Introduction To ICT

Contents
WHAT IS ICT?.................................................................................................................................... 2
ICT Tools ............................................................................................................................................. 2
USAGE OF ICT IN DAILY LIFE ...................................................................................................... 3
THE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY ............................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS ................................................................................................ 5
QUALITIES OF A COMPUTER .................................................................................................... 6
Advantages of using computers. ....................................................................................................... 6
Disadvantages of computers ............................................................................................................. 6
Classification of computers ................................................................................................................ 6
2. Computer Generations............................................................................................................... 7
_Toc424009468COMPUTER SYSTEM........................................................................................... 12
Its made up of the following............................................................................................................. 12
Hardware components ....................................................................................................................... 12
Hardware Devices: Secondary storage devices ............................................................................. 24
Relationship between Hardware and Software .................................................................................. 37
Software ............................................................................................................................................. 37
Computer personel ............................................................................................................................. 39
Advantages of Computer Networking ............................................................................. 53
Internet, Intranet and Extranet ........................................................................................................... 59
INTRODUCTION COMPUTER THREATS ................................................................................... 65
ICT ETHICS ..................................................................................................................................... 67
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES ......................................................................................................... 76
COMPUTER SECURITY ................................................................................................................. 79
PRIVACY IN COMPUTER USAGE ............................................................................................... 80
WHAT IS PRIVACY? ...................................................................................................................... 80
Essential Life Skills ........................................................................................................................... 82
Basics of Conflict Management......................................................................................................... 84
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East Africa Institute Of Certified Studies 2015
WHAT IS ICT?
ICT is the technology required for information processing, in particular, the use of electronic
computers, communication devices and software applications to convert, store, protect, process,
transmit and retrieve information from anywhere, anytime.
INFORMATION
Information refers to the knowledge obtained from reading, investigation, study or research.
The tools to transmit information are the telephone, television and radio.
We need information to make decisions and to predict the future. For example, scientists can detect
the formation of a tsunami using the latest technology and warn the public to avoid disasters in the
affected areas.
Information is knowledge and helps us to fulfill our daily tasks. For example, forecasting the stock
exchange market.
COMMUNICATION
Communication is an act of transmitting messages. It is a process whereby information is
exchanged between individuals using symbols, signs or verbal interactions. Previously, people
communicated through sign or symbols, performing drama and poetry. With the advent of
technology, these older forms of communication are less utilized as compared to the use of the
Internet, e-mail or video conferencing
Communication is important in order to gain knowledge. With knowledge, we are more confident in
expressing our thoughts and ideas.
TECHNOLOGY
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge, experience and resources to create processes and
products that fulfill human needs. Technology is vital in communication
ICT Tools
ICT tools are components associated with ICT. They are either hardware or software items used to
process information. They include;
Computers and Related Equipment
Communication Equipment
Software programs.
Every year, lots of ICT tools are manufactured by various companies in the world.
For example, Input output devices, application software etc.
Bar code readers Used in super markets & shops to read bar codes which contain
information about that particular product.
Bar code printers Used to print information about a particular product in Barcode format
Credit card readers Used to read credit cards
Telephones For communication and used connect to the Internet.

Software Edit Photos/Pictures and creating graphic arts.
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USAGE OF ICT IN DAILY LIFE
1. Education
Today, most schools and higher educational institutions have computers in the classroom for
teacher and students. In education, teachers, students, researchers and school administrators benefits
from the usage of ICT.
Teachers: Teachers use computers to research for teaching materials, participate in online forums
and online conferences as well as to aid their teaching.
Students: Students use the computers as a reference tool. They use computers to browse the
Internet to look for information.
Researchers: use computers to collect and process data
School administrators: use computers for administrative purposes to make sure that the entire
operation runs smoothly.
2. Business
The computer's characteristic as high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or
versatility has made it an integrated part in all business organizations. Computer is used in business
organization for:
Payroll Calculations Financial forecasting
Budgeting Managing employees database
Sales Analysis Maintenance of stocks etc.

3. Banking
Today Banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide following facilities:
Banks on-line accounting facility, which include current balances, deposits, overdrafts,
interest charges, shares and trustee records.
ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up to date with the help of computer .The Insurance
Companies, Finance houses and Stock broking firms are widely using computers for their
concerns. Insurance Companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information
showing
how to continue with policies interests due
starting date of the policies survival benefits
next due installment of a policy bonus
maturity date
4. Marketing
In Marketing uses of computer are following:
Advertising: With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and
print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
At Home Shopping: At home shopping has been made possible through use of computerized catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
5. Health Care
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Computers have become important part in all Medical Systems. The computers are being used in hospitals to
keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG,
EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by computerised machines. Some of major fields of health
care in which computer are used:
Diagnostic System: Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
Lab-diagnostic System:All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
Patient Monitoring System:These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac
Arrest, ECG etc.
Pharma Information System:Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug side effects etc.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purposes. One of major areas is CAD(Computer aided design).CAD
provides creation,edition, and modification of image. Some fields are:
Structural Engineering:Requires stress and strain analysis required for design of Ships, Buildings, Budgets,
Airplanes etc.
Industrial Engineering:Computers deals with design, implementation and improvement of Integrated
systems of people, materials and equipments.
Architectural Engineering:Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range of
buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings
6. Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and understood clearly
and correctly by the person for whom it is meant.Some main areas in this category are:
-mail
-conferencing
THE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY
1. FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED

In the past, it took a long time for any news or messages to be send. Now with the Internet, news or messages
are sent via e-mail to friends, business partners or to anyone efficiently. With the capability of bandwidth,
broadband and connection speed on the Internet, any information can travel fast and at an instant. It saves time
and is inexpensive.
2. LOWER COMMUNICATION COST
Using the Internet is cost-effective than the other modes of communication such as telephone, mailing or
courier service. It allows people to have access to large amounts of data at a very low cost. With the Internet we
do not have to pay for any basic services provided by the Internet. Furthermore, the cost of connection to the
Internet is relatively cheap.
3. RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION

Computers are reliable. With the internet, information could be accessed and retrieved from anywhere and at
anytime. This makes it a reliable mode of communication. However, the input to the computer is contributed by
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humans. If the data passed to the computer is faulty, the result will be faulty as well. This is related to the term
GIGO.
GIGO is a short form for Garbage In Garbage Out. It refers to the quality of output produced according to the
input. Normally bad input produces bad output.
4. EFFECTIVE SHARING OF INFORMATION
With the advancement of ICT, information can be shared by people all around the world. People can share and
exchange opinions, news and information through discussion groups, mailing list and forums on the Internet.
This enable knowledge sharing which will contribute to the development of knowledge based society.
5. PAPERLESS ENVIRONMENT
ICT technology has created the term paperless environment. This term means information can be stored and
retrieved through the digital medium instead of paper. Online communication via emails, online chat and instant
messaging also helps in creating the paperless environment.
6. BORDERLESS COMMUNICATION
Internet offers fast information retrieval, interactivity, accessibility and versatility. It has become a borderless
sources for services and information. Through the Internet, information and communication can be borderless.
7. SOCIAL PROBLEMS
There are some negative effects of ICT. It has created social problems in the society. Nowadays, people tend to
choose online communication rather than having real time conversations. People tend to become more
individualistic and introvert.
8. Another negative effect of ICT is :
fraud
identity theft
Pornography
Hacking
This will result a moral decedent and generate threads to the society.
9. HEALTH PROBLEMS
A computer may harm users if they use it for long hours frequently. Computer users are also exposed to bad
posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In order to solve the health problems, an ergonomic environment
can be introduced. For example, an ergonomic chair can reduces back strain and a screen filter is used to
minimize eye strain.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
A computer is an electronic device or set of devices that work under the control of stored program accepting
data from outside itself and processing it to produce information.
A computer is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: it responds to a
specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner and it can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a
program).
COMPUTER TERMINOLOGIES.
(i) Data - is a basic facts about any activity performed in a computer.

(ii) Information This is result obtained after processing data or reliable world.
(iii) Processing Turning data into meaningful information.
(iv) Input To type or to key-in into the computer
(v) Output To obtain a printout or softcopy of information fed into the computer
(vi) Retrieve Making data that was stored accessible on the screen.
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(vii) Store To make data permanent into the computer memory.
QUALITIES OF A COMPUTER
(i) Its automatic i.e. can work with minimum human intervention once supplied with data and
instructions.
(ii) Its data processor processes raw facts and figures to produce information.
(iii) Its a storage device store information for later reference.
(iv) Its electrical Requires some form of power to drive it.
Advantages of using computers.
(i) Stores large chunks of information in limited space.

(ii) Speed- performs tasks in very short periods ( in comparison to working manually)
(iii) Efficiency Creates an all round saving on space, time.
(iv) Consistency- Gives the same results given the same data and instructions
(v) Secrecy information is fairly protected if the computer system is well managed
(vi) Versatility can do the same thing over and over again without being worn out.
Disadvantages of computers
i) Computers are expensive

ii) Cuts down on employment opportunities
iii) Need expertise, which is expensive to hire and maintain
iv) They create eye problems
v) Loss of information if not well managed
Classification of computers
1. According to size
A number of different dimensions can be used to classify computers into different types.
Traditionally, the size and the capabilities of computers are used as the main criterion and the
computers are classified into the following types.
PC The personal computer (PC) is small in size and is designed for general use by a single
person.
A PC that is not designed for portability. A desktop computer is typically set up in

a permanent location.
A portable computer that includes a battery to provide power for some
specific period of time.
More commonly known as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs). Palmtops are
small, lightweight and tightly integrated computers which usually do not have keyboards but
rely on touch screen technology for user input. Palmtops are equipped with a battery with
reasonable life.
A desktop computer with a powerful processor, additional memory and
enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of tasks, such as 3D graphics.
A computer that has been optimized to provide services to other computers over a
network. Servers usually have powerful processors, lots of memory and large hard drives.
Mainframes are huge computers, which could fill an entire room or even a whole
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floor. Over the years, the size of computers has diminished while the power has increased; the
term mainframe has fallen out of use. You will still
hear the term used, particularly in large companies to describe the huge machines processing
millions of transactions every day.
This type of computer is usually very expensive. Although some
supercomputers are single computer systems, most comprised multiple high performance computers
working parallel as a single system. The best-known supercomputers are built by Cray
Supercomputers.
2. Computer Generations
a. First Generation
The period of first generation was 1946-1959. First generation of computer started with using vacuum tubes as
the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU(Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric
bulbs produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very
expensive and could be afforded only by very large organisations.
In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. In this generation Punched cards, Paper
tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used. There were Machine code and electric wired board
languages used
The main features of First Generation are:
of electricity
Some computer of this generation were:
-701
-650
b. Second Generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. This generation using the transistor were
cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first
generation machines made of vaccum tubes.In this generation, magnetic cores were used as
primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this
generation assembly language and high level programming language like FORTRAN, COBOL
were used. There were Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating system used
The main features of Second Generation are:
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computers

generation computers
t as compared to First
generation computers
First generation computers
Faster than first generation computers

c. Third Generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The third generation of computer is marked by
the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of transistors.A single I.C has many transistors,
resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby.
This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation
Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming Operating System were used.
High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.)
were used during this generation
ser electricity

-360 series
-6000 series
-370/168
-316
d. Fourth Generation
The period of Fourth Generation was 1971-1980. The fourth generation of computers is marked
by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits.VLSI circuits having about 5000
transistors and other circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it
possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth Generation computers became
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more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer
(PC) revolution. In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating
System were used. All the Higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this
generation
The main features of Fourth Generation are:

ed
networks
5. Fifth Generation
The period of Fifth Generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch
in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like human
beings. All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.
AI includes:
technology
multimedia features
decisions in real life situations.

compact computers at cheaper rates
generation Some computer types of this generation are:

The main features of Fifth Generation are:
processing
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3. In terms of purpose, computers are classified into special purpose or general
purpose.
Special purpose computer is designed for only one purpose. A computer which guides space
shuttles, and which cannot be used for any other purpose is an example of special purpose
computer.
General-purpose computer, on the other hand, can be used for many purposes. For example,
the same general-purpose computer may be used to handle payroll, do balance sheet, and
produce graphics for the design of buildings, solve complex mathematical equations, or play
games. It is possible to provide a long list under this heading. Here is a least of varied examples
are given below
Home Computer This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability

designed for domestic use with programs that typically are used for such things as
computer game or controlling family finance.
Word Processor -- This is a special purpose computer used in the production of
office documents, letters, contracts, etc.
Personal Computer (PC) These are microcomputers designed for independent
use by individual at work or in home mainly for business purposes. Some PCs are
portable. Many can be connected to minicomputers and mainframe computers so
that the PC user can also gain access to the facilities offered by the larger
machine.
Desktop Computer -- These are microcomputers designed to be placed on top the
desk for independent use by individual at work or in home mainly for business
purposes. It therefore implies that Home computers and Personal Computers are
example of Desktop Computers.
Workstation Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are
also examples of desktop computers. Although larger and more powerful PCs are
sometime called workstations in order to denote the presence of advanced features
not provided by all PCs. These include in-built capabilities for their
interconnection and operation in conjunction with other computers.
Lap-top Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are
smaller in size compared to desktop computers and as a result they can be placed
on the lap of an individual to do any job. Although smaller and sometime very
powerful features not provided by all PCs. These include in-built capabilities for
their interconnection, mobile computing, with an in-built backup battery that
allows one to work without direct power connection and also operation in
conjunction with other computers.
Notebook Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are
smaller in size compared to desktop computers and the laptop computers as a
result they can placed on the lap of an individual, carried around easily to do any
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job. Although smaller and sometime confused for Laptop computers, they can as
well be very powerful in their operations and usages. These include in-built
capabilities for their interconnection, mobile computing, with an in-built backup
battery that allows one to work without direct power connection and also
operation in conjunction with other computers.
Palmtop Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are
smaller in size compared to the Laptop computers and the Notebook computer.
They are hand held computers and which can be easily carried around to do some
jobs. Although smaller and sometime confused for a calculator, they are actually
computers, they can as well be very powerful in their operations and usages.
These include in-built capabilities for their interconnection, mobile computing,
with an in-built backup battery that allows one to work without direct power
connection and also operation in conjunction with other computers.
Embedded Computers These are computers that are embedded within some
other devices or system but is not accessed directly. Examples of such system can
be find in watches, video recorder, petrol pumps, cameras, lift elevators, cars and
a host of other industrial and domestic devices.
4. Classification of computer according to technology
Analog Computers
An analog computer represents data as physical quantities and operates on the data by
manipulating the quantities. It is designed to process data in which the variable quantities vary
continuously (see analog circuit); it translates the relationships between the variables of a
problem into analogous relationships between electrical quantities, such as current and voltage,
and solves the original problem by solving the equivalent problem, or analog, that is set up in its
electrical circuits. Because of this feature, analog computers were especially useful in the
simulation and evaluation of dynamic situations, such as the flight of a space capsule or the
changing weather patterns over a certain area. The key component of the analog computer is the
operational amplifier, and the computer's capacity is determined by the number of amplifiers it
contains (often over 100). Although analog computers are commonly found in such forms as
speedometers and watt-hour meters, they largely have been made obsolete for general-purpose
mathematical computations and data storage by digital computers.
Digital Computers
A digital computer is designed to process data in numerical form (see digital circuit); its circuits
perform directly the mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. The numbers operated on by a digital computer are expressed in the binary system;
binary digits, or bits, are 0 and 1, so that 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, etc., correspond to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
etc. Binary digits are easily expressed in the computer circuitry by the presence (1) or absence
(0) of a current or voltage. A series of eight consecutive bits is called a "byte; the eight-bit byte
permits 256 different "on-off combinations. Each byte can thus represent one of up to 256
alphanumeric characters, and such an arrangement is called a "single-byte character set (SBCS);
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the de facto standard for this representation is the extended ASCII character set. Some languages,
such as Japanese, Chinese, and Korean, require more than 256 unique symbols. The use of two
bytes, or 16 bits, for each symbol, however, permits the representation of up to 65,536 characters
or ideographs. Such an arrangement is called a "double-byte character set (DBCS); Unicode is
the international standard for such a character set. One or more bytes, depending on the
computer's architecture, is sometimes called a digital word; it may specify not only the
magnitude of the number in question, but also its sign (positive or negative), and may also
contain redundant bits that allow automatic detection, and in some cases correction, of certain
errors (see code; information theory). A digital computer can store the results of its calculations
for later use, can compare results with other data, and on the basis of such comparisons can
change the series of operations it performs. Digital computers are used for reservations systems,
scientific investigation, data processing and word-processing applications, desktop publishing,
electronic games, and many other purposes.
Hybrid Computers
A hybrid computer is designed as a combination of analog and digital computer (see digital and
analog computer); its circuits perform directly on the technology of both analog and digital
circuits as a result its more powerful than the other two logic computers.
COMPUTER SYSTEM
Its made up of the following
(i) Hardware
a. Input devices
b. Output devices
c. Cpu
d. Storage devices
e. Bus sytem
f. Computer ports
(ii) Software
System software
Application software
(iii) Orgware/Operator
Hardware components
1. CPU Central Processing Unit
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CPU consists of the following features:
controls the operation of all parts of computer.
` CPU itself has following three components.
Memory Or Storage Unit:

This unit can store instruction, data and intermediate results.This unit supplies information to the
other units of the computer when needed.It is also known as internal storage unit or main
memory or primary storage or Random access memory(RAM). Its size affects speed, power and
capability.There are primary memory and secondary memory two types of memories in the
computer.Function of Memory Unit are:
processing before these results are released to an output device.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer.It does not carry out any actual data
processing operations. Functions of this unit are
computer.
ns from the memory, interprets them and directs the operation of the
computer.
ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsection namely
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ARITHMETIC SECTION
Function of Arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above
operations.
LOGIC SECTION
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching
and merging of data.
2. Input Devices
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in Computer Systems
Reader(OCR)
Reader(MICR)
Keyboard
Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The keyboard helps in inputting the
data to the computer.The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although
there are some additional keys provided for performing some additional functions. Keyboard are
of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now 104 keys or 108 keys keyboard is also available
for Windows and Internet.
The keys are following Keys Description
Sr. No.
1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z)
and digits keys (0-9) which are generally
give same layout as that of typewriters.
2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor
movement. Generally, it consists of a set of
17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding machine
and calculators.
3 Function Keys The twelve functions keys are present on
the keyboard. These are arranged in a row
along the top of the keyboard.Each function
key has unique meaning and is used for
some specific purpose.
4 Control keys These keys provides cursor and screen
control. It includes four directional arrow
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key.Control keys also include Home,
End,Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
5 Special Purpose Keyboard also contains some special
Keys purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print
Screen.
Mouse
Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device. It is a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons. Generally it has two buttons called left
and right button and scroll bar is present at the mid. Mouse can be used to control the position of
cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
ADVANTAGES
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is
a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in
a socket.TheJoystic can be moved in all four directions. The function of joystic is similar to that
of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and playing computer games
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen.It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a
small tube. When light pen's tip is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square
Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for
further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the
digital form that can be stored on the disc.These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into a digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and
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pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of
drawing and images manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone
is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing
music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition(MICR). The main advantages
of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a
hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar
code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which
bar code reader is connected
3. Output Devices
Following are few of the important output devices which are used in Computer Systems
Monitors
Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels, that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the no. of the pixels. There are two kinds of viewing
screen used for monitors.
-Ray Tube (CRT)
- Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

In the CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels for short.The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution.It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form
whole character, such as the letter e in the word help. A finite number of character can be
displayed on a screen at once.The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed
location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. The most screens are capable of
displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some
disadvantage of CRT
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Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement compare to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses for flat-panel displays include calculators, videogames, monitors, laptop
computer, graphics display. The flat-panel display are divided into two categories
Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns.Example is LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)
Printers
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on paper. There
are two types of printers
-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper, are called
impact printers. Characteristics of Impact Printers are following
These printers are of two types

printers
Character Printers:
Character Printers are printers which print one character at a time. These are of further two types
Dot Matrix Printer

In the market one of the most popular printer is Dot Matrix Printer because of their ease of
printing features and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of Dot's and
head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size(5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which comes out to form a
character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
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Disadvantages
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and Pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy(flower
name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices which require a few letters to be send here and there with very nice quality
representation.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Line Printers
Line printers are printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into
number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e for a paper width of 132 characters,
Drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different characters sets
are available in market 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set.One rotation of drum prints one
line. Drum Printers are fast in speed and speed in between 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Chain Printer
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In this printer chain of character sets are used so it called Chain Printers.A standard character set
may have 48, 64, 96 characters.
Advantages
Disadvantages
aracters.
Non-impact Printers
The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper, are
called Non-impact Printers. These printers print a complete page at a time, also called as Page
Printers. These printers are of two types
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
They are not noisy.
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produces the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
Very high speed.
Disadvantage
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
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with presentable features. They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have
many styles of printing modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet
printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
Disadvantages
4. Computer Memory
Amemory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer memory is
the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is
called cell. Each location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size
minus one. For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536
memory location. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535. Memory is primarily of
three types
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from
disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
ADVANTAGE
stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
DISADVANTAGE:
Primary Memory (Main Memory)

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Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working.
It has limited capacity and data get lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed earlier reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories
RAM and ROM. Characteristic of Main Memory
off.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing Data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it.For example: disk,
CD-ROM,DVD etc. Characteristic of Secondary Memory
-volatile memory.
he data in the computer.
Random Access Memory

ARAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result.
It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM). Since access time in RAM is
independent of the address to the word that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy
to reach as other location & takes the same amount of time. We can reach into the memory at
random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive. RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is
lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence a backup
uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small , both in terms
of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold. RAM is of two types
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RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix
of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis. Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM
uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, thus making the
manufacturing costs higher. Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and
small. Characteristic of the Static RAM
ption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristic of the Dynamic RAM
nsumption
Read Only Memory
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start computer
when electricity is first turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not
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only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and
microwave oven.
Following are the varioys types of ROM
MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.
PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer.Inside the PROM chip there
are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and
is not erasable.
EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of upto 40 minutes.
Usually, a EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one
byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is
flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
-volatile in nature
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Hardware Devices: Secondary storage devices
This section will be looking at the various forms of secondary storage device (media). For each
device you should be familiar with the following details:
seek time - Average time taken from requesting data to starting to read the requested data
Capacity - The amount of data it is possible to store on a media
Access type - Whether a device is Random Access or Serial Access
Write type - Whether it is read only, write only or readable and writable
Cost - how much does it cost per megabyte
sequential access requires all memory locations before the one sought to be read, before reaching
it. Random access memory allows you to jump directly to the memory location you are seeking
Pay special attention to devices with an orange background, you need to be able to describe
exactly how they work!
Contents
1 Magnetic media
o 1.1 Hard disk
o 1.2 Tape drive
2 Optical media
o 2.1 CD-ROM
3 Solid-state memory
o 3.1 USB Flash Drive
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o 3.2 Memory cards
Magnetic media
Magnetic media stores data by assigning a magnetic charge to metal. This metal is then
processed by a read head, which converts the charges into ones and zeros. Historically, magnetic
media has been very popular for storing programs, data, and making backups. It looks set to
continue in this role for some time. However, solid state technology to starting to be used more
and more, storing programs and data on new devices such as mobile phones and cameras.
Solid-state memory
Device Size
Hard Disk Up to 4 Terabytes
Tape Up to 2 Terabytes
Hard disk
Video of exposed hard disk drive (HDD)
Hard disks are usually found inside computers to store programs and data. They are increasingly
cheap and more and more companies are using them to back things up. Hard disks can vary in
physical size with some disks getting as small as your thumb. The capacity of a commercial disk
is currently up to about 2 terabytes allowing users to read and write to them. They are
constructed from several key components:
Platter - Metallic disks where One or both sides of the platter are magnetized, allowing
data to be stored. The platter spins thousands of times a second around the spindle. There
may be several platters, with data stored across them
Head - The head reads magnetic data from the platter. For a drive with several platters
there may two heads per platter allowing data to be read from top and bottom of each
Actuator Arm - used to move the read heads in and out of the disk, so that data can be
read and written to particular locations and you can access data in a Random fashion, you
don't need to read your way through the entire disk to fetch a particular bit of
information, you can jump right there. Seek time is very low.
Power connector - provides electricity to spin the platters, move the read head and run
the electronics
IDE connector - allows for data transfer from and to the platters
Jumper block - used to get the disk working in specific ways such as RAID
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For the exam you must be able to explain how a hard disk works:
1. The platters spin around the spindle

2. data is requested to be read from a particular area of a platter
3. the actuator arm moves the read head to that track
4. Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the read head, data is read
5. Read data is sent from the IDE connector to main memory
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Description of a hard disk platter
Writing data is very similar:
1. The platters spin around the spindle

2. data is sent to the hard disk using the IDE connector
3. the actuator arm moves the write head to the track that will be written to
4. Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the write head, data is
written to the platter
Pros
Fast seek times

Random access
High capacities possible
Low cost per megabyte
Cons
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Very susceptible to damage from physical shocks
Tape drive
DDS tape drive. Above, from left right: DDS-4 tape (20 GB), 112m Data8 tape (2.5 GB), QIC
DC-6250 tape (250 MB), and a 3.5" floppy disk (1.44 MB)
Increasingly obsolete, the tape has been a medium to deliver software and back up data since the
early days of computing. Nowadays they are used mostly for corporate backing up and archiving
of data. Tapes are sequential data stores, meaning that if you had information stored at the end of
the tape you would have to wind your way through the entirety of the tape before you could read
it. There is no random access like with a hard disk! Tapes can be several terabytes in size and
reading and writing can be very fast as long as you read or write continuous sections of the tape
at once.
Pros
Fast
High capacity
Cheap per megabyte
Cons
Serial read and write capabilities
Optical media
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Optical media works by creating a disc with a pitted metallic surface. There are several different
types of disk out there ranging from 650 MB to 128 GB, with the pits and lands getting closer
together for higher volume disks. The principle behind how each of them works is the same.
pitted surface visible on the surface of a CD. Massively zoomed in!

Optical media
Device Type Size Image
CD-ROM Read Only
650 -
CD-R Write once then Read only
900 100px
CD-RW re-Writable
MB
DVD-ROM Read Only
DVD-R Write once then Read only 4.7 -
DVD-RW re-Writable 9.4
DVD-RAM re-Writable GB
Blu-ray Re-Writable and Read Only versions available,

25 -
(BD) disc using a Blue laser, that is able to recognise smaller
128
HD DVD pits and lands. Allowing for the pits and lands to be
GB
more closely packed
CD-ROM
close up of the surface of a CD being read
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1. A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside, this track
is made of pits and lands to represent the ones and zeroes.
2. A laser is shone on the metallic surface and the reflection is captured in a photodiode
sensor, the lands reflect differently to the pits, meaning it can tell the difference between
a 1 and a 0
3. The disc spins and the laser follows the track
Pros
Cheap
Cons
Slow seek time

Data degrades with time, discs from 20 years ago might not work!
Depending the on the disk, you might not be able to write to it, or re-write to it
Solid-state memory
Solid-state memory
Device Description
USB flash drive Up to 256 GB
Memory card Up to 256 GB
USB Flash Drive
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Internals of a typical USB flash drive
1 USB Standard-A plug
2 USB mass storage controller device
3 Test points
4 Flash memory chip
5 Crystal oscillator
6 LED
7 Write-protect switch (Optional)
8 Space for second flash memory chip
USB Flash drives are solid state, that means that there are no moving parts. This is very useful
for seek times as we don't have to wait for mechanical movement, meaning seek time is very low
and it allows for fast Random Access Memory. Flash drives can be set to read only mode, but
they will always allow for reading and writing. The size of flash drives is not as great as a Hard
Disk and they are generally much more expensive per megabyte
1. put drive into USB socket

2. USB driver loads, providing the computer with code on how to read and write from the
USB
3. The USB is read, giving information on the file and folder structure (File Allocation
Table) to the Computer
4. [Reading] The user chooses to open a file, the Computer sends the address wanted to the
USB port
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5. [Reading] The USB returns the data at the location requested
6. [Writing] The computer sends data to the USB port where it is place into empty space on
the drive
7. [Writing] The computer then requests a new version of the file and folder structure
Pros
Very fast seek times

Very portable
Cons
Limited capacity
expensive per MB when compared to Hard Disks
Memory cards
Work in much the same way as a Flash drive and can often be converted into Flash Drives. They
have different connectors and are generally smaller than USB Flash drives allowing for them to
be used in cameras, mobile phones and game consoles.
comparison of different memory cards
5. Ports
What is a Port?
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device can be connected
to the computer.
from a program to computer or over the internet.
Characteristics
les and ports.
speakers etc.
Following are few important types of ports

Serial Port
Parallel Port
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Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port.
PS/2 Port
-compliant Centronics port.

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
mouse, keyboard etc.
avels at 12 megabits per seconds
VGA Port
Power Connector
-pronged plug
Firewire Port
r seconds
-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and 9-Pin
FireWire 800 connector
Ethernet Port
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rt resides on an Eternet Card.
bandwidth.
Game Port
Digital Video Interface , DVI port

CD monitors to the computer's high end video graphic cards.
Sockets
6. Bus System
A bus, in computing, is a set of physical connections (cables, printed circuits, etc.) which can be
shared by multiple hardware components in order to communicate with one another.
The purpose of buses is to reduce the number of "pathways" needed for communication between
the components, by carrying out all communications over a single data channel. This is why the
metaphor of a "data highway" is sometimes used. If only two hardware components
communicate over the line, it is called a hardware port (such as a serial port or parallel port).
Characteristics
A bus is characterised by the amount of information that can be transmitted at once. This
amount,expressed in bits, corresponds to the number of physical lines over which data is sent
simultaneously. A 32-wire ribbon cable can transmit 32 bits in
1. Data Bus
The data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor. It is a bidirectional
bus.
Data bus is the most common type of bus. It is used to transfer data between different
components of computer. The number of lines in data bus affects the speed of data transfer
between different components. The data bus consists of 8, 16, 32, or 64 lines. A 64-line data bus
can transfer 64 bits of data at one time.
The data bus lines are bi-directional. It means that:

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1. CPU can read data from memory using these lines
2. CPU can write data to memory locations using these lines
2. Address Bus.
The address bus (sometimes called the memory bus) transports memory addresses which the
processor wants to access in order to read or write data. It is a unidirectional bus
Many components are connected to one another through buses. Each component is assigned a
unique ID. This ID is called the address of that component. It a component wants to
communicate with another component, it uses address bus to specify the address of that
component. The address bus is a unidirectional bus. It can carry information only in one
direction. It carries address of memory location from microprocessor to the main memory.
3. Control Bus
3. Control bus
The control bus (or command bus) transports orders and synchonisation signals coming from
the control unit and travelling to all other hardware components. It is a bidirectional bus, as it
also transmits response signals from the hardware
Control bus is used to transmit different commands or control signals from one component to
another component. Suppose CPU wants to read data from main memory. It will use control is
also used to transmit control signals like ASKS (Acknowledgement signals). A control signal
contains the following:
1 Timing information: It specifies the time for which a device can use data and address bus.
2 Command Signal: It specifies the type of operation to be performed.
Suppose that CPU gives a command to the main memory to write data. The memory sends
acknowledgement signal to CPU after writing the data successfully. CPU receives the signal and
then moves to perform some other action.
The primary buses

There are generally two buses within a computer:
the internal bus (sometimes called the front-side bus, or FSB for short). The internal bus
allows the processor to communicate with the system's central memory (the RAM).
the expansion bus (sometimes called the input/output bus) allows various motherboard
components (USB, serial, and parallel ports, cards inserted in PCI connectors, hard drives,
CD-ROM and CD-RW drives, etc.) to communicate with one another. However, it is mainly
used to add new devices using what are called expansion slots connected to the
input/outpur bus.
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Chipset
A chipset is the component which routes data between the computer's buses, so that all
thecomponents which make up the computer can communicate with each other. The
chipsetoriginally was made up of a large number of electronic chips, hence the name. It
generally hastwo components:
The NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge of controlling
transfersbetween the processor and the RAM, which is way it is located physically near
theprocessor. It is sometimes called the GMCH, forr Graphic and Memory Controller Hub.
The SouthBridge (also called the input/output controller or expansion controller)
handlescommunications between peripheral devices. It is also called the ICH (I/O Controller
Hub).
The tem bridge is generally used to designate a component which connects two buses
Relationship between Hardware and Software
output.
hardware
xpensive and is a continuing expense.
oul'.Both are
complimentary to each other.
Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well defined function. A program
is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem. There are two types of
software
stem Software
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System Software
The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared by
computer manufactures. These softwares comprise of programs written in low level languages
which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface
between hardware and the end users. Some examples of system software are Operating System,
Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers etc.
Application Software
Application software are the software that are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. All software prepared by us in the computer lab can come under the category of
Application software. Application software may consists of a single program, such as a
Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing simple text. It may also consists of a collection of
programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a
spreadsheet package. Examples of Application software are following
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Computer personel
The Role of a Computer Operator
What Is a Computer Operator?
A computer operator is an individual who works with computers on a daily basis and partakes in
a number of activities relative to such operation. These individuals will have varying duties
depending on their specific job title and place of employment. In general, computer operators
enter data , aid in fixing computer problems and supervise others working in the computers
department.
General Responsibilities of a Computer Operator
Computer operators will find themselves holding a number of responsibilities in their job
position. Some of these responsibilities include operating various computer systems, fixing
problems that may arise, contacting those who can remedy computer problems when unable to
do so and tracking computers operations on a daily basis. These responsibilities may vary in
nature and some computer operators will have a wide range of responsibilities whereas others
will have minimal amounts of duties due to their job title.
Conclusion
A computer operator is an individual who is responsible for using computers, fixing computer
problems and monitoring computer usage by others in his/her department. The true extent of the
job role of a computer operator will be determined by the exact position he/she holds, the
company which the individual works for and the amount of responsibility the individual is
given. Overall, the job role of a computer operator is one which is varied and fulfilling. Should
one have a good knowledge with regard to computers and be well rounded in such knowledge,
embarking on a career as a computer operator may be a wise move on their part.
What is Computer Programming?
Computer programming is the imputing of sequenced instructions that direct a computer to take
assigned actions or determine logical steps.
What is a Computer Programmer?
Computer programmers write, test, and maintain the programs that computers follow when
performing specific functions. While job titles and descriptions vary by company, the main task
of computer programmers is problem solving and development of systems solutions using the
appropriate methodologies and techniques.
Programmers often work on projects as a team, each team member assigned according to
strength and ability. A programmer uses programming languages, such as C++, PHP, or Java to
communicate with computer to perform a set of instructions. By typing code in 2nd and 3rd level
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programming languages (which are languages become more like words as the generation goes up
and more like machine code as the generation goes down , eg assembler) helps computer
programmers easier to code with. Once finished coding they compile the program into machine
language so the computer can follow the set of instructions.
What qualifications do Computer Programmers need?
A Bachelors degree in Computer Science is generally required for employment at the more
prestigious technology companies. However, the combination of an associates degree with
strong computer programming ability will qualify programmers for many entry-level positions.
Regardless of the degree chosen, courses in information science, computer science, mathematics,
and engineering provide the kind of strong base knowledge employers look for. Additional
qualifications include:
Certification in a specific programming language or languages
Familiarity with database systems

Good communication skills
An eye for detail
An ability to think out of the box
An analytical mind and problem solving skills
What type of tasks are involved in Computer Programming?
In addition to writing new programs, computer programmers update and maintain existing
programs. They test programs to ensure efficiency, accuracy, and to identify programming
errors. Some of the tasks programmers might also do the following:
System Analyst and Designers
Job Titles
Network Designer
Systems Analyst
Solutions Architect
Senior Systems Engineer
Senior Solutions Architect
Systems Architect
Principal Solutions Architect
Duties The role of system analysts and designers is critical in contemporary system
development. The systems analyst is a key partner with project managers and system developers.
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Systems analysts define software requirements and specifications and guide program design and
development. A systems analyst may supervise a software development or maintenance team of
analyst / programmers and programmers.
Depending on the level of responsibility and the particular job role involved, duties may also
include:
1. Analyzing problems in software development and guiding the rectification of faults in

programs
2. Analyzing software requirements and defining program parameters and specifications
3. Undertaking analysis of current software products and determining approaches which
will improve their user interface, performance and integrity
4. Leading team members and third parties in client organisations in the integration of
technological methodologies and components of projects
5. Ensuring and being accountable for the technical integrity of the design in accordance
with the clients requirements
6. Ensuring that programs meet marketing/user requirements by testing and monitoring
initial field use and problems
7. Guiding the preparation of software manuals and guides
8. Improving the interface between systems users, the operating system and applications
software
9. Conducting user requirements analysis to match customer needs to company products
and services
10. Assisting the sales force with pre-sales activity such as proposal preparation, systems
demonstrations and presentations, particularly in relation to larger and more important
clients.
Career Path Systems analysts and designers typically have a technical background, often in
software development and programming. A senior systems engineer usually has substantial
formal training and at least 7-10 years systems engineering experience. A systems analyst will
typically have at least 5 years experience in software development and programming with at least
2 or more years in systems analysis. A principal solutions architect would typically have at least
10 years experience in a technical field such as systems integration or systems development, with
at least 5 years experience in an ICT contracting environment.
Qualifications / Experience
The systems analyst/ designer is usually a more senior position in enterprises. Professional
qualifications will vary but a good understanding of ICT with technical expertise is essential.
Formal qualifications for systems analyst would typically include studies of computing systems
alongside studies typically found in a Bachelor Degree of Engineering / Science / ICT.
Personal Qualities
A business outcome approach

An ability to conceptualise and think creatively
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A capacity to articulate visions
Very good oral and written communications skills
Interpersonal skills to evoke commitment from the client
A high standard of ethics and integrity in all dealings
Sound administrative skills and good analytical and reporting abilities
Effective time management and personal organization skills
An understanding of user needs
Systems Designer (Information Technology)
State/Territory SpecificInformation
Systems designers (IT) create detailed design documentation for the development and integration
of computer systems to meet the needs ofbusinesses.
Systems designers (IT) may perform the followingtasks:
work with analysts on the feasibility of a conceptual design by taking technical

specifications prepared by the analyst and designing system components to meet the set
requirements
draw up detailed design documentation including chartsand diagrams that indicate the
various components involved
prepare instructions for programmer implementation
talk with other team members (analysts and programmers) to ensure functionality
according to systems specifications, and develop solutions as problemsor issues arise
design monitoring and performance measurement processes.
Specialisations:
Applications System Designer
An applications system designer undertakes design tasks for business computer systems such as
payroll or stock control.
Database Design Specialist
A database design specialist plays an important role in devising databases to suit large data
acquisition, storage and retrieval requirements. Designers develop database solutions that satisfy
clients' needs for high-speed access, multiple views of the same information, accuracy
andsecurity, and the sharing of information between systems.
Network Designer
A network designer is generally involved in design functions in contexts that include in-house
networks or larger, distributed mainframe systems. Design work in this context can be very
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complex, with large numbers of protocols, platforms and software solutions that need to
communicate with each other.
Operations Systems Designer
An operations systems designer is involved in the design and implementation of operational

systems, with the objective of optimising systems performance. The focus is on operational
systems such as mainframes, desktop and mid-range solutions.
Software Designer
A software designer works in the area of design and modification of the operating environment
software that links computersoftware and hardware. The role is sometimes also described as
Software Engineer, implying some knowledge of the associated hardware on which the software
runs.
Systems Architect
A systems architect examines the hardware requirements that support systems implementation
across personal computers, mainframes or networks.
Systems Designer (Research)
A systems designer (research) specialises in systems investigation and research for the ongoing
development of hardware and software.
Personal Requirements:
able to understand and solve complex problems

logical and analytical approach to solving problems
good communication skills
able to work independently or as part of a team
able to direct the work of others
willing to actively maintain personal skills and knowledge of IT.
Database Administrator
Job Description:
Also called Database Co-ordinator, Database Programmer Closely related jobs Database Analyst,
Database Modeller, Programmer Analyst, Systems Manager
In summary
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Database administrators design, implement, maintain and repair an organisations database. The
role includes developing and designing the database strategy, monitoring and improving database
performance and capacity, and planning for future expansion requirements. They may also plan,
co-ordinate and implement security measures to safeguard the database.
A database administrator may
1. undertake daily administration, including monitoring system performance, ensuring

successful backups, and developing/implementing disaster recovery plans
2. manage data to give users the ability to access, relate and report information in different
ways
3. develop standards to guide the use and acquisition of software and to protect valuable
information
4. modify existing databases or instruct programmers and analysts on the required changes
5. test programs or databases, correct errors and make necessary modifications
6. train users and answer questions
What learning areas and study is needed?
A Bachelor degree in ICT

Specific training in vendor products
This career would appeal to people who
1. enjoy keeping up with the complexities of database technologies, and have a knowledge
of relational database technology (eg, Oracle, Sybase, DB2, MS Access) and operating
systems
2. have well-developed interpersonal and communication skills
3. have an ability to understand data and how it will be used
4. possess good process management and problem solving skills
5. enjoy working within a team and taking a hands-on approach, but can also work
autonomously
6. are customer focussed
7. enjoy troubleshooting determining the causes of operating errors and deciding what to
do about it
8. are critical thinkers and can use logic and reason to identify the strengths and weaknesses
of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems
9. are active listeners and can give full attention to what people are saying and take the time
to understand the points being made
Remuneration and job prospects?
Average salary according to the Victorian Governments Youth Central is $71,596 based on
around three years relevant IT experience. Job prospects are good, and employment has
remained steady over the last five years.
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Career Path:
Starting out
Many database administrators have had experience in programming, and IT vendor qualifications
are increasingly popular with employers.
Going towards
Larger organisations may offer structured career paths with increasing management and
technical responsibilities, but many database administrators move on to other areas such as
systems development, project management, network management or database architecture.
Those with good management skills combined with their technical expertise may move into
more strategic roles.
Network Administrator
Job Description:
Closely related jobs: Network Technician, Network Engineer, Website Administrator, Systems
Administrator, Telecommunications Engineer
In summary
Network administrators provide operational support for and management of computer networks
to ensure they run efficiently. The IT networks can range from internet and private networks to
large communications networks.
A network administrator may
install, configure and maintain PCs, networking equipment and network operating
systems
monitor and configure networks to optimise performance and resolve faults
undertake recovery action in the event of a system failure
establish and control system access and security levels
provide training and support for system software
implement and co-ordinate housekeeping procedures, including system back-ups, setting
up user accounts, monitoring file access etc
plan and implement maintenance and upgrades for system software and hardware
maintain peripheral devices connected to the printer such as printers and scanners
What learning areas and study is needed?
Computing studies such as Bachelor Degree in Engineering (Electronics or Computing) or

Computer Science A good understanding of network operating systems, network equipment and
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networking protocols is important Vendor certification (eg, Microsoft Certified Systems
Engineer, Cisco Certified Network Associate) This career would appeal to people who
enjoy a highly technical role

are able to think logically and analytically in a troubleshooting and problem-solving
environment
can remain calm under high pressure and stressful situations
have good oral and written communication skills and are active listeners
are able to quickly understand complex issues
enjoy working as part of a team
are willing to continuously update IT skills and knowledge
Computer Network
A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices that
are linked together through communication channels to facilitate communication and resource-
sharing among a wide range of users
What is Network?
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such
as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications.
The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves,
satellites, or infrared light beams
Networks are used to:
Facilitate communication via email, video conferencing, instant messaging, etc.

Enable multiple users to share a single hardware device like a printer or scanner
Enable file sharing across the network
Allow for the sharing of software or operating programs on remote systems
Make information easier to access and maintain among network users
Campus Networks
There are many types of networks, Metropolitan Area Networks
including: (MAN)
Enterprise Private Networks
Local Area Networks (LAN) Internetworks
Personal Area Networks Backbone Networks (BBN)
(PAN) Global Area Networks
Home Area Networks (HAN) (GAN)
Wide Area Networks (WAN) The Internet
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The following characteristics differentiate one LAN from another:
topology : The geometric arrangement of devices on the network. For example, devices
can be arranged in a ring or in a straight line.
protocols : The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocols also
determine whether the network uses a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.
media : Devices can be connected by twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or fiber optic
cables. Some networks do without connecting media altogether, communicating instead
via radio waves.
Different Types of Networks
Depending upon the geographical area covered by a network, it is classified as:
Local Area Network (LAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Personal Area Network (PAN)
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices, usually within
small geographical area e.g. an office building or home. i.e. within the same building or up to a
radius 10m 5km.
LANs enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be needed
by multiple users
Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters,and no more than a mile
Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps
Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device
Has lower cost compared to MANs or WANs
LANs can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fibre optic cable can be used in
wired LANs.
Every LAN uses a protocol a set of rules that governs how packets are configured and
transmitted.
Technical aspects
Network topology describes the layout of interconnections between devices and network
segments. At the Data Link Layer and Physical Layer, a wide variety of LAN topologies
have been used, including ring, bus, mesh and star, but the most common LAN topology in
use today is switched Ethernet.
Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain topology. These topologies include:
Bus
Ring
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Star
LANs are capable of very high transmission rates (100s Mb/s to G b/s).
Advantages of LAN
Speed Speed: The machine connected together via the internal network should
be very high speeds.- Data transfer rate higher.
Cost Low cost: Only need 2
computers connected together via a network card can become a Workgroup.
Security :increased security and data security in intranet.
Centralized management: data is stored centrally on the server, the folders are also
to shared account access management server.- Resource Sharing
Disadvantages of LAN
Expensive To Install e.g due to server system
Requires Administrative Time
File Server May Fail
Cables May Break
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a
city or a
large campus. formed whenever clients are connected within a medium seized area i.e.
entire city within a radius of 10km
A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several
blocks of
buildings to entire cities.
A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be
used
by many individuals and organizations.
A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources.
A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed DSL to
customers and cable TV network
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of the
world.
A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many miles apart.
To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed phone lines
or
wireless links such as satellites.
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Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers, or
gateways, which enable them to share data.
The world's most popular WAN is the Internet
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)

A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and computer
devices (including telephones) in close proximity of around a few meters within a room
It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for connecting to
a larger network such as the internet.
PANs can be wired or wireless
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computer devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants, in proximity to an
individual's body.
The devices may or may not belong to the person in question. The reach of a PAN is
typically a few meters.
Advantages
The scope of activities is not limited

Do multiple LAN and MAN connections with each other so very complex
network andthe global organization to stand out and management regulations
disadvantages
Low bandwidth, easy to lose connection, usually only suitable for online applications
such as e - mail, ftp, web ....
Costs for equipment and technology is very expensive WAN
Importance of Networking
Networking of computers provides a communication link between the users, and provides access
to information. Networking of computers has several uses, described as follows:
Resource Sharing In an organization, resources such as printers, fax machines and

scanners are generally not required by each person at all times. Moreover, for small
organizations it may not be feasible to provide such resources to each individual. Such
resources can be made available to different users of the organization on the network. It
results in availability of the resource to different users regardless of the physical location
of the resource or the user, enhances optimal use of the resource, leads to easy
maintenance, and saves cost too
Sharing of Information In addition to the sharing of physical resources, networking
facilitates sharing of information. Information stored on networked computers located at
same or different physical locations, becomes accessible to the computers connected to
the network.
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As a Communication Medium Networking helps in sending and receiving of
electronic-mail (e-mail) messages from anywhere in the world. Data in the form of text,
audio, video and pictures can be sent via e-mail. This allows the users to communicate
online in a faster and cost effective manner. Video conferencing is another form of
communication made possible via networking. People in distant locations can hold a
meeting, and they can hear and see each other simultaneously.
For Back-up and Support Networked computers can be used to take back-up of
critical data. In situations where there is a requirement of always-on computer, another
computer on the network can take over in case of failure of one computer.
NETWORKING COMPONENTS
What are the hardware components of a LAN?
The hardware components of a LAN consist of:
PCs/workstations and servers

Network Interface Card (NIC)
Cabling and connectors, for example, coaxial cable and BNC connector, Unshielded
Twisted Pair (UTP) and RJ-45 connector
Hub, concentrator, and more complicated network devices such as Bridge, LAN Switch
and Router
What are the software components of a LAN?
The software components of a LAN can be grouped into two categories:
1. Inside PCs/workstations and servers
NIC Drivers
Network Operating System for servers, for example, Novell Netware 4.1 or Microsoft
Windows NT
Network Operating System for clients (PCs/workstations), for example, Novell
Netware 4.1 client or Microsoft Windows 95
Networking protocol software, for example, TCP/IP, Novell IPX
Application software, for example, emails, Internet Web Browser
2. Inside network devices (Hub/Bridge/LAN Switch/Router)
Network Management Software, for example, Simple Network Management Protocol

(SNMP), Remote Network Monitoring (RMC)
Forwarding/routing & control software, for examples, transparent bridging, spanning tree
and IP routing software
What is a Network Interface Card (NIC)?

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A Network Interface Card, or NIC, is a circuit board inserted into each network station
(PC/workstation or server) to allow communication with other stations. Depending on the
stations, the bus of a NIC could be ISA, PCI, EISA, MCA, S-busand so on.
What is a Hub?
A Hub is a central device used on star network topology that repeats or amplifies signals,
allowing the network to be lengthened or expanded with additional stations. For example, an
Ethernet hub normally has 8 or 12 or 16 RJ-45 ports, each port can be connected to a PC or
workstation or server. Also, the hubs BNC port can be connected to a coaxial cable to lengthen
the network.
What is a Bridge?
A Bridge is a device used to connect two or more LANs. It operates at the Media Access Control
Layer (layer 2), checking and forwarding data packets between different LANs.
What is a LAN Switch?
A LAN Switch is a device using switching hardware to speed-up the checking and forwarding of
data packets between LANs. LAN Switch is functionally like a bridge, but its speed and
performance is faster and better than a bridge.
What is a Router?
A Router is a device that operates at the network layer (layer 3), routing data between similar or
dissimilar networks. A router is more powerful than a bridge or LAN Switch because the router
checks the network protocols and addresses (for example, IP or IPX).
What is a Network Management?
Network Management are functions that manage and control networks. It consists of five major
functions:
1. Fault Management
2. Accounting Management
3. Configuration Management
4. Performance Management
5. Security Management
What is SNMP?
SNMP, or Simple Network Management Protocol, is a standard protocol adopted for the network
management of Internet and TCP/IP based networks.
What is RMON?
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RMON are the functions that monitor the network performance, errors and other summary
information. RMON functions can be implemented in a network device (HUB, LAN switch) or a
station (PC, Server).
What is JAVA?
JAVA is a network programming language designed to solve problems in the area of client-
server programming. It is ideal for programming on the Internet. JAVA capability is included in
most new generation Internet Web Browser, e.g. Netscape Navigator 2.0 and higher and
Microsoft Explorer 3.0 and above.
Define a JAVA-based Network Management System.
A JAVA-based Network Management System is an integration of JAVA language and network

management functions. The network management software is written in JAVA language and
stored in a network device (HUB, LAN switch). The user can manage the network by an Internet
Web Browser. The operation of network management is as simple as browsing WWW server.
What is a RMON software probe?
A RMON software probe is a RMON-like software that runs on PCS. The software can do the
function of monitoring the network traffics, errors and other statistics. It can also store the
records for later analysis.
Setting up a network
In order to create an Ethernet network, certain components are necessary for the computers
within the network to communicate with each other. The required components to create an
Ethernet network are:
10Base-T Ethernet Network Interface Card (NIC)

Ethernet hub
BNC T-connectors (usually provided)
50-Ohm terminators (usually provided)
Thin Ethernet (Thinnest) coaxial cable (usually provided)
Network Interface Card
A Network Interface Card (NIC) is an add-on adapter card that is installed to the PCI or ISA slot
on the PCs motherboard. The NIC sorts data on the computer into bundles and transmits them to
another computer while allowing the user to access the data within the bundle simultaneously.
The most common NIC used today is the 10Base-T Ethernet card that is connected to an Ethernet
hub.
Hub
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All Ethernet 10Base-T networks are connected with an Ethernet hub. The hub manages the
traffic that passes between computers on a network and is connected to all computers that are
part of the network.
Other networking components
Other networking components are used to connect a PC or even a laptop to an Ethernet network.
AUI-BNC transceivers can be used to connect a PC or a laptop to a different network interface.
Some NIC can support a combination of interface, such as an AUI and a BNC as well as a RJ45.
Sometimes a combo transceiver may be used to connect to a NIC on a PC or a laptop on one end
and to another network system on the other over the supported interface.
Most network interface cards today have PnP (Plug and Play) capability. The following
procedures assume that your NIC is PnP-compatible and that your PCs operating system is
Windows 95. Once the NIC is installed and you have powered on your computer, Windows
95 will automatically detect the new modem and assist you with its configuration. If this is not
the case, refer to the documentation that came with your NIC for proper configuration
procedures such as setting IRQ settings.
communication network
Definition
A communication network is an infrastructure that allows users to exchange information.
Key elements
User a person, a computer program, a sensor, and etc;
Information a text, a computer file, a webpage, a video, and etc.
Digital representation of information. Analog-to-digital conversion.
Examples
Postal service, public telephone network (including cellular telephony),
cable TV, wireless local area network (wifi), Internet (a network of networks).
The ability to exchange data and communicate efficiently is the main purpose of networking
computers. But we have to consider beyond these points to evaluate the feasibility of networking
for our own advantages.
A computer network can be identified as a group of computers that are interconnected for
sharing data between them or their users. There is a wide variety of networks and their
advantages and disadvantages mainly depend on the type of network.
Advantages of Computer Networking
1. Easy Communication and Speed
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It is very easy to communicate through a network. People can communicate efficiently using a
network with a group of people. They can enjoy the benefit of emails, instant messaging,
telephony, video conferencing, chat rooms, etc.
2. Ability to Share Files, Data and Information
This is one of the major advantages of networking computers. People can find and share
information and data because of networking. This is beneficial for large organizations to
maintain their data in an organized manner and facilitate access for desired people.
3. Sharing Hardware
Another important advantage of networking is the ability to share hardware. For an example, a
printer can be shared among the users in a network so that theres no need to have individual
printers for each and every computer in the company. This will significantly reduce the cost of
purchasing hardware.
4 . Sharing Software
Users can share software within the network easily. Networkable versions of software are
available at considerable savings compared to individually licensed version of the same software.
Therefore large companies can reduce the cost of buying software by networking their
computers.
5. Security
Sensitive files and programs on a network can be password protected. Then those files can only
be accessed by the authorized users. This is another important advantage of networking when
there are concerns about security issues. Also each and every user has their own set of privileges
to prevent them accessing restricted files and programs.
6. Speed
Sharing and transferring files within networks is very rapid, depending on the type of network.
This will save time while maintaining the integrity of files.
Disadvantages of Networking
1. Breakdowns and Possible Loss of Resources
One major disadvantage of networking is the breakdown of the whole network due to an issue of
the server. Such breakdowns are frequent in networks causing losses of thousands of dollars each
year. Therefore once established it is vital to maintain it properly to prevent such disastrous
breakdowns. The worst scenario is such breakdowns may lead to loss of important data of the
server.
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2. Expensive to Build
Building a network is a serious business in many occasions, especially for large scale
organizations. Cables and other hardware are very pricey to buy and replace.
3. Security Threats
Security threats are always problems with large networks. There are hackers who are trying to
steal valuable data of large companies for their own benefit. So it is necessary to take utmost care
to facilitate the required security measures.
4. Bandwidth Issues
In a network there are users who consume a lot more bandwidth than others. Because of this
some other people may experience difficulties.
Although there are disadvantages to networking, it is a vital need in todays environment. People
need to access the Internet, communicate and share information and they cant live without that.
Therefore engineers need to find alternatives and improved technologies to overcome issues
associated with networking. Therefore we can say that computer networking is always beneficial
to have even if there are some drawbacks.
Considerations When Choosing a Topology
Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do
not have to purchase concentrators.
Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding
another concentrator.
Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most
often used with star topologies.
Definition - What does Network Topology mean?
Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of a networ
1. Bus Topology: All the devices/nodes are connected sequentially to the same backbone or
transmission line. This is a simple, low-cost topology, but its single point of failure
presents a risk.
Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

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Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
2. Star Topology: All the nodes in the network are connected to a central device like a hub
or switch via cables. Failure of individual nodes or cables does not necessarily create
downtime in the network but the failure of a central device can. This topology is the most
preferred and popular model.
Advantages of a Star Topology
Easy to install and wire.

No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.
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3. Ring Topology: All network devices are connected sequentially to a backbone as in bus
topology except that the backbone ends at the starting node, forming a ring. Ring
topology shares many of bus topology's disadvantages so its use is limited to networks
that demand high throughput.
Advantages
See also: Ring Protection
Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to
transmit
Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load
Does not require a central node to manage the connectivity between the computers
Due to the point to point line configuration of devices with a device on either side (each
device is connected to its immediate neighbor), it is quite easy to install and reconfigure
since adding or removing a device requires moving just two connections.
Point to point line configuration makes it easy to identify and isolate faults.
Disadvantages
One malfunctioning workstation can create problems for the entire network. This can be
solved by using a dual ring or a switch that closes off the break.
Moving, adding and changing the devices can affect the network
Communication delay is directly proportional to number of nodes in the network
Bandwidth is shared on all links between devices
More difficult to configure than a Star: node adjunction = Ring shutdown and
reconfiguration
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4. Tree Topology: A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star
topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable (See fig. 3). Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing
network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.
Advantages of a Tree Topology
Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
.An example of this network could be cable TV technology. Other examples are in dynamic tree
based wireless networks for military, mining and otherwise mobile applications.[
5. Mesh Topology: The topology in each node is directly connected to some or all the other
nodes present in the network. This redundancy makes the network highly fault tolerant
but the escalated costs may limit this topology to highly critical networks.
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Internet, Intranet and Extranet
INTERNET
INTERNET is a global interconnection of networks that connects computers and devices world
wide.Variety of hardware and software are used to make Internet functional.
Modem
Device that enables computers to communicate through phone lines.
When we start internet the our modem communicates to modem of ISP
Computer
In addition to a modem, you need a client capable of handling multiple data types.
Software
Two types of softwares required to enable your PC as an Internet PC.
Communication software to establish connection
Client software for browsing, e-mail, news.
Applications Of Internet
Download programs and files

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Information browsing
E-Mail
Search the web addresses for access
Voice and Video Conferencing through search engine
E-Commerce Chatting and many more
File Sharing
Disadvantages of Internet
Theft of personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc.
Virus threats nothing but a program which disrupts the normal functioning of your
system.
Spamming refers to receiving unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no purpose and
needlessly obstruct the entire system.
Pornography This is perhaps the biggest threat related to childrens healthy mental life.
A very serious issue concerning the Internet.
Though, internet can also create havoc, destruction and its misuse can be very fatal,
the advantages of it outweigh its disadvantages.
INTRANET is a private network connection or a website that connects computers only within an
organization or a company that does not connect directly to the internet. Giving privacy to data
to avoid hacking by unauthorized people.
Intranet Security
Two levels of Security required:
Internal
It can be imposed by Public Key Security & Encryption Key.
External
Through Firewall.
Applications of Intranet
Sharing of company policies/rules & regulations
Access employee database

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Distribution of circulars/Office Orders
Access product & customer data
Sharing of information of common interest
Launching of personal/departmental home pages
Submission of reports
Corporate telephone directories
Calendaring and Scheduling:

Using electronic calendars and other groupware features to automatically schedule,
notify, and remind the computer networked members of teams and workgroups of
meetings, appointments, and other events.
Chat Systems:
Software that enables two or more users at networked PCs to carry on online, real-time
text conversations.
Data Conferencing:
Data conferencing is a method where a groupware package connects two or more PCs
over the Internet or intranets so a team can share, mark up, and review a whiteboard of
drawings, documents, and other material displayed on their screens.
Desktop Videoconferencing:
The use of end user computer workstations to conduct two-way interactive
videoconferences.
Discussion Forums:
Provide an online network discussion platform to encourage and manage online text
discussions over a period of time among members of special interest groups or project
teams.
Electronic Communication Tools:

Software that helps you communicate and collaborate with others by electronically
sending messages, documents, and files in data, text, voice, or multimedia over the
Internet, intranets, extranets, and other computer networks.
Electronic Conferencing Tools:

Software that helps networked computer users share information and collaborate while
working together on joint assignments no matter where they are located.
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Electronic Mail:
Sending and receiving text messages between networked PCs over telecommunications
networks. E-mail can also include data files, software, and multimedia messages and
documents as attachments.
Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS):

Using a meeting room with networked PCs, a large screen projector, and EMS software
to facilitate communication, collaboration and group decision making in business
meetings.
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Workforce productivity: Intranets can help users to locate and view information faster
and use applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities. With the help of
browser interface, users can access data held in any database the organization wants to
make available, anytime and - subject to security provisions - from anywhere within the
company workstations, increasing employees' ability to perform their jobs faster, more
accurately, and with confidence that they have the right information.
It also helps to improve the services provided to the users.
Disadvantages
Management problem:
A company may not have person to update their Intranet on a routine basis
Fear of sharing information and the loss of control
Limited bandwidth for the business
Security problem
Unauthorized acescs
Abuse of access
Denial of service
Productivity problem
Information overload lowers productivity
True purpose of the Intranet is unknown to many employees/departments
Hidden or unknown complexity and costs
Collaborative applications for Intranet are not as powerful as those offered by

traditional groupware -For instance, Intranet includes no built-in data replication or
directory services for remote users, while groupware packages such as Lotus Notes do.
Short-term risk -There are limited tools for linking an Intranet server to database or
other back-end mainframe-based applications. Programming standards for the Web,
such as common gateway interface (CGI) and Java are fairly new and just maturing.
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Less back-end integration -With Intranets, firms have to set up and maintain separate
applications such as E-mail and Web servers, instead of using one unified system as with
groupware
Extranet
EXTRANET is an extension of an organizations intranet that can be accessed by users outside
the organization, usually partners, vendors, and suppliers with a username and password to
access the intranet.
Examples
Dealers/distributors have access to product files such as :-
i. product specification,
ii. pictures,
iii. images, etc.
to answer the queries of the customer.
Components of extranets ..
Some basic infrastructure components such as the internet Including :-
TCP/IP protocols,
E-mail,
Web-browsers,
External business partners &
Tele-commuting employees place order, check status & send E-mail.
Benefits of Extranet
Improved quality.
lower travel costs.
lower administrative & other overhead costs.
reduction in paperwork.
delivery of accurate information on time.
improved customer service.
better communication.
overall improvement in business
effectiveness.
Disadvantages
The suppliers & customer who dont
have technical knowledge feel problem.
Faceless contact.
Information can be misused by other competitors.
Fraud may be possible.
Technical Employees are required.
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Layered System View
Intranet Corporate members
Extranet Clients, partners, customers
Internet Global society: competitors
31
by Gregory INTRANET TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION COMPUTER THREATS

The computer is a great tool to store important information. In certaincases, the information is
very vital that losing it will harm the computersystem.
Computer threats can come from many ways either from human or naturaldisasters. For example,
when someone is stealing your account informationfrom a trusted bank, this threat is considered
as a human threat. However,when your computer is soaked in heavy rain, then that is a natural
disaster
threat.
MALICIOUS CODE
Malicious code is also known as a rogue program. It is a threat to computing assets by causing
undesired effects in the programmers part. The effect is caused by an agent, with the intention to
cause damage.
The agent for malicious code is the writer of the code, or any person who causes its distribution.
There are various kinds of malicious code. They include virus, Trojan horse, logic door, trapdoor
and backdoor, worm and many others
a) VIRUS
a program that can pass on the malicious code to other programs by modifying them attaches
itself to the program, usually files with .doc, .xls and .exe extensions destroys or co-exists with
the program can overtake the entire computing system and spread to other systems
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b) TROJAN HORSE
a program which can perform useful and unexpected action must be installed by users or
intruders before it can affect the systems assets an example of a Trojan horse is the login script
that requests for users login ID and password
the information is then used for malicious purposes
c) LOGIC BOMB
logic bomb is a malicious code that goes off when a specific condition occurs.
an example of a logic bomb is the time bomb it goes off and causes threats at a specified time
or date
e) TRAPDOOR OR BACKDOOR
a feature in a program that allows someone to access the program with special privileges
f) WORM
a program that copies and spreads itself through a network
HACKER
Hacking is a source of threat to security in computer.
It is defined as unauthorised access to the computer system by a hacker.
Hackers are persons who learn about the computer system in detail. They write program referred
to as hacks. Hackers may use a modem or cable to hack the targeted computers.
NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS
Computers are also threatened by natural or environmental disaster. Be it at home, stores, offices
and also automobiles.Examples of natural and environmental disasters:
Flood
Fire
Earthquakes, storms and tornados
Excessive Heat
Inadequate Power Supply
SECURITY MEASURES
Today, people rely on computers to create, store and manage critical information. It is important
that the computer and the data they store are accessible and available when needed. It is also
important that users take measures to protect their computers and data from lost, damage and
misused.
Security measures mean the precautionary measures taken toward possible danger or damage.
There are 6 type of security measures.
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1) DATA BACKUP
Data Backup is a program of file duplication. Backups of data applications are necessary so that
they can be recovered in case of an emergency.
2) CRYPTOGRAPHY
Cryptography is a process of hiding information by altering the actual information into different
representation, for example, an APA can be written as I ?
Almost all cryptosystems depend on a key such as a password like the numbers or a phrase that
can be used to encrypt or decrypt a message.
4) ANTI-SPYWARE
Spyware is a program placed on a computer withoutthe users knowledge. It secretly collects
informationabout the user.
The spyware program communicates information to the outside source.
An anti-spyware application program sometime called tracking software or a spybot is used to
remove spyware.
Among of the popular anti-spyware programs are:
Spybot Search and Destroy
Ad-aware
Spyware Blaster
5) FIREWALL
Firewall is a piece of hardware or software which functions in a networked environment to
prevent somecommunications forbidden by the security policy.
Firewall implement a security policy. It might permit limited access from in or outside the
network
perimeters or from certain user or for certain activities
6) HUMAN ASPECTS OF SECURITY MEASURES
Human aspects refer to the user and also the intruderof a computer system.
It is one of the hardest aspects to give protection to.
The most common problem is the lack of achieving a good information security procedure
ICT ETHICS
Ethics is a set of moral principles that govern the behavior of a group or individual.
computer ethics is set of moral principles that regulate the use of computers
Code of Ethics Is a guideline in ICT that help determine whether a specific computer action
is ethical or unethical
Intellectual Is works created by inventors, authors and artists
Property
Privacy Refers to the right of individuals and companies to deny or restrict the
collection and use of information about them
Computer Is any illegal acts involving computers
Crime
Cyber Law Is any laws relating to protect the Internet and other online communication
technologies
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Some common issues of computer ethics include intellectual property rights such as copyrighted
electronic content, privacy concerns, and how computers affect society
For example, while it is easy to duplicate copyrighted electronic or digital content, computer
ethics would suggest that it is wrong to do so without the author's approval.
And while it may be possible to access someone's personal information on a computer system,
computer ethics would advise that such an action is unethical
Differentiate between ethics and law
ETHICS LAW
As a guideline to computer users As a rule to control computer users
Computers users are free to follow or ignore the Computers users must follow the regulations
code of ethics and law
Universal, can be applied anywhere, all over the Depend on country and state where the crime
world is committed
To produced ethical computers users To prevent misuse of computers
Not following ethics are called immoral Not obeying laws are called crime
INTELLECTUAL
You have certainly heard the word property before: it is generally used to mean a possession, or
more specifically, something to which the owner has legal rights.
You might have also encountered the phrase intellectual property. This term has become more
commonplace during the past few years, especially in the context of computer ethics. But what
exactly does it refer to?
Intellectual property refers to creations of the intellect (hence, the name): inventions, literary and
artistic works, symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce are a part of it.
Intellectual property is usually divided into two branches, namely industrial property which
broadly speaking protects inventions and copyright, which protects literary and artistic works.
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Intellectual
Property
Patents Trademark Design Copyright
1. Patents for inventions
2. Trademarks for brand identity
3. Design for product appearance
4. Copyright for materials
CATEGORISING INTELLECTUAL PROPERY
Intellectual property is divided into two categories:
Industrial property, which includes inventions (patents), trademarks, industrial designs,

commercial names, designations and geographic indications (location specific brands)
etc.
Copyright, which includes literary and artistic works such as novels, poems and plays,
films, musical works, artistic works such as drawings, paintings, photographs, sculptures,
and architectural designs.
Copy rights
Copyright is a legal concept, enacted by most governments, giving the creator of an original
work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time
History of copy right
Copyright came about with the invention of the printing press and with wider public literacy. As
a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers' monopolies at the
beginning of the 18th century. Charles II of England was concerned by the
unregulated copying of books and passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662 by Act of
Parliament.
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WHAT IT CAN PROTECT AND WHAT NOT
In summary, copyright laws protect intellectual property which includes literary and artistic
works such as novels, poems and plays, films, musical works, artistic works such as drawings,
paintings, photographs and sculptures, and architectural designs.
But unlike protection of inventions, copyright law protects only the form of expressions of
ideas, not the ideas themselves.
Remember that a created work is considered protected as soon as it exists, and a public register
of copyright protected work is not necessary
COPY RIGHT ON INTERNET
But what of works made available to the public on the Internet? Are they at all protected
by copyright? Once again, yes! For works made available over a communications
network (such as the Internet), the copyright protects original authorship.
But, according to the Copyright Law, it does not protect ideas, procedures, systems, or
methods of operation. This means that once such an online work has been made public,
nothing in the copyright laws prevents others from developing another work based on
similar principles, or ideas
NETIQUTTES
Netiquette are about the the various risks related to using the Internet.
It is about proper ways in which to use a network and to determine whether information is
reliable, while emphasizing four important points given in next slides.
REAL PEPOLE EXIST BEHIND THE COMPUTERS
You are dealing with people, not machines. So think twice before you click on Send button in the
mail/chat window
You are not the only one using the network
Keep these other people in mind when you say something on a network.
PROTECT YOUR PRIVACY
Just as you would in the real world, be aware of risks, fraud and false information which
exists on the Internet. Use common sense when deciding whether information is valid.
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Don't trust or spread further any information about which you are in doubt. Always try to
obtain reliable information.
Protect your personal information to keep someone from using it in an unethical way.
(For example, when you enter a prize contest, your name, address, and phone number
may be given to a dealer of personal information.)
Ways of making personal data more privates:
1. Install personal firewall
2. Clear your history file when you are browsing
3. Purchase goods with cash, rather than credit card
Authentication
Authentication is a process where user verifies their
identity. Authentication deals with the problem of
determining whether a user should be allowed access to a particular system.
Four commonly authentication methods:
Authentication
User Possessed Biometric

Callback system
identification object device
AVOID SPAMMING
Spamming is sending unsolicited bulk and/or commercial messages over the Internet.
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Spamming is morally bad if it is intended to destroy and done by infringing on the right
of privacy of others.
It could be good if the message sent benefits the recipients, like giving out warnings or
useful information to others
HELP MAKING NETWORK BETTER
The existence of the information society is based on give and take. Making a contribution is an
essential part of being a good network user. For example, if you make a request and find the
information you receive helpful, write a summary and report what you learned , publish it on the
Net or give links to others.
SOFTWARE PRIVACY
Software piracy is morally bad when someone reproduces a copy of the software and
sells it for profit, produces exactly the same or similar version without giving proper
credit to the original author, or simply produces it and distributes it to others.
It is not immoral to copy the software if someone who has a licensed copy of the software
and simply makes a backup copy of the original. One back-up copy of the commercial
software can be made, but the back-up copy cannot be used except when the original
package fails or is destroyed.
CREATION OF WORMS AND COMPUTER VIRUS
Creation of worms and computer viruses is morally bad when it is intended for malicious
purposes like to steal information or destroying of data.
However, it could be used like a vaccine poison to kill another poison to cure or
prevent a potentially destructive system from wreaking havoc in the network. The way
some worms and viruses work could be used to gather information that could help protect
the majority of computer users.
PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism is copying someone else's work and then passing it off as one's own. It is
morally bad because it is an act of stealing.
Copying programs written by other programmers and claiming it as your own could be an
act of plagiarism. It involves lying, cheating, theft, and dishonesty.
FILE PRIVACY
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Any computer document produced either by an individual in his private home or in his office
should remain private. No one has should open any document unless authorized by the individual
who created the file himself.
User identification
Is a unique combination of characters (letter, number or symbol) that identify specific

user
Examples:
pin number
password
Possessed object
Is a any item that you must carry to gain access to computer of computer facility
Examples:
ATM card
credit card
smart card
Biometric device
Is a device that translates personal characteristics into digital code that is compared
with the digital code stored in the database
Examples:
fingerprint reader
iris scanner
hand geometric scanner
signature verification system
Controversial Contents and Control
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PORNOGRAPHY SLANDER
is any form media or material (like books, video is a false spoken statement
or photos) that show erotic behavior and intended about someone, intended to
to cause sexual excitement damage his or her reputation
the effects of pornography on society are: the effects of slander on
i) Can lead to criminal acts such as exploitation society are:
of women i) Can develop society that
ii) Can lead to sexual addiction disregards on honesty and truth
iii) Can develop lower moral values towards other ii) Can lead to bad habits of
people spreading rumors and untruth
iv) Can erode good religious, cultural, behaviors iii) Can cause people to have
and beliefs nagative attitudes toward
another person
Computer ethical hacking
An ethical hacker is usually employed by an organization who trusts him or her to attempt to
penetrate networks and/or computer systems, using the same methods as a hacker, for the
purpose of finding and fixing computer security vulnerabilities. Unauthorized hacking (i.e.,
gaining access to computer systems without prior authorization from the owner) is a crime in
most countries, but penetration testing done by request of the owner of the victim system or
network is not.
A Certified Ethical Hacker has obtained a certification in how to look for the weaknesses and
vulnerabilities in target systems and uses the same knowledge and tools as a hacker.
Why we need cyber law?
i) Cyber laws are made to force people to be good
ii) To give protection against the misuse of computers and computer criminal
activities
Examples of cyber abuse on the users:
i) Sending a computer virus via e-mail
ii) Harassment through e-mail

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iii) Hacking into your school's database to change your examination results
Malaysian Cyber Law
i) Computer Crime Act 1997
ii) Copyright (Amendment) Bill 1997
iii) Digital Signature Act 1997
iv) Telemedicine Bill 1997
v) Communication and Multimedia Act 1998
vi) Digital Signature Regulations 1998
4 examples of computer crimes:
i) Computer fraud - is the crime of obtaining money by deceiving (to trick) people
through the use of computers such as email hoaxes, program fraud, investment schemes
and claim of expertise on certain fields
ii) Copyright infringement - is a violation of the rights secured by a copyright. It occurs

when you break the copyright laws such as copying movie, software or CDs illegally
iii) Computer theft is defined as the unauthorized used of another persons property such
as transfer of payment to the wrong accounts, get online material with no cost and tap
into the data transmission lines
iv) Computer attack is defined as any activities taken to disrupt the equipments of
computers systems, change processing controls and corrupt stored data
NB: As technology advances, computers continue to have a greater impact on society. Therefore,
computer ethics promotes the discussion of how much influence computers should have in areas
such as artificial intelligence and human communication. As the world of computers evolves,
computer ethics continues to create ethical standards that address new issues raised by new
technologies.
UNETHICAL COMPUTER CODE OF CONDUCTS

With the advancement of ICT, it is easy for anyone to retrieve your information from
the Internet. You may not realise that when you fill a form on the Internet, your
information may be exposed and stolen.
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Examples of unethical computer code of conducts include:
modifying certain information on the Internet, affecting the

accuracy of the information
selling information to other parties without the owners
permission
using information without authorization
involvement in stealing software
invasion of privacy
Intellectual property refers to any product of human intellect that is unique and has
value in the market place. This covers ideas, inventions, unique name, computer
program codes and many more.
ETHICAL COMPUTER CODE OF CONDUCTS

Examples of ethical computer code of conducts include:
sending warning about viruses to other computer users

asking permission before sending any business advertisements to
others
using information with authorization
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Social responsibility is an ethical framework which suggests that an entity, be it an organization
or individual, has an obligation to act for the benefit of society at large. Social responsibility is a
duty every individual has to perform so as to maintain a balance between the economy and the
ecosystems
Ethics - set of beliefs about right and wrong behavior
Ethical behavior conforms to generally accepted social norms
Virtues - Habits that incline people to do what is acceptable
Vices - Habits of unacceptable behavior
Value system - Scheme of moral values
Basic responsibilities to society
Declared in formal statement of companys principles or beliefs
Include:
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Making contributions to charitable organizations and nonprofit institutions
Providing benefits for employees in excess of legal requirements
Choosing economic opportunities that might be more socially desirable

than profitable
Many business values include:
Operating with honesty and integrity, staying true to corporate principles
Operating according to standards of ethical conduct, in words and action
Treating colleagues, customers, and consumers with respect
Striving to be the best at what matters most to the company
Accepting personal responsibility for actions
Valuing diversity
Making decisions based on facts and principles
IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES
Best Interest of Business to Promote and Improve the Communities

Organizations, as members of society, have a moral obligation to help society deal with its
problems and to contribute to its welfare. It is the ethical thing to do by the business
organizations. A measurement should be made of whether the organization is performing such
activities as producing goods and services that people need, creating jobs for society, paying
fair wages, and ensuring worker safety.
Improves Public Image of the Firm

To many people, responsibilities to consumers may be seen as no more than a natural outcome
of good business. There are, however, broader social responsibilities including providing good
value for money; the safety and durability of products or services; standard of after-sales
service; prompt and courteous attention to queries and complaints; long-term satisfaction, for
example serviceability, adequate supply of products or services, and spare and replacement
parts; fair standards of advertising and trading; full and unambiguous information to potential
customers. Increasing concern for social responsibilities to consumers can be seen by the
activities of such bodies as the Consumers Association, and the number of television and radio
programmed devoted to this subject.
Improving Stock Price
To having the action of social responsibility of an organization would lead to their suppliers,
and business associates more confidence to the organization. The examples of social
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responsibility might include: fair standards of trading, honoring terns and conditions of
purchase or sale, and settlement dates, for example payment of accounts, assistance to smaller
organization; engagement only in fair competition; respect for copyright and patents. By doing
that, the other organizations would view the company as less risky. This is in the stockholdrs
best interest. It will improve the price of stock in the long run because the stock market will
views the company as less risky and open to public attack. So, it would reduce the cost of the
production of the company. Therefore award it a high price-earnings ratio.
Solving Social Problems
Organizations have a responsibility not to misuse the scarce factors of production upon which
the wealth of the country depends. Organizations have a responsibility to society, to respect
environmental considerations and take care of amenities. For example, the effects and
potential dangers of pollution, noise, disposal of waste; the siting and appearance of new
buildings; transportation policies, such as the routing of heavy vehicles through narrow village
roads; and avoidance of excessive packaging and more use of biodegradable materials. All of
that must be think off since the decision making of the organizations to have their process of
production. For example, is the protest against aerosol sprays containing chlorofluorocarbons.
These have been blamed for damaging the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful
ultraviolet rays from sun. Organizations should, of course, respect and obey the law which is
set up of government even where they regard it as not in their best interests. But what is
debatable is the extent to which organizations should co-operate voluntarily with actions
requested by the government. Some examples are: restraint from trading with certain overseas
countries, and the acceptance of controls over imports or exports; actions designed to combat
inflation.
Resource given by the organizations to solve the social problem
The measurement of social investment deals with the degree to which the organization is
investing both money and human resources to solve community social problems. Here, the
organization could be involved in assisting community organizations dedicated to education,
charities, and the arts.
CSR: core business
CSR is part of Imtechs core business . Imtech focuses its corporate activities on value creation
in the longer term in the three dimensions people, planet and profit, and enters into a dialogue on
this with its stakeholders.
Technology that improves society
Imtech uses its strong position for the benefit of a sustainable society. The world is looking at
organisations like Imtech for solutions to the problems of today and tomorrow. Every day,
Imtech proves its claim of Technology that improves society. Time and time again with
literally hundreds of green projects and numerous appealing internal CSR initiatives.
Frontrunner in sustainability
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Imtech aims to be a frontrunner in sustainability. Imtech CEO Ren van der Bruggen: Society is
becoming greener at an increasingly high pace. Technology leads the way in this development.
The trend towards green technical infrastructure started in the energy and buildings sector.
This was followed by green data centres and now, this trend manifests itself in the markets for
marine technology, in the industrial sector and in the market for traffic technology. Imtech is a
leading player in all of these markets. As a technical service provider with an ability to deliver
green total solutions through the combination of electrical engineering, IT and mechanical
engineering, we provide our clients with all possible options that enable sustainable growth.
Governance and CSR
The governance of the CSR policy has been arranged at the highest level in the organisation and
is the responsibility of the Board of Management. The Board directs an international steering
committee made up of responsible managers from each division. The members of the steering
committee are authorised to jointly determine the CSR policy, and to implement the activities
that derive from this policy in the various business units. Imtech NV implements the ISO26000
guidelines. CSR principles are an integral component of the companys HR policy and business
principles.
COMPUTER SECURITY
DEFINITION OF COMPUTER SECURITY Computer security means protecting our

computer systems and the information they contain against unwanted access, damage,
destruction or modification.
We need to protect our computer from any intruders such as hackers, crackers and script kiddie.
We do not want strangers to read our e-mail, use our computer to
attack other systems, send forged e-mail from our computer, or examine personal information
stored on our computer such as financial statements.
TYPES OF COMPUTER SECURITY Three types of computer security are:
a) hardware security
b) software security/data security c) network security

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a) HARDWARE SECURITY
Hardware security refers to security measures used to protect the hardware specifically the
computer and its related documents.
The examples of security measures used to protect the hardware include PC-locks, keyboard-
locks, smart cards and biometric devices.
b) SOFTWARE AND DATA SECURITY Software and data security refers to the security
measures used to protect the software and the loss of data files.
Examples of security measures used to protect the software are activation code and serial
number.
An example of security measure used to protect the
loss of data files is the disaster recovery plan method. The idea of this plan is to store data,
program and other important documents in a safe place that will not be affected by any major
destruction.
c) NETWORK SECURITY
The transfer of data through network has become a common practice and the need to implement
network security has become significant.
Network security refers to security measures used to protect the network system. One example of
network security measures is firewall. With firewall, network resources can be protected from
the outsiders.
PRIVACY IN COMPUTER USAGE
WHAT IS PRIVACY?
Privacy in IT refers to data and information privacy. Data refers to a collection of
raw unprocessed facts, figures and symbols. Then, computer is used to process data
into information. In general, data include texts, numbers, sounds, images and video.
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Information privacy is described as the rights of individuals and companies to deny
or restrict the collection and use of information about them.
WAYS COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY TH REATEN OUR PRIVACY

Every time you click on an advertisement or register a software product online, your
information is entered into a database. Computer technology can also threaten
privacy through spam. Do you know what spam is? Spam is unsolicited e-mail
messages, advertisements or newsgroup postings sent to many recipients at once.
How does computer technology threaten the privacy of our data?
It is done through:
Cooki
es
Electronic
profile
Spyware
Computer technology threatens our privacy through electronic profiling. For

example, when we fill out a form such as a magazine subscription, purchasing
products or contest entry form on the Internet, this data is kept in the database. It
will include age, address, marital status and other personal details.
Cookies
are used to identify users by web casting, e-
commerce and other web applications
contain user information and are saved in the
computer hard disk
are used by some websites to store passwords and
track how regularly we visit a website, thats how
we become potential targets for web advertisers
enable web sites to collect information about your
online activities and store them for future
use, then the collected details will be sold to any company that
requests for it.
Electronic profile
electronic profile is the combining of data in a database that can be sold to the Internet by
the company to the interested parties.
this database is in a form such as magazine subscription or product warranty cards that
had been filled by online subscribers.
the information in electronic profile includes
personal details such as your age, address and marital status.

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Spyware
refers to a program that collects user information without the users knowledge.
can is a result of installing new
programs.
communicates information it collects to some outside source while we are online.
WHY DO WE NEED PRIVACY?
We need privacy for anonymity. For example, the Internet creates an elaborate trail of data
detailing a person surfing on the Web because all information is stored inside cookies. We do not
want our trail to be detected.
We also need privacy for confidentiality. For example, online information generated in the
course of a business transaction is routinely used for
a variety of other purposes without the individuals knowledge or consent.
We do not want our private lives and habits exposed to third parties.
CAN PRIVACY BE PROTECTED? Privacy can be protected by:
(a) Privacy law

Security Services to review
the security policy
Security Management to protect the resources
Security Objects, the
important entities within the system
environment
(b) Utilities software
Example: anti-spam program, firewall, anti-spyware and antivirus.
Essential Life Skills

A Life Skill is an ability that makes a difference in everyday living.
Many writers have tried to define life skills :
A Life Skill equips a person to perceive and respond to significant life events.
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A Life Skill is a competency which enables a person to live in an interdependent
society.
A Life Skill equips a person to be self directing and productive ,to lead a
satisfying life and to contribute to society.
A Life Skill enables a person to function effectively in a changing world
Critical Thinking :
Critical Thinking It is an ability to analyze information and experience in an objective manner
Creative Thinking:
It is an ability that helps us look beyond our direct experience and address issues in a perspective
which is different from the obvious or the norm. It adds novelty and flexibility to the situation of
our daily life.
Decision Making
The process of making assessment of an issue by considering all possible options and the effects
different decision might have on them.
Problem solving
Having made decisions about each of the options, choosing the one which is the best suited,
following it through the process again till positive outcome of the problem achieved.
Interpersonal Relationships
It is a skill that helps us to understand our relations with others and relate in a positive manner
with them. It helps us to maintain relationship with friends and family member and also be able
to end relationship constructively.
Effective Communication:
It is an ability to express ourselves both verbally and non-verbally in an appropriate manner.

This means being able to express desires, options and fears and seek assistance and advice in
times of need.
Coping with emotions:
It is an ability, which involves recognizing emotions in others, and ourselves, being aware of
how emotions influence behaviors and being able to respond to emotions appropriately.
Coping with Stress:
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It is an ability to recognize the source of stress in our life, its effect on us and acting in ways that
helps to control our levels of stress. This may taking action to reduce some stress for example
changes in physical environment, life styles, learning to relax etc.
Self awareness:
Includes our recognition of ourselves, our character, strengths and weaknesses, desires and
dislikes. It is a pre-requisite for effective communication, interpersonal relationship and
developing empathy.
Empathy:
Is an ability to imagine what life is like for another person even in a situation that we may not be
familiar with. It helps us to understand and accept others and their behavior that may be very
different from ourselves.
Basics of Conflict Management

Clarifying Confusion About Conflict
Conflict is when two or more values, perspectives and opinions are contradictory in nature and
haven't been aligned or agreed about yet, including:
1. Within yourself when you're not living according to your values;
2. When your values and perspectives are threatened; or
3. Discomfort from fear of the unknown or from lack of fulfillment.
Conflict is inevitable and often good, for example, good teams always go through a "form, storm,
norm and perform" period. Getting the most out of diversity means often-contradictory values,
perspectives and opinions.
Conflict management involves acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, self-Awareness

about conflict modes, conflict communication skills, and establishing a Structure for
management of conflict in your environment.
Conflict is often needed. It:

1. Helps to raise and address problems.
2. Energizes work to be on the most appropriate issues.
3. Helps people "be real", for example, it motivates them to participate.
4. Helps people learn how to recognize and benefit from their differences.
Conflict is not the same as discomfort. The conflict isn't the problem - it is when conflict is
poorly managed that is the problem.
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Conflict is a problem when it:
1. Hampers productivity.
2. Lowers morale.
3. Causes more and continued conflicts.
4. Causes inappropriate behaviors.
STRATEGIES FOR CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Mediation:
The goal is to identify multiple possible select one that is acceptable to all involved parties and in
the interest of project objectives.
Arbitration:
This strategy requires the project manager to provide a safe and productive opportunity for the
conflicted parties After careful attention and fully listening to each party, the project manager
should formulate, define, and provide a solution to the parties. This strategy is based on the
forcing approach to conflict described earlier. Arbitroften be effectivelycombined with mediation
by forcing an initial conflict solution and then allowing the parties to negotiate to a more
mutually acceptable alternative
Control:
Based on the smoothing approach described earlier, this strategy to bring tension and emotions
down to a level at which productive discussion and negotiation canoccur. Humour is often an
effective tool, as well as the use of temporary breaks or time parties.
Acceptance:
The decision can be made that the conflict consequences are negligible relative to project
objectives and, therefore, require no action. This strategy carries significant risk of later
escalation and should be combined with specific plans for monitoring the situation to ensure that
the conflict remains at an acceptable level
Elimination:
Finally, the elimination strategy is reserved for those conflicts that have become so dysfunctional
that the project can no longer tolerate any impacts from them. elimination involves the removal
of the conflicted parties from involvement with the project.
Types of Managerial Actions that Cause Workplace Conflicts
1. Poor communications
a. Employees experience continuing surprises, they aren't informed of new
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decisions, programs, etc.
b. Employees don't understand reasons for decisions, they aren't involved in
decision-making.
c. As a result, employees trust the "rumor mill" more than management.
2. The alignment or the amount of resources is insufficient. There is:

a. Disagreement about "who does what".
b. Stress from working with inadequate resources.
3. "Personal chemistry", including conflicting values or actions among managers and

employees, for example:
a. Strong personal natures don't match.
b. We often don't like in others what we don't like in ourselves.
4. Leadership problems, including inconsistent, missing, too-strong or uninformed leadership (at

any level in the organization), evidenced by:
a. Avoiding conflict, "passing the buck" with little follow-through on decisions.
b. Employees see the same continued issues in the workplace.
c. Supervisors don't understand the jobs of their subordinates.
Key Managerial Actions / Structures to Minimize Conflicts
1. Regularly review job descriptions. Get your employee's input to them. Write down and date
job descriptions. Ensure:
a. Job roles don't conflict.
b. No tasks "fall in a crack".
2. Intentionally build relationships with all subordinates.

a. Meet at least once a month alone with them in office.
b. Ask about accomplishments, challenges and issues.
3. Get regular, written status reports and include:

a. Accomplishments.
b. Currents issues and needs from management.
c. Plans for the upcoming period.
4. Conduct basic training about:

a. Interpersonal communications.
b. Conflict management.
c. Delegation.
5. Develop procedures for routine tasks and include the employees' input.
a. Have employees write procedures when possible and appropriate.
b. Get employees' review of the procedures.
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c. Distribute the procedures.
d. Train employees about the procedures.
6. Regularly hold management meetings, for example, every month, to communicate new
initiatives and status of current programs.
7. Consider an anonymous suggestion box in which employees can provide suggestions.
Ways People Deal With Conflict
There is no one best way to deal with conflict. It depends on the current situation. Here are the
major ways that people use to deal with conflict.
1. Avoid it. Pretend it is not there or ignore it.
a. Use it when it simply is not worth the effort to argue. Usually this approach tends
to worsen the conflict over time.
2. Accommodate it. Give in to others, sometimes to the extent that you compromise yourself.
a. Use this approach very sparingly and infrequently, for example, in situations
when you know that you will have another more useful approach in the very
near future. Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time, and
causes conflicts within yourself.
3. Competing. Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing the issue.
Competitors love accommodators.
a. Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position.
4. Compromising. Mutual give-and-take.

a. Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on.
5. Collaborating. Focus on working together.

a. Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using mutual
resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs.
b. Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment.
To Manage a Conflict Within Yourself - "Core Process"
It's often in the trying that we find solace, not in getting the best solution. The following steps
will help you in this regard.
1. Name the conflict, or identify the issue, including what you want that you aren't getting.
Consider:
a. Writing your thoughts down to come to a conclusion.
b. Talk to someone, including asking them to help you summarize the conflict in 5
sentences or less.
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2. Get perspective by discussing the issue with your friend or by putting it down in writing.
Consider:
a. How important is this issue?
b. Does the issue seem worse because you're tired, angry at something else, etc.?
c. What's your role in this issue?
3. Pick at least one thing you can do about the conflict.

a. Identify at least three courses of action.
b. For each course, write at least three pros and cons.
c. Select an action - if there is no clear course of action, pick the alternative that
will not hurt, or be least hurtful, to yourself and others.
d. Briefly discuss that course of action with a friend.
4. Then do something.
a. Wait at least a day before you do anything about the conflict. This gives you
a cooling off period.
b. Then take an action.
c. Have in your own mind, a date when you will act again if you see no clear
improvement.
To Manage a Conflict With Another - "Core Process"
1. Know what you don't like about yourself, early on in your career. We often don't like in others
what we don't want to see in ourselves.
a. Write down 5 traits that really bug you when see them in others.
b. Be aware that these traits are your "hot buttons".
2. Manage yourself. If you and/or the other person are getting heated up, then manage yourself to
stay calm by
a. Speaking to the person as if the other person is not heated up - this can be very
effective!
b. Avoid use of the word "you" - this avoids blaming.
c. Nod your head to assure them you heard them.
d. Maintain eye contact with them.
3. Move the discussion to a private area, if possible.
4. Give the other person time to vent.

a. Don't interrupt them or judge what they are saying.
5. Verify that you're accurately hearing each other. When they are done speaking:}
a. Ask the other person to let you rephrase (uninterrupted) what you are hearing from
them to ensure you are hearing them.
b. To understand them more, ask open-ended questions. Avoid "why" questions -
those questions often make people feel defensive.
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6. Repeat the above step, this time for them to verify that they are hearing you. When you
present your position
a. Use "I", not "you".
b. Talk in terms of the present as much as possible.
c. Mention your feelings.
7. Acknowledge where you disagree and where you agree.
8. Work the issue, not the person. When they are convinced that you understand them:
a. Ask "What can we do fix the problem?" They will likely begin to complain again.
Then ask the same question. Focus on actions they can do, too.
9. If possible, identify at least one action that can be done by one or both of you.
a. Ask the other person if they will support the action.
b. If they will not, then ask for a "cooling off period".
10. Thank the person for working with you.
11. If the situation remains a conflict, then:

a. Conclude if the other person's behavior conflicts with policies and procedures in
the workplace and if so, present the issue to your supervisor.
b. Consider whether to agree to disagree.
c. Consider seeking a third party to mediate.
Page 89 of 89

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Credit card readers Used to read credit cards

Telephones For communication and used connect to the Internet.

Budgeting Managing employees database

Sales Analysis Maintenance of stocks etc.

starting date of the policies survival benefits

next due installment of a policy bonus

THE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY

1. FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED

3. RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION

(i) Data - is a basic facts about any activity performed in a computer.

(i) Stores large chunks of information in limited space.

i) Computers are expensive

A PC that is not designed for portability. A desktop computer is typically set up in

The main features of First Generation are:

Some computer of this generation were:

The main features of Second Generation are:

Some computer of this generation were:

First generation computers

Faster than first generation computers

Some computer of this generation were:

The main features of Fourth Generation are:

Some computer of this generation were:

decisions in real life situations.

generation Some computer types of this generation are:

Home Computer This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability

4. Classification of computer according to technology

controls the operation of all parts of computer.

` CPU itself has following three components.

Memory Or Storage Unit:

processing before these results are released to an output device.

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

These printers are of two types

Dot Matrix Printer

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

They are not noisy.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

he data in the computer.

Random Access Memory

MROM (Masked ROM)

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

Video of exposed hard disk drive (HDD)

1. The platters spin around the spindle

Writing data is very similar:

1. The platters spin around the spindle

Fast seek times

Serial read and write capabilities

pitted surface visible on the surface of a CD. Massively zoomed in!

Blu-ray Re-Writable and Read Only versions available,

close up of the surface of a CD being read

Slow seek time

USB Flash Drive

1. put drive into USB socket

Very fast seek times

comparison of different memory cards

from a program to computer or over the internet.