D.M.

LAMBERT 93
Department of Ecology, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North, New Zealand.

GUEST EDITORIAL: DAVID LAMBERT

David Lambert was born in Toowoomba, Australia and his initial degrees
were at the University of Queensland. He later studied at the University of the
Witwatersrand in Johannesburg for his PhD. He was appointed at the
University of Auckland in 1980 and was, until recently, Leader of the Ecology
and Evolution Research Group in the School of Biological Sciences and
Director of Auckland Universitys Centre for Conservation Biology. David
Lambert has now taken up the post of Professor and Head of the Department of
Ecology at Massey University, Palmerston North. His early research was in
the area of evolutionary cytogenetics of Drosophila (Australia) and Anopheles
mosquitoes (Africa). Since then his interests have included evolutionary theory
generally and the use of DNA tools to answer a broad range of questions in
conservation and ecology. In particular Prof. Lamberts research group has
studied a range of New Zealand animal species including insect groups, the
kiore, Antarctic fish and a range of birds. A recent focus has been the use of
minisatellite DNA technology to study parentage in species such as pukeko and
skuas and to estimate levels of genetic variation in tuatara and the endangered
Chatham Island black robin.
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THE NEW SCIENCE OF MOLECULAR ECOLOGY

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The origins of Molecular Ecology stated with greater precision; it helps us focus our
target.
Most biologists, like scientists generally, have heroes
- those who through their influence have changed the
way we think about the world. These people typically What is Molecular Ecology and is it really new?
open up new ideas about what is possible. One of my Contemporary Molecular Ecology has come to focus
heroes is Paul Weiss who originated the term much more on the outer shell that Weiss envisaged; the
Molecular Ecology. Weiss was an enigmatic interactions of the organism with the environment in
character whose interests were extraordinarily general and, of course, such interactions are the stuff of
diverse. His thought style was distinctly novel and ecology itself. Exciting recent developments in
iconoclastic. He made major contributions to the Molecular Ecology now provide scientists with a wide
study of morphogenesis, systems theory and array of DNA tools by which to map and explore these
evolutionary biology. Weiss used the term Molecular interactions. Although collectively these techniques
Ecology to mean the entire continuum of biological can assist in the resolution of a number of
interactions between the molecular, cellular, contemporary ecological problems, each of them has
organismal levels to the environment (Fig. 1). For particular strengths and weaknesses and is applicable
example, he thought of the typical eucaryote cell usually to a subset of problems (see Lambert and
comprising an array of molecular species whose Millar, 1995, for a detailed discussion). Some of these
densities, distributions, arrangements and groupings problems have been, until recently, essentially
are determined by their mutual dependencies and intractable using more conventional approaches.
interactions, as well as the physical conditions of the Molecular Ecology has come to represent the use of
space they occupy. He was philosophical about his DNA nucleotide sequence variation, nuclear genotypes
new concept remarking: Whether it [Molecular and organelle haplotypes to gather information about
Ecology] will prove adequate, only the future can tell. natural populations. With the expansion of DNA tools
Its main merit for the moment is that it presents us there has been a dramatic increase in the application of
with a workable model by which the problems can be ecological problems.

New Zealand Journal of Ecology (1995) 19(2): 93-96 New Zealand Ecological Society
94 NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, VOL. 19, NO. 2, 1995

here is that the question - do dominant males achieve

high reproductive success? - was, prior to the advent
of Molecular Ecology, not commonly even asked in
an empirical sense, owing to a lack of techniques
available to answer the question.
Perhaps of even more importance is the point that
Molecular Ecology has provided more powerful tools
to refute existing ideas in ecology and evolution. For
example, in the case discussed above, an easy and
seductive idea is that behavioural dominance is an
obvious biological mechanism. But it turns out to be
dangerous to assume that the universal function
(Lambert, 1995) of dominance is to enable genetically
superior individuals to differentially reproduce,
precisely because in our study of pukeko, we have
shown that there is no relationship between
reproductive success and dominance. Hence,
Molecular Ecology can help us to refute existing
ideas. Although this approach is a very powerful one
it does not directly lead to novel concepts in ecology
and evolution. Its role is, via refutation, to free people
to think in new ways and thereby indirectly to
While it can be reasoned that there really is encourage the introduction of new concepts.
nothing substantially new in Molecular Ecology - that
it is simply the population genetics of the 1970s and
80s - to my mind, contemporary Molecular Ecology Genes as markers
does represent a substantial advance. Developments Molecular Ecology uses genes essentially as markers
in the technology of genetic analysis have brought to estimate ecologically important variables. In fact,
into focus questions that were not specifically asked there are two broad approaches that biologists take to
in the past. Consider, for example the common the study of genetics. Typically, their focus is either
argument for the evolution of dominance hierarchies to investigate genes in relation to the role they play in
in animals. EO Wilson (1975) remarked: the development of organismic form (sensu,
In the language of Sociobiology, to behaviour, morphology etc.). From this perspective,
dominate is to possess priority of access to genes are typically conceived of as representing some
the necessities of life and reproduction. This sort of Central Directing Agency in relation to
is not a circular definition; it is a statement ontogeny. In contrast, Mendel himself used
of a strong correlation observed in nature. phenotypes of organisms (e.g., the shape of pea seeds)
With rare exceptions, the aggressively as markers to investigate the action of genes
superior animal displaces the subordinate for themselves. By examining the phenotypic patterns in
food, for mates, and for nesting sites. It only different generations, Mendel was able to infer the
remains to be established that this power action of genes at meiosis. Over the subsequent
actually raises the genetic fitness of the history of population genetics, biologists have used
animals possessing it. On this point the genes themselves as markers to investigate population
evidence is completely clear. level phenomena. Throughout the history of
What is clear is that at the time Wilson wrote, there population biology these genetic markers have
was a general lack of data on precise estimates of become progressively more precise and specific. We
reproductive success in many species. The have moved from chromosome markers to isozymes
relationship between dominance and reproductive and latterly, with the proliferation of DNA methods,
success was simply assumed. With the developments to the direct examination of single locus, multilocus
of a range of new genetic technologies it is apparent and nucleotide sequence variation.
that the situation is far from clear. DNA An important use of genetic markers has been the
fingerprinting (an increasingly generic term for an detection of cryptic species - those that were
array of both DNA probe and PCR-based methods) indistinguishable on morphological grounds. There
has revealed extraordinary diversity in the genetic are many examples of the use of genetic markers in
consequences of mating systems, particularly in this way. My own studies on the African mosquito
animal populations. For example, our own work using Anopheles marshallii revealed the existence of a
both single and multilocus minisatellite DNA probes complex of species using polytene chromosomes as
has shown that there is no relationship between genetic markers (Lambert, 1982). In recent years the
dominance and reproductive success in New Zealand use of more genetically variable markers such as
pukeko (Lambert et al., 1994). The important point multilocus minisatellite DNA approaches has enabled
LAMBERT: GUEST EDITORIAL 95

the determination of parentage in natural populations, carcass found in the permafrost of Siberia. This
a problem typically unresolvable using chromosome species is thought to have lived 40 000 years ago and
or even isozyme markers. In fact, Moore (1993; the amplification and the subsequent analysis of its
quoted in Burke, 1994) has recently reported that the DNA represents a major advance for ancient DNA
most cited papers in ecology and environmental studies. The Antarctic environment is less disturbed,
biology from the period 1987-92 were those that first more isolated, and colder and drier than that of
reported this approach. In New Zealand minisatellite Siberia. Hence tissues recoverable from this
DNA studies have been used to develop methods for environment are likely to represent a major reservoir
sexing brown skua on the Chatham Islands (Millar et of ancient DNA. In fact, the Antarctic is potentially
al., 1992) and to examine population structure and the most productive source of ancient DNA owing to
inbreeding in blue duck (Triggs et al., 1992). these very unusual conditions which are ideal for the
Parentage has been precisely determined in two long-term preservation of DNA. Subfossil skin and
communally breeding New Zealand avian species, the bones of several species, including Adlie penguins,
pukeko (Lambert et al., 1994 ) and brown skua found in Antarctica are prime resources for ancient
(Millar et al., 1994). Christen Williams and DNA studies.
coworkers (Williams et al., 1994) have also recently Microsatellite DNA are ideal markers to
employed a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test to investigate the problems associated with the biology
trace the origin of the New Zealand populations of of Adlie penguins colonies in the Antarctic and, in
Argentine stem weevil. Using randomly amplified addition, are potentially able to provide a source of
polymorphic DNA (RAPDs) to examine nine genetic data for the study of subfossil populations.
populations from South America, five from New New studies in Molecular Ecology will enable the
Zealand and one from Australia they presented direct examination of changes in gene frequencies,
evidence that the New Zealand populations originated not only across space, but over considerable periods
from the east coast of South America. Mitochondrial of geological time - an achievement never before
DNA sequence variation now allows the investigation possible!
of the evolution of such ecologically important
molecules as the antifreeze proteins of Antarctic fish Molecular Ecology of plants and microbes
(Bargelloni et al., 1994).
Owing to my own personal bias, the above comments
have focused on animal species. There are, in addition,
The potentials of Molecular Ecology a similar range of opportunities involving plant species
A wide array of contemporary molecular tools now in New Zealand. An array of genetic techniques
allow ecologists to answer an ever increasing range of involving minisatellite and microsatellite DNA,
questions. Craig Millar and I have recently discussed restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
which of these tools is appropriate to which and other single locus genetic analyses are also
ecological questions, particularly in relation to the available for plants (see the recent review by Kochert,
levels of genetic variation that each detects and their 1994 for details). DNA fingerprinting has been used
modes of inheritance (Lambert and Millar, 1995). In to investigate aspects of population structure in
addition to the more commonly addressed issues, blackberries and raspberries (Nybom et al., 1989) and
Molecular Ecology can now be used to determine the recently to identify clones of rubber tree (Besse et al.,
diet of animals from an analysis of their faecal pellets 1993). In addition, the review by Steffan and Atlas
(Hss et al., 1992), to the development of new (1991) examines an array of PCR-based tests to detect
vaccines for avian diseases (Purhase, 1989) and the the presence of bacteria and viruses in both water and
identification of black rhinoceros horn (Arnheim et soils. Deverex, Kurtz and Mundfrom (1993) have used
al., 1990) (see Lambert and Millar, 1995 for a full DNA probes and PCR techniques to detect variation in
discussion). Molecular ecology is an essential tool in 16S ribosomal RNA genes, consequently revealing
ensuring the proper assessment of the risks of the previously unsuspected diversity among sulphate-
release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) reducing bacteria. In addition, these methods provide
(Williamson, 1992). information about the changes in the composition of
Our knowledge of the molecular processes that microbial communities, which might be indicative of
underlie evolutionary change has been, until recently, environmental stress. It is clear that Molecular Ecology
based on comparisons of the genes of living species. will be equally influential in the study of plants and
Unlike the remains of animals and plants themselves, microbes.
DNA does not leave impressions in the rocks.
However, ancient DNA, although degraded, can The future for New Zealands Molecular Ecology
survive the ravages of time. To date, DNA from a
number of extinct animals and plants has been That the tools of molecular genetics will continue to
amplified using PCR and the DNA sequence play a major role in ecological studies is beyond
successfully determined. The oldest and most dispute. I suspect that, as such tools become even
important instance is the woolly mammoth, a frozen more powerful and diverse in their ecological
96 NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, VOL. 19, NO. 2, 1995

applications, the new science of Molecular Ecology evolution, biodiversity and biosafety evaluations.
will become increasingly more diffuse. In fact, a Experientia 50: 429-437.
mature science of Molecular Ecology will inevitably Kochert, G. 1994. RFLP technology. In: Phillips,
be subsumed by ecology proper. This is exactly as it R.L.; Vasil, I.K. (Editors), DNA-based markers
should be. Since ecology is fundamentally a problem in plants, pp. 8-38. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
oriented science (which is not to say that it has no The Netherlands. 384 pp.
theoretical constructs), it will need to engulf any and Lambert, D.M. 1982. A population genetical study of
all relevant approaches and disciplines in order to be the African mosquito Anopheles marshallii
better able to answer contemporary questions. And (Theobald). Evolution 37: 484-495.
through the reciprocal interactions between the Lambert, D.M. 1995. Biological Function: Two forms
technologies of Molecular Ecology and the theories of of explanation. In: Lambert, D.M.; Spencer, H.G.
ecology, new questions will be formulated and old (Editors), Speciation and the recognition
ones tested. concept: Theory and Application, pp. 238-259.
Novel DNA technologies, useful in the study of Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore,
natural populations, appear almost daily. Realistically Maryland, USA. 502 pp.
New Zealand can play only a modest role in these Lambert, D.M.; Millar, C.D. 1995. DNA science and
worldwide developments, but many of these new conservation. Pacific Conservation Biology 2:
technologies are being marketed commercially and 21-38.
are becoming readily available to a wide range of Lambert, D.M.; Millar, C.D.; Jack, K.; Anderson, S.;
ecologists. There are consequently, exciting Craig, J.L. 1994. Single and multilocus DNA
opportunities for New Zealand ecologists to use these fingerprinting of communally breeding pukeko -
developments to study our unique fauna and flora. do copulations or dominance ensure reproductive
Thought of in this way, we have a tremendous success? Proceedings of the National Academy of
advantage in this country. By bringing together new Sciences, USA 91: 9641-9645.
genetic methods and our remarkable plants, animals Millar, C. D.; Lambert, D. M.; Bellamy, A. R.;
and microbes, there are exciting ecological Stapleton, P.; Young, E. C. 1992. Sex-specific
opportunities ahead. RFLPs and sex ratios revealed by DNA
fingerprinting in the brown skua. Journal of
Heredity 83: 350-355.
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