Unit 1 - Motion: Calculating Speed

Unit 1 Motion
Calculating Speed
Speed is defined as the distance moved per unit time, and hence, the equation for
speed is :
speed = distance
time
and the other two forms of
the equation are :
s= d d d= s x t
t s x t t = d
s
Distance is measured in metres (m)
Time is measured in seconds (s)
Speed is measured in metres per seconds (m/s)
Example 1
If a school bus moves 1600 metres at an average speed of 12.5 m/s, how long did the
journey take ?
t = d = 1600 = 128 s
s 12.5
Look !! Since its time were calculating, the

answer must have units of seconds.
Example 2
An electron in orbit around an atom moves at a speed of 2500 km/s !

How far would it travel (in a straight line) if it moved at this speed for 1 minute ?
d = s x t = 2 500 000 x 60 = 1.5 x 108 m (Almost 4 times around the Earth !)
Look !! Its safer to use all values in metres and

seconds (rather than km and minutes).
So, 2500 km/s = 2500 x 1000 = 2 500 000 m/s
www.bangor.ac.uk GCSE Science: Physics 2 1

Calculating Acceleration
Another equation youll need is the one for acceleration.

Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity (or speed) per second :

the equation are :
a= v v
t a x t v = a x t
t = v
a
Info. ! Notice the triangle symbol () in front
of the v. Its the Greek letter delta.
In this case it means change in.
Change in velocity is measured in metres per second (m/s)

Time is measured in seconds (s)
Acceleration is measured in metres per second2 (m/s2)
Example 1
A cyclist increases her speed from 5m/s to 19m/s in 7 seconds.
What is her acceleration?
a= v = ( 19 5 ) = 14 = 2 m/s2
t 7 7
Example 2
An oil tanker can decelerate at a maximum rate of 0.04 m/s2. How long will the tanker take
to come to a complete stop if initially travelling at a speed of 12 m/s ?
t= v = ( 12 ) = 300 s ( A full 5 minutes !)

a 0.04
Example 3
A football moving forwards at a speed of 12.4 m/s, is kicked forwards so that its speed
increases. The acceleration of the ball is 48.0 m/s2, which lasts for 0.45 s. Whats the final
speed of the ball after this acceleration ?
Change in speed, v = a x t = 48.0 x 0.45 = 21.6 m/s
So, final speed = 12.4 + 21.6 = 34.0 m/s
2 GCSE Science: Physics 2 www.bangor.ac.uk

Motion graphs
The motion of an object can be shown on one of two types of graphs : distance-time
or velocity-time graphs (sometimes called speed-time graphs).
Distance time graphs
Theres ONE rule for a d-t graph :
The steepness (or more correctly slope or gradient)

of this graph indicates the speed of the object.
So, a STEEP line a high speed

a less steep line a lower speed
a flat/horizontal line not moving
From B to C, the This is a straight,

In the 1st section, object is staying at diagonal line like
the object is a distance of 60m, section AB, and so
moving an equal so is not moving at is moving at a
distance each all, i.e. stationary constant speed.
second. Hence, the
However, this is not
object is moving at
as steep, so is
a constant speed.
moving slower than
AB. EF is again
stationary.
d (m)
E F
100 X X
80 D
B C X
60 X X
40
20
AX t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
This section is more difficult since the slope is increasing,

the speed is increasing, i.e. the object is accelerating !

Motion graphs
Velocity time graphs (or speed-time graphs)
There are TWO rules for a v-t graph :
1. The slope/gradient is equal to the acceleration.
2. The area under the graph is equal to the distance

travelled.
In the 1st section, From C to D, the gradient is

the object is zero, and so, from rule 1
speeding up steadily Curved line shows
non-constant above, the acceleration is
since the gradient is zero. This means the object
constant (straight acceleration.
Gradient/steepness is staying at the same speed
line), i.e. it has (8 m/s), i.e. constant
constant increasing, so
acceleration is velocity
acceleration
increasing. This is a straight,
v (m/s) diagonal line like
section AB, but
10 sloping downwards
with a constant
8 CX XD gradient the
object has constant
6 deceleration
4
B
2 X
E
AX X t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The distance travelled in any section can be calculated from the area
below the line, in this case the area of the shaded triangle :
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anywhereDistance = area Use
in the document. = base x heightTools
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2 2 2
Calculating the average/mean acceleration in section BC :

a = v = 82 = 6 = 3 m/s2
t 2 2
NOTE : Calculating the average speed in a sloping section is easy !! Since only straight line sections
are used for this, its simply half way between the start and end speed for that section e.g. for
section DE, the average speed is 4 m/s (half way between 8 m/s and 0 m/s )

Motion graphs
The motion of an object can be shown on one of two types of graphs : distance-time
or velocity-time graphs (sometimes called speed-time graphs).
Its important that you learn what the shape of each type of graph tells you about the
objects motion :
Distance time graphs Velocity time graphs
d (m) Stationary v (m/s)

(Not moving) Constant speed
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
t (s) t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
d (m) Constant speed v (m/s) Constant

(forwards) acceleration
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
t (s) t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
d (m) Constant speed v (m/s)

back to start zero metres)
Constant
8 8 deceleration
6 6 (still moving forwards !!)
4 4
2 2
t (s) t (s)
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

Unit 2 Forces
Forces
A force is a push or a pull acting on an object. There are many different types of
force, e.g. friction, air-resistance, weight , upthrust, but they are always measured
in newtons, or N.
Sir Isaac Newton came up with three laws of motion, all of

which describe the effect that forces have on things.
Before looking at these three laws, its necessary to

understand the term resultant force first.
Resultant force
Usually, more than one force is acting on an object, like in the tug-of-war below.
In order to work out the effect of these forces on the object, we need to
calculate whats known as resultant force.
490N 450N
Remember that all forces have a direction, unless of course theyre zero.
If forces act in the same direction add; if opposite subtract.
In the above example, the resultant force , RF = 490 450 = 40N
Whats the resultant force in the example below ?
39N
24N
63N
Answer : RF = 0 (zero) N, 39N + 24N = 63N (then 63-63 = 0 )

Newtons laws
Newtons 1st law

A body will remain at rest or continue to move at a constant velocity unless
acted upon by an external (resultant) force.
In effect, this is like saying that if the forces are balanced, the object will remain
stationary or keep moving at a constant velocity.
In the example on the right the cyclist keeps a

steady forwards force by pushing on the
pedals.
450N
If the backward forces like air-resistance are 450N

equal to the forward force, the resultant force
is then zero, and so the cyclist will keep
moving at a constant speed.
This law also brings about the idea of inertia. Inertia is the resistance of any
object to any change in its motion (including a change in direction). In other words,
it is the tendency of objects to keep moving in a straight line at constant speed.
So, a large object with a lot of mass, e.g. a cruise ship, will be very difficult to
move, accelerate, decelerate, change its direction, etc. (because of its inertia).
Momentum
Newtons 2nd law ( see the next page ) is defined using a quantity called momentum.
Momentum is a difficult thing to explain simply, it is how much motion an object

has. However, it is quite easy to calculate the momentum, p, of an object if you know
the objects mass, m, and velocity, v, (velocity is like speed). This is the equation for
calculating momentum :
momentum = mass x velocity p=mxv
Docked !
p = m x v = 3 000 x 10 p = m x v = 70 x 5 p = m x v = 50 000 000 x 0

= 30 000 kgm/s = 350 kgm/s = 0 (zero !) kgm/s

Newtons laws
Newtons 2nd law

The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the (resultant) force
applied, and takes place in the direction of the (resultant) force.
It is the resultant force on an object that causes a change in the speed or direction of
the object. This is how it is written in equation form :
Force = change in momentum

time
the equation are :
F = p
p
t t = p
t p = F x t
F x
F
Force is measured in newtons, N,

time in seconds, s,
p (change in momentum) is measured in kg m/s (or Ns)
In an examination, you will typically be asked to calculate the change in momentum

before using the value in the above equation. Theres a worked example below .
A small rocket is launched. At a certain point in the flight, the rockets mass is 82kg, and is
travelling at a velocity of 30m/s. 10 seconds later, the mass of the rocket has reduced to
72kg, and its velocity has increased to 65 m/s. Calculate the (average) resultant force on
the rocket during this 10 seconds.
Step 1 : Calculate the change in momentum, p.
Momentum at the start of the 10 s, ps = m x v = 82 x 30 = 2460 kg m/s
Momentum at the end, pe = m x v = 72 x 65 = 4680 kg m/s
So, change in momentum , p = pe ps = 2220 kg m/s
Step 2 : Use Newtons 2nd law to find F.
F = p = 2220 = 222 N
t 10

Newtons laws
Newtons 2nd law

In situations where the mass is constant, Newtons 2nd law can be simplified :
F = (mv) = m v = m x a F = ma
t t
So, the acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force.

If the resultant force doubles, the acceleration doubles.
Where F = resultant force, m = mass, and a = acceleration
Mass & Weight

Mass is a measure of how much Weight is a measure of how large
matter or material an object has. the force of gravity is on an object.
Its measured in kg. It is measured in N.
Clearly, mass and weight are not the same !!
Mass does NOT depend on the location of the object, i.e. consider a 1 litre
bottle of water it has a mass of 1kg. If this bottle were taken to the
surface of Mars, its mass would still be 1kg (as long as no water is taken
out of the bottle !).
However, since theres less gravity on Mars, the weight of the bottle is less on Mars
than here on Earth.
Since weight is a type of force, we can apply the force equation to calculate it :
F = m x a
Am I weightless, or
massless; both or
W = m x g neither ??!
where W = weight = force of gravity

m = mass
g = gravitational field strength / acceleration due to gravity
Here on the Earths surface the value of g is 10 N/kg. You will have to learn this
equation, as it does not appear in the equation list at the start of the examination
paper !
W = m X 10

Newtons laws
Example
Thrust = 75N
A water rocket of mass 2.5kg is launched from the surface of the Earth.
It produces a steady thrust of 75N. Calculate the acceleration at the start.
Weight of rocket , W = m x g = 2.5 x 10 = 25 N
So, resultant force on the rocket = 75 25 = 50N ()
acceleration, a = resultant force = 50 = 20 m/s2

mass 2.5 Weight = ? N
Newtons 3rd law

In an interaction between 2 bodies, A and B, the force exerted by body A on
body B is equal and opposite to the force exerted by body B on body A.
No force can act alone.

Remember that the action/reaction pair of forces are always on different objects,
and so never cancel out !
The racquet pushes the ball forwards with a

force of 450N. Therefore, by Newtons 3rd law,
the ball pushes the racquet backwards with an
equal force.
450 N 450 N
Note : one force is on the racquet, the other on
the ball, so they dont cancel.
The effect of these two resultant forces is that both objects accelerate in opposite
directions. It may be easier to draw a free body diagram a diagram that shows the
forces acting on any ONE object at a time :
Heres the free body diagram for Heres the free body diagram for
the tennis ball : the racquet :
450 N 450 N
Note : Other forces like gravity and air-resistance have not been shown on these diagrams !

Applying Newtons laws
Examination questions on forces often deal with the idea of terminal velocity.
This idea involves a situation whereby, initially, the forces may be unbalanced (so
Newtons 2nd law is used) but later become balanced ( Newtons 1st law).
A Ive just jumped out of

the helicopter, and so Air-resistance is zero, and so
Im hardly moving. Newtons 2nd law states that
the skydiver will accelerate
600 N downwards.
B 350 N
As the speed increases, so does
Im now falling much
faster I can feel the air the air-resistance. (The weight
rushing past. remains constant).Newtons 2nd
law states that the skydiver will
still accelerate, but not as
600 N much as before.
600 N
C
Eventually, the skydivers speed
Im now falling very is high enough such that the air-
fast - (about 50m/s or resistance is equal to the
115 mph !) weight. Resultant force is zero,
so zero acceleration. (Newtons
600 N 1st law) terminal velocity
The parachute is opened here.

Air-resistance increases
velocity (m/s) C suddenly, and so speed
decreases (parachutist DOES
NOT GO UP!) until the forces
balance again. A new terminal
B velocity is reached.
time (s)
A

Unit 3 Work done & Energy
Work Done
Doing work in Physics means something very specific it

means a force is acting on an object causing some energy
to be transferred. Work is calculated like this :
Work done = Force x distance

the equation are :
W= Fxd W
F= W
F x d d d = W
F
Work, W, (or energy transferred) is measured in joules (J)
Force, F, is measured in newtons (N)
Distance, d, is measured in metres, (m)
Its very important to remember the following fact :
Work done = energy transferred
In correct terms, we should say that Work done on an object is always equal
to the energy transferred to or by the object. Here are 2 examples to
explain this :
The force (by the person thats Sleigh gets faster

pushing) is doing work on the sleigh.
This 240 J of work done is transferred 80 N
to the sleigh, so it gains 240 J of
kinetic energy - it speeds up.
Ice
3m
The force is again doing the same

amount of work on the sleigh, and so Sleigh stays at a constant speed
240 J of energy must have gone
somewhere ! 80 N
This time, however, theres friction.
The frictional force is equal to the
pushing force. The work done (240 J) is Grass
transferred/wasted as heat and sound 3m Friction
(not extra kinetic). 80 N

Work Done & Energy transfers
There are a number of different energy types, although all can be thought of as either
kinetic or potential.
Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy of a moving object.
Heres the equation to calculate KE :
Kinetic energy = mass x speed 2 KE = m v2

2
In order to find the speed of an object of known mass

and KE, the above equation is re-arranged like this :
KE
0.5 x m x
v2 v = 2 KE or v = KE .
m 0.5 m
Using the triangle
(Gravitational) Potential Energy (PE) is the energy an object has because of its
position (usually its height above ground, or some other reference point).
Heres the equation to calculate PE :
Change in = mass x gravitational x change in PE = mgh

potential energy field strength height
PE is measured in joules, J
PE m is measured in kilograms, kg
g is measured in N/kg (or m/s2)
m x g x h h is measured in metres, (m)

The law of conservation of energy states that energy cant be created or

destroyed, only transferred from one form to another.
Hence, when an object, e.g. a ball, falls towards the ground, its gravitational
potential energy (PE) decreases as it is transferred into kinetic energy (KE).
However, for all everyday situations, friction and air-resistance

tend to act on moving objects, which change some of the
energy into heat & sound. This is why a bouncing ball can never
bounce back to the same height - some of its energy changes
to heat and sound, mainly each time it strikes the floor, but also
almost continuously by air-resistance.
For objects falling downwards For objects thrown upwards
PEloss = KEgain + W KEloss = PEgain + W
where W = work done by air-resistance and/or friction
Notice that the above are both conservation of energy word equations. If the exam.
question says that air-resistance and friction can be ignored, then just write one of
the above word equation without the work done, W.
Also, remember that if there is some energy lost from the moving object through
frictional forces, i.e. W is NOT zero, then you can also use this equation for work
done :
Work = Force x distance W=Fxd

Example 1( P2, Jan 2012) - Answers at bottom of page !!
HINTS !!

Simply add the KEtop and

the PE.
Find the difference

between the energy of the
cyclist at the bottom and at
the top this difference is
equal to the work done by
frictional forces.
Answers
(a) (i) KEbottom = 0.5 m v2 = 7610 J
(ii) Etotal = KEtop + PE = 1130 + 5400 = 6530 J
(b) Expected method (b) Alternative method
Wfriction = KEbottom - Etotal = 1080 J KEloss = PEgain + Wfriction

Friction = Wfriction / distance = 60 N hence, Wfriction = KEloss - PEgain = 1080 J
Friction = Wfriction / distance = 60 N

Example 2 ( P2, June 2012) - Answers at bottom of page !!
HINTS !!

Initial acceleration means at

the start, when the ship isnt
moving fast enough to
experience any friction or air-
resistance. This means that
you can assume the resultant
force is equal to the thrust.
Look up the equation for work

done.
Calculate the KE twice

once for each speed, then
find the difference.
Calculate the difference

between the work done by
the engines and the KE gain.
This is the work done by the
frictional forces.
Answers
(a) a = 0.013 m/s2
(b) (i) Wengine = 3.84 x 109 J
(ii) KEgain = KEfinal - KEinitial = 3.36 x 109 J
(iii) Wdrag = 4.80 x 108 J ; hence, Drag = Wdrag / distance = 2.00 x 105 N

Stopping distance & Car Safety
Many road accidents happen because people

often underestimate the distance needed to
slow a car until it stops the stopping distance.
The stopping distance is in two distinct parts :
Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance
Thinking distance = the distance travelled whilst reacting to a situation

(before the driver applies the brakes)
Braking distance = the distance travelled whilst the brakes are applies
(car is slowing down)
Reaction time is closely linked to thinking distance as follows :
Thinking distance = speed x reaction time ( d = s x t )
So, although a persons reaction time is not much affected by speed, the thinking
distance is look at these calculations at two different speed, 20 m/s, and 40 m/s,
with a typical reaction time of 0.4 s,
@ 20 m/s Thinking distance = 20 x 0.4 = 8m
@ 40 m/s Thinking distance = 40 x 0.4 = 16m
So, thinking distance is directly proportional to the vehicles speed.
Braking distance also increases with the

vehicles speed. However, theyre not
proportional (see the blue line on the
graph ). Braking distance
(In fact, doubling the vehicles speed

quadruples the braking distance, since the
speed is squared in the KE equation).
To find the overall stopping distance at a particular

speed, just add the thinking distance and the
braking distance values at that speed.

Stopping distance & Car Safety
There are many safety features

in modern cars/vehicles some
are shown in the picture.
The main features are :
1) Seat belts
2) Crumple zones
3) Airbags
4) Side-impact bars
5) Passenger cell
Feature What it is How it works

A strong belt strapped around the Prevents the person being thrown forwards in
Seat belt body a crash
A section that
Crumple zone deforms/compresses on impact
Decreases the deceleration, and so the force
Acts as a cushion to prevent the head of the
A bag that inflates rapidly in
Airbag front of the person during a crash
passenger from hitting the front/side of the
inside of the car
Strengthens the doors to better protect the
Side-impact Strong bars inside the car doors passengers from another car hitting from the
side
Protects the passengers from impacts in all
A rigid cage around the
Passenger cell passengers
directions, but especially from a collapsing
roof (when the cars upside-down)
Car manufacturers intentionally crash cars with dummies inside

to assess the effectiveness of various safety features.
The idea behind crumple zones and airbags is to reduce the force
on passengers during a crash.
Force = mass x acceleration
Since your mass is fairly constant, the only way to reduce the force is to reduce the
acceleration (or deceleration). There are two ways of reducing the deceleration :
1. If the vehicles speed is less, then less deceleration is needed to stop it !

2. The deceleration is less if the change in speed happens over more time.
The safety devices mentioned work by ensuring that you take more time to slow
down. Remember the following reasoning :
Change the speed Less deceleration Less force

over more time.

Unit 4 Electricity
Simple electrical circuits.
Device Symbol Device Symbol
Cell /
Wire
Battery
Power Supply Bulb
Open switch Closed switch
(Off) (On)
Diode Resistor
Variable
Motor
resistor
Electrical current (I)

Current is the flow of free electrons (negatively charged). As a comparison, think of
measuring the amount of water flowing through a pipe.
Current is described as a measure of the charge that flows past a point every second.
It flows from + to -.
Current is measured in Amperes, A.
It is measured using an Ammeter connected in series.

Voltage (V)
Voltage is a measure of how much electrical energy a certain amount of electrons can
transfer as they flow around a circuit. The higher the voltage, the more electrical energy is
supplied to the circuit.
Voltage is measured in Volts, V.
It is measured using a Voltmeter connected in parallel.
Resistance (R)
Resistance is a measure of how difficult it is for current to flow through a wire or device.
More resistance means less current because it is more difficult for it to flow. Resistance is
caused due to the collisions between the free electrons and the atoms/ions in the metal.
Resistance is measured in Ohms .
A thin wire has more resistance than a thick wire.
Name Unit Measured using Symbol Connected in
Current Amps A Ammeter Series
Voltage Volts V Voltmeter Parallel
Resistance Ohms -
Series and Parallel circuits.

Series circuit: in a series circuit there is only path and the bulbs (B1 and B2) in the diagram
below are one after the other. If bulb B1 breaks then B2 will not work/go off.

Parallel circuit: in a parallel circuit there is more than one path and the circuit is divided
into branches. Bulbs B1 and B2 are in series but B3 is in parallel with them. If bulb B3 breaks
then B1 and B2 will continue to work.
Measuring current and voltage in circuits.

Current in series circuits: ammeters must be connected in series i.e. in the circuit.
The value of the current is the same at all points (A1 = A2 = A3) in the circuit since there is
only one path for the current to flow.
Voltage in series circuit: the voltmeters are connected across the component e.g. bulb or
battery.
The voltage across both components/bulbs here adds up to the voltage across the
supply/battery i.e. (V1 = V2 + V3) or (12 = 4 + 8).

Current in parallel circuits: the ammeter in this series circuit is connected in series.
The value of the current in the two branches adds up to the total current flowing,
i.e. (A1 = A2 + A3) or (2.4 = 1.0 + 1.4).
Voltage in parallel circuit: the voltage across all components in parallel is the same.
i.e. (V1 = V2 = V3)
Predicting current values.

What is the value of the current at the following points in the circuit.
Current
Point
(A)
a 3.6
b 2.0
c
d 1.2
e
f
g

Variable resistors (controlling the current).
In your house the mains voltage is 230V. Not all devices require the same current to operate
and some will have two or three settings (like a toaster or hairdryer) so we must have a way
of changing/controlling the current required.
A variable resistor (rheostat) is a resistor for which it is possible to

alter/vary the resistance. Variable resistors are components that
can be put into a circuit to control the current and the voltage e.g.
volume control and dimmer switch
If you look at the variable resistor below then the more the slider is over to the right hand
side the more wire the current has to go through so the greater the resistance and
therefore the current decreases.
Ohms law
This law describes the relationship between voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R).
Resistance = Voltage
Current
R = V or V = I x R or I = V
I R
e.g. Calculate the voltage across a 15 resistor that carries a current of 1.8A.
V = 1.8 x 15 = 27 V
Q1. Calculate the current through a 2k resistor when there is a voltage of 230V across it.
Q2 An electric fire with 4A flowing through it has a voltage of 230V across. Calculate the
resistance of the wire in the electric fire.
Answers: Q1 = 0.115 A , Q2 = 57.5

Current voltage relationship
Resistor or wire at constant temperature. Moving the variable resistor changes the
resistance of the circuit so that you can then change and measure the voltage across the
resistor/wire and the current flowing through it.
A graph of the voltage and current are plotted. Key features of the graph are:
The graph shows that if the
voltage across the
wire/resistor is doubled then
the current also doubles.
The relationship between the
current and voltage is
directly proportional.The
relationship is only directly
proportional if the graph goes through the origin (0,0) and is a straight line.
This only happens if the temperature of the wire remains constant.
The constant gradient of the graph means that the resistance remains constant
and that the resistor/wire obeys Ohms law.
Changing resistance
Resistance = voltage or R=V

current I
If the voltage remains constant then if the resistance of resistor/wire doubles then the
current will halve. This relationship is inversely proportional.

Filament lamp (NOT constant temperature). The same circuit as for the
resistor/wire is used, except the resistor is changed for a bulb.
Up to 2V the current
and voltage increase
at the same rate
because the
resistance is
constant (constant
gradient).
From 2V to 12V the
current increases at
a slower rate than
the voltage.
The gradient is not
constant so the resistance is not constant.
The resistance of the lamp increases because the temperature of the filament wire is
increasing. Therefore the filament lamp does NOT obey Ohms law.
Calculate the resistance of the lamp at (i) 2 V (ii) 12 V.
R=V (i) R = 2.0 = 2.00 (ii) R = 12.0 = 5.11

I 1.0 2.35
Electrical Power.
This is the rate (per second) of energy transfer i.e. the amount of energy a device can
transform from one form to another per second e.g. The power of a light bulb is the amount
of electrical energy it can transform from electrical energy to heat and light every second.
Power is measured in WATT, W. Equation, Power = Voltage x current, P = V x I
Device Power Energy transferred Energy transferred Energy transferred into
(W) every second. (J/s) into heat every light every second. (J/s)
second. (J/s)
Filament bulb 60.0 60.0 56.0 4.0
CFL (energy 11.0 11.0 4.0 7.0
saving) bulb
LED bulb 6.0 6.0 0.4 5.6

Power, current and resistance.
If we want to calculate the power consumption of an electrical component in a circuit but we

do not know the voltage then we can do so by combining two equations.
Power = Voltage x Current substitute Voltage = current x resistance
P=VxI V = I x R
P=Vx I P = (IR) x I P = I2 x R
Power = current2 x resistance

Example: A 2k resistor has a current of 0.80A flowing through it. Calculate the power of
the resistor. First we must change 2k into by multiplying by 1000.
Resistance in = 2 x 1000 = 2000 then, Power = current2 x resistance

= 0.82 x 2000
= 1280 W
Circuits in the home. (Ring Main)
The diagram shows the type of electrical circuit used in your home.
1. What is the voltage
across socket 1? Answer= 230 V
2. Which switch would you use if
you wanted to do maintenance
work on ring main1? Answer = S1
3. What is the maximum power

that could be supplied to the
electric cooker?
P=V x I
= 230 x 30
= 6900 W
4. There are 3 identical bulbs in the lighting circuit, and they each require a current of
0.05A. Calculate the total power of the 3 bulbs.
Total current for all bulbs = 0.05 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.15 A
Power = voltage x current = 230 x 0.15 = 34.5 W

Unit 5 Nuclear Physics
Nuclear physics.
To understand what radioacivity is you must understand what makes an atom radioactive.
The atom consists of:
6 protons
6 neutrons
6 electrons
where X is the symbol for the element
Proton number (or Atomic number) ( Z ) - This tells us the number of protons in
the atom/nucleus.
Nucleon number (aka Mass Number) ( A ) This tells us the number of protons and
neutrons in the atom/nucleus.
A mathematical formula to calculate the number of neutrons N in terms of A and Z.
N = A - Z
Example: Number of protons = 3
Number of neutrons N = A Z = 7 3 = 4
Try the
Element Proton (Z) Nucleon (A) Number of Number of
following number number protons neutrons, N
examples. Hydrogen 1 1
Iron 26 56
Uranium 92 235
Isotopes: These are atoms of the same element which have the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons. They have the same proton number and
differing nucleon number.
Example. Iodine-123 and iodine-131 are isotopes. Iodine-123 has 53 protons and 70
neutrons whereas iodine-131 has 53 protons and 78 neutrons.
The higher the proton number of the element the more neutrons the element will have
compared to protons.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY.
Why is an atom radioactive? If an atom has an imbalance of

protons and neutrons in the nucleus it will be also be UNSTABLE.
(This does not mean an equal number of protons and neutrons).
The nucleus tries to become stable by breaking up into stable fragments: RADIOACTIVE
12 13 14
DECAY. Carbon has three common isotopes C, Ca C. Carbon-14 is radioactive because it
has an imbalance of protons and neutrons.
Carbon will emit radiation to try and make itself stable, a nitrogen nucleus is formed in the
process. This process is called RADIOACTIVE DECAY.
There are 3 types of radiation emitted from the nucleus.
Information Alpha ( ) Beta () Gamma ()
Symbol

What is it? A helium nucleus High energy
Fast moving/
(2 protons and 2
high energy electron.
neutrons). electromagnetic wave.
What can stop

it? Penetrating Few mm of aluminium
Thin sheet of paper, Several cm of lead or
power. or up to a metre of
skin or few cm of air very thick concrete.
air.
Ionising power Low (compared with

Very high most
alpha and beta). Easily
damaging inside the Medium
passes through the
body.
body.

Balancing nuclear equations.
Alpha decay
During alpha decay the number of protons decreases by 2 and the

number of neutrons decreases by 2. Therefore the proton number
decreases by 2 and the nucleon number decreases by 4.
General equation: +
Balance the following nuclear equations by calculating the value of a, b, c and d.
1. +
2. +
Beta decay.
During beta decay the number of protons increases by 1 and the

number of neutrons decreases by 1. Therefore the proton number
increases by 1 and the nucleon number stays the same
General equation:
+
Balance the following nuclear equations by calculating the value of a, b, c and d.
1. +
2. +

Half life.
There are billions upon billions of atoms in a small amount of a radioactive sample so the
chance that one atom will undergo decay is high.
Is it possible to determine which radioactive nuclei/atom will decay next in
the sample? No, because the process is random. Is it possible to determine
when the next radioactive nuclei will decay? No, because the process is
spontaneous. Since its random and spontaneous process we can get more accurate
information/results by:
1. Repeating. 2. Measuring over a long time.
The half life. Each half life the number of atoms halves. The half life remains constant.
The half life is the time it takes for half the unstable atoms to decay.
The half life is the time it takes for the activity to halve from its original value.
Actvity. The activity is a measure of number of radioactive decays per second. It is

measured in becquerel, Bq. So an activity of 1 bequerel is equivalent to 1 radioactive decay
per second. The activity of a sample of radioactive material will depend on 2 things:
1. The number of radioactive/unstable atoms present.
2. The half life of the atoms.
The more atoms present the greater the activity. The shorter the half life the greater the activity.
Example. A radioactive isotope has an activity of 6400Bq.The half life of the isotope is 8
hours. What is its activity after 32 hours?
There have been 4 half lives totalling 32 hours (8 hours x 4).

Radioactive decay curves.
Whether you are plotting a graph of activity or the number of radioactive atoms the
curve/line of the graph is the same.
In this example the activity of the isotope iodine-131 has been plotted against time. The
sample has a starting/initial activity of 16 MBq (16,000,000Bq)
(i) We can calculate the half life using the method shown above. You must choose one activity
and then halve it. In the example the activity has halved from 8MBq to 4MBq. This has taken
8 days so we can say that the half life of iodine-131 is 8 days.
(ii) We can also calculate how long it will take for the activity to fall from 9 MBq to 3 MBq.
The activity was 9 MBq after 6.8 days and the activity was 3 MBq after 19.2 days.
Therefore by calculating the time difference in we can calculate how long this took.
19.2 6.8 = 12.4 days.
(iii) How long would it take for the activity to fall from 1 MBq to 250,000 Bq?
It is not possible to continue the graph so we must use the same method as on the previous
page.
1 MBq = 1,000,000 Bq 1 500,000 Bq 2 250,000 Bq

8 days 8 days
Total time = 8 + 8 = 16 days

Uses of radioactive materials.
There are many uses of radioactive materials; carbon dating, sterilising medical equipment,
killing cancer cells, smoke alarms and controlling the thickness of aluminium foil.
What is required is that you can select from a given list and explain which isotope is suitable
for use in a specific case. Consider the type of radiation emitted and the half life.
In this case we will choose one of the isotopes for a particular use and explain our reasoning.
Example of radioactive isotope. The half life given in brackets ( )

Gamma Beta Alpha
Technetium-99 (6.01hrs) Iridium-192 (74 days) Polonium-210 (138days)
Cobalt-60 (5.27 yrs) Strontium-90 (28.5 yrs) Americium-241 (432 yrs)
Carbon-14 (5730yrs) Plutonium-238 (87.7 yrs)
(a) Monitoring the thickness of aluminium sheet in a factory.

Isotope: Strontium 90 (beta emitter).
Reason: because fewer beta particles will pass through when the
thickness of aluminium increases. The half life is fairly long so
the source will last a reasonable amount of time.
(b) Medical tracer in monitoring internal organs by using a camera

outside the body.
Isotope: Technetium-99 ( emitter)
Reason: because its a gamma emitter, it passes out of the body
easily. The half life is short so it will not remain in the body for a
long time.
(c) A smoke detector.

Isotope: Americium-241 (alpha emitter)
Reason: Gamma more penetrating than alpha so it would
not be blocked by smoke. It has a longer half life so
detector stays active / keeps working for a longer period
of time. Polonium-210 has too short a half life so it would
not last very long and therefore its not suitable

Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission. This is a decay process in which an unstable nucleus splits into two
fragments of comparable mass or to put it another way it is the splitting of a heavy nucleus
into two lighter nuclei.
Most elements need to be stimulated to undergo fission; this is done by bombarding them
with neutrons. The process is called induced fission. Fission of uranium-235 will occur when
236 236
it absorbs a slow moving neutron, making the resulting nuclide U, unstable. The U is in a
highly excited state and splits into two fragments almost instantaneously.
Uranium Isotopes. There are two main isotopes of uranium
uranium-238 and uranium-235. Uranium which is mined is
99.3% U-238 and only 0.7% U-235. This uranium must be
enriched to make bombs, which means increasing the
amount of U235 present. In nuclear reactors the uranium
is only slightly enriched. Uranium-238 and uranium-235 are
radioactive.
Chain reaction. During fission of uranium-235
neutrons are emitted as fission products. A large
amount of energy is released.
Sustainable fission involves one of the neutrons
causing further decay. Just because its a chain
reaction it does not mean that it will result in an
explosion.

Balancing fission nuclear equations. When uranium-235 undergoes fission the same
products/nuclei are not produced each time.
Example
1 + + + 4
Left: total A = 235 + 1 = 236 Right: total A= 135 + 97 + (4 x 1 ) = 236
Total Z = 0 + 92 = 92 Total Z = 52 + 40 + (4 x 0) = 92
The total A (nucleon) and Z (proton) numbers on both sides must be equal/the same.
Balance the following nuclear equations by calculating the missing numbers (letters a, b, c and d)
1. 1 + + + 3
2. 1 + + + d
The fission fragments are themselves unstable.
Nuclear Reactor
In a thermal nuclear reactor the chain reaction is steady and controlled (hopefully) so that
on average only one neutron, from each fission produces another fission.

Control rods and the moderator.
Moderator
The moderator slows down neutrons to allow them cause further fission. The neutrons released in
the fission of U-235 are not fast enough to cause fission in U-238 but fast enough to be captured.
So in a thermal reactor, the neutrons must be slowed down so that they avoid capture by the U-238
and cause fission in U-235.
The moderator surrounds the fuel rods and is used to slow down the neutrons. Most nuclear
reactors use water as a moderator whilst some use graphite rods. The advantage of using water as a
moderator is that is can also be used as the coolant to transfer the heat energy away from the
reactor to generate electricity. However if the coolant is lost, (as happened in Fukushima in Japan
tsunami March 2011) the neutrons will not be slowed down and so the nuclear chain reaction stops
but this loss of coolant cause the reactor to overheat.
Control Rods.
They can use control rods to stops/control the number of thermal neutrons inside the fuel
rods/reactor. This alters the rate (number of fission reactions per second) at which nuclear fission
takes place. The control rods absorb the neutrons thus preventing them from causing further fission
in U-235. Metals such boron and cadmium are used to make the control rods. If a fault occurs then
the control rods should drop into the reactor automatically thus stopping the chain reaction. By
moving the control rods down the chain reaction is slowed down (more thermal neutrons absorbed)
and it can be speeded up by moving the control rods up (fewer neutrons absorbed).
Steel is used as a material for the pressurised reactor vessel which is then surrounded by
thick walls of concrete. The steel vessel is pressurised to prevent the water from boiling but can be
dangerous if overheating occurs, causing the vessel to explode. The water in the vessel is not the
same water which is used to drive the turbine.
Unfortunately the fission products e.g. Barium, Krypton, Caesium and Iodine, which are
contained within the fuel rods, are also radioactive and many have very long half-lives. They are
radioactive because they have a too many neutrons and so usually undergo beta decay. Once the
uranium-235 has been used up in the fuel rods they must be stored safely under water in cooling
ponds. This allows them to cool down safely, without their radiation escaping from the building. The
water also provides some shielding from the radiation. The used fuel rods spend many years in the
cooling ponds after which they are sent to places like Sellafield in Cumbria to be reprocessed.

Nuclear Fusion
Fusion: When two smaller nuclei are joined together to form
a larger one. A Large amount of energy is released in the
process.
In the Sun fusing two hydrogen nuclei is possible because of the

high pressure and they are moving at such high speeds due to
the very high temperature at the core of 15,000,000C.
They are experimenting with fusing light elements together. Two isotopes of hydrogen
deuterium (1 proton, 1 neutron) and tritium (1 proton, 2 neutrons) can undergo fusion
to form helium and a neutron.
This is a nuclear equation for the reaction.
+ +
Total A = 2+3 = 5 Total A = 4 + 1 = 5 Equation
Total Z = 1 + 1 = 2 Total Z = 2 + 0 = 2 Balanced
A good source for the hydrogen isotopes would be sea water.
Achieving controlled fusion on Earth.
Containment is in a doughnut shaped reactor. Deuterium
and tritium are heated to very high temperatures, using
large currents to form a plasma (ionised gas). The strong
magnetic field contains and accelerates the particles to
very high speeds so that they can collide with enough
energy to undergo nuclear fusion. The neutron that is
produced has a large amount of kinetic energy which can
be used to generate heat and then generate electricity.
The neutrons that are generated can be captured by atoms in the reactor making them
unstable and therefore radioactive. The reactor must therefore be shielded using concrete
to prevent any radiation escaping and so protect the workers.

Comparing fission and fusion.
Power
Advantage Disadvantage
source
Abundant source of deuterium High temperature required.
and tritium in sea water. Pressure containment of the
plasma.
Nuclear
Fusion
Does not produce greenhouse
gases. Shielding of neutrons using

No long lived radioactive concrete
materials produced. High energy input required.
Advantage Disadvantage
Does not produce greenhouse Radioactive material produced
gases. with long half life.
Large amount of power Risk of nuclear meltdown.
produced.
Nuclear Uses small amount of fuel.
Fission
Cost of decommissioning the
power station and storing of
waste material.

Unit 1 - Motion: Calculating Speed

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Unit 1 - Motion: Calculating Speed

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Unit 1 Motion

Look !! Since its time were calculating, the

An electron in orbit around an atom moves at a speed of 2500 km/s !

d = s x t = 2 500 000 x 60 = 1.5 x 108 m (Almost 4 times around the Earth !)

Look !! Its safer to use all values in metres and

www.bangor.ac.uk GCSE Science: Physics 2 1

Another equation youll need is the one for acceleration.

and the other two forms of

Change in velocity is measured in metres per second (m/s)

t= v = ( 12 ) = 300 s ( A full 5 minutes !)

Change in speed, v = a x t = 48.0 x 0.45 = 21.6 m/s

So, final speed = 12.4 + 21.6 = 34.0 m/s

2 GCSE Science: Physics 2 www.bangor.ac.uk

Distance time graphs

Theres ONE rule for a d-t graph :

The steepness (or more correctly slope or gradient)

So, a STEEP line a high speed

From B to C, the This is a straight,

This section is more difficult since the slope is increasing,

www.bangor.ac.uk GCSE Science: Physics 2 3

Velocity time graphs (or speed-time graphs)

There are TWO rules for a v-t graph :

1. The slope/gradient is equal to the acceleration.

2. The area under the graph is equal to the distance

In the 1st section, From C to D, the gradient is

Calculating the average/mean acceleration in section BC :

4 GCSE Science: Physics 2 www.bangor.ac.uk

Distance time graphs Velocity time graphs

d (m) Stationary v (m/s)

d (m) Constant speed v (m/s) Constant

d (m) Constant speed v (m/s)

www.bangor.ac.uk GCSE Science: Physics 2 5

Sir Isaac Newton came up with three laws of motion, all of

Before looking at these three laws, its necessary to

In the above example, the resultant force , RF = 490 450 = 40N

Whats the resultant force in the example below ?

Answer : RF = 0 (zero) N, 39N + 24N = 63N (then 63-63 = 0 )

6 GCSE Science: Physics 2 www.bangor.ac.uk

Newtons 1st law

In the example on the right the cyclist keeps a

If the backward forces like air-resistance are 450N

Momentum is a difficult thing to explain simply, it is how much motion an object

p = m x v = 3 000 x 10 p = m x v = 70 x 5 p = m x v = 50 000 000 x 0

www.bangor.ac.uk GCSE Science: Physics 2 7

Newtons 2nd law

Force = change in momentum

Force is measured in newtons, N,

In an examination, you will typically be asked to calculate the change in momentum

Step 1 : Calculate the change in momentum, p.

Momentum at the start of the 10 s, ps = m x v = 82 x 30 = 2460 kg m/s

Momentum at the end, pe = m x v = 72 x 65 = 4680 kg m/s

So, change in momentum , p = pe ps = 2220 kg m/s

Step 2 : Use Newtons 2nd law to find F.

8 GCSE Science: Physics 2 www.bangor.ac.uk

Newtons 2nd law

So, the acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force.

Mass & Weight

Clearly, mass and weight are not the same !!