2. The Austrian ELT textbooks generally include less
completion-exercises in their review sections. Further, there are also very few
or as in the Your Turn 2 none, completion-exercises in the regular units of the
textbooks.

Comparing these figures with the ones of social interaction, learner-orientation

or contextualization of the four ELT textbooks below, the interrelation of these
criteria becomes very obvious. The Spanish ELT textbooks, for example,
show higher rates of decontextualized grammar exercises and lower rates of

Page 94
pair or group work. These are features of grammar exercises contrary to the
completion-type just discussed.

5.9. Group Work and Pair Work

The next feature of grammar exercises which is analyzed is the form of social
interaction involved in carrying out the exercise. There are exercises that
require collaboration with a number of other students, called group work, and
there are exercises which require the collaboration of only two students,
called pair work. Group work and pair work are seen as important parts of a
foreign language class since learners learn from interaction with others and
from the process of carrying out tasks (McGrath 2002: 205). Besides the
linguistic learning such as negotiating meaning or arguing a point of view,
arguments in favor of group tasks are that they encourage socialization and
teamwork and they also make it possible to learn by observing others
(McGrath 2002: 205). Further, transferable skills such as collecting and
classifying information, reasoning, critical thinking, creativity and problem
solving can also be transmitted to the learners through group tasks (McGrath
2002: 206).

Normally group or pair exercises involve communication and hence are a

typical feature of Communicative Language Teaching (see chapter 2). It has
been analyzed how many of the grammar exercises in each textbook involve
group or pair work. The percentage of group exercises has been compared to
the percentage of individual exercises, as can be seen in the charts below.
Pair work is shown in blue, group work in red and individual work in yellow:

Page 95
 Social Interaction S ocial Interactio
Your Turn 2 M ore 2

PW
GW
IW

Social Interaction Social Interaction

United 2 Everything for ESO 2

Figure 18

As can be seen in the charts above, the Austrian textbooks contain generally
more group and pair work grammar exercises than the Spanish ELT
textbooks. Over half of the grammar exercises in the Your Turn 2 textbook
involve group or pair work. This high amount of group or pair work is also due
to the fact that grammar exercises in this textbook often involve more skills
and consequently it is more likely that pair or group work is included as well.
At all events this high amount of group and pair work is still striking, especially
when contrasting it with the Spanish textbooks: the United 2 contains only 15
percent of group and pair work and the Everything for ESO 2 only 17 percent.
In most ELT textbooks analyzed there is more pair work involved than group
work, except for the United 2, which includes more group than pair work.

Page 96
5.10. Contextualization of Grammar Exercises

Another important criterion of contemporary language teaching is that

language is placed into a meaningful context. As Thornbury points out
Language is context-sensitive. (Thornbury 2000: 69). This means that
without a context it is quite difficult to make sense of a single word or phrase.
This is also true for sentences taken out of the context of texts or situations
(Thornbury 2000: 69-70). Teaching language features without a natural
context in which these features occur was a typical characteristic of the
Grammar-Translation Method, since the idea of contextualizing grammar
exercises emerged later in Situational Language Teaching. In Situational
Language Teaching, which emerged in the 1960s, it was advocated that
language should be taught in generative situations (Thornbury 2000: 51).
Such a situation generates sentences in which the target language structure
occurs (Thornbury 2000: 51). In contemporary approaches and methods,
such as Communicative Language Teaching or the Task-Based Approach,
the teaching of language structures in meaningful or natural contexts is more
or less standard (see meaningfulness principle in chapter two (Johnson
1982)).

In this research paper a grammar exercise is viewed as contextualized if the

grammatical structure is placed in some form of context, as for example a text
or a situation. Situations typically inform learners about the roles and
relationships of the speakers and the mode of communication (Thornbury
2000: 70). Is it a public notice, a letter, ? (Thornbury 2000: 70). However,
situations may be also created with the help of a picture and a short
description of the situation. Situation occurring in everyday life may be
included as well. An example of such a situation is given in the United 2
Students Book on pg. 30. In exercise three the present continuous gets
practiced. A reporter is describing a scene at the beach. Hence, in this
situation the present continuous may be used and the logic behind this
grammatical feature is displayed quite clearly:

Page 97
Figure 19
(United 2 2008: 30)

The charts below show the relative amounts of contextualized grammar

exercises (blue) in contrast to exercises not contextualized (red). Generally,
the majority of grammar exercises of all textbooks analyzed are
contextualized. However, the Austrian textbooks show both with 92 percent
higher rates of contextualized grammar exercises than their Spanish
counterparts. The United 2 Students Book contains 82 percent of
contextualized grammar exercises and the Everything for ESO 2 contains with
69 percent the least contextualized grammar exercises. In any case it has to
be added that the rates of contextualized grammar exercises are in all four
ELT textbooks analyzed quite high and the idea to teach language and

Page 98
especially grammar in contexts is present in all four textbooks analyzed. Of
course, the contexts themselves vary from textbook to textbook. Meaningful
contexts are especially given in tasks (see task principle (Johnson 1982)).

Contextualization C o n textu aliz atio

Your Turn 2 M o re 2

C
DC

Contextualization Contextualization
United 2 Everything for ESO 2

Figure 20

5.11. Learner-orientation of Grammar Exercises

Learner-centeredness is another aspect valued in Communicative Language

Teaching (Thornbury 2000: 27). For Thornbury learner-centeredness means
giving learners more responsibility and involvement in the learning process
(Thornbury 2000: 27). This is also achieved through discovery learning
activities, in which learners have to work out rules themselves (Thornbury
2000: 27). Discovery learning is also a feature of inductive grammar teaching
and will be discussed there in this research paper (see Inductive Grammar
Teaching). In this analysis, learner-oriented exercises are exercises which call
on the learners personal experience or personal life. Further, exercises in

Page 99
which learners can choose among options, as for example, which language to
use to complete an exercise or task are counted as learner-oriented as well.
These are exercises in which learners can produce language creatively and
which give the learners more freedom for personal contributions. A learner-
oriented exercise, as defined in this paper, is for example exercise 11 on pg.
85 in the More 2. The instruction in this exercise is the following: Work in
pairs. Tell your partner six things you must (mustnt) do at home. (More 2
2008: 85). In this grammar exercise students practice the grammatical items
must and mustnt. Further, the exercise calls on the learners personal life and
students tell each other which things they must or mustnt do at home. The
heading of this exercise is Rules at home and it somehow creates a context
for the grammatical items to make sense, since must and mustnt are used to
describe things that are necessary to do. This is usually the case in house
rules. The results of learner-oriented exercises in the ELT textbooks analyzed
are shown in figure 21 below (the amounts of learner-oriented exercises are
shown in blue and the ones which are not learner-oriented in red):

Learner Orientation Learner O rientatio

M ore 2
Your Turn 2

LO
NLO

L e a rn e r Learner Orientation
O r ie n t a t io Everything for ESO

Figure 21

Page 100
The chart above shows that the Your Turn 2 clearly contains with 41 percent
most learner-oriented grammar exercises, compared to not learner-oriented
grammar exercises. In the More 2 28 percent of learner-oriented grammar
exercises are included. The two Spanish textbooks obviously contain less
amounts of learner-oriented grammar exercises: in the United 2 21 percent
and in the Everything for ESO 2 18 percent of learner-oriented grammar
exercises are included. These figures support the view that the Austrian ELT
textbooks show a stronger tendency towards Communicative Language
Teaching than the Spanish ones, at least in terms of learner-orientation.

5.12. Grammar Tasks

As already described in Chapter two in this research paper, tasks are a

feature of Task-Based Language Teaching and thus of Communicative
Language Teaching as well. A task is generally defined as

an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding a solution
to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, making a telephone call,
writing a letter, or reading a set of instructions and assembling a toy (Richards
& Rodgers 2007: 224).

Skehan (1996: 20) points out that tasks have meaning as their primary focus
and are evaluated in terms of an outcome. He further states that tasks
generally bear some resemblance to real-life language use (Skehan 1996:
20).

In this analysis all the above statements concerning the definition of a task are
considered. The most important criterion is, however, that in carrying out the
tasks a grammatical item is practiced. This must be one of the main purposes
of the task. Moreover, as Richards and Rodgers (2007: 223) have already
stated, it is crucial that language is used as means to carry out a task, such as
finding a solution to a problem, or to give directions etc. Hence, a task must
have, among other purposes, the purpose of practicing a grammatical
structure and it must have an outcome of some form. Finally, language should

Page 101
be used as means to complete the task and not as an end itself. A
representative task is exercise seven on page 37 in the Your Turn 2. Students
have to choose products from the catalogue in exercise five (pg. 36) and then
to complete the order form of exercise seven. They have got 250 pounds and
have to buy things with this money. The grammatical structures taught in this
exercise are quantifiers, such as much and many.

Figure 22
(Your Turn 2 2008: 36)

Page 102
Figure 23
(Your Turn 2 2008: 37)

The bar chart below shows that the Your Turn 2 contains with slightly over 50
percent most tasks. In the Your Turn 2 about half of all grammar exercises are
tasks. This figure is quite striking in terms of the inclusion of latest
developments in language teaching methodology, such as Task-Based
Language Teaching. The More 2 shows with 33 percent also a relatively high
amount of grammar tasks. The Spanish textbooks clearly contain less
grammar tasks than the Austrian ones: the United 2 contains 19 percent
grammar tasks and in the Everything for ESO 13 percent of grammar tasks in
comparison to other grammar exercises are included. Many tasks typically
involve pair or group work. This is reflected by the figures of group and pair
work in which the Your Turn 2 also shows the highest rates, followed by the
More 2 and afterwards by the Spanish textbooks.

Page 103
 Grammar Tasks

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Your Turn 2 More 2 United 2 Everything
for ESO 2

Figure 24

5.13. Language Functions

Grammatical items expressed through language functions are found in all four
ELT textbooks analyzed. In the United 2 Student Book language functions
are even explicitly mentioned in the table of contents. The table below shows
the language functions and the corresponding grammar, both mentioned in
the table of contents of the United 2 textbook:

Language Functions Grammar

describing people and things have got, Using adjectives
talking about abilities can and cant - ability
asking for and giving permission can and cant permission
Table 3

As can be seen in the above table, for example the language function talking
about abilities and the grammatical feature can and cant are describing
exactly the same thing. It can be concluded that in this textbook the grammar
items are taught through the language functions, or in the words of Thornbury,
grammar is dressed up in functional labels, which is a feature of CLT

Page 104
(Thornbury 2000: 22). Thornbury states that certain form-function matches,
like the examples in the table, are quite easy identifiable (Thornbury 2000: 6).
However, there are also functions, which can be expressed through more
than one grammatical structure, as for example the function of warning:

Youd better not do that.

I wouldnt do that, if I were you.
Mind you dont do that. (Thornbury 2000: 7).

Although there is a lack of a one-to-one match between language forms and

functions many textbook writers still see it as useful to organize certain
grammatical structures in terms of functional labels, such as Inviting, Making
plans, Requesting things, Making comparisons, etc. (Thornbury 2000: 7).

In the Everything for ESO 2 language functions are often expressed in the
Listening and speaking sections. Examples are Introducing yourself, Talking
about your hobbies, Describing and comparing people, objects and places
etc. In the More 2 and the Your Turn 2 language functions are similarly often
included in the speaking sections of the textbooks. Hence, it can be followed
that in terms of language functions all four ELT textbooks analyzed are up-to
date and adhering to a Communicative Approach to language teaching in this
respect.

5.14. Deductive and Inductive Grammar Teaching

5.14.1. Deductive Grammar Teaching

In a deductive approach typically the grammar rule is first presented and

followed by examples in which the rule is applied (Thornbury 2000: 29).
Another common term for the deductive approach is rule-driven learning
(Thornbury 2000: 29). Teaching grammar through rules is one of the most
traditional, but still not unfashionable, ways of teaching grammar (Thornbury
2000: 21). Using grammar rules in order to teach a language is a typical
feature of the Grammar-Translation Method (Thornbury 2000: 21). However,
also many other approaches and methods, as for example Communicative

Page 105
Language Teaching, nowadays accept explicit rule giving (see Chapter two).
In the Longman Active Study Dictionary a rule is defined as:

A principle or order which guides behaviour, says how things are to be

done etc. or
the usual way that something happens (Thornbury 2000: 11).

In three of the four ELT textbooks rules are given explicitly: in the Everything
for ESO 2, the United 2 and in the More 2. Only the Your Turn 2 textbook
does basically not contain explicit grammar rules, however it contains some
grammar tables. Rules may be given in the target language or in the native
language of the students. Traditionally the explanation of grammar rules was
given, as in the Grammar-Translation Method, in the students mother tongue.
In the table below, the amount of grammar rules and the use of the mother
tongue (L1) are shown. Further, the amounts of grammar tables included in
the textbooks are presented as well.

Textbook Your Turn 2 More 2 United 2 Everything for

ESO 2
amount of 5 74 116 136
rules
use of L1 No Yes No / Yes No
amount of 31 29 26 36
grammar
tables
Table 4

This table shows that the Spanish textbooks clearly contain more explicit
grammar rules than the Austrian ones. Although the Your Turn 2 textbook
contains most pages only five explicit grammar rules can be found in the
whole textbook. However, the Your Turn 2 contains 31 tables in which
grammatical language forms are displayed as well. Hence, grammar
instruction has its place in the textbook. Moreover, the L1 is not used in the
Your Turn 2. In contrast to that, in the More 2 the L1 is used in explaining

Page 106
grammar rules throughout the textbook. With 74 grammar rules the More 2
still contains significantly less rules than the Spanish ELT textbooks: the
United 2 contains 116 explicit grammar rules and the Everything for ESO 2
even 136 explicit grammar rules. It has to be added that these high amounts
of grammar rules are also due to the fact that these two textbooks include
grammar reference sections at the end of the textbook, which the Austrian
ELT textbooks do not.

In these reference sections the grammar gets explained in great detail. In the
Everything for ESO 2 there are no rules given throughout the textbook.
However, next to the grammar exercise presented in the textbook is a
reference to the relevant page of the grammar reference section on which the
grammar rule can be found. The language used for explaining grammar rules
in the Everything for ESO is English. In the United 2 rules are given in the
grammar reference section as well as throughout the textbook. The grammar
rules of the reference section are given in Spanish and the ones of the
different units in English. 10 Concerning grammar tables all four ELT textbooks
contain with around 30 the same amount of grammar tables. Thus it could be
concluded that especially the Spanish ELT textbooks show a greater
tendency towards deductive grammar teaching, in respect to explicit rule
giving. This is only partially true. The More 2, for example, also seems to be
oriented towards deductive grammar teaching, since 74 explicit grammar
rules are given. However, in many examples students have to work out the
rules themselves. This is an example of discovery learning, a feature of
inductive grammar teaching.

5.14.2. Inductive Grammar Teaching

According to Thornbury An inductive approach starts with some examples

from which a rule is inferred (Thornbury 2000: 29). To be more precise, in an

10
In this analysis only the rules of the reference section have been counted,
since the ones of the units are explained in more detail in the grammar
reference.

Page 107
inductive approach the learner first studies examples in which the
grammatical structure is used, without having met the rule, and from these
examples he or she has to develop an understanding of the rule (Thornbury
2000: 49). Inductive language learning is quite similar to the way native
speakers acquire their language and thus the approach often is associated
with the Direct Method and the Natural Approach (Thornbury 2000: 49).
These approaches are modeled on fist language acquisition and their basic
assumption is that language data (or input) is best processed inductively and
without recourse or translation (Thornbury 2000: 49).

In contrast to views in the Direct Method and the Natural Approach, an explicit
statement of the rule after having worked out the examples is now tolerated in
inductive language teaching (Thornbury, 51). Another principle of inductive
language teaching is discovery learning. Pascal best explained the logic that
lies behind this term, several centuries earlier:

People are generally better persuaded by the reasons which they themselves
have discovered than by those which have come into the minds of others (in
Thornbury 2000: 51).

Further, discovery learning also involves trial and error by the student and
correction by the teacher. Soon, the principles of discovery learning were
adapted for classroom use and ELT textbooks that promote an inductive
approach include these principles and are, according to Thornbury, today
more or less standard (2002: 52).

Discovery learning, as already stated, is found in the More 2 and further in the
Everything for ESO 2. Another term for discovery learning is consciousness-
raising: according to Thornbury a consciousness-raising task is designed to
raise learners awareness regarding specific grammatical items in order to
promote the restructuring of their mental grammar (Thornbury 2001: 100).
The table below shows the numbers of instances of discovery learning in the
four ELT textbooks analyzed:

Page 108
Textbook Your Turn 2 More 2 United 2 Everything for
ESO 2
discovery 0 21 0 17
learning
Table 5

In the More 2 Students Book grammar rules are 21 times presented

inductively: typically some examples of the correct use of the language item
are given and the student then has to infer the correct grammar rule. An
example of this inductive presentation of grammatical features is the
presentation of should and shouldnt on page 31:

Figure 25
(More 2 2008: 31)

In the Everything for ESO 2 grammar rules are presented quite in the same
way as in the More 2. However, the grammatical items presented in these
inductive grammar exercises, which are part of the writing-section of the
textbook, do not necessarily teach the grammatical items shown in the table
of contents of that unit. Often other aspects of grammar are presented
inductively to students. Further, the inductive grammar exercises presented
are often connected with a short text that always goes before these grammar

Page 109
exercises. In some exercises students also have to produce a grammatical
feature. In most cases, however, they have to answer comprehension
questions and infer grammar rules. An example of typical inductive grammar
exercises in the Everything for ESO 2 are found on page 32 and shown
below:

Figure 26
(Everything for ESO 2 2007: 32)

Page 110
In exercises three and four inductive grammar teaching is applied. In exercise
students have to find out if the adjectives go before or after the noun. Further,
they have to consider whether adjectives have a plural form, like the ones in
their native language Spanish. In exercise four the distinction between regular
and irregular plurals in nouns is taught to students. However, students have to
check themselves, if there are any irregular plural forms in the text.

The Your Turn 2 and the United 2 do not contain any discovery learning
activities or instances of an inductive presentation of grammar rules.
Therefore, it can be summed up that in the United 2 rather a deductive
approach to grammar teaching is adopted, since rules and tables are usually
given before students have to do the exercises in which the feature gets
practiced. Moreover no instances of inductive grammar teaching are included
in the textbook. In the Your Turn 2 there are no instances of inductive rule
giving or discovery learning activities either, however, generally no rules are
presented. The approach adopted in this textbook rather seems to be
inductive, although no instances of discovery learning are included. McGrath
(2002: 206) views such an inductive approach as critical and states that the
absence of any explicit grammar reference in a textbook may give learners
the impression that learning a language means to learn a set of fixed phrases
in which different items can be substituted or changed. It has to be admitted
however, that in the Your Turn 2 grammar tables are included, which can be
seen as a form of explicit grammar teaching. The More 2 and the Everything
for ESO 2, on the other hand, contain discovery learning activities or
instances of inductive rule giving. However, there are also quite a number of
instances of deductive rule giving. Hence, the approaches in these two
textbooks lie somewhere between deductive and inductive grammar teaching,
according to the definition of these two concepts adopted in this analysis.

Page 111
5.15. Presentation and Gradation of Grammar

In all ELT textbooks analyzed a text or conversation is given at the beginning

of each unit in which the grammar items to be learned in the unit are included.
This way of presenting grammar points gives students the chance of being
exposed to grammar in its context of use, which is, according to Thornbury, at
the very least, in the form of texts (Thornbury 2000: 72). Afterwards, grammar
rules or tables are presented. This is also true for all four ELT textbooks
analyzed. Usually, grammar exercises follow in which the items are practiced,
especially in the Spanish ELT textbooks also in decontextualized forms.
Thornbury points out that this is done because it is easier to study examples
of grammar out of context, since the natural context of the grammatical item
often is distracting for learners, especially beginners or elementary learners
(Thornbury 2000: 71). However, he states, if language or in particular
grammar becomes detached from its co-text and its context of situation, it
becomes more difficult to make sense of it (Thornbury 2000: 71).

In all four ELT textbooks grammar exercises are generally graded from simple
to more complex ones. A good example of this are the exercises on page 40
and 41 in the Your Turn 2. In these consecutive exercises the grammatical
structure have to is practiced. In the first exercise students just have to
complete sentences, however they do not have to produce the grammatical
structure themselves. They have to complete sentences like He has to . In
the next exercise students have to say why they cant come to Sadies party
and they have to produce whole sentences. However, they are given a model
sentence and are supposed to produce similar ones. In the next exercise
students have to produce the negation of have to and in the final exercise
they have to produce sentences containing the grammatical structure in pair
work. Students can choose among a few options what they have to or dont
have to do at a day of the week. In the other ELT textbooks analyzed similar
examples can be found. Gradation of grammar exercises is a general
principle in language teaching. Thornbury states that the grading of grammar
items is done according to the criteria complexity, learnability and
teachability (Thornbury 2000: 9).

Page 112
6. CONCLUSION

After having analyzed the four ELT textbooks in respect to various aspects of
grammar teaching, the main findings are summed up in this final chapter. It
can be concluded that grammar plays a major role in all four ELT textbooks.
This gets obvious by considering the textbook syllabuses of the four
textbooks, which show that the teaching content is mainly organized around
the grammatical items to be taught. The relative amounts of grammar
exercises in the four ELT textbooks are generally quite high: the Your Turn 2
and the United 2 show with over 50 percent the highest rates of grammar
exercises in comparison to the whole amount of exercises in the textbooks.
The Everything for ESO 2 contains 34 percent and the More 2 only 20 percent
of grammar exercises on the total number of exercises in the textbooks.

The question posed in the introduction of this paper, namely if the textbooks
strictly follow one single approach or method, clearly has to be answered with
no. For example, all four ELT textbooks also teach grammar through
language functions, which is a feature of Communicative Language Teaching.
On the other hand, the Everything for ESO 2 contains translation exercises,
which is a typical feature of the Grammar-Translation Method. Another feature
of the Grammar-Translation Method are fill-in, completion, matching, etc.
exercises, which sometimes are also decontextualized and generally do not
involve communication skills. This exercise type is also found in all four ELT
textbooks, however to different degrees. Concerning this criterion, the
Spanish ELT textbooks clearly surpass the Austrian ones: the United 2
contains 64 percent and the Everything for ESO 2 43 percent of this exercise
type, measured on the total amounts of grammar exercises in the textbooks.
The Your Turn 2 only contains 17 percent and the More 2 only 23 percent of
fill-in, completion, etc. exercises.

Another feature, which has shown quite interesting results, is the

incorporation of grammar drills in the four ELT textbooks. This exercise type,
which is one of the main features of Audiolingualism or Situational Language
Teaching, has mainly been found in the More 2, with about 20 percent. The

Page 113
United 2 contains 10 percent and the Your Turn 2 only 5 percent of grammar
drills. Finally, the Everything for ESO 2 contains less than one percent of
grammar drills, in respect to the whole amount of grammar exercises in the
textbook. So far it can be concluded that the Spanish ELT textbooks show a
greater tendency towards traditional approaches to language teaching than
the Austrian ones, since concerning the criteria of the Grammar-Translation
Method, namely translation exercises, fill-in, completion, etc. exercises and
the focus on writing and reading skills, which is also prevalent in these
exercise types, the Spanish textbooks show higher rates. What regards
Audiolingualism, the only defining criterion of the method which is present in
the ELT textbooks is grammar drills. The More 2 shows with about 20 percent
the highest rates of grammar drills. Nevertheless, drills are incorporated in all
ELT textbooks analyzed.

Finally, the more actual approaches to language teaching, namely

Communicative Language Teaching and Task-Based Language Teaching will
be looked at more closely. The criterion group and pair work is a typical
feature of Communicative Language Teaching, since in this approach
communication skills are emphasized. The Your Turn 2 contains with over 50
percent clearly most group and pair work exercises, in which a grammatical
structure is taught. The More 2 contains over a quarter of group and pair work
exercises, in contrast to the Spanish ELT textbooks, which contain with 17
(Everything for ESO 2) and 15 (United 2) percent, significantly less group or
pair work. Concerning contextualization of grammar exercises basically the
same is true: although all four ELT textbooks generally show high rates of
contextualization, the Austrian ELT textbooks show higher rates than the
Spanish ones: Your Turn 2 and More 2: 92 percent; United 2: 82 percent,
Everything for ESO 2: 69 percent; For the learner-orientation of grammar
exercises basically the same pattern can be seen: the Your Turn 2 shows with
41 percent the highest rates, followed by the More 2 with 28 percent. The
Spanish ELT textbooks contain with 21 percent (United 2) and 18 percent
(Everything for ESO 2) clearly lower rates. Finally, the relative amounts of
tasks teaching a grammatical structure have been analyzed. Here, the Your
Turn 2 shows with over 50 percent a very high rate of tasks, teaching a

Page 114
grammatical feature. The More 2 contains with 33 percent a respectably high
rate as well. The United 2 contains 19 percent and the Everything for ESO 2
13 percent of grammar tasks.

In terms of deductive and inductive grammar teaching it can be concluded

that the United 2 shows a tendency towards deductive grammar teaching and
the other three ELT textbooks lie somewhere between these two concepts.
The More 2 and the Everything for ESO 2 include discovery learning activities,
which is a feature of contemporary language teaching and inductive grammar
teaching. Grammar rules are explicitly taught in the United 2, the More 2 and
the Everything for ESO 2. The Your Turn 2 only contains very few rules, but
all four textbooks contain grammar tables. Hence, the recommendation of the
Austrian curriculum, to teach grammar rules only when purposeful and not for
all grammatical features is fulfilled by the Your Turn 2. However, in the Your
Turn 2 as well as the United 2 no instances of discovery learning are
presented. Contrary to that, discovery learning is included in the More 2 and
the Everything for ESO 2. The recommendation in the Austrian curriculum for
inductive grammar teaching is implemented to some extent in the Your Turn
2, the More 2 and the Everything for ESO 2.

To answer the research questions to which approach or method the four ELT
textbooks adhere, it can be concluded that the Austrian textbooks generally
show a greater tendency towards Communicative Language Teaching and
Task-Based Language Teaching than the Spanish ones. Especially the Your
Turn 2 shows a very strong tendency towards these approaches. Thus the
teaching of communicative competence as stated in the Austrian curriculum,
is implemented in the textbooks in terms of group and pair work. The Spanish
ELT textbooks, however, contains features of these more recent approaches,
as group and pair work, inductive grammar teaching or discovery learning as
well. Nevertheless, the Spanish ELT textbooks contain higher figures of
criteria of the Grammar-Translation Method, such as translation exercises, fill-
in, completion, etc. exercises, deductive grammar teaching or a focus on
reading and writing skills, than the Austrian textbooks, which contain such
criteria as well, although at lower rates. It can be followed that the four ELT

Page 115
textbooks do not stick to one single method and Swaffar, Arens and Morgans
findings, namely that in textbooks the philosophy of a given method or
approach is not strictly followed can be confirmed in this textbook analysis
(Swaffar, Arens & Morgan 1982). The Austrian ELT textbooks, especially the
Your Turn 2, are stronger oriented towards more recent approaches to
language teaching than the Spanish ones. Consequently, there is a difference
between the Austrian and Spanish ELT textbooks: it can be concluded that
the Austrian ELT textbooks are more up-to-date than their Spanish
counterparts. However, it has to be added that every textbook also contains
quite unique features and this has to be regarded as well when selecting an
ELT textbook for a language course.

Finally, I want to state that textbooks are important tools for foreign language
teachers and teachers in general. A textbook analysis, as the one of this
paper, helps teachers to select textbooks according to their teaching aims.
However, teaching means more than simply teaching a textbook and I agree
with Kumaravadivelu who emphasizes that teachers should

know not only how to teach but also know how to act autonomously within the
academic and administrative constraints imposed by institutions, curricula and
textbooks (Kumaravadivelu 1994: 30).

Page 116
7. Referenes

Beare, Nick. 2008. United. English for ESO. Students Book 2. Oxford:
Macmillan.

Bildungsentwicklung in sterreich 2004 2007. 2008. Bundesministerium fr

Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur (BMUKK).
http://www.bmukk.gv.at/medienpool/17146/bildungsentwicklung_07.pdf
(25th of September 2010).

Breen, Michael; Candlin, Christopher N. 1980. The essentials of a

communicative curriculum in language teaching. Applied Linguistics
1(2), 89-112.

Brinton, Donna M.; Master, Peter (eds.). 1997. New Ways in Content-Based
Instruction. Alexandria, Va.: TESOL Inc.

Brooks, Nelson. 1964. Language and Language Learning: Theory and

Practice. New York: Harcourt Brace.

Chomsky, Noam. 1966. Linguistic theory. In Allen, J. P. B.; Van Buren, P.

(eds.), Chomsky: Selected Readings. London: Oxford University Press.
152-159.

Dendrinos, Bessie. 1992. The EFL textbook and ideology. Athens: Grivas.

Feez, S. 1998. Text-Based Syllabus Design. Sydney: National Centre for

English Teaching and Research.

Fernndez, Carmona; Lawley, Jim. 2007. Everything for ESO. Students Book
2. London: Richmond.

Finocchiaro, Mary B.; Brumfit, Christopher. 1988. The functional-notional

approach: from theory to practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gerngross, G.; Puchta, H.; Holzmann, C.; Straks, J.; Lewis-Jones, P. 2008.
More! Students Book 2. Innsbruck: Helbling Languages.

Harmer, Jeremy; Acevedo, Ana. 2008. Your Turn. Textbook 2. Wien:

Langenscheidt.

Howatt, Anthony P. R. 1984. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Page 117
Hymes, D. 1971. On communicative competence. In Pride, J. B.; Holmes, J.
(eds.). Sociolinguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin. 269-293.

Johnson, Keith. 1983. Communicative syllabus design and methodology.

Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Krashen, Stephen D.; Terrell, Tracy D. 1984. The natural approach: language
acquisition in the classroom. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Kumaravadivelu, B. 1994. The Postmethod Condition: (E)merging Strategies

for Second/Foreign Language Teaching. TESOL Quaterly 28/1, 27-48.

Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 1986. Techniques and principles in language

teaching. New York: Oxford University Press.

Lehrplan Lebende Fremdsprachen Unterstufe. 2004. Bundesministerium fr

Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur (BMUKK).
http://www.bmukk.gv.at/medienpool/17146/bildungsentwicklung_07.pdf
(16 September 2010).

Ley Orgnica 2/2006 de Educacin. 2006. Ministerio de Educacin.

http://www.educacion.es/dctm/mepsyd/horizontales/prensa/documentos/
2008/loe.pdf?documentId=0901e72b80027758 (21st of August 2010).

Ministerio de Educacin. 2006. http://www.educacion.es/portada.html (23rd of

August 2010).

McGrath, Ian. 2002. Materials Evaluation and Design for Language Teaching.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press

Nunan, David. 1989. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom.

New York: Cambridge University Press.

Pica, Teresa. 1994. Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about

second language learning, conditions, processes, outcomes?.
Language Learning 44, 493-527.

Pica, T.; Kanagy, R.; Falodun, J. 1993. Choosing and using communicative
tasks for second language instruction. In Crookes, G. and Gass, S.
(eds.), Tasks and Language Learning: Integrating Theory and Practice.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 35-56.

Page 118
Prabhu, N. S. 1987. Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

Richards, Jack; Rodgers Theodore. 2007. Approaches and Methods in

Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Skehan, P. 1996. Second language acquisition research and task-based

instruction. In Jane Willis and D. Willis (eds.). Challenge and Change in
Language Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann. 17-30.

Skehan, Peter. 1998. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Stryker, Steven; Leaver, Betty. 1993. Content-Based Instruction in Foreign

Language Education. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.

Swaffar, J.; Arens, K.; Morgan, M. 1982. Teacher classroom practices:

Redefining method as task hierarchy. Modern Language Journal 66, 24-
33.

Terrell, Tracy D. 1982. The natural approach to language teaching: An

update. Modern Language Journal 66, 121-132.

Thornbury, Scott. 2000. How to teach grammar. Harlow: Longman.

Van Ek, J. A.; Trim, J. L. M. 1990. Threshold level 1990. Strasbourg: Council
of Europe Press.

Widdowson, Henry G. 1980. Explorations in Applied Linguistics. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Willis, Jane. 1996. A flexible framework for task-based learning. In Willis, J.;
Wills, D. (eds.), 235-256. Challenge and Change in Language Teaching.
Oxford: Heinemann. 52-62.

Wilkins, David A. 1983. Notional syllabuses: a taxonomy and its relevance to

foreign language curriculum development. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

Page 119
8. Appendices
Appendix 1: Analysis grid of the Your Turn 2 Textbook

Your
Turn 2
TOC G PW GW C LO D TA FI R IR TAB
Intro 2 2 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
Unit 1 9 4 2 8 4 0 5 1 0 0 3
Unit 2 5 4 1 5 1 0 3 0 0 0 2
Unit 3 4 1 2 4 2 1 1 1 0 0 1
Unit 4 5 0 2 3 2 0 4 2 0 0 0
Unit 5 8 2 1 8 1 1 2 1 0 0 2
Unit 6 3 3 0 3 1 0 2 0 0 0 1
Unit 7 3 1 0 3 2 0 1 1 0 0 1
Unit 8 5 2 1 4 1 0 3 2 0 0 0
Unit 9 5 2 2 5 2 0 2 1 0 0 2
Unit 10 7 2 2 6 2 1 3 1 2 0 3
Unit 11 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 0 0 1
Unit 12 6 2 1 5 3 0 4 2 0 0 0
Unit 13 7 2 1 7 4 0 3 1 0 0 2
Unit 14 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 0 2 0 1
Unit 15 5 2 1 5 3 0 3 0 0 0 2
Unit 16 6 2 1 5 2 0 2 2 0 0 0
Unit 17 2 1 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 1
Unit 18 4 3 0 4 2 0 3 0 0 0 2
Unit 19 3 2 0 3 3 0 2 0 0 0 1
Unit 20 4 0 2 3 2 0 3 1 0 0 0
Unit 21 4 2 0 4 1 1 1 1 1 0 3
Unit 22 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 2
Unit 23 4 0 2 4 1 0 2 0 0 0 1
Unit 24 3 0 0 2 2 0 1 1 0 0 0
grammar
exercises
total 111 41 23 102 46 6 57 19 5 0 31
exercises
total 222
percent.
grammar
exercises 50

Page 120
Appendix 2: Analysis grid of the More 2 Students Book

More 2
TOC G PW GW C LO D TA FI R IR TAB
Unit 1 5 0 1 5 2 0 1 0 4 0 2
Unit 2 4 1 0 4 1 1 1 1 3 2 1
Unit 3 4 1 0 4 2 2 1 1 3 2 2
Unit 4 3 0 0 3 1 1 0 1 3 3 1
Unit 5 4 1 0 4 2 2 3 0 8 0 3
Progress
Ch. 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0
Unit 6 6 1 0 6 0 1 4 0 2 0 1
Unit 7 4 2 0 4 0 1 2 0 2 2 1
Unit 8 5 3 0 5 2 1 2 0 4 0 2
Unit 9 3 0 0 3 1 0 1 1 5 0 2
Unit 10 2 0 0 2 0 1 0 1 6 2 1
Progress
Ch. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Unit 11 2 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 4 2 2
Unit 12 5 3 0 5 3 1 3 0 2 1 2
Unit 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 2 1
Unit 14 4 2 1 4 1 2 0 2 6 1 2
Unit 15 3 1 0 2 0 0 0 3 5 0 2
Progress
Ch. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Unit 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 1
Unit 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 1
Unit 18 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 3 0 1
Unit 19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 1
Unit 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Progress
Ch. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
grammar
exercises
tota. 60 15 3 55 17 13 20 14 74 21 29
exercises
total 297
percent.
grammar
exercises 20

Page 121
Appendix 3: Analysis grid of the United 2 Students Book

United 2
TOC G PW GW C LO D TA FI R IR TAB
Remember 3 0 0 3 1 0 0 5 18 0 5
Unit 1 20 1 2 16 4 3 2 10 9 0 2
Unit 2 21 1 3 17 7 3 3 10 15 0 4
Unit 3 24 1 3 21 5 2 4 13 20 0 2
Review 1 11 0 0 11 0 0 0 11 0 0 0
Unit 4 17 1 2 14 3 2 3 11 8 0 1
Unit 5 22 1 3 16 4 2 3 13 14 0 4
Unit 6 16 1 2 11 5 3 2 8 11 0 3
Review 2 8 0 0 7 0 0 0 8 0 0 0
Unit 7 18 1 3 17 6 2 4 10 6 0 3
Unit 8 18 1 1 13 3 2 2 13 7 0 2
Unit 9 17 2 2 12 4 2 3 10 8 0 0
Review 3 8 0 0 8 0 0 0 8 0 0 0
grammar
exercises
total 203 10 21 166 42 21 26 130 116 0 26
exercises
total 361
percent.
grammar
exercises 56

Page 122
Appendix 4: Analysis grid of the Everything for ESO 2 Students Book

Everything
for ESO 2
TOC G PW GW C LO D TA TR FI R IR TAB
Unit 1 9 1 1 6 2 0 2 1 5 20 1 8
Unit 2 10 2 0 5 0 0 2 1 6 21 1 3
Unit 3 8 2 0 5 0 1 1 1 4 15 1 5
CA 9 1 1 5 1 0 3 0 5 0 0 0
Unit 4 18 1 0 15 4 0 4 1 5 8 3 3
Unit 5 11 1 1 9 2 0 2 1 5 12 1 0
Unit 6 14 2 0 10 2 0 3 1 6 12 1 3
CB 8 2 0 5 2 0 1 0 4 0 0 0
Unit 7 13 1 1 10 2 0 2 1 5 11 2 3
Unit 8 19 2 0 14 5 0 3 1 7 22 4 9
Unit 9 8 1 0 4 1 0 0 1 3 15 3 2
CC 7 2 1 4 3 0 3 0 3 0 0 0
grammar
exercises
total 134 18 5 92 24 1 26 9 58 136 17 36
exercises
total 390
percent.
grammar
exercises 34

Labeling:

G = grammar exercises
PW = pair work
GW = group work
L = learner-orientation
CO = contextualization
D = grammar drills
TA = tasks
TR = translation exercises
FI = fill-in, matching, completion, etc. exercises
R = explicit grammar rules
IR = instances of discovery learning (inductive grammar teaching)
TAB = grammar tables

Page 123
LEBENSLAUF

Vor- und Zuname: Philipp Kamhuber

Studienkennzahlen A190 344 482 456

(Englisch, Bewegung und Sport,
Geographie)

Besondere Kenntnisse: Rettungssanitterausbildung (Bundesheer)

Auslandsaufenthalt in den USA
(als Austauschschler, SS 2001)
Erasmusaufenthalt in Spanien
(Santiago de Compostela, SS 2009)

Besondere Neigungen: Sprachen (Englisch, Spanisch, Italienisch)

Praktika: Betreuer & Sportbetreuer auf Kinder- und

Jugendcamps der Kinderwelt N bzw.
N Jugendherbergswerk
(August 2005, Juli 2006, Juli 2007, Juli
2008, August 2009)
Nachhilfelehrer fr English im
Nachhilfeinstitut Auf Zack (Horn)

Studium: seit Oktober 2004 Lehramstudium

Anglistik and Geographie und
Wirtschaftskunde
Seit Oktober 2006 Lehramstudium
Anglistik und Bewegung und Sport

Horn, am 01. 12. 2010

Page 124