Communication

and Society 6

Communication
Methods to
Promote Grass-roots
Participation

by
Jereniah O'Sullivan-Ryan
Mario Kaplun

Unesco
'
.,,
~.
.; ..
... ~ . '

;~.:.~~... ' ' , ,. ' ' _',. , ' '

l{cquest for permission to reproduce thcse documents in full or in 1111rl should he nddressed
to the Uivision of Free Flow of lnformntion nnd Co11111111nic11tio11 Policies, Unesco, pince de
Fontenoy, 75700 Pnris. Thc following doc11me111s 011 'Communicntion nnd Socicty"
hove so fnr bcen issucd 1111d are ohtninnhle from the Communicntion Documentntion
Centre, Uncsco.

L.~~~~~~~~

DOCUMENTS ON COMMUNICATION ANO SOCIETY

Titlcs publishcd in English:

1. 1listorical dcvclopmcnt of media systcms - 1 : .IAl'AN
2. llistorical dcvclop111c11t of media systcms- 11: (,'f:'RMAN Dl:'MOCRATIC IV:'l'll/JUC
J. C'o1111111111ication indicators - 1 : Ci11111111111icatio11 i11clicators a11cl i11clict1tors ofsodo-
cc1111omic c/cpcfo1111e11 I
4. C'o111111unication indicators - 11 : 100 years of mas.1 comm1111icalio11 in Germt111y
S. Socio-cco110111ic and co111111unication indicators in dcvclopmcnt planning:
A case stucly of Jra11
6. C'o111111unication 111cthmls to promotc grasNoots participation
 COMMUNICATION METHODS TO PROMOTE GRASSROOTS

PARTICIPATION

A Summary of Research Findings from Latn

America, and an Annotated Bibliography

Jeremiah O'Sulliv1n-Ryan Mario Kaplun

 FOREWORD

The authors of this report accepted an invitation from the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to undertake a
study on "Conununication Methods to Promete Grasa Root Participation far
Endogenous Development". This first report representa a sununary of the
research findings in Latin America on the above subject, and an annotated
bibliography.

Both authors havc been involved in development projects in Latn America

far many years. This study is partly a result of their personal involve-
ment in projects of participatory conununication, and partly due to their
efforts at locating bibliographic information. More than fifty institu-
tions and individuals were contacted throughout Latn America requesting
information, and the annotated bibliography of almost 200 entries is a
result of thcir cfforts in this regard.

We are conscious that we have missed sorne valuable information and neglec-
ted sorne participatory projects. We apologize far any errara we may have
made in the reporting of the information received. However, we sincerely
feel that the content of this report reflecta the reality of experiences
in participatory development projects in Latn America, and this is a
first effort at gathering all this valuable information.

We expresa our gratitude to UNESCO, far its confidence in inviting us

to undertake this study, and we are sincerely grateful to all those in
Latn America who provided us with information and the richness of their
personal experience.

The study is not an official document. The views stated therein are
those of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of
Unesco.


C ONT E NT S

l. Participatory Conununication in the Third World

A Latn American Perspective

A. Introduction
B. Access and Participation : Socio-Technological Origina
C. Context of Participatory Communication in Latn America
D. Marginality and Participation

11. The Role of International Aid Agencies in

Promoting Participatory Development

A. An Overview of the Problem

B. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO)
c. Agency far International Development (AID)
D. Other International Agencies
E. Conclusion

III. Communication and Grass-Roots Development in Latn America

A. Overview of Communication Strategies for Development

The Role of Research
B. Connnunication Methodology and Research in
Participatory Development Strategies
C. Participatory Development Projects :
l. Argentina Teleclubs Popular Education va Tele~ision

2. Bolivia The Peasant Educator

 3. Brazil CommunicPtion for Animation and Social Change
Movement of Basic Education
4. Brazil Lajedo Region,Rural Newspaper
s. Chile Communication and Agrarian Reform
6. Chile Sentence
7. Colombia Basic Adult Education Laubach Center
8. Colombia Friendship Groups
9. Ecuador Communication Network among Campesinos
10. Ecuador Non-Formal Education Experiment
u. Ecuador Community Radio : Radio Tabacundo
12. Ecuador National Progranune for Child CaLe and Family Health
Progranune in Social Conununication and Education
13. Honduras Rural Conununication in the Sen.rice of Deve lopment
14. Mexico Mexican Inst{tute for Conununity Development
15. Peru Multimedia Use for Popular Promotion in
Sub-Urban Areas
16. Peru Advisory Council for the Production of
Educational Television
17. Peru Ideologiral Education
18. Peru Centre for Popular Conununication : Villa El Salvador
19. Peru Photomontage to Promete Learning and Participation
20. Peru Audio-visual Conununication in Campesino Tra1.1ing
21. Peru Special Integrated Project for Rural Education
22. Uruguay Cassette Forum
23. Latn
Ame rica Radio Service for Latn America
24. Latn
Ame rica Radio-Schools

D. Conclusion

IV. Appendix Annotated Bibliography

 1

PARTICIPATORY CO!-OOJNICATION IN THE TlaRD WOPLD

- A LATIN AHERICAN PERSPECTIVE

A. Introduction

Notions of acc~ss and participation in connnunication have gained signifi-

canc~ mainly in the last ten years or so. They can bd found in the texts and
resolutions of international organizations, in reporta of communication specia-
lists, and in the political programmes of many governments today. These themas
have become popular in international seminars and are being mentioned f requently
in jaurnals and communication publications. However, it is important to
ernphasize that, in practice, public access and participation in communication
hardly exist, except, in a very limited way, in a numbar of small localized
experiments. At the same time, the growing importance of these concepta should
not be under-estimated and their origina should be explored.

B. Access and Participation : Socio-Technological Oriains

Jouet(1978) mentions that the concepta of access and participation do
not apply only to the connnunication field. They are general concepta which
arise from overall sociological change, and they apply aleo to industrial,
educational and entertainment fields. They are becoming increasingly popular
in the political climate of change in llldny countries. In general, they are
a response to the evolution f modern social systems, in which the forma of
representative democracy are giving way to more direct forma of "participatory
democracy".

Concern for the involvement of individuals in their economic and social

life exists not only in the developed world, but also in developing countries,
as is shown by the present emphasie on "self-development". Diaz Bordenava
(1978) states that the situation in Latn America and the Third World in

-1-


- general in regard to the difficulty in achieving genuine participation

by the population in the decisions that affect their lives, is not essen-

tially different from the situation of the capitalist developed countries.

Genuine participation in the political decisions is conditioned by the level

of equality in a society, both at the public level in regard to rights and

common obligations, and at the private level where a certain homogeneous

socio-economic level is required as a pre-condition.

In the communication field, the modern trend is based on a questioning

of the vertical or top-down communication model which prevails in most

societies. In the classical connnunication model, a small number of sources

address themselves to a larg~ mass of receivers. The structure of the commu-

nication system reflecta a concentration of decision-making in the hands of

public or private organizations upan which audiences have little or no impact.

Programming is decided by production organizations, aimed at a mass audience

and limited to a number of standardized progrannnes. Mass media broadcast

mainly entertainment materials which, according to many critica, foster

escapism from social reality. The unidirectionality and fragmentation of

information do not give the public a satisfactory means of understanding

and analysing its socio-political environment. The connnunication model

treats the public as mere consumera of materials, a "silent majority", and

reinforces the notion of passivity.

The notions of public access and participation have emerged as a

result, not only of criticism of the dominant vertical model of counnunica-

tion , but also of growing calls f or the"right to communicate". The latter

tends to emphaaize the rights to information which is defined in Article 19

- 2 -
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rightj : "Everyone has the riaht to
freedom o! opinion and expreasion ; this right includes freedom to hold
opinions withou~ interference and to seek, receive and impart information
and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers".

The extension of the right to inf ormation leads to the more complex
and complete notion of the right to comnunication. The "Report on Heans
of Enabling Active Participation in the Communication Procesa and Analysis
of the Right to Communicate", presented at the nineteenth session of the
UNESCO General Conference at Nairobi, in 1976, declared that : "In the past,
the role of communication in human society was seen esaentlally &S to inform
and influeilce people. It is now being proposed that ccnmnunication should be
understood as a procese of social interaction through a balanced exchange
of information and exp~rience . This shift in perception implies the
predominauce of dialogue over monologue. The aim is to achieve a system of
horizontal couununication based upon an equitable distribution of resources
and facilities enabling all peraons to send as well as to receive messages".

A redefinition of the role of comnunication has certain implications

at both the local and international level. In the past few years, questioning
of the unequal exchange of inf ormation between developed and developing
countries has led to the notion of the "free flow of information", which
has subsequently given rise to yet another notion that of the "free and
balanced flow of information". Efforts are being made to oppose the one-way
flow of cOIDllluoication between privileged and relatively deprived countries
and .. to achieve a more equitable accesa and participati~n in tha world flow
of news and media progrannnes. This highlights the significant role of
communication in the shaping of the new economic and social order.

On the other hand, the considerable advance in coD1Dunication technology

has opened up new horizons for public access and participation. New
technologies range from satellites which allow ditect broadcasting, to huge
geographical areas which might otharwise not have been covered by terrestral
transmtters, to "small media" such as VTR, cassettes, etc., which promise
new opportunities for conmunity expression.

- 3 -
 The progresa of communication technology is therefore bound up with a
global sociological growth, moving towards new modes of exchange, partici-
pation and dialogue.

C. Context of Participatory Conununication in Latin Ame rica

The preliminary report on the First Latin American Seminar on Partici-

patory Conununication (CIESPAL, Quito, 1978) states : participatory comm11ni-
cation as a process can only be understood through an analysis of the mass
media as an integral part of the economic and political system of Latin
America. For this reason the mass media throughout the contincnL are generalJy
found in the hands of hegemonic groups whose interests they serve. Either
as an expression of the interests of the State, or of economic groups, the
mass media fulfill well-defined ideological functions, such as

- Reproduction, reinforcement and legitimacy of thc social relations of

production
Imposition of the interests of the dominant classes over tl1osc of the
dominated.

As a consequence of these functions, the mass media produce the following

ideological-political effects, among others :

- Alienation and loss of cultural identity

- Internalization of cultural tendencies and value systems ;
- Consumerism, which reduces the possibilities of self-expression and
participation , resulting in political unawareness.

The participantR in the CIESPAL seminar considered an analysis of the mass

media useful because of their influence on other systems. However, the
above generalizations are also valid far these other systems. Severa!
papers presented at this seminar reflect the vital need far political
and structural change so as to make participatory cormnunication a reality
(Daz Bordenave, Pinto, Jouet, etc). It is only meaningful to speak of
participation if it is first understood as participation in political
power. The underlying reality of Latn America is one of marginality
rather than participation. The social and economic structures of the

- 4 -
continent are shaped by economic dependency. According to D{az Bordenave,
the role of communication is dctermined by the model of society, where
devclopment is only an option that a society takes at a particular histo-
rical moment. If a society is stratified and dominated by powerful and
opprnssive elites, it will have a different type of conununication than
that in a society that is more equal and open to social innovation and
the co-npc ra t: ion n l' a 1 L. The marginal i ty theor is ts basically see a
situation of non-participation of the majority groups of society, a
situation that is produced by an economic system incapable of offering
permanent productive employment and which is extended to other spheres
of social life (O'Sullivan, 1978).

D. Marginality and Participation

Ovcr the past decade an alternative interpretation of the complex

phenomena of devclopment and un<lerdevelopment has taken shape in the writings
of a number of scholars from Latn America and elsewhere. These scholars
have rejected the "Diffusion Model" of development and replaced it with
the "Dependency Model". The diffusion model theorists argued that progress
would be achieved through the spread of modernity to backward, archaic,
and traditional areas. Through the diffusion of technology and capital,
these areas would inevitably evolve from a traditional society towards
a modern State.

Far the Diffusion philosophers, communication and mass media play a

very significant role in development. First, communication plays a role
in providing people with information about a need for change, about what
changes can occur, about available alt~rnatives, about the methods and
means and bene:its of adopting new ideas and new ways of doing things.
Secondly, conununication is essential to engender acceptance of change,
to the decisiGn procesa which leads to acceptance of change, by trying
out a new seed, or changing diet, or utilizing birth control devices.
Thirdly, communcation. can play an essential role in the teaching oi
skills necessary to make the accepted changes successful.

5 -
 The dependency model theorists argue that rather than being a force
for development, foreign penetration, technology and information have
created underdevelopment. The dependency model of Latn American under-
development identifies contemporary Latin American social and economic
structures ahaped by economic dependency. Dependency theorists (Prebisch,
1959 Dos Santos, 1970 Quijano 1971 Cardoso 1972 Chilcote 1974,etc,)
hypothesize that contemporary underdevelopment was created~ Ironically,
the very same procesa (the expansion of capitali3m) through which the now
developed countries progressed brought about the underdevelopment of many
parte of Latin America.

The theory of marginality is an outgrowth of the dependency theory. It

has evolved through three stages or perspectives over the past decade.
Essentially it refers to a eituation in which large sections of a country's
population do not participate in the social, cultural, economic and poli-
tical activities of that country.

The concept of marginality (Germani, 1973 Quijano and Weffort, 1973)

was first used to clacrihe the situation of people living in bad housing
conditions in the urban areas of large cities. These descriptions included
characteristics both of the areas as such, and of the people who lived
there. The marginal sections of the cities were generally without basic
services, Their residente were unemployed or underemployed, and consequently
they had insufficient income to have access to the goods and services
considered mnimum for maintaining an acceptable standard of living. More-
over, this population was without education, without participation in the
political processes, without access to markets, and finally, was outside
the productive procesa. In synthesis, here was one section of society,
not integrated into national life, which contrasted with another sector,
the integrated sector, whose productiva activity was evidently reflected in
ita standard of living and which actively participated in the social,
cultural, economic and political life of society. In view of the problema
raised by industrialization, both state and prvate institutions initiated
actions aimed at incorporating or integrating the marginal sector into the
productive sector of society. To prepare them for this new role, people in

- 6 -
the marginal sector woultl receive the 1iecls1:111ry education anti socia L H1?rviceH
so that eventually they woultl become functionnl for thc system.

Germani (1973) intlicates that the concept o[ marginality has its

roots in thrce processes :
a) the procesa of extending the rights of man according to the
principies of equality and liberty, as well as an increasing
"consciousness" or awareness (from scientific studies anti the
production of ideologies) of violations of these principles ;
b) the procesa of cultural contact and the conceptualization of
cultural marginality generated by anthropologists ;
c) the procesa of increasing' modernization and its extension out-
side the West, and even within traditional regions of the West
itself.

If this is so, then the first conceptualization of marginality, which

has been briefly described above, gave rise to the idea that the dis-
possessed groups have a right to enjoy the products of society (whether
these be goods, services, cultural values, or any other result of moderni-
zation), and that the dominant groups must co-operate so that this change
is possible through a gradual extension of these products. The evident
underlying attitude is paternalistic, and the approach is one of giving
to the needy. However, the treatment of marginality and the processes of
marginalization in recent year8 suggest a much deeper problem. Sociolo-
gists who have studied this problem in Latn America suggest that the
rootR of marginality are in the economic sphere and specifically in the
system of production. Marginality here is considered as a chronic, self-
sustaining phenomenon caused by the incapacity of the system to provide
productive employment for increasing numuers of the labour force. Far
Anibal Quijano, far example,

"Marginality is a concept which explains the indirect,

fragmented and unstable level of involvement in which
growing segmenta of ~he population find themselves
within the means of production that the capitalist
system currently assumes as dominant, and consequently
some segmenta of society fulfill the role of the
dominated sector within the overall social system".
(Quijano, 1973).

- 7 -
 Curl.oe !.osea indicatoo that "the idea of oconom.c marginn J.i ty
upp11 the pGaaibility of tho 1uppresaion of thc functlon without any
significant raadjustmente within thc cconom.c eyetem" (Losen, 1975).
Function is horo understood as tho poeitione occupied in thc oconomic
proceues in which the marginalizcd popul.ation is involvcd, and Les ea
is referring specifically to peoplc cmployed in eervicc industries euch
as small shopowners, etreet vendors, etc.

In Latin America this phenomenon of economic marginality ie viewed by

eociologists who follow different ideological currente as a produce of
the national econcmic eysteme that are eubjected to a hegemonic industrialized
nucleu& whose technological level is indisoriminately traneferred to certain
Latin American industrial processes ; hence the use of concepta such as
"marginal polea", "dominated nucleus 1', (Quijano), "centre countriee and
periphery countries" (Sunkel and Paz, 1970). At first sight, theee concepta,
which reveal polarized positione, seem to indicate the existence of a double
system, two parallel systems in fact. When the problem is analysed in
greater depth, as several authors have done, it can be seen that these
polarized systems are in fact two parte of just one system. De Janury (1975)
writes :

"The concepta of periphery and marginality are essential

for the construction of a theory of underdevelopment. The
periphery is that portian of economic epace which is
characterized by backward technology , with consequent
low levels of remuneration of the labour force and/or by
advanced technology with little capacity to absorb the
mase of the population into the modern sector, These
excese hU111an maeses created by the very procese of economic
growth are the "marginal&". They can be found in all
sector& of the economy and are functionally related to
the modern sector which needs them to face the conditions
under which growth occurs in the periphery. In agricul-
ture they are the f armers who loose control of the means
of production because they cannot withstand the competitive
pressure of the modern sector, or the farmers who see their
economic conditions deteriorate as they retain traditional
production techniques ; but in both cases they cannot
suff iciently proletarianize themselves to compensate for
the income loes because they cannot be absorbed or fully

- 8 -
 t11111tninuil hy thu modorn auctor. I1wvltnbly, thoy join
thu rankH of m11rginalt1 11H mlnifundi.Htao .'.lnd eubeietencc
farmoro, llH do many of thc now ontrnnto into thc labour
forco who cLlllnot f l.nd employmunt .in tho modcrn eoctor.

In contraot to thu poriphcrnl economice, thc central

cconomi.oe havu a .. ready had their industrial revolution and
are characterizud by an intonsivu rato of capital accumu-
lation and thc potential of making full ueo of their labour
force with modero tcchnology. Marginal populations aleo
uxist in central economies wlwro they constitute the "lumpen-
proletariat", but the phenomenon there is quantitatively
differcnt as they consist principally of dispersed groups
of fractionally unemployed (in the procesa of structural
change), of temporarily unemployed (in cyclical phases of
economic adjustment}, or of unernployables (for physical or
psychological reasons). Ip peripheral economies they
constitute large maeses who have been objer.tively created
by the dynamics of accumulation".

Thus the idea that marginality of one sector is a characteristic

phenomenon of that same system, far frorn being a temporary situation,
is in fact self-s"~~atning and even increasing. According to Germani,
from this point on there are significant differences between the va-
rious currents of thought, although probably the differences can be
reduced to a single one. Those thinkers who attribute the cause of
marginality to "the basic form assurned by the social-economic order"
state that the marginality procese is necessary to sustain this
same order, thus explaining the persistence of the phenomenon. On the
other hand, those who see the cause of marginality in "specific
orientations of economic and social policies" explain its permanent
presence not at a structural but rather at an operative level ; from
which they concluJe, at least theoretically, that marginality could
be eliminated by just adopting different social and economic policies
withaut changing the basic structure of society.

Until now, attention has been concentrated on the economic sector

and the causes of marginality attributed to it ; however, it is desi-
rable to analyse a tendency that, according to Germani, situates the
causes in the cultural order, and to reflect on the premises of this
tendency. The idea of "cultural superimposition" is central to this
perspective.

- 9 -
Marginality ie cauecd by thc domination of onc cultural group ovcr
another, and it ie eclf-perpctuating. It includcs clcpcnclcncc on techno-
logy, concepte, and art forme, and scvcrcly limite thc possibility of
new formo of inetitutional clcvelopmcnt emerging. In these societies
thcrefore there are not only the clase differences found in societies
with a homogeneoue culture, but aleo cultural differencee (values,
social etructuree, etc.). For this line of thought one sector is
marginalized becauee they are members of the dominated culture. Their
marginality is evident in the fact that they live in the most backward
geographical areae of the countriee concerned. Cloeely aesociated
with the poetulate of cultural super impoeition is the poetulate at the
peychological and eocial-peychological level.

Authore with different experi'encee have referred to the fact

that cultural groupe in an inferior situation seem to internalize their
position of inferiority in the social structure, even going so far as to
underestimate themeelvee. Frantz Fanon (1963), in hie writings about
Algerian eociety, obeerved this phenomenon among colonized black people.
An inferiority complex is created which conditions people's vision of
the world, particularly when this vision is influenced by ethnic and
racial differences. However, it is more than a perspective for seeing
and underetanding one's role in society ; it is aleo a mechanism that
tends to perpetuate that eame aituation of inferiority. This idea is
supported by Germani who, on presenting the view of those who impute the
causes of marginality to peychological reaeons, states :

"Situations of status inferiority, and the systematic

denial of one's righte generally cause a negative
evaluation of one's pereonality, loes of identity
and other psychological effects which, as has been
preven, can contribute beyond structural change to
the perpetuation of marginality".

In synthesis, marginality is basically a situation of non-

participation f or certain groups of the population that is produced
by an economic system incapable of offering them permanent productive
employment and which extends to the other spheres of social life.

- 10 -
Marginality in u chronic and growing eituation (and herein liee a
critical coneideration for participatory communication) j it is not
n question of u structure independent of the global syetem rather
it is an integral part of it to such nn extent that it would appear to
be, under certain perepectives, a prerequisite far maintaining the
present system : capitalism, dependency, and underdevelopment.

The ideology of participatory connnunication related to the

emergence of a new paradigm of development was central to the dis-
cussione at the CIESPAL seminar on the theme of participatory
conununication. Jouet states : "the ideology of participatory
communication waa also related to the emergence of a new paradigm
of development based on aelf-reliance and on the redistribution of
resources between social groupa, the urban and the rural areas,
regions and sexes". The central concept evident in the preliminary
report of this seminar reflecta a similar theme : the need to see
participatory communication both as a means and an end : as a means
towards a new model of development based on man's complete freedom
frCJIU all forma of marginality and exploitation, and as an end because
participatory conununication can have very positive effects not only in
creating a new awareness of one's condition, but also at the psycholo-
gical and aocial-psychological levels.

In the preliminary report from the seminar, participatory

conununication atrategies in Latn America are seen as social processes
in which groups with common interests promote conmunication strategies
that can be used as instrumenta for social change. These same strate-
giea can alao he used as a force for cultural re-identification. For
thia reason t:hey are a popular pedagogy, an education procesa that
starts with an analysis of reality, rejects the ideology of the elite
classea and motivates the unpriviledged population. towards concentrated
action for social change.

One conclusion is evident here : participatory communication

must operate from a praxis : first a reflection about the reality of

- 11 -
the cormnunication procese as it existe today, ita idcological,
cultural, eocial-economic aepccte, as a atarting point for trying
to reeiet the current procese of cultural penetration, and secondly,
a series of actions forming part of a popular pedagogy that will help
promete group solidarity, and concerted action for social change.

- 12 -
 II

THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL AID AGENCIES IN PROMOTING

PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT

A. An Overview of the Problem

The present interest in participatory communication, graas-roots

participation, etc. has its origin in criticism of vertical c011111unication
systems as well as in the emergence of a new model of development. After
the Second Development Decade it seems appropriate to take stock of where
the study and practice of development have taken us and where they have
gone wrong. That they have gone wrong is obvious from the meager resulta
of efforts to improve the. quality of life in most Third World countries,
and fran attempts in advanced capitalist countries to improving the
living conditions of their less-advantaged sectors (Havens, 1972). The
growing gap between rich and poor nations is mirrored by a similar gap
between the well~off and the impoverished peoples within most less
developed countriee. An urgent task of the Third Development Decade is
to find new approaches, including an effort to achieve greater participation
in development tasks by those who are supposed to benefit from them.

As a result of accumulated experience and as a matter of policy,

development agencies, international donor agencies, national planning
councils, etc., are making participation of the poor majority in the
development procesa a central concern in their programnes, if not
always yet in their activities. A growing number of consultants' reporta,
internal memoranda and academic studies carry a conmon message to
development planners and practitioners : the involvement of the poor
in making decisions on development efforts which af fect them , the
contribution.of their resources to development activities, and the
assurance that they will in fact benefit from acticns intended to help

- 13 -
them, are eaaential to development. More ~nd more activities have been
undertaken to bolster agencies' capacity to promote participation in
their development programmea. Studies have been commissioned, consultant
firma have been engaged to design development projects to ensure more
participation by the rural poor, the urban marginals, etc., workshops
on participation have been conducted in many places, and severa! field
atudiea are at preaent being supported.

Yet with all these initiatives of the international aid agencies,

with all these projects, one senaes a disturbing fact : there is little
agreement on what participation is or on what its basic dimensiona are.
There has been a rush to encourage participation and to develop analy-
tical techniques for measuring it, but, as will be seen later, (a) no
consistent definitions are being used ; (b) participation is often
treated very abstractly, tending to leave concrete reality behind
(c) efforts at explanation deal with causes of participation more than
with its consequences, and finally, (d) very few analyses of actual
experiences with participatory approaches to development can be found,
because many studies simply assumed that participation was a "good"
thing and thus neglected the need for more empirical work on the subject.

In the case of Latin America, two other factora are of vital

importance

(i) according to. D{az Bordenave and others, the role of

communication in a society is determined by the model on
which that society operates, ~nd development is only an
option that it takes at a particular historical moment. A
highly stratified society dominated by powerful and oppressive
elites, will obviously have a different model of connnunica-
tion than a more democratic society open to social innovation
and the participation of all. This fact alone suggests the
difficulty of promoting grass-roots participation at a social
level if it is denied at a political level.

(ii) As a consequence, groups working at the grass-roots level are

often afraid to define participatory communication explcitly

- 14 -
 or to write reporta on their experiences (as will be seen
later, many reporta were written after the project in question
was closed down),

Thus, the lack of conceptual modela, of good analysis of actual

experiences, and the tendency to remain at an abstract level, have
deeper causes than are evident at first sight. The final report of the
UNESCO Meeting on SelfManagement, Access and Participation in Communi-
cation (Belgrade, 1977) states :

If then media are a reflection of society, does it

follow that the introdu~tion of a community media
approach -that is, a participatory and democratic
use of media to diagnose and attempt a solution to
the problema defined by local communities themselves-
entails an attempt to change the socio-political
infrastructure ?

There was general agreement on the fact that

effective participation, and even more, self"'1Danage-
ment, implies a basic transformation of cODDDunications
and media policy, and in many societies probably
could not be envisaged without sorne fundamental social
changes, and that these would not occur through media
alone or at a single level.

Access and participation are basically linked to society's institu-

tions, media, technology or the lack of it, or dependence on it. This
fact must be constantly re-stated as we start a review of some of the
research findings on this topic,

B. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organi?.ation (UNESCO)

UNESCO has long taken an active interest in comnunication methods.

to promote grasa roots participation for endogenous development. It
has carried out a number of experimental projects concerned with partici-
pation in camnunication media in developing countries (one of these

- 15 -
projects will be evaluated in this report). It has aleo helped in
the development of the rural presa in several developing countries
it has published a monograph on th~ experiences of access and par-
ticipation in the developed world (1) and a study on the adaptation
of cunununity media fonns to developing countries (2). Participation
figures prominently in the studies undertaken by the'UNESCO Commission far
the Study of Communication Problems.

The Belgrade meeting (1977) on Self-Management, Access and Par-

ticipation in Communication is of particular importance because of
the issues involved and the effort to give a conceptual definition of
"access", "participation" and "self-management". We reproduce here
a summary of these definitions :

(a) Access

By definition, access nfera the ability of the public to come

closer to communication systems, and in a concrete form it can
be related to two levels : of choice and feedback.
At the LEVEL OF CHOICE, access includes :

(i) the individual right to communication materials,

the right to listen to or view desired programmes,
when a person wants, where he/she wants ;

(ii) the availability of a wider range of materials,

the choice of which is made by the public
instead of being imposed by production
organizations (informational and educational
materials, services and alternative programmes)

(iii) the transmission of materiala requested by the public.

(1) "Technology and Acceaa Connnunication Media" -

Reporta and Papera on Maaa Communicationa n75,
Pars, 1975.
(2) F. Berrigan . (ed.). Access : Some Western Modela of Connnunity
Media, Unesco, Paria 1977.

- 16 -
 At the lcvel of FEEDBACK, access implies
(i) the interaction between producers and receivers
of messages ;
(ii) dir~ct participation by the audience during the

transmission of progranunes ;
(iii) the right to conunent and criticize
(iv) means of keeping in touch with procedures,
administrators and the managers of communication
organizations.

(b) Particifation
Participation implies the involvement of the public in production
and in the management of communication systems. It also operates at
dif ferent levels -of production, decision-making and planning.

At the level of PRODUCTION, participation implies

(i) unrestricted opportunities for the public

(individuals or groups) to produce programmes
and have access to prof essional help ;
(ii) making available to the public technical
facilities and production resources (i.e.
a more advanced level of participation).

At the DECISION-MAKING level, participation implies

involvement of the public in

(i) progranming : content and duration of the

programmes ; scheduling of programnes ;
(ii) the management, administration and financing
of communication organizations.

At the PLANNING level, participation comprises the right

of the public to contribute to :
(i) the formulation of plana and policies for

- 17 -
 conmunication enterpriaea : definition of
objectivea, principlea of management and
f uture programming
(ii) the formulation of national, regional and local
communication plana.

In summary, acceaa refers to the ~ of the media for public

aervice. lt may be defined in terma of the opportunitiea available
to the public to chooae varied and relevant prograunnea, and to have
a meana of feedback to tranamit ita reactiona and demanda to production
organizationa.

Participation impliea a high.er level of public involvement in

communication syatems. It includes the involvement of the public in
the production procesa, and aleo in the management and planning of
communication systems.

(e) Self-Management
Participation may infer no more than representation and consul-
tation of the public in decision-making. On the other hand, self-
management is the most advanced forro of participation. In this case,
the public exercises the power of decision-making within conmunication
enterprises, and is aleo fully involved in the formulation of cormnuni-
cation policies and plans.

The Belgrade meeting heard reporta on sane grasa roots develop-

ment ef forts from Latn America ; cassette recorders used in the Radio
Tabacundo project in Ecuador, cassette fortmls for farm co-operatives
in Uruguay, the "pila project" in Guatemala, multi-media projects in
Villa El Salvador, Lima, a rural newspaper project in the Lajedo region
of Brazil "campesino" encounters in Ecuador, etc.

Many of these projects were original in their use of cormnunication

- 18 -
media strategies and fairly efficicnt in that thcy were carried out
with minimal finnncial resources, achieved sorne temporary objective
within a short perlad of tlmo and wore roasonably effective at the local
level. Nonetheless the meeting recognized the difficulties of achieving
access and participation on a broader level, and on a national level
in developing countries, Many reasons for this conclusion have already
been mentioned, so we will only summarize them in four categories here
quoted from the report of the Belgrade meeting.

Structural Lonstraints : include principally the lack of conununication.

infrastructure, including broadcast transmission and receiving facilities,
shortago of trained personnel, anil geographical difficulties of size,
terrain, etc.

Socio-cultural constraints : include the use of a dominant language,

often that of the former colonizers, which disenfranchises ethnic groups
of the use of their own languages. Illiteracy similarly excludes large
nroportions of rural people from access to print media.

Political and ideological constraints : these include the strategies

which place national integration befare regional and local expression
and identity, or which exclude the expression of views opposed to the
governmen t.

lnstitutional constraints are imposed by the view media professionals

have of their role , a view conditioned by training courses shaped by
the needs of developed countries, As noted in the previous section,
even in developecl countries the asswnptions of some media
professionals militate against participation an elitist attitude is
even less appropr.i.ate when communication is used far developrnent.

Finally, all too often, "the experimenta (of participatory

comrnunication) remain communication models controlled by the centre
which sets up their form, their scope, and their duration. Thus in
developing countries the public is not encouraged to participate in

- 19 -
the management and policy formulation of national communication
organizations~ (Quoted in the report af the Belgrade Meeting).

UNESCO,through its support of grass-roots communication strate-

gie6, is g1v1ng an important mpetus to the creation of a new development
and camnunicution strategy. Yet, we must conclude that many of these
proposals seem distant from the reality of Latn America, where partici-
pation and self-management on a reasonably extensive scale have not been
contemplated.

c. Agency far International Development (AID)

AID is under a U.S. Congressional Mandate to promote broad participa-

tion in development, particularly by the poor in the less-developed
countries (u.s. Foreign Assistance Act, 1973). Several factora obviously
influenced this agency's decision to concentrate greater efforts on grasa
roots participation : the meagre resulta of the First Development Decade
and the almost universal criticism of the Diffusionist Development
Model, as reported in numerous studies, including : Gotsch (1972),
Griffin (1973), Chenery et al. (1974), Adelman (1975), and many others.
The role of conmunication in development, as expressed by Schramm (1963)
and others, seemed exaggerated andalrnost. unreal when compared with the
reality of national comnunication policies in many Third World countries.
The passing of the dominant paradigm (Rogers, 1974 and others) also
indicated the passing of the mechanistic view of canmunication as
meosage-transmission based on a "top-clown" vertical structure. The role
of communication , which was essentially to inform and influence people,
was being revised and then proposed as a procesa of social interaction,
through a balanced exchange of information and experience.

Recent research studies have underscored the importance of grass-

roots participation. A 16-country comparative analysis of Asan expe-
riences by the Rural Development Comnittee at Cornell University (1974)
found that national success, measured in terms of both agricultura!
productivity and social welfare actions, strongly correlated with effec-
tive systems of participatory local organizations linking rural comnunities

- 20 -
to national centres of deciaion-making and implementation. A aecond
and more significant study waa undertaken by Development Alternatives,
Inc. and funded by AID (1975). A total of 36 rural development projects
in 11 African and Latn American countriea ahowed a clear connexion
between project auccess and small-farmer involvement in deciaion-
making and resource conunitment to the project.

Among the factora cited by Development Alternatives as significant

in the success of a project was a variable called "local action". Local
action was defined as small-farmer involvernent and resource co::rmitment.
Local action significantly increased as a result of

- an effective two-way communication between small

farmers and the project staff ;
- functioning local organizations controlled in
large part by small farmers themselves.

The authors conclude : "getting the benefits of development to

the small rural producer in a manner which can become self-sustaining will
require fundamental changes in che project identification, design and imple-
mentation procedures of AID P.:ad other externa! assistance agencies",

The above-inentioned studies and others caused AID to examine more

closely the question of participation in rural development, and in 1976,
the Rural Development Committee (RDC) at Cornell University received
a grant "to o~ganize a study of what would most fruitfully be regarded
as participation with respect to rural development efforts such as
might be assisted by AID, and . to consider analytical approaches
and indicators that might be used by mission personnel to measure the
participation component of their projects".

The first resulta of RDC'swork include a Working Bibliography on

the theme of "Participation at the Local Level". Several thousand
studies, papera, publications,dissertations etc. are listed under such
tapies as :

- 21 -
 (11) .1 ocnl orKm1:I :r.11t::f 011 ;
(b) locuJ luudurnh.l.p nml o 1 J l:l!H
(e) puU.t:ic11J. purt1.dp11tion;
(d) po.l.it ical foc tore uff uc tiug par t idp11t ion
(u) social factora uffucting participution
(f) inetitutionul contuxL of participution
(g) parLi.cipation and conununity duvclopmcnt aud, finully,

two sections on "I~rench Sources on Participation" and "Spanish Sourcus

on Participation".

It is interesting to examine sorne of the comments offered by the

RDC on their review of participation literatura from Latn America :

"Much of the participation literature is underpinned

with ideologi~al argumente on the need far profound
political change. These are seen as essential to
end dependency and backwardness. Perhaps most
important is the need far peasants to seize politi-
cal power at the grasa roots through broad-based
local organizations. Since those who make these
argumente hold that political power is tightly linked
to control over land, the link with land reform
is quite clear. Among the articles urging formation
of successful ef f orts at broad-based popular partici-
pation are those by Affonso, Barraclough, and Clifford.

A frequently discussed tapie is the creation of

conmunity enterprises, such as the group farming
organizations established on reformed land in Chile
and Peru. These connnunity enterprises are self-
managed units of production whose members make equal
capital contribution. They are seen as a means "to
facilitate the integration of the campesino into a
comprehensive humanitariAn program11 (Arauja). That
is, they are central to a development strategy in
which the campesino takes an active rather than a
passive role, and in which peasant participation
in benefit.s is a guiding principle. Those writing
on community enterprises include a nmnber of
scientists and researchers linked to the Inter-American
lnstitute for Agricultural Sciences (IICA).

- 22 -
'l'ho 11pprouch urloptod or tho Juotl.Hcution gJ.von
for cummun.I. ty ontorpr i1:1oa vur J.oo. In eorno of tho
writingo, tho nutiun uf pu11Hunt purticipation io baood
011 tho llHBUlnptlon of Chrhtiun oolidarity uml
cooporat lon, rathur than tho matur.alist notione of
Murxiem or interuet group theory. From this point
of viuw, pacticipution can be achieved through trui-
ning and good wi 11, to uchicve greater well being
for the wholo of mankind. Typical of auch approachoe
are the worke of DESAL (Chile), CEDIAL (Colombia),
und in general thoee devoted to "popular promot{on"
and "corrmunity development".
Other writers perceive the connnunity enterprise
approach differently, as a means to guarantee peasant
autonomy and self-reliance (Quirz, Barraclough, etc.).
These writers stress ~he need for popular participation
in rural organizations in a large number if peasants
are to benefit from agrarian reform. The economic
advantages of community enterprises, which are well
documented by Oliart and ArauJo, derive mainly from
their greater technical efficiency, lower fixed
costa, and economies of scale. Perhaps more important
than the economic advantages, however, is the democra-
tic control of the local economy, by meana of which
they operate , and serve as a mechanism for exerting
political influence on the central government.

Another concept f ound in much of the literature on

f!_l'ticipaci&n campesina is "marginality". This
refers generally to the lack of participation by
such groups as the urban poor, landleaa laborera,
and Indian communities. The pro~lem with much of
this literature is that it focuses on marginality
in the society as a whole, rather than givi.ng
explicit treatment of particular marginal groups
in the rural sector. Articles on marginality have
been written by a number of social scientists with
quite different philosophical backgrounds.

Another body of literature discusses popular

participation as a means of genetating community
support for government development projects.
Typical of this view are documenta from ECLA, for
instance, its Latn American sminar on the Role
of Comnunity Developmtnt in the Acceleration of
Economic and Social Development. The assumption
of ten is that individual& and communities are naturally
resistant to change and must be won over to project
goals and activities. As one component in what is
generally a top-down development strategy, active

- 23 -
 purtic.pntion of thc ruruJ. populati.on i.e oeecntlll
'to mooting projcct targcte.

In eunmary, Latn American litcraturc on rural

participntion focuece on thc idoological and
political implicatione of participation, although
differcnt authore, of courec, cvaluatc thcec
implicatione differently. Advocatcs of partici-
pation are often critical of paet agrarian reforme
and eee co-operative graesroot organizations, likc
the cormnunity enterpriee, as eseental f or improving
the productivty and welfare of the rural majority.
In thie view , the abeence of effectve peaeant
organzation permite contnuaton of the related
processes of marginalzaton, dependency and
backwardness. Deapite the strong advocacy of
popular participation in writings on Latn American
development, theoretical assertions are eeldom
backed up with strong empirical evidencen.

A second publication by RDC is "Rural Development Participation

Concepta and Measures for Project Design, Implementation and Evalua-
tion". This lengthy monograph provides a conceptual framework for
the analysis of participation in a variety of settings. It avoids
ideological argumente and no reference is made to the chronic situa-
tion of marginality and exploitation of millions of landless labourere,
urban poor, etc.. The authors explicitly state that they do not
propase a "theory of participation", and their perspective reste
somewhere between a "theoretical treatise on participation and an
operatonal scheme ready to be applied straightaway by develo~ment
practitioners and acholara".

The RDC sees participation in regard to rural development as

including people's involvement in decision"11aking processes about
what would be done and how ; their involvement in implementing
programmes and deciaions by contributing various resources or co-
operating in apecific organizations or activities ; their sharing
in the benef its of development programnes ; and/or their involvement
in efforta to evaluate such progrmmnes. Four kinds of participation
are thus suggested :

- 24 -
 (a) docioion"1naking ;
(b) implomontation
(e) bonefits ;
(d) evaluation.
As an interesting reference point, Chantran (1970) suggests six levels
of participation and involvement 1
(a) definition of objectives
(b) prepar~tion of policies ;
(e) preparation far action plana
(d) decisions
(e) execution of progrmmnes; and
(f) control and evaluation.

The RDC report then proceeds to operationalize each of the

above-mentioned kinds of participation :

Who participates : local residente ; local leaders ; goverrunent

personnel ; foreign personnel.
In what do they participate : decision-making ; implementation ;
benefits and evaluation, and how each of these affects the participation
of those who participate.
The How of participation mpetus f or participation incentives
organizational pattern extent of participation ; effectiveness of
participation.
No direct reference is made to communication strategies for
grassroots participation. It appears that each stage of the parti-
cipatory procesa will have ita own strategy or strategies. Moreover
the overall attitudes supporting the participatory approach will
make the choice of canmunication strategies relatively easy.

The RDC report uses the basic guidelines proposed for an

analysis of the Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU), an
integrated development project in Ethiopia. They conclude by sta-
ting that the framework "might have helped identify important activities
to analyse and critical junctions for participation throughout the

- 25 -
procese from planning to cvnluation". Despitc RDC'a uncnsincaa with
ideological argumente and thc necd for profound political chungo,
they recognize that the taek enviromnent in CADU waa in many waye
unf avourable to broader participation. CADU wae 'no more than anothcr
isolated rural development project (agricultural extension mainly)
aupported by international funding that never touched the core of the
structural problem of rural Ethiopian society.

While the Cornell Rural Development Committee is the "launching

base" of many of AID's rural development initiatives, it would be
incorrect to limit the Agency's involvement to a single institution.
AID progrBD1Des include rural development, health, nutrition, family
planning, education,etc. In the following chapter we wil1 review
several AID-supported projects in Latin America (non-formal education
in Ecuador, use of audio cassettes in Guatemala, integrated rural
development in Nicar~gua,etc).

The Institute for Communication Research at Stanford University

is prest'!ntly working on an AID contract "communication strategies
for development". This study includes an examination of the different
strategies used in each of the development fields : health, education,
family planning, etc. Preliminary reporte suggest relati~ely little
use is made of gra11-roots approaches outside of some family planning
initiatives, Most communication is limited to information transmission,
particularly in the area of rural development.

D. Other International Agencies

The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
sponsored an Asian Regional Workshop in India as early as 1973 on
people's participation in development. Reporta were received fran
at least seven different Asan countries, all detailing efforts at
promoting participatory grass-roots development with some appropriate
conmunication strategies. Though this report is generally concerned

- 26 -
with theoretical issucs (modela of sclf-dcvclopment contrasted with
thc conununity devclopment modcl, etc.), there is sorne discussion about
'lcadership and thc Chango Agent'. No direct refcrence is madc to
appr.opriatc conununication strategics, cither nter-personal, groups
or masa media.

11
FAO has aleo published a booklet on The Participation of
Local Volunteers in Rural Development in Africa" which deals with
thP. relationship of voluntary service programmes and the role of
volunteers vis-l-vis the cormnunity. Most of the programmes are of a
very local nature (consciousness-raising and initiative in Ujamaa
Villages in Tanzania, far example)', and there is little use of any
coonnunication strategy outside of nter-personal relationships.

FAO has also undertaken some participatory communication

projects in Latn America, and two of these will be reviewed in the
following chapter
(a) Conmunication and Agrarian Reform in Chile, and
(b) Audiovisual Training in Campesino Development.

The International Development.Research Center (head office in canada,

Latn America Regional Office in Bogot) has a tradition of ge~uine
interest in supporting and encouraging participatory development processes.
This centre parti.cipates in the cassette form project in Uruguay,
and is at present carrying out, in co-operati~n with the Asociacidn
Latinoamericana de Escuelas Radiofnicas CALER), a three-year
institutional study of the organizational and functional modele of
radio-schools operating in Latn America. At present there are
35 such schools in 16 different countries. The Directora of these
schools determined two main objectives for this study, namely :
(a) analysis of different strategies f or the combined use of both
nter-personal and technical communication media ; and
(b) existence and analysis of the structures that would facilitate
the participation of the popular sector in the activity of the radio-
schools, and would aleo change the "top-down" communication model

- 27 -
cxiating in many of theae achoola nnd genernte more pnrticipntion nt evcry
leve!.

The International Council for Adult Education has a apccial

"Participatory Reaearch Project" that includea worldng papera un
projecta throughout the world, an annotated bibliography and the publi-
cation of participatory developrnent experience in their journal
Convergence.

E. Concluaion
Participatory communication and strategiea for graaa-roota
developrnent, have becorne irnportant iaaues in the prograrmnea of the
international aid agencies. Thia is partly due to the intellectual
role of Unesco, to a U.S. Congreasional Mandate (in the case of AID),
to the knowledge that the resulta of the First Developrnent Decade
have indeed been very poor, and to the resulta of sorne empirical research
which have led to a serious questioning of the dorninant communication
paradigm. However, it is also due in part to sorne srnall, almost
insignificant projects that achieved sorne measure of success befare they
were closed or suppressed by the institutional power structure, or
befare the international aid agency terminated its support. Arnong those
who have played a significant role we can mention Paulo Freire and
his many publications, including Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Few have
done so much to awaken our consciousness to the true dimension of
human development. For many, bis writings made clear the connexion
between the struggle for a more equitable share of the world's
resources and the necessary place of human liberation in that struggle.
His call for the power of learning to serve the working classes, to
provide a means of clase articulation and expression, to give a voice
to the poor majority of mankind, has enriched us all, and has changed
the very concept of development. The "passing of the dominant paradigm"
has not been due to the fact that a better paradigm has been developed,
but rather that courageous and dedicated people working in the Third

- 28 -
World have torn it to sl1reds and hove obliged us all to search for a
better model.

There are sorne who fcel that concepta such as consciousness-

raising are bcing reduced to the trappings of an innocuous training
technique. The marginalized are still being 'educated and developed'
by outsi<lers. This danger also exista far the grass-roots connnunica-
tion strategies, particularly if they are reduced to a series of
techniques, combinations of media, technological and folk, ar passive,
participation in answering 'felt needs' qu~stionnaires, etc., while the
overall system remains untouched.

The next chapter will review many of the more genuine attempts
at participatory connnunication in development in Latn America.
Sorne of the projects may seem rather insignificant at first reading.
However, their true value can only be appreciated if they are
understood as part of a genuine contribution to the battle for
material development, human realization an~ spiritual liberation.

- 29 -
 III

COMMUNICATION AND GRASS-ROOTS DEVELOPMF.NT IN LATIN AMERICA

A. Overview of Connnunication Strategies for Development

The Role of Research
The constant theme of the VNESCO meeting (Belgrade, 1977) was that
the practica! realization of access and participaton by the public
dependa on the overall socio-political, ideological and economic context
of each country, which determines in.the main its national communication
policy. This policy is rarely clearly formulated, and is often implicit
and inconsistent. In general, the Latin American countries do not have
explicit communication policies, nor do they have a clearly defined
planned approach to communication. Sorne initial efforts at the development
of comnunication plana have been recordad in Peru, Brazil, Colombia and
Argentina. UNESCO (1972) produced a basic guidance document for the
formulation of overall conmunication polfcies for national development,
but in general the situation still remains without significant change.
(UNESCO, Report of the Meeting of Experta on Connnunication Policies and
Planning, Paris, France, 1972).

The lack of comprehensive comnunication policies at a national

level has not hindered the growth of CQD!ID.unication and research throughout
Latin America. According to Beltran (1'974), communication rP.search entered
a period of significant and sustained activity in Latin America in the
early sixties. Although exact figures for the period are not available,
estimates suggest that approximately one thousand studies, and perhaps
many more, have been carried out ; this figure excludes undisclosed
advertising and public opinion research. Beltran and others (1976)
prepared a bibliography of more than four hundred studies on the theme
of "COD111unication for Rural Development in Latn America". This same
author recently prepared (1978) a bibliography of over two hundred

- 30 -
studics on the sipgle thcmc of "Radio-Schools in Latin America".
Stimulatetl by UNESCO, the Latin American Center far Higher Learning
in Jour.nalism (CIESPAL, Quito) is operating as a connnunication
rescarch tlocumentation centre for the regan.

Several researchers have evaluated the general content of

communication research in Latn America (Beltran, D{az Bordenave,
Cuellar, and others), subject areas, theoretical orientation,
methods, etc . The general criticism of many of these studies is
that they subscribe indiscriminately and markedly to theoretical
modela mostly imported from the United States of America. The
researchers ha Je lacked a conceptual framework of their own, and
1

have applied U.S. communication research achernes -the effects orientation

and the functions orientation (Mattelart, 1970, Zires de Janks,
1973). According to Beltran (1976) :

The ef fects-orientation influence is readily

detectable in scanning pertinent L.itin American
literature. For instance, the classical Lasswellian
paradigm can be promptly identifted in many of the
studies listed by Mer!no Ut~~~as (1974).
Critizing the Lasswell model's tendency to ignore
ideological factora, Assman (1974) noted that
"so-called content analysis, morphology and content,
public opinion, perceiving audience, etc. predominate",
whereas "analysis of the media-related socio-
economic situation and political-ideological analysis
are the exception". Lasswell 's model has been
perceived as having "left aside the study of the
communicator of the prevailing mase connnunication
system and the object of communication" (Zires de
Janks, 1973). The implication here is that the
model placed a high emphasis on the receiver so
that research could determine how political or
commercial persua~ion was effectively exerted on
him.

The classical model of the diffusion of in'novations is also very

easily verifiable in the Latn American research literature on adoption

- 31 -
of agricultura! technology, and evcn today continues to dominatc most
of the rural developmcnt reeearch literature. The most serious thco-
retical problem with all of thcae modele, spccifics Felstehausen (1971)
"resulte from an aeeumption that communication playa an indcpcndent
role in affecting social changes and behaviour without an adequatc test
of euch an aeeumption in developing countries, or elsewherc, far that
matter". Beltran concludes : "The obvioue conclusion is that~ indeed,
Latn American communication research has been, and is yet, considerably
dominated by alen conceptual modela, stellllling chief ly from the United
Statee of America".

It is not, however, sufficient to remain at the level of criticism,

and indeed in Latn America, sorne remedia! stepe are being taken to
reformulate communication research activities in terma of the realities
of the regan. In the last five years or so, a new breed of researchers
has emerged in two types of context : countries where substantial and
accelerated sociostructural change has been attempted, and countries
where a specific European sc.ientific influence is getting a firm foothold.

In the first case, Marxist methodology has apparently been used in

redirecting the inquiry. In the second, semiology has provided inspira-
tion along with the methods of structural semantics and the sociology
of knowledge. In several cases, the two new influences can be seen
together.

~ changing development paradigm has brought forth new thinking

from severa! Christian scholars and to-day the influence of the new
"Theology of Liberation" (Gutierrez, 1971), is aleo very manifest in
Latn America. For Gutierrez the term "development" conveys a
pejorative connotation and is gradually being replaced by the term
"liberation". To substitute the term "liberation" for "development"
is to engage in what Freire calls "cultural action for freedom".
Liberation implies the suppression of elitism by the people who
assume control over their own change procese. lt implies a deliberate

- 32 -
atrasa on aclf-tlevelopment as oppoaetl to aitl, foreign invcatment an<l
tcchnical asaiatancc, thc mobilizing of collective energice around
a value which is the motor of all aucccsaful social revolutiona, hope,
Hope was aleo expresacd by the Latn American Catholic Biahopa in
their historie meeting at Medellin, Colombia (1968) and it was stated
in the concluaiona of their meeting ''our people aspire to their
liberation and their growth in hwnanity through the incorporation and
participation of all sectors of society in a personalizad procesa".

Thua, for sorne the notion of peasant participation is based on

Christian solidarity and co-operation, while for others, it resta more
in the materialiatic concepta of Marxiam ar intereat group theory.
The comrnon element in most writinga is a critical appraiaal of past
development efforts and the need to find new solutions, based on justice
and equality.

B. Conmunication Methodology and Research in Participatory

Development Strategies

As stated earlier, participatory communication seems to be a product

of various converging factora rooted in criticism of the vertical
communication systema, emergence of a new development paradigm, and the
growth of critical consciousness that attempts to change the socio-
political and economic infrastructure of society. Many of the efforts
to date to promote participatory comrnunication have led to people losing
their employment, experts dismissed, projects stopped, funding not
renewed, imprisorunent and evcn death. Nevertheless, there are and have
been severa! endeavours that can justifiably be identified as grass-
roots participation for an endogenous development procesa. Some docu-
mentation exists on several of these projects,while on others no written
reporta exist. However, the authors of the present report are familiar
with many of these projects and will incorporate this information whenever
relevan t.

- 33 -
 This report does not prctend to be an evaluation of t11esc projccts,
rather ita purpose is to describe them and to present sorne rcscarch
findings in a systematic way. We will confine ourselves to projects
that reached sorne level of operation, excluding theoretical modela and
philoeophic discusson on proposed modela for participatory development
(this material is lsted in the bibliography),

At a later stage, a second report will evaluate sorne selected

on-gong projects in Latn America in this area, and an effort will
be made to study the communication problema of rural and sub-urban
communites, concentratng on the social, cultural and economic
factora which influence in general their conununication patterns and
on the participation of grass-roots populations in endogenous development.
At the same time, we propase to evaluate and compare the use of
specific communication strategies, such as cassettes, popular theatre,
rural presa, etc., in these projects. Thus, while examining specific
p~ojects, we will keep in mind the accumulated experience'in the
use of the camnunication strategy involved and sorne of the consequences
at a local level.

c. Participatory Developuient Projects

l. ARGENTINA Teleclubs - Popular Education via Television (Educaci6n

Popular por la Televisin - una experiencia de teleclubes)

A six-month experiment with taleclubs was undertaken in the city

of Santa Fe in Argentina. The purpose of these teleclubs was to support
a special series of broadcasts, under the slogan of "we are all
responsible", (todos somos responsables), as part of a health campaign
in sane of the poorer sections of the city. The campaign was directed
against the disease-carrying insects generally f ound in unsanitary
conditions and poor housing. The experiment included eight television
broadcasts, and contained several aspects that were highly participatory.

- 34 -
Objectives :
l. to develop a means that would facilitate and increase popular participation
in local television ;
2. to foster a spirit of solidarity in the selected marginal areas of the city,
where this experience was undertaken ;
3. to train people in a style of progranuning that is not customary on television.

The experiment was carried out during the latter part of 1973 and the be-
ginning of 1974. Preliminary motivation work was undertaken through schools and
local Barrio conunittees. The first three television progranunes were in fact
recorded in homes in thc Barrios, but after the VTR equipment failed, it was
necessary to transfer production to a local television station.

Every effort was made to promote interest in the project. Local authorities
gave their support, the Ministry of Health offered its facilities and the local
conunittees motivated the Barrio residente far the project. Viewing groups were
estnblished in the Barrios, and these became the basis far the teleclubs. In
arder to establish a teleclub group, every effort was made to find a local
natural leader, and a home where the owners were willing to allow the meetings
to take place. Not every home had television, so far this and other reasons,
the idea of a group meeting was considered very important. Local people from
the Barrio were the actors in the television broadcasts which were dramatized
far greater effect.

In general, according to the promoters of this experiment, the final

results can be considered satisfactory. Each teleclub had an average atten-
dance of between eight and fifteen people per meeting. Discussion was generally
very lively. The health authorities learned a great deal from observing and
participating with the local people in trying to find solutions to serious
health problems. Peoples' creativity was constantly evident, as often the
television signal did not reach the Barrio homes where the groups were meeting,
and so the people had to find solutions far this further problem. Each
teleclub co-ordinator had a weekly guide far directing the discussion, and
every effort was made to end on a practical and positive note. The purpose
of the experiment was not just to create teleclubs, but to use these as
a means far changing he:ilth habits and living conditions. In view of :.h'- real

- JS -
povort.:y of moet: of t.:hu pooplo J:l.vlnH :l.n t.:huau mnrHinnl HlH.'.l:oru, tlw
uxl st.:m1cu of d:l.eoaoo-c11r.rying i.nHuct.:IJ ie p11rtly duo to thio povurty,
but iu alao has a st.:rong uducnt:i.on compo11L!t1t, and i.t wos huru thnt
tho toloclube ruado thoir groatoet contribution.

2. BOLIVIA The Pcaeant Educator (El Campesino Educador)

"A radio of the peaeants, by thc pensante and for the pcasante".
This is the ideal that Gerace (1972) propoece in his evaluation of a
small radio stati~n, owncd by the Catholic Church, and opcrating in
the eastern part of Bolivia. Thie etation had been opcrating for
several years as a 'cultural radio station', and hada dAily one hour
progranune of literacy training, elementrry mathematics, agricultural and
health information. However, it was clearly evident to the organizers
that the programme had no significant impact on the local peasant
population, so it wae decided to replace it with a new format, entitled
popular promotion (Promocin Popular). This new progrannne would have
ita base in the local popular organizations such as trade unions,
co-operatives, rural schools, and adult education groups.

Popular Promotion developed the f ollowing strategy :

l. Regular iadio announcements, posters, personal meetings,

all suggesting the idea of study groups in the communities
to deal with eome of the local problema
2. Regular radio programmes for discussion of local problema and
suggesting appropriate solutions ;
3. Transmission on the radio of letters, visits and recorded
interviews with people involved in grass-roots participation ;
4. Daily visite to rural communities by prornoters to rneet with
the people, collect letters, make interviews ;
5. All the collected material was then used for generating new

- 36 -
 pr0Rru111110H on tho rodio,

Aftor t1ovur11l munthe' oporntion Goracu ruport:e 1

l. 'l'ho poaeante etudy t:hoir own roa.1.~ty, and arrivo at a eor.ce of

problema without thc dircction of outeide agente, though at times
the help of thc rural tcachcre is ueoful in thie procese.

2. The peaeante proceed to etudy alternative eolutione, and thue make

a f iret effort to avoid thc paternalietic and directed approach so
common in rural development,

3. New leaders are becoming evident in sane communitiee, and the

reeulting crisis in eome cases has led to a change of leadere,

4. A co-operative epirit is born, and the peaeanta atart aolving aome

of their own problema, (portable water, roada, aanitation).

5. Horizontal canmunication is eatablished, people begin to eec that

othere ehare the same problema and that the aolution muat come
from the local people. The peaeante aleo begin to aee that they can be
effective and see the need for local organizationa.

This same idea of the 'Peasant Educator' appeara again in Gerace

(1978) in an experiment by Quechua-speaking Indiana in Cochabamba, Bolivia,
This new project is being supported by the Holivian Ministry of
Education. The methodology is basically the same, though with the
difference that the peasants intervene at two different moments in
the procese : first, in informal interviews held between them and the
project personnel, and secondly, once the project personnel have determined
the themes for the programnes, these opinions are then transmitted
by radio.

Gerace notes that the project is not operating .at present as it has

- 37 -
not boon poHdblo to ohtuln f:undlnH from tlll' Ml.ni.t1try of IMucntl 011 to
go to tho rural arouo to undurt11ke tho pro l l.mi n11ry n~scrnrch lnter to
Holoct tho thamos ami tlwn roturn ngai.n to tlw rurnl nrt!1H1 nncl rucord
thc programmos.

3. BHAZIJ, Conununication for Animation und Socinl Change_

Movomont of Haeic Education
(Movimonto da Educa~ao de Base, MEB)

In 1959, the Diocese of Natal, in the State of Rio Grande do Norte

attempted to repeat on a very small acole the Radio Sutatenza, (Colombia)
experience, and with a 250-watt transmitter and fi.fty receivers set up a
number of radio-schools. The experiment succeeded, and the National Bishops
Conference of Brazil became interested. in the possibility of extending the
system to other etates.

In 1960, President Janio Quadros granted funde for an expansion of what

was then called the 'Movimento de Educa~ao de Base' through a contract between
the Ministry of Education and the Catholic Bishops Conference.

The President's decision was based on general awareness of the extremely

backward condition of the peasants in the Brazilian North-East, and the
demonstrated potential of radio to disseminate information and education over
a vast area.

Objectives

From its inception, MEB established goals that were different from those
set by the Radio Sutatenza experience in Colombia Consciousness-raising
of the people was the main objective rather than literacy or fundamental
education alone. Consciousness-raising was defined as "the discovery of
self and the dignity of the human being together with the realization that
an individual, in co-operative association with other individuals, can render
the world more human.

- 38 -
 Anothor objocti.vo of tho programuo waa 'poll.ticlzution', clof:inod
os "conacious participotion in thc cleciaiona relavont to the life
of tho natl.on , with cloar undcratonding thot thc local problema cannot
be aolvcd without toking into occount thc more global fromework of
nationol ond world problema".

Conaciouaneas-roiaing ond politicization moved MEB toward1 another

concept, nomely, 'popular animation', defined aa : "a procees of
people'e pranotion through their own action, moving gradually to the
etructuring of conmunities which are more and more participativa and
aware of their own voluee, reeourcea and neede, and more and more capable
of eolving their own problema".

Activities
MEB' s work was initially aimed at mobilizing and educating the
peaeants of the Brazilian North-Eaet, who were illiterate and poor
and had very little acceee to rural schoole and health facilities.
A National Of fice was later set up in Ro de Janeiro to organize
new educational oyetems, eelect and tran personnel for the local teams,
and co-ordinate all administrativa work. At its peak,:Min. had 400
full-time ealaried workers in the system and in the national office,
as many as 5,000 radio schools, and between 1962 and 1964 as many as
400,000 peaeants learned to read and write. Between 1964 and 1970,
however, the number of new literates dropped to only 100,000. We must
remember that the new government which took power in 1964 did not
encourage campesino participation in social changa, and this explain1
the reduction of radio schools in 1970 to only 2,000.

MEB had a decentralized organization, composed of the following

elements
(a) the regional education system
(b) the local team ;
(e) the animators ;
(d) the national team.

- 39 -
Tho Hos!_o,nnl IMucat:ion Sy~~~!!! :

Whonevor MEB operato<l i.n t:hc Nort:l.-Enst:, it always workod with thc
Bishop of the local dioceso. Because of this arrangement, thc basic
work unit was the educacional syetem, normally covering ono dioccsc.
Each eystem included many radio schools, Thc local team wae ueually
located at the site of tho diocese nnd employed the bishop's own radto
atation (MEB did not own any station),

The Local Team

The local team was composed of people -in general, teachers and
eventually trained social workers- chosen by the bishop and trained
by MEB. The team planned, executed and co-ordinated the area's basic
education progranme. Usually located at the most developed centre of
the region, the team travclled constantly Lnto the surrounding area
to supervise the activities of the radio schools in the communities,

The Animators
When the local team visited the rural conununities for the first
time, they explained MEB to the population and asked them to nominate
candi.dates for the role of 'animators', To ensure that the candi.dates
they chose could fulfil this role in a non-paternalistic spirit, the
local team usually spent several days in these communitics. The
animators were brought to a central location for training and then
returned to their c011D11unities to start work, Radio provided motivation
and support for the animators' efforts, but was not the central axis
of their activities. MEB's basic work developed through the dialogue
between the local team and the rural communities,

The National Team :

Working under the direct supervision of a National Executive Council
consisting of ni.ne bishops appointed by the Catholic Bishops Conference
and the Ministry of Education, the team at MEB's national office was in
charge of organizing new systems, selecting and training personnel for
the local teams, and co-ordinating all administrative work.

- 40 -
 According to McAnuny (1973), Mlm bcgan by attempting to define
what thc problcm of undcrdevolopmcnt wae and not by simply stating thc
positivo goale of devclopment. "Lcaclcrs of thie project fclt that
unleee they and their radio-school studente could understand the problem
or causes of underdevelopment, efforts at social change would be frus-
trated and eymptome, not causes, would be attacked".

The main leeeone from the MEB experience are :

(a) if campesino mobilization for social change is the goal, radio
cannot be the main element of the connnunication strategy, but it
can provide a ueefu~ supportive tool far encouraging local dialogue
(b) for a popular animation movement, the general political situation
of the country and particularly the encouragement of ita leaders
are critical factora ; oppoeition from these sources will only
lead to the dieadvantage of the campesinos whom the movement set
out to benefit(Das Bordenave, 1977).

4. BRAZIL : Lajedo Region, Rural Newspaper

In 1967, in the Lajedo region in the State of Pernambuco, the

Rural Extension service, ANCARPE, launched a monthly newspaper to
promete by the region's population, the accepcance of agricultural, health,
and nutrition practices. Group reading and discussion led by locally
chosen co-ordinators were intended to overcome the problem of 80 %
illiteracy, and open questions inviting suggestions for the next month's
contente and solutione to problema were a feature of each issue.

Objectivee :
l. to motvate the population to accept agricultural, health
and nutrition practicee ;
2. to encourage more participation of the people in the varioue
aesociations existing at the county. level as well as in the
training activities planned by ANCARPE i

- 41 -
 J. to motivate poople to takc an active part in t:hc devclopment
procese.

Activities :
The project comprised the following steps :

l. A monthly newspaper would be preparad by the Extension Service,

focusing its content on the activities being developed by ANCARPE
in the state of Pernambuco. Open questions would aleo be included,
such as : Which are the main local problema ? Which is the order
of priority of these problema ? How can they be solved by the
communities themselves ? What topics would they suggest to be
included in the next issue of the newspaper ? The newspaper would
aleo contain items aiming at learling the people to reflect on
their own situation, their responsibility as comnunity members,
their local socio~economic reality, with a view to developing
new positive aspirations and attitudes,

2. The local leaders identified by the Extension Service would be

asked to support the project and appoint 'co.-ordinators' (to be
trained by the Extension Service) who would moderate the discussion
and 'debate following group reading of the newspaper.

J. The resulte of the group debat~s would then be presented to the

community as a whole, so that the people would consider their own
participation in the solutions proposed. Whenever matters needed
the intervention of the local authorities, they were presented to
them in a meeting held every two weeks. For problema transcending
the limite of the county, monthly meetings with regional authorities
would be scheduled.

4. The Extension Agents would work with the community in the execu-
tion of the solutions decided,

.. 42 ..


))Jring thc two yeare' oporation of the projcct a new experiencc

in the traditional exteneion approach wae evidenced, and because of the
signif icance of thie project, we will try and report herc the attitudc~

and activities of the different groups involved in it,

a) Authoritiee :
Befare launching the project, meetinge were held with municipal
and regional authorities to inform them of the objectives and methods
and to eecure their approval and co-operation, It was then observed
that, although they accepted the plan as a group, individually they
voiced objections as to the lose of political prestige they would
suffer as a result of the organization of the communities and their
ac~uisition of power.
The actual behaviour of the authorities was one of publicly
declaring their support for the project and demagogically promising
more assistance than they could deliver, Privately, however, they
criticized the project for its political implications, In fact, the
county meeti~gs, scheduled for every two weeks, were held at 4<>-day
intervals.

The authorities did manage to attend a total of 22 conmunity

meetings during the life of the project. It was hoped to hold a
training session for them but no funde were available, an important
failure, as was evident later.

b) The Leaders :

All the leaders identified by ANCARPE were actually invited to

a meeting by means of circular letters and personal visite. At the
same time that visite were made to the leaders, two radio stations
broadcast messages encouraging the population to participate in the
group debates to be initiated. The loudspeakers in the weekly fairs
were aleo used, as well as ANCARPE's mobile unit.

The meetings with the leaders were organizad and directed by

the Extension .Agente, who insisted on the following points :

- 43
 l. The resulte of thc newspnpcr-rcuding groups must be dcbutcd
every two weeks with the county nuthoritics.

2. Everyone in the comrnunity must be reachcd, including litcrate

and illiterate adulta, women, girls and boye, Homogeneous
groups should be forrned with the above sectors of the population.

3. The co-ordinators of the groups in each cornrnunity should elect

a representative who would meet with regional ar state autho-
ri ties. (Later this was modified so that one representative
far each community was appointed).

4. The co-ordinators far the groups should be chosen by the leaders

among the literate and be ad.equately presented to the groups.

s. A general meeting with the whole co11U11unity should be held every month.

e) Group Co-ordinators
The co-ordinators were trained on how to use the newspaper during
the meetings as well as on how to stimulate debate and decision-tnaking
by means of group techniques.

d) Extension Agente :
ANCARPE agents gave their assistance to the communities whenever
the solution proposed touched on agricultura! aspects. Although the
small farmers (lees than 6 hectares), whose number was high in Lajedo
received the greatest benefit from the Lajedo Project, the agente
aleo worked with bigger farmers (above 50 hectares), using a different
methodology which included technical training courses in each county
and assistance in obtaining supervised bank loans. Six of these courses
were held, each with 25 participante.

An omission in those courses, much regretted later, was the failure

to explain the objectives and methods of the Lajedo Project. Inasmuch as

- 44 -
l:hc big farrnors were members of thc powcr sl:ruct:urc of tho committeos,
thcy should havo clearly undcrel:ood t:he trua natura of the Projcct. As
it was, thcy ondcd up accusing project act:ivities of being 'subversivo'
and 'communistic' to thc extenl: thal: the Bishop of Garanhuns had to be
invitad to visil: thc regan and declare his wholehearted support to the
project.

Resulta

Lajedo proved that more effective exten~ion programnes were possible

with the participation of the rural conununities, The evidence : the
resulta obtained in farm production were three times superior to those
expected far the Lajedo regan. In addition, the region's functional
literacy and medical assistance progranmes were significantly accelerated
because of the impression caused by SUDENE (the regional development
agency for the NorthEast)and by the claims presented by the community
leaders at the regional meetings.

The Lajedo Project, however, went through periods of acute frustra-

tion when the group co-ordinators and the p~ople realizad that the
majority of the problema they identified, particularly those most deeply
felt, were not being solved despite the promises of the authorities.
Their frustration was partially alleviated by a series of training
courses in which increased awareness of the socio-economic constraints
of the situation was achieved as well as a positivo attitude towards
the problema causing frustration. Around 180 members of the various
community groups were exposed to this 'coming down' effort. The result
was a desire far better organized action on the part of the conmunity
representativos,

In 1968, the demands of o~her communities far participation brought

pressure to bear on ANCARPE to expand the Lajedo Project to other regions
in the state. Thus, two other regions -Garanhuns and Salgueiro- were
added after intensive training of the extension agente and community leaders.

- 45 -
 Tlw very succcss of thc projcct causad its eventual diecontinuation.
When the constant pressurc of tho communitice for moro govcrnmcnt attcntion
to thoir problema rcached statc lcvcl, therc wae a movcmcnt among politiciane
and bureaucrats to put an end to thc Lajcdo movement. In 1969, thc projoct
ceaeed.

5. CHILE : Communication and Aararian Reform

Starting in 1964, under the Fre government, and accelerated under
the Allende government, the Chilean Agrarian Reform called for the training
of thousands of campesinos who had changed their roles as peones (workers)
for a more active and responsible role as members of farmer co-operatives.
The institution charged with this task'was the Instituto de Capacitacfon
e Investigacin en Reforma Agraria (ICIRA), which counted with the help of the
FAO.

ICIRA established the Integrated Audio-visual Unit to handle co111nuni-

cation elements of the training programne, which was expected to be massive,
participative and based on a high degree of illiteracy in the clientele.

Objectives :

The basic objective of the project was to provide the organs of the
agricultural sector with an instrument of massive education. More specif i-
cally, the audio-visual unit had to :
(a) Gather up-to-date knowledge of the psycho-social reality of the
campesinos ;
(b) Study the feasibility of a self-expression and participation
system ;
(e) Investigate the most adequate co11DDunication technology f or
communication and training ;
(d) Research the possible effects of audio-visual communication
in the campesino environment;

- 46 ...
 (e) Seek wnys uf training thc campcsi.nos in comnunication
tcchnicues adcquatc to their own conditions and of training the
governmcnt off icers and teclmicians in communication techniques.

Activi ties :

Started in the second semester of 1971, the project recruited ita

personnel in 1972,an<l completad ita physical installations in Curacavi in
August 1973.

Just when the experimental approach was being launched in the f ield,
a new govermnent took over and teqninated the project, So, the experiment
did not last more than one week. Some of ita ideas, however, constitute an
advance in communication thinking in Latn America, and are at present
being applied in the Peruvian project already discussed in this report
(Audio-visual C011DJ1unication in Campesino Training), Because of their
innovative style it is perhaps appropriate to discuss some of these media
componente in greater depth.

The main innovation was caJled the'Circuito Lanzadera de Televisin'

Educativa (CLTVE) and consisted of a systematic attempt to obtain campesino
participation and feedback in the use of video-tape for training. The
idea was to subject any 'training material unit' preparad at the Santiago
centre to systematic ~onfrontation with the clientela, to incorporate the
reactions of the audience into the training unit until the practice being
taught possessed not only technical correctness but also cultural and
social adequacy.

The work proceeded as follows

Once the Santiago centre had preparad a specific training unit, the
eight recording play back teams would take it into the field and collect
the feedback by recording the discussions with the campesinos on video-
tape. This feedback was sent to the Centre and there incorporated in the

- 47 -
inicial t:raining unit. 'J.'lw improvcd uni.t rcturncd to thc ffold, tugcthcr
with a now truining unit for whi.ch rcuction& worc 1rnught. In this wuy,
oach training soaaion includcd two t:hinga : un cxumplc of campesino
participation and un cvaluation of t:hc resulta of t:hat: part:icipat:ion.

The Integrutcd Audio-visual Unit: aleo planned t:o use filma , film-
atrips, radio, publications and silkscreen pnsters, Based on the belief
thBt participation of the campesinos in decision""'ffiaking requirea rdiaing
their connnunication ability, ICIRA included in ita 1.971-72 Communication
Plan the creation of newspapera or other forma of graphic expreasion such
as posters, leafleta, etc., to be produced within the operational areas of
the Campesino Communal Councila.

This required the organization of 'journalistic workshops' in which the

campesinos would be trained. The ablest of them would be t:rained further
to become 'ca111pesino journalists' , in charge of everything related to
activation, communication and propaganda. ICIRA also planned to establish
an Information Centre, as a sort of data bank or documentation centre,
which would include not only technical data, but also information on rural
conflicts, campesino organizationa, agencies' programmea and projecta,
content of public media, etc. In arder to organize thia centre a compre-
hensive list of the main information sourcea waa prepared,

As mentioned earlier, thia programme was never re~lly implemented, so

it is impossible to assesa how far popular participation would have proceeded.
The experiment in Peru, though under quite different political and economic
conditions, propases to put into operation many of the ideas nurtured in
ICIRA. It is only hoped that the traditional 'diffusioniat approach' will
effectively give way to the 'participatory approach' in rural development.

6. CHILE Sentence (Sentencia)

More than 25,000 people from the poorest sectors of Santiabo, Chile,
have been receiving in 1976-1977 practical legal instruction three times

- 48 -
wuukly i.n thc form of radio dramatizations. Devclopud by 'la Univursidacl
Catlica du Chile' ('l'hu Catholi.c Univcrsity of Chile). "Sentencia" fcaturos an
ultruietic group of lawycrs who run a legal clinic in a poorar ncighborhood
in tha city. 'fhe legal conflicte dramatizad in tha programme are eelecr:cd
on the basis of how frequcntly they are axperienced among the urJ>an poor.
Episodeb explain waye that citizens can have accees to the country's judi-
cial system and include information on the legal rights of citizens in cases
euch as marriaga among minore without parental consent, child support,
abortion, rape, traffic accidente, robbery, and clearing a criminal record.

Integral to the project are audience eurveys conducted every two months
by a research team. The surveys prvida the necessary feedback through
which prograrnme writers are able to modify scripts and fulfill progranune
objectives. One audience eurvey, for example, revealed that the objective
of preeenting a realietic view of the lege.l eyetem wae not being m.et becauee
the radio lawyt?rs' eucceesful defense of heir poor cliente raieed false
expectations of juetice. Recently, in 1978, la Universidad Catolica
began producing a one half hour television series aleo entitled "Sentencia".
The television series uses the same themas and dramatic format as the radio
programme.

There is little written information about the effectiveness of

"Sentencia", beyond the fact that it has a good audience both as a radio and
as a television programme. People are interested in getting legal advice,
though accomplishing the long range objective of the programme,.namely
effective legal assistance to the very poor, requires a much more sophisti-
cated procese.

7. COLOMBIA Basic Adult Education - Laubach Centre (Educacin

Bsica de Adultos, CLEBA).

The CLEBA educational objective reads as follows "to facilitate the

conditions so that the popular sector can take over its own education,

- 49 -
t:hrough 11 growiug 11ml 1wLl.vu 1111rl..lcl.p11Ll.011 111 1vury momunl. ol t.hiu
procu1u1 prulJ111l1111ry ulud.l.uu, t1u.luct.lo11 of ohjt1ct1vot1, trnl1wtjo11 of
contunl, propor11Ll.on uf oducut ..ionuJ 111ulur111J11, p11r1:i.cl.p11t:i1111 i11 holh
tho t:ouchl.ng und t1vuh111tl.011 ;>rocu1:11:1uu".

A pupor proaontod by tlu.i ro1wurch co-ordinnt.:or of t:ld.1:1 project ut

t:lw rocont C:IESPAL aominur on participa tory cmm1unicat ion out.: linos uame
of tito etepe thut havo boon taken to mako t.:hiu idoal u roality. The
centre has undcrtakcn atudics in two cuffce-growing departmcnt.:s of
Colombia with a vicw to preparing a dictionary of aemantics of thc
popular language of thc rural pcoplo, From here, it: is proposed to
incorporate local people in both the design and thc writing of all the
educational materials. The literacy and post-literacy guidebooks have
been pmepared jointly by the Centre and the local people, and the basis
for the post-literacy programne is a local newspaper also produced in
part by the peasants. CLEBA providee the economic resources far this
newspaper, and has initiated newspaper forums to help people read it.
The purpose of this activity is not just to learn to read, but rather
to learn to interpret the contenta and compare them with the actual
reality bcing experienced by the peasants.

No information is available on the extent of this project and no

evaluation material has been published.

8. COL(J{BIA Friendship Groups (Grupos de Amistad)

A constant problem of all rural extension programmes is how to extend

the reach of the agricultura! technicians. In some cases they work with
individual farmers, and obviously, their impact is severely limited.
By and la~ge, the technicians tend to work with the bigger farmers, who
have both the resources and the education to profit by the agricultura!
technology proposed by the agronomist. In other cases, the agronomists
and technicians work with groups of farmers, organized either by location
or by cultivation. Another model is perhaps the 'Benor' approach, though

- 50 -
0H1:1011t:J.11J.ly th.lu l.H 11 uophlut:l.cut:od modul. of tho t:rud:l.donul oxt:onol.oni.ut
11ppr.ouch to r.11r11.I duvolopmont.

'l'ho coffuu-growor1:1 11e1:1ociotion of Golombln oleo oporatue un ext:u11HJ011

progrwnmo, but !:hu haal.c wor.king group1:1 ut: tho local J.ovol aro 'friondehip
groupe'. As tho numo i.mp lioa, thoeo aru groupa of farmcre uni tcd by
sornebond of fr.icndehip, who r~cnc togcthcr to rccoivo information, coureoe
and oxporimcntal demonHtrul:ions of coffou-growing.

There ore eevural advantagce to the friendship groupe as the baeic

primary working groups thc people know one another and are often mernbere
of the sama farnily, they havc long-established direct comrnunication and
feel easy in onu anothcr's cornpany. They work together, abare each other's
problema and conetantly discues them. Consequently the extension worker
is able to <liscues and operate easily with the group, and the learning
procese advances rapidly. Once the friendship group is trained, the
technician can leave it on ita own and move on to other groups. Studies
among the groups in Colombia show that there is a higher level of
learning, and greater facility for attitude change leading to changes in
coffee-growing methods, among the friendship groupe than among ordinar.y
groups.

9. F.CUADOR Communication Network Amon Campesinos

With the eupport of UNESCO, and within the framework of the Andean
Mieeion operations, Ecuador started in November 1971 an experiment in
the use of mase conmunication as the co-ordinating factor of a regional
development plan.

Objectives :

The general objective of the project was to promote a gradual in-

crease in th~ participation of campesinos in the eolution of problema
affecting their living conditions. The epecific objectives were :

- 51 -
 J., l. o ovuluu tu t:lw ron .I covur11gu of tlw co1111111111.i c11t:1011 chunnu .1 u
1md mu thud u prov .i.ouu ly 11 t: :11 :i. :wd J 11 Ecuudor hy tlw Ami uun
M.Bfl:i.on'e commun:i.Ly clovolopmunL progrnmmuu;

2, Lo doeign eyet:umo ond moclurni1:1111fl aimod 111: incru111d.ng tho f low

of communication runong thu mombora uf tlw rurn.I cummuni. t.:iou,
botwoon thc1:1c und thc groupe working ae promotun1 uf dcvclupmcnt 1
and bctwecn thc firet two euctore and thc rcet of thc populntion;

J, to etudy thc poeeibility and euiLubility of ficld dcvelopmcnt

pereonncl ueing the Quechua languagc (inetead uf Spanieh) and
aleo of making all publicatione and visual aiJe bilingual
(vernacular and Spanieh) ;

4. to deeign prograr.nnee aimed at i~forming the nonIndian eectore

of the population about the caueca, origine, and characterietice
of the problema affecting thc campesino population of the Sierra,
through utilization of various conununication media, euch as radio,
televieion, presa, filme , etc.
11

5, to deeign conmunication syeteme which would efficiently channel

the information originating in the campesino conmunitiee, so
aR to increaee the chance of it reaching its destination at
the top and receiving attention and response in the most direct
and expedite way

6, to propase a system for the organization and financing of the

diffueion mechanisms described above.

The aim of the project was to use horizontal communication at the

graes-roots level to integrate the campesinos in a common development
task, starting with their active participation in the planning of it.
It was hoped that this horizontal communication system between and among

- 52 -
cho communl tluu woul.d ovoncual l.y hro11k down Cho 11xc.l11e:l.vol.y vort.1.cu.I ami
p11r11J.lt1I. 1:on11111111i.c11ti.on hutwuon uuch co111nunl.cy ami tlw govurnmont,

Acti.vltl.l!R :

'l'hc projl!cl promutud tho holding of popular aaoombl.ice in the commu-

ni ti os, 11C which the ido u was prc1:1entcd of urgani zing Conuni t te e e for
Conmunicution, Informution and Rcl11tio11HhpH. Each CoDlllittec would be
compoecd of five membors, rcproeonting roepectively the politico-
udminietrative authority, thc educati.onal 1:1ystem, the handicraft profession,
the hcalth sector and the predominant conunercial activity of the aren.
Each representativo was to be sel~cted by an assembly of his conscituency.
The teachers, for instance, elected their spokeoman,the merchante theire,
and thus the conunittee was considered representativo of the main forces
of the community.
The role of the Committee would be :

(a) to establish contact with the other coDlllittees in the region , to deter-
mine the problema affecting the local population yet needing actione
of wider regional acope ;

(b) to prepare reporta about key problema of the respective area in

the sectors of agriculture, health, field workere' wagee, roade and
transportation, communication channels, and markets for products ;

(c) to serve as permanent links between the community and the Andean
Mission, so as to give their support to any development action
jointly decided ;

(d) to collaborate with the technicians so as to maintain the realism

and adequacy of the projects and to obtainlocal support for
their execution.

During the early part of 1972, all the 54 Parro9uias (parishes) of

Esmeralda Province, the site of the experiment, organized their connnittees

- 53 -
ami eont in thoir reporte. 'l'hu i.nfornwt.on wae organizod by llw Projuct,
ami ite tochniciane preparad planning propoeal.a which woro eont back to
tho cOD1Bittooe for diecueeion. Thu goal wae to hol.d Campesino Encountore
in tho capital, Quito, to which thu govornmont planncre would bu invitod,
eo ne to generate regional plano baeed on tho oxproeeod and organizad noode
of the campeeinoe.

The Campesino Encountc.~rs were held between July and August of 1972,
Almoet 500 campesinos participated in the meetinge, divided into groupe
by province. Each provincial group formed etudy commiesions to examine
the varioue subjects : health, education, handicraf ts and small industries,
agricultura and marketing. Each commission worked on the basis of the
doctanent preparad by the technicians. The Ministries sent their own
techniciane to the Encounters to work side by side with the campesinos
and the project technicians.
The final goal was to hold a Campesino Congress immediately after
the Encounters, in order to integrate all the conclusions in a balanced
plan.

The Campesino Congress was held from 6 to 9 August 1972, During

the four days, one representative from each corqmittee, elected by the
campesinos at the previous meeting, together with the technicians, examined
the problema, determined priorities and formulated recommendations, A
General Planning Commission emerged from the Congress which would function
as a permanent link between the Andean Misslon , the Ptoject and the
parish conunittees.

Shortly after the Congress, the Government requested UNESCO to

recall the foreign expert directing the Project, Thus, after one year of
operation, the experiment ended.

10. ECUADOR : Non~Formal Education Experiment

The project grew out of chance contacte in 1970 between several

- 54 -
mumbore nf: tlw Contur for lnlornationnl. Educnt:i.on Lit tho Unl.voraity of
Mne1:11H~h111wttH (U. S.A.) 11ncl 1.1 group of Ecuadoroun1:1 11nd AmC'ricans in thc
USAID mlseion in Quito. Informal. diecus1:1i.ons rovculod that both groupe
werc dietrnti.eficd wi.th tho focus on thu formal oducutionul system as
the major vehi.cle for human dovclopment. Aftcr u 1:1urvey of non .. formal
oducutional offort1:1 in tl10 country and much discussion with prvate and
govarnment pooplo concorned in Ecuarlor, a contract was signed with the
Univcrsity of Massachusctts to begin cxperimenting with non-formal
education approachcs in specific localities of rural Ecuador. The contract
lasted from 1972 till 1975.

Objectives :

The general objective was to use education as a tool far social

rather than perscnal or economic development. The project involved
experimentation in the use of non-formal education tools, methodologies
and delivery systems.

The specific objectives were :

l. to explore mechanisms to extend educational opportunity to those
at present outside the formal educational system ;

2. to create materials and processes which would operationalize sorne

emerging tenets of non-formal education

3. to experiment with delivery systems that would reach remate

campesino communities in rural Ecuador ;

4. to provide learning materials for rural communities with the purpose

of inculcating literacy, numeracy and communication skills ;

5. to explore the formation of a complementary national network of

learning facilities and the training of educational workers in
rural Ecuador

6. to conceptualize and consolidate the activities of the project in a

- 55 -
 documontod form that wouJ.d 1.mublc .ntcrc1:1tcd .im.1Li.Lulionu tu leurn
from ite activit.ue and expcr.cncca.

Thc project'e central purpoec wae to dcmonstratc tl1ut educutiun, rc-

d~fined in terma of rclcvant cducational contcnt and purLicipatory
cducational processee, could rclcaec thc creativo energice alrcady
cxisting in Ecuador's rural connnunitics. Thc focus was critir.al
understanding rather than information transfer ; cxprcesion rathcr
than reception ; canmunity action rather than increaeed purchasing power.
The ultimate goal was to increasc the rural conununity's capacity to
understand and conununicate ita interest, to increase ita potential
for continuously re-recreating itself and the world around it,

Activities :

During the three years of the project (with outside funding) three
types of educational gaming materials were developed and tested f luency
(literacy and numeracy), simulation and expressive techniques. The project
experimentad with the Facilitator Model in the Sierra and Coastal regions
of Ecuador- community leaders trained to use non-formal educational tools
and methodologies to increase campesinos' literacy skills and their
participation in cormnunity functions and decision-making. It experimentad
with radio educational programmes, the photo-novel and the educational
use of puppets and theatre as viable non-formal educational materials on
a bread scale, and worked closely with several Ecuadorian institutions
and community groups. In addition, the project worked closely with the
Ministry of Education in the training of primary, secondary and adult
education teachers in the use of non-formal tools, metbodologies and
expressive techniques.

The first staff activities, which continuad throughout the life

of the project, were designed to bring about, constantly, ways to be
"authentic", ways to be "oneself", ways to achieve self-analysis, self-
criticism, and self-liberation. The staff believed fundamentally "that

- 56
an cducation progrm1111c basad .:.n thc liboration of tho individual has to
look for hia/hur participati.on i.n his/her own education , Far thcso
reasons, un intcrnal procese of "self-awareneee" was initiated among
the etaff, A procese of eelf-~eflexion that could queetion even their
own mental categoriee wae inculcated in all the staff. Once the etaff
was highly motivated they would help the "Ecuadorian peasants liberate
themselvee from their state of eubjective beings and grow in the eelf-
esteem they needed to help them become instrumente of their own social
change".

The central human element in the experience was the "facilitator" :

a person who was an integral member of a community participating in the
experiment, and who would serve as an element of eynthesis, of co-
ordination of etimuli, and of depth, in accordance with the real needs
of the conununity. The firet "facilitators" were selected by the
project staff, but later the connnunity aleo participated in their
selection. They were then given sorne elementary training through
exerciees in group dynamics and games ; "the confidence and mutual
respect on an individual basis, the spirit of solidarity at the group
level, analytical knowledge of the social forces that affect rural
life and the practico of critical skille related to group reflexion
and conscious awareness". The training of the "facilitator" included
an introduction to sane of the educational materials of the progrannne,
how to work in groups and how to deal with author.ity. This training
generally lasted two weeks and the facilitator then returned to bis
connnunity to search for solutions to ita problema together with
members of his conununity.

Sorne initial success with the "facilitators" has been reported b.ut
when the Ministry of Education, in an effort to find employment for
sorne ten thousand unemployed teachers, decided to use them as
"f ac1. 1 1
. t a t ors 11 , t he proJect
. returne d to t he old experience of sending
outsiders into coI1111unities without any connnitment to the local people

- 57 -
or to cho hodzontnl conununicution etructurua that hud hoon duvo lopcd.
Moreovcr, tlw campesino was no 1.ongcr considcrod capubll! of hoing u
"faci.ltator" uvon i.n hi!l own eo111m11ni.ty, llnd thiH cuu1wd 11 dutt1riorll-
tion in eelf-esteem due to thc fceling of being rcjectcd, as well as
loes of the salary he reccived far his omployrnenl in thc projcct.

Project media included games and simulations, eociodramn,

puppets, a photo-novel, and radio. Garnes were selected for their
attractiveness, low coet, ready playability, and relevance to local
conditions. They included derivations of a game similar to "monopoly"
far consciousness-raising, letter dice to teach spelling, bingo far
literacy and numeracy, math, soccer game boarda, arithmetic roulotte,
card games far multiplication, and adaptations of indigenous games.

In one area, cassette tape recordere were used to record prograrnrnes

which were produced in rural conununities and broadcaet by a small
regional radio station. Conununity sociodramas, advice, songa, and
religious readings ae well as comments on lessons were broadcast as
part of the established radio education programme.

Project developers felt they had found a number of useful

methods and some exciting support materials. Games were judged to
work in strikingly different settings and to help focus the content of
the community-based learning on real-world, open-ended problema.
Simulations also allowed participante to try out new and unfamiliar
actions without risk and to discuss local conflicts without directly
confronting individuals. This gave the playera new insight into their
roles in the community. Evaluation of the cassette-recorder component
showed an increase in the farmers' awareness of connnunity development
problema and confidence in their own ability to effect change.

The project more or less concluded when the Agency far lnterna-
tional Development (AID) completed its contract with the University of
Massachussets in 1975, and the Ministry of Education decided that a new

- 58 -
muthod of' 11ppro1.u:h w11a 1wudud for non-formal ud11c1.1tion : "nuclonr.i:u1ti.on".
'l'hu llnivurnity nf Muaauchusauttu tcmn wrote in ita finul ri~por.t

"In rutro1:1puet i.t is 11ppnrent to tlw Project Stnff thnt Wl' havo uncons-
ciously promotld crnr vul.11l1:1, lmposl1cl our uclucntional "innovations" ami
exploi.tc~d communi.tius in tlw inturusts of our scicmtific evaluation,
wl1ile consciously aeeking to uvoid imposition and exploitation. These
rusults or0 no lesa deplorable because they were unconscoua. They
are tolerable unly if they help us and others to see and resolve the
contradictions inherent in such programrnes as ours. We have lived with
these contradictions for four years, contradictions between our philoso-
phical context and our practica! working environment, between our self-
image and the image of our funding source, between our rhetorc and our
behaviour. We have had to be many things to many people in arder to
sur.vive, and at times, even we were unable to separate the reality from
the projected image".

11 . ECUADOR : Conununi ty Radio, Radi.o Tabacundo

Radio Tabacundo is a community radio service based on access and

participation of the local population. The cassette project (already
referred to in the non-formal education experience previously reported)
was launched by the school radio service, headed by a priest, wth the
support of the University of Massachusetts. The school owns a trans-
mitter which covers the little town of Tabacundo and ts surroundings.
The conununity radio service tres to gve the local populaton the
opportunity of recording audio materials of its own choice for a weekly
programme called 'mensaje Campesino' (The Peasants' message), whch is
produced by the peasants for the peasants. The progranune is conceived
as a dialogue withn the community and t seeks to establish horizontal
communication lines between the vllages.

At the beginning of the project, thirty-eight tape cassette recor-

ders were distributed to the 'auxilares", the school radio volunteer
agents, who receved a short training course in ther operation. The

- 59 -
 auxiliarios woro givon comploto frootlom to record whutovcr thoy wiehod,
in clos~ collaboration wich Che local populacion

The firsC prograll'lllo& wero oesoncially ro1~ordingi; uf lot~111. l.ndiun

mueic, but the range .:>f Copies broadoned eoon afccr, whon progrummos
began to deal with local problema, including co-operacivc meeti.nge,
and interviews with the authoritics in charge of local development
progranunes. In addition, popular playa were recordad and eketchee written
specifically f or the progranune.

Theee simple initiativee have encouraged the conununitiee to increaee

exchangee among groupe and strengthen the eolidarity of local communitiee.
Twenty villages have formed local aeeociatione eince the beginning of
the programme 'The Peaeante' Meeeage~.

Radio Tabacundo is a further example of imaginative use of cassettes ;

in our second etudy we will review at least ten similar projects throughout
Latin Ame rica.

12. ECUADOR National Programme for Child Care and

Family Health : Proramne in Social Communication
and Educa tion.

Thie programme is being developed jointly by theEcuadorian

Ministry of Health and international health agencies. lt began in
1976 and at present operates in several-rural comnunities of Ecuador.

Objectives:

The general objective is to develop an information and education

syatem that will foster the interest of the local communities in the
National Progranme of Child Care and Family Health, and consequently,
in an increased demand for health services.

~.

- 60 -
'fho Spocific Objoctivos aro z
1. to improvo tho quality of hoalth caro throuh a more
effichn t de livery system and a more effective
service from the programme personnel i

2. to increase demand for health servicee throuh

identification of thee ervicea with the felt
naeds of the comnunity ;
J. to obtain the participation of local connunity group in
both progranming and execution of the plan, baaically
through support to local initiativea
4. to integrate and co-ordinate the progrSJDDa with
other development programnea, aa well aa with the
different levels of health services (central,
provincial and local).

Activities :
Two coonnunities were selected for a preliminary study of needa in
health care, one coaatal comnunity and one in the Highlands. A five-
day field study collected information on various topics related to
health care and development. Aress such as the following were inves-
tigated : operation of local health services, existence of local commu-
nity groups, existence of other agencies or groups working in dev~lopment
projects, etc.

Once the preliminary data had been collected and organized, a three
day workshop was held in the communites where the study was undertaken
and the preliminary resulta were presented to a selett group of local
leaders, health officials, and personnel from other agencies. The resulta
of the investigation were reviewed and specific problem areas were
studed. Through thi~ effort at local participation t is hoped to
awaken local interest and promote intiatives in local self-management.
The health Ministry personnel have a first-hand opportunity to hear from

- 61 -
thc locul wopJ.c about l:hc:i.r 11ccd11 1111<1 whcn! L:lll!rL! nrc (llll:ltdhi 1i.t.el:l
for mutual co-opcration.

Once thc workshop was compJ tcd u th.i.rd H Lagc of thc prognunme
was put into action ; il: rclatcd to thc i.ni tiuti.vcs thut cou 1d he
taken at local level. Thosc includc such things ne fnmily vcgctublc
gardens, local voluntary assistance in the building of the hcolth
clinic, etc. The use of communication media plays an important role
at the execution stage because it is necessary constantly to motvate
people. A 16 m. film has been prepared and sorne radio programmes
have been transmitted. The local co-operative Qovement has been mobi-
lized so as to help purchase the equipment necessary for the local
clinic to operate.

The experience to date has produced sorne positive resulta. The

workshop has been productive in getting people together and getting
the representatives of the different development agencies to initiate
sorne form of local co-operative, but, in general, the administrative
and bureaucratic problema have hindered the development of both
participatory programme action and co-ordination of necessary health
and other services in the rural areas of Ecuador.

13. HONDURAS : Rural Couununication in the Service of I>eve lopment

This project was approved by the General Conference of UNESCO at ita

seasion in Nairobi in 1976, and Honduras was later selected as the country
that would undertake the experiment. The Ministry for Culture and
Tourism is the government agency responsible for its implementation.
Two departments (states) have been selected, Ocotepeque and the Valle
del Agun, and the project got under way in May 1978.

Objectives :
l. to promote horizontal communication among rural people
so as to facilitate the econanic, social and cultural

- 62 -
 i11t11,ration or tllll rural populati.on

2. tn 1r111tc t:hc dy1111111icH of 11n 11duq1111t:l! vurticul 1~01111111111i.c11t:io11 d1111111ol.,

Ho ilH to faci 1 i tato clial.or,uo lwLWL!llll tlw pl!l.IHlllltH 1111d tlw i.11Hti.t11-
t io11H that nre involved in devlopment projcctH.

In ord1!r t 1 llC'hieve these objectivea a strategy has been aclopted that

fncilitall!H tllll Helf-expreaaion of the rural people, anCJ n thB Wlly maltea
possihll' thLir participation, starting from their own reality. This atrategy
is a gradual onc and thus allowa for the training of the rural people and a
proMrt'SSVL' leurning procese of the technology or communication.

~lc!t~>~~lo;y :
The projeC'l: methodology resta on two baaic supports :
J. activiLies directed at the training of the rural people in all forma
of communicution, through rudimentary and traditional communication
media ;
2. spec i fi e training for specific media, and for the present, the media
selected are presa and radio.

Traditional Media :
In nrder Lo motvate the people to participate right from the atart, it waa
necessary to start with a medium that would be relatively easy and workable at
a local leveL. A decision was made to use wooden mimeograph. This simple tool
can bv made by any peasant and the learning procese is relatively easy. Part
of the materials needed for its construction were given by the project, while
the other part was provided by the local people.

l\lmnst immediately local publications began to appear in the area and these
were 11s1"d as nn information medium for the development of the project.
~leanwh i 1e' an i nves t i.gat ion was under way trying to detect the different
forms (l f H1p11 l :ir media exist ing in these a reas of Honduras. The first of
thesP m('dia was popular theatre, then popular song and <lesign, media
t 11.1 t 111 1ne way or ;Jnother exist in the rural a reas in the local
folklor 1'11ppe t t heat re was al so introduced. The use of these folk

- 6'3 -
mmlJ11 huu 11 douh 1" 1'11111:1:.l.011 .l 11 1.hu ruru 1 11ru1111 (11) 1111 co1111111il'11t lo11
1110<1.l.11 111111 (b) 1111 l:nr.11111 ol' 011turt11.l1111w11L.

'l'ho noxt: y top Wl1U t:lw org1111.I :1:11 li on of commu11 I c1J ti 011 worlrn hopu.
Groupa of locul uioplo c11111u togothor for Lhrou d~1yH 111111 llllg1111 t:o
clovolop popular. COTllTllml.cuti.on mudi.u. 'l'hoy l.011r.nod how to 11111lw p11ppet11,
proparo a thoatr.o preeont11tion , otc. Thoy began to aue 1111 tite posaiblo
uses of a simple pppot. Aftur. a fow houra of ai.mplo nstruction, Llw
latent creativa epirit of the rural people begine to operate and tite
communication workehope havo proved to be powerful means of i.nter-
communication, creativity and of education. Every effort i.a made to
re-evaluate the popular peasant culture, and its role in tite rural
society of today.

The project does not operate in isolation but in close co-ordination

with the Honduran Government's prograuune of Non-Formal Education which
has been in action in these areas for more than two years. In fact,
the two progranunes seem to be different parta of the same progranune.
Moreover, the non-formal education progranune is aleo comrnited to
local participation and initiative. The newspapers that have been
created by the project are being used as part of the educational pro-
gramme , and aleo serve as a means of horizontal conununication among the
villages. No effort is made to impose these programmes if, for any
reason, a village does not want to participate ; the project organizers
prefer to await the natural development of the villaee.

As well as the rural preva, it is hoped to start a rural radio

shortly. Once more the basic plan is the same, a radio at the ser.vice
of the peasants and with a good deal of material p~oduced locally. The
communication workshops are already training the people in the use of
cassette recorders, and the preparation of local material for radio
transmission.

The organizers have seen to date how the creative spirit of the

- 64 -
l.ocal. puop 1u luaH comu 11Uvu, ancl how horlitontal conmunication lu&a unitod
tho locul commu11J. t iu11. 'l'ho non-formal. oduca tion progrllDlllo hoa odvancod
morll r.api.dly, thanka to the comunicatJ.on work111hopa. In &imple, yot
ver.y aolid ways, popular participotion is incroaaing, and tho latont
creativi.ty has cano to Ufe. The hugo dovolopment probloma atill havo
to be aolvod, but at loaat the people are united in their effort to make
a changc.

14. MEXICO Mexican Inatitute for Conmaunity Development

(Inatituto Hxicano para el Desarrollo de la
Comunidad, IMDEC).

This voluntary non-profit making Institute was establiahed in

1966 to promote the popular aectors of society in the Western pa1t
of Mexico. Its initial activity was directed at forming local
conmittees, co-operatives and production centres. The baeic philo
sophy of this organization is self-promotion leading to self...uanage-
ment of local projects.

In 1970, I.HDEC started an intensive development effort in several

marginal sub-urban Barrios of Guadalajara city. This project is known
aa Project Santa Cecilia.

Objectives :
The creation of an effective and systematic model of masa ,romotion
in sub-urban, marginal communities, eo as to achieve the conscious, free
and responsible participation of the people themselves, etarting from a
consciousness of their problema, and utilizing their natural resources,
and group solidarity.

IHDEC has undertaken extensive researchon the needs of the families

living in the marginal areas of Guadalajara city. As a consequence,
other departments have been established within the Institute, including

- 65 -
 Llll udv.f.1wry survicu for humo co1111t:rucdon, 11 co-op11r11t. lv1 1or t:lw
f11hrlc:11t:lo11 und unlu of homu-lwJ ldl.ng 1rnppJ.l.uu, llllll /1 Hol'i.11.l H11rvk11
unit to uttund to somo uf t lw 11111r11 11rgu11t 11111111111 11rnd11 11f t 111 11111 or.

'l'lu.i lnoti.tutu aleo hua un <1xtunu.i.vu uducation compo1w11l whlch i.u

incorporatod lnto uach uf i.te promotion activitics. 'l'hc b111:1i1 phi l.o-
eophy hcrc is basod on thu principlue of consciousn11:11:1-roj si 11g, a aharcd
cxpcrlcnce wherc people try to luarn from their daiJy ruuli ty, 11nd thu
necd& of thcir conununity.

In 1974, IMDEC receivcd a grant from the Inter-Amcrican Foundation

to establioh a communication unit within the Institutc, wilh Llw
objective of supporting all ita promotion activity. This unit would
follow the basic philosophy of the project : namely, self-promotion of
the local people.

Partly because of the extensive range of the Institute activities

and partly because of the genuine commitment to self-participation, the
communication unit maintains a high level of local participation in
severa! activities. It has become the main uniting factor between a
series of development projects, and a voice for both the development
workers and the interests and needs of the local people. Among ita
main activities are the following :

l. 'El Alipuz', a local newspaper that comes out every fifteen

days. Among ita features is the history of a family that carne
from a rural aeea of Mexico (as do almost 90 % of ita readers).
The family's experiences are critically examined and the
social, political, economic and religious structures of
Mexican society as they affect the rural poor who move
into the marginal sub-urban sectors of the large cities
are examined.

2. Every fifteen days a popular festival is held in the centre

- 66 -
 of thu Uarrlo. l'ooplo from tho loc111. aroa propnro and proeont uonKe,
pootry, and diecueeion groupe. Sovoral. hundred poopl.o ofton attond
thoeo foetivale and thoy havc bocomo poworful conununication media
for promoting group eolidarity and idcntification.

3~ AY in tlle case of eeveral other development projects in Latin Americe

today, the art of the popular t.heatre is coming to life once more.
The popular theatre group prepares its own scripte, and then presente
them to the public ; once more the idea is that of coneciousness-
raieing and group solidarity.

4. Since most of the audience bf the city's film theatree comes from
the marginal sectors, the purpose of the film club is to educate
the people in understanding the film language, and relating the
film themee to the problema of these colllllu~ities. At present the
Institute ie trying to obtain sorne film equipment so that the
people themeelves can produce their own films and show themselves to
their own connnunities.

s. Slidee have been produced and are used in a fa1hion similar to

Gerace'e experience in Lima. People film their own reality and
then, using the photomontage technique, analy1e that ame reality.

The Santa Cecilia Project of the IMDEC Institute is one of the

longest lasting promotion efforts in Latin America. Apart from the grant
from the Inter~American Foundation most of the funding comes from local
and national sources. The research undertaken by the Institute has helped
develop a profile of the marginal sub-urban Mexican, and his culture and
expectations ae he abandona bis rural home in search for a better life in
the poverty of the sub-urban environment. The greatest contribution of this
project has probably been its basic philosophy of. self-development, and thus
an appreciation of people's intrinsic value as persone and of their ability
to help themselves.

- 67 -
 15. J>gRu !1~lti.-Modi.11 UHu for l'op11.l11r Promot..1011 111 :i11h~11rh1111 Arn1111 ..

Gor11co in hie publ i.catJ.011 "llodzont11 I Co11111unicuL i 011 11 ( 197.'J) rnporlti

on eovornl oxporimcnte i.n tlw mw of modi11 1u1 11n intugruJ pnrl of 11
popular promotion etrntogy i.11 poor 11111rp,i1111li:wd e111>-11rh1111 tiucL:orti of
Limn during tlw yo11rs 1970 to 197'1. 111 thii; 1wri11d Hl'vnrnl l't'f'orlt-1
worc made to develo> a more participntory approach to dcvclopmcnl 1md
popular promotion. Participation wae in fact u nationnl objcctivc, and
projecte euch as thc land reform programmc and thc nalionnl education
law involved eignificant eectore of the Pcruvion eocicty in both thcir
conceptualization and development.

Gerace, however, concentratee hie attention on participatory

projecte that were developed at a ve~y local level and involved rela-
tively few people in their operation. Theee projecte were never intended
for a national audience, but rather they aimed at the motivation and
consciousnees-raieing of residente of poor marginal dietricts of Lima.
We will briefly describe sorne of these projects and examine the
participatory element involved.

Slide production

In 1972, a group of residente of a sub-urban Barrio (dietrict) of

Lima decided to produce elides as a means of awakening their neighboure'
interest in the problema of their community.

Objective :

Achieve a critical consciousness, a change in attitude and behaviour,

through the production of elides that would reflect the daily reality
of peoples' lives.

Activities :

A group of residente in the district received a ehort couree in the

use of a camera. They then proceeded to film their local reality, and once

- 68 -
tho Hll.dut1 wuru duvolopod, thuy uood thurn UH 11 focul poi.nt for diecutrni.one
with otlwr locul rueidenta. 'l'hu ol.ideu wuru used to prepare diecueeion
un thcmos t1uch UH : l.ocnl living conditions, houeing, heulth, sanitation,
water, utc . Local working conditione, cmploymont opportunitics, trans-
portation problema and working conditions in factoriea in Lima were
aleo thc subject of sorne elide ehowing.

Thc local people worked together in this way for nine months and
held a total of fiftcen working eeesions. They developed a spirit of
solidarity and dcveloped community work projects such as waste collection,
piped water supply, the protection of a local river, etc. They aleo
exa111incd their own political real:i:ty and a few residente participated
in specific political projects aimed at a better standard of living for
their own people. Througholt the project, participation was always high,
and the elides were easily incorporated into the discussion groups.

16. PERU : Advisory Council for the Production of

Educational Television

Another project reportad by Gerace was an initiative by the

National Institute for Educational Television (INTE) to develop a
working relationship with groups of people from the marginal sectors
of the d ty.

Objective :

AchevP. relevance and actuality in the progrannne content of

educational television. Achieve in the participante a critical under-
standing of the medium and the production procesa.

Activities :

During a period of six months sorne fif ty residente from twenty

different Barrios of Lima participated one night a week in
programming and production for Peru's National Educational Television

- 69 -
progrmmno. Thc rusidcncs mct with thc Mini.stry of Educnti.on offi.cinl.s
6i1d discusscd Che programmc contcnt and arcas of interese of tlw urbnn
poor. They proposed ccrtain Chcmos for che progranunc plnnncrs and
lacar revisad thc programmc outlinc, making suggcstions on such aepccts
as languagc, perspectiva, and content. Thcy aleo participatcd in che
actual production procese and boch thcy and their children somctimcs
appeared as actors in sorne parte of che programmes.

From the start, a good working relationship was established between

the Ministry of Education officials and the Barrio residente. The contri-
bution of the Barrio people was respected and appreciated. The learning
procese was a fruitful one for all concerned ; the participante became
aware of the mechanics of television and the production procese. Their
appearance in the progrannes gave these programmes a different perspective
when viewed by residente of other Barrios in the city. The effort was
aleo significant at a political level, because at that moment the importance
of popular participation was being stressed by the national leaders and
this experience was seen as one more national effort.

17. PERU Ideological Education

The adult literacy programme of the Ministry of Education of Peru

developed a television-type device for ideological education for adult
literacy teachers.

Objective :

Promete a consciousness of the role of the masa media in the social,

political, economic and cultural life of the country.

Activity :

The Ministry of Education organized a seminar for the training of

future adult literacy teachers and included a co11D11unication component

- 70 -
i.11 the cm1rHl!, Tlie peopl.l! ruspo11sible for this component deci.ded to
pre-record from Llw air uome l.ucal teluvi.si.on ndvertisi.ng. The parti.-
cipati.011 of the tl!aclwrs conaisted in 1111111.yaing and evaluating these
televisio11 co11111wni11ls 11nd tlwir impact on Peruvian life in general.
Through tl1e UHe of the video-tape and video-cassette, it was possible to
replay tl1cse cu~nercials several times and study different aspects of
their ideological content, ellaical values, relation to the national
production cfforts, etc. The author concludes that this simple commu-
nication devicc had a powerful impact on the participante, and on their
perception of commcrcial advertising in their country's television system.

Gerace also reporto on othervideo-tape experimenta. A portable

video-tape machine was loaned to two residente of a Barrio in Lima,
but because of sorne interna! community conf licts the introduction of
this equipment was first seen as a threat and a danger. However, after
sorne explanation, and the fact that the equipment was in the hands of
local people, the experiment was able to start. During six weeks the
two Barrio residente operated the equipment in the following manner.
First, they invited other Barrio people to a meeting so as to explain
to them the working of the quipment and the purpose of the project.
The equipment was then used to interview Barrio residente, record
Barrio meetings and document sorne Barrio events. ID111ediately after
each recording, it was played back to the participante, and they were
able to observe their own participation, their role in the discussions,
and their attitudes towards one another. The participante were able
to acquire a feeling of competence in dealing with the machine As
well as observing themselves, the fact that they could hear themselves
produced a strong dcsire to continue their discussions. The video-
tape contributed to the growth of discussion and dialogue among the
Barrio residents. It also contributed to a greater understanding of
local community problema, as it was possible to record interviews with
those responsible for providing the basic coDD11uriity services in the
Barrio, and this also generated discussion. The equipment was used far

... 71 -
simp.i.e drmnnti.:.rnt:iorrn of tlw cond.it:iotw of th1 ll11rrio p1opl1 11nd 1li1ir
const:ant: bat:tlc 11g11im1t hun 1111cr111'.y nnd i11diffon11c1,
1

18. PERU Centre for l'opuJar Connn1111icntion Vi 1Ju 1:1 Salvudor

In thc ncw suburb of Villa El Salvador, on thc oulsldrts of Lima,

such basic essentials as water und elcctricity are lucldng in most
households. A large influx of poople from othcr parta of Pcru scttlcJ
in the district in thc early part of 1970, in one of thc biggc~st

urban migrations known to South America. Isolation from the rest of

Lima was accentuated by poor roads, and within the dist:ricL, age groups
and sexes had little conununication with each other. Moreovcr the
print and broadcast media had nothing to offer the ncw residents who
in turn never thought of the masa media as relcvant to their necds.

Objective :

The use and integration of communication into che everyday life

of the Barrio people.

Activities
An Experimental Education Centre was established to promote and
foster popular culture in the area. A nurnber of teachers, working with
the Centre, found that drama, diocussion groups, slides and cassettes
su~ceeded quite well in stimulating the groups concerned, but still
there was no intermixing between groups.

A sharing of problema and an ability to express them to others

was considered the crucial generative procesa, for which a new method
was evolved in an organization called the Centre for Popular Communication.
As the name implies, the emphasis is on nter-personal connnunication,
but workshops are organized in audiovisual media, drama, publications,
posters, comic strips , cinema and song. Each workshop meets twice
a week, discusses the conmunity's problems and selecta one of them

- 72 -
for 1ixpl.111111tio11, 11tti11g l:lw 11wdi11111 1111der ttt11dy. l:11ch Wodnm1dny, thu
1

whol.c Ce11Lrc llllWl:ll in 1111 HHl:llllllhly. E11ch wcck 11 dl.ffurcnt workahop

rtlllH thc 11t:1Homhly 1111d l:11lwa tite whole memlrnn1hip through pr11cti.c111.
exerci1:1lJH i.11 thuir p11rtic11l11r Hkill. Sumetimea, whon u particulurl.y
Heri.ouH probl.em ariHeH, 111 l the workshopH <leul with tite sume suhject
ami collective ly prepare a concerted multi.-medi attack on populurizi.ng
llHpects of tite prublcm.

Greut importancc is attached to diffusion of thc resulte of

thesc workshops, und a constant effort is made to organize meetings
with new groups in the district and outside. At the time of the
state of emergency when informal popular meetings were banned, the
Centre was one uf thc few places where people could meet legally and it
played an importunt role.

The Centre has received equipment from UNESCO, and has gradually
established a reputation and prestge both among the local people and
with the authorities. It has a deep conunitment to the promotion of
popular culture as opposed to mase culture. It has prometed the creation
of popular organizations in arder to help salve sorne of the critica!
problema that affect the conununity. It has supported and encouraged
such popular manifeetations as theatre, song, and folklore. Thanks
to massive literacy training, the walls and sidewalks are ueed for
written rnessages, and the Centre produces a newsletter in a style of
language that can be read by the Barrio people.

According to Azcueta (1978), popular culture and popular mase

comrnunication are vital factora in the creation of a new society, a
society that will give voice and power to the voiceless and the
powerlees in today's society.

19. PERU : Photomontage to Promote Learning and Participation

The Popular Education Group (Grupo de Educacin Popular) had worked

with Paulo Freire's method of consciousness-raising literacy in Peru

- 73 -
nnd hnd bu.i.l.L 11> 11 good co.l lucl..ion of 1111<llo-vi111111 I 1111111.1 L1l cod.i fying
Llw .1:1.fo, prohJmnH nnd usp.irution of tlw woplu. Wlwn 11 rnqum1l 1'.111110
J'rom tho l!:l1!ctor11J Cuunc. J for l'lw Group to prut1l11t 11 111111 011

'Ed11c11cion y Liberuci611 1 (IM11c11tio11 1111d LilwnHion), for l.lw 120

1
dclcgntcs uf thc ntiwly formcd C:omi l:trn Vcci 11111 eH' (nl! ghhourhood
committccs), thc firsl Lhoughl WllB to appJy Lhc consciousncss-
ruising litorucy methods to Llw 1ww situution.

Howevcr, thcy soon began to ask thcmsclvcs wlu1t wcre thc

real nceds and how could they best be met through a procef:lll of
consciousness-raising ? Hitherto, the procese had hccn linked
mainly to literacy 1rni ng thL Frl' re paycho-sod 111 method. llow cuuld
the approach b<.> decpcr and extend beyond the limitntions of 11 well-
tried techniquc ?

Together with the delegates from the neighbourhood committees,

the Popular Education Group devised a method thal was both a con-
sequence and a criticism of the classical method of 'gencrative
words'. They attcmpted to adapt the methods of reaching the total
communication universe of the participante in their Barrio (sub-
urban), encompassing dimensione of social and political relationships
in a manner that was coherent with the basic assuhlptions of the
procesa of consciousness-raising. The result was photomontage.

As a technique, photomontage aims at helping participants,

grouped around sorne common interest, to portray their own reality
in arder to form a background for reflexion. The material includes
every available medium of audio and visual representation of the
living and working environment of the group, highlighting the
social contradictions. This would include photo elides, sketcherl
elides, film strips, posters, photographs, banners, words and
phrases printed on elides nr placards, slogans, printed texts,
tape-recorded segmente of speeches, discussions, conmentaries,
folk or popular songs.

- 74 -
 1'11rl' o[ tlw 11111turl11l 111 1:ollucturl e11rller hy thu mlu1!11tor 11nrl ifl 111wd 1111

11 11t11rt:ur or rolnforcl'r; Llw ro1111d11dor Lu prod11cud by tlw group 1111<1 co-or1li1111tor

fol.Lowlng thu ollHurv11ti.01111 of thu pnrt.clp11nt11 IJH tlll! t1ot18ona ndvnncu. 'I'lw euh-
jocta o[ tlw 1111dio-vl111111l 11111turi11La focue on uviduncu of duficiunci.ua i.n aunitn-
ti.on, umploymunt, houaing, nutriti.on, trnnaport, lubour, 110 wull 11a Romu 11epecta
of thu city or 1111li1111 ast1ocintecl with thoeu conditione, euch llR govcrnmont buil-
dinge, factorius, furma.

Once thc material is 11vnilable, it is codified. It is an audio-visual codi-

fication of tl1e social, economic, political and cultural rcality of thc Barrios,
from nutional as wull ns local perspectivea. These codifications are not just
to be scen or hcard nnd then discues~d, but are to be created by the participante
in n group. Thc content of the rnflexion is never fixed or permanent ; it is cons-
tantly being rcatructure<l to extend the ineighta of the participante. The group
not only discueses what is perceived, but correcta distortions among the factora
and events. Nothi11g is presented as an affirmation ; it is queetioned, challenged,
rm<l probed for decper meaning and ther. to suggest imaginat:ive solutions.

Despite ccrtain <liscrepancies between the Popular Education Group and the
Neighbourhood Committees, the Group saw the opportunity to make the activity a
truly educati1>nnl experiment and a friendly relationship between the educators
an<l the leaders of the Electoral Council facilitated the procedure. The Popular
Education Group drew on a wealth of knowledge and codified material based on
experiences of consciousness-raising literacy, self-conducted census, and direct
involvement with the people of the Barrios, to set up conditions far a dynamic
and practica! dialogue, using the mpetus of the neighbourhood conunittees.

The Committees were open and receptive to the educators once the experimenta
got under way and mutual trust was strengthened by it. The neighbourhood groups
sought evidence of conmitment from the co-ordinators of the photomontage and ra.sed
questions that obliged the Education Group to search for information. The educa-
tional experiment could not be separated from the political and organizatioral
event of the renewal of the neighbourhood committees. Photomontage proved to be
nn efficient and rapid way of stimulating critica! reflexion on the broad socio-
political reality and tying in the conclusions with the proposed functions of the
neighbourhood conunittees.

- 7.5 -
 llow cl.l.d thu puopl.u of tlw l111rriou ru111t to t.lw plwl 01110111:11g<' 'l
Tlu.i J.lopulnr Educ11l.i.011 Group n~giut.11rod 11 u11cc1!t111io11 ol' n~11cti111111

Lhut wurc conmon to 11101:11 gro11pu. On 1:1uuing l:lwir own worlcl in llw
photo or slwtchud 1:1 l i.clue, tlw ini ti.u] rtH:lponeu WllH u11rpr i Ht! 1111<1
plc111:111ru ut rucognizing tlwir own unvironmunt. TldH w1rn fol lowucl
immocliatuly by elwmc, disdain for thur dcprivud conclili.onu, feur
of suuing thcmsclvue 11l01w, oppres1wd nnd smnlJ, withoul 1111y sunse
of cluss idcntity. To cope with thi.e dupressivc huJple1:11:111t~ss, the
next reaction was to makc fun of und lnugh nt thci.r world. Tliia
was followed by a short cxplosive, but uncritical. outburst.
Gradually, fcelings werc attuncd to a dialogue about the codification
preaented.

During the next phase of the response, the parli r.i.pants

began to describe what they saw, becoming more positivo as they
recognized the richness of each one'a experience in Jife. lut
description alone was not analysis. Critica! awareness only
unfolded gradually through questioning and motivating reflexon,
uaing the various media of the photomontage. As their world carne
into sharper focus, the participante' own expericnces were codified
for discussion, which stimulated a natural progression in the
critica! analysis of their reality. Far each concrete problem
posed in the photomontage and lived collectively by the people,
the group tried to find solutions through objective discussions
of the message and of the possible role of the neiBhbourhood
committees.

20. PERU Audio-visual Conununication in Campesino Training

The Government of Peru initiated an extensive Agrarian

Reform Programme in 1969, whereb~r the old 'Hacienda', or fann, was
not divided into small plots and given to th~ workers, but was

- 76 -
Lruuuforrml l:o t:liorn llH 11 111-11por111 ivo Vl!t1t11n, 1lu worlwr11 lwl'orning
tlw co-opun1t:ivl~ 11w1HlrH 11[ llw f11r111. A 1111Ljo1111l Cl!llln~ f'or lkso11rch
11nd 'l'r11ining WllH 1?t1t11hlelwd lo 11id lhiu progrmmnu, 1111d nn 1111dio-
visu11l uni.l wns cru11Lml llH 1111 inlegrul purl of tlw proc.mrn. Uoth llw
Food nml Agri.c.u1 turnl Orgnnizution (FAO) ami tlw Uni tcd Nntione Dcvtdop-
mcnl Progrununu (l!NDP) coopcrntcd in sctting up this centre.

Objcctivc :

Trainin~ of campc!sinos in the use of audio-visual equipment as

a means of improving their farming operations and their general living
conditions.

Activities :

An audio-visual centre was established as a training unit, and

the conununication medium at present being used is television. Progranunes
are prepared as support units far thc land rcform project and sorne of
the co-operative members are trained in the use of the television equip-
ment. The production unit conducta preliminary studies befare it produces
a progranuue, and far the most part, this unit controla the overall produc-
tion procesa. Final productions are presented to the campesino groups in
their villages (there is no public television broadc:asting as such). The
equipment can be used for the immediate recording of the campesinos' fe~d

back, but as yet this procesa has not started ; the television productions
are being prepared in Spanish and in Indian dialects, as the greater part
of the rural Peruvian population does not speak Spanish.

According to Calvelo (1978), regional audio-visual production

centres are being established in arder to satisfy the cultural and produc-
tive requirements of a country as vast and as varied as Peru. Moreover,
the campesinos who have been trained in the audio-visual production centre
are gradually taking over responsibility for programming, production, and
evaluation of courses.

- 77 -
 'l'lw ov1r11l I l1v1d ol p11p11l111' p11rt ll'ip11t 1011 111 thi11 1111cllw-vi11111il
t.r11l11l11H pr11111111 111 1101 1l111rly 1vlcl111t 1w yct, p11rt ly h1111111rw lt 111
ll prOKl'llllDllU lhlll hllH hcll'll 11111'1'111 i11g lor j11111 11v1 1' 1
IWll y1111r11 111111 i11
11dwd11ltHI to co11tl11111 for 1111111l111r lhrcl' y111rn hcforc llw 10111pl1H1
11111.t:, toKuthur wl.Lh tlll' rl11111Hi1ll n11p111111ihl 11 Ly, wi 11 h .. pl111'1d
Jn llw hamlH uf tlll' 1111tlo11nl 1111LhorlLl111.

21. l'ERU f?.1>1.iciul lntugr11ted Projecl for lh1rnl Educulio!~

( ~~YY!'_t;_t;_o E!IJll'l' i_:.!..!_..!!~.!-'.Jir~10..__1wh rt:__!.11 Func i 'l

de! In Erl111acio11 1'11 11 1 J!!..'..':!.!!.trollo Rural, PEU'El>ER)

In 1969-70 UNESCO clucidud to unclertuke 1111 exper imc11t11 I

interdisciplinary project in rural devulopment in L11ti11 1\ml'rica, ami 1111
agreement was signed betweun UNESCO ami the Ministry uf Eclucat ion 11f
Peru early in 1970.

Originally the project was confined to the two provinccs of

Canas and Canchis, in tlae Oepartment of Cuzco ; project hcaclcuartcrs
were established in Sicuani, within the projuct area. Thcsc two
provinces have a combined population of about 100,000, 75 7. of whom
live in rural areas. The average fami ly income is about S 100 a
year. Most of the people speak Quichua. Communication and transport
are difficul t.

Objectivu :
The main objectives were :
(a) to improve the existing educational system and servicus
(b) to promote the active participation of the local population
in economic, social, and cultural development.

- 78 -
i\I' I 1Vi 1 11'11 :

'l'hc l''''.ic1t w1111 lo i111l111l1 111111' 1111'1111 ol 111ti1111: h1111l1 l'cllll'.llllon

lor l'll lclrt11 ; l1111d11111111t11I cd11c11t 11111 lor 11d11l t11 ; 111111111 co1111111111lc11t lo11
(11ddrcHHeocl to 11d11lt11 11ml youth) 111111 cll11p,1rn11tl1 1uirv11y 111111 Moclolodcnl
r1uc11r1'11. 'l'l11n1 lhc pro.icHI w1111 to 111 1111 1><lrd1H in wcdl-pl11111wd, wtdl
1'0-ortli1111l1d 1111d 11111tr11ll1cl ml11c11ti111111I 111tivtiut1l1111 rurnl t1ullinr,.
'l'lll.Hfl' Wlll"l' lo h1 11y11tum11li<'11lly 1v11lu11tud to dllurml.lll thuir pudagogc11]
Vllllll' 1111d tlwi r co11Lrih11t io11 Lo Lh1i regional dlivclopmcnl programmc.
Au far 111:1 mut1t1 10111nu11icutio11 wn1:1 Clllll'l!flll!d, thu projcct w1.1s to conccntratc
011 informing llll' populution nhout, nnd 1twukcning intcrcsl in, cconomic
nnd social 1J111t1gl'

PEIFJmER cxpcricnccd many diffi<'ulLl.!G in its thrcc-ycar cxistcncc.

'fhu aruu acluclcd for opcration was u vury nccdy und e><lrcmcly poor
sector of Llw country, buL it wns nlso somcwhat 11Jw in the naLional
priority. Thc human, socinl and economic conditions of thc population
living in thc project arca wcrc so difficull that the role of any
form c1f cducalion, unless supportcd by cffccLivc structural rcform,
wou]d be scvcrcly limitcd.

Othcr difficulties also hindcrcd thc growth of the project :

communication cquipment neccssary for local production never became
opcrative. Difficulties were expcricnccd in co-ordinating with
local authorities and with other agences working in the same area.
Finally, t~e political reality of Peru during the project's ~xistence
also affected its development. Thc project headquarters were moved.

22. URUGUAY Cassette Forum

A considerable body of li terature existe about rural radio-

forums from Canada, India, and other countries. A significant advance
was achieved in this type of communication strategy with the introduction

- 79 -
ol t.hu 11111llo c111111t'I tt. 1111 lll 1 Xihl 1 ily, rol11t lv1dy low 111111, l'llllY
t:r1111Hporl11Lio11, Hv1 11. 1111111y 1111i1p11 i1dv1111lllHL'll l'nr 11111 111 11 dy1111111i1
communi.t~11llo11 11tr11Ll!HY for d1 Vl'lop111l'lll.
1
C:olll (l'f/(>) pr1111rl'd 11
prulimin11ry luvenlory of pro.L!l'IH th11t 11r1! effL!i'Lv1dy 1111i11H tliL
auJiu c11Hseltu 1111 p11rt of 11 clL VL l11pnw11t 101111111111i111Lio11 11t.r11Lugy.
1 1

Among tho often e i ted 11dv1111L11ge11 11[ Lhl 111al io-l'llHHl!l L1 11n t.lll'
following

(a) oral prusentntion

(b) flcxibility in the length of 1onte11t;
(c) flexibility in wherc mHJ whL!ll the listening can Lakc place
(d) providing listeners with 11 clurnce to l'o11trol the 1 istcning
circumstances
(e) relative case of localizing to f'it local culture
(f) simplicity of operation ;
(g) physical characteristics such as portability and durability
(h) relative low cost.

Throughout Latn America, dozens of development projects ar~

at present uaing audio cassettes as part of their communication

strategy. In the case of Radio Tabacundo, already reported here,
local peaaants prepare messages, conunentaries, music, etc., in audio
cassette for broadcast on the radio. In the Basic Village Education
(BVE) project in Guatemala , one side of the audio cassette contains
the weekly farm forum, while the other side contains specially
prepared material for the monitor. The key points of the progranune
are outlined, and suggestions are provided for introducing the session
and leading the post-programme discussion. Another experiment within
the BVE project was the use of specially produced, special interest
cassettes by volunteer village-level workers. The cassette and play
unit were left at one household each Monday and during the week circu-
lated from house to house in the village. It was thus possible for
individual families to hear the cassette and to invite their neighbours
and friends. As had been proveo elsewhere, the local people were

- 80 -
1x1111111ly c11nl11I wi1l1 1111 1q11p1111111 111ul 111r111 Wl'n r11ndy 111111
or d1111111Ht1d.

llc>Wl'Vt..!f, 11 l I llll!Hl! l!X1writ!llCl 1

l:I llrl! HL 1J IWlll(!Whlll d l'l!Ctcd
from uhoVt!, 11nd llwr<' i1:1 liLtJe poHtiihi.lLy of t11.dng tlw cue11cllo
for fccdback purpol:leH. U1:1ing .Jmwl 1
H Ll!rminoJogy, thc 1111dio-caeectlc
faciJitllll'B 1:1om1 lcvcl of t'ill>icl, bul dot!R not nccueearily faciltalc
effcclivc focdhnck. 'l'hc purpoSl! of llw c11escttc forum in Uruguay
was prcciHf~ly Lo find out how to ohLnin feedback from thc targct
audi.cncc, and also to cetablieh u pcrmancnl dialogue between senderE1
and rcceivers. In fact all are sendera and ali are receivers, every-
body can both scnd and rcccivc mcssagcs.

The expcriment was preceded by a preliminnry study of farmers

who werc membcrs uf sorne thirty different local co-operative societies,
al 1 affi 1iatcd to a Central Co-operative Society (Coopt>rat i va Agraria
Ltda., de Sociedades de Fomento Rural, CALFORU). The purpose of the
study was to obtain a general p~rsp~ctivP of social and economic
conditions, motivations, interests, values, etc., of the intended
audience for thc cassette forum. Once the study was completed, an
effort was made to select a group of local co-operative units that
were reasonably homogeneous (similar cultivations, land size, etc.).
Twelve groups were eventually selected for the experiment, and
thcse began to receive a cassette once every fifteen days from
C Jll..FORU. Each local group was commi tted to holding regular meetings
every fifteen days to listen to the cassette. Each group selected
one of ita members who, on a voluntary basis, directed the forum
meetings and led the discussion.

The group listened to the cassette, which was recorded only on

one side,and then began a discussion on the contenta. Once they
had arrived at sorne conclusions, doubts, or questions, they proceeded
to record their messages on the other side of the cassette. Any
member of the group could not only record a reply to the material

- 81 -
propo1wd in t:l1u 111111111, h11t 11lf11 IHIHHt!IJI. llwnw11 for ful11rt! tor11m11,
11ek 11ny cp11.H1tJ011H of Llu1 offi1~or11 of Llw t:t 1 11Lr11I 1'0-opl!l'lll.V1 1111i.L,
1

dhcusu diffi.cul.tiuH in rl!w1rcl to dldi.vuri1!11 of Hut!dH, forti.lizern,

utc.,, l!:vory uffort WUH 11111dl! to 11111i11t11in Hpo11l111wl Ly ami fruudom of
oxprcssion.

llllllediatl.!ly on rucl.!ipt of thl rl.!turned 1:ussl.!ttus

1
Hl tlw Cl ntr11l
1

co-operative officu, a tl.!llm of ce11lral officers procl.!otled Lo evaluute

and analyse the replies rl.!ceive<l from the 12 centres. From thesl.!
replies a section was preparcd in thc following cassette simply by
transferring to the new cassette the items &1.!lectetl from thc previous
one. No effort was made to change thc actual contcnt, and it w11s
reproduced exactly as it carne from thc farmers. A secontl scction in
each new cassette was devoted to 'open discussion'. This included
a report on the tem& suggested by each individual group, questions,
complaints, etc. Whenever specific questions were &sked, the officers
at the central office prepared an appropriate reply and this was
included. A third and final section in each new cassette was the
theme for the new forum. This could be either a continuation of the
previous theme, a theme suggested by one of the local groups, or
a theme suggested by the central office.

Mario Kaplun, who was the director of the special cassette

forum experiment, reporta (1978) that there was an evident increase
in the level of participation by the different members of each local
group during the experiment, though the level of participation was
always higher while the cassette player was turned off, Kaplun also
reporte that while at the beginning most of the local co-operative
groups directed their replies and questions to the central office,
as the experiment advanced, they began to speak more and more to one
another, to exprese agreement, to ask questions or to express their
disagreement. Thus the cassette became more and more an inter-group

- 82 -
communication medium, ancl thie procoee coneiderably helped tho
growth of intor-group idontity and eolidarity. One local group
in fact produced 11 cassette expreeely far the othor groupe The
cassette forum helped each group to exprese its opinion, hear ita
ownvoice, opinion, euggeetion, etc., and hear the repliee from
fellow co-operative membere. For the central office, the experiment
provided a uniquc opportunity far almost i11U11ediate consulting, almoet
as if it were a weekly aeeembly of all the co-operative membere.

The effectiveneee of euch an experiment depende partly on the

willingnees of the central officere to respond quickly and effectively
to requests from the local co-operative unite. During this experi-
ment, the expected reply did not always come, pr~ieee made were not
fulfilled, and the danger of raising expectations and consequently
fruetrations wae alwaye preeent. Another limit eteme from the
local groups themselves, as not all were capab1e of self-expression ar
of generating their own messages. Their requeete refer almoet alwaye
to inmediate needs, and underlying their expression is the recognition
that the procese of consciousness-raising and self-expression is a
long and difficult one , especially among those who have been denied
their right to speak far a very long time. Obviously, technical
meane such as cassettes are a help in changing thie situation; they
are, however, a necessary but not a sufficient condition.

23. LATIN AMERICA : Radio Service for Latin America

(Servicio Radiofnico para America Latina, SERPAL)

We conclude this review of participatory projects with a brief

reference to two that are not confined to any one country, but
operate in most of the countries of the continent. The first of these
projecte is SERPAL, whose headquarters are in the Federal Republic of

- 83 -
Germany. The baeic idea of SERPAL d rather simple : to makc 11vnilablo
to interested groupa in Latn Amcrica material that can be usad for
either radio tranqmiaaion or local diacuasion groups. This material tries
to deal with sorne of the more general problema evident throughout the
continent. Its presentation always has an educational objective : to
help people reflect on their own reality and then do something nbout it.

Perhaps the bast known of the SERPAL series is Jury 13 (Jurado 13)
which was conceived by Mario Kaplun after completing an extensive research
project in several Latn A.~erican countries. Thia research project
included bibliographic as well as field research and resulted in the design
and writing of Jury 13.

Jury 13 consista of a series of 20 themes, subdivided into 60 pro-

grannnes, each lasting 25 minutes. Each theme is presented and a jury is
formed to decide who is right and far whom will justice decide. But in
each case the jury ende without a final decision. Jury number 13 is the
audience listening to the progranunes, and it is precisely from this
moment that group listening can be so fruitful, as the whole series demande
an active involvement from the public.

This series has been used extensively by Radio stations throughout

the continent, but probably ita most productive use has been at the local
level, in co-operative groups, development groups, study circles, disco-
forums, etc. SERPAL has a representative in each country who is authorized
to distribute the records or to produce and distribute them in cassette
form. At least in two countries, Venezuela and Colombia, the effectiveness
of these prograuanes has been evaluated, and the general opinion is that
they facilitate dialogue and motvate people to a greater awareness of their
own problema and a need to do something about them.

- 84 -
 In addition to thc records, SERPAL produces a booklct oxplninng
thc contcnt of uach programmc, and suggesting eorne questions for
thc discussion group. In vicw of thc vast diffcrences that separatc
Latn Americana, in culture and in thc rnnny developrnent problema
that exist, the popular acceptancc of this series is rernarkable and
it has ccrtainly proved ita participatory component.

24. LATIN AHERICA Radio-Schools

(Escuelas Radiofdnicas en Amrica Latina)

Popular Cultural Action (Accin Cultural Popular ; ACPO) was

the f irst of the radio-schools established in Latn America. It is
a prvate, autonomous, non-profit rnaking Catholic-inspired organization
which started in Colombia in 1947. Today, more than thirty years
later, there are sorne 35 radio-schools operating in seventeen different
Latn American countries.

ACPO is cornrnitted to 'integral developrnent', which is understood

as an effort to attai11 material goals of cornfort and well-being on
the basis of the developrnent of man himself as a person capable of
acting and progressing in all spheres oflife. Consequently, the
paramount, general, and long-term goal of the institution is to help
develop " .. a new type of Latin American man, capable of making
rational decisions based on Christian ideology, of contributing to
the estat1ishrnent of a different social order founded on the idea
of human dignity".

Many, but not all, the radio-schools follow the basic philosophy
expressed above, and there is a complete difference, for instance,
between the philosophy of ACPO in Colombia, and that of MEB of Brazil.
The approach is no longer one of 'fundamental integral education" but
'education for liberation'. Another irnportant difference lies in

- 85 -
porcoiving mase and inter-pereonal communication ae a eupplementary
accu lera tor and not as an nu tonomoue guncrn tor of devc lopmcn t.

Between theee two modele lie moet of thc other radio-echoole

of Latn America. Almoet half of them are no longer even involved
in adult literacy, but have moved on to what is generally called
popular promotion, with the radio acting as only a eupport instiument
for the local organization. Sorne radio-echoo1s have engaged in the
mobilization of the rural people ; the radio has thus become a
eupport inetrwnent for social change. Othere have avuided thie
approach completely, and if any of the radio echoolpeople do get
involved they must work for change outeide the radio-school etructure.

By and large, most of the echoole have adopted Paulo Freir~'e

basic ideology of consciousness-raising. The problem has been
how to operationalize this stragegy. The failure of the traditional
approach to literacy and the institutional weakness of many of the
radio-school i.nstitutions have left them to play an insignificant
role in social change. In a recent research project in Bolivia,
Tirado (1978) reporta that there is a vast difference between the
ideological postulates of the radio schools and their operation in
practice. Hoat radio-schools aleo stress local participation, but
again, how is this achieved in practice 1 Studies conducted in
Honduras,Ecuador, and Bolivia do not even make reference to local
participation as one of the goals of the radio-schools.

In a forthcoming study of the radio-schools at the continental level,

financed by the International Development Research Center, partici-
pation playa a significant role. The Directora of these schools have
inaisted that the research be conducted in a participatory approach,
to serve as a learning procesa for each school. The second most
important item'of research for ~tudy, as indicated by the School
Directors, is an analysis of the structures that facilitate the

- 86 -
 partici.pntion of tht! popuJ.nr 1wctor i 11 the lifl! uf tlw echooJ 1:1 of t:lw
loca 1 communi ty.

'l'hfs is an important advancu, for tlw accumulntl!d l!Xpcricncl!

of the rndio-i;chool movcmcnt in Latin Anwrica is possibly unmatchcd
by any othcr popular devclopmcnt movcmc11t. This report already contains
the expcricncc of :rnch institutiona UH l<adio Tabacundo, MEll,
Cochabamba, cte. There are surely many othcrs. we arl! aware of a
co-operative venture in Guatemala (Radio Santiago), of the use of
vernacular languages in most of the schools in Bolivia, Ecuador
and Guatemala. Many of the schools are part of a popular promotion
strategy that includes co-operatives, health, nutrition, etc. Thus,
the research to be undertaken shortly should shed sorne light on the
participatory approach existing in the radio-schools, and the use
of the radio as a means of facilitating and promoting partcipation
at the local leveJ. Meanwhih~, perha'ps it is best to wait, as so far
no systematic study of the radio school movement has been undertaken,
and there is too much div(~rsity mn1m: tlw 35 institutions throughout
the continent to group them all under one single model.

D. Conclusion :

Twenty-two projects have been presented here. All of them

represent a genuine ef fort at participatory conununication at sorne
level of their development. More than half of them no longer exist
because either

(a) they were experimental and terminated as soon as the experiment

was completed, or when outside funding ended, or
(b) they were closed down by government or local of ficials because
they were seen as a danger to social and political stability.

Still others continue, but under control, and they have lost
most of their participatory ideology. Only a few projects continue
to operate more or lesa in a normal way.

- 87 -
 Jouot (J.978) etates that muot purtici.putury communicution
oxpori.monts romuin pilot project~ which are limi.tud in time uncl
lflcalized in ecopo. Thoy stand out 11e unique experimente with
no real impact on thc prevailing national communication eyetem.

The high mortality rate of the projects can be rclatcd to :

l. Deficienciee in the follow-up of the experimente. The lack

of financial resources and trained local people is often a
drawback to the survival of the project beyond the short-
term experimental phase.

2. Structural and institutional constraints preventing the rural

population from implementing collective decisions for R~lf

reliance due to the absence of basic economic and technical

means for action. The initial participation may then turn
into fruetration and alienation as community expectations are
not met.

3. Poor definition or diffuse nature of objectives which cannot

fit an experimental framework but would require a long-term
approach.

4. Their experimental character which prevente any real consolida-

tion of the people's 1.nvolvement The projects come to an
end befare the potentiai of participatory communication can be
realized.

This brief review of participatory projects seems to indicate

that sooner or later they must face the rigidities of socio-political
constraints. When this happens, some projects are terminated while
others , unwillingly perhaps, become a meaos of mass co-optation
into the prevailing model of development. The feedback procesa
may, in fact, serve to integrate the deprived social groups into
the model of development defined by the centre and to maintain the

- 88 -
 H tll Lll q1111 Lh rmKh l:WC j 11 I COllHC!llHllH.

'l'lwru i.H, howcvor, 11110Llwr porupucLivu Llrnt c1111 bu upprcdutcd

in 1rnvcrnl of tlwec projeetH, Llwy niprcecnt, jn n hiHtoric11l prH-
pcctivc, onc furthcr etep in lhc llffcctive participution of tlw
Latn American man. To the cxtcnt thut these projecte aru intcgr11Led
into a morl! wholistic approach to devclopmont, thoy reprceent a
more eecure long-term investment. Then thc real interest lics not
in the fart that at a certain moment a number of isolated participa-
tory development projects exist, but that togethcr they reprcsent
a movement towards g~eater democratization 0f communication systems
and of political and economic systems. Thus participatory communica-
tion projects should form part of a broader strategy of dcvelopment
that probably should include the co-operative movement, local self-
managed business, and grass-roots political consciousness-raising
with long-term social and political goals. The overall strutegy is
probably best defined as popular cducation, finn in the belief that
the success of a project cannot be measured in the short-term
resulte of an experimental phase, but rather in the long-term
conmi tmcnt to freedom ancl justicc that bccomes a part of thc
commitmcut of alJ practitioners of clevl'1opmcnt and social changl~.

- 89 -

 IV

A N NO T A T E D B I BL I OGRAP HY

...
l. ADELMAN, Iram "Development Economics - A Rea88R1&ment of
Goal a", The American Economic Review,
Papera and Proceedings, Hay 1975, pp. 302-309.

2. AFONSO, Almino "Participacion de los Campesinos en la

ateforma Agraria" (Peaaant Participation in
Agrarian Reform). Desarrollo Rural en las
~ricas, V, l (1973) : 37-51.

Participation of peasants through organizad movements, such as

unions or peasant organizations, is indispensable for the execution
of agrarian reform and the achievement of economic and social develop-
ment. This ~rticle points out the necessity for peasants to pressure
those responsible for implementing agrarian reform. It argues for
development of the couununity and cites several instances where organized
peasants have risen in defense of their interests. The author
describes the functhns of Peasant Councils in Chile, which include
transmitting peasant opinion to the government in matters relating to
the agricultural sector, eupecially rural development, agricultural
production, and agrarian reform.

3. ALBA ROBAYO, Vincente and RINCON RINCON, Hernan

"Canales de Comunicacion que usan algunos lideres
rurales para obtener informacion agropecuaria"
(Couununication Channels that Some Rural Leaders
Use To Get Agricultural Information).
Revista ICA Colombia 5 (1) : 17-41, 1970.

- 90 -
 4. AS~OCIACidN LATINOAMERICANA DE EDUCACIN RADIOFNICA (ALER)
(Latin American Association of Radio-Schools
A.S.E.R. Analysis of Systems of Radio Education

This is the official proposal for a rer.earch project being

supported by the International Developm~ut Research Center, UNESCO,
and the Secretariat for Social Communication (SEDECOS) of Chile .

' Thr ~~oject, to be directed from the ALER offices in Buenos Aires,
was due to begin in January 1979. The main purpose is to examine
the different systems of radio schools operating in Latn America.
The Directora of these schools have requested that the researchers
examine the question of participation as part of their study-
participation within the schools and participation of the schools in
the life of the local community.

,
S. ALVAREZ VASQUEZ, Edmundo and BUYSSE, Patrick. EL AREA DE JOCOTAN
,
ANALISIS DE SUS PROBLEMAS DE DESARROLLO,
,
DIAGNOSTICO DE SUS PROYECTOS DE ASISTENCIA,
Y SUGERENCIAS METODOL6GICAS. (The Area of
Jocotan :Analysis of its Development ~roblems
and Assistance Projects, and Methodological
Suggestions).

This study was undertaken 1974 while both authors were working
with the Belgian mission in the Jocotan area of Chiquimula, Guatemala,
Central America, This mission was established by Catholic priests,
religious and lay people from Belgium in 1959. The mission includes
spiritual attention to several parishes, a hospital, a radio dedicated
to literacy training and popular promotion, etc. The authors of the
study are extremely critica! of the overall activity of the mission,
which they regard as basically an "assistance" type of activity : they
consider that over the period that the mission has operated in the

- 91 -
area, its effectivenees ehould be cvident in the solution of sorne
of the more crit.ical problema of Jocotan. But this has not been
the case, and the authors suggest that the mission authorities should
undertake a re-evaluation of their work, and develop a new approach
to solving sorne of the critica! development problema that are not
being attacked today.

6. ANSORENA, Ignacio "La Extensin rural en el Desarrollo"

(Rural Extension in Development).
Desarrollo Rural en las Amricas
(Colombia) 4 (1) 80-96
Enero-Abril, 1972.

7. ARAUJO, Jos E. "La Reforma Agraria y la Empresa

Comunitaria" (Agrarian Reform and
Community Enterprise).
Desarrolla Rural en las Amricas,
II, 3 (1970) (Colombia) : 193-206.

This article examines the rural community enterprise. This form

of organization offers efficiency in production, costs, administra-
tion, planning, and conunercialization. It also facilitates integra-
tion of the peasants into comprehensive and humanitarian development
programmes. The social and political advantages of such enterprises
include improvements in connnunity organization, promotion of mutual
aid, and changes in the values and beliefs of the rural population.
Connnunity enterprises must have the following characteristics
(1) physical unity ; (2) associative form of production ; (3) collec-
tive decision-making ; (4) reversibility ; (5) assistance from the State,
through credit and te~hnical assistance.

- 92 -
8. AREVALO A., Manuel and VICTORIA LOPEZ, Freddy "Canales de
comunicacin que utilizan los campesinos del
Proyecto de Desarrollo del Altiplano de Bogot
de Nario". (Communication Channe 1s Used by the
Peasants in the Development Project of the
Highland of Nario).
Bolet!n de Investigacin Instituto Colombiano
Agropecuario, Programa de Comunicacin de Masas,
(Bogot~) No.18 1975, 53 p.

9. AJt.10VE, Robert
"Educacicfo y Participaci&n poltica en reas
rurales en Amrica Latina". (Education
and Political Participation in Rural Latin
America), Desarrollo Rural en las Amricas
(Colombia) V, 2 (1973) : 83-96.

The present system of education in Latin America cannot contribute

to greater individual political participation, nor add to national
capacity to overcome dependency and backwardness. Political ideology,
rather than the educational system, is the main determinant of a
couhtty's political development. Only profound political changes
will make it possible to create a system of education capable of
achieving social justice and promoting mase participation in the
benefits of modern society. Specifically, under a different setting
of social conditions and with different pedagogical strategies, schools
can play a dynamic role in preparing individuals to participate
actively in society. Such strategies should seek to : (1) terminate
the current role played by schools as custodians of the relations
of domination ; (2) modify the methodologies and curricula so as to
make them more adequate to meet national and regional needs (at

- 93 -
present elementary education is orientad towards continuing
education at higher levels) ; and (3) ensure access to education
far every rural child.

10. ARNOVE, Robert "Sociological Implications of Educational

Television" Journal of Communication
(U.S.A.) 25 (2) : Spring 1975

11. ASSMAN, Hugo "Evaluacin de algunos estudios latino-

americanos sobre comunicacin masiva,
con especial referencia a los escritos
de Armand Mattelart. (Evaluation of .Sorne
Latin American Studies on Mass Communi-
cation with Special Reference to the
Writings of Armand Mattelart). San Jos,
Costa Rica, 1974.

12. AZCUETA, Miguel "Comunicacin de Masas y Cultural Popular"

(Mase Communication and Popular Culture).
Paper presented to the first Latin
American Seminar on Co-operative Conununica-
tion, Garanhuns, Pernambuco, Brazil, 1978. 20 p.

The author, who is a member of the Centre far Popular Culture

in Villa El Salvador, Lima, discusses sorne of the issues relatad
to popular culture in Latin America. First, he discusses human
communication in general, and then how man has used the conununication
media. The struggle in Latin America is between masa culture and
popular culture and the author defines several of the characteristics
of both cultures. He urges the creation of more popular culture and
describes the Villa El Salvador experience as one experience of this
culture in operation.

- 94 -
 13. BARCELO, Victor M. "Cambios Requeridos para la mayor
participaci6n de grupos marginados en
los beneficios del Desarrollo"
(Required Changes far Great~r Participa-
tion of Harginal Groups in the Benefits
of Devclopment). Desarrollo Indo-
Americano, Xi, 32, (1976) : 42-50

In a world of dependency and capitalist development, national

economies may grow but not develop. Thus relatively rapid economic
growth in sorne parta of Latn America has not improved the standard
of living of a large segment of the population. Consequently, it is
necessary to discard economic models imported from the West, and
develop new ones more relevant to Latn America. These new modela
must provide mechanisms to ensure wider participation in economic
growth. Further, the State must adopt redistributive policies, such
as providing financial institutions to serve the needs of the p~0r 1

raising the interest earned on popular savings, providing technical

assistance and inputs to small farmers, instituting price controla,
and so forth.

14. BARRACLOUGH, Solon "Rol de las organizaciones agrarias en

programas de desarrollo rural" (The Role
of Agrarian Organizations in Rural
Development Progranunes). Desarrollo Rural
en las Amricas (Colombia) 11,2,(1970) :
160-180.

The organization of peasants is necessary to change agrarian

structures. Unfortunately, experience with rural co-operatives in
Latn America has been generally negative. Among the most significant
difficulties facing co-operatives are the following :

. 95 -
(1) emergence of new social strata, as sorne membPrs are excluded
fr~n the bcnefits and decisions;

(2) the tendency of government officials to monopolize decisions,

reflecting a greater concern with co-operative structure than
with co-operative education ;

(3) the often high cost per famil~' of ~reating and administering
co-operatives ;

(4) the absence of a strong co-operative structure for commerciali-

zation and processing.

Many of these problema can be remedied through appropriate government

policy. Examples of this would be policies to

(1) include in the planning procesa representatives of the dif ferent

compouents of the agricultural sector ;

(2) stimulate and strengthen peasant organizations so that they can

assume many of the functions carried out by government officials

(3) develop strong co-operative education by providing technical and

financial support necessary to build a co-operative structure for
commercialization and processing ; and
(4) create a national fund or bank to serve the agricultura) groups,
whose development is being stimulated.

15. BARRACLOUGH, Solon "Estrategia de Desarrollo Rural y Reforma

Agraria" (Rural Development Strategy and
Agrarian Reform). Desarrollo Rural en las
Amricas, (Colombia) IV, 1 (1972) : 61-79.

To accelerate economic growth and allow effective participation

of peasants, majar changes must occur in land tenure and the social
structure. Peasants must control the land they work, and through their
co-operative and political organizations, exert power over credit and

- 96 -
 marketing structures. Fundamental requisites far peasant participation
are adequate education, training, and technical assistance. Training
in farm management, accounting, and administration of co-operatives
and business is especially important.

16. BARRERA DE VELAZCO, Beatriz

"Utilizacibn de medios de comunicacicin
en el proceso de adopcin por los lderes
campesinos". {Use of Communication Media
in the Adoption Procesa by Peasant Leaders).
Tesis Licenciatura. Medelln, Universidad
de Antioquia, Facultad de Ciencias y
Humanidades, Departamento de Ciencias de la
Comunicacin, 1972, 91 p.

17. BARRIERO, Julio Educacin Popular y Proceso de Concientizacin

(Popular Education and the Procesa of
Consciousness-Raising) .Siglo XXI, Mexico, 1974

This book describes experiences in popular education carried

out in several countries of Latn America, and tries to systematize
these experiences and the different modela that have developed from
them. The greater part of the book deals with the four most relevant
points of what is today called popular education. Starting from an
educational praxis, it seems that this new educational principle
is being fulfilled, and is the main support of a liberating procesa
nobody educate~ anybody no one is educated alone ; people are educa-
ted among themselves ; in interaction with the world. At the time
it was shown that a real pedagogical praxis at the level of popular
education will facilitate consciousness-raising among the dominated
maeses and this is a political action capable of producing a genuine
liberation.

- 97 -

... '
 18. BEAULIEU, G.M. "AnJliais de la participacicfn de cuatro
instituciones en un proceso de difusin".
(Analysis of the Participation of Four
Institutione in the Diffusion Procese),

Tesis Mag. Turrialba, Instituto Interameri-

cano de Ciencias Agrcolas, Costa Rica,
1963, 63 p.

19. BELTRAN, Luis Ramiro "Communication and Modernization : The Case

of Latn America". World Conference of the
Society of International Development : XV
New Delhi, India, 1969, 40 p.

20. BELTRAN, Luis Ramiro "Las Polticas Nacionales de Comunicacin

en Amrica Latina. (National Communication
Policies in Latn America).
SENDIP, Bogot, Colombia, 1974, 37 p.

This paper was presented at a meeting of delegates to an

international seminar, the first course for state communicators
held in Bogotl, Colombia.

21. BELTRAN, Luis Ramiro "Rural Development and Social Communication :

Relationships and Strategies" in Communication
Strategies for Rural Development, Proceedings
of the Cornell-CIAT 1974 International
Symposium, Cornell University, Ithaca,
New York, 1974.

The author discusses t'.e two concepta, "development" and

"communication" and their relationship to development in Latn America.

- 98 -

L.
However, therc are several kinds of development, as there are several
kinds of communication, and the author propases a specific strategy
for the present reality of Latn America. At present in Latn America,
there are no overall annual plana for conununication in the service
of rural development, and the lack of these plana causes communication
strategies to support rural development actions on an insufficient,
sporadic, and unbalanced basis. There are competent people in the
area capable of developing appropriate communication strategies for
rural development, but it is important to develop these together with
the overall rural development strategy.

22. BELTRAN, Luis Ramiro "Conununications Research in Latn America

The Blindfolded Enquiry". Leipzig, 1974.

This paper was presented at the International Scientific

Conference on Mass Communication and Social Consciousness in a Changing
World, held at Leipzig. The author makes an analysis of conununication
research in Latn America and finds it severely wanting in ita efforts
to promete genuine human development. Referring to the classical
diffusion model, the author claims that it is based on an ideological
framework that contradicts the reality of Latn America.

23. BELTRAN, Luis Ramiro "Alen Premises, Objects, and Methods in

Latn American Communications Research" in
Connnunication and Development Ed. Everett M.
Rogers, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills,1976.

A considerable amount of communication research has been conducted

in Latn America, particularly since 1960. On the basis of several
critiques of this, the author analyses its basic premises, constructs,
modela, and methodologies in relation to connnunication research in
the United States. The analysis points to the generally negative outcome
of this influence, resulting from the uncritical transfer of United States

- 99 -
 conceptual frameworks and methodological patterns to Latin American
contexts. The author concludes by identifying sorne substantially new
approaches to conmunication research being developed in Latin America
itself, and suggests the possibility of building in this region a
social science and a science of communication that would achieve social
transformation.

24. BELTRAN, Luis Ramiro "Social Structure and Rural Conununication

in Latn America : The Radiophonic Schools
of Colombia". in Cornrnunication for Group
Transforrnation in Development, East West
Center Conununication Institute, Honolulu,1976.

This paper is an overview of rural development conununication in

Colombia, and concentrates on a critical analysis of ACPO (Popular
Cultural Act~on), a Catholic-inspired organization established in
1947, which today constitutes a nation-wide system of multimedia
education for rural development, and which is principally known for
its "radiophonic scho.ols". ACPO defines itself as an action progranune,
a development agency and a social movement. The ideology of ACPO
basically
(1) puts the blame of backwardness on the individual's personality
(independant from the culture imposed by society)\
(2) identifies the locus of underdevelopment in the person's mind; and
(3) consequently takes the transformation of individual mentality
as the point of departure for development.
Thus it emphasizes the growth of individuals and small groups and
expects overall social transformation eventually to occur as a product
of the long-term aggregation of individual progresa.
In regard to these objectives, the author suggests that unless there
is genuine structural reform in Latn America, there will be no
significant change made by strategies such as that of ACPO.

- 100 -

; .
 25. BELTRAN, Luis Ramiro et al.
"Bibliografa sobre Investigaciones en
Comunicacid'n para el Desarrollo Rural en
Amrica Latina (Bibliography on Communica-
tion Research far Rural Development in
Latn America). Centro Internacional de
Investigacin para el Desarrolle,
Bogota, Colombia, 1976.

This bibliography lists 468 books, articles, dissertaions and other

papers related to the theme of communication and rural development.

26. BENITEZ DE CASTRO, Cecilia

Poltica de Participaci'n (Participation
Policy). Ed. Universitaria de Buenos Aires.
Buenos Aires, 1969, 17Sp.

27. BLAIR, Enrique "La decisi&n poltica y la participaci~n

popular" (Political Decision and Popular
Participation). Desarrollo Rural en las
Amricas, (Colombia) 11,3 (1971) : 29-34.

This is the inaugural address of the 6th meeting of the Directora

of Agrarian Reform of the Central American Statesheld in Panama
City in 1970. The speaker discusses the rural and agrarian reform
programmes implemented in Central America during the 1960s. Despite
a decade of efforts to resolve the area's social, economic and poli-
tical problema, its population is hungrier than ever and continues to
suffer high unemployment. The speach emphasizes that reform of
the agricultura! structure is a prerequisite far economic growth
and social progresa. Democracy and social peace will only be
achieved through an equitable and efficient combination of economic
programmes and resources, with the participation of the majority of
the population.

- 101-

_,,,
28. BODENSTEDT A. Andreas Ed.
Self-Help - lnstrurnent or Objective in
Rural Developrnent. Research Center for
International Agrarian Developrnent,
Federal Republic of Gerrnany, 1976 - 120 p.

In response to a requast from the Federal Republic of Gerrnany's

Ministry for Economic Co-operation, the author develops his paper as
one of a series that try to meet the Ministry's request for an
observation report on the efficiency of self-help organizations in
regard to income distribution and ernployrnent. The first part of the
paper deals with the conceptual question of what is self-help.
Self-help always derives from an appraisal of a situation leading to
the conclusion that it is impossible, inadvisable, or simply less
advantageous, to expect a solution to a given prob]ern "frorn above".
Self-help organizations attempt to obtain "participation" of the
population, which properly speaking is indispensable for successful
development. The author concludes that if we are concerned in suppor-
ting and encouraging the mobilizing and integrating effects of self-
help, then we must pay particular attention to two dimensiona of
effectiveness that are both practicable and of strategical irnportance
(a) the instrumental capabilities of various kinds of self-help orga-
nization;and
(b) the parameters of the social system and social experiences.

29. BONANNI, Camilla "Participatory Approach in Planning Lccal

Developrnent Projects : Sorne Thoughts Based
on the Experience Gained in San Miguel and
Morazln, (El Salvador, Central America).
UNESCO, 1974, 12 p.

The author defines participation in planning as the translation

of national developmental goals into local developmental objectives
with the concurrence and participation of the population and, conse-
quently, as the procese by which congruence between national planning

- 102 -
pol'J.i.:y uml communlt;y uxpuctnt.:ione l.1:1 11ltL1111ptod. 'l'ho 1rnthor thon discussus
somo nepm:ta of thia projm~t in 111 8111.vador, ite oporntionnl structuroa,
both nt 11 Jocnl, rogional 11ml nntionnl lovol. Grentor purticipation has
boon hi ndorud, lllllc>ng othur tl1ings hy :
(1) lock of nwnronoss ut rogionul anc.l nntionnl lovols of thll roal expecta-
tions of thc population ;
(2) lack or true participation of the population at the planning levol
(3) lack of intogrutod institucional planning ;
(4) lack of feod-back, and inefficiency of the training activities.

30. BONILLA, Victor'D, et al.

"Causa Popular, ciencia popular ; una metodologa
del conocimiento cientfico a traves de la nccin.
Bogot5, La Rosca, 1972, 78 p. (Serie : Pro ah! es la
Cosa No. 2).

31. BRAUN, Juan Ricardo

"Comunicaci'n y educacin no formal en Latinoamrica :
Las Escuelas radiofnicas del Ecuador y la participa-
cin campesina". (Communication and Non-formal Educa-
tion in Latn America : The Radio-Schools of Ecuador and
Peasant Participation). Buenos Aires, 1975.

32. BRAUN, Juan Ricardo

"La Participacin campesina en programas de educaci;n
no formal - El sistema Tarci. (Participation of Farmers
in Non-formal Education Programmes. The Tarci System).
Revista Chasqui. No. 14, CIESPAL, Quito, 1976.

33. BRAUN, Juan Ricardo

"La Participacion campesina en programas de educacion
no formal - El sistema Tarci. (Participation of Farmers
in Non-formal Education Programmes. The Tarci System).
Revista Chasqui. No. 14, CIESPAL, Quito, 1976.

- 103 -
34. CARDOSO, Fornundo "Depcnclency and Devolopment in Lntin America"
New Loft Roviow, 74, (1972) pp.193-226.

35. Q\STIBLANCO C. Luis A.

"Estudio de la Participacin de los usuarios
de las agencias de desarrollo rural de
Mariquita y Mata-aima en la programacin de
base", (Study of User Participation of the
Development Agencies in Mariquita and Mata-
aima in Loca] Programming), Colombia, ICA,
1975, 61 p.

36. CASTRO, Leandro "Las cooperativas del campo y el mercadeo de

los productos agrarios" (Rural Co-operatives
and Marketing of Agricultura! Products).
Revista de Estudios Agro-Sociales, XII, 44
(1963) : 99 - 118.

Agricultural co-operatives are the most viable way far small-

scale f armers to defend themselves against powerful non-agrarian
organizations and enterprises. After studying the various activities
undertaken by agrarian co-operatives in Spain, the author examines the
conditions far successfully beginning a co-operative. In his view,
these are :
(1) increasing the earnings members receive from the scale of their
products
(2) reducing the price or increasing the quality of products bought
by members ;
(3) offering new and better services; and
(4) giving more equitable treatment to members.

37. CENTRO DE COMUNICACIN SOCIAL "JESUS MARIA PELLIN". "Comunicacin

y Marginalidad (Conununication and Marginality").
No. 12 of Revista Comunicacion, Caracas, 1977.

- 104 -
 This issue of the journal is dedicated to a study of margi-
nality and communication. The authors suggest that the vast majority
of the popular maeses live in a state of non-communication in their
relationship with the mase media. They then proceed to examine
sorne initiatives in popular conununication in one sub-marginal sector
of Caracas . A local group has started a local newspaper with
the expressed purpose of serving the needs of this sector of the
city. A brief analysis of this newspaper is made, and the authors
find that it is responding to the expectations of the public from
this marginal area.

38. CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS EDUCATIVOS " Evaluacin de los Efectos del

uso de medios de comunicacin masiva en
.
' suburbana : El caso de
la promoc1on
IMDEC - Santa Cecilia (Evaluation of the
Effects of the Use of Conununication Masa
Media in Sub-u~ban Promotion - The Case
of IMDEC - Santa Cecilia).
Centro de Estudios Educativos, Mxico
1976, 175 P

In a marginal sub-urban area of Guadalajara city, IMDEC

(Mexican Institute for Community Development),a prvate non-profit
1naking agency has been working for several years in connnunity
development. lts main activities have been co-operatives and educa-
tion. In 1974, the Inter~american Foundation gave this institution
a grant to enable it to establish a conmunication laboratory to aid
the development efforts. This centre was established and its acti-
vities over a period of two years included : popular theatre, popu-
lar festivals, song,.film forum, elides etc. The Inter-american
Foundation requested an evaluation which was unaertaken by the
Mexican Centre for Educational Studies .in 1976. The first problem
that the researchers had to face was a lack of specific objectives

- 105 -
for the different promotion strategies being carried out in the
area. The promotion activities mentioned above are reaching a
relatively small number of people in the area (the same people
are often in different groups), andas the number of promotcrs
is relatively reduced, the evaluators suggest more extensive use
of the media. The popular festival has been one of the more succes-
ful ventures~ but in a Barrio as populous as Santa Cecilia, relatively
few people attend. The evaluator's main concern is with the origin
of the people who live in the Barrio. Although they originally
came from rural Mexico, they now consider themselves as urban
Mexicana, and thus the constant effort by the project promoters to
re-evaluate the people's past seems to be misdirected. It is not
that the people reject their past, but they want to live their present.

39. CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION "An Approach to Non-

Formal Education", University of
Massachusetts, 1975, 224 p.

This is an overall report on the non-formal education project

undertaken by the School of Education of the University of
Massachusetts, in Ecuador during the years 1971-74. The report
discusses the main features of this project : the "facilitator"
model, the goal of critical consciousness, the many educational
games that were developed, the use of the photonovela and radio,
and the final difficulties at an institutional level that partly
contributed to the termination of the project.

40. CENTRO INTERNATIONAL DE MEJORAMIENTO DE MAZ Y TRIGO "The

Puebla Projec t" : Seven Years of
Experienc~ 1967-73. El Bat~n, M~xico
1974, 120 p.

The Puebla Project was far several years ene of the most
discussed and examined projects of rural development in all Latn

- 106 -
America. During these years the project was adminiAtered by the
lnternational Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT). This
report discusses the philosophy, objectives, organizat~on, operation
and accomplishment of the project. The initial focus of an
increased maize production has widened, to encompass the broader
development objectives of increased net income, greater employment
opportuni ti es, and impro'ved general welfare of rural f arnilies.

41. CHAIN, Beverly J. "An Analytical Description of Three

Adult Literacy Programe in Bolivia,
Honduras and Guatemala". Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University,
u.s.A. 1974, 330 p.

The author undertook a study of three literacy methods in

three different Latn American countries. The methods were :
(a) government methods ;
(b) the Alf alit methodr and
(e) the psychosocial method
The three selected countries were : Honduras, Guatemala and Bolivia.
According to the author, the goverrunent model is essentially a
formal-school approach to literacy training, Alfalit is a self-
instructional approach, and the psychosocial is essentially a conmunity-
oriented approach.

42. CHENERY, Hollis et al. Redistribution with Growth, Oxford

University Presa, London, 1974.

43. CHESTERFIELD, Ray A.and RENDDLE, Kenneth R.

"El uso de canales indgenas de comunica-
ci6n en el desarrollo rural venezolano
(The Use of IndigenouA Comnunication
Channels fr Rural Development in Venezuela).

- 107 -
 Revista Chasqui, CIESPAL, Quito, 1976.

44. CHILCOTE, Ronald "Dependency : A Critical Synthesis of

the Literatura", Latin American
Perspectiva I, (1974), pp. 4-29.

,
45. CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE ESTUDIOS SUPERIORES EN PERIODISMO PARA AMERICA LATINA
Serie : Comunicaci~n y Sociedad (Series
Cormnunication and Society), Seminario
Comunicaci&n y Salud, 1976, 98 p.

46, '
CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE ESTUDIOS SUPERIORES EN PERIODISMO PARA AMERICA LATINA
Serie : Comunicaci&n y Sociedad (Series
Communication and Society), Seminario
Comunicaci&n Grupal, 1977, 62 p.

47. '
CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE ESTUDIOS SUPERIORES EN PERIODISMO PARA AMERICA LATINA
(CIESPAL),
Infonne Preliminar de los grupos de trabajo del
Primer Seminario Latinoamericano de Comunicaci6n
Participatoria".
(Preliminary Report of the First Latn
American Seminar on Participatory Communication).
CIESPAL, Quito, 1978, 13 p.

Threeworking groups were established during the seminar.

The first group examinad conceptual questions and the politice of
participatory co11DDunication. This group stated that the majority
of the projects in participatory co11DDunication are at present

- 108 -
being supported by international aid agencies, which have their own
objectives a.e regards these projects. The second group discussed
implementation , planning and methodology for participatory connnuni-
cation. They proposed a series of nine basic conditions for the
success of a participatory project. The third group discussed
research and referred to the need for participation in this area
if it forme part of a project.

48. CLIFFORD, Roy A. "Las Organizaciones de base y el desarrollo"

(Grass-roots Organizations and Development),
Desarrollo Rural en las Amricas, 111,
1 (1971) 45-52.

Campesino (peasant) organizations in some Latn American

countries have served as important channels for rural populations
in development. This article analyses some variables associated
with the effectiveness of peasant organizations. These include
(1) pursuing objectives that put special emphasis on individual
development and social changa ; (2) building on a connnon territorial
base ; and (3) adapting their activities to concrete social conditions.
More specifically, the peasant movement has to be directed towards
unionization and the elaboration of a campesino political platform.
This has to be articulated through the responsable action of campesinos
with class consciousness. They have to elaborate a strategy to
achieve new social, economic, political, juridical and cultural
structures that allow them increasing opportunities for active
political particip~tion. Experience in Latn America shows that
campesino organizations can better serve their purposes when formed
on the basis of previously established groups at the local level, or
at least taking into consideration traditional geo-political divi-
sions. An organization that can 11fluence the local structures is
in an excellent position to defe:;J itself from external threats.

- 109 -
Finally, campesino organizations should orient their activities so
as to take advantage of the interdependence of social structures,
thereby defending themselves from negative reactions.

49. COHEN, M. John !!....!l.!. "Participation at the Local Level

A Working Bibliography. Cornell
University, Rural Development
Committee, Ithaca, 1978.

This extensive bibliography containsone hundred entries on

the following themes :
(1) Participation and Development
(2) Local Organization ;
(3) Local Leadership and Elites
(4) Political Participation ;
(5) Political Factora Affecting Participation
(6) Social Factora Affecting Participation ;
(7) Institutional Context of Participation ;
(8) Participation and CoD1Dunity Development.
Finally, there are two additional sections : (a) French Sources on
Participation, and (b) Spanish Sources on Participation. There is
no direct reference to participation and communication however.

50. COHEN M. John and Normal T. Uphoff

"Rural Development Participation :
Concepta and Measures far Project
Design, Implementation and Evaluation.
Cornea Univerdty",Rural Development
Committee. Ithaca, New York, 1977 317p

In 1976, The Agency far International Development (AID) gave

- 110 -
the Rural Development Committee of Cornell University a grant "to
organize a study of what would most fruitfully be regarded as parti-
cipation with respect to rural development efforts such as might
be assisted by AID and ,,,,,,,, to consider analytical approaches
and indicators that might be used by mission personnel to measure the
participation component of their projects." This first monograph
provides a conceptual framework far the analysis of participation
in a variety of settings, it avoids ideological argumenta and tries
to set their perspective somewhere between a "theoretical treatise on
participation and an operational acherne ready to be applied straightaway
by development practitioners and scholars". There is no reference to
the question of connnunication strategies as such. Questions are asked
about the "who", the "what" and the "how" of participation in development
projects.

51. COLLE, Royal D. "The Frontiers of Communication" in

Communication Strategies far Rural
Development, Cornell University, Ithaca,
New York, 1974, 280 p.

This paper was prepared far the Cornell-CIAT meeting in 1974.

The author discusses what are some of today's technology "frontiers"
in conununication. He accepts the need to transfer more control
from the sendera to the receivers and suggests that cassette technology
offers many possibilities. He mentions sorne of the many uses of
cassettes in Latn America tod~y. He aleo makes reference to other
media, such as radio, television, battery-powered projectors, simple
motion pictures and satellites. He sees in the future other technologies
in the service of rural development, such as : broadband cable connnu-
nications systems, computer-operated newspaper systems, etc. However,
there are sorne important frontiers to cross befare we can reach that
"someday" of the future. And strangely enough, it may be that

- 111 -
 the most important things on those frontiers will not be complex,
sophisticated and expensive technology. Instead they may be the
simple equipment and techniques that give rural people themselves
a chance to have more control and be an important participant in the
communication procese.

52. COLLE, Royal D. "Cassette Special Communication Systems":

A Preliminary Inventory and Outlook for
their Use in Rural Development. Paper
prepared for the International
Conf erence on "Non-Formal Education and
the Rural Poor", Michigan State University,
Michigan, 1976, 16p.

Conmunication is the key ingredient in efforts to organize,

educate, train, motivate and involve rural people in development
progranmes. But there is a severe shortage of resources everywhere,
both traditional and modern. This paper attempts a preliminary inven-
tory of some of the ways audio cassette technology is being used to
create "special cassette communication systems" for reachins people
who are of ten overlooked by both extension agencies and mase media.

53. COLLE, Royal D and Susana Fernandez de Colle

"The Communication Factor in Health and
Nutrition Pro~ral1Dlles : A Case Stu~y
from Guatemala". Paper prepared for the
World Health Organization, 1977.
This project, known as the "Pila Project", was financed by
the Pan American Health Organization and operated in Guatemala.
The programme was directed at women because they generally make the
basic decisiona on food and hygienic practices in the Guatemalan
houaehold. Audio cassettes were chosen as the medium because they

- 112 -

.j.

.f
~-
.

L
 cost little, are simple to operate, and can be played at any time.
Non professional actors were used to produce 30-minute programmes
combining health information, music, radio novela and miscellaneous
spot announcements. Progranuning was deliberately repetitious, so
that women who were working at the "pila" (fountain where women
wash clothes) would be likely to hear specific messages. Successive
days' progranunes often expanded on themes of the preceding days.
An evaluation of the series suggested that it had been very successful.

54.
" . . . .
COMISION ECONOMICA PARA AMERICA LATINA (Economic Conun1ss1on for
Latn America). "Participacin popular
y principios de desarrollo de la comunidad
en relaci~n a la aceleracin del desarrollo
economico y social (Popular Participation
&nd Principles of Community Development
in Relation to the Acceleration of Econo-
mic and Social Development). Boletn
Econmico para Amrica Latina. XI, 2
(1964) 225-256.
The article summarizes points made at the Latn American Seminar
on the Role of Comrnunity Development in the Acceleration of Economic
and Social Development (1964). It discusses the role of popular
participation in development, focusing on the potential of conscious
and organized local involvement in specific development projects.

55. CRAWFORD, Robert H. and William B. Ward (Editora)

Connnunication Strategies for Rural Development.
Proceedings of Cornell-CIAT seminar, Ithaca,
1974.

This publication contains the proceedings of the International

Symposium organized at Cali, Colombia, by CIAT and Cornell in 1974.
Sorne ten papera were presented at this symposium dealing with issues

- 113 -

;~ .
such as : social structure and communication strategiea in rural
development ; developing a communication progranune, and popular
participation in feedback systems. The symposium was aleo a meeting
place for people with different views on the problema of rural
development. The Latn American group stressed the need for structural
change in most of their papera, while the Cornell group stressed
better operational systems, use of technology, and reform of the tra-
ditional extension model.

56. CUELLAR G., David et al.

"Anlisis de la investigacin y de la
aplicacin del "difusionismo", (Analysis
of Rsearch and the Application of
"Diffusionism". Segunda Reunio de los
Comunicadores Rurales, Cali, Colombia,
1971, llp.

57. CUJIA M., Carlos "Canales de Comunicacin que utilizan

los campesinos del Proyecto de Desarrollo
en la Zona Bananera" (Communication
Channels Used by Peasants in the Banana
Zone Projects). Tesis Mag. Se. Bogot~
Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Insti-
tuto Colombiano Agropecuario, Programa de
Comunicacin de Masas. Bolet!n de
Investigacion, No 28. 1974. 91 p.

58. de JANVRY, Alain "The Political Economy of Rural Development

in Latn America : An Interpretation".
American Journal of Agricultura! Economice
Vol. 57, n 3 Aug. 1975, pp. 490-499

59. DIAZ B. Juan "Extensin, Comunicacin y Desarrollo",

IICA-CIRA. Bogot,, Colombia, 1969.

- 114 -
60, DIAZ BORDENAVE, Juan "CornunicacicSn y Desarrollo (Cornrnunication
and Development), Unpublished paper.

The author examined the development modele operating in society

toda y
(a) development as growth in resources ;
(b) development as change in social institutions and value systerns
(c) development as change induced by outside agente
(d) development as structural changes in society ;
(e) structuralist-personalist model of development.
Communication which operates together with development has a specific
role to play in each of the above modele. Diaz Bordenave rnakes
sorne suggestions far a participatory approach to communication in
deve lopmen t.

61. DIAZ BORDENAVE, J'uan "Novas Tcnicas para desenvolvimento da

comunica~ao no meio rural (New Techniques
far the Development of Communication in
the Rural Areas). Unpublished paper, 1978.

62. DIAZ BORDENAVE, Juan "Aspectos Polticos e Implicaciones

Polticas de la Comunicacin
Participatoria" (Political Aspects
and Political Implications of Participato-
ry Communication). Paper presented at
the First Latin American Seminar on
Participatory Connnunication, CIESPAL,
Quito, 1978, 26 p.

In these Latin American countries, connnunication generally

plays the role of a support mechanism far the political and economic
power structures. Participatory communication faces a difficult
task in this environment. The ideal would be first to achieve
self-development in both the political and the economic reality,

- 115 -
so as then to work towards self-management in the communication system.

63. DIAZ BORDENAVE, Juan "Training in Communicati.on for Rural Develop-

ment Personnel", in Development Communication
in the Rural Areas :
Strategies and modele, Rio de Janeiro, 1974.

Training in communication is an important ingredient in all

development programmes. Here the author propases the problem-solving
or pedagogical approach, as more appropriate. The important element
is that the two fundamental goals of rural development be respected
growth of people as human beings and solving their problema. The
solution of probl~ms is attempted through training personnel of three
related sub-syscems : the local community, the intermediary services,
and the solutfon centres.

64. DIAZ BORDENAVE, Juan "Communication and Adoption of Agricultural

Innovations in Latn Americd~ in :
Communications Strategies for Rural
pevelopment Cornell University, Ithaca, 1974.

In general, Latn America is far behind in the development of

its rural and agricultura! potential required by the extraordinary
growth of its population and the imperatives of better living condi-
tions far future generations. New and serious thinking is required
to overcome the problema of agricultura! development, including the
need for a new communication strategy.

65. DIAZ BORDENAVE, Juan "Teleduyacao e cultura popular" Teledu-

cation and Popular Culture, Ro de
Janeiro, 1975. 18 p.

- 116 -
<><>. IHA:t. UOlUllrnAVli!, Juun C.:ommunicacion uml Rural Dovolopmonc
UN~SCO, 1977, 107p.

'l'hl.1:1 Unusco publicac.on concains a brief reviow of communica-

cion and rural dovolopmenc. A socond secticn deals with case studies
in con1nunication and rural developmenc, including studies from
Colombia, Brazil and Peru. A final section deals with a critical
analysis of these studies. Tha author looks at such aspects as
reasons far the project, sponsorship, cliente, organization, media and
their use.

67. DIAZ BORDENAVE, Juan and MARTINS PEREIRA, Adair

Estrategias de Ensino-Aprendizagem
(Strategies for Learning and TeachinP,),
Editorial Vozes Ltda Petropolis, Brazil.

68. DIAZ Heliodoro. et al.

"Connnunication and Institutional Change in
Mexican Agricultural Development". World
Congress for Rural Sociology. III, Baton
Rouge, Louisana, August 1972, 27p.

69. DOS SANTOS, Theotonio

"The Structure of Dependence", American
Economic Review, 60, 1970 : 231-236.

69. . DO VALLE, Raul "Comunicaci6n de Experiencia participativa

en el campo de Desarrollo Rural"
(Connnunication of a Participatory Expe-
rience in Rural Development) . Paper
presentad in the First Latn American
Seminar of Participatory Communication,
CIESPAL, Quito, 1978.

- 117 -
 This is tho l1istory of an experienco that was dosigned as
purticipatory but novor bocame operational, thc main cause boing
the bureaucratic structure that nevar. allowed any personal initia-
tive on the part of the rural people. The author discusses the
particular dif ficulty of obtaining participatory communication
experiences in institutional settings.

70. DUBLY, Alan Evaluacion de las Escuelas Radiofonicas

de Pichincha - Tabacuhndo. (The Evaluation
of the Radio-Schoola of Pichincha-
Tabacundo) Instituto Ecuatoriano para el
Desarrollo Social , Quito, 1973 INEDES
INEDES completad an evaluation of the radio-schools of
Ecuador in 1973. This evaluation included an historical perspective
of the schools, present administration, relationships with other
institutions, present progrannning and the resulta of their efforts
in contributing to a better standard of living for the rural
population of Ecuador. This first report refers to the radio-
schools in Pichincha -Tabacundo. The general impression is that
they continue to work through traditional literacy methods and
there is very little consciousness-raising as such, or involvement
in the human, social,economic and polftical problema of the community.

71. DUBLY, Alan Evaluacjn de las Escualas Radio[nicas -

Populares de Riobamba. (Evaluation of the
Popular RadioSchools of Riobamba).
INEDES, Quito, 1973, 70p.

72. DUBLY, Alan Evaluaci6n de las Escuelas Radiofnicas

de Sucua "Radio Federacin". (Evaluation of
the RadioSchools of Sucua "Radio Federa-
cion). INEDES, Quito, 1973. 52p.

- 118 -
 73. DUllLY, Alan Evaluaciun de las Escuelas Radiofnicas
do Riobamba, Sucua y Tabacundo, (Evaluation
of tho Radio-Schools of IHobamh11, Sucull and
Tabacundo), Informe da Sntesis, INEDES
Quito, 1973, 97p.
This final report is a synthesis of the three separata evalua-
tion reporta. It includes the common charactaristics of the radio-
schools and sorne general comments on them. It aleo has a chapter
on recomrnendations, and sorne suggested changas in these institutions.
Among the suggestions is one for greater centralization, perhaps a
single radio to cover all three institutions, aleo a national progranune
production centre. There is little direct reference to participation
or participatory conununication strategies as such, and no suggestion
far leaving the radio in the hands of the campesinos, or progranuning,
for that matter.

74. DUHOURQ, Carlos Alberto

"Proyecto DEYCOM : Un intento de comu-
nicacin popular (DEYCOM Project An
Attempt at Popular Conununication).
Revista del Centro de Investigacin y
Accin Social (Argentina)21 (215)
17-19 August 197.2.

75. ECHEVERRIA, Castillo F. et al.

Ideologa y Medios de Comunicacin
Amorrortu Editores, Buenos Aires, 1973.
(Ideology and Communication Media)

76. EL-BUSHRA , Judy and Susan Perl

. "Family Plarming Education in Action
Some Community Centered Approaches"
International Extenson College, Interna-
tional Planned Parenthood Federation, 1976.

- 119 -
77, ENCLADA, Marco "Marginalidad y Medios Masivos en la
Sierra del Ecuador" (Marginality and
Mase Media in the Highlands of Ecuador)
CIESPAL, Quito 1977.

78. ESPINOZA ROJAS, Ignacio et al.

"Evaluacion de Folletos : Anllisis de
Lecturabilidad" (Evaluation of Manazines
Analysis of Readability). Ministerio de
Agricultura y Pesquer{a, Ecuador.
1969, 17p.

79. FALS BORDA, Orlando "El Liderazgo Rural y la Reforma Agraria"

(Rural Leadership and Agrarian Reform).
Estudios Agrarios, 111, 8 (1964) : 133-144.

The most prominent characteristic of informal leaders (rural)

are that they identify themselves with their followers and exert
influence through primary relationships. Local leaders gencrally
occupy strategic points in the comnunity, understand its problema,
and tend to maintain the statu qua , Their conservatism is attribu-
table to their age, and younger leaders are emerging only in connnuni-
ties in rapid transition. Agrarian reform should begin by identifying
informal leaders (e.g., through sociometric methods), who are most
effective in forming attitudes among campesinos. Subsequently, these
leaders should be given ideological training in the benef its of
agrarian reform, and technical training in agricultural extension.
Finally, these informal leaders should be made formal leaders of
campesino organizations. This strategy is designed to win widespread
acceptance of I'llral development activities, and must, of course,
remain flexibleso as to adapt to unique local conditions.

- 120 -
 80. FANON, Frantz Tho Wrotchod of the Earth. Grave Presa,
Now York, 1963.

81. FEDERACI6N NACIONAL DE CAFETERO~ DE COLOMBIA. Revista

Cafetera de Colombia,Nos 146-147-148
Temas : Grupos de Amistad (Friendehip
Groups) Bogot, Colombia.

In these publications the basic characterietics of the Friend-

ship Groups are outlined, As the name implies, these are gr.aupe of
f armers united by sorne bond of friendship, who come together to
receive information, courses and experimental demonstration coffee-
growing plots. The advantage of this approach comparad with the
traditional extension approach, is that friendship groups are basic
primary working groups. They know one another and are often members
of the same family. They work together and thus share their new
knowledge, and when it comes to experimenting with sorne new technology,
they discuss the matter among themselves. Studies in Colombia have
shown that these friendship groups work successfully in the cof fee-
growing areas of Colombia.

82. FELSTEHAUSEN, Herman "Economic Knowledge, Participation and

Farmer Decision-makingin a Developed and
Under-Developed Country". lnternational
Journal of Agrarian Affaire. 5 (4) July 1968.

83. FERRARA, Miguel Angel"Programacin de la comunicacin social

para el desarrollo rural" (Prograrmning
Social Communication for Rural Development).
Desarrollo Rural en las Amricas, 111,3
(1971) : 63-75.

- 121 -

.,,

'
if~\'.'.~-- ... .....'" . . . . ,!.,
_
 Thc author examines the role of Aocial communication in rural
devclopment. It is a means of pronroting and lcgitimating popular
participation in decision-making and achieving community development.
Social communication aleo has thc potential to create awareness of
socio-economic problema and to mobilize public opinion against
underdevalopment. In this context, social comrnunication refers to
the means utilizad by the government and other institutions to
promete greater awareness of the importance of rural development.
A social communication plan should :
(1) encourage the people to contribute ideas and efforts far social
changa ;
(2) promete the formation and co-operation of local ly basad organizations ;
(3) stimulate the creation of mechanisms for popular participation in
decision-making ;
(4) stimulate coumunity-wide organizations that facilitate the ability
of people to influence or direct governmental actions ;
(5) define objectives and orient national plana towards increased
emphasis on popular participation.

84. FLORES QUIROZ, Luis "La Empresa comunitaria y la participacin

campesina" (The Conununity Enterprise and
Peasant Participation). Desarrollo Rural
en las Amricas, VI, 3 (1974) : 77-95

Many agrarian reforme have led to peasant participation in

economic growth. These reforme failed because they did not meet
the needs of a significant proportion of the peasantry, and because
they often created new forme of poverty and privilege. To avoid
these problema, the new strategy in Latin America is to transfer
ownership of large production units to rural communities. Those
working the land may thus control disposal of the agricultural surplus.
This strategy enables peasants to share in economic growth, ensures
that agrarian activities will meet social needs, and yet does not
generate new forme of social stratif ication.

- 122 -
 85. FOOD ANO AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
"People's Participation in Development".
Vals. 1 and 2, Proceedings of the Asian
Regional Workshop. India, 1973.

86, FOOD ANO AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION

"The Participation of Local Volunteers
in Rural Development in Africa : A
Luxury or Necessity ? FAO, Reme.

These two reporta from the FAO, one based on experiences in

Asia and the other on experiences in Africa, can contribute ideas
and strategies far Latn America. Both continente are also
struggling with the problem of participation of the popular masses
in their development. These publications highlight the search for
new approaches to participatory development.

87. FORDHAM, Paul, POULTON, Geoff and RANDLE, Lawrence,

"A question of Participation : Action
and Research in the New Communities
project. Journal Canvergence (Canada)
7 (2) : 54-69. 1975.

88. FRASER, Coln "Technology for Participatory Communication".

Paper presented at the First Latn
American Seminar on Participatory
Communication. CIESPAL, Quito, 1978.

The author discusses the uses of some group media in a strategy

for participatory development (audio-cassette technology, elides
sets, filmstrips, portable video-tape, etc.).

89. FREIRE, Paulo Pedagogy of the Qppressed, Herder and

Herder, New York 1972.

- 123 -

:.'
f -
''t".
<:..
 Thie book is considerad the moet generativa etatement of Paulo
Freire'e "conecioueneee-raising" concept,and Freira himeelf admite
continual growth beyond sorne of ite early tenete. Baeed on the expe-
rience of teaching illiteratee not only to read and write but to arti-
culate and act upon their social situation, a theory of the relation-
ehip between oppreseive eysteme and oppreesive relationshipe (specifically,
the teacher-student) is developed. Learning is seen as a political pro-
cesa, dialectically relating the person to the world, through action and
reflexion (or praxis).

90. FREIRE, Paulo Conscientization : Cultural Action

for Freedom (Parta 1, 11, 111) Harvard
Educational Review. Cambridge {Mase.)
1971.
These are important references for those wishing to use
Freire's methodology in developing situations. Freire rejects mecha-
nistic conceptions of the adult literacy procese, advocating a
theory and practice based on authentic dialogue between teachers
and learners. He puts a new perspectiva on the learning circle, the
role of bot~ teacher and learner, and more importantly, the objectives
of learning itself.

91. FREIRE, Paulo Extensin o Comunicacin. La concien-

tizacin en el Medio Rural {Consciousness-
raising or Cohnnunication, Conscientization
in the Rural area). Siglo XXI, Mexico, 1973.
Freire starts this book with a discussion on the different con-
cepta and meanings of 'extension'. He relates its use in Latin America
to the 'cultural invasion' that includes the whole approach to
rural development. He then discusses the question of land reform
and the two concepta 'extension' and 'cormnunication'. He indicates

- 124 -
 that the educational action of the a8ronomist, as indeed of all
teachere, is profoundly a communication action, that is, if we really
want to reach man as a person and in his historical reality. All
education, and thus extension, rnust lead to the hurnanization of
man, through a praxis of action and reflexion.

92. FREIRE, Paulo "La Alfabetizaci'n de Adultos. Bogot

IICA-CIRA, Material Didactico No 63,
1969 10 p. (The Literacy of Adulta).

93. FREIRE, Paulo "La Concepcio bancaria de la educaci~n

y la deshumanizacin. La concepci&n
problematizadra de la educacion 11
(The Banking Concept of Education and
Dehumanization The Problem Concept of
Education). Bogot, IICA-CIRA, Material
Didctico No.67, 1969 , 7p.

94. FREIRE Paulo "Sobre la Accin Cultural ; ensayos

escogidos". Santiago de Chile, Insti-
tuto de Capacitacin e Investigacin
en Reforma Agraria, 1969, 182 p.
(Selected writings about Cultural Action).

95. FREIRE, Paulo and "The Pedagogy of the Oppressed. The Oppression
ILLICH, Ivan of Pedagogy". Geneva, Institute of
Cultural Action - IDAC, Document n 8,
1975 ' 40p.

Publications Nos. 92 to 95 of this bibliography are further

clarifications or advances in the thoughts of Paulo Freire.

- 125 -
.i!
i .

,.
J :-,.,
 96. GARCIA, Antonia "Puede existir una ciencia social latino-
americ.lna" ? (Can a Latin-american
Social Science Exist ?). Revista Chasqui,
(Ecuador) CIESPAL No, 1:31-38 , 1972.

97. GERACE L. Frank Comunicacin horizontal, (Horizontal

Cornmunication). Cambio de Estructuras
y Mobilizacin Social. Studium, Lima,
Peru, 1973.

This work by Gerace is one of the first efforts to describe

the many attempts at participatory communication in the sub-urban
sectors of Lima , Bolivia , etc. The author dedicates several
chapters to discussing these experiences. He aleo attempts an out~
line of what a system of horizontal communication should be, as
opposed to the vertical communication model existing in the mass
media and in society in general.

98. GERACE L. Frank "Participacin y Comunicacin" (Partici-

pation and Communication). VI Seminario
Latinoamericano para Directivos de Tele-
ducaci&n en Lima, 1972. Published by
the Institute for lnternational Solidarity
ISI, 1972.

99. GERACE L. Frank "Cinco Experiencias de Comunicacin"

Participatoria" (Five Experiences in
Participatory Communication). Paper
presented at the First Latn American
Seminar on Participatory Comnunication,
CIESPAL, Quito, 1973,
''
In this paper Gerace discusses three of the experiences already
reported in his publication on 'Horizontal Conmunication' and two new
experiences in Bolivia, where the author is at present working. These
two new.experiences are not operational as yet.

- 126 -

!:--
-~.... ','

r--i .
 100, GERMANI, Gino El Concepto de Marginalidad (The Concept
of Marginality), Ediciones Nueva Visin,
Buenos Airee, 1973.

101 GOMEZ POSADA, Luc la "Opinin de los lderes sobre el funciona-

miento de las Escuelas Radiof6nicas en
Colombia" (Opinions of Leaders on the
Functioning of the Radio-Schools in Colom-
bia). Bogot, Accin Cultural Popular,
1967.

102. GOTSCH, Carl H. "Technical Change and the Distribution of

Income in Rural Areas", American Journal
of Agricultural Economice, Hay 1972, 54,
pp. 326-341.

103, GRIFFIN, Keith "Policy Options for Rural Development",

Background Paper for the Ford Foundation
Seminar in Rural Development and Employment,
Ibadan, Africa, 1973.

104, GUTIERREZ, Gustavo A Theology of Liberation, Orbis Books

New York, 1973.

105, GUTTERREZ DE ZARATE, Clara Maria

"El Liderazgo de opinin como refuerzo de
la accin de los medios masivos de comuni-
cacin". (Opinion as a Reinforcement of the
Action of the Mass Media of Conmunication).
Universidad Javeriana, Departamento de Socio-
loga, Documento de Trabajo, No. 23, Bogota,
1973, 176 p.

- 127 -

'
106. GUTIERREZ PEREZ, Francisco
"El Desafo de la comunicac1on social
(The Challenge of Social Conununication).
Centro de Estudios de Participacin
Popular, Lima, Comunicacin y Participa-
ciJn, Lima, CENTRO, 1974, pp.132-156.

107. GUTIERREZ PEREZ, Francisco

"Comunicacic!n partidpado o comunicacin
horizontal" (Participated Conununication
or Horizontal Communication) in : El
Lenguaje Total ; Pedagog{a de los Medios
de Comunicacid"n, Buenos Aires. Humanitas,
1973, PP 73-81.

108. HABERMANN, Doria and Peter

Comunicacion y Desarrollo, Published
by the Friedrich-Ebert Foundation, 1976.
This publication reporte on studies undertaken in the Highlands
of Bolivia between 1969 and 1972, on the dissemination of innovations
in several villages. Radio was compared with inter~personal cor.unurii-
cation. Special emphaaia is given to the relationahip between the
prestige level of the information source and the adoption of the
innovation. The forma of presentation of the message are studied as
well as the role of local groups in the adoption procesa.

109, HALL, Budd L. "Participatory Research, an Al?proach

for Change". Convergence, (Canada) 7
(2) 24-32. 1975.

110. HAGUE, METHA, RAHMAN, WlGNARAJA

"Towards a Theory of Rural Development",
Development Dialogue No.2, 1977 pp 1-67.

- 128 -
111. liAVENS, Eugenc ''Mcithndnlnical IE!auP.R in the Study of
Dcvclopment", Paper presented at the
Third World CongrP.ss of Rural Sociology,
Batan lbuge, Louisiana, 1972.
The author examines the majar approaches to the study of
development and their empirical referente : the equilibrium modela,
and the conflict modela. Included in these models are the behaviourist,
paychodynamic, diffusionist, structuralist non-Marxist and structuralist-
Marxist modela. The author suggests that researchers need to
examine more carefully the underlying ideology of each model of
development.

112. HERRERA CERDA, Monica and

Daniel RAMIREZ ESTAY "Presentacin de un Modelo de Comunicacin
aplicado a la metodologa educativa"
(Presentation of a Communication Model
Applied toan Educational Methodology).
Paper presented to the Instituto Colombiano
para el Fomento de la Educacin Superior.

113. HOXENG, James "Programming by the People : An Ecuadorian

Radio Experiment". Educational Broadcasting
International, Vol.10, No.l, March 1977.

Campesino-produced cassette programmes were introduced into the

broadcasts of a small regional station in Ecuador in late 1972, as
an attempt to reach a high proportion of the estimated 40,000 illiterate
adulta in the vecinity of Tabacundo, Ecuador. The programmes prepared
by the peasants contained advice, poema, songa, scripture readingr.,
dramatization of community problema, testimonials and exhortations.
After a very brief training session, the peasants had no difficulty
in operating the cassette recorders.

- 129 -
114. INSTITUTE FOR COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
"The Role of Conununication in Nutrition".
Paper prepared by lnstitute members
for the Agency for International Develop-
ment (AID), Washington, Stanford
University, 1973.

115. JAMISON, Dean T. and

MCANANY, Emil e Radio for Education and Development.
Sage Publications, Beverly Hills,
Calif. 1978, 220 p.
The authors discuss the role of radio both in formal and
non-formal education, the constraints on implementing dif ferent
radio strategies. They often refer to the different possible radio
strategies for development communication and the effect each
strategy can have on the communication element in the project.

116. JOUET, Josiane "Connnunity Media and Development :

Problema of Adaptation". Paper presented
as a working paper to meeting on Self-
Management, Access and Participation in
Conmunication, UNESCO Meeting held at
Belgrade, Yugoslavia, Oct. 1977.

117. JOUET, Josiane "Participatory Communication in the Third

World : A Critical Outlook". Paper prepared
as complementary to the Belgrade paper,
for the First Latn American Seminar on
Participatory Communication, held at
CIESPAL, Quito, 1978.

118. KAPLUN, Mario Cassette-Foro : Un sistema de Comunicacin

Participativa. (Cassette-forum, A system of

- 130 -
 Porticipatory Communication). Informo
Final do lo oxpor.ioncia do Ca11otto-Foro
Rural realizado on Uruguay. lPRU, Montevideo,
1978.

Kaplun dirocted chis experience in ca11etto-forurn for rnembers of

co-operative groupM in rural Uruguay. An interesting aspect was that
only one side of the cassette was usad for the forum message, while
the other side was avail~ble to the formara for their reply to the
'
central office, and/or " other co-operative groups participating in
to
the experience. Every two weeks after the cassettes returned from
the farmers, their contente were analysed and the relevant parte
were transferred to the following week's cassette, so that these
could be shared by all.

119. KATZMAN, Natan "The lmpact of Comnunication Technology

Promises and Prospecte". Journal of
Communication, Vol. 24, 1974 pp.47-58.

120. KHAN AKHTER, Hameed "Reflections on the Comilla Rural

Development Projects". Overseas Liaison
Committee, Paper No. 3, 1975.

The author was Director of this important rural development

project in Bangladesh for several years. He outlines many of the
difficulties encountered, and while Comilla is not located in or near
Latn America, the author's appreciations are extremely valuable.
lnitiatives such as co-operatives, irrigation projects, rural works
projects, agricultural extension, etc., were reasonably successful
in .their own way, but they did little to changa the social and
economic stratification existing in the rural areas of the country.
Comilla remained a project that was not very effective in changing the
social structure of poverty in the rural areas.

- 131 -

'" -, ' .~:- 1 ~ - "

121. KROTZ, ~atoban "l,u11 coopur11ti.vaa on ol cnmpo MLixlcuno":
(Pore1>octivoe on Co-
l'orHIHH'l:iv11a
oporacivo Organizatlons in Rural Moxlco),
Controvoreia L, 3 (1977) : 72-80.
ln agrlcultural co-operativee individual own'1rs of lnncl bnn<l
togother to obtain goods and aervices Lhat meet their common neacls.
To function effoctively, co-operutives ehould be bottom-up
organizations. Such is not the caso with the many peaeant organiza-
tions set up i.n post-revolutionary Mcxlco. Thoee eeem to have bean
implcrnented from above, and their members rernain dependent upon tlw
State for support and guidancc.

122. LA BgLLB, Thornas J, "Liberation, Developrnent, and Rural Non-

Formal Education". Council on Anthropo-
logy and Education Quarterly (4) pp 21-26.
1975.

There are dangers , says the author, in applying the cxperience

of one isolated programme as a rernedy far cornmunity needs. Evidence
is cited far the observation that any single rnethod to achieve change
in rural areas is inadequate. La Selle aeks for changes in structures
of planning as well as in mental actitudes towards developrnent. This
article compares two theoriee of development and suggests that what is
needed is a more inclusive procese which utilizes not one, but a variety
of alternative channels to achieve social change.

123. LASSWELL, Harold B. "The Future of World Communication ;

Quality of Life'' Honolulu, Hawai, East
West Communication Institute, Papers No.4,
1972. 19p.

124. LEHMANN, David "Hacia un anlisis de la consciencia de los

campesinos" (Analysis of Peasant Conscious-
ness), Cuadernos de la Realidad Nacional,
2 (1970) : 31-59.

- 132 -
 This arciclo prosoncs Cho findinge of a field atudy in Central
Chile. Ic dovolops a model of chroo types of conaciouanose among
pensante : deponuont, clase, and campesLio. The objectivo of this
classificacion is to aid analysis of poaaant behaviour. After pre-
aenting tho Chiloan data, the author concludes that changos in thc
central powcr atructurc first influence peaaant organizatlons, and havo
a later eff ect on poasant consciousnoss.

125. LESSA, Carlos "Marginalidad y Proceso de MarginalizacicSn"

(Marginality and the Procese of Marginali-
zation). in : Amrica Latina : Dependencia
y Subdesarrollo, EDUCA, Costa Rica, 1975.

126. LEWIS, Peter M. "Tecnologas Apropiadas para las Comunica-

ciones" (Appropriate Technologies far
Communication). Paper presentad to the
Firet Latn American Seminar on Participatory
Connnunication. CIESPAL, Quito, 1978, 7p.
The author reporte that a study is at preeent underway to try
and develop guidelines far appropriate technologiee for developing
countriee.

127. MAESTRE z., Juan Manuel

"Canales de comunicacin que utilizan loe
habitantes del lrea de la Alta, Media, y
Baja Guajira" (Communication Channels
Used by the lnhabitants of the High, Middle
and Low Guajira). Tesis M.S. Bogota.
Universidad Nacional de Colombia; Instituto
Colombiano Agropecuario, Programa de
Comunicacin de Masas, 1975. 128p.

- 133 -
128. MANDULEY, Jo16 C. "JU foro do radio rural como una aatrategia
para educar adultos para el desarrollo
comunitario". (Tho Rural l\adlo Forum as a
Strategy for Adul t ~ducntion for Communi ty
Development) in : Uovietn CHASQUI, No. 13,
CIESPAL, Quito, 1975.

129. MARCHIONI, Marco "Iniciativas para el desarrollo comunitario

en comarcas rurales" (Init iatives for Conununi-
ty Development in Rural Sectors). Reyista
de Estudios Agro-Sociales, XVI, 61 (1967) :
29-65.

The article treats theoretically problema of development and

underdevelopment, and describes a community development project
carried out in Spain. Thia project had a majar impact on social
participation. The creation of groups to oversee development activities
enriched community social life and allowed authentic local leaders to
emerge. It aleo increaaed the awareness of groups and individual&
that they can develop the knowledge to solve local problema.

130. MARTINES, Jorge "Las alternativas de la reforma agraria

Mexicana frente al proceso de marginali-
zacid'n" (The Alternatives of Uexican
Agrarian Reform in f acing the Procese of
Marginalization). Desarrollo Rural en las
Am'ricaa, V. 3 (1973) : 243-261.
The author examines the current situation of the Mexican peasantry,
focuaing on the procese of marginalization. He reviews peasant demande
for land and jobs, and explores alternativa rural development strategies
and their probable outcomes.

- 134 -
 ,.
131. MATA, Jos6 Ignacio "Proyocto do Comunicacion Rural al Serv.do
clol Desarrollo" (Rural Communication
Project in the Service of Development).
Papar presentad at the First Latin American
Seminar on Participatory Communication.
CIESPAL, Quito, 1978. 22p.

This is a f irst report on the rural communication project

being supported by UNESCO in Honduras, Central America. This project
is committed to helping peasants participate in their development and
education. The objective is to foster horizontal communication
. Under the project, peasants prepare tl;dr own rural newspaper, using
very simple technology. At the same time, working jointly with the
national programme for non-formal education, the project is organi-
zing local conununication workshops to initiate campesino creativity
and the production of local communication materials. Puppets, popular
theatre and song, are being developed in the communication workshops.

132. MEISTER, Albert "Cambio Social y participacin social en

asociaciones voluntarias" (Social Change
and Social Participation in Voluntary
Associations). Desarrollo Economico, 11, 3
(1962) : 5-18.
This study offers a number of general hypotheses on social
change and ita effect on social participation :
(1) social change disorganizes and even destroys sociability ;
(2) voluntary associations are the framework within which individual&
and groups manifest solidarity
(3) social change does not affect all individuals and groups to the
same extent and
(4) individuals and groups that experience social change more
intensely create a greater number of associations and participate
in them more extensively.

- 135 -
133. MILLWOOD, David The Povarty Mak...!!.!., World Council of
Churchas, Geneva, 1977.

134. MORAN, Michael "La cornercialhacion agropecuaria y su

significacion para el desarrollo socio-
econmico del campesino" (Agricultural
Cornrnercialization and ita Meaning for
Peaaant Socio-aconomic Developrnent).
Desarrollo Rural en las Am~ricas VII,
2 (1975) : 137-146.

IncreaAed income is the most concrete manifestation of srnall

farrnera' participation in the benefits of economic growth. Where
opportunities exist for marketing increased production, small farmers
ahould be given access to additional capital and technical inpute so
as to boost output and raise income. This article emphasi es the
significance of reaching smaller farmers and the problema and characte-
ristics of marketing.

135. MORSS, Elott R et al. "Strategies for Small Farmers Development

An Empirical Study of Rural Development
Projects. Development Alternatives Inc.
Washington, D.C. 1975.
The purpose of the study was to identify the key componente for
succ~ssful small farmer development projects. It was found that overall
success ratinga were moat affected by the local action taken by
amall farmera to complement outaide development management and resources.
Local action was understood as small farmer involvement in decisj!on-
making in the implementation phaae of a development project, and
amall farmer resource c0111Ditment to the project.

136. -
MUNOZ, Marin, Milton G. and ALBA ROBAYO, Vincente
"Canales de Comunicacio' que utilizan los
campesinos : Proyecto Oriente de Cundinamarca"

- 136 -
 (Communication Channolt1 Uaocl by Paasanta
in tho Project of tha North of Cundinamarca).
Bogot, Instituto Colombia Agropecuario,
-
Programa de Comunicacion de Masas, Boletin
'

de Investigacin, n 10, 1974, 63p.

137. MURCIA, Hector "Anlisis sobre modelos de desarrollo rural

en Amrica Latina" (Analysis of Rural
Development Modele in Latn Amrica),
Desarrollo Rural en las Amricas, VIII,
2 (1976) : 137-152.

138. McANANY, Emile G. "Communi.cation with the Rural Poor in the

Third World ; Does Information Make a
Difference ?" Institute for Comrnunication
Research, Stanford University, Cal. 1978.
If there is a single generalization or principle that f lows
from the field testing of development conununication theory over the
past five years, it is this : information connnunicated to the rural
poor can make a difference in improving the quality of life, but how
much difference will depend on a combination of both technical and
political factora that are vital to any significant change.

139. NETHOL, Ana Maria "Los Mecanismos de Discurso : El campo

del poder y las perspectivas de participa-
cin popular'" (Discourse Mechanisms : the
Field of Power and the Perspectives for
Popular Participation). Paper presented
at the First Latn American Seminar on
Participatory Communication. CIESPAL,
Quito, 1978.

- 137 -

--~

i- ..
140. NEITO, Marla del C. "La Agricultura de grupo en relacic:'n
con las regiones deprimidas" (Group
Agriculture in Relation to Backward
Regions). Revista de Estudios Agro-
Sociales,XII, 42 (1963) : 129-150.
Analysing French experiences, the author notes the different
organization of the private, professional and co-operative sectors
of the agricultural economy. She emphasizes the need to plan the
use of resources by the co-operative sector. She presente the
principles of French co-operative development and the problema
to be solved, especially the need to seizP the economic opportunities
of fered by vertical and horizontal integration.

141. NOGUERA, Anibal "La Empresa comunitaria como estrategia

dd desarrollo rural" (The Community Enter-
prise as a Rural Strategy) Desarrollo Rural
en las AmEricas, 11, 3 (1970) : 207-214.
Experimenta in rural community enterprise carried out in Latn
America have challenged traditional concepta of agrarian reform based
on prvate property. In the evolving view of rural development, the
campesino is no longer seen as an object, but as the subject of
development. Active participation in the elaboration, execution and
control of planning for change enables the marginal populations to
advance and to take a positive role in creating a new society. Commu-
nity enterprises have been created in Chile, Venezuela, Peru and
Colombia. This article analyses the Colombian experience, where diffi-
culties with human, technical and legal aspects of an agrarian reform
project forced the public officials to experiment with a community
form of enterprise which was well received by the benef iciaries
of agrarian ref orm. The experiment was successful in economic and
social terma. It included more than 600 families. At the time the
article was written, conmunity enterprises in Colombia covered 165,000
hectares and involved 7,500 families.

- 138 -
 142. NOVOA, BARRERO, Andr6s Ricardo
"Sistema de comunicacion
1 e integracion
'

entre t~cnicos y agricultores : Un estudio

en el Plan Puebla." (Communication Bystem
and Integration between Techniciana and
Farmers : a Study in the Puebla Plan).
Escuela Nacional de Agricultura, Colegio de
Post-Graduados, Chapingo : Puebla,
Mxico, 1972,
143. NUEZ, Pilar, and DE VELA, Gloria
"Modelos de desarrollo y Participacion
Popular" (Development Modele and Popular
Participation). QUITO, 1978.

144. OCAMPO C. Manuel J. "Canales de comunicacin que utilizan

los habitantes del Proyecto de desarrollo
sur del Cauca-Norte de Narino" (CoDD11unica-
tion Channels used by Inhabitants of Norte
de Narino in tbe Development Project Sur
del Cauca). Instituto Colombiano Agro-
pecuario, Programa de Comunicacin de
Masas. Boletrn de Investigacin, No.9,
1974. 97p. Bogot.

145. OHLIGER, John and NIEMI, John

"Annotated and quotational bibliography
on participatory researcb". Converence
(Canada) 7 (2) ; 82-87 1975.

146. OLIART, Francisco, and ARAUJO, Jos, E.

"Perspectivas de la reforma agraria y las
empresas comunitarias en 1974". (Perspectivas
of Agraria~ Reform and Comnunity Enterprises
in 1974). Desarrollo Rural en las Amricas
VI, 3 (1974) : 63-76.

- 139 -

~._!,
 Agrariun roform in Latin Amurica has not ondod tho political
and social marBinality of the paasantry. '!'hu authorR amphasizll thc
need to develop conununity onterprises and to intagrato thom vurtically
with higher stuges of the productive procesa. Peasant participation
must lead to control of production and distribution, and to the orga-
nization and rationalization of the labour force. Experienco in commu-
ni ty enterprises will preparo pensante far collective efforts to raise
productivity and improve living standards.

147. OLIVERA, Rosisca Darcy de and OLIVEIRA, Miguel Darcy de.

"The Militant Observer / a Sociological
Alternativa". Geneva, Instituto of Cul-
turat' Acti~n. IDAC. Document No.9, 1975,
35p.

148. ORCHARD, Jorge and ORTIZ, Jaime

"Presi&'n campesina, reforma agraria y
empresas comunitarias" (Peasant Pressure,
Agrarian Reform and Conununity Enterprises).
Desarrollo Rural en Las Amricas. V. 2
(1973) : 97-120.

Agrarian reform in Latin America is the result of rural and

national pressure. The interplay of these two pressures leads to
various approaches to agrarian reform and different modela of rural
''
enterprises. The community enterprise model promises to achieve the
social, economic and political goals of many reformers. These enter-
prises can help undermine the power of established elites and build
alternatives to the traditional system of property rights.

149. ORDEZ ANDRADE, Marco

,
"La Incomunicacion en los grupos marginados

- 140 -
 de las arcas rurales del Ecuador" (Incommuni-
cation among Marginal Groups in Rural Ecuador).
CIESPAL, Unpublished papar, Quit~, 1973.

150. ORDONEZ ANDRADE, Marco

"Papel de lus medios de comunicacin colec-
tiva en los procesos de desarrollo econbmico
y social" (Role of the Conununication Media
in Social and Economic Development Proccsses).
in : Comunicacin colectiva y Desarrollo.
San Jos, Costa Rica. Centro de Estudios
Democrticos de Amrica Latina, 1972.

151. ORDONEZ ANDRADE, Marco

"Periodismo de Comunidad : Seminario de consulta.
Dise~o tentativo de las investigaciones sobre

la comunicaci6n en grupos marginados" (Community

Press. Consultation Seminar. Tentative Design
for Conununication Research in Marginal Groups).
CIESPAL, Quito, 1972.

152. ORTEGA ANDAPIA, Alfonso

"Flujo de dos etapas para la innovaci6~
la formacin de l!deres de opinin agr!cola"
(Two-step Flow for Innovation ; the Formation
of Agricultural Opinion Leaders). Chapingo,
Colegio de Postgraduado&, Escuela Nacional de
Agricultura, Mxico, 1970.

- 141 -
153. 0 1 SULLIVAN RYAN, Jeremiah
"El rol de la inf ormocidn en la vida del
agricultor de subsistencia : Un estudio
en el Altiplano de Guatemala" (The Rola
of Information in the Life of the Subsistence
Farmer : A Study in the Highlands of
Guatemala), Revista ECA, Estudios Centro-
americanos, Numero Especial, Guatemala
Drama y Conflicto social. July 1978.

The purpose of this study was to analyae the role of information

in the livea of subsistence farmers. By understanding this role,
it would be poasible to study the effectiveneaa of the information
extenaion agencies that work among theae farmera. The general conclusion
is that there are no significant differencea between amall farmera who
are viaited by the extenaion agencies and thoae who are not.
Without land and reaourcea, information makea Iittle or no difference.

154. O'SULLIVAN RYAN, Jeremiah and ROGERS, Everett M.

"Comunication in Agricultural Development"
Study preparad for the U.S. Agency for
International Dev~lopment. Inatitute for
Communication Reaearch, Stanf ord Univeraity
1978.

A atudy undertaken to help AID redirect ita rural communication

effort to make a better response to the demanda of rural development
atrategiea and alao to the U.S. Congreaaional mandate to 'aid the poor'
in all development efforta. The atudy examines what has been AID'a
role in rural development in general and then looka at the dif f erent
communication atrategiea. Pour agricultural development projects
are examined (including the Puebla Project in Mexico) and the
leaaona for comnunication atrategiea are evaluated.

- 142 -
155. PARKER, Edwin B. "Utilization of Satelli tes for Medical
Connnunication". Paper preparad at the
lnstitute for CoD111unication Research,
Stanford University, 1972.

156. PASQUALI, Antonio "Por una Politca Nacional de la radio y

la televisin" (Foa: a National Radio and
Television Policy). El Nacional, Caracas,
1-2 July 1974.

157. PERRETT, H.E. "Applied Communication Technology in

Rural Development". Report prepared for
the Academy for.Educational Development,
Washington, 1976.

158. PINTO, Juan Bosco "La Comunicacin Participatoria como

Pedagoga del Cambio : Fundamentos
Epistemolgicos" (Participatory Communi-
cation as a Pedagogy for Change : Epistemo-
logical Bases). Paper presented to the
First Latin American Seminar on Participatory
Connnunication CIESPAL, 1978.
The author presente a theoretical discussion on some of the
fundamental obstacles in the way of participatory conanunication
processes. There are structural obstacles and obstacles created by
professionals of communication who do not want to see the
perspectiva and philosophy of clase stratification. The second part of
tqe paper deals with the epistemological considcration of participa-
' conmunication.
tory

- 143 -

-- .,_' ._;_ r
159. PINTO, Juan Bosco "Anlisis cientfico de las omprosas
comunitarias campesinas" (Scientific
Analysis of Peasant Conununity Enterprises).
Desarrollo Rural en las Am~ricas, IV, 3
(1972) : 236-248.

Agrarian refonn in Latln America has given birth to the peasant

communal enterprise. These enterprises have three basic dimensione
(1) an economic one, expressed by the word "enterprise", which
implies ~ational use of productive resources ;
(2) a social one, represented by the term "conununal" meaning not
just a conglomeration of individuale, but a human group sharing
1

concrete and specific goals ; and

(3) a political one, defined as pa.tticipation in a larger social
group, the peasant clase.
The author analyses communal enterpriees in accordance with the
resulte obtained from the application of the case etudy technique.
He concludee that the production model presente eignificant advantagee
over the family unite first promoted by Latin American agrarian reforme.

160. PINTO, Juan Bosco "Extensio'n o educacid"n : una disyuntiva

cr:Ctica" (Exteneion or Education : A
Critical Choice). Desarrollo Rural en
las Amricas,V, 3 (1973) : 165-186.

The author critically analyses agricultural extension in Latn

America. He stresses that if agricultural extension is to result in
structural change, its theoretical and methodological bases must be
revised. Under previous approaches, agricultural extension was aeen
as a technique for modernizeing the agricultural sector by transmitting
technical knowledge from an educated elite to an ignorant majority.
In the new view, agricultural extension is an agent of liberation, seeking
structural tran~formation to enable rural people to become the subject,
rather than the object, of history.

- 144 -
 161, PINTO, Juan Bo1co "Educacin liberadora 1 1upuHto1 teorico1,
(Liberation Education, Th1or1tical Da1a1),
IICA-CIRA, P1p1r pre11nt1d in 1 National
81minar on Adult Rural Education.
Bogota, 1972, 29 p.

162. PINTO, Juan Bo1co "Sub-deaarrollo, ncleo da comunicacin

de maaas" (Underdevelopment, Nucleua of
Masa Connnunication), in : Centro de Estu-
dios de Participaci~n Popular, Lima,
Comunicacin y Participacin, Lima
CENTRO, 1974, PP 1-39.

163. PREBISCH, Raul "Connnercial Policy in Underdeveloped

Countriea". American Economic Review,
44 (1959) PP 251-273.

164, QUIJANO, Anibal "La Formacin de un Universo Marginal

en las Ciudades de Am6rica Latina"
(The Formation of a Marginal Universa in

- the Cities of Latin America). Eapaces et

Soci6t6s, 3 (1971).

165, QUIJANO, Anibal and WEEFORT C., Francisco

Populismo, Marginalizacin y Dependencia.
EDUCA, Costa Rica, 1973,

166. QUIROGA, Nestor Hugo and ALBO, Xavier

"La Radio como expresion libre del Aymara".
(Radio as a Free Expr.ession of the Aymara).
Revista Chasqui No. 7, 109-131, 1974.

- 145 -

f;
,_

~' ,-_
- ; -- "'-"' - ~- _ ,_,~ - "'-"
 1,67. lUWlS'l'A "PAR'l'IC!PACI6N 11 , 1.1.ma, Plilru. Yonr U, No, :.!
l~eh. 197'.I. lm. lndust:rlol Grtfflca.

1.68. ImYl~S MA'l"l'A, Fornundo "Un Mocl1J lo du Comunicuc:l.cin con pnrt lclpud<)n
social uct:fva" (A Communlcut:icm M1Hll I
1

wlch i\ct:ivt1 Hod11I Purt:l.clpat:l.on).

Instlt:ut:o Lat:inoamoricuno do Estudios
Trunsnaciona los, Mxico 1978, 33 I'.

'l'hc uut:hor, 11ftor oxamining t:he reality of tho muse communication

mcdiu in Latin America, suggusts tlwt the only viublo solution would
ln! to declare thusc media ns "social scrvices", and thcn to proc<rnd
to opr>rntionalize this concept with the social particlpntion of each
sector of Aociety in t:hli deve Lopment of the media, Thu1:1, we woulcl
achieve a new function for the media in the service of development.

169. RICH, Thomas A. and NESMAN, E.G,

"Basic Village Education Project -
Evaluation Component. University of
South Florida, 1976.

The authors were primary researchers for the Basic Village

Education Project, an experimental project supported by AID, whose
objective was to test the use of different delivery systems for
educational information. This project has now concluded. One of the
experimenta undertaken during the project was the use of specially pre-
pared audio cassettes for use in peoples' homes. A village volunteer
took the cassette player and tape each Monday to a household in each
village, and during the week, different families were able to receive
and hear the cassette.

170. RIOS NAVARRO, Norberto "Experiencias de Trabajo del Centro

Laubach de Educacid'n Basica de Adultos

- 146 -

r ,'
 CJ,lrn/\'' (Exwduncus J n ll11Hle AduJ L

lluc11L:on 1H t:hu Laulrnch Uuntro). J>npur

pru1wntud co t:hu Lutfn Amurlt~un St1111in11r
on Purtcipat:ory Cnn1111un:[.,:11tJon 1 CUJ:SPAL,
QUI'!'O, 1970.

'l'his pupur co11tnin1:1 an outlino of tho philosophicul theorica

unclerlying tilia Centr<.1 Pro11,rnnmu~ o Adult Education. Bmplrnaia is
plucud on adule participation and ex.amplos aro givun of how this
participation is put int:o cffect.

171. IWGBRS, Evl!rett M. ancl MAYER, Anthony

11
Communicatioii Aspccts of Integrated Rural
Dcvelopmcnt". Papcr prcpared for Che
Academy for Educacional Dcvulopment,
Washington, 1976.

172. ROJAS MEDINA, Zilia "Transferencias de tccnologia y la estruc-

tura agraria en Amrica Latina : anlisis
crtico del modelo de adopcin de innova-
ciones". (Technology Transfer nnd the
Agradan Structure in Latn /\merica : n
Critica! Analysis o[ the Adoption of an
Innovations Model). Tesis Licenciature
(Ciencias de la Comunicacin Social),
Bogota, Universidad Juveriana, Facultad
de Ciencias de la Comunicacio, 1975,
112 p.

173. ROMERO SANCHEZ, Neiro, et al.

"Algunos factores que determinan la res-
.puesta (retroalimentacin) de grupos
campesinos a mensajes tecnologicos" (Some

- 147 -

:._.:!~ - '

~:_;:~;~:;
 Factora that Dt~rmino tha Voadback fTom
P1a1ant Group1 to Technoloical M111aga1),
Chapino, Col11io de Po1t1raduado1, E1cuala
Nacional da Aaricultura, Rama da Divulgacin
Aaricola, 197.5.

174. ROPPA, Guy.M. "Proyecto de Comunicacin Social y Educa-

ciJn an el Programa Nacional de Salud
Materno Infantil y Biena1tar Familiar del
Ecuador." (Social Communication and
Education Project in the National programrne
of Mother and Child Care and Family Health
in Ecuador). Papar presentad to the
Pirat Latin American Seminar of Participato-
ry Communication, CIESPAL, QUITO, 1978, 86 p.

175. R01'HKEGEL-ORTUZAR, Edgardo

"The Ecuador Project : a Diacusaion.
Cantar for International Education, Univer-
ai ty of Maaaachuaetta. 1976.
The author participatad in the Univeraity of Maaaachuaetta
non-formal aducation programme in Ecuador , which waa aupported by
funda from AID. The papar outlinea the main featuraa of the project
and soma of the difficultiea encountered in ita development. Two
important difficultiea were : the "facilitatora" and the "quaai-
inatitutionalization" of the project when the Ecuadorian government
decided to utiliza unemployed teachera as "facilitators" instead of the
local rural people who had in fact been fulfilling thia role in a
very competent way. The poaaibility of carrying out a project with
a Priere-type ideology in the preaent reality of Latin America is
queationed.

- 148 -

J
 176. RUSQU~ A., J. 11
84101 parn la implemantuci~ do un
eistoma dt.1 Participacid'n do lo Poblacin
on el. proceso do Planificacibn Regional
dol l.Ccuador" (Ba11os for tho lmplmencation
of a System of Participation in Planning
ata Regional Level in Ecuador). Quitop 1976.
177. SAMPAIO, Plinio "Anotaciones sobre el problema de integra-
cid'n campesina" (Notes on the Problem of
Peasant Integration). Desarrollo Rural en
Las Arn~ricas, II, 3(1970) : 229-243.

Ic is necessary to find means of integrating farmers' co-operatives

into the marketing system. This article analyses various organizational
patterns to achieve rural market integration. It also explores the
conflict in these organizations between the need to insure good
commercial management and the need to promote widespread peasant parti-
cipation. To help resolve these and other problema, a fund for the
expansion of agrarian reform is proposed. This fund would assist
basic peasant organizations in which peasants would bear management
responsibility. The article provides details on organization and
management of peasant organizations and the agrarian reform fund.

178, SANCHO, Roberto. "La promocin y seleccid'n de l{deres locales

en el marco del desarrollo comunitario"
(Promotion and Selection of Local Leaders
for Community Development). Revista de
Estudios Agro-Sociales, XVl, 61 (1967) :
66-63.

The natural leaders of a locality exist independent of communi-

ty development projects. They exprese the community's culture and exert
influence through nter-personal relations. Development programmes must
recognize the importance of such leaders and enlist their support for

- 149 -

',\
,1- .
 community davllopment. They can Hrva to bridge tho gap botwaan the
admini1tration and the local population,

179. SANTOS, Paulo de Tarso "Reforma Agraria Y Cambio Estructural"

(Agrarian Reform and Structural Change).
Deaarrollo Rural en las Am6ricas, V, 1
(1973), 52-62.

Education must be extended to the whole rural population. lt

ahould focus on method1 by which tha peaaants can participate in the
proceas of change and devalopment. Training must not be based on
helping peasants to adapt to existing society ; rather, the rural
maases need to learn how to underatand critically their aociety.
Training ahould not be limitad to production techniques but expand to
increaae the ability of paaaants to participate in the procesa of changa.

180. SCHNITMAN, Josiane 11

Ma88 Comnunication and Mobilization in
Adult Education. LACDES : Latin
American and Caribbean Development
Bducation ". Studenta S (2) ; 32-41.
March 1976.

181. SECRETARIA DE COORDINACldN DB LA JUNTA NACIONAL DE EDUCACIN

BXTRAESCOLAR.
"lnvestigaci&n de Base para el Modulo
Bsico de Educacicfn Extraescolar".
Guatemala, 1977,
Three extensiva documenta were preparad f or the government
programme of non-formal aducation. The f irst document was a base-
lina atudy on the naada and aapirationa of the rural population~ the
second was a study of poaaible delivery systems for this programme's
educational content, and the third was an analysis of institutional
co-ordination in the Highlands of Guatemala, The latter was considered
a vital factor aa more than sixty official government .agencies were

- 150 -
estimated to be already involved in non-formal education in the
Highlands of Guatemala.

182. SEMINARIO SOBRE PERIODISMO DE COMUNIDAD

"Periodismo de la Comunidad ; incomunicacin
social y marginalidad" (Community Pre88,
Social Incommunication and Marginality).
Seminar held in San Jos Costa Rica, and
organizad by CIESPAL, Quito, 1974, 274 p.

183. SILVIA FUENSALIDA, Ismael

"Marginalidad 1 Transici'n y Conflicto
Social en Amrica Latina". (Marginality
Transition and Social Confllct in Latn'
America). CEDIAL,. Herd~r Edit. Bogot, 1972,

184. SMITH, William A. The Meaning of Conscientiza5ao : The Goal

of Paulo Frere'a Pedagogy. Center for
International Education. University of
Massachusetts, 1976.

185. SPAIN, Peter et al. "Radio for Education and Development"

Case Studies Vols. I and II. World Bank
Working Paper n.266, Washington, 1977.

The authors try to bring together the many educational uses

for radio in the world today. The role of radio in formal education
and in distance learning is examined. Several authors contribute
chapters on the uses of radio in different development projects.

186. SUAREZ, Melo.M "La Empresa comunitaria en Colombia :

El caso de la Bertha" (The Community

- 151 -
 Enterprisc in Colombia, The Bertha Caso).
Desarrollo Rural en Las Am6ricas,
11, 3 (1970) : 215-218.

The article examines an experiment in a Colomb:lan municipality, in

which 120 benef iciaries of agrarian ref orm have taken over management of a
sugar mill. This new rural community enterprise has successfully maintained
production. The article reviews

(1) the antecedente of the sugar mill experiment

(2) the practical problema facing the campesinos in running their own enterprise
(3) the feasibility of the rural coDDnunity enterprise as a new way of organizing
rural society ;
(4) the achievement of the Colombian experiment ; and
(5) the extent of the campesinos' awareness about the errors, advantages,
and future possibilities of their enterprise.

187, SUAREZ, Helo, M. "Empresas Comunitarias en Amrica Latina"

(CoD1DUnity Enterprises in Latn Americe).
Desarrollo Rural en las Amricas, IV, 2
(1972) : 139-159.

This article outlinea the major objectives of Latin American agrarian

reform and the efforta at deaigning conmunity enterpriaes. The major problema
involved in these efforts are aleo outlined.

188. SUNKEL, Oswaldo and PAZ, Pedro

El Subdesarrollo Latinoamricano y la Teora
del Desarrollo. (Underdevelopment in Latn America
and Development Theory). Siglo XXI, Mxico,
1970.

- 152 -

,,,,.,, ,, _! ~ ': -
 11
189. 'l'IllADO C:. Nmrnrio 118 CIHl l llH lt11d l of on i. Cll8 un Bo H Vi. n" (Rad lo
Schoola 111 Bol Ivia) l'nper prcaontod t:o
lhu 6th. L11Li11 Amuricnn Sominar on
Univoraily 'l't!lml11cnt::l.on, Caracua, 1978. 32p.

This i1:1 a doacriptivc study of rndio-schools of Bolivia which

was undurtakon by thc Roscarch Ina ti tu tu in col laboral: ion wi. th tlw
School of Communication in the Catholic Univcrsity of La Paz. Thcrc
are 11ine radio-schoola affiliated to a central office in La Paz,
known as ERBOI. (Escuelas Radiof6nicas de Bolivia). The study, in its
recommendations, suggests that tlwrt! is an urgent need far the achools
to examine their objectivea and their actual educational procese.
While the activities are extremely dependent on the direction from
the higher levels of the institutions, all the associated institutions
refer to participation and consciousness-raising as their objectives.

190. UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION

(UNESCO)
"Final Report on Meeting on Self-Hanagement,
Access and Participation in Communication".
Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 1977.

191. UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION

(UNESCO)
"Interim Report of the Commission
for the Study of Conununications Problema,
UNESCO, Paria, 1978.

192. UNITED NATIONS CHILDRENS FUND (UNICEF)/WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

"Conununity Involvement in Primary Health
Care : A Study of the Procesa of Connnunity
Motivation and Continued Participation".
World Health Organization, Geneva, 1977.

- 153 -

t~:',
'-' ..... -. .- .. ,, "
 'l'hie r.upor.r: lH 11 Ht1mm11r.y o lho oxpur.J.1.111coH of: thuH1.1 org1111l.w-
tions in community motiv11tion 11ml par.tf.cipution l.n prl.mnr.y lw11l th l'.Lll~o.

Roports aro prasenl:cd for ninu countriea.

193, VICTORIA LOPIJ:Z, l~roddy nnd ARVEVALO A. , Man uo l

"Cana los do comunicacin que ur:i li.zan los
camp~sinos del proyecto de desarrollo do

la Llanura del Pacifico" (Connnunical:ion

Chann<~ls Used by Pcasants in r:hc Dovclopment

Projects of the Pacific Plains). Bogoti,

Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario, Programa
de Comunicacin de Masas, Boletin de
Investigacion, No. 23, 1975, 59 p.

194. VIGUES Enrique "Las organizaciones agrarias y el proceso

socio-econmico del campesino" (The
Agrarian Organizations and Peasant Socio-
economic Progresa) Desarrollo Rural en las
Amricas. V. 3 (1973) : 187-194.
To overcome the obstacles to peasant progresa, the rural popu-
lation must be organized. This requires popular participation, to
give peasants a sense of importance and of control over their own
destiny. The basic conditions for the success of peasant organizations
are
(1) that they be spontaneous and not imposed ;
(2) that they be sustained by their own resources
(3) that they be democratic, independent and have access to decision-
making authorities ; and
(4) that they have firm legal guarantees concerning their rights and
obligations.

- 154 -

__ "
195. vrnrni\, Cl1t111r huec11 du 1111~_!;~;'!.!l:.!!.JH>Pll l llr (J.11 Suarch
l!!n
of u l'opul11r 'l'hu11trl'). UNgsco, l'ud1:1, 1977.

11
196. WllI'J'I:, ltoburl 1\11 i\l LtirnaLivu Putt:urn of lh11:1ic Educnlion
RaJ io San Lu Mar fo", Bxpti riman t & nnd
lnnovaLio11s in flucntion, No.30, UNESCO,
Paria, 1976.

Radio Suqta Maria i1:1 an uducationul rudio school in the Dominican

Republic, whicl1 provides primary and inturrncdiate uducation by radio to
groups of urban and rural poor in thaL counlry. The resulte of this
study suggest that thc radio school studcnts do as well as the formal
school students in examination tests, despitc the fact that thc invest-
ment per student in the radio school is considerably lower. Every
effort is made to prepare programrnes that are useful and attractive to
the radio audience.

197. WHITE, Robert "Mase Communications and the Popular

Promotion Strategy of Rural Development
in Honduras" in : Spain, ~(editora),
Radio for Education and Development,
Case Studies Vals 1 and 11, the World
Bank, Washington, 1977.

198. WOLFF, Laurence "Conununication Strategies for Development"

Report Number 8, prepared for the Academy
for Educational Development, Washington,
1973.

- 155 -