Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice (INS, 2016)

Supplement to
January/February 2016
Volume 39, Number 1S
ISSN 1533-1458
www.journalofinfusionnursing.com
Infusion Therapy
Standards of Practice
Funded by an educational grant from BD Medical
NANv39n1S-Cover.indd 1 31/12/15 4:27 PM

31/12/15 4:27 PM
NANv39n1S-Cover.indd 2
Volume 39, Number 1S Supplement to Journal of Infusion Nursing January/February 2016
Seamless Patient Care, with
an IV Catheter that Lasts
BD Nexiva
Closed IV Catheter System
Longer dwell times can

reduce painful restarts.
Lets admit it. Few people look forward to having an
IV catheter placed. Patients dont like it. Clinicians dont
enjoy it. And all that is compounded when a catheter
fails or has to be replaced.
Use of the BD Nexiva Closed IV Catheter System

enables longer dwell times and clinically indicated
catheter replacement.1* A 2014 clinical study
demonstrated that BD Nexiva catheters had a
median dwell time of 144 hours for catheters in
place 24 hours.1* The same study showed that
longer dwell times of closed systems led to a cost
reduction of approximately $1M/year/1,000 beds
compared to an open system.1 Thats good for
you and for your patients.
To order or learn about all the ways BD is caring
for you and your patients, visit bd.com/INS today
or call (888) 237-2762.
* Compared to 96 hours with an open system.

1 Gonzlez Lpez J, Arribi Vilela A, Fernndez Del Palacio E, et al. Indwell times, complications BD Medical
and costs of open vs closed safety peripheral intravenous catheters: a randomized study. 9450 South State Street
J Hosp Infect. 2014;86(2):117-126. Sandy, Utah 84070
BD, BD Logo and BD Nexiva are trademarks of Becton, Dickinson and Company. 1-888-237-2762
2015 BD MSS0932 (12/15) www.bd.com/INS
NAN3901S-IFC.indd 2 31/12/15 3:38 PM

INFUSION THERAPY
STANDARDS OF PRACTICE
Developed by
Lisa Gorski, MS, RN, HHCNS-BC, CRNI, FAAN

Lynn Hadaway, MEd, RN-BC, CRNI
Mary E. Hagle, PhD, RN-BC, FAAN
Mary McGoldrick, MS, RN, CRNI
Marsha Orr, MS, RN
Darcy Doellman, MSN, RN, CRNI, VA-BC
REVISED 2016
315 Norwood Park South, Norwood, MA 02062

www.ins1.org
JIN-D-15-00057.indd 1 05/01/16 11:30 PM

The Art and Science of Infusion Nursing
Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice Reviewers
Jeanette Adams, PhD, RN, ACNS-BC, CRNI Alicia Mares, BSN, RN, CRNI
Steve Bierman, MD Britt Meyer, MSN, RN, CRNI, VA-BC, NE-BC
Daphne Broadhurst, BScN, RN, CVAA Crystal Miller, MA, BSN, RN, CRNI
Wes Cetnarowski, MD Diana Montez, BSN, RN
Vineet Chopra, MD, MSc Tina Morgan, BSN, RN
Michael Cohen, RPh, MS, ScD(hon), DPS(hon), FASHP Russ Nassof, Esq.
Ann Corrigan, MS, BSN, RN, CRNI Barb Nickel, APRN-CNS, CRNI, CCRN
Lynn Czaplewski, MS, RN, ACNS-BC, CRNI, Shawn OConnell, MS, RN
AOCNS Susan Paparella, MSN, RN
Julie DeLisle, MSN, RN, OCN Roxanne Perucca, MSN, RN, CRNI
Michelle DeVries, MPH, CIC Ann Plohal, PhD, APRN, ACNS-BC, CRNI
Loretta Dorn, MSN, RN, CRNI Kathy Puglise, MSN/ED, RN, CRNI
Kimberly Duff, BSN, RN Vicky Reith, MS, RN, CNS, CEN, APRN-BC
Cheryl Dumont, PhD, RN, CRNI Claire Rickard, PhD, RN
Beth Fabian, BA, RN, CRNI Robin Huneke Rosenberg, MA, RN-BC, CRNI,
Stephanie Fedorinchik, BSN, RN, VA-BC VA-BC
Michelle Fox, BSN, RN Diane Rutkowski, BSN, RN, CRNI
Marie Frazier, MSN, RN, CRNI Laura Rutledge, MN, RN, CRNI
Claudia Freitag, PhD Ofelia Santiago, BSN, RN, CRNI
Doreen Gendreau, MSN, MS, CNS, RN-BC, CWCN, Liz Sharpe, DNP, ARNP, NNP-BC, VA-BC
DAPWCA Marvin Siegel, RN, CRNI
Lynn Gettrust, MSN, RN Marc Stranz, PharmD
Connie Girgenti, BSNc, RN, VA-BC Tim Vanderveen, PharmD, MS
Sheila Hale, BSN, RN, CRNI, VA-BC Cora Vizcarra, MBA, BSN, RN, CRNI, VA-BC
Dora Hallock, MSN, RN, CRNI, OCN, CHPN Paula Foiw Washesky, MBA, RD, LDN
Max Holder, BSN, RN, CEN, CRNI, VA-BC Steve Weber
Pamela Jacobs, MHA, BSN, RN, CRNI, OCN Sharon Weinstein, MS, RN, CRNI, CSP, FAAN,
James Joseph, MPH, BSN, RN, CRNI, VA-BC FACW
Matthias Kahl Marcia Wise, RN, VA-BC
Pat Kienle, RPh, MPA, FASHP Cheryl Wozniak
Melissa Leone, BSN, RN Mary Zugcic, MS, RN, ACNS-BS, CRNI
Michelle Mandrack, MSN, RN
JIN-D-15-00057.indd 2 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Journal of
Infusion Nursing
JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2016 Volume 39 Number 1S
Editor Editorial Reviewers Peggy Link, MSN, RN, CRNI

Mary Alexander, MA, RN, Mohammad Abdollahi, PharmD, PhD Rose Anne Lonsway, MA, BSN, CRNI
CRNI*, CAE, FAAN Jeanette Adams, PhD, RN, Lisa P. L. Low, MPhil, BN, RHV, RN
ACNS-BC, CRNI Lauro Manalo, Jr, MSN
Managing Editor
Melissa Adler, MSN, RN, CMSRN, Rhonda Maneval, DEd
Dorothy Lohmann
OCN Mary McGoldrick, MS, RN, CRNI
Editorial Offices Christopher Basnett, MSN, RN, Britt Meyer, MSN, RN, CRNI,
INS CRNI, FNP-BC VA-BC, NE-BC
315 Norwood Park South Deborah Benvenuto, MBA, BS, CRNI Nancy Mortlock, RN, CRNI, OCN,
Norwood, MA 02062 Georgene Bloomfield, RPh, MS CSRN
(781) 4409408 Inez Nichols, MSN, RN, CRNI,
Wendy L. Boersma, BSN, RN, CRNI
Fax: (781) 4409409 FNP-BC
Elizabeth Ann Bonilla, MEd, BSN
For advertising information: Tammy Burdeaux, RN, CRNI Julie D. Painter, MSN, RN, OCN
Nicholas Cardinale, RN, CRNI Alvisa Palese, MSN
Product Advertising Susan Paparella, MSN, RN
Michelle Smith, Senior Account Pamela Clark, BSN
Lynda Cook, MSN, RN, CRNI Lorelei Papke, MSN, CEd, CRNI
Manager
Nancy Corbitt, BSN, RN, OCN, CRNI France Paquet, MScN
[email protected]
Evridiki E. Patelarou, PhD
(646) 674-6537 Ann M. Corrigan, MS, BSN, CRNI
Michael Perlow, DNS, RN
Judybeth Crowell, BSN, RN,
Recruitment Advertising Roxanne Perucca, MS, RN, CRNI
CRNI
North/East: Mike Rusch, Field Cynthia Peterson, MS, RN
Sales Rep Kate Douglass, MS, C, CNS, CRNI
Lynn Phillips, MSN, RN, CRNI
[email protected] Cheryl J. Dumont, PhD, RN, CRNI
Christine Pierce, MSN, RN, FACHE
(215) 521-8404 Beth Fabian, BA, CRNI
Susan Markel Poole, MS, BSN,
Rebecca Anne French, DNP, MSN,
South/East: Linda Barta, Regional CRNI, CNSN
Sales Manager BS, RN, CRNI, ARNP-C
Jennifer Riesenberg, BSN, RN, CRNI
[email protected] Anne Marie Frey, BSN, RN, CRNI
Robin Elizabeth Huneke Rosenberg,
(800) 237-1342 Nancy Fusillo, MSN, ARNP-BC,
MA, RN-BC, CRNI, VA-BC
OCN, CRNI
West: Michaela Taylor, Advertising Kellianne C. Rosenthal, MS, RN,
John Hudson Garrett, Jr, PhD, MSN, CRNI, ANP, APRN, BC
Sales Rep
[email protected] MPH, APRN, FNP, CSRN, Timothy Royer, BSN
(415) 603-9197 VA-BC, DON-CLTC, C-NAC
Jodie Lockman-Samkowiak, DNP,
Tracey C. Gaslin, MSN, CRNI, CPNP RN, CRNI
INS Board of Directors Catherine Ann Guy, BSN Fe San Angel, BSN, RN, CRNI,
President Lynn C. Hadaway, MEd, RN-BC, CRNI OCN
Cheryl Dumont, PhD, RN, CRNI Dora Hallock, MSN, RN Felicia Schaps, BSN, RN, CRNI,
President-Elect Donna Hammond, RN, CRNI OCN, CNSC, CQA
Richelle Hamblin, MSN, RN, CRNI, Judy Hankins, BSN, RN, CRNI Marvin Siegel, RN, CRNI
RN-BC Michelle L. Hawes, MSN, RN, Kevin Stansbury, MBA, RN
CRNI, VA-BC Sandeep Tripathi, MD
Presidential Advisor Mark R. Hunter, RN, CRNI
Ann Plohal, PhD, APRN, ACNS-BC, Cora Vizcarra, MBA, RN, CRNI
Debra Johnson, MPH, BSN, RN, Susan H. Weaver, MSN, RN,
CRNI
OCN, CIC NEA-BC, CRNI
Secretary/Treasurer Sarah M. Jones, MS, RN, ACNS- Sharon M. Weinstein, MS, CRNI,
Lisa Bruce, BSN, RN, CRNI, IgCN BC, AOCNS, CRNI FAAN
Directors-at-Large Alene J. Keller, BSN, RN, CRNI Judy G. Williams, BA, RN, CRNI
Diedre Bird, BSN, RN, CRNI Edward Korycka, CRNI, OCN Kathleen Wilson, MPH, BSN, RN,
Max Holder, BSN, RN, CEN, Dana Kyles, BSN CRNI
CRNI, VA-BC James Lacy, BSN, RN, CRNI Ann Zonderman, JD, BSN, CRNI
Public Member Helen Larson, BSN, RN, CRNI Mary Zugcic, MS, RN, ACNS-BC,
Donald Filibeck, PharmD, MBA CRNI
INS Chief Executive Officer *CRNI is a registered trademark of the Infusion Nurses Certification Corporation.
Mary Alexander, MA, RN, CRNI,
The Journal of Infusion Nursing, the official publication of the Infusion Nurses Society (INS), seeks to promote excellence in infusion
CAE, FAAN nursing by presenting new research, clinical reviews, case studies, and professional development information relevant to the practice
of infusion therapy. Articles selected for publication represent the broad scope of the infusion specialty and draw on the expertise of
all health care providers who participate in the delivery of infusion.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd 3 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Journal of
Infusion Nursing
Infusion Nursing
Contents
Note: The S in page numbers denotes supplement issue and does not refer to a specific standard.
Foreword S1 SECTION THREE: III. Central Venous Access via

INFECTION PREVENTION Peripherally Inserted
About the Standards of
Central Catheters S55
Practice Committee S3 AND CONTROL
IV. Central Venous Access
Preface S5 16. Hand Hygiene S38 via Nontunneled Central
A Message from BD Medical S6 17. Compounding and Preparation of Vascular Access Devices
Parenteral Solutions and (CVADs) S55
Acknowledgments S7
Medications S39 V. Central Venous Access via
Methodology for Developing the Tunneled Central Vascular
18. Medical Waste and Sharps
Standards of Practice S8 Access Devices (CVADs)
Safety S40
Strength of the Body of Evidence S10 and Implanted Ports S55
19. Standard Precautions S41
VI. Peripheral Arterial Access S55
20. Transmission-Based Precautions S42
STANDARDS OF PRACTICE VII. External Jugular Vein
21. Disinfection of Durable Medical Access S56
Equipment S43
SECTION ONE: INFUSION 28. Implanted Vascular Access
THERAPY PRACTICE SECTION FOUR: INFUSION Ports S58
1. Patient Care S11 EQUIPMENT 29. Hemodialysis Vascular Access
Devices (VADs) S59
2. Special Patient Populations S11 22. Vascular Visualization S44
30. Umbilical Catheters S60
3. Scope of Practice S13 23. Central Vascular Access Device
31. Apheresis Catheters S62
(CVAD) Tip Location S46
4. Infusion Team S17 32. Local Anesthesia for Vascular
24. Flow-Control Devices S48
5. Competency Assessment Access Device (VAD) Placement
and Validation S18 25. Blood and Fluid Warming S49 and Access S63
6. Quality Improvement S21 33. Vascular Access Site Preparation
SECTION FIVE: VASCULAR and Device Placement S64
7. Evidence-Based Practice and ACCESS DEVICE (VAD) I. General S64
Research S24 SELECTION AND
II. Short Peripheral and
8. Patient Education S25 PLACEMENT Midline Catheters S64
9. Informed Consent S26 26. Vascular Access Device III. Central Vascular Access
(VAD) Planning S51 Device (CVAD) S65
10. Documentation in the
Medical Record S28 I. Short Peripheral Catheters S51 IV. Arterial Catheters S66
II. Midline Catheters S52
SECTION TWO: PATIENT SECTION SIX: VASCULAR
III. Central Vascular Access
AND CLINICIAN SAFETY Devices (CVADs)
ACCESS DEVICE (VAD)
(Nontunneled, Tunneled, MANAGEMENT
11. Adverse and Serious
Implanted Ports) S52 34. Needleless Connectors S68
Adverse Events S31
IV. Arterial Catheters S53 35. Filtration S70
12. Product Evaluation, Integrity,
and Defect Reporting S32 27. Site Selection S54 36. Add-on Devices S71
I. Peripheral Venous Access via 37. Vascular Access Device (VAD)
13. Medication Verification S34
Short Peripheral Catheters S54 Stabilization S72
14. Latex Sensitivity or Allergy S35 38. Joint Stabilization S74
II. Peripheral Venous Access
15. Hazardous Drugs and Waste S36 via Midline Catheters S54 39. Site Protection S75
JIN-D-15-00057.indd 4 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Journal of
Infusion Nursing
Contents
Note: The S in page numbers denotes supplement issue and does not refer to a specific standard.
40. Flushing and Locking S77 III. Surgically Placed SECTION EIGHT: OTHER
CVADs: Tunneled INFUSION DEVICES
41. Vascular Access Device
Cuffed/Implanted Ports S92
(VAD) Assessment, Care, and 54. Intraspinal Access Devices S118
Dressing Changes S81 IV. Arterial Catheters S93
55. Intraosseous (IO) Access
42. Administration Set Change S84 Devices S120
SECTION SEVEN:
I. General S84 VASCULAR ACCESS DEVICE 56. Continuous Subcutaneous
II. Primary and Secondary (VAD)-RELATED Infusion and Access Devices S122
Continuous Infusions S84 COMPLICATIONS
SECTION NINE: INFUSION
III. Primary Intermittent 45. Phlebitis S95
Infusions S84 THERAPIES
46. Infiltration and Extravasation S98
IV. Parenteral Nutrition S85 57. Parenteral Medication and
47. Nerve Injuries S102 Solution Administration S125
V. Propofol Infusions S85
48. Central Vascular Access Device 58. Antineoplastic Therapy S127
VI. Blood and Blood (CVAD) Occlusion S104
Components S85 59. Biologic Therapy S129
49. Infection S106
VII. Hemodynamic and Arterial 60. Patient-Controlled Analgesia S131
Pressure Monitoring S85 50. Air Embolism S108
61. Parenteral Nutrition S133
43. Phlebotomy S85 51. Catheter Damage (Embolism,
62. Transfusion Therapy S135
Repair, Exchange) S109
I. General S86 63. Moderate Sedation/Analgesia
I. General S109
II. Blood Sampling via Direct Using Intravenous Infusion S137
Venipuncture S86 II. Catheter Embolism S110
64. Therapeutic Phlebotomy S138
III. Blood Sampling via III. Catheter Repair S110
Appendix A. Infusion Team Definition S140
a Vascular Access Device S87 IV. Catheter Exchange S110
Appendix B. Illustrations S141
44. Vascular Access Device (VAD) 52. Central Vascular Access
Removal S91 Glossary S146
Device (CVAD)-Associated
I. Short Peripheral and Venous Thrombosis S112 Index S156
Midline Catheters S91 53. Central Vascular Access
II. Nontunneled Central Vascular Device (CVAD) Malposition S114
Access Devices (CVADs) S91
The Journal of Infusion Nursing is a

member benefit of the Infusion Nurses
Society. INS is a professional association
dedicated to enhancing infusion prac-
tices that will improve patient outcomes.
Through its many member benefits, Articles that appear in the Journal of Infusion Nursing are selected by a process of double-blind peer review. Articles are reviewed by three
INS offers access to the latest infusion or more members of the Editorial Review Board or other selected experts. INS retains final approval on all articles published in this journal.
research, technology, and education. For INS is not responsible for any statements made or opinions expressed herein. INS does not endorse or recommend any product or service
more information about the benefits of discussed or advertised in this publication. Data and information developed by the authors of specific articles are for informational and
INS membership, visit www.ins1.org. educational purposes, and are not intended for application without independent, sustaining investigation on the part of potential users.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd 5 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Journal of
Infusion Nursing
FOREWORD
T
hese are exciting times in the field of infusion practice. Never before has
there been as much interest, technology, evidence, or cross-disciplinary
collaboration in the field as there is today. Whether its research that in-
forms the safety of a particular vascular access device, guidance for when
a device may be appropriate for use, or in-depth reviews of how best to
prevent complicationsthe knowledge, data, and wisdom in our specialty are brim-
ming. For infusion and vascular clinicians all over the world, there has never been a
better moment to be on the front lines of patient care.
Yet, this progress does not come without a price, for with these times also comes
great responsibility. For example, our patients have never been more complex in
terms of their vascular access needs. Unlike times past, a dizzying array of devices,
designs, and technology to meet nuanced needs (eg, power injection-capable midline
catheters) or fill key niches (ultrasound-guided devices for patients with difficult
access) are now available. The very health care system within which we all operate
has transformedimproving in many ways, but also becoming more fractured and
misaligned in others. As patients transition through the labyrinth of outpatient, hos-
pital, and post-acute care settings, the imperative to do whats right in their vascular
access voyage has perhaps never been more urgent than it is today.
In this whirlwind of change, clinicians are expected to not only master the inser-
tion, care, and management of vascular access devices but to also inform clinical
decisions regarding device choice and venous access route. Although such opportuni-
ties present a unique step forward for the field, they also introduce many new and
unexpected challenges. For example, what should one do when limited evidence
exists to guide clinical decision making? When available data do not support current
practice, how should one approach the patient or provider so as to prevent harm?
How may one learn, master, and implement the evidence to enact change in her or
his facility? And relatedly, what practices are associated with improved outcomes,
and which are relics of times past? In the endless quest to improve the care and qual-
ity of infusion practice, knowing what we dont know has become more important
than ever before.
Highlighting how fortunate we have been to have the Infusion Therapy Standards
of Practice serve as the bedrock of our field for so many years is not hyperbole.
Rather, the Standards represents the best of our specialty: a tome within which excel-
lence, expectations, and enigmas are not only defined but also primed and supported
by available data and strength of the evidence. Whether the purpose lies in informing
patient care, legal proceedings, or personal edification and growth, no document is
more versatile, time-tested, or valuable in the field of infusion practice. As a review-
er and contributor to this 2016 update, I am pleased to say the exulted tradition of
the Standards continues. With new and improved sections on special patient popula-
tions, the definition and role of infusion teams, vascular visualization technologies,
and catheter tip location, the 2016 Standards incorporates and assimilates the many
advances in our field within a single comprehensive document. Not only have new
criteria for practice been added but substantial improvements to the key domains of
infection prevention, phlebotomy, and device complications have been included.
VOLUME 39 | NUMBER 1S | JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2016 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society S1
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S1 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Foreword
These significant enhancements reflect the growth in our field and the ever-changing
expectations of the public in infusion care. The new Standards is thus not merely
recommended, but required reading for any clinician interested in infusion or vascu-
lar therapy.
As a physician researcher dedicated to improving the safety of patients who
require vascular access and infusion-based therapies, the Standards has informed the
work that I do, the questions I ask, and the clinical care I provide. Quite simply put,
there is nothing else like it. This edition continues to provide us with critical answers
to the many important questions, conundrums, and challenges we face today. I urge
you all to read, evaluate, and adapt the recommendations within this document to
your care and decision making. Your patients, practice, and society will thank you
for it.
Vineet Chopra, MD, MSc

Ann Arbor VA Medical Center and
the University of Michigan Health System
October 2015
S2 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society Journal of Infusion Nursing
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S2 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Journal of
Infusion Nursing
ABOUT THE STANDARDS OF

PRACTICE COMMITTEE
Lisa Gorski, MS, RN, HHCNS-BC, CRNI, FAANChair

Clinical Nurse Specialist, Wheaton Franciscan Home Health & Hospice, Milwaukee,
WI
Ms. Gorski is a former INS president (2007-2008) who served on the INS Standards
of Practice Committee in 2006 and chaired the 2011 committee. She is the author of
more than 50 journal articles and has authored several books on the topic of infu-
sion therapy. She is a frequent speaker, both nationally and internationally, on stand-
ards development, home health care, and infusion therapy.
Lynn Hadaway, MEd, RN-BC, CRNI

President, Lynn Hadaway Associates, Inc, Atlanta, GA
Ms. Hadaway has more than 40 years of experience as an infusion nurse and is
internationally known as a consultant and educator. She is currently serving as the
chair for the Infusion Nurses Certification Corporation (INCC) Board of Directors
and for the Infusion Team Task Force. She served as a committee member for the
revision of the 2006 and 2011 Standards of Practice. She has authored more than
75 journal articles and several textbook chapters on infusion therapy. Ms. Hadaway
holds board certifications in nursing professional development and infusion nursing.
Mary E. Hagle, PhD, RN-BC, FAAN

Nurse Scientist, Clement J. Zablocki VA Medical Center and University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee College of Nursing, Milwaukee, WI
Dr. Hagle joined the Standards of Practice Committee for the 2011 edition and
returned for this updated version, refining the Strength of the Body of Evidence
document after 5 years use and serving as a reference point for the quality of evi-
dence. With 15 years experience as a researcher and more than 20 years as a clinical
nurse specialist in academic and community medical centers, she has worked with
patients and nurses in acute, ambulatory, and long-term care settings. Focusing on
vascular access device management and prevention of adverse events, Dr. Hagle is a
mentor for research and quality improvement teams, a leader for translating evi-
dence into practice, and a clinical investigator.
Mary McGoldrick, MS, RN, CRNI

Home Care and Hospice Consultant, Home Health Systems, Inc, Saint Simons
Island, GA
Ms. McGoldrick began her home care career more than 35 years ago, and since that
time she has served in a myriad of home care clinical, management, and executive-
level positions, including 12 years as a home care and hospice surveyor for The Joint
Commission (TJC). She is a frequent speaker on the topic of infection prevention in
home care and hospice and has authored several books, articles, chapters, and
manuals.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S3 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Marsha Orr, MS, RN
Distance Education Faculty Liaison and Full-time Lecturer, California State
University (CSUF) School of Nursing (SON), Fullerton, CA
Ms. Orr is a full-time faculty member at CSUF and acts as a resource person to SON
faculty in the area of using technology for teaching and for principles of online learn-
ing. She is an entrepreneur and consultant for home infusion nursing and home
medical equipment and is a home accreditation surveyor for these areas. Her spe-
cialty practice areas include infusion therapy, vascular access, and nutrition support.
She is a past board member and nursing committee chair for the American Society
for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition.
Darcy Doellman, MSN, RN, CRNI, VA-BC

Clinical Manager, Vascular Access Team at Cincinnati Childrens Hospital Medical
Center, Cincinnati, OH
Ms. Doellmans work over the past 30 years has included short peripheral catheter
and peripherally inserted central catheter insertions, central line troubleshooting,
education, publications, and research in the neonatal and pediatric population. She
has certification in vascular access and infusion therapy.
STANDARDS OF PRACTICE COMMITTEE

CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURES
The authors have completed and submitted a form for disclosure of potential conflicts of interest. Lisa Gorski
reported relationships with ivWatch, BD, 3M, and Covidien; Lynn Hadaway reported relationships with 3M,
BD, Terumo, Excelsior, Ivera, B Braun, Baxter, Covidien, DEKA, Discrub, SplashCap, Velano Vascular,
VATA, West Pharmaceuticals, Elcam, Christie Medical, and Bard Access; Mary Hagle, Mary McGoldrick,
and Marsha Orr reported no relationships; and Darcy Doellman reported relationships with Arrow
International, Hospira, and Genentech.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S4 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Journal of
Infusion Nursing
PREFACE
R
ecognized as the premier organization for the specialty practice of infu-
sion nursing, the Infusion Nurses Society (INS) understands the signifi-
cance the Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice (the Standards) holds
in relation to the delivery of safe patient care. Developing and dissemi-
nating Standards is one of the pillars of INS mission. Infusion therapy
is administered to all patient populations in all practice settings, all the more reason
to ensure the Standards are applied to ones clinical practice. It provides a framework
to guide safe practice to ensure the best patient outcomes. There is an expectation
that all clinicians are competent in their practice.
With more published research, advances in science, and innovation in technology,
its imperative that the Standards is relevant to the clinicians practice. Therefore,
INS is committed to revising the document every 5 years. This seventh edition cites
350 more references than the sixth edition of the Standards (2011), a testament to
the advancing science of infusion therapy. The rankings of the strength of the body
of evidence have also shifted in this edition. In 2011, there were 3.8% of Level I
rankings, the highest rating. In this revision, that ranking has grown to 5.8%, evi-
dence that there is more robust research with consistent findings in the literature to
support the practice. In contrast, the percentage of Level V rankings, the lowest rat-
ing, was 67% in 2011 and has decreased to 46% in this document. With more
published data and research adding to the science of the practice, the distribution of
rankings has changed based on the nature and robustness of the research. As weve
seen over time, more strong evidence has provided clinicians with information and
data that can justify existing practice or lead to a change in practice.
A major change in this edition of the Standards is its title. Infusion therapy does
not belong to one group of clinicians, but it is the responsibility of any clinician
who is involved in the practice. Recognizing infusion care goes beyond nursing, the
title has been changed to the Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice. This change
aligns with the interprofessional approach that is being implemented in health care
today.
In this edition, new standards have been added, while other sections have been
expanded to offer more guidance to clinicians. The format remains unchanged with
practice criteria and relevant references listed after each set of standards.
INS focus has never changed. We still keep in mind that our patients are the
reason we do what we do. We want to ensure were providing the safe, quality infu-
sion care that our patients deserve. As INS continues to set the standards for infu-
sion care, the Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice is an invaluable guide for all
clinicians who are responsible for their patients infusion care.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S5 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Journal of
Infusion Nursing
A MESSAGE FROM BD MEDICAL
W
e at BD feel honored to support the Infusion Therapy Standards
of Practice revision for the fifth time since 1998, as part of our
commitment to helping more efficiently deliver health care and
improve patient outcomes. With a long history of providing
global education and training on best practices, we award grants
for education and research to promote innovative solutions in infusion therapy and
across the care continuum.
We applaud the Infusion Nurses Society (INS) for striving to keep the Standards
of Practice current, relevant, and evidence based, helping millions of clinicians pro-
vide quality infusion therapy to their patients. We look forward to working with INS
in the future while helping improve infusion therapy around the world.
Alicia Mares, BSN, RN, CRNI

Clinical Marketing Manager
BD Medical
Richard Ji
Vice President, Catheter Solutions
BD Medical
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S6 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Journal of
Infusion Nursing
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I
NS recognizes the significance the Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice has
to clinical practice and to all clinicians involved in the delivery of safe infusion
care. Without the following dedicated individuals and their passion for quality
patient care, the seventh edition of the Standards would not have been possi-
ble.
First, I want to recognize and thank the Standards of Practice Committee: Lisa
Gorski, chair; Lynn Hadaway; Mary Hagle; Mary McGoldrick; Marsha Orr; and
Darcy Doellman. They spent countless hours researching and critically analyzing the
evidence, and writing, reviewing, and revising all the Standards. Not only is the
depth of their expertise in clinical practice, research, and infusion-related knowledge
unsurpassed, but their commitment to this important work is also exceptional.
Thanks go to the reviewers of the Standards. From INS members and volunteer
leaders, to physicians, pharmacists, legal experts, health care clinicians, and industry
partners, their thoughtful reviews and feedback contributed to the global perspective
and interprofessional approach of the document.
I want to thank the INS Board of Directors for supporting the efforts of the
Standards of Practice Committee during the revision process. I am grateful to the
INS staff for the assistance they offered in ensuring that the publication was com-
pleted.
I also want to recognize BD Medical for their continuous support over the years
of the Standards of Practice revisions. INS thanks them for the educational grant
that helped fund this project.
Lastly, I want to thank our INS members. It is your passion and commitment to
providing quality patient care that motivates us to continue to support the infusion
specialty practice.
Mary Alexander, MA, RN, CRNI, CAE, FAAN

Chief Executive Officer, INS
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S7 05/01/16 11:30 PM

METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPING

THE STANDARDS OF PRACTICE
Role of the Standards of Practice Additional sources of evidence included, but were
Committee not limited to, the Web sites of professional organiza-
tions, manufacturers, pharmaceutical organizations,
The Standards of Practice Committee brought together a and the United States Pharmacopeia (USP). US sites
group of professional nurses with a wealth of clinical included the US Department of Health and Human
knowledge and expertise in all the domains of infusion Services for national centers, such as the Agency for
therapy. They initially met to review and agree on the Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the
evidence rating scale and to discuss methods and sources Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
of searching for evidence. They also agreed on how to and the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA); and
evaluate types of evidence. Throughout the Standards the US Department of Labor (eg, Occupational Safety
review and revision process, the committee met regularly and Health Administration [OSHA]). Classic papers
by phone, reviewed each standard in detail, and came to were included as needed. On occasion, textbooks
consensus on the final strength of the body of evidence served as sources of evidence when clinical research
rating for the final draft of the Infusion Therapy and scholarship are widely accepted, such as for
Standards of Practice. This draft then was sent to over 90 anatomy and physiology. Because standards of prac-
interdisciplinary reviewers who are experts in the field, tice are written for all health care settings and all
comprising all aspects of infusion therapy. Sixty reviewers populations, evidence was included for each of these
provided in excess of 790 comments, suggestions, refer- areas as available.
ences, and questions. The committee addressed each com-
ment and made revisions to the standards, seeking addi- Evaluating Evidence
tional evidence as needed. Each standard had a final
review by the committee for agreement on the content,
Each item of evidence is evaluated from many perspec-
evidence, recommendation, and rating.
tives, and the highest, most robust evidence relating to
The standards are written for clinicians of multiple
the standards of practice is used. Research evidence is
disciplines with various educational backgrounds, train-
preferred over nonresearch evidence. For research evi-
ing, certification, and licensing, including licensed inde-
dence, the study design is the initial means for ranking.
pendent practitioners, because infusion therapy may be
Other aspects of evaluation of quality include sufficient
provided by any one of these individuals. The premise is
sample size based on a power analysis, appropriate sta-
that patients deserve infusion therapy based on the best
tistical analysis, examination of the negative cases, and
available evidence, irrespective of the discipline of the
consideration of threats to internal and external validity.
clinician who provides that therapy while operating
Research on research, such as meta-analyses and
within her or his scope of practice.
systematic reviews, is the highest level of evidence. Only
specific study designs are acceptable for a meta-analysis,
Searching for Best Evidence and with its statistical analysis, this is the most robust
type of evidence. Single studies with strong research
A literature search was conducted for each of the stand- designs, such as randomized controlled trials (RCTs),
ards of practice using key words and subject headings form the basis for research on research or a strong body
related to the standard. Searches were limited to of evidence when there are several RCTs with similar
English-language, peer-reviewed journals published findings. Other research designs are needed as well for
between 2009 and July 2015. Databases included, but a developing area of science and often before an RCT
were not limited to, Cochrane Library, Cumulative can be conducted. A necessary and foundational study
Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature for learning about a question or a population is the
(CINAHL), MEDLINE, PubMed, and Web of Science. descriptive research project, but because of its lack of
The references of retrieved articles were reviewed for research controls, it is ranked at a low level of evidence
relevant literature. for clinical practice.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S8 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Last, nonresearch is often the only available evi- Consensus. This rating was used in less than 2% of the
dence. Nonresearch includes quality improvement pro- practice criteria.
jects, clinical articles, case reports, or position papers, The last rating is the Regulatory level. The committee
as well as manufacturers instructions for use and con- was aware that many practices are mandated by regula-
sensus guidelines. Nonresearch evidence can be extreme- tory agencies that could penalize clinicians and/or
ly valuable for certain aspects of practice when it is organizations if the regulations are not followed. OSHA
unethical to conduct research on that question or is an example of such an agency that has regulations
research is impractical. Many times, quality improve- governing certain aspects of infusion therapy.
ments lead to a research question and subsequent study.
Practice Criteria Recommendations

Rating the Strength of the Body of
Evidence When there is a large body of evidence based on
robust research with consistent findings, the strength
In 2011, the Infusion Nurses Society Standards of of the body of evidence reflects a high rating, such as
Practice Committee developed the rating scale for the a I or II, and the practice criteria recommendation is
strength of the body of evidence to provide guidance for strong. There is also the occasion when there is a sys-
clinicians when implementing standards of practice. tematic review, which is a robust research design, but
This guidance can reflect a range of evidence, from a the findings are inconclusive. Thus, there is a strong
preponderance of evidence and specific clinician actions body of evidence indicating a high rating for the type
highly recommended, to minimal evidence and actions of evidence cited, but the evidence and conclusions are
based on organizational preference and/or clinician undetermined. In this instance, the practice criteria
judgment. recommendation is lower, reflected in the use of the
The rating scale for the strength of the body of evi- term consider, and the clinician is advised to use this
dence ranges from the highest rating of I, represent- evidence along with her or his expertise and clinical
ing a meta-analysis and other research on research to judgment.
the lowest level of V. For a standard of practice with Practice criteria also serve as guidance for aspects of
a single item of evidence, such as a meta-analysis with infusion therapy when there is little more than expert
its accepted methods, the body of evidence is within the opinion. Often, practice questions are raised in publica-
meta-analysis. The strength of this body of evidence is tions, at conferences, or through online professional
I. When studies are cited within the larger work of a forums. For a few practice criteria, the Standards of
meta-analysis or systematic review, the individual stud- Practice Committee provided a consensus recommenda-
ies are not cited separately. However, for large research- tion that may guide a novice clinician for safe care
based guidelines, the level of evidence may vary based without harm. In reviewing the practice criteria and the
on the strength of the research the guideline uses for a evidence ratings, the clinician may identify some prac-
particular recommendation. tices with uncertain or low levels of evidence. This may
There is also a rating for anatomy and physiology, stimulate areas of needed research in infusion therapy
which may be based on anatomy textbooks as well as or quality improvement projects to validate practice.
fully analyzed case studies. This is used for recommen- The Standards of Practice document is reviewed and
dations to stop an unsafe action, such as for preventing revised based on the best evidence every 5 years. With
air embolism through body positioning. It may also be the rating scale, projects can be stimulated during the
used to prevent harm to the patient, such as avoiding intervening years to address some of the gaps in evi-
venipuncture around dense areas of nerves. On rare dence for practice recommendations. However, the
occasions, there is a lack of literature or very low levels Infusion Nurses Society and the Standards of Practice
of evidence with conflicting findings. In these instances, Committee are committed to bringing research-based
the Standards of Practice Committee reviewed the evi- critical changes for practice to clinicians through a vari-
dence, discussed and agreed to practice criteria, and as ety of dissemination strategies in the time between
a committee decided on a rating of V, Committee Standards of Practice publication dates.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S9 05/01/16 11:30 PM

STRENGTH OF THE BODY OF

EVIDENCE
Strength of the
Body of Evidence Evidence Description*
I Meta-analysis, systematic literature review, guideline based on randomized controlled trials (RCTs),
or at least 3 well-designed RCTs.
I A/P Evidence from anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology references as understood at the time of
writing.
II Two well-designed RCTs, 2 or more multicenter, well-designed clinical trials without randomization, or
systematic literature review of varied prospective study designs.
III One well-designed RCT, several well-designed clinical trials without randomization, or several studies
with quasi-experimental designs focused on the same question. Includes 2 or more well-designed
laboratory studies.
IV Well-designed quasi-experimental study, case-control study, cohort study, correlational study, time
series study, systematic literature review of descriptive and qualitative studies, or narrative litera-
ture review, psychometric study. Includes 1 well-designed laboratory study.
V Clinical article, clinical/professional book, consensus report, case report, guideline based on consen-
sus, descriptive study, well-designed quality improvement project, theoretical basis, recommenda-
tions by accrediting bodies and professional organizations, or manufacturer directions for use for
products or services. Includes standard of practice that is generally accepted but does not have a
research basis (eg, patient identification). May also be noted as Committee Consensus, although
rarely used.
Regulatory Regulatory regulations and other criteria set by agencies with the ability to impose consequences,
such as the AABB, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS), Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA), and state Boards of Nursing.
*Sufficient sample size is needed with preference for power analysis adding to the strength of evidence.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S10 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Standards of Practice
Section One: Infusion Therapy Practice
1. PATIENT CARE Practice Criteria

A. Provide care to special populations, which include
Standard neonatal, pediatric, pregnant, and older adult
1.1 The Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice is appli- patients, that is individualized, collaborative, and
cable to any patient care setting in which vascular age appropriate.1-5 (V)
access devices (VADs) are placed and/or managed and B. Provide infusion therapy to special patient popula-
where infusion therapies are administered. tions with attention to:
1.2 Infusion therapy is provided in accordance with laws, 1. Anatomic characteristics and their effect on
rules, and regulations promulgated by federal and state physical assessment, VAD planning, site selection,
regulatory and accrediting bodies in all patient care settings. insertion procedures, and use of specialized infu-
1.3 Infusion therapy practice is established in organizational sion-related equipment, including care and main-
policies, procedures, practice guidelines, and/or standard- tenance practices during infusion therapy.3,6-9 (V)
ized written protocols/orders that describe the acceptable 2. Safety and environmental considerations for
course of action, including performance and accountability, infusion therapy in all care settings (eg, acute
and provide a basis for clinical decision making. care, ambulatory, long-term care facility, home
1.4 Infusion therapy is provided with attention to care).3,5,6,8,10 (V)
patient safety and quality. Care is individualized, col- C. Considerations for neonatal and pediatric patients:
laborative, culturally sensitive, and age appropriate. 1. Recognize physiologic characteristics and effect
1.5 Ethical principles are used as a foundation for deci- on drug and nutrient selection; administration
sion making. The clinician acts as a patient advocate; set selection (eg, free of Di[2-ethylhexyl] phtha-
maintains patient confidentiality, safety, and security; late [DEHP]); dosage and volume limitations
and respects, promotes, and preserves human autono- with reference to age, height, weight, or body
my, dignity, rights, and diversity. surface area; pharmacologic actions, interac-
1.6 Clinician decisions related to infusion therapy prac- tions, side effects, and adverse effects; monitor-
tice, including device and/or product selection, are not ing parameters; and response to infusion thera-
subject to commercial or other conflicts of interest. py.2,8-12 (V)
2. Provide education to the mother regarding the
potential impact and risks/benefits of any medi-
2. SPECIAL PATIENT
cation use during lactation.13 (V)
POPULATIONS
3. Provide care with attention to growth and devel-
opmental level; include nonpharmacological
Standard
measures for promoting comfort and reducing
2.1 To ensure patient safety, the clinician providing pain and fears associated with infusion therapy
infusion therapy for special populations (neonatal, pedi- procedures.2,14,15 (V)
atric, pregnant, and older adult populations)* is compe- 4. Assess for psychosocial and socioeconomic con-
tent in clinical management of such populations, includ- siderations that may affect the plan for infusion
ing knowledge of anatomical and physiological differ- therapy.2 (V)
ences, safety considerations, implications for vascular 5. Interact with parents, other family members, or
access device (VAD) planning and management, and surrogates as members of the patients health care
infusion administration. team, including provision of patient education,
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S11 05/01/16 11:30 PM

with attention to age, developmental level, health 5. Fabian B. Infusion therapy in the older adult. In: Alexander M,
literacy, culture, and language preferences (see Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
Standard 8, Patient Education).2,16 (V) Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:571-582.
6. Obtain assent from the school-age or adolescent
6. Nygardh A, Ahlstrom G, Wann-Hansson C. Handling a challeng-
patient as appropriate (see Standard 9, Informed
ing context: experiences of facilitating evidence-based elderly
Consent).2,17,18 (V) care. J Nurs Manage. 2015. doi:10.111/jonm12300.
D. Considerations in pregnancy: 7. Ijkema R, Langelaan M, van de Steef L, et al. What impedes and
1. Recognize physiologic changes related to preg- what facilitates a quality improvement project for older hospital-
nancy and their effect on drug dosage and vol- ized patients? Int J Quality Health Care. 2014;26(1):41-48.
ume limitations and potential impact on the 8. Cotogni P, Pittiruti M. Focus on peripherally inserted central
fetus; pharmacologic actions, interactions, side catheters in critically ill patients. World J Crit Care Med.
effects, adverse effects; monitoring parameters; 2014;3(4):80-94.
and response to infusion therapy.13 (II) 9. Garner SS, Cox TH, Hill EG, Irving MG, Bissinger RL, Annibale
2. Recognize that there may be increased risk in DJ. Prospective controlled study of an intervention to reduce
errors in neonatal antibiotic orders. J Perinatol. 2015;35(8):
central vascular access device (CVAD) complica-
631-635. doi:10.1038/jp.2015.20.
tions (eg, infection and thrombosis) during preg-
10. Winkler M, Guenter P. Long-term home parenteral nutrition: it takes
nancy.19-21 (IV) an interdisciplinary approach. J Infus Nurs. 2014;37(5):389-395.
3. Consider enteral feedings prior to initiating par- 11. Loff S, Subotic U, Reinick F, et al. Extraction of di-ethylhexyl-
enteral nutrition with hyperemesis gravidarum phthalate by home total parenteral nutrition from polyvinyl
(see Standard 61, Parenteral Nutrition).21 (III) chloride infusion lines commonly used in the home. J Pediatr
E. Considerations for the older adult patient population: Gastroenterol Nutr. 2008;47(1):81-86.
1. Recognize physiologic changes associated with 12. Fischer CJ, Bickle Graz M, Muehlethaler V, et al. Phtalates in the
the aging process and their effect on drug dosage NICU: is it safe? J Paediatr Child Health. 2013;49(9):E413-E419.
and volume limitations, pharmacologic actions, 13. Briggs GC, Freeman RK. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation: A
interactions, side effects, monitoring parameters, Reference Guide to Fetal and Neonatal Risk. 10th ed. Philadephia,
PA: Wolters Kluwer Health; 2015.
and response to infusion therapy.3,6,7,10,22-24 (V)
14. Gupta HV, Gupta W, Kaur A, et al. Comparison between the
2. Assess for any changes in cognitive abilities, dex-
analgesic effect of two techniques on the level of pain perception
terity, ability to communicate/learn (eg, changes during venipuncture in children up to 7 years of age: a quasi-
in vision, hearing, speech), as well as psychoso- experimental study. 2014;8(8):PC01-PC04.
cial and socioeconomic considerations that may 15. Vetri Buratti C, Angelino F, Sansoni J, et al. Distraction as a tech-
affect the plan for infusion therapy.4,6,7 (V) nique to control pain in pediatric patients during venipuncture: a
3. Interact with family members, caregivers, or sur- narrative review of literature. Prof Inferm. 2015;68(1):52-62.
rogate as members of the patients health care 16. Czaplewski L. Clinician and patient education. In: Alexander M,
team, with consent of the patient or as necessary Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
due to mental status.3,5,16 (V) Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
4. Recognize potential for adverse events and drug Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:71-94.
17. Heerman WJ, White RO, Barkin SL. Advancing informed consent
interactions in older adults who may be pre-
for vulnerable populations. Pediatrics. 2015;135(3):e562-e564.
scribed multiple medications.22-26 (V)
18. Blake DR, Lemay CA, Maranda LS, et al. Development and
*Special populations identified based on a role evaluation of a Web-based assent for adolescents considering an
delineation study conducted by the Infusion Nurses HIV vaccine trial. AIDS Care. 2015;27(8):1005-1013.
Certification Corporation reflecting the current infusion 19. Nuthalapaty FS, Beck MM, Mabie WC. Complications of central
practices in these patient populations. venous catheters during pregnancy and postpartum: a case series.
Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009;201(3):311.e1-e5.
REFERENCES 20. Cape AV, Mogensen KM, Robinson MK, et al. Peripherally
inserted central catheter (PICC) complications during pregnancy.
1. American Nurses Association (ANA). Neonatal Nursing: Scope J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2015;38(5):596-601.
and Standards of Practice. 2nd ed. Silver Spring, MD: ANA; 2013. 21. Ogura JM, Francois KE, Perlow JH, Elliot JP. Complications
2. Frey AM, Pettit J. Infusion therapy in children. In: Alexander M, associated with peripherally inserted central catheter use during
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;188(5):1223-1225.
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: 22. Wehling M. Age-associated general pharmacological aspects. In:
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:550-570. Wehling M, ed. Drug Therapy for the Elderly. New York, NY:
3. American Nurses Association (ANA). Gerontological Nursing: Springer-Verlag; 2013.
Scope and Standards of Practice. 2nd ed. Silver Spring, MD: ANA; 23. Lukazewski A, Martin B, Sokhal D, et al. Screening for adverse
2010. drug events in older adults: the impact of interventions. Consult
4. Gray-Miceli D, Wilson LD, Stanley J, et al. Improving the quality Pharm. 2014;7(10):689-697.
of geriatric nursing care: enduring outcomes from the geriatric 24. Bozzetti F. Evidence-based nutritional support of the elderly can-
nursing education consortium. J Prof Nurs. 2014;30(6):447-455. cer patient. Nutrition. 2015;31(4):585-586.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S12 05/01/16 11:30 PM

25. Gilden JL, Gupta A. Non-ICU hospital care of diabetes mellitus of the decision process may be required due to
in the elderly population. Curr Diabetes Rep. 2015;15(5):26. increasing types of infusion therapies and technolo-
26. Erstad BL. Designing drug regimens for special intensive care unit gies, expansion of practice into professions other
populations. World J Crit Care Med. 2015;4(2):139-151.
than nursing, and delivery of infusion therapy in
acute and alternative health care settings.5
(Regulatory)
3. SCOPE OF PRACTICE D. Nursing Personnel
1. Provide infusion therapy based on the compo-
Standard nents of the nursing process and principles of
delegation and supervision using a holistic,
3.1 The role, responsibilities, and accountability for patient-centered approach to care.3,6 (V)
each type of clinician involved with infusion therapy 2. Collaborate with members of the health care
delivery, according to the applicable regulatory boards, team toward the universal goal of safe, effective,
are clearly defined in organizational policy. and appropriate infusion therapy.7 (IV)
3.2 Clinicians involved with infusion therapy practice 3. Execute independent nursing strategies related to
within the boundaries of their legal scope of practice. infusion therapy using decision-making and criti-
3.3 Clinicians delivering any type of infusion therapy cal thinking skills.2 (V)
and vascular access device (VAD) insertion, use, mainte- 4. Advocate for identification and removal of barriers
nance, and removal are qualified and competent to to allow practice to the full extent of licensure.8,9
perform the identified functions. (V)
3.4 Members of the health care team collaborate to 5. Registered Nurse (RN)
achieve the universal goals of safe, effective, and appro- a. Complete an organized educational program
priate infusion therapy. on infusion therapy due to the lack and/or
3.5 Infusion therapy tasks are delegated by the regis- inconsistency of infusion therapy in basic
tered nurse (RN) to unlicensed assistive personnel nursing curricula.10 (V)
(UAP) in accordance with rules and regulations promul- b. Do not accept assignments and tasks when one
gated by the states Board of Nursing and within the concludes that she or he is inadequately pre-
policies and procedures of the organization. The RN pared to perform the assignment or task (refer
and the organization are responsible and accountable to Standard 5, Competency Assessment and
for the tasks delegated to UAP and licensed practical/ Validation).
vocational nurses (LPN/LVNs). c. Develop the necessary skills for delegation
based on rules and regulations articulated by
Practice Criteria state Boards of Nursing.3,11,12 (V, Regulatory)
d. Delegate tasks, activities, and components of
A. Know the scope of practice for ones health care care after determination of competency to
profession or occupation and provide patient care perform the specific task. Match the staff
within this legal framework. members skill to the specific needs of the
1. Recognize that Nurse Practice Acts differ among patient and family.3,11-14 (V, Regulatory)
jurisdictions (ie, state, province, country). e. Do not delegate any aspect of the nursing pro-
2. For other professions, know the designated scope cess, although specific components of care
of practice as outlined by the applicable regula- may be delegated.3,11,12 (V)
tory agency and/or professional organization (eg, f. Use critical thinking and nursing judgment to
American Society of Radiologic Technologists apply the Five Rights of Delegation, including
[ASRT], American Association for Respiratory the right task, under the right circumstances,
Care [AARC]). to the right person, with the right direction
3. Know the boundaries of practice as established and communication, and under the right
by organizational policies when there is an supervision and evaluation.3 (V)
absence of a legal scope of practice (eg, UAP).1-3 g. Delegate tasks that frequently occur; can be
(V) performed with an established order of steps;
B. Recognize the overlap between professional groups require little or no modification for each
and that no single profession can claim exclusive patient; are performed with a predictable out-
ownership of any skill, activity, or task.3,4 (V) come; do not require assessment or profes-
C. For nursing personnel, make scope of practice deci- sional judgment; and do not endanger a
sions according to the method used by the state patients life or well-being.3 (V)
Board of Nursing. A standardized decision tree for h. Ensure that delegated tasks are completed in
determining scope of practice is preferred; however, compliance with organizational policies and
other methods may be used. Frequent application procedures.11 (V)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S13 05/01/16 11:30 PM

i. In settings without an administrative nursing d. Serve as the primary resource to guide policy
structure (eg, physician office or clinic), writ- and procedure development of infusion thera-
ten policies identify which professional can py derived from best evidence.18,24 (V)
delegate and to whom they can delegate. The e. Serve as educator, leader, manager, and consultant
delegating individual is accountable for the on issues related to infusion therapy.18,24 (V)
task performance.11 (V) 8. Advanced Practice Registered Nurse (APRN)
j. Recognize that accepting an assignment to a. Know the status of APRNs as LIPs based on
supervise a task (eg, peripheral catheter inser- legal requirements for physician direction or
tion, accessing an implanted port) delegated by supervision. APRNs who are LIPs have the
another professional (eg, licensed independent legal authority to prescribe infusion therapy.
practitioner [LIP]) is outside the guidelines for APRNs may perform surgical procedures for
delegation. Accepting the assignment to super- insertion and removal of vascular access
vise such tasks requires that the RN is compe- devices with documented competence.25 (V,
tent with the task, is able to intervene if need- Regulatory)
ed, and has the opportunity and proximity to b. Provide leadership in education, consulting,
monitor performance.11,12 (V) and research related to infusion therapy
6. Licensed Practical/Vocational Nurse (LPN/LVN) according to the needs of the employing
a. Complete an organized educational program, organization and/or patient populations
including supervised clinical practice on infu- served.26-29 (V)
sion therapy, as required for LPN/LVNs in many c. Advocate for expansion of professional prac-
states. In states without such requirements, tice to the full extent of education, certifica-
completion of an infusion therapy educational tion, and licensure.30 (V)
program is recommended prior to performing E. Unlicensed Assistive Personnel (UAP)
infusion therapy procedures (refer to Standard 1. Nursing assistive personnel (NAP) is a category of
5, Competency Assessment and Validation). UAP, includes many job titles, has no standardized
b. Practice analysis for LPN/LVNs includes veni- educational requirements, and does not have a
puncture for blood sampling and insertion regulated scope of practice. An unofficial UAP
and removal of peripheral catheters, mainte- scope of practice task list is taken from the Code
nance of central vascular access devices of Federal Regulations (42 CFR 483), which
(CVADs), and administration of intravenous applies to care for residents of nursing facilities.
(IV) medications by the piggyback method. Basic nursing care tasks are included, although
The majority of states permit LPN/LVNs to some states have expanded this list. No tasks
administer IV medications through CVADs, related to VAD insertion, care, or maintenance or
while 10 states allowed this activity through to the administration of any IV fluid or medica-
delegation, and 5 states prohibited this prac- tions are included on this list.31,32 (V, Regulatory)
tice. No regulatory agency includes insertion 2. Managing equipment and supplies, gathering
of midline catheters or CVADs within the data, and assisting licensed clinicians with inva-
scope of practice for LPN/LVNs.15,16 (V) sive procedures are infusion-related tasks that
c. Perform infusion-related tasks under the may be assigned to NAP.31 (V)
supervision of an RN or LIP with appropriate 3. Apply existing rules or regulations, if any, from
infusion therapy knowledge and skills.11 (V) specific state Boards of Nursing pertaining to
d. Adhere to the state Board of Nursings rules delegation of infusion-related tasks to NAP and
and regulations regarding the authority to the supervision of their performance. There is
delegate by LPN/LVN as this varies greatly much variation among states regarding what is
between states.1 (V) allowed for UAP dialysis technicians to adminis-
7. Infusion Nurse Specialist (Certified Registered ter through CVADs.16 (V)
Nurse Infusion [CRNI]) 4. Medical Assistants (MAs) are a different catego-
a. Enhance professional growth and empower- ry of UAP, primarily employed in medical offices,
ment by earning board certification to become although they may be employed in a variety of
an infusion nurse specialist (ie, CRNI).17,18 (V) positions in acute care hospitals. Regulations
b. Advocate for expansion of professional prac- vary greatly among states, and very few identify
tice to the full extent of licensure and board any form of scope of practice.33,34 (V)
certification including, but not limited to, 5. MAs function in assistive roles to physicians by
CVAD insertion and determination of CVAD performing administrative and clinical tasks. The
tip location on imaging modalities.19-23 (V) state medical board regulates delegation of tasks
c. Participate in quality improvement activities from physicians to MAs with tremendous varia-
and clinical research in infusion therapy.23,24 (V) tions among states.33 (V)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S14 05/01/16 11:30 PM

6. A structured nursing department with respon- available to ensure proper diagnosis and
sibility and accountability for the action of treatment of adverse events.
MAs is not typically found in medical offices. f. Adhere to recommendations, position
Following delegation from the physician, the statements, standards of practice, and
licensed nurse may be expected to supervise other guidance documents from ASRT,
task performance. The individual licensed American College of Radiology (ACR),
nurse is required to obtain clarification from and other appropriate regulatory agencies.
the delegating physician about the role of each g. Know the proper use of all flow-control
professional, especially who will hold account- devices used in radiology including, but
ability for the outcome of the delegated not limited to, power injectors.38,39,41 (V)
tasks.11 (V) G. Respiratory Care Practitioner
7. Infusion therapy-related tasks may be delegat- 1. Holds a license from the regulatory agency
ed to MAs depending upon the state regula- in the jurisdiction (state, province, coun-
tions and after the MA completes education try) and/or certification from the national
and competency validation.33 (V) certifying board (ie, National Board for
F. Therapist/Technologist/Technician Respiratory Care). Two levels of certifica-
1. These groups of clinicians have educational tion are available: Certified Respiratory
preparation from a variety of schools/colleges Therapist (CRT) and Registered
(ie, associates and bachelors degrees). Respiratory Therapist (RRT).
Individuals hold a state license or certification 2. Adhere to regulations on scope of practice
from a professional organization or both as questions as determined by the regulatory
required by the state board regulating their agency within each jurisdiction. A few
practice.35-37 (Regulatory) states have addressed the issue of peripher-
2. Each individual practices within the identified ally inserted central catheter and other
scope of practice and has documented compe- CVAD insertion by respiratory therapists,
tency for each task, skill, or activity per- either positively or negatively; however,
formed.36,38-40 (V) most states have nothing on record regard-
3. Radiologic Technologist ing this practice question.
a. Holds a state license and/or certification 3. Arterial puncture and obtaining arterial
from a national credentialing board (eg, blood samples are addressed by AARC;
American Registry of Radiologic there are no national documents address-
Technologists [ARRT]). ing any other aspect of infusion therapy or
b. Unlicensed and/or uncertified individuals vascular access by respiratory thera-
and those holding only an institutional pists.40,42-44 (V)
license working in the radiology depart- H. Paramedic
ment should not have the responsibility for 1. Holds a license from the regulatory agency in
venipuncture or administration of any IV the jurisdiction (state, province, country),
medication. and/or certification from the national certify-
c. There are numerous practice areas for ing board, and is credentialed (authorized)
radiologic technologists including, but not by a local emergency services medical direc-
limited to, cardiovascular and interven- tor to perform the skills or role.
tional, computed tomography, magnetic 2. Recognize that emergency medical person-
resonance, and nuclear medicine. nel have historically functioned in a pre-
d. Basic techniques of venipuncture, adminis- hospital setting; however, they are now
tration of diagnostic contrast agents and/ employed in a variety of settings such as
or IV medications, and appropriate deliv- hospital emergency departments, hospital
ery of patient care during medication units, physician offices, and urgent care
administration are components of the cur- settings. Note any alterations in the role
ricula for each practice area as established when employed in nontraditional settings
by ASRT and other radiology organiza- as there may be prohibitions for certain
tions. activities.
e. ASRT-issued advisory opinions that periph- 3. Two levels of emergency medical services
eral venipuncture, parenteral injection of personnel perform infusion therapy:
contrast media and other medications, and a. Advanced Emergency Medical
access to existing VADs are within the scope Technicians may insert peripheral
of practice when an LIP is immediately venous catheters and intraosseous
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S15 05/01/16 11:30 PM

devices and administer IV fluids and 18. Biel M. Infusion nursing certification: identification of stakehold-
50% dextrose for hypoglycemia. ers and demonstration of the value of certification. J Infus Nurs.
b. Paramedics may insert peripheral 2007;30(6):332-338.
19. Alexandrou E, Murgo M, Calabria E, et al. Nurse-led central
venous catheters and intraosseous devic-
venous catheter insertion: procedural characteristics and out-
es, access indwelling VADs, administer
comes of three intensive care based catheter placement services.
IV medications by infusion, and moni- Int J Nurs Stud. 2012;49(2):162-168.
tor blood and blood products.36 (V) 20. Alexandrou E, Spencer TR, Frost SA, Mifflin N, Davidson PM,
Hillman KM. Central venous catheter placement by advanced
practice nurses demonstrates low procedural complication and
REFERENCES
infection rates: a report from 13 years of service. Crit Care Med.
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September 2014;42(3):536-543.
15, 2015. 21. Yacopetti N, Alexandrou E, Spencer TR, et al. Central venous
catheter insertion by a clinical nurse consultant or anaesthetic
1. Parnell ER, Kring DL. Practice patterns of licensed practical medical staff: a single-centre observational study. Crit Care
nurses in North Carolina. JONAS Healthc Law Ethics Regul. Resusc. 2010;12(2):90-95.
2012;14(1):14-18. 22. Markovich MB. The expanding role of the infusion nurse in
2. Russell KA. Nurse practice acts guide and govern nursing prac- radiographic interpretation for peripherally inserted central cath-
tice. J Nurs Regul. 2012;3(3):36-42. eter tip placement. J Infus Nurs. 2008;31(2):96-103.
3. American Nurses Association and the National Council of State 23. Meyer BM. Broadening infusion specialization as an adjunct to
Boards of Nursing. Joint statement on delegation. https://www. organizational sustainability. J Infus Nurs. 2014;37(1):44-54.
ncsbn.org/Joint_statement.pdf. Published 2007. 24. Corrigan A. Infusion nursing as a specialty. In: Alexander M,
4. Pfeifer GM. Shifting boundaries in health care. Am J Nurs. Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
2012;112(2):19-20. Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
5. TriCouncil for Nursing, NCSBN. Interstate practice, education Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:1-9.
and licensure: changing practice, evolving regulation; 2014. 25. Kleinpell RM, Hudspeth RS. Advanced practice nursing scope of
https://www.ncsbn.org/TriCouncil_Framing_Document_FINAL. practice for hospitals, acute care/critical care, and ambulatory
PDF care settings: a primer for clinicians, executives, and preceptors.
6. American Nurses Association. Nursing Scope and Standards of AACN Adv Crit Care. 2013;24(1):23-29.
Practice. Silver Spring, MD: ANA; 2015:3-6. 26. Szablewski SG, Zuzelo PR, Morales EM, Thomas L. Describing
7. Boev C, Xia Y. Nurse-physician collaboration and hospital-acquired saline-lock usage patterns on a telemetry unit: a retrospective
infections in critical care. Crit Care Nurse. 2015;35(2):66-72. study. Clin Nurse Spec. 2009;23(6):296-304.
8. DAmour D, Dubois CA, Dery J, et al. Measuring actual scope of 27. Morrison T. Qualitative analysis of central and midline care in
nursing practice: a new tool for nurse leaders. J Nurs Adm. the medical/surgical setting. Clin Nurse Spec. 2012;26(6):
2012;42(5):248-255. 323-328.
9. Institute of Medicine. Focus on scope of practice. In: The Future 28. Hooke MC. Clinical nurse specialist and evidence-based practice:
of Nursing: Leading Change, Advancing Health. Washington, managing anthracycline extravasation. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs.
DC: National Academy of Sciences; 2010. http://iom.nationalaca- 2005;22(5):261-264.
demies.org//media/Files/Report%20Files/2010/The-Future-of- 29. Bizzarro MJ, Sabo B, Noonan M, et al. A quality improvement
Nursing/Nursing%20Scope%20of%20Practice%202010%20 initiative to reduce central line-associated bloodstream infections
Brief.pdf. in a neonatal intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol.
10. Hadaway L. Development of an infusion alliance. J Infus Nurs. 2010;31(3):241-248.
2010;33(5):278-290. 30. Clavelle JT. Implementing Institute of Medicine Future of
11. National Council of State Boards of Nursing. Working with oth- Nursing recommendations: a model for transforming nurse prac-
ers: a position paper. https://www.ncsbn.org/Working_with_ titioner privileges. J Nurs Adm. 2012;42(9):404-407.
Others.pdf. Published 2005. 31. McMullen TL, Resnick B, Chin-Hansen J, Geiger-Brown JM,
12. Fowler MDM. Guide to the Code of Ethics for Nurses With Miller N, Rubenstein R. Certified Nurse Aide scope of practice:
Interpretive Statements. 2nd ed. Silver Spring, MD: American state-by-state differences in allowable delegated activities. J Am
Nurses Association; 2015:68-70. Med Dir Assoc. 2015;16(1):20-24.
13. Gravlin G, Bittner NP. Nurses and nursing assistants reports of 32. Small A, Okungu LA, Joseph T. Continuing education for patient
missed care and delegation. J Nurs Adm. 2010;40(7/8):329-335. care technicians: a unit-based, RN-led initiative. Am J Nurs.
14. Weydt A. Developing delegation skills. Online J Issues Nurs. 2012;112(8):51-55.
2010;15(2). doi:10.3912/OJIN.Vol15No02Man01Found. 33. McCarty MN. The lawful scope of practice of medical assistants:
15. NCSBN. 2012 LPN/VN practice analysis: linking the NCLEX- 2012 update. AMT Events. 2012:110-119.
PN examination to practice. Chicago, IL: National Council of 34. Gent PL, Proulx JR, Seidl K. The forgotten rung: a clinical ladder
State Boards of Nursing; 2013. https://www.ncsbn.org/13_LPN_ for UAP. Nurs Manage. 2014;45(2):48-52.
Practice_Analysis_Vol58_updated.pdf. Published 2013. 35. American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT). State and
16. OKeefe C. The authority for certain clinical tasks performed by federal licensure issues. http://www.asrt.org/main/standards-regu-
unlicensed patient care technicians and LPNs/LVNs in the hemo- lations/federal-legislative-affairs/state-and-federal-licensure-issues.
dialysis setting: a review. Nephrol Nurs J. 2014;41(3):247-254. 36. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).
17. McLaughlin A, Fetzer SJ. The perceived value of certification by National EMS scope of practice model. http://www.ems.gov/
Magnet and non-Magnet nurses. J Nurs Admin. 2015;45(4):194-199. education/EMSScope.pdf.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S16 05/01/16 11:30 PM

37. American Association for Respiratory Care (AARC). Respiratory C. Collect, monitor, and report quality outcome and
therapist state licensure information. http://www.aarc.org/ process data for an infusion team scope of service to
resources/advocacy/state-licensure-information. evaluate team effectiveness, patient safety, adherence
38. American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT). Medication
to best practices, and patient satisfaction, including,
injection through existing vascular access. http://www.asrt.org/
but not limited to, first-attempt success on cannula-
docs/default-source/practice-standards-published/ps_medication-
injectionsthruexvascaccess.pdf?sfvrsn=2.
tion and time-to-VAD insertion once ordered. In
39. American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT). Medication collaboration with the infection prevention team,
injection by radiologic technologists. http://www.asrt.org/docs/ collect, monitor, and report quality outcome data for
default-source/practice-standards-published/ps_medicationinjec- VAD dwell time, reasons for removal, and
tionsbyrts.pdf?sfvrsn=2. complications such as phlebitis, infiltration/extrava-
40. Barnes TA, Kacmarek RM, Kageler WV, Morris MJ, Durbin CG sation, thrombosis, and catheter-associated blood-
Jr. Transitioning the respiratory therapy workforce for 2015 and stream infection.8-11,15,17,21,23,24,26-29 (IV)
beyond. Respir Care. 2011;56(5):681-690. D. Consider establishing or maintaining an infusion
41. American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT). ASRT team for central vascular access device (CVAD) inser-
position statements: opposition to uncertified or unlicensed indi-
tion, management, and removal.14,15,17,24,25,27-33 (IV)
viduals. http://www.asrt.org/docs/default-source/governance/
hodpositionstatements.pdf?sfvrsn=10. Published June 2015.
42. Quarello F, Bonello F, Boero R, et al. CAPD in a large
population: a 7-year experience. Adv Perit Dial. 1989;5: REFERENCES
56-62.
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
43. American Association for Respiratory Care (AARC) [position
15, 2015.
statement]. Respiratory care scope of practice http://c.aarc.org/
resources/position_statements/documents/dop.pdf. 1. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the
44. Barnes TA, Gale DD, Kacmarek RM, Kageler WV. Competencies prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://
needed by graduate respiratory therapists in 2015 and beyond. www.cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published
Respir Care. 2010;55(5):601-616. April 2011.
2. Ramritu P, Halton K, Cook D, Whitby M, Graves N. Catheter-
related bloodstream infections in intensive care units: a system-
4. INFUSION TEAM atic review with meta-analysis. J Adv Nurs. 2008;62(1):3-21.
3. Semelsberger CF. Educational interventions to reduce the rate of
Standard central catheter-related bloodstream infections in the NICU: a
review of the research literature. Neonatal Network.
4.1 The infusion team is structured through its scope of 2009;28(6):391-395.
service to meet patient and organizational needs for 4. Agnihotri V. Economic Impact of an Intravenous Team in
safe, effective, and high-quality infusion therapy. Reducing Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infections [dis-
sertation]. Wayne, NJ: William Paterson University of New
Jersey; 2014.
Practice Criteria 5. Hammarskjld F, Berg S, Hanberger H, Taxbro K, Malmvall BE.
A. Assign vascular access device (VAD) insertion and/or Sustained low incidence of central venous catheter-related infec-
VAD management and surveillance only to individu- tions over six years in a Swedish hospital with an active central
venous catheter team. Am J Infect Control. 2014;42(2):122-128.
als and/or teams with infusion therapy education,
6. Lee WL, Chen HL, Tsai TY, et al. Risk factors for peripheral intra-
training, and validated competency.1-7 (I)
venous catheter infection in hospitalized patients: a prospective
B. Recognize that: study of 3165 patients. Am J Infect Control. 2009;37(8):
1. A designated infusion team that is accountable 683-686.
for inserting short peripheral catheters increases 7. Ahmed SS, McCaskey MS, Bringman S, Eigen H. Catheter-
the success rate for cannulation on the first associated bloodstream infection in the pediatric intensive care
attempt and decreases hospital-acquired blood- unit: a multidisciplinary approach. Pediatr Crit Care Med.
stream infections, local site infections, occlu- 2012;13(2):e69-e72.
sions, and accidental removals.6-12 (V) 8. Carr PJ, Glynn RW, Dineen B, Kropmans TJB. A pilot intrave-
2. A designated infusion team that is accountable nous cannulation team: an Irish perspective. Br J Nurs.
for managing VADs, including daily assessment, 2010;19(10):S19-S27.
9. da Silva GA, Priebe S, Dias FN. Benefits of establishing an intra-
dressing changes, and/or access, decreases cathe-
venous team and the standardization of peripheral intravenous
ter-associated bloodstream infections and related
catheters. J Infus Nurs. 2010;33(3):156-160.
costs, phlebitis and infiltration, and increases 10. Jackson A. Development of a trust-wide vascular access team.
patient satisfaction.7,13-20 (IV) Nurs Times. 2007;103(44):28-29.
3. An infusion team is a resource for infusion therapy 11. OConnor I, Wilks M, Hennessy E, Millar M. Control of vascular
product evaluation, education, and standardized access device associated bloodstream infection in a large London
evidence-based practices.7,9-11,13,15-17,21-25 (V) teaching hospital. J Infect Prev. 2012;13(3):79-83.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S17 05/01/16 11:30 PM

12. Wallis MC, McGrail M, Webster J, et al. Risk factors for periph- 33. Walker G, Todd A. Nurse-led PICC insertion: is it cost effective?
eral intravenous catheter failure: a multivariate analysis of data Br J Nurs. 2013;22(19):S9-S15.
from a randomized controlled trial. Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiol. 2014;35(1):63-68.
13. Brunelle D. Impact of a dedicated infusion therapy team on the
5. COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT
reduction of catheter-related nosocomial infections. J Infus Nurs.
AND VALIDATION
2003;26(6):362-366.
14. Guerin K, Wagner J, Rains K, Bessesen M. Reduction in central Standard
line-associated bloodstream infections by implementation of a post-
insertion care bundle. Am J Infect Control. 2010;38(6):430-433. 5.1 As a method of public protection to ensure patient
15. Hawes M. A proactive approach to combating venous depletion safety, the clinician is competent in the safe delivery of
in the hospital setting. J Infus Nurs. 2007;30(1):33-44. infusion therapy and vascular access device (VAD)
16. Holzmann-Pazgal G, Kubanda G, Davis K, Khan AM, Brumley insertion and/or management within her or his scope of
K, Denson SE. Utilizing a line maintenance team to reduce cen- practice.
tral-line-associated bloodstream infections in a neonatal intensive 5.2 The clinician is responsible and accountable for
care unit. J Perinatol. 2011;32(4):281-286. attaining and maintaining competence with infusion
17. Pitts S. Retrospective analysis of a pediatric vascular access program therapy administration and VAD insertion and/or man-
and clinical outcomes. J Assoc Vasc Access. 2013;18(2):114-120.
agement within her or his scope of practice.
18. Secola R, Azen C, Lewis MA, et al. A crossover randomized pro-
5.3 Competency assessment and validation is performed
spective pilot study evaluating a central venous catheter team in
reducing catheter-related bloodstream infections in pediatric
initially and on an ongoing basis.
oncology patients. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs. 2012;29(6):307-315. 5.4 Competency validation is documented in accord-
19. Wagner J. Impact of a dedicated IV team. Crit Care Nurs. ance with organizational policy.
2009;29(2):e12-e13.
20. Rutledge D, Orr M. Effectiveness of intravenous therapy teams. Practice Criteria
Online J Clin Innovat. 2005;8(2):1-24.
21. Bolton D. Writing a business case for the expansion of service: A. Accept individual responsibility for becoming com-
expanding the IV therapy team, from start to finish. J Infect Prev. petent and maintaining continued clinical compe-
2009;10:S27-S32. tence.
22. Caguioa J, Pilpil F, Greensitt C, Carnan D. HANDS: standardised 1. Competence goes beyond psychomotor skills and
intravascular practice based on evidence. Br J Nurs. includes application of knowledge, critical think-
2012;21(14):S4, S6, S8-S11. ing, and decision-making abilities.
23. Harpel J. Best practices for vascular resource teams. J Infus Nurs. 2. Competency requires a commitment to lifelong
2013;36(1):46-50. learning, self-reflection, and professional eth-
24. Kelly L. Crossing professional boundaries: nurse-led catheter
ics.1,2 (IV)
insertion. Nurs Manage. 2009;16(6):32-37.
B. Use a standardized approach to competency assess-
25. Schultz TR, Durning S, Niewinski M, Frey AM. A multidisciplin-
ary approach to vascular access in children. J Spec Pediatr Nurs.
ment and validation across the health care system to
2006;11(4):254-256. accomplish the goal of consistent infusion practices.
26. Hadaway L. Development of an infusion alliance. J Infus Nurs. 1. Identify and develop competency assessment pro-
2010;33(5):278-290. grams that empower clinicians for educational
27. Lisova K, Paulinova V, Zemanova K, Hromadkova J. Experiences growth and staff development.
of the first PICC team in the Czech Republic. Br J Nurs. 2. Link continuing competency assessment pro-
2015;24(2):S4, S6, S10. grams to meet patient needs and improve clinical
28. Krein SL, Kuhn L, Ratz D, Chopra V. Use of designated nurse outcomes.
PICC teams and CLASBI prevention practices among US hospi- 3. Establish transparency in the process of assessing
tals: a survey based study. J Patient Safety. 2015 NOV10. [Epub
competency and the requirements for judging
ahead of print].
competency.
29. Alexandrou E, Spencer TR, Frost SA, Parr MJ, Davidson PM,
Hillman KM. A review of the nursing role in central venous can-
4. Collaborate with professional development staff.
nulation: implications for practice policy and research. J Clin 5. Acknowledge the imbalance of power when a
Nurs. 2010;19(11-12):1485-1494. manager acts as the competency validator.1-5
30. Swayze SC, James A. The unfamiliar catheter. AHRQ Web site. (IV)
http://webmm.ahrq.gov/case.aspx?caseID=294. C. Validate clinician competency by documenting the
31. Feil M. Reducing risk of air embolism associated with central knowledge, skills, behaviors, and ability to perform
venous access devices. PA Saf Advis. 2012;9(2):58-64. http:// the assigned job.
patientsafetyauthority.org/ADVISORIES/AdvisoryLibrary/2012/ 1. Validate initial competency before providing
Jun;9(2)/Pages/58.aspx. patient care (eg, use of simulation, case studies,
32. Hadaway L, Dalton L, Mercanti-Erieg L. Infusion teams in acute written tests), when the scope of practice chang-
care hospitals: call for a business approachan Infusion Nurses
es, and with the introduction of new procedures,
Society white paper. J Infus Nurs. 2013;36(5):356-360.
equipment, or technology.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S18 05/01/16 11:30 PM

2. Validate continuing competency on an ongoing 3. Skill practice in a simulation lab with assistance
periodic basis. Frequency of ongoing competency from a qualified instructor.
validation is determined by the organization 4. Clinical performance with the procedure under
based on the associated risk and known prob- supervision until an objective level of competency
lems, concerns, and outcomes within the has been reached (ie, all steps performed successfully).
organization.2,6,7 (IV) There is no set number of times for performing a
D. Identify procedures/skills/tasks for ongoing compe- procedure that will ensure competency.17-20 (IV)
tency validation by using clinical outcome data; I. Enhance the reliability of outcomes of competency
adverse events, serious safety events, and sentinel assessment by using a combination of different mea-
events; changing patient populations served; and surement techniques:
patient satisfaction data. 1. Use self-assessment processes to promote self-
1. Prioritize the specific tasks for competency assess- efficacy and confidence levels.
ment by the frequency of performing those tasks 2. Use written tests to assess knowledge.
and the risks associated with the tasks. Low- 3. Use clinical scenarios to assess critical thinking
frequency tasks are performed less often (eg, less skills.
than weekly). High-risk tasks include invasive 4. Assess psychomotor skills in a simulation labora-
procedures with the potential to be harmful or tory using multiple methods. Peer evaluation and
even life threatening to the patient. Problem- self-assessment of video-recorded performance
prone tasks include those that are documented to reduces stress and anxiety and encourages confi-
produce issues for the patient, staff, or dence before observation by the assessor. These
organization.6,8 (V) methods are beneficial for novice learners, for
E. Perform a gap analysis to identify educational and/ skills clinically performed on an infrequent basis,
or performance needs for each group of clinicians or when observation of performance in the work
based on their profession or occupation and their environment is not practical.
stage of development in their role (ie, novice, 5. Observe performance of knowledge and skills in
advanced beginner, competent, proficient, or the work environment as the preferred method
expert).1,7,9-13 (IV) for invasive infusion therapy procedures.
F. Employ multiple methods to deliver education (eg, 6. Include professional activities, such as presenta-
lecture, reading materials, simulations, self-study), tions at seminars and conferences, maintaining
repeated over time and combined with outcome national board certification, publishing in a
monitoring and feedback to increase their impact on scholarly journal, conducting clinical research,
professional behavior.9,14 (II) and portfolio development.
G. Use evidence and national standards to establish 7. Associate performance appraisals with compe-
competencies for clinicians providing infusion ther- tency assessment.2,21-23 (IV)
apy. Achieving and maintaining board certification J. Establish clear performance expectations for con-
(ie, CRNI) is one method for documenting continu- tracted clinician competencies (eg, VAD insertion):
ing competence. Include the following aspects of 1. Obtain documentation of competency for con-
infusion therapy as appropriate: tracted clinicians.6,24 (V)
1. Technology and clinical application 2. Document compliance of contracted clinicians
2. Fluid and electrolyte balance with the organizations requirements for staff
3. Pharmacology qualifications, personnel practices, and clinical
4. Infection prevention policies and procedures.6,24 (V)
5. Special patient populations 3. Ensure supervision of contracted staff learning
6. Transfusion therapy new procedures within the organization. (V,
7. Antineoplastics and biologic therapy Committee Consensus)
8. Parenteral nutrition2,15,16 (IV) 4. Use a consistent process to manage contracted
H. Expansion of practice to include specialized skills staff and monitor outcomes produced by con-
(eg, central vascular access device [CVAD] insertion, tracted staff.6,24 (V)
antineoplastic administration) requires multiple K. Do not perform invasive procedures (eg, venipunc-
components of initial competency assessment and ture) on peers due to health risk and the physical and
validation including: emotional stress created for the volunteer.25,26 (V)
1. Evaluation of prior clinical experience related to L. Develop qualifications for the role of competency
the specialized skill to determine readiness to assessor.
learn. 1. The person assessing the performance of clini-
2. Obtaining the necessary knowledge and critical cians should be competent with the skill being
thinking. assessed.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S19 05/01/16 11:30 PM

2. Assessors should provide services in an unbiased 5. Carreon N, Sugarman C, Beener E, Agan D. Creating and
and objective manner. standardizing annual chemotherapy competencies throughout a
3. Equalize the balance of power between the asses- healthcare system. J Nurs Prof Dev. 2015;31(1):35-39.
6. Joint Commission Resources. Assessing Hospital Staff
sor and the clinician being assessed by emphasiz-
Competence. 2nd ed. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission
ing the educational aspects of competency assess-
Resources; 2007.
ment. Managers should not serve in the role of 7. Martel D. Infusion therapy in the home care setting: a clinical
competency assessor as this could shift the focus competency program at work. Home Healthc Nurse.
to performance issues.3,27 (IV) 2012;30(9):506-514.
M. Validate performance using well-designed forms or 8. McAdams C, Montgomery K. Narrowing the possibilities: using
checklists that focus on objective, measurable assess- quality improvement tools to decrease competence assessment
ment of the actual performance. Data on the valid- overload. J Nurs Staff Dev. 2003;19(1):40-46.
ity and reliability of specific forms are limited. 9. Cherry MG, Brown JM, Neal T, Ben Shaw N. What features of
1. Include the following in a competency form or educational interventions lead to competence in aseptic insertion
checklist: the competency statement, specific per- and maintenance of CV catheters in acute care? BEME guide no.
15. Med Teach. 2010;32(3):198-218.
formance criteria statements, or critical behav-
10. Berman A, Beazley B, Karshmer J, et al. Competence gaps among
iors; the method of demonstrating performance;
unemployed new nursing graduates entering a community-based
the criteria for achieving success; and the signa- transition-to-practice program. Nurse Educ. 2014;39(2):
ture of the assessor.5 (V) 56-61.
2. Formats for the form include a simple met/unmet 11. Small A, Okungu LA, Joseph T. Continuing education for patient
process, using a global rating scale (ie, Likert care technicians: a unit-based, RN-led initiative. Am J Nurs.
scale), or a detailed checklist of major and minor 2012;112(8):51-55.
steps in the procedure/skill/task.28,29 (II) 12. Cicolini G, Simonetti V, Comparcini D, et al. Nurses knowledge
3. There is no consensus on grading the individuals of evidence-based guidelines on the prevention of peripheral
performance, such as what percentage of perfor- venous catheter-related infections: a multicentre survey. J Clin
mance constitutes competency or when remedia- Nurs. 2014;23(17-18):2578-2588.
13. Bianco A, Coscarelli P, Nobile CG, Pileggi C, Pavia M. The reduc-
tion is required.28,29 (II)
tion of risk in central line-associated bloodstream infections:
N. Incorporate competency for specific patient popula-
knowledge, attitudes, and evidence-based practices in health care
tions based on age. Age-based competency will workers. Am J Infect Control. 2013;41(2):107-112.
address needs by chronological, functional, or life- 14. Flodgren G, Conterno LO, Mayhew A, Omar O, Pereira CR,
stage groups, including physical and psychological Shepperd S. Interventions to improve professional adherence to
development needs and patient educational require- guidelines for prevention of device-related infections. Cochrane
ments.6 (V) Database Syst Rev. 2013;(3):CD006559. doi:10.1002/14651858.
O. Facilitate culturally competent health care by identify- CD006559.pub2.
ing and addressing the needs of ethnically diverse 15. Corrigan A. Infusion nursing as a specialty. In: Alexander M,
patient populations and validating clinician compe- Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
tency to meet those needs. Cultural competency Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010;1-9.
includes health care-related beliefs and values, preva-
16. Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Phillips L, eds. Core
lent diseases in populations served, religious practices,
Curriculum for Infusion Nursing. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA:
language and literacy issues, and family-based needs. Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014.
There is no uniformity in defining cultural competency 17. Andam R, Silva M. A journey to pediatric chemotherapy compe-
and no consensus on how to develop, implement, and tence. J Pediatr Nurs. 2008;23(4):257-268.
evaluate cultural competency interventions.6,30 (IV) 18. Huang GC, Newman LR, Schwartzstein RM, et al. Procedural
competence in internal medicine residents: validity of a central
REFERENCES venous catheter insertion assessment instrument. Acad Med.
2009;84(8):1127-1134.
1. Woody G, Davis BA. Increasing nurse competence in peripheral 19. Moureau N, Lamperti M, Kelly LJ, et al. Evidence-based consen-
intravenous therapy. J Infus Nurs. 2013;36(6):413-419. sus on the insertion of central venous access devices: definition of
2. Levine J, Johnson J. An organizational competency validation minimal requirements for training. Br J Anaesth. 2013;110(3):
strategy for registered nurses. J Nurses Prof Dev. 2014;30(2): 347-356.
58-65. 20. Barsuk JH, Cohen ER, Potts S, et al. Dissemination of a simula-
3. Cusack L, Smith M. Power inequalities in the assessment of nurs- tion-based mastery learning intervention reduces central line-asso-
ing competency within the workplace: implications for nursing ciated bloodstream infections. BMJ Qual Saf. 2014;23(9):
management. J Contin Educ Nurs. 2010;41(9):408-412. 749-756.
4. Wilkinson CA. Competency assessment tools for registered nurs- 21. DeBourgh GA. Psychomotor skills acquisition of novice learners:
es: an integrative review. J Contin Educ Nurs. 2013;44(1): a case for contextual learning. Nurse Educ. 2011;36(4):
31-37. 144-149.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S20 05/01/16 11:30 PM

22. Tyler S, Bourbon E, Cox S, et al. Clinical competency, self-effica- (RCA), and Healthcare Failure Mode and Effect
cy, and job satisfaction: perceptions of the staff nurse. J Nurses Analysis (HFMEA).
Prof Dev. 2012;28(1):32-35. 2. Identifying clinical quality indicators and their
23. Lakanmaa RL, Suominen T, Perttil J, Ritmala-Castrn M,
benchmarks, such as central line-associated
Vahlberg T, Leino-Kilpi H. Basic competence in intensive and
bloodstream infection (CLABSI), catheter-related
critical care nursing: development and psychometric testing of a
competence scale. J Clin Nurs. 2014;23(5-6):799-810.
bloodstream infection (CR-BSI), reasons for
24. Thongkhong-Park P. Second generation contracted services tracer removal of a vascular access device (VAD), or
in a hospital. Joint Commission: The Source. 2012;9(11):4-10. number of attempts for VAD insertion.
25. Sarid O, Anson O, Schwartz D, Yaari A. Undergoing venipunc- 3. Collecting data, analyzing, and evaluating out-
ture in health-care education: the psycho-biological effect on comes against benchmarks for areas of
students. Internet J Allied Health Sci Pract. 2008;6(4), Article 8. improvement.
26. Hilton P, Barrett D. An investigation into students performance 4. Comparing outcomes to national databases.
of invasive and non-invasive procedures on each other in class- 5. Evaluating and reporting quality and safety indi-
room settings. Nurse Educ Pract. 2009;9(1):45-52. cator outcomes, including near misses, errors,
27. Levett-Jones T, Gersbach J, Arthur C, Roche J. Implementing a
and adverse events to identify areas for
clinical competency assessment model that promotes critical
improvement.
reflection and ensures nursing graduates readiness for profes-
sional practice. Nurse Educ Pract. 2011;11(1):64-69.
6. Recommending and implementing changes in
28. Morris MC, Gallagher TK, Ridgway PF. Tools used to assess structures or processes based on data.
medical students competence in procedural skills at the end of a 7. Using cost analysis, cost-effectiveness, and other
primary medical degree: a systematic review. Med Educ Online. methods as indicated.
2012;17:1-7. 8. Minimizing and eliminating barriers to change
29. Evans LV, Dodge KL. Simulation and patient safety: evaluative and improvement.
checklists for central venous catheter insertion. Qual Saf Health 9. Sharing improvements gained through these pro-
Care. 2010;19(suppl 3):i42-i46. cesses with other clinicians internally and exter-
30. Truong M, Paradies Y, Priest N. Interventions to improve cul- nally.5-27 (II)
tural competency in healthcare: a systematic review of reviews.
C. Analyze infusion therapy practice processes and out-
BMC Health Serv Res. 2014;14(1):99.
comes to determine when remediation, additional
education, or other performance improvement
6. QUALITY IMPROVEMENT action is needed for clinician(s).28-32 (V)
D. Evaluate the incidence of CLABSI regularly by:
1. Using surveillance methods and definitions that
Standard
are consistent and permit comparison to bench-
6.1 The clinician participates in quality improvement mark data as well as reviewing each case for root
activities advancing safety and excellence in infusion cause.
therapy. 2. Comparing rates to historical internal data and
6.2 Quality improvement programs include the sur- external national rates (eg, National Healthcare
veillance, aggregation, analysis, and reporting of infec- Safety Network).
tion; infection prevention practices; morbidity and 3. Reporting results regularly to clinicians and lead-
mortality rates associated with infections; and both ership.
infusion-related patient quality indicators and adverse 4. Reporting as mandated by state and federal
events to minimize health care-associated infections requirements to external quality initiatives or
related to infusion therapy with clinicians taking state programs.17,33-41 (II)
action as needed to improve practice, processes, and/ 5. Using a standard formula:
or systems.
Number of BSIs in patients with central lines
100 = CLABSI Rate
Practice Criteria Total number of central line days
A. Foster a just culture and individual accountability E. Evaluate adverse events from peripheral catheters
through a focus on improving systems and processes regularly for infiltration, phlebitis, and/or blood-
by clinicians and leaders.1-4(IV) stream infection in identified populations through
B. Participate regularly in quality improvement activi- incidence, point prevalence, reports from electronic
ties such as: medical records, or International Classification of
1. Using systematic methods and tools to guide Diseases (ICD) codes by:
activities such as Model for Improvement (Plan- 1. Using surveillance methods and definitions that
Do-Check-Act), Lean Six Sigma, continuous are consistent and permit comparison to bench-
quality improvement (CQI), root cause analysis mark data.42-49(III)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S21 05/01/16 11:30 PM

2. Comparing rates to historical internal data 7. DesHarnais SI. The outcome model of quality. In: Sollecito WA,
and when possible to external national Johnson JK, eds. McLaughlin and Kaluznys Continuous Quality
rates.42,44,46-48 (III) Improvement in Healthcare. 4th ed. Burlington, MA: Jones &
Bartlett Learning; 2013:155-180.
3. Reporting results regularly to clinicians and lead-
8. Fakih MG, Jones K, Rey JE, Berriel-Cass D, Kalinicheva T,
ership.42,44,45,47 (IV)
Saravolatz LD. Sustained improvements in peripheral venous
4. Monitor infiltration rates related to peripheral catheter care in non-intensive care units: a quasi-experimental
catheters in neonates and children less than 18 controlled study of education and feedback. Infect Control Hosp
years of age considering a standard formula that Epidemiol. 2012;33(5):449-455.
is clinically feasible.45,46,49-53 (III) 9. Feil M. Reducing risk of air embolism associated with central
venous access devices. PA Patient Saf Advis. 2012;9(2):58-64.
Number of infiltration incidents http://patientsafetyauthority.org/ADVISORIES/AdvisoryLibrary/
1000 = infiltration rate
Total number of peripheral catheter line 2012/Jun;9(2)/Pages/58.aspx.
days in neonates &/or children 10. Flodgren G, Conterno LO, Mayhew A, Omar O, Pereira CR,
Number of infiltration incidents Shepperd S. Interventions to improve professional adherence to
100 = % infiltration
Total number of peripheral catheters in guidelines for prevention of device-related infections. Cochrane
neonates &/or children Database Syst Rev. 2013;(3):CD006559. doi: 10.1002/14651858.
CD006559.pub7.
5. Monitor phlebitis rates related to peripheral 11. Franklin BD, Panesar SS, Vincent C, Donaldson LJ. Identifying
catheters using a consistent, standard, and clini- systems failures in the pathway to a catastrophic event: an analy-
cally feasible calculation, which may be reported sis of national incident report data relating to vinca alkaloids.
as a phlebitis rate based on point prevalence of BMJ Qual Saf. 2014;23(9):765-772.
peripheral short catheters.8,48,54-56 (III) 12. Institute of Medicine. Health Professions Education: A Bridge to
Quality. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2003.
Number of phlebitis incidents 13. Ivers N, Jamtvedt G, Flottorp S, et al. Audit and feedback: effects
100 = % peripheral phlebitis
Total number of peripheral catheters on professional practice and healthcare outcomes. Cochrane
Database Syst Rev. 2012;(6):CD000259. doi: 10.1002/14651858.
6. Consider monitoring bloodstream infection rates CD000259.pub3.
for peripheral catheters, or vascular catheter-asso- 14. Kelly DL, Johnson SP, Sollecito WA. Measurement, variation, and
CQI tools. In: Sollecito WA, Johnson JK, eds. McLaughlin and
ciated infections (peripheral), regularly.43,57,58 (IV)
Kaluznys Continuous Quality Improvement in Healthcare. 4th
F. Analyze technology analytics, such as smart pumps ed. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2013:
and bar-code medication administration, for errors, 77-116.
overrides, and other alerts so that improvements 15. McLaughlin CP, Kibbe DC. The role of health information tech-
may be considered.59,60 (V) nology in quality improvement: from data to decisions. In:
Sollecito WA, Johnson JK, eds. McLaughlin and Kaluznys
REFERENCES Continuous Quality Improvement in Healthcare. 4th ed.
Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2013:335-369.
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September 16. Muller R. Bulls eye! Hitting the financial knowledge target. Nurs
15, 2015. Manage. 2013;44(10):53-55.
17. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the
1. Institute of Medicine. Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://
Health System for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: National www.cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published
Academies Press; 2001;111-144, 231-308. April 2011.
2. Wachter RM. Accountability. In: Understanding Patient Safety. 18. Ogrinc GS, Headrick LA, Moore SM, Barton AJ, Dolansky MA,
2nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Medical; 2012: Madigosky WS. Fundamentals of Health Care Improvement: A
341-356. Guide to Improving Your Patients Care. 2nd ed. Oak Brook, IL:
3. Wachter RM. Personal accountability in healthcare: searching for Joint Commission Resources; 2011:1-156.
the right balance. BMJ Qual Saf. 2013;22(2):176-180. 19. Perucca R. Financial analysis for the infusion alliance. J Infus
4. Thompson C, Pulleyblank R, Parrott S, Essex H. The cost-effec- Nurs. 2010;33(5):304-309.
tiveness of quality improvement projects: a conceptual frame- 20. Poole S. Infusion alliances: benchmarking and data collection. J
work, checklist and online tool for considering the costs and Infus Nurs. 2010;33(5):310-315.
consequences of implementation-based quality improvement 21. Render ML, Hasselbeck R, Freyberg RW, Hofer TP, Sales AE,
[published online July 23, 2015]. J Eval Clin Pract. http:// Almenoff PL; VA ICU Clinical Advisory Group. Reduction of
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jep.12421/pdf. central line infections in Veterans Administration intensive care
5. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. National quality units: an observational cohort using a central infrastructure to
measures clearinghouse. http://www.qualitymeasures.ahrq.gov/ support learning and improvement. BMJ Qual Saf.
index.aspx. 2011;20(8):725-732.
6. Cronrath P, Lynch TW, Gilson LJ, et al. PCA oversedation: appli- 22. Smulders CA, van Gestel JP, Bos AP. Are central line bundles and
cation of healthcare failure mode effect (HFMEA) analysis. Nurs ventilator bundles effective in critically ill neonates and children?
Econ. 2011;29(2):79-87. Intensive Care Med. 2013;39(8):1352-1358.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S22 05/01/16 11:30 PM

23. The Joint Commission. Preventing central line-associated blood- 40. Rhee Y, Heung M, Chen B, Chenoweth CE. Central line-associat-
stream infections: a global challenge, a global perspective. http:// ed bloodstream infections in non-ICU inpatient wards: a 2-year
www.jointcommission.org/preventing_clabsi. Published May 2012. analysis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2015;36(4):
24. van den Bosch CM, Hulscher ME, Natsch S, Gyssens IC, Prins 424-430.
JM, Geerlings SE; Dutch Sepsis QI Expert Panel. Development of 41. Chopra V, Montoya A, Joshi D, et al. Peripherally inserted central
quality indicators for antimicrobial treatment in adults with sep- catheter use in skilled nursing facilities: a pilot study. J Am
sis. BMC Infect Dis. 2014;14:345. Geriatr Soc. 2015;63(9):1894-1899.
25. VA National Center for Patient Safety. Healthcare failure mode 42. Wachter RM. Healthcare-associated infections. In: Understanding
and effect analysis (HFMEA). http://www.patientsafety.va.gov/ Patient Safety. 2nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Medical;
professionals/onthejob/hfmea.asp. Published July 2014. 2012:167-170.
26. Wachter RM. Safety, quality, and value. In: Understanding 43. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. ICD-9-CM diagno-
Patient Safety. 2nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Medical; sis and procedure codes: abbreviated and full code titles. http://
2012:33-54. www.cms.gov/Medicare/Coding/ICD9ProviderDiagnosticCodes/
27. Wickman M, Drake D, Heilmann H, Rojas R, Jarvis C. QI: nurs- codes.html. Published 2014.
ings evolving responsibility. Nurs Manage. 2013;44(10):30-37. 44. Frberg U, Johansson E, Ygge BM, Wallin L, Ehrenberg A.
28. American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT). Medication Accuracy in documentation of peripheral venous catheters in
Injection Through Existing Vascular Access. Albuquerque, NM: paediatric care: an intervention study in electronic patient
ASRT; 2012. records. J Clin Nurs. 2012;21(9-10):1339-1344.
29. American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT). Medication 45. Jackson A. Retrospective comparative audit of two peripheral IV
Injection by Radiologic Technologists. Albuquerque, NM: ASRT; securement dressings. Br J Nurs. 2012;21(suppl 1):
2012. S16-S20.
30. Barnes TA, Kacmarek RM, Kageler WV, Morris MJ, Durbin CG. 46. Laudenbach N, Carie BA, Klaverkamp L, Hedman-Dennis S.
Transitioning the respiratory therapy workforce for 2015 and Peripheral IV stabilization and the rate of complications in chil-
beyond. Respir Care. 2011;56(5):681-690. dren: an exploratory study. J Pediatr Nurs. 2014;29(4):
31. Lu MC, Yu S, Chen IJ, Wang KW, Wu HF, Tang FI. Nurses 348-353.
knowledge of high-alert medications: a randomized controlled 47. Tofani BF, Rineair SA, Gosdin CH, et al. Quality improvement
trial. Nurse Educ Today. 2013;33(1):24-30. project to reduce infiltration and extravasation events in a pedi-
32. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. National EMS atric hospital. J Pediatr Nurs. 2012;27(6):682-689.
Scope of Practice Model. In: Administration NHTS, ed: US 48. Woody G, Davis BA. Increasing nurse competence in peripheral
Department of Transportation; 2007. https:www.nremt.org/ intravenous therapy. J Infus Nurs. 2013;36(6):413-419.
nremt/downloads/scope%of%practice.pdf. 49. Yellen M. Reducing IV infiltration with administration of IV
33. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. On the comprehen- contrast. Commun Nurs Res. 2013;46:413.
sive unit-based safety program (CUSP): stop BSI. The CLABSI 50. Montalvo I. The National Database of Nursing Quality
elimination toolkit. Tools for reducing central line-associated
Indicators (NDNQI ). Online J Issues Nurs. 2007;12(3). http://
blood stream infections. http://www.ahrq.gov/sites/default/files/ www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/
wysiwyg/professionals/education/curriculum-tools/clabsitools/ ANDPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/volume122007/
clabsitools.pdf. Published January 2013. No3Sept07/NursingQualityIndicators.aspx?%3E.
34. Ceballos K, Waterman K, Hulett T, Makic MB. Nurse-driven 51. de Lima Jacinto A, Avelar A, Pedreira M. Predisposing factors for
quality improvement interventions to reduce hospital-acquired infiltration in children submitted to peripheral venous catheteri-
infection in the NICU. Adv Neonatal Care. 2013;13(3):154-163. zation. J Infus Nurs. 2011;34(6):391-398.
35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Healthcare 52. Hetzler R, Wilson M, Hill EK, Hollenback C. Securing pediatric
Safety Network. Device-associated module BSI: Bloodstream peripheral IV catheters: application of an evidence-based practice
infection event (central line-associated bloodstream infection and model. J Pediatr Nurs. 2011;26(2):143-148.
non-central line-associated bloodstream infection). http://www. 53. Helm RE, Klausner JD, Klemperer JD, Flint LM, Huang E.
cdc.gov/nhsn/PDFs/pscManual/4PSC_CLABScurrent.pdf . Accepted but unacceptable: peripheral IV catheter failure. J Infus
Published January 2015. Nurs. 2015;38(3):189-203.
36. Choi SW, Chang L, Hanauer DA, et al. Rapid reduction of central 54. Gransson KE, Johansson E. Prehospital peripheral venous cath-
line infections in hospitalized pediatric oncology patients through eters: a prospective study of patient complications. J Vasc Access.
simple quality improvement methods. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2012;13(1):16-21.
2013;60(2):262-269. 55. Mestre G, Berbel C, Tortajada P, et al. Successful multifaceted
37. Kellie SP, Scott MJ, Cavallazzi R, et al. Procedural and educa- intervention aimed to reduce short peripheral venous catheter-
tional interventions to reduce ventilator-associated pneumonia related adverse events: a quasiexperimental cohort study. Am J
rate and central line-associated blood stream infection rate. J Infect Control. 2013;41(6):520-526.
Intensive Care Med. 2014;29(3):165-174. 56. Trinh TT, Chan PA, Edwards O, et al. Peripheral venous catheter-
38. Marschall J, Mermel LA, Fakih M, et al; Society for Healthcare related Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Infect Control Hosp
Epidemiology of America. Strategies to prevent central line-asso- Epidemiol. 2011;32(6):579-583.
ciated bloodstream infections in acute care hospitals: 2014 57. Hadaway L. Short peripheral intravenous catheters and infec-
update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(7):753-771. tions. J Infus Nurs. 2012;35(4):230-240.
39. Chopra V, Ratz D, Kuhn L, Lopus T, Chenoweth C, Krein S. 58. Runyan D, Stern J, Macri I, Stango C, Vacca M, Riddick S.
PICC-associated bloodstream infections: prevalence, patterns, Peripheral IV securement device implementation to reduce phlebitis
and predictors. Am J Med. 2014;127(4):319-328. and associated infections. Am J Infect Control. 2011;39(5):e193-e194.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S23 05/01/16 11:30 PM

59. Catlin AC, Malloy WX, Arthur KJ, et al. Comparative analytics REFERENCES
of infusion pump data across multiple hospital systems. Am J
Health Syst Pharm. 2015;72(4):317-324. Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
60. Skledar SJ, Niccolai CS, Schilling D, et al. Quality-improvement 15, 2015.
analytics for intravenous infusion pumps. Am J Health Syst 1. Burkhardt MA, Nathaniel AK. Practice issues related to patient
Pharm. 2013;70(8):680-686. self-determination. Ethics Issues Contemp Nurs. 4th ed. Stamford,
CT: Cengage Learning; 2014:295-328.
2. Hagle M, Taylor B. Evidence-based infusion practice. In:
Weinstein S, Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and Practice of
7. EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE Infusion Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams
AND RESEARCH & Wilkins; 2014:245-263.
3. Infusion Nurses Society. Infusion nursing code of ethics. J Infus
Standard Nurs. 2001;24(4):242-243.
4. Institute of Medicine. Health Professions Education: A Bridge to
7.1 The clinician integrates evidence-based knowledge Quality. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2003.
with clinical expertise and the patients preferences and 5. International Council of Nurses. Closing the gap: from evidence
values in the current context when providing infusion to action. Geneva, Switzerland. 2012: 5-7, 20, 39.
therapy. 6. Melnyk BM, Fineout-Overholt E, Gallagher-Ford L, Kaplan L. The
7.2 Organizational policies, procedures, and/or practice state of evidence-based practice in US nurses: critical implications
guidelines are based on current research findings and for nurse leaders and educators. J Nurs Adm. 2012;42(9):410-417.
7. Sherwood G, Jones C. Quality improvement in nursing. In:
best evidence.
Sollecito WA, Johnson JK, eds. McLaughlin and Kaluznys
7.3 The clinician uses research findings and current best
Continuous Quality Improvement in Healthcare. 4th ed.
evidence to expand knowledge in infusion therapy, vali- Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2013:485-511.
date and improve practice, advance professional 8. Adams J. Utilizing evidence-based research and practice to sup-
accountability, and enhance evidence-based decision port the infusion alliance. J Infus Nurs. 2010;33(5):273-277.
making. 9. Green A, Jeffs D, Huett A, et al. Increasing capacity for evidence-
7.4 The clinician obtains approval for research and based practice through the evidence-based practice academy. J
research-related activities in accordance with federal Contin Educ Nurs. 2014;45(2):83-90.
regulations, professional standards, and criteria set 10. Hollenbeak C. The cost of catheter-related bloodstream infec-
forth by accrediting agencies and organizational policies tions: implications for the value of prevention. J Infus Nurs.
and procedures. 2011;34(5):309-313.
11. Melnyk BM, Gallagher-Ford L, Long LE, Fineout-Overholt E.
The establishment of evidence-based practice competencies for
Practice Criteria practicing registered nurses and advanced practice nurses in real-
world clinical settings: proficiencies to improve healthcare quali-
A. Use evidence-based knowledge and clinical expertise ty, reliability, patient outcomes, and costs. Worldviews Evid
with patient preferences and values to provide effec- Based Nurs. 2014;11(1):5-15.
tive and safe infusion therapy practice within the 12. Perucca R. Financial analysis for the infusion alliance. J Infus
patients and clinicians current situation.1-7 (V) Nurs. 2010;33(5):304-309.
B. Actively participate in critically evaluating, inter- 13. Toole BM, Stichler JF, Ecoff L, Kath L. Promoting nurses knowl-
preting, synthesizing, and implementing research edge in evidence-based practice: do educational methods matter?
findings and/or current best evidence into practice, J Nurses Prof Dev. 2013;29(4):173-181.
14. Infusion Nurses Society Web site. Mission. http://www.ins1.org/
considering the individuals education and position
i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3763.
and through a collaborative decision-making frame-
15. Kelly K, Turner A, Speroni K, McLaughlin M, Guzzetta C.
work. This includes, but is not limited to, policy and National survey of hospital nursing research, part 2. J Nurs Adm.
procedure development or revision; product tech- 2013;43(1):18-23.
nology selection; practice guideline implementation; 16. Lyons MG, Phalen AG. A randomized controlled comparison of
and evidence-based quality improvement.2,6,8-13 (IV) flushing protocols in home care patients with peripherally insert-
C. Actively participate in infusion therapy research activ- ed central catheters. J Infus Nurs. 2014;37(4):270-281.
ities that advance knowledge, considering the clini- 17. McLaughlin M, Speroni K, Kelly K, Guzzetta C, Desale, S.
cians education, experience, and position; this includes National survey of hospital nursing research, part 1. J Nurs Adm.
activities such as participating on a research team or 2013;43(1):10-17.
journal club and disseminating research findings to 18. McLeod MC, Barber N, Franklin BD. Methodological variations
and their effects on reported medication administration error
support evidence-based practice initiatives.5,14-24 (III)
rates. BMJ Qual Saf. 2013;22(4):278-289.
D. Share innovations and knowledge gained through
19. Smith D, Filiatrault P. An assessment of large-volume infusion
these processes with other clinicians internally and device use by nurses in preparation for conversion to dose error-
externally.5,25,26 (I) reduction software. J Infus Nurs. 2013;36(4):280-289.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S24 05/01/16 11:30 PM

20. Stevens K, Ovretveit J. Improvement research priorities: USA B. Select teaching methods based on an assessment of
survey and expert consensus. Nurs Res Prac. 2013;2013:article age, developmental and cognitive level, health liter-
ID 695729. acy, cultural influences, and language preference.
21. Wilfong D, Falsetti D, McKinnon J, Daniel L, Wan Q. The effects
Also assess additional factors affecting the patients,
of virtual intravenous and patient simulator training compared to
caregivers and/or surrogates readiness to learn,
the traditional approach of teaching nurses: a research project on
peripheral IV catheter insertion. J Infus Nurs. 2011;34(1):
such as current stressors, sensory deficits, and func-
55-62. tional limitations.1,2,4 (V)
22. Wuchner SS. Integrative review of implementation strategies for C. Use educational resources that are understand-
translation of research-based evidence by nurses. Clin Nurse able and actionable. These elements include con-
Spec. 2014;28(4):214-223. sideration of health literacy levels, cultural con-
23. Zugcic M, Davis JE, Gorski LA, Alexander M. Establishing gruence, primary language, and instructional
research priorities for the Infusion Nurses Society. J Infus Nurs. methods. Avoid medical jargon, and use simple
2010;33(3):176-182. terminology.1,5,7-11 (IV)
24. Edward KL. A model for increasing appreciation, accessibility 1. Ensure that Web sites used for patient/caregiver/
and application of research in nursing. J Prof Nurs. 2015;31(2):
surrogate education are reputable, usable, and
119-123.
accessible to the learner and incorporate national
25. Murthy L, Shepperd S, Clarke MJ, et al. Interventions to improve
the use of systematic reviews in decision-making by health system
accessibility standards (ie, meet Federal Section
managers, policy makers and clinicians. Cochrane Database Syst 508 accessibility guidelines and usability guide-
Rev. 2012;(9):CD009401. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009401. lines), such as effective use of text, clear naviga-
pub2. tion, optimizing user experience, and effective
26. Wallace J, Byrne C, Clarke M. Making evidence more wanted: a page layout and an accessibility statement.12,13
systematic review of facilitators to enhance the uptake of evidence (III)
from systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Int J Evid Based 2. Advise the patient/caregiver/surrogate about the
Healthc. 2012;10(4):338-346. benefits and challenges associated with the use of
social media (ie, YouTube, Twitter, Facebook,
blogs) to obtain health advice and information
8. PATIENT EDUCATION and to seek social support. Limited research has
shown benefits and patient engagement; however,
Standard there are challenges, including safety, privacy,
and misinformation risks.14 (IV)
8.1 The clinician educates the patient, caregiver, and/ D. Evaluate patient/caregiver/surrogate learning out-
or surrogate about the prescribed infusion therapy comes with methods that directly measure knowl-
and plan of care including, but not limited to, purpose edge, such as demonstration/return demonstra-
and expected outcome(s) and/or goals of treatment, tion for psychomotor skills, verbal feedback for
infusion therapy administration, infusion device- cognitive knowledge (teach-back), and reports of
related care, potential complications, or adverse feelings and beliefs for the affective domain.1,15,16
effects associated with treatment or therapy, and risks (V)
and benefits. E. Educate patients/caregivers/surrogates about infu-
8.2 Teaching methods and learning materials are con- sion therapy to include, but not limited to:
gruent with the skills being taught, incorporate learning 1. Proper care of the access device.
theory, and encompass patient and caregiver learning 2. Precautions for preventing infection and other
needs. complications, including aseptic technique and
hand hygiene.
Practice Criteria 3. Signs and symptoms to report, including those
that may occur after the infusion device is
A. Develop an effective educational plan based on iden- removed and after the patient leaves the health
tified goals to ensure the safe delivery of infusion care setting (eg, signs of postinfusion phlebitis,
therapy and reduce the risk of infusion therapy- fever) and how/where to report them.
related complications: 4. For outpatients and those receiving home infu-
1. Establish specific and measurable goals. sion therapy, additional education should also
2. Engage the patient/caregiver/surrogate in the include:
development of these goals. a. Safe storage, maintenance, and disposal of
3. Select effective ways to validate appropriate solutions, supplies, and equipment.
knowledge and skill acquisition for all aspects of b. Infusion administration as appropriate.
infusion delivery that the patient/caregiver/sur- c. Use and troubleshooting of the electronic infu-
rogate will be performing.1-6 (V) sion device (EID)/infusion system.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S25 05/01/16 11:30 PM

d. Signs and symptoms of adverse effects of the 13. Yadrich D, Fitzgerald S, Werkowitch M, Smith C. Creating
therapy prescribed. patient and family education websites. Comput Inform Nurs.
e. Prevention of air and catheter embolism and 2012;30(1):46-54.
14. Househ M, Borycki E, Kushniruk A. Empowering patients
management of the catheter if an embolism is
through social media: the benefits and challenges. Health Inform
suspected.
J. 2014;20(1):50-58.
f. Prevention of catheter damage, assessment for 15. Peter D, Robinson P, Jordan M, Lawrence S, Casey K, Salas-
catheter damage (eg, from scissors), and what Lopez D. Reducing readmissions using teach-back. J Nurs
immediate actions to take if catheter damage Admin. 2015;45(1):35-42.
is found. 16. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Use the teach-back
g. Living with an access device, including activity method: tool #5. http://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/quality-
limitations and protecting the device while patient-safety/quality-resources/tools/literacy-toolkit/healthlit-
performing activities of daily living.2,3,17-20 (V) toolkit2-tool5.html.
F. Evaluate patient/caregiver/surrogate comprehension 17. Anderson M, Ottum A, Zerbel S, Sethi A, Safdar N. Are hospital-
and performance at the beginning of infusion ized patients aware of the risks and consequences of central-line
associated bloodstream infections? Am J Infect Control.
therapy and periodically thereafter at established
2013;41(12):1275-1277.
intervals.1,2,5 (V)
18. Gorski L, Miller C, Mortlock N. Infusion therapy across the
continuum. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J,
REFERENCES Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach.
3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:109-126.
19. Perucca R. Peripheral venous access devices. In: Alexander M,
15, 2015.
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
1. Miller M, Stoeckel P. Client Education: Theory and Practice. Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett; 2011. Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:456-479.
2. Czaplewski L. Clinician and patient education. In: Alexander M, 20. Vizcarra C, Cassutt C, Corbitt N, Richardson D, Runde D,
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion Stafford K. Recommendations for improving safety practices with
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: short peripheral catheters. J Infus Nurs. 2014;37(2):121-124.
3. McHugh S, Corrigan M, Dimitrov B, et al. Role of patient aware-
ness in prevention of peripheral vascular catheter-related blood- 9. INFORMED CONSENT
stream infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2011;32(1):95-96.
4. Kelo M, Martikainen M, Eriksson E. Patient education of chil-
dren and their families: nurses experiences. Pediatr Nurs. Standard
2013;39(2):71-79. 9.1 Obtain informed consent for all invasive procedures
5. National Network of Libraries of Medicine. Health literacy.
and treatments in accordance with local or state laws
http://nnlm.gov/outreach/consumer/hlthlit.html.
and organizational policy.
6. Weingart S, Hsieh C, Lane S, Cleary A. Standardizing central
venous catheter care by using observations from patients with
9.2 Informed consent is required for human subject
cancer. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2015;18(3):321-326. participation in research according to federal rules and
7. Agency for Healthcare Quality and Research. The patient educa- regulations.
tion materials assessment tool (PEMAT) and users guide: an 9.3 The clinician performing the invasive procedure (eg,
instrument to assess the understandability and actionability of central vascular access device [CVAD] insertion) facili-
print and audiovisual education materials (version 1.0). AHRQ tates the process and obtains informed consent.
publication no. 14-0002-EF. http://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/ 9.4 The clinician confirms that the informed consent
prevention-chronic-care/improve/self-mgmt/pemat/pemat_guide. process is completed for the defined procedure or treat-
pdf. Published November 2013. Updated August 2014. ment.
8. Pilcher J, Flanders S. Who is Billy Ruben? Health literacy and
9.5 The patient or surrogate has the right to accept or
patient education. Neonatal Network. 2014;33(3):150-154.
refuse treatment.
9. Marcus C. Strategies for improving the quality of verbal patient and
family education: a review of the literature and creation of the
EDUCATE model. Health Psychol Behav Med. 2014;2(1):482-495. Practice Criteria
10. Walker J, Gerard PS. Assessing the health literacy levels of
patients using selected hospital services. Clin Nurse Spec. A. Recognize that obtaining informed consent is an
2010;24(1):31-37. educational process involving the patient in shared
11. US Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People decision making.
2020: health communication and information technology. http:// 1. The process begins with dialogue between the
www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/health- patient/surrogate and the licensed independent
communication-and-health-information-technology. practitioner (LIP) or qualified clinician perform-
12. General Services Administration. Research-based Web design and
ing the procedure; however, other clinicians have
usability guidelines. http://guidelines.usability.gov.
a significant role in the complete process.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S26 05/01/16 11:30 PM

2. The process concludes with the patient/surrogate 6. Choose appropriate methods to deliver the infor-
signing a consent document or providing verbal mation, including verbal and paper-based written
consent according to organizational policy (eg, information, videos, or computer-based materials.
via phone conversation). 7. Validate the patients/surrogates comprehension
3. Continued confirmation of informed consent may of the information by asking the patient/surro-
be necessary for ongoing treatments (eg, hemodi- gate to recount or teach-back the proposed
alysis or antineoplastic administration).1-3 (IV) treatment or procedure. Clarify and/or reinforce
B. Follow requirements for obtaining informed consent information as needed.
from the patient/surrogate as regulations vary 8. When the patient/surrogate expresses confusion
between jurisdictions (ie, states, provinces, coun- or has further questions, collaborate with the
tries). Differences include documentation, the pro- provider about the need for more dialogue.
fessional performing the consent process, proce- 9. Document the informed consent process by serv-
dures/treatments requiring informed consent, and ing as a witness to the patient/surrogate signature
variations in the legal approach to evaluation of on the informed consent document.2,3,7,8 (IV)
informed consent. Recognize that there could be E. For research-informed consent, provide explana-
condition-based exceptions to requirements for tions and a consent document that is clear, concise,
informed consent (eg, emergency/life-threatening and an accurate representation of the research
situations) and adhere to the organizational policy purpose(s). Use extended dialogue and simplified
for managing these situations.1,2 (IV) consent documents with a clear layout and text styl-
C. Ensure that the process for informed consent includes ing to improve the patients ability to understand. In
these required elements: addition to the standard components of informed
1. Consent is voluntarily given and is free from consent, the research consent document includes
coercion or persuasion. additional components such as:
2. The patient/surrogate is capable of understand- 1. The anticipated length of participation in the
ing relevant information, appreciates the situa- research.
tion and its consequences, and is able to make 2. Identification of procedures that are experimental.
choices. 3. Management processes for confidential patient
3. The patient/surrogate has received the necessary information and their identity.
information to understand the procedure/treat- 4. Compensation for participation, if any.
ment, its purpose, risks, potential benefits, alter- 5. Availability of medical treatments if injury
native procedures/treatments, common compli- occurs.9-13 (I)
cations, and potentially serious or irreversible F. Recognize that photographs of patients may or may
risks. not require informed consent.
4. The patient/surrogate comprehends the informa- 1. Unless the photograph is for treatment purposes,
tion and can apply it to her or his specific situation. payment for services, or health care operations,
5. The decision is authorized by the patient/surro- written informed consent is required under
gate and documented on the signed form.2-6 (IV) Health Insurance Portability and Accountability
D. Facilitate the informed consent process by choosing Act (HIPAA) rules when the patient is identifi-
learning methods most appropriate for the patients able by inclusion of the patients face or other
age and level of health literacy. identifiable features such as jewelry, tattoos, or
1. Provide educational materials and the consent other anatomically notable scars or lesions. This
document at a reading level between the fourth consent includes how the images will be obtained,
and sixth grades and in the patients primary lan- managed, stored, and shared.
guage. 2. A photograph that does not identify the patient
2. Provide information at the most appropriate time would not require informed consent under
considering the effect of anxiety, pain, and other HIPAA rules; however, health care facilities may
therapeutic interventions on the patients com- have policies that go beyond these rules.
prehension. 3. Unidentifiable photographs have benefits for
3. Provide a qualified medical interpreter for non educational purposes; however, there are chal-
English-speaking patients and for those who can- lenges with adequate security for storage and use
not read their primary language. and other legal issues such as copyright
4. Provide appropriate resources for patients/sur- ownership.14,15 (IV)
rogates who have vision or hearing limitations. G. Recognize cultural differences that may affect the
5. Allow sufficient opportunity for the patient/ process of informed consent. The foundation of
surrogate to ask questions and receive informed consent is self-determination, which may
answers. not fit with cultures where medical treatment choices
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S27 05/01/16 11:30 PM

are a family decision rather than an individual deci- informed consent process: a systematic review of 54 interventions
sion.4,6 (IV) tested in randomized control trials. BMC Med Ethics.
H. Assess patients with age-, trauma-, or disease-related 2013;14(1):14-28.
12. US Food and Drug Administration. CFRCode of Federal
alterations in cognitive capacity for their ability to
Regulations Title 21 Part 50 Protection of Human Subjects.
consent by using tools to evaluate cognitive status or
http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/
asking probing questions to evaluate language com- CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=50&showFR=1&subpartNode=
prehension, memory, and ability to reason. When 21:1.0.1.1.20.2.
the patient does not have the necessary cognitive 13. World Health Organization (WHO). Handbook for Good
capacity, obtain informed consent from a Clinical Research Practice (GCP): Guidance for Implementation.
surrogate.5,16 (V) Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2005:59-71.
I. For neonatal, pediatric, and adolescent patients, 14. Harting M, DeWees J, Vela K, Khirallah R. Medical photogra-
verify that informed consent was obtained for the phy: current technology, evolving issues and legal perspectives.
procedure/treatment from the parent or legal guard- Int J Clin Pract. 2015;69(4):401-409.
ian. From the patient, verify assent (ie, agreement) to 15. Kornhaber R, Betihavas V, Baber RJ. Ethical implications of
digital images for teaching and learning purposes: an integrative
the procedure/treatment using language and learn-
review. J Multidisciplinary Healthc. 2015;8:299-305.
ing methods appropriate for the age and/or cognitive
16. Johnson-Greene D. Informed consent issues in traumatic brain
stage of the individual. While there is lack of injury research: current status of capacity assessment and
consensus over the age of assent, this is generally recommendations for safeguards. J Head Trauma Rehabil.
considered 7 years old or school age.17 (V) 2010;25(2):145-150.
J. Define circumstances (eg, emergent and time-sensi- 17. Waligora M, Dranseika V, Piasecki J. Childs assent in research:
tive situations) when exemption from obtaining age threshold or personalisation? BMC Med Ethics. 2014;15(1):44.
informed consent is allowed. Document details of 18. Thomas L, Viswanathan A, Cochrane TI, et al. Variability in the
information provided, method of discussion (eg, perception of informed consent for IV-tPA during telestroke con-
telephone), to whom it was given, and the patient or sultation. Frontiers Neurol. August 27, 2012. doi:3389/
surrogate response in the medical record.18,19 (V) fnevr.2012.00129.
19. The Joint Commission. Rights and Responsibilities of the
Individual: Comprehensive Accreditation Manual for Home
Care. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: The Joint Commission; 2015.
REFERENCES

15, 2015.
10. DOCUMENTATION IN THE
MEDICAL RECORD
1. Hall DE, Prochazka AV, Fink AS. Informed consent for clinical
treatment. Can Med Assoc J. 2012;184(5):533-540.
Standard
2. Cook WE. Sign here: nursing value and the process of informed
consent. Plastic Surg Nurs. 2014;34(1):29-33. 10.1 Clinicians document their initial and ongoing
3. Menendez JB. Informed consent: essential legal and ethical prin- assessments or collection of data, diagnosis or problem,
ciples for nurses. JONAS Healthc Law Ethics Regul. intervention and monitoring, the patients response to
2013;15(4):140-144.
that intervention, and plan of care for infusion therapy.
4. Del Carmen MG, Joffe S. Informed consent for medical treatment
Expected side effects and unexpected adverse events
and research: a review. Oncologist. 2005;10(8):636-641.
5. Brooks CL. Considering elderly competence when consenting to
that occur, with actions taken and patient response, are
treatment. Holist Nurse Pract. 2011;25(3):136-139. documented.
6. Fowler MDM, ed. Guide to the Code of Ethics for Nurses: 10.2 Documentation contains accurate, complete,
Development, Interpretation and Application. 2nd ed. Silver chronological, and objective information in the patients
Spring, MD: American Nurses Association; 2015. medical record regarding the patients infusion therapy
7. Paasche-Orlow MK, Taylor HA, Brancati FL. Readability stand- and vascular access with the clinicians name, licensure
ards for informed-consent forms as compared with actual reada- or credential to practice, date, and time.
bility. New Engl J Med. 2003;348(8):721-726. 10.3 Documentation is legible, timely, accessible to
8. Synnot A, Ryan R, Prictor M, Fetherstonhaugh D, Parker B. authorized personnel, and efficiently retrievable.
Audio-visual presentation of information for informed consent
10.4 Documentation reflects the continuity, quality, and
for participation in clinical trials. Cochrane Database Syst Rev.
safety of care.
2014;(5):CD003717. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003717.pub3.
9. Coons S. Informed consent forms growing too complex. Res
10.5 Documentation guidelines and the policies for
Pract. 2012;13:175-187. confidentiality and privacy of the patients health care
10. Erlen JA. Informed consent: revisiting the issues. Orthop Nurs. information and personal data are established in
2010;29(4):276-280. organizational policies, procedures, and/or practice
11. Nishimura A, Carey J, Erwin PJ, Tilburt JC, Murad MH, guidelines, according to the scope of practice for indi-
McCormick JB. Improving understanding in the research viduals with specific licensure or credentials, standards
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S28 05/01/16 11:30 PM

of care, accrediting bodies, and state and federal 9. Type of therapy, drug, dose, rate, time, route,
regulations. and method of administration; condition of the
venipuncture or access site prior to and after
infusion therapy.8,16 (V)
Practice Criteria 10. Results of VAD functionality assessment includ-
A. Documentation includes, but is not limited to, the ing patency, absence of signs and symptoms of
following: complications, lack of resistance when flushing,
1. Patient, caregiver, or legally authorized repre- and presence of a blood return upon aspiration.
8,16
sentatives participation in, understanding of, (V)
and responses to therapy, interventions, and edu- 11. Type of equipment used for infusion therapy
cation.1,2 (II) administration; depending on the setting, account-
2. Specific site preparation, infection prevention, ability for maintenance and replacement of tub-
and safety precautions taken, using a standardized ing/cassettes as well as identification of caregiver
tool for documenting adherence to recommended or surrogate for patient support.12,17 (V)
practices.3-5 (IV) 12. Pertinent problem or diagnosis, initial and ongo-
3. The type, length, and gauge/size of the vascular ing assessment, and vital signs as appropriate;
access device (VAD) inserted; the lot number for patients response to VAD insertion and therapy,
all central vascular access devices (CVADs) and including symptoms, side effects, or adverse
implanted devices.6-8 (V) events with related interventions; laboratory test
4. Date and time of insertion, number of attempts, results as appropriate; barriers to patient educa-
functionality of device, local anesthetic (if used), tion or care; and evaluation of expected out-
and the insertion methodology, including visuali- comes.8,18,19 (V)
zation and guidance technologies.9-10 (V) 13. Regular assessment of the need for continuation
5. Identification of the insertion site by anatomical of the VAD:
descriptors, laterality, landmarks, or appropri- a. Daily for acute inpatient settings.5,20-22 (IV)
ately marked drawings.6,8 (V) b. During regular assessment visits in other set-
6. For midline catheters and peripherally inserted tings, such as in the home or a skilled nursing
central catheters (PICCs): facility.23 (V)
a. External catheter length and length of catheter 14. Upon removal: condition of site, condition of the
inserted.9 (V) catheter and length, reason for device removal,
b. Arm circumference: before insertion of a nursing interventions during removal, dressing
PICC and when clinically indicated to assess applied, patient response, patient education,
the presence of edema and possible deep vein date/time of removal, and any necessary continu-
thrombosis (DVT). Take this measurement ing management for complications.13,17,24 (V)
10 cm above the antecubital fossa; assess for 15. If cultures are obtained, document source of
the location and other characteristics such as culture(s).17 (V)
pitting or nonpitting edema.11,12 (IV) 16. When multiple VADs or catheter lumens are
c. Confirmation of the anatomic location of the used, documentation should clearly indicate
catheter tip for all CVADs prior to initial use what solutions and medications are being infused
and as needed for evaluation of VAD dys- through each device or lumen.8,17 (V)
function.9 (V) B. Documentation of all infusion therapy, clinicians
7. Condition of the site, dressing, type of catheter actions, and patient responses should be completed
stabilization, dressing change, site care, patient in an electronic health record or other electronic
report of discomfort or any pain with each health information system, if available, using stand-
regular assessment of the access site, and patient ardized terminologies.25-29 (IV)
report of changes related to the VAD or access 1. Electronic entries should reflect current patient
site.8,13 (V) status, even when an entry is pulled from another
8. A standardized assessment, with photography as location in the medical record.14,30 (IV)
needed and in accordance with organizational 2. Standardized templates for documentation of
policy, appropriate for the specific patient popu- required elements of care should be used but
lation (eg, age), for phlebitis, infiltration, and without limiting further description as need-
extravasation that allows for accurate and reli- ed.14,30,31 (IV)
able assessment on initial identification and with 3. The electronic medical record should capture
each subsequent site assessment (see Standard 9, data for quality improvement without additional
Informed Consent).8,14,15 (V) documentation from clinicians.14 (V)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S29 05/01/16 11:30 PM

REFERENCES 15. Phillips LD, Gorski LA. Professional practice concepts for infu-
sion therapy. In: Manual of IV Therapeutics: Evidence-Based
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September Practice for Infusion Therapy. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: FA
16, 2015. Davis; 2014:540-611.
16. Perucca R. Peripheral venous access devices. In: Alexander M,
1. Jefferies D, Johnson M, Griffiths R. A meta-study of the essentials
of quality nursing documentation. Int J Nurs Pract.
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
2010;16(2):112-124.
2. Wang N, Hailey D, Yu P. Quality of nursing documentation and
approaches to its evaluation: a mixed-method systematic review.
continuum. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J,
J Adv Nurs. 2011;67(9):1858-1875.
Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach.
3. Aziz AM. Improving peripheral IV cannula care: implementing
high-impact interventions. Br J Nurs. 2009;18(20):1242-1246.
18. Alfaro-LeFevre R. Applying Nursing Process: A Tool for Critical
4. Fakih MG, Jones K, Rey JE, Berriel-Cass D, Kalinicheva T,
Thinking. New York, NY: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams &
Saravolatz LD. Sustained improvements in peripheral venous
Wilkins; 2010:195-208.
catheter care in non-intensive care units: a quasi-experimental
19. French KS. Transforming nursing care through health literacy
controlled study of education and feedback. Infect Control Hosp
ACTS. Nurs Clin North Am. 2015;50(1):87-98.
Epidemiol. 2012;33(5):449-455.
20. New KA, Webster J, Marsh NM, Hewer B. Intravascular device
use, management, documentation and complications: a point
prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://
prevalence survey. Aust Health Rev. 2014;38(3):345-349.
www.cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published
21. Russell E, Chan RJ, Marsh N, New K. A point prevalence study
April 2011.
of cancer nursing practices for managing intravascular devices in
6. Ahlqvist M, Berglund B, Wiren M, Klang B, Johansson E.
an Australian tertiary cancer center. Eur J Oncol Nurs.
Accuracy in documentation: a study of peripheral venous cathe-
2014;18(3):231-235.
ters. J Clin Nurs. 2009;18(13):1945-1952.
22. Tiwari MM, Hermsen ED, Charlton ME, Anderson JR, Rupp
7. Bullock-Corkhill M. Central venous access devices: access and
ME. Inappropriate intravascular device use: a prospective study.
insertion. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J,
J Hosp Infect. 2011;78(2):128-132.
Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach.
23. Gorski LA, Hallock D, Kuehn SC, Morris P, Russell JM,
Skala LC. Recommendations for frequency of assessment of
8. Dugger B. Documentation. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L,
the short peripheral catheter site. J Infus Nurs. 2012;35(5):
Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based
290-292.
Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:540-549.
24. Guido GW. Documentation and confidentiality. In: Legal and
9. Hagle ME, Cook A. Central venous access. In: Weinstein SM,
Ethical Issues in Nursing. 6th ed. New York, NY: Pearson;
Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and Practice of Infusion
2014:153-187.
Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott
25. Englebright J, Aldrich K, Taylor CR. Defining and incorporating
Williams & Wilkins; 2014:335-390.
basic nursing care actions into the electronic health record. J Nurs
10. Hagle ME, Mikell M. Peripheral venous access. In: Weinstein SM,
Scholarship. 2014;46(1):50-57.
26. Kutney-Lee A, Kelly D. The effect of hospital electronic health
record adoption on nurse-assessed quality of care and patient
safety. J Nurs Admin. 2011;41(1):466-472.
11. Maneval RE, Clemence BJ. Risk factors associated with catheter-
27. Nagle LM. Information and knowledge needs of nurses in the
related upper extremity deep vein thrombosis in patients with
21st century. In: McGonigle D, Mastrian K. Nursing Informatics
peripherally inserted central venous catheters: a prospective obser-
and the Foundation of Knowledge. Burlington, MA: Jones &
vational cohort study: part 2. J Infus Nurs. 2014;37(4):260-268.
Bartlett Learning; 2012:147-160.
12. Gorski L, Perucca R, Hunter MR. Central venous access devices:
28. Saranto K, Kinnunen UM, Kivekas E. Impacts of structuring
care, maintenance, and potential complications. In: Alexander M,
nursing records: a systematic review. Scand J Caring Sci.
2014;28(4):629-647.
29. Waneka R, Spetz J. Hospital information technology systems
impact on nurses and nursing care. J Nurs Admin. 2010;40(12):
13. American Nurses Association (ANA). ANAs Principles for
509-514.
Nursing Documentation: Guidance for Registered Nurses. Silver
30. Kelley TF, Brandon DH, Docherty SL. Electronic nursing docu-
Spring, MD: ANA; 2010.
mentation as a strategy to improve quality of patient care. J Nurs
14. Kuhn T, Basch P, Barr M, Yackel T; for the Medical Informatics
Scholarship. 2011;43(2):154-162.
Committee of the American College of Physicians. Clinical docu-
31. Frberg U, Johansson E, Ygge BM, Wallin L, Ehrenberg A.
mentation in the 21st century: executive summary of a policy
Accuracy in documentation of peripheral venous catheters in
position paper from the American College of Physicians. Ann
paediatric care: an intervention study in electronic patient
Intern Med. 2015;162(4):301-303.
records. J Clin Nurs. 2012;21(9-10):1339-1344.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S30 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Section Two: Patient and Clinician Safety
11. ADVERSE AND SERIOUS E. Immediately investigate serious adverse events to

ADVERSE EVENTS ensure prompt action and improve safety. The pro-
cess includes a root cause analysis (RCA) or other
systematic investigation and analysis to improve
Standard
quality and safety.1-6 (V)
11.1 The clinician reports and documents adverse 1. Identify cause(s), describe the event, and imple-
events or serious adverse events (sentinel events) associ- ment specific strategies and/or actions for
ated with infusion therapy. improvement that protects patients. An interpro-
11.2 The science of safety, which includes human errors fessional approach focuses on systems issues,
and system failures, along with reporting of adverse procedures, human resources, peer and/or clini-
events and serious adverse events, is defined in organi- cal review, products/equipment, processes, and
zational policies, procedures, and/or practice guidelines. training gaps.1,6 (V)
2. The clinician actively participates in the develop-
ment, implementation, and evaluation of the
Practice Criteria
improvement plan.1,3,6 (V)
A. Report adverse events or serious adverse events (sen- 3. Consider using an RCA or other systemic inves-
tinel events), or the risk thereof (ie, near misses) tigation or analysis for complex, recurrent prob-
associated with vascular access devices (VADs) and/ lems and for near misses.6 (V)
or infusion products/devices and the administration F. Improve safety within the organization:
of drugs and biologics, to the licensed independent 1. Focus on fixing the system(s) and processes,
practitioner (LIP) and appropriate department(s) rather than blaming the clinician.
(eg, risk management [RM], quality improvement) 2. Advocate for teamwork interventions, includ-
and in accordance with organizational policy.1-6 (V, ing training and education (eg, focus on com-
Regulatory) munication, leadership); work redesign (eg,
B. Report adverse events associated with drugs, biolog- change interactions such as multidisciplinary
ics, and infusion devices/products to the US Food rounds); and use of structured tools and proto-
and Drug Administration (FDA) through the cols (eg, handoff communication tools and
MedWatch reporting system and/or the Institute for checklists).
Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). Reports to ISMP 3. Establish a strong just culture that continu-
are confidentially shared with the FDA and, when ously strengthens safety and creates an environ-
applicable, to product vendors to inform them about ment that raises the level of transparency, encour-
pharmaceutical labeling, packaging, and nomencla- ages reporting, empowers the clinician to identify
ture issues that may cause errors by their design (see and implement appropriate actions to prevent
Standard 13, Medication Verification).7,8 (V, adverse events and near misses, and promotes
Regulatory) quality patient outcomes (see Standard 6, Quality
C. Use valid and reliable tools to identify and measure Improvement).1,2,4-6,11-17 (V)
adverse events.2,9,10 (V) G. Communicate unanticipated outcomes and lessons
D. Use a standard document developed by legal and learned to organizational leadership and
risk management personnel to provide objective and clinicians.1,2,4-6,11-18 (V)
specific facts about the adverse event or serious H. Ensure responsible disclosure of errors to patients;
adverse event.4,5 (V) promote interprofessional collaboration in planning
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S31 05/01/16 11:30 PM

and discussing information with the team responsi- 12. PRODUCT EVALUATION,
ble for disclosing information about the adverse INTEGRITY, AND DEFECT
event to the patient, caregiver, or surrogate.3,19 (V) REPORTING
REFERENCES Standard
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September 12.1 Clinician end users are involved in the evaluation
16, 2015.
of infusion-related technologies, including clinical
1. The Joint Commission. Sentinel event policy and procedures. application, expected outcomes, performance,
http://www.jointcommission.org/sentinel_event_policy_and_ infection prevention, safety, efficacy, reliability,
procedures/. and cost.
2. The Joint Commission. Patient safety systems, 2015. http://www. 12.2 Infusion equipment and supplies are inspected for
jointcommission.org/assets/1/8/PSC_for_Web.pdf. product integrity and functionality before, during, and
3. National Quality Forum. Patient safety. https://www.quality
after use as determined by verification of inspection or
forum.org/topics/safety_pages/patient_safety.aspx.
expiration date and visual inspection of the product.
4. American Nurses Association (ANA). Code of Ethics for Nurses
with Interpretive Statements. Silver Spring, MD: ANA; 2015:
12.3 If a product is expired, its integrity compromised,
11-12. or found defective, the clinician removes it from patient
5. Sierchio G. Quality management. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, use, labels it as expired or defective, and reports the
Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An product expiration or defect according to organiza-
Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/ tional policies and procedures.
Elsevier; 2010:22-48. 12.4 Product evaluation, integrity, defect reporting, and
6. Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Phillips L, eds. Core product recall are in accordance with organizational
Curriculum for Infusion Nursing. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: policies and procedures and with state and federal rules
Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014. and regulations.
7. Zastrow RL. Root cause analysis in infusion nursing: applying
quality improvement tools for adverse events. J Infus Nurs.
2015;38(3):225-231. Practice Criteria
8. US Food and Drug Administration. MedWatch: the FDA safety A. Include an interprofessional group of direct and
information and adverse event reporting program. http://www.
indirect clinician end users in product evaluation,
fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/default.htm.
and orient and educate clinicians on the new prod-
9. Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). Reporting a medi-
cation or vaccine error or hazard to ISMP. https://www.ismp.org/
uct/device, as well as data collection tools for analy-
errorReporting/reportErrortoISMP.aspx. sis and ongoing monitoring.1-5 (V)
10. Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI). Global trigger tool B. Obtain reports of internally and externally reported
for measuring adverse events. http://www.ihi.org/resources/Pages/ adverse events for the committee/individual manag-
Tools/IHIGlobalTriggerToolforMeasuringAEs.aspx. ing product evaluation and product procurement.6-9
11. Classen DC, Resar R, Griffith F. Global trigger tool shows that (V)
adverse events in hospitals may be ten times greater than previ- C. Obtain rental or purchased equipment from a prop-
ously measured. Health Aff (Millwood). 2011;30(4):581-589. erly qualified vendor.6 (V)
12. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Ten years after keeping D. Include the following in product defect reporting:
patients safe: have nurses work environments been transformed?
suspected and known intrinsic and extrinsic con-
Charting Nursings Future. www.rwjf.org/content//dam/farm/
tamination; product damage; product tampering;
reports/issue_briefs/2014/rwjf411417. Published March 2014.
13. Bishop A, Fleming M. Patient safety and engagement at the front-
improper, unclear, or confusing patient or user
lines of healthcare. Healthc Qual. 2014;17:36-40. instructions or labeling; similar or confusing names;
14. Tocco S, Blum A. Just culture promotes a partnership for patient packaging problems; and errors related to reliance
safety. Am Nurse Today. 2013;8(5). http://www.americannurse- on color coding (see Standard 13, Medication
today.com/just-culture-promotes-a-partnership-for-patient-safety. Verification).7,10-13 (V, Regulatory)
15. American Nurses Association (ANA). Nursing Administration: E. Retain the product, product overwrap or packaging,
Scope and Standards of Practice. Silver Spring, MD: ANA; 2009. and other identifying information (such as model
16. Hershey K. Culture of safety. Nurs Clin North Am. number, lot number, serial number, expiration date,
2015;50(1):139-152. and unique device identification when available) for
17. Wu AW, Steckelberg RC. Medical error, incident investigation
further analysis and reporting when a product defect
and the second victim: doing better but feeling worse. BMJ Qual
is identified before use.1,14 (V)
Saf. 2012;21(4):267-270.
18. Pham JC, Aswani MS, Rosen M, et al. Reducing medical errors
F. Retain serial and lot numbers used in product iden-
and adverse events. Annu Rev Med. 2012;63:447-463. tification, tracking, and product recall, as well as
19. Chamberlain CJ, Koniaris LG, Wu AW, Pawlik TM. Disclosure of unique device identification when available, in order
nonharmful medical errors and other events: duty to disclose. to comply with recalls or to file an adverse event
Arch Surg. 2012;147(3):282-286. report.7,14 (Regulatory)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S32 05/01/16 11:30 PM

G. Include the following information pursuant to US 3. Davis RE, Sevdalis N, Neale G, Massey R, Vincent CA. Hospital
Food and Drug Administration Form 3500A when a patients reports of medical errors and undesirable events in their
product defect results in an adverse event: health care. J Eval Clin Pract. 2013;19(5):875-881.
4. Swayze SC, Rich SE. Promoting safe use of medical devices.
1. Patient information including name, age or date
Online J Issues Nurs. 2011;17(1).
of birth, gender, and weight.
5. Tay S, Spain B, Morandell K, Gilson J, Weinberg L, Story D.
2. Identification of occurrence, event, or product Functional evaluation and practice survey to guide purchasing of
problem. intravenous cannulae. BMC Anesthesiol. 2013;13(1):49.
3. Outcomes attributed to the occurrence or event 6. American Society for Health-System Pharmacists. ASHP guide-
(eg, death or serious injury), defined as disability lines on home infusion pharmacy services. Am J Health Syst
resulting in permanent impairment of a body Pharm. 2014;71(4):325-341.
function or permanent damage to a body struc- 7. US Food and Drug Administration. Medical devices. 3 CFR Title
ture, or injury or illness that requires interven- 21. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/
tion to prevent permanent impairment of a body CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=803&showFR=1&subpartNo
structure or function. de=21:8.0.1.1.3.3.
8. Stacey S, Coombes I, Wainwright C, Klee B, Miller H, Whitfield
4. Date of event.
K. Characteristics of adverse medication events in a childrens
5. Date of report by the initial reporter.
hospital. J Paediatr Child Health. 2014;50(12):966-971.
6. Description of event or problem, including a dis- 9. US Food and Drug Administration. Current postmarket surveil-
cussion of how the device was involved, nature lance efforts. http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/Safety/
of the problem, patient follow-up or required CDRHPostmarketSurveillance/ucm348738.htm. Revised April 1,
treatment, and any environmental conditions 2014.
that may have influenced the event. 10. US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Patient safety
7. Description of relevant tests and laboratory data, and quality improvement: final rule. 42 CFR part 3. http://www.
including dates. pso.ahrq.gov/statute/pl109-41.pdf. Published November 21,
8. Description of other relevant patient history, 2008.
including preexisting medical conditions. 11. US Food and Drug Administration. Medical device safety: recent
medical device recalls. http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/
9. Device information, including brand name; type
Safety/default.htm.
of device; manufacturer name and address; expi-
12. ECRI Institute. Alerts tracker. https://www.ecri.org/components/
ration date; unique device identifier (UDI) that alertstracker/Pages/default.aspx.
appears on the label; model number; catalog 13. US Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health
number; serial number; lot number or other iden- Administration. Safe medical devices act: medical device report-
tifying number; date of device implantation; date ing for user facilities. 21 USC 360i (1990).
of device removal; and operator of the device 14. US Food and Drug Administration. Unique device identification
(health professional, patient, lay user, other). (UDI). http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/DeviceRegulationand
10. Whether the device was available for evaluation Guidance/UniqueDeviceIdentification/default.htm.
and whether it was returned to the manufacturer. 15. Brady PW, Varadarajan K, Peterson LE, Lannon C, Gross T.
11. Concomitant medications and therapy dates.7 Prevalence and nature of adverse medical device events in hospi-
talized children. J Hosp Med. 2013;8(7):390-393.
(Regulatory)
16. Emmendorfer T, Glassman PA, Moore V, Leadholm TC, Good
H. Use the following prevention strategies in product
CB, Cunningham F. Monitoring adverse drug reactions across a
evaluation to improve safety and reduce preventable nationwide health care system using information technology. Am
adverse events: J Health Syst Pharm. 2012;69(4):321-328.
1. Identify patients or conditions associated with 17. Flewwelling CJ, Easty AC, Vicente KJ, Cafazzo JA. The use of
higher risk. fault reporting of medical equipment to identify latent design
2. Facilitate optimal purchase decisions. flaws. J Biomed Inform. 2014;51:80-85.
3. Enable early detection and intervention to 18. Gibson R. Nursing practice and work environment: designing
address risk factors.7,15-22 (V) equipment devices for safety: a role for nursing advocacy. Am
Nurse Today. 2015;9(11):16.
REFERENCES 19. Mattox E. Medical devices and patient safety. Crit Care Nurse.
2012;32(4):60-68.
20. Polisena J, Gagliardi A, Clifford T. How can we improve the
16, 2015.
recognition, reporting and resolution of medical device-related
1. Miller C. Product selection and evaluation. In: Alexander M, incidents in hospitals? A qualitative study of physicians and reg-
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion istered nurses. BMC Health Serv Res. 2015;15:220-228.
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: 21. Reynolds IS, Rising JP, Coukell AJ, Paulson KH, Redberg RF.
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:437-446. Assessing the safety and effectiveness of devices after US Food
2. Kuwabara C, Evora Y, deOliveira M. Risk management in tech- and Drug Administration approval: FDA-mandated postapproval
novigilance: construction and validation of a medical-hospital studies. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174(11):1773-1779.
product evaluation instrument. Rev Lat Am Enfermagem. 22. Tsai TT, Box TL, Gethoffer H, et al. Feasibility of proactive
2010;18(5):943-951. medical device surveillance: the VA Clinical Assessment Reporting
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S33 05/01/16 11:30 PM

and Tracking (CART) program. Med Care. 2013;51(3)(suppl 1): adverse drug events. Failure to comply with
S57-S61. appropriate use, overriding of alerts, and use of
the wrong drug library contribute to the risks
associated with smart pumps. Regular education
13. MEDICATION VERIFICATION and training and assessment of use are recom-
mended for both routine users and new staff
Standard members.20 (II)
E. Use a list of confusing drug names (ie, look-alike,
13.1 Medications and infusion solutions are identified,
sound-alike) to implement safeguards to reduce the
compared against the medication order, and verified by
risk for medication errors such as using both generic
reviewing the label for the name (brand and generic),
and brand names; including purpose of medication
dosage and concentration, beyond-use date, expiration
on label; and changing the appearance of look-alike
date, sterility state, route of administration, frequency,
names by using US Food and Drug Administration
rate of administration, and any other special instructions.
(FDA)- and Instititute for Safe Medication Practices
13.2 At least 2 patient identifiers are used to ensure
(ISMP)-approved tall man (mixed case) lettering.21
accurate patient identification when administering
(V)
medications.
F. Label medications that are prepared and not imme-
diately administered (eg, perioperative, procedural
Practice Criteria settings) as soon as prepared with the medication
name, strength, quantity, diluent/volume, expira-
A. Perform a medication reconciliation at each care
tion date, and preparer initials. Begin the adminis-
transition and when a new medication(s) is ordered
tration within 1 hour after the start of the prepara-
(eg, admission, transfers to different levels of care,
tion or discard (see Standard 17, Compounding and
discharge to new health care settings) to reduce the
Preparation of Parenteral Solutions and
risk of medication errors, including omissions,
Medications).2,3,22-24 (V, Regulatory)
duplications, dosing errors, and drug interactions.1-6
G. Discard and do not use any medication syringes that
(IV)
are unlabeled unless the medication is prepared at
B. Implement special safeguards to reduce the risk of
the patients bedside and immediately administered
medication errors with high-alert medications such
without a break in the process.2,3,22,24 (V)
as standardizing storage, preparation, and adminis-
H. Do not use color coding, color differentiation, or
tration (eg, standard order sets); improving access to
color matching as the sole cue for product or medi-
drug information; limiting access (stored securely,
cation identification. Color coding can lead users to
limited quantities); using supplementary labels and
rely on the color coding rather than ensuring a clear
automated alerts; and using automated or independ-
understanding of which administration sets and
ent double checks.7-11 (IV)
catheters are connected.25 (IV)
C. Perform an independent double check by 2 clinicians
I. Report adverse events associated with medicines and
for the organizations selected high-alert medications
biologics to the appropriate department within the
that pose the greatest risk of harm. Develop a stan-
organization and to the FDA through the MedWatch
dard process and educate staff in how to perform
reporting system and/or ISMP. Reports to ISMP are
the double check.9-13 (IV)
confidentially shared with the FDA and, when appli-
D. Use technology, when available, to verify medica-
cable, to product vendors to inform them about
tions prior to administration. Analyze effectiveness
pharmaceutical labeling, packaging, and nomencla-
and limitations related to technology through organ-
ture issues that may cause errors by their design.24,26,27
izational quality improvement processes.
(Regulatory)
1. Use of bar-code technology is associated with
decreased risk of medication errors and is increas-
REFERENCES
ingly common among acute care organizations,
and there is emerging research supporting its use Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
in long-term care settings. Studies have reported 16, 2015.
that errors still occur as staff may create work-
1. Barnsteiner JH. Medication reconciliation. In: Hughes RG, ed.
arounds that bypass safety mechanisms with
Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for
bar-code technology.14-19 (III)
Nurses. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and
2. Use of electronic infusion devices (EIDs) that Quality. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2648 .
include dose-error reduction software (smart Published April 2008.
pumps) is associated with reduced risk for 2. The Joint Commission. National patient safety goals: hospital
infusion-related medication errors, including accreditation program. http://www.jointcommission.org/
error interceptions (eg, wrong rate) and reduced assets/1/6/2015_NPSG_HAP.pdf.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S34 05/01/16 11:30 PM

3. The Joint Commission. National patient safety goals: ambulatory 22. Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). Safe practice
health care accreditation program. http://www.jointcommission. guidelines for adult IV push medications. http://www.ismp.org/
org/assets/1/6/2015_NPSG_AHC1.PDF. Tools/guidelines/IVSummitPush/IVPushMedGuidelines.pdf .
4. The Joint Commission. National patient safety goals: home care Published 2015.
accreditation program. http://www.jointcommission.org/ 23. United States Pharmacopeial Convention (USP). USP-NF General
assets/1/6/2015_NPSG_OME.pdf. Chapter <797>: pharmaceutical compoundingsterile prepara-
5. The Joint Commission. National patient safety goals: long term tions. https://www.ascp.com/sites/default/files/USP-797.pdf.
care accreditation program. http://www.jointcommission.org/ Published 2011.
assets/1/6/2015_NPSG_LT2.pdf. 24. Dolan S, Felizardo G, Barnes S, et al. APIC position paper: safe
6. Desai R, Williams CE, Greene SB, et al. Medication errors during injection, infusion, and medication vial practices in healthcare.
patient transitions into nursing homes: characteristics and asso- Am J Infect Control. 2010;38:167-172.
ciation with patient harm. Am J Geriatric Pharmacother. 25. Simmons D, Symes L, Guenter P, Graves K. Tubing misconnections:
2011;9(6):413-422. normalization of deviance. Nutr Clin Pract. 2011;26(3):286-293.
7. Instititute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). ISMP list of high 26. US Food and Drug Administration. MedWatch: the FDA safety
alert medications in acute care settings. http://ismp.org/Tools/ information and adverse event reporting program. http://www.
institutionalhighAlert.asp. Published 2014. fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/default.htm.
8. Instititute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). ISMP list of high 27. Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). Reporting a medi-
alert medications in community/ambulatory healthcare. http:// cation or vaccine error or hazard to ISMP. https://www.ismp.org/
ismp.org/communityRx/tools/ambulatoryhighalert.asp. Published errorReporting/reportErrortoISMP.aspx.
2011.
9. Markert A, Thierry V, Kleber M, et al. Chemotherapy safety and
severe adverse events in cancer patients: strategies to efficiently 14. LATEX SENSITIVITY OR
avoid chemotherapy errors in in- and outpatient treatment. Int J ALLERGY
Cancer. 2008;124(3):722-728.
10. Neuss MN, Polovich M, McNiff K, et al. 2013 updated American
Standard
Society of Clinical Oncology/Oncology Nursing Society stand-
ards including standards for the safe administration and manage- 14.1 Exposure to latex in the health care environment is
ment of oral chemotherapy. Oncol Nurs Forum. 2013;40(3): minimized.
225-233. 14.2 Latex-free personal protective equipment (PPE),
11. Ayer P, Adams S, Boullata J, et al. A.S.P.E.N. parenteral nutrition patient care equipment, and supplies are provided to
safety consensus recommendations. J Parenter Enteral Nutr.
latex-sensitive or latex-allergic clinicians and patients
2014;38(3):291-333.
and used during patient care.
12. Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). Independent dou-
ble checks: undervalued and misused. ISMP Med Saf Alert.
2102;18(12):1-4. http://www.ismp.org/newsletters/acutecare/ Practice Criteria
showarticle.aspx?id=51.
13. Paparella SF. Taking another look at independent double checks. A. Screen clinicians at the time of hire for a latex
J Emerg Nurs. 2013;39(6):631-632. allergy.1-3 (V)
14. Young J, Slebodnick M, Sands L. Bar code technology and medi- B. Use low-allergen, powder-free gloves, nitrile gloves,
cation administration error. J Patient Saf. 2010;6(2):115-120. glove liners, or other similar alternatives, especially
15. Henneman PL, Marquard JL, Fisher DL, et al. Bar-code verifica- if sensitive or allergic to latex.1-3 (V)
tion: reducing but not eliminating medication errors. J Nurs C. Remove latex-containing products from the patient
Adm. 2012;42(12):562-566.
care setting to reduce the exposure to latex.1-3 (V)
16. Voshall B, Piscotty R, Lawrence J, Targosz M. Barcode medica-
D. Report the development of latex sensitivities or
tion administration work-arounds: a systematic review and impli-
cations for nurse executives. J Nurs Adm. 2013;43(10):530-535.
allergies to the employer. The employer will report
17. Hardmeier A, Tsourounis C, Moore M, et al. Pediatric medica- allergic reactions to the Occupational Safety and
tion administration errors and workflow following implementa- Health Administration (OSHA) as required and
tion of a bar code medication administration system. J Healthc report allergic events related to latex medical devices
Quality. 2014;36(4):54-62. to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
18. Thomas M. Evaluation of the personalized bar-code identifica- MedWatch Program.4,5 (V, Regulatory)
tion card to verify high-risk, high-alert medications. Comput E. Review the label on medical devices, equipment, and
Inform Nurs. 2013;3(9):412-421. supplies prior to use for the presence of latex, which
19. Raman K, Heelen M, Kerr G, Higgins TL. Addressing challenges is a component of product labeling required by the
in bar-code scanning of large volume infusion bags. Am J Health
FDA.6 (V)
Syst Pharm. 2011;68(15):1450-1453.
F. Assess the patient for latex allergies. To prevent the
20. Ohashi K, Dalleur O, Dykes PC, Bates DW. Benefits and risks of
using smart pumps to reduce medication error rates: a systematic
inadvertent exposure of an infant to latex sensitiza-
review. Drug Saf. 2014;37(12):1011-1020. tion, assess the mother for known latex allergy.
21. Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). FDA and ISMP Document the findings in the patients medical record
lists of look-alike drug names with recommendations for tall man and communicate a positive screen for latex sensitivity
letters. http://ismp.org/Tools/tallmanletters.pdf. Published 2011. or allergies to others involved in the patients care and
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S35 05/01/16 11:30 PM

incorporate into the patients plan of care. Educate the 1. Additional resources used to evaluate the hazard
patient on how to avoid latex exposure.7 (V) potential of a drug include safety data sheets
(SDSs); drug package inserts; Drugbank (http://
REFERENCES drugbank.ca); DailyMed (http://dailymed.nlm.
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September nih.gov/dailymed); International Agency for
16, 2015. Research on Cancer (IARC) (http://www.iarc.fr);
special health warnings from drug manufacturers;
1. US Department of Labor. Potential for sensitization and possible
the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
allergic reaction to natural rubber latex gloves and other natural
(http://www.fda.gov/drugs/default.htm); and
rubber products. Safety and Health Information Bulletin 01-28-
2008. https://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/shib012808.html. Published
other professional groups and organizations
January 28, 2008. evidence-based recommendations. 1,2 (V,
2. US Department of Health and Human Services. National Institute Regulatory)
for Safety and Health (NIOSH). Preventing allergic reactions to B. Provide education to clinicians who handle hazard-
natural rubber latex in the workplace. Publication no. 97-135. ous drugs and waste. Education should include
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/97-135. Published June 1997. toxicities associated with exposure, required precau-
3. US Department of Health and Human Services. National Institute tions, and what types of PPE to wear to prevent
for Safety and Health (NIOSH). NIOSH fast facts: home health- exposure.3-8 (V, Regulatory)
care workers: how to prevent latex allergies. Publication no. 1. While most hazardous drugs are antineoplastic
2012-119. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2012-119/pdfs/2012- agents, recognize that there are infusion drugs
119.pdf. Published February 2012.
from other categories classified as hazardous.
4. US Food and Drug Administration. MedWatch: the FDA safety
Furthermore, certain antineoplastic drugs are
information and adverse event reporting program. http://www.
fda.gov/safety/medwatch/default.htm. Published July 16, 2015. administered for noncancer indications.
5. US Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Clinicians in all settings who administer hazard-
Administration. Update to OSHAs recordkeeping rules. ous drugs should be provided appropriate PPE
https://www.osha.gov/recordkeeping2014/faqs.html. Published and engineering controls to reduce exposure
February 19, 2015. (refer to Standard 58, Antineoplastic Therapy).
6. US Food and Drug Administration. 21 CFR 801.437.l.8. User 2. Allow clinicians who are actively trying to con-
labeling for devices that contain natural rubber. http://www. ceive, are pregnant, or are breastfeeding to
accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch. refrain from exposure to hazardous drugs and
cfm?FR=801.437. Published April 1, 2014. waste.4,9 (Regulatory)
7. Gawchik S. Latex allergy. Mount Sinai J Med. 2011;78(5):
C. Safely dispose of hazardous waste and materials
759-772.
contaminated with hazardous drugs.
1. Place contaminated materials including needles,
empty vials/syringes/solution containers, and
15. HAZARDOUS DRUGS administration sets, gloves, and gowns into seal-
AND WASTE able, leakproof bags or rigid waste containers that
are clearly labeled for cytotoxic waste.2,4 (V,
Standard Regulatory)
2. Do not place drug-contaminated items in medical
15.1 Organizational policies and procedures address waste (red) containers because medical waste
safe handling of hazardous drugs, appropriate use of disposal is handled differently from hazardous
personal protective equipment (PPE), exposure risk waste (see Standard 18, Medical Waste and
reduction, and safe handling of waste, including spills, Sharps Safety).2,4 (V, Regulatory)
in accordance with local, state, and federal regulations 3. In the home setting, store such disposal contain-
and manufacturers directions for use. ers in an area away from children and pets.4 (V)
15.2 All hazardous waste is discarded in appropriate 4. Ensure that a spill kit is available, and follow direc-
containers and disposed of according to local, state, and tions for use in the event of a hazardous drug leak
federal regulations. or spill. Report such spills as an occurrence accord-
ing to organizational procedures. Large spills
Practice Criteria
should be handled by health care workers who are
A. Identify hazardous drugs used in the health care set- trained in hazardous waste handling.2,4 (V,
ting. The National Institute for Occupational Safety Regulatory)
and Health (NIOSH) provides a list of antineoplas- D. Handle patient body fluids safely for at least 48
tic and nonantineoplastic drugs that meet the defini- hours after receiving a hazardous drug and instruct
tion of hazardous drugs, including those with safe the patient/caregiver/surrogate in safe handling:
handling guidance from the manufacturer. This list 1. Wear double chemotherapy gloves and a disposa-
is periodically updated. ble gown when handling patient emesis or
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S36 05/01/16 11:30 PM

excretions. Wear a face shield if splashing is antici- 3. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Hazard
pated.4 (V) communication standard 1910. https://www.osha.gov/pls/
2. Use disposable linens whenever possible; in insti- oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_
id=10099. Published March 2012.
tutions, washable linens should be placed in a
4. Polovich M, Olsen M, LeFebvre K. Chemotherapy and Biotherapy
leakproof bag and handled as contaminated.4 (V)
Guidelines and Recommendations for Practice. 4th ed. Pittsburgh,
3. Home setting: Place contaminated linens into a PA: Oncology Nursing Society; 2014.
washable pillowcase separate from other items 5. Polovich M, Gieseker KE. Occupational hazardous drug expo-
and wash twice in hot water. Discard disposable sure among non-oncology nurses. Medsurg Nurs. 2011;20(2):79-
diapers in plastic bags and discard used gloves in 85, 97.
cytotoxic waste container if available.4 (V) 6. Menonna-Quinn D. Safe handling of chemotherapeutic agents in
the treatment of nonmalignant diseases. J Infus Nurs.
REFERENCES 2013;36(3):198-204.
7. Friese CR, Himes-Ferris L, Frasier MN, et al. Structures and
processes of care in ambulatory oncology settings and nurse-
16, 2015.
reported exposure to chemotherapy. BMJ Qual Saf. 2012;21(9):
1. Connor TH, MacKenzie BA, DeBord DG, et al. NIOSH List of 753-759.
Antineoplastic and Other Hazardous Drugs in Healthcare 8. Oncology Nursing Society. Oncology Nursing Society position on
Settings, 2014. Cincinnati, OH: National Institute for the education of the nurse who administers chemotherapy and
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH); September 2014. biotherapy, 2014. https://www.ons.org/advocacy-policy/posi-
NIOSH publication 2014-138 (supersedes 2012-150). tions/education/rn.
2. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 9. American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine
NIOSH alert: preventing occupational exposures to antineoplas- Task Force on Reproductive Toxicology. Reproductive and devel-
tic and other hazardous drugs in health care settings. Publication opmental hazard management guidance. http://www.acoem.org/
2004-165. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2004-165/pdfs/2004- Reproductive_Developmental_Hazard_Management.aspx .
165.pdf. Published September 2004. Published April 26, 2011.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S37 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Section Three: Infection Prevention and

Control
16. HAND HYGIENE D. Do not wear artificial fingernails or extenders when

having direct contact with patients at high risk (eg,
Standard those in intensive care units or operating rooms, or
when inserting a central vascular access device
16.1 Hand hygiene is performed routinely during (CVAD).1 (III)
patient care activities. E. Keep the nail length short.1-4 (III)
F. Store hand hygiene products in convenient locations
Practice Criteria at the point of use. Provide hand hygiene products
that have a low irritancy potential and compatible
A. Perform hand hygiene with an alcohol-based hand rub hand lotions or creams to prevent irritant contact
or antimicrobial soap and water during patient care: dermatitis.1,3 (IV)
1. Before having direct contact with the patient. G. Involve the clinician with the evaluation of hand
2. Before donning sterile gloves when inserting a hygiene products to assess for product feel, fra-
central intravascular catheter. grance, and skin irritation. Clinicians who have
3. Before inserting a peripheral vascular catheter. sensitivity to a particular product should be provid-
4. After contact with the patients intact or nonin- ed with an alternative. Other products for skin care
tact skin. such as gloves, lotions, and moisturizers should be
5. After contact with body fluids or excretions, assessed for compatibility with hand antisepsis
mucous membranes, and wound dressings (if the products.1,3 (IV)
hands are not visibly soiled). H. Do not add soap to a partially empty soap
6. After contact with inanimate objects (including dispenser.1 (III)
medical equipment) in the immediate vicinity of I. Provide the clinician with education on hand
the patient. hygiene, monitor hand hygiene performance, and
7. After removing gloves.1-6 (III) provide feedback regarding hand hygiene perfor-
B. Use an alcohol-based hand rub routinely when per- mance.1-5 (III)
forming hand hygiene unless the hands are visibly J. Educate the patient/caregiver/surrogate on when
soiled, or there is an outbreak of a spore-forming and how to perform hand hygiene, and ask the clini-
pathogen or norovirus gastroenteritis.1-8 (III) cian to perform hand hygiene before having direct
C. Perform hand hygiene with either a nonantimicro- contact with the patient if it was not observed.1-6
bial soap or an antimicrobial soap and water: (IV)
1. When the hands are visibly contaminated with
blood or other body fluids.1-6 (II)
2. After providing care or having contact with REFERENCES
patients suspected or confirmed of being infected
with norovirus gastroenteritis or a spore-forming Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
16, 2015.
pathogen during an outbreak (eg, Clostridium dif-
ficile).1-8 (II) 1. Boyce JM, Pittet D. Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care
3. Before eating and after using a restroom.1-8 (II) Settings: Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S38 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/ (IV) solution to flush and lock vascular access
IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Atlanta, GA: Centers for devices (refer to Standard 40, Flushing and
Disease Control and Prevention; October 2002. http://www.cdc. Locking).
gov/handhygiene/guidelines.html.
B. Begin the administration of an immediate-use
2. World Health Organization (WHO). WHO Guidelines on Hand
compounded sterile product (CSP), as defined by
Hygiene in Health Care. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2009.
http://www.who.int/gpsc/5may/tools/9789241597906/en.
USP <797>, within 1 hour after the start of the
3. Ellingson K, Haas J, Ailello A, et al; Society for Healthcare preparation, or discard.1-3 (V, Regulatory)
Epidemiology of America. Strategies to prevent healthcare-associ- C. Administer IV push medication in a safe manner:
ated infections through hand hygiene. Infect Control Hosp 1. When it is necessary to prepare more than 1
Epidemiol. 2014;35(8):937-960. http://www.jstor.org/stable/ medication in a single syringe for IV push admin-
10.1086/677145. istration, limit preparation to the pharmacy.5 (V)
4. Institute for Healthcare Improvement. Improving hand hygiene: a 2. In adults, use IV push medications in a ready-to-
guide for improving practices among health care workers. http:// administer form (to minimize the need for manip-
www.ihi.org/resources/Pages/Tools/HowtoGuideImproving ulation outside the pharmacy sterile compound-
HandHygiene.aspx. Published 2006.
ing area).5 (V)
5. World Health Organization (WHO). Hand hygiene in outpatient
3. If dilution or reconstitution of an IV push medi-
and home-based care and long-term care facilities. http://www.
who.int/gpsc/5may/EN_GPSC1_PSP_HH_Outpatient_care/en.
cation becomes necessary outside the pharmacy
Published 2012. sterile compounding area, perform these tasks
6. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the immediately prior to administration in a clean,
prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. www.cdc. uncluttered, and functionally separate location
gov/hicpac/pdf/guidelines/bsi-guidelines-2011.pdf. Published using organization-approved, readily available
April 2011. drug information resources and sterile equipment
7. MacCannell T, Umscheid C, Agarwal R, et al; Healthcare and supplies.5,6 (V)
Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for 4. If more than 1 syringe of medication or solution
the prevention and control of norovirus gastroenteritis outbreaks to a single patient needs to be prepared at the
in healthcare settings, 2011. http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/norovi-
bedside, prepare each medication or solution
rus/001_norovirus.html. Published 2011.
separately, and immediately administer it before
8. Dubberke E, Gerding D. Rationale for hand hygiene recommen-
dations after caring for a patient with Clostridium difficile infec-
preparing the next syringe. If preparing several
tion. http://www.shea-online.org/Portals/0/CDI%20hand%20 IV push medications at a time for sequential IV
hygiene%20Update.pdf. push administration, label each syringe as it is
being prepared and prior to the preparation of
any subsequent syringes. If 1 or more medica-
tions or solutions needs to be prepared away
17. COMPOUNDING AND from the patients bedside, immediately label
PREPARATION OF each syringe, 1 at a time, before preparing the
PARENTERAL SOLUTIONS next medication or solution.5 (V)
AND MEDICATIONS 5. Do not dilute or reconstitute IV push medica-
tions by drawing up the contents into a commer-
Standard cially available, prefilled flush syringe of 0.9%
sodium chloride (USP).5,6 (V)
17.1 Compounding of parenteral solutions and medica- 6. Do not withdraw IV push medications from
tions is in accordance with state and federal regulations, commercially available, cartridge-type syringes
the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists into another syringe for administration.5 (V)
(ASHP), the Drug Quality and Security Act, and the United D. Do not use IV solutions in containers intended for
States Pharmacopeia (USP) National Formulary (NF), infusion, including minibags, as common-source
including but not limited to General Chapter <797>. containers (multiple-dose product) to dilute or
reconstitute medications for 1 or more patients in
Practice Criteria clinical care areas (see Standard 40, Flushing and
Locking). (V)5-7
A. Use sterile medications that were compounded in a E. Use safe injection practices:
pharmacy environment that meets USP <797>, 1. Use a new needle and syringe for every injec-
state pharmacy rules and regulations, and ASHP tion.6-8 (III)
guidelines. The compounding environment is defined 2. Discard a single-dose vial after a single entry.5-8
by risk category.1-4 (V, Regulatory) (V)
1. Use pharmacy-prepared or commercially avail- 3. Dedicate a multidose vial for a single patient.5-8
able prefilled syringes of appropriate intravenous (V)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S39 05/01/16 11:30 PM

a. Use a multidose vial up to a maximum of 28 days 18. MEDICAL WASTE AND
of opening or puncture (except for vaccines or SHARPS SAFETY
when original manufacturers expiration date is
shorter) or when the manufacturers expiration Standard
date is reached if it is not opened in a direct patient
care area or a shorter period.1-3,6-8 (V, Regulatory) 18.1 Each organization has protocols for the safe hand-
b. Label a multidose vial with the beyond-use date ling of regulated medical waste that are based on local,
(BUD) and store the vial according to the manufac- state, and federal laws and regulations.
turers recommendations. Discard if the vial lacks 18.2 Each organization has an exposure control plan
a BUD, the sterility is compromised or questiona- that is in accordance with the Occupational Safety and
ble, and after the BUD has been met.1-3,6 (V, Health Administration (OSHA) blood-borne pathogen
Regulatory) standard.
F. Use a filter needle or filter straw to withdraw medi- 18.3 Regulated medical waste is discarded in the appro-
cation from an ampoule, and discard any leftover priate container and disposed of according to local,
medication.1-3,5,6 (V, Regulatory) state, and federal regulations.
G. Disinfect the vial septum before each entry and the 18.4 Contaminated sharps are discarded in a nonpermea-
neck of a glass ampoule prior to breaking the ble, puncture-resistant, tamper-proof biohazard container.
ampoule, and allow the disinfectant to dry prior to 18.5 Safety engineered devices, such as self-sheathing
entry.5,6 (V) needles, that isolate or remove the blood-borne patho-
H. Do not add medications to infusing containers of IV gens hazard are available in the workplace and consist-
solutions (refer to Standard 57, Parenteral ently activated or used.
Medication and Solution Administration).
Practice Criteria
A. Use safety-engineered devices for needlestick injury
prevention.1-4 (Regulatory)
REFERENCES
B. Consider the use of passive safety-engineered devices
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September for needlestick injury prevention.5-7 (V)
17, 2015.
C. Do not break or bend sharps. Use a 1-handed
1. United States Pharmacopeial Convention (USP). USP-NF General technique for recapping if necessary.1-4,8-10 (V,
Chapter <797>: pharmaceutical compoundingsterile prepara- Regulatory)
tions. https://www.ascp.com/sites/default/files/USP-797.pdf. D. Activate built-in safety controls during use, and dis-
Published 2011. card as a single unit after use.1-4 (Regulatory)
2. Drug Quality and Security Act. Pub L 113-54. http://www.gpo. E. Dispose of sharps in a sharps container that is clos-
gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-113publ54/html/PLAW-113publ54.htm.
able, puncture resistant, leakproof, appropriately
3. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP). ASHP
labeled or color coded, and large enough to accom-
guidelines on compounding sterile preparations. Am J Health Syst
Pharm. 2014;71(2):145-166.
modate disposal of the entire blood collection assem-
4. National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP). bly (ie, holder and needle).1-4,8,9,11 (V, Regulatory)
Compounding and reconstituting drugs for infusion in establish- 1. Place sharps containers in the immediate area
ments other than pharmacies (resolution 109-6-13). https://www. where sharps are used and are easily accessible.1-4
nabp.net/news/compounding-and-reconstituting-drugs-for-infu- (V, Regulatory)
sion-in-establishments-other-than-pharmacies-resolution- 2. Replace sharps disposal containers when about
109-6-13. Published June 5, 2013. three-fourths full to avoid overfilling and dispos-
5. Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). ISMP Safe al-related injuries.1-3,7,10,12 (V, Regulatory)
Practice Guidelines for Adult IV Push Medications. http://www. F. Educate and train clinicians in the use of safety-
ismp.org/Tools/guidelines/ivsummitpush/ivpushmedguidelines.
engineered devices.1-4,8-10 (V, Regulatory)
pdf. Published 2015.
G. Identify, report, and document exposure to poten-
6. Dolan S, Felizardo G, Barnes S, et al. APIC position paper: safe
injection, infusion, and medication vial practices in healthcare.
tially infectious materials or injury from sharps;
Am J Infect Control. 2010;38(3):167-172. follow organizational protocol for postexposure
7. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L; Healthcare follow-up. Monitor and analyze data for trends and
Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Management of implement performance improvement as needed.1-3,8-10
multidrug-resistant organisms in healthcare settings, 2006. http:// (V, Regulatory)
www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pdf/guidelines/MDROGuideline2006.pdf.
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Safe Injection REFERENCES
Practices Coalition. Single dose or multi-dose? http://www.cdc.
gov/injectionsafety/PDF/SDVMDF_infographic.pdf. Published Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
July 13, 2015. 17, 2015.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S40 05/01/16 11:30 PM

1. Occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens: needlestick and nonintact skin, and mucous membranes and may con-
other sharps injuries. 29 CFR Section 1910. Fed Regist. 1991; tain transmissible infectious agents.
56(235):64003-64282. https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.
show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10051#
1910.1030(d)(2)(vii)(A). Practice Criteria
2. Occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens: needlestick and A. Select personal protective equipment (PPE) based on
other sharps injuries; final rule. 29 CFR Section 1910. Fed Regist.
the nature of the patient interaction and potential
2001;66:5317-5325. https:// www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/
for exposure to blood, body fluids, or infectious
owadisp.show_document?p_id=16265&p_table=FEDERAL_
REGISTER.
agents, and the Centers for Disease Control and
3. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Prevention (CDC) isolation precaution guidelines in
Compliance directive: enforcement procedures for the occupa- effect at the time of the patient encounter for specific
tional exposure to bloodborne pathogens. CPL 02-02-069. communicable diseases (eg, Ebola virus disease).1,2
https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_ (III, Regulatory)
table=DIRECTIVES&p_id=2570. Published November 27, 2001. B. Ensure that sufficient and appropriate PPE is avail-
4. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). able and readily accessible at the point of care.2,3 (V,
Disposal of contaminated needles and blood tube holders used Regulatory)
for phlebotomy. http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/shib101503.html. C. Perform hand hygiene immediately in between each
Published 2004.
step of removing PPE if the hands become contami-
5. Black L. Chinks in the armor: percutaneous injuries from hollow
nated, immediately after removing all PPE, and
bore safety-engineered sharps devices. Am J Infect Control. 2013;
41(5):427-432.
before leaving the patients environment.1,4 (III)
6. Grimmond T, Good L. EXPO-S.T.O.P.: A national survey and D. When wearing PPE, keep the hands away from the
estimate of sharps injuries and mucocutaneous blood exposures face, and limit surfaces touched in the patients envi-
among healthcare workers in USA. J Assoc Occup Health Prof ronment.4 (V)
Healthc. 2013;33(4):31-36. E. Wear gloves that fit appropriately and extend to
7. Tossini W, Ciotti C, Goyer F, et al. Needlestick injury rates cover the wrist of an isolation gown (if worn), when
according to different types of safety-engineered devices: results there is potential contact with blood (eg, during
of a French multicenter study. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. phlebotomy), body fluids, mucous membranes, non-
2010;31(4):402-407. intact skin, or contaminated equipment.1,2,5 (III,
8. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (NIOSH).
Regulatory)
Preventing needlestick injuries in health care settings. Publication
1. Change gloves during patient care when torn or
no. 2000-108. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2000-108 .
Published November 1999.
heavily contaminated, or if moving from a con-
9. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). taminated body site to a clean body site.1,5 (IV)
NIOSH hazard review: occupational hazards in home healthcare. F. Wear a gown to protect skin and clothing during
Publication 2010-125. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2010-125/ procedures or activities in which contact with blood
pdfs/2010-125.pdf. Published January 2010. or body fluids is anticipated.1,2 (III, Regulatory)
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Workbook 1. Do not wear the same gown or gloves when car-
for designing, implementing and evaluating a sharps injury ing for more than 1 patient.1 (IV)
prevention program. http://www.cdc.gov/sharpssafety/pdf/ G. Wear eye protection, which may include goggles
sharpsworkbook_2008.pdf. Published 2008. with a face mask, or face shield alone, to prevent the
11. US Food and Drug Administration. Best way to get rid of used needles
potential splash or spray of blood, respiratory secre-
and other sharps. http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/Productsand
tions, or other body fluids from the mouth, nose,
MedicalProcedures/HomeHealthandConsumer/ConsumerProducts/
Sharps/ucm263240.htm. Published July 22, 2015.
and eyes.1,2 (III, Regulatory)
12. Lavoie MC, Verbeek JH, Pahwa M. Devices for preventing percu- H. Educate the clinician to implement respiratory
taneous exposure injuries caused by needles in healthcare person- hygiene/cough etiquette by covering the mouth/nose
nel. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(3):CD009740. with a tissue when coughing, promptly disposing of
doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009740.pub2. used tissues, and performing hand hygiene.1 (III)
I. Educate the patient and caregiver to implement res-
piratory hygiene/cough etiquette by placing a face
19. STANDARD PRECAUTIONS mask on the coughing person if tolerated and appro-
priate, or covering the mouth/nose with a tissue
when coughing, promptly disposing of used tissues,
Standard
and performing hand hygiene.1 (III)
19.1 Standard Precautions are used during all infusion J. In the home setting when caring for a patient with a
procedures that potentially expose the clinician to blood multidrug-resistant organism (MDRO), following
and body fluids, secretions, excretions except sweat, Standard Precautions, limit reusable patient care
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S41 05/01/16 11:30 PM

equipment and leave in the home until discharged. 20.4 Contact Precautions are implemented to prevent
Clean and disinfect before removing from the home the transmission of infectious agents, which are spread
or transport in a container (eg, plastic bag) to an by direct or indirect contact with the patient or the envi-
appropriate site for cleaning and disinfection.6 (IV) ronment, including when there are excessive bodily
discharges, such as wound drainage.
20.5 Adapt and apply Transmission-Based Precautions
REFERENCES as appropriate for nonacute care settings where
infusion therapy is provided, including long-term care
17, 2015. facilities, home care, and other settings.
1. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L; Healthcare

Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for
Practice Criteria
isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious A. Select and use personal protective equipment (PPE)
agents in healthcare settings. http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/2007ip/ for Transmission-Based Precautions based on the
2007isolationprecautions.html. Published 2007. nature of the patient interaction and potential for
2. Occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens: needlestick and
exposure to blood, body fluids, or infectious agents
other sharps injuries. 29 CFR Section 1910. Fed Regist. 1991;
and the CDC isolation precaution guidelines in
56(235):64003-64282. https:// www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/
owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10051# effect at the time of the patient encounter for spe-
1910.1030(d)(2)(vii)(A). cific communicable diseases (eg, Ebola virus dis-
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Guide to ease).1,2 (III, Regulatory)
infection prevention in outpatient settings: minimum expecta- B. Wear a face mask and observe Droplet Precautions,
tions for safe care. http://www.cdc.gov/HAI/pdfs/guidelines/ in addition to Standard Precautions, when there is
Outpatient-Care-Guide-withChecklist.pdf. Published 2014. potential contact with respiratory secretions and
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Sequence for sprays of blood or body fluids.1,2 (III, Regulatory)
donning and removing personal protective equipment. http:// C. Perform hand hygiene immediately in between each
www.cdc.gov/hai/prevent/ppe.html. Published October 16, 2014.
step of removing PPE if the hands become contami-
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Guideline for
nated, immediately after removing all PPE, and
hand hygiene in healthcare settings: recommendations of the
Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and
before leaving the patients environment.1,3,4 (III)
the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. http:// D. Wear a fit-tested N95-or-higher respirator certified
www.cdc.gov/handhygiene/guidelines.html. Published 2002. by the National Institute for Occupational Safety
6. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M; Healthcare Infection Control and Health (NIOSH) and observe Airborne
Practices Advisory Committee. Management of multi-drug- Precautions, in addition to Standard Precautions, if
resistant organisms in healthcare settings. http://www.cdc.gov/ the patient is suspected or confirmed of having an
hicpac/mdro/mdro_0.html. Published 2006. infection spread by airborne route or Ebola virus
disease to prevent the potential exposure to infec-
tious agents transmitted via the airborne route (eg,
20. TRANSMISSION-BASED M. tuberculosis). Perform fit testing prior to its ini-
PRECAUTIONS tial use and at least annually thereafter.1,3,5 (III,
Regulatory)
Standard E. Maintain Transmission-Based Precautions until it is
20.1 Transmission-Based Precautions, including determined that the cause of the symptoms is not due
Airborne Precautions, Droplet Precautions, and/or to an infectious agent or the duration of the recom-
Contact Precautions, are implemented when strategies mended isolation precautions have been met.1 (III)
in addition to Standard Precautions are required to F. In the home setting, when caring for a patient with
reduce the risk for transmission of infectious agents. a multidrug-resistant organism (MDRO) or on
20.2 Airborne Precautions are implemented to prevent Contact Precautions, limit reusable patient care
the transmission of infectious agents that remain infec- equipment, and leave in the home until discharged.
tious when suspended in the air over long distances or Disinfect before removing from the home in a con-
as recommended by the Centers for Disease Control tainer (eg, plastic bag) or transport to an appropri-
and Prevention (CDC) isolation guidelines in effect at ate site for cleaning and disinfection.6 (IV)
the time of the patient encounter.
20.3 Droplet Precautions are implemented to prevent REFERENCES
transmission of pathogens spread through close respira-
tory or mucous membrane contact with respiratory Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
secretions. 18, 2015.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S42 05/01/16 11:30 PM

1. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L; Healthcare established intervals during long-term single-patient
Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for use.1 (IV)
isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious C. Clean and disinfect DME surfaces with an EPA-
agents in healthcare settings. http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pdf/
registered hospital disinfectant according to the
isolation/Isolation2007.pdf.
labels safety precautions and directions for use.1,2 (V)
2. Bloodborne Pathogens Standard 1910.1030. https://www.osha.
gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=
D. Implement patient-dedicated use of DME when a
STANDARDS&p_id=10051. patient is placed on Contact Precautions. If com-
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Sequence for mon use of medical equipment for multiple patients
donning and removing personal protective equipment. http:// is unavoidable (eg, ultrasound or infrared devices
www.cdc.gov/hai/pdfs/ppe/PPE-Sequence.pdf. Published October for vascular visualization), clean and disinfect the
16, 2014. equipment before use on another patient (see
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Healthcare Standard 20, Transmission-Based Precautions).1,3
Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee; HICPAC/ (III,V)
SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Guideline for hand E. Handle DME according to Standard Precautions.
hygiene in healthcare settings. http://www.cdc.gov/handhygiene/
Wear personal protective equipment (PPEeg,
guidelines.html. Published 2002.
gloves, gown), according to the level of anticipated
5. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
Respiratory Protection Standard 1910.134. https://www.osha.
contamination, when handling patient care equip-
gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table= ment and instruments/devices are visibly soiled or
STANDARDS&p_id=12716. may have been in contact with blood or body
6. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M; Healthcare Infection Control fluids.4 (III)
Practices Advisory Committee. Management of multi-drug- F. Limit the amount of DME that is brought into the
resistant organisms in healthcare settings. http://www.cdc.gov/ home of patients infected or colonized with multi-
hicpac/mdro/mdro_0.html. Published 2006. drug-resistant organisms (MDROs) or on Contact
Precautions. When possible, leave DME in the home
until the patient is discharged (see Standard 20,
21. DISINFECTION OF DURABLE Transmission-Based Precautions).3,4 (IV).
MEDICAL EQUIPMENT G. Place used DME (eg, IV poles, flow-control devices)
in a plastic bag or decontaminate prior to transport to
Standard another location (ie, soiled utility area or warehouse)
21.1 Durable medical equipment (DME), such as intrave- for subsequent cleaning and disinfection.3,4 (IV)
nous (IV) poles; flow-control devices; ultrasound or infra-
red devices for vascular visualization; and other nondis- REFERENCES
posable, hard nonporous surface, infusion-related equip-
ment are cleaned and disinfected using an Environmental Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
Protection Agency (EPA)-registered disinfectant. 18, 2015.
21.2 Cleaning and disinfectant products are used in 1. Rutala W, Weber D; Healthcare Infection Control Practice
accordance with the equipment and manufacturers Advisory Committee (HICPAC). Guideline for disinfection and
directions for use to prevent damage or alteration to the sterilization in healthcare facilities, 2008. http://www.cdc.gov/
function or performance of the equipment. hicpac/Disinfection_Sterilization/acknowledg.html.
2. Rutala W, Weber D. Disinfection and sterilization: an overview.
Am J Infect Control. 2013;41(5):S2-S5.
Practice Criteria 3. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L; Healthcare
Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for
A. Inspect DME surfaces for breaks in integrity that
isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious
would impair either cleaning or disinfection. Discard
agents in healthcare settings. http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/2007IP/
or repair equipment that no longer functions as 2007isolationPrecautions.html.
intended or cannot be properly cleaned and disin- 4. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L; Healthcare
fected.1 (IV) Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Management of
B. Clean and disinfect DME surfaces when visibly multidrug-resistant organisms in healthcare settings, 2006. http://
soiled, on a regular basis (eg, at a frequency defined www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pdf/MDRO/MDROGuideline2006.pdf .
by organizational policies and procedures) and at Published 2015.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S43 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Section Four: Infusion Equipment
Section Standards 3. Variations in skin between patient populations,

such as darker skin tones and excessive hair on
I. To ensure patient safety, the clinician is competent in
the skin.
the use of infusion equipment, including knowledge of
4. Skin alterations, such as the presence of scars or
appropriate indications and contraindications and man-
tattoos.
ufacturers directions for use.
5. Patients age (both neonates and the elderly).
II. The use and maintenance of infusion equipment is
6. Obesity.
established in organizational policies and procedures.
7. Fluid volume deficit.
8. Intravenous drug users.1-7 (III)
B. Consider the use of visible light devices that provide
22. VASCULAR VISUALIZATION
transillumination of the peripheral veins and arteries
in infants and children with difficult venous access.
Standard 1. Use only cold light sources in devices designed
22.1 To ensure patient safety, the clinician is competent for vascular visualization. Thermal burns have
in the use of vascular visualization technology for vas- been reported due to close contact between skin
cular access device (VAD) insertion. This knowledge and the light source when the device emits heat
includes, but is not limited to, appropriate vessels, size, (eg, traditional flashlights).
depth, location, and potential complications. 2. Disinfect the device after each patient use due to
22.2 Vascular visualization technology is used in patients the potential for blood contamination during the
with difficult venous access and/or after failed veni- procedure (refer to Standard 21, Disinfection of
puncture attempts. Durable Medical Equipment).
22.3 Vascular visualization technology is employed to 3. Darken the room to remove ambient light levels
increase the success with peripheral cannulation and when using these devices; ensure adequate light to
decrease the need for central vascular access device (CVAD) observe blood return from the cannula or catheter.
insertion, when other factors do not require a CVAD. 4. Be aware that the light spectrum being used lim-
its the successful location of deep veins due to
high amounts of body fat.1,8-11 (I)
Practice Standard
C. Consider the use of near-infrared (nIR) light technol-
A. Assess the patients medical history for conditions ogy to aid in locating viable superficial peripheral
that may affect the peripheral vasculature and venous sites and decreasing procedure time for short
increase the need for devices to assist in locating peripheral catheter insertion.
venous or arterial insertion sites. Factors that increase 1. Available technology includes hands-free devices
difficulty with locating veins by observation and pal- that capture an image of the veins and reflect it
pation, known as landmark techniques, include but back to the skins surface or to a screen and
are not limited to: transillumination projected to a screen. The clini-
1. Disease processes that result in structural vessel cian may choose to use a static process by imag-
changes (eg, diabetes, hypertension). ing and marking the vein location on the skin or
2. History of frequent venipuncture and/or lengthy a dynamic process of using the image to guide
courses of infusion therapy. catheter insertion. No studies have compared
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S44 05/01/16 11:30 PM

these various methods of device use, leaving this number of needle punctures, and decrease insertion
decision to the discretion of the clinician.1,6,12 complication rates.2,24,25,29-33 (I)
(III) 1. Scan the anatomy prior to insertion to identify
2. Consider nIR light technology to identify periph- vascular anomalies (eg, occlusion or thrombosis)
eral venous sites and facilitate more informed and to assess vein diameter.2,25,29 (IV)
decisions about vein selection (ie, bifurcating 2. Use a real-time or dynamic technique for
veins, tortuosity of veins, palpable but nonvisi- CVAD insertion.2,31 (I)
ble veins). Two nonrandomized studies have 3. For internal jugular insertion sites, the short-axis
shown improvement in first-attempt success for view increases insertion success, and the long-
peripheral catheter insertion using nIR; howev- axis view is technically more difficult to achieve.
er, other studies have not shown this same out- Position the probe vertically to the vein and
come. Additional research is needed to address insert the needle as close to the probe as possible
the reason(s), which could include differences in to keep the needle within view.25,34 (III)
nIR devices, patient-related factors, and skill 4. US-guided saphenous and femoral CVADs placed
level of the inserters before using the nIR in critically ill neonates and infants have out-
devices.11-19 (I) comes equivalent to insertion under fluoroscopy
D. Consider nIR for cannulation of the radial artery at in an interventional radiology suite.35 (IV)
the wrist in children. It was slightly more successful I. Using a long-axis view, US-guided subclavian
on first attempt with a lower total number of catheters are commonly inserted below the clavi-
attempts, although there was no statistical difference cle at the midclavicular line or more laterally. The
or clinical improvement noted.20 (V) puncture site may allow the catheter to enter the
E. Use ultrasonography (US) for short peripheral cath- axillary vein first or, depending upon the trajec-
eter placement in adult and pediatric patients with tory of the needle, may enter the subclavian vein
difficult venous access.2 (II) directly.36 (V)
1. In pediatrics, US significantly reduces the number J. Use a large, sterile transparent membrane dressing
of venipuncture attempts and procedure time. In over the probe (ie, for peripheral catheter insertion)
adults, US studies show a trend toward fewer or sterile sheath cover, and sterile gel.27,37 (V)
venipuncture attempts and reduced risk of periph-
eral catheter failure. There is significant variation REFERENCES
between studies, including use of 1 versus 2 insert-
ers, use of the static versus dynamic techniques, Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
and experience level of the inserters within and 18, 2015.
between studies. Failure rates of US-guided periph- 1. Hadaway L. Infusion therapy equipment. In: Alexander M,
eral catheters vary between studies, with hemato- Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
ma being the most common complication.21 (I) Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
2. Choose a catheter length that will allow suffi- Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:391-436.
cient length residing inside the vein lumen. Vein 2. Lamperti M, Bodenham AR, Pittiruti M, et al. International evi-
depth greater than or equal to 1.2 cm and inser- dence-based recommendations on ultrasound-guided vascular
access. Intensive Care Med. 2012;38(7):1105-1117.
tion into the deep brachial or basilic veins of the
3. Sebbane M, Claret P-G, Lefebvre S, et al. Predicting peripheral
upper arm are associated with shorter survival
venous access difficulty in the emergency department using body
probability; however, vein diameter had no effect mass index and a clinical evaluation of venous accessibility.
on catheter survival. Longer catheter length (ie, J Emerg Med. 2013;44(2):299-305.
12 cm) is reported to have longer survival than 4. Fields JM, Piela NE, Au AK, Ku BS. Risk factors associated with
5-cm catheter length.22,23 (III) difficult venous access in adult ED patients. Am J Emerg Med.
3. Dynamic, or real-time, visualization of the 2014;32(10):1179-1182.
needle position is recommended to prevent vein 5. Shahzad A, Naufal Mohamad Saad M, Walter N, Saeed Malik A,
wall damage.24 (V) Meriaudeau F. A review on subcutaneous veins localization using
4. Use of short axis (out of plane view) versus long imaging techniques. Curr Med Imaging Rev. 2014;10(2):
axis (in plane view) for peripheral catheter inser- 125-133.
6. Peterson KA, Phillips AL, Truemper E, Agrawal S. Does the use
tion depends upon the size and depth of the tar-
of an assistive device by nurses impact peripheral intravenous
get vein and the skill of the inserter.24,25 (V)
catheter insertion success in children? J Pediatr Nurs.
F. Use US guidance for insertion of midline catheters in 2012;27(2):134-143.
patients with difficult venous access.26,27(V) 7. Houston PA. Obtaining vascular access in the obese patient
G. Use US guidance for arterial puncture and catheter population. J Infus Nurs. 2013;36(1):52-56.
placement in adults and children.2,28 (I) 8. ECRI Institute. Hazard report: common flashlights can cause
H. Use US guidance when placing CVADs in adults and burns when used for transillumination. Health Devices. 2003;
children to improve insertion success rates, reduce 32(7):273-274.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S45 05/01/16 11:30 PM

9. Goren A, Laufer J, Yativ N, et al. Transillumination of the palm care unit: a cost-effective proposal for timely central line removal.
for venipuncture in infants. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2001;17(2): J Surg Res. 2014;191(1):1-5.
130-131. 27. Warrington J, William G, Penoyer DA, Kamps TA, Van Hoeck
10. Yamazaki S, Tomita S, Watanabe M, Kawaai H, Shimamura K. EH. Outcomes of using a modified Seldinger technique for long
Effects of a transmitted light device for pediatric peripheral veni- term intravenous therapy in hospitalized patients with difficult
puncture and intravenous cannulation. Med Devices (Auckland, venous access. J Assoc Vasc Access. 2012;17(1):24-30.
NZ). 2011;4:189. 28. Gao Y-B, Yan J-H, Gao F-Q, Pan L, Wang X-Z, Lv C-J. Effects of
11. Heinrichs J, Fritze Z, Klassen T, Curtis S. A systematic review and ultrasound-guided radial artery catheterization: an updated meta-
meta-analysis of new interventions for peripheral intravenous analysis. Am J Emerg Med. 2015;33(1):50-55.
cannulation of children. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2013;29(7): 29. Granziera E, Scarpa M, Ciccarese A, et al. Totally implantable
858-866. venous access devices: retrospective analysis of different insertion
12. Graaff J, Cuper N, Mungra R, Vlaardingerbroek K, Numan S, techniques and predictors of complications in 796 devices
Kalkman C. Near-infrared light to aid peripheral intravenous implanted in a single institution. BMC Surg. 2014;14:27. doi.
cannulation in children: a cluster randomised clinical trial of 10.1186/1471-2482-14-27.
three devices. Anaesthesia. 2013;68(8):835-845. 30. Cotogni P, Pittiruti M. Focus on peripherally inserted central
13. Chiao F, Resta-Flarer F, Lesser J, et al. Vein visualization: patient catheters in critically ill patients. World J Crit Care Med.
characteristic factors and efficacy of a new infrared vein finder 2014;3(4):80-94.
technology. Br J Anaesth. 2013;110(6):966-971. 31. Shekelle PG, Dallas P. Use of real-time ultrasound guidance dur-
14. Hess H. A biomedical device to improve pediatric vascular access ing central line insertion: brief update review. In: Shekelle PG,
success. Pediatr Nurs. 2010;36(5):259-263. Wachter RM, Pronovost PJ, et al, eds. Making Health Care Safer
15. Sun CY, Lee KC, Lin IH, et al. Near-infrared light device can II: An Updated Critical Analysis of the Evidence for Patient
improve intravenous cannulation in critically ill children. Pediatr Safety Practices. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research
Neonatol. 2013;54(3):194-197. and Quality. Published March 2013. http://www.ahrq.gov/sites/
16. van der Woude OC, Cuper NJ, Getrouw C, Kalkman CJ, de default/files/wysiwyg/research/findings/evidence-based-reports/
Graaff JC. The effectiveness of a near-infrared vascular imaging services/quality/ptsafetyII-full.pdf.
device to support intravenous cannulation in children with dark 32. Lalu MM, Fayad A, Ahmed O, et al. Ultrasound-guided subcla-
skin color: a cluster randomized clinical trial. Anesth Analg. vian vein catheterization: a systematic review and metaanalysis.
2013;116(6):1266-1271. Crit Care Med. 2015;43(7):1498-1507.
17. Szmuk P, Steiner J, Pop RB, Farrow-Gillespie A, Mascha EJ, 33. Schiffer CA, Mangu PB, Wade JC, et al. Central venous catheter
Sessler DI. The VeinViewer vascular imaging system worsens care for the patient with cancer: American Society of Clinical
first-attempt cannulation rate for experienced nurses in infants Oncology clinical practice guideline. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31(10):
and children with anticipated difficult intravenous access. Anesth 1357-1370.
Analg. 2013;116(5):1087-1092. 34. Chittoodan S, Breen D, ODonnell BD, Iohom G. Long versus
18. Aulagnier J, Hoc C, Mathieu E, Dreyfus JF, Fischler M, Guen M. short axis ultrasound guided approach for internal jugular vein
Efficacy of AccuVein to facilitate peripheral intravenous place- cannulation: a prospective randomised controlled trial. Med
ment in adults presenting to an emergency department: a rand- Ultrason. 2011;13(1):21-25.
omized clinical trial. Acad Emerg Med. 2014;21(8):858-863. 35. Gaballah M, Krishnamurthy G, Keller MS, McIntosh A, Munson
19. Cuper NJ, de Graaff JC, Verdaasdonk RM, Kalkman CJ. Near- DA, Cahill AM. US-guided placement and tip position confirma-
infrared imaging in intravenous cannulation in children: a cluster tion for lower-extremity central venous access in neonates and
randomized clinical trial. Pediatrics . 2013;131(1): infants with comparison versus conventional insertion. J Vasc
e191-e197. Interv Radiol. 2014;25(4):548-555.
20. Cuper N, De Graaff J, Hartman B, Verdaasdonk R, Kalkman C. 36. Perbet S, Pereira B, Grimaldi F, Dual C, Bazin J-E, Constantin
Difficult arterial cannulation in children: is a near-infrared vascu- J-M. Guidance and examination by ultrasound versus landmark
lar imaging system the answer? Survey Anesthesiol. 2013;57(2): and radiographic method for placement of subclavian central
80-81. venous catheters: study protocol for a randomized controlled
21. Heinrichs J, Fritze Z, Vandermeer B, Klassen T, Curtis S. trial. Trials. 2014;15(1):175.
Ultrasonographically guided peripheral intravenous cannulation 37. Dargin J, Rebholz C, Lowenstein R, Mitchell P, Feldman J.
of children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ultrasonography-guided peripheral intravenous catheter survival
Ann Emerg Med. 2013;61(4):444-454.e1. in ED patients with difficult access. Am J Emerg Med. 2010;
22. Fields JM, Dean AJ, Todman RW, et al. The effect of vessel depth, 28(1):338-345.
diameter, and location on ultrasound-guided peripheral intrave-
nous catheter longevity. Am J Emerg Med. 2012;30(7):1134-1140.
23. Elia F, Ferrari G, Molino P, et al. Standard-length catheters vs
long catheters in ultrasound-guided peripheral vein cannulation.
23. CENTRAL VASCULAR ACCESS
Am J Emerg Med. 2012;30(5):712-716. DEVICE (CVAD) TIP LOCATION
24. Moore CL. Ultrasound first, second, and last for vascular access.
J Ultrasound Med. 2014;33(7):1135-1142. Standard
25. Schindler E, Schears GJ, Hall SR, Yamamoto T. Ultrasound for
vascular access in pediatric patients. Pediatr Anesth. 23.1 Tip location of a central vascular access device
2012;22(10):1002-1007. (CVAD) is determined radiographically or by other imag-
26. Deutsch GB, Sathyanarayana SA, Singh N, Nicastro J. Ultrasound- ing technologies prior to initiation of infusion therapy or
guided placement of midline catheters in the surgical intensive when clinical signs and symptoms suggest tip malposition.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S46 05/01/16 11:30 PM

23.2 The original tip location is documented in the 2. Assess patient for known history of cardiac dys-
patients medical record and made available to other rhythmias and the presence of a P wave on ECG
organizations involved with the patients care. (if available) before planning to use ECG tech-
23.3 The CVAD tip location with the greatest safety nology for placement. Contraindications to the
profile in adults and children is the cavoatrial junction use of ECG technology include patients with an
(CAJ). abnormal ECG rhythm with an absence or alter-
ation in the P wave (eg, presence of pacemakers,
Practice Criteria atrial fibrillation, extreme tachycardia). Follow
manufacturers directions for use in the appropri-
A. Determine the desired catheter length for insertion
ate patient populations.
by anthropometric measurement including, but not
3. Use caution with ultrasound for CVAD tip loca-
limited to, external measurement from the planned
tion, as its use in replacing chest radiographs is
insertion site to the third intercostal space, use of
controversial in all ages due to small sample sizes
formulas to calculate length based on body surface
in available studies and lack of standardized
area, or measurement from preprocedure chest
techniques. Consider use in neonates and in
radiographs.1-3 (IV)
emergency departments when immediate knowl-
B. Avoid CVAD tip locations in veins distal to the
edge of the CVAD tip location is beneficial.
superior or inferior vena cava (eg, innominate or
4. Avoid fluoroscopy except in the case of difficult
brachiocephalic, subclavian, external, or common
CVAD insertions, as it requires exposure to ion-
iliac veins), as they are associated with higher rates
izing radiation.
of complications. These noncentral, suboptimal tip
5. Postprocedure radiograph imaging is not neces-
locations are included in data collection for central
sary if alternative tip location technology con-
line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI)
firms proper tip placement.3,12-18 (II)
surveillance according to the National Healthcare
F. Confirmation of tip location by postprocedure chest
Safety Network from the Centers for Disease Control
radiograph remains acceptable practice and is
and Prevention (CDC). Although these tip locations
required in the absence of technology used during
may be clinically indicated in rare cases due to ana-
the procedure. This method is less accurate because
tomical or pathophysiological changes, the goal for
the CAJ cannot be seen on the radiograph, requiring
tip location should be the CAJ.4-8 (IV)
identification of tip location by measurement from
C. Position the tip of a CVAD in the lower segment of the carina, trachea-bronchial angle, or thoracic ver-
the superior vena cava at or near the CAJ for adults tebral bodies. Additionally, a change in the patient
and children. position from supine to standing, usually required
1. For upper body insertion sites, respiratory move- for the radiograph, results in movement of the cath-
ment, arm movement, and changes in body posi- eter tip by as much as 2 cm.3,11,12,19,20 (II)
tion will cause the CVAD tip to move above or G. Recognize that radiographic or ECG tip location
below the CAJ, indicating excursion into the upper technology does not differentiate between venous
right atrium. Tip location deeper in the right atri- and arterial placement. When arterial placement is
um near the tricuspid valve or in the right ventricle suspected, use other methods to confirm or rule out
is associated with cardiac arrhythmias.9-11 (II) arterial placement (refer to Standard 53, Central
2. For lower body insertion sites, the CVAD tip Vascular Access Device [CVAD] Malposition).
should be located in the inferior vena cava above H. Clinicians with documented competency determine
the level of the diaphragm.3 (IV) the tip location of a CVAD by using ECG or assess-
D. Avoid intracardiac tip location in neonates and ing the postprocedure chest radiograph and initiate
infants less than 1 year of age, as this tip location infusion therapy based on this assessment. When a
has been associated with vessel erosion and cardiac postprocedure chest radiograph is used, the radi-
tamponade.6,10 (II) ologist as directed by organizational policies and
E. Use methods for identifying CVAD tip location dur- procedures authors the complete report.2,21 (V)
ing the insertion procedure (ie, real time) due to I. Document the CVAD tip location by including a
greater accuracy, more rapid initiation of infusion copy of the ECG tracing, chest radiograph report,
therapy, and reduced costs. or other appropriate report in the medical record
1. Use electrocardiogram (ECG) methods with (refer to Standard 10, Documentation in the Medical
either a metal guidewire or a column of normal Record).
saline inside the catheter lumen and observe the
ECG tracing to place the CVAD tip at the CAJ. REFERENCES
Follow manufacturers directions for use with
other ECG-based technology using a changing Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
light pattern to detect tip location. 18, 2015.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S47 05/01/16 11:30 PM

1. Stroud A, Zalieckas J, Tan C, Tracy S, Zurakowski D, Mooney 17. Saul T, Doctor M, Kaban NL, Avitabile NC, Siadecki SD, Lewiss
DP. Simple formulas to determine optimal subclavian central RE. The ultrasound-only central venous catheter placement and
venous catheter tip placement in infants and children. J Pediatr confirmation procedure. J Ultrasound Med. 2015;34(7):1301-
Surg. 2014;49(7):1109-1112. 1306.
2. Bullock-Corkhill M. Central venous access devices: access and 18. Alonso-Quintela P, Oulego-Erroz I, Silvia R-B, Manoel M-F,
insertion. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins Santiago L, Antonio R. Location of the central venous catheter
J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based tip with bedside ultrasound in young children: can we eliminate
Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010: the need for chest radiography? Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2015;
480-494. 16(9):e340-5.
3. Perin G, Scarpa M. Defining central venous line position in chil- 19. Song Y, Byun J, Hwang S, Kim C, Shim S. Use of vertebral body
dren: tips for the tip. J Vasc Access. 2015;16(2):77-86. units to locate the cavoatrial junction for optimum central venous
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Bloodstream catheter tip positioning. Br J Anaesth. 2015;115(2):252-257.
infection event (central line-associated bloodstream infection and 20. Vesely T. Central venous catheter tip position: a continuing con-
non-central line associated bloodstream infection). http://www. troversy. J Vasc Intervent Radiol. 2003;14:527-534.
cdc.gov/nhsn/PDFs/pscManual/4PSC_CLABScurrent.pdf . 21. Infusion Nurses Society (INS). The role of the registered nurse in
Published January 2015. Updated April 2015. determining distal tip placement of peripherally inserted central
5. Jumani K, Advani S, Reich NG, Gosey L, Milstone AM. Risk catheters by chest radiograph. J Infus Nurs. 2010;33(1):19-20.
factors for peripherally inserted central venous catheter complica-
tions in children. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167(5):429-435.
6. Blackwood BP, Farrow KN, Kim S, Hunter CJ. Peripherally 24. FLOW-CONTROL DEVICES
inserted central catheters complicated by vascular erosion in neo-
nates [published online February 19, 2015]. J Parenter Enteral
Standard
Nutr. doi:10.1177/0148607115574000.
7. Jain A, Deshpande P, Shah P. Peripherally inserted central catheter 24.1 Factors to be considered in the choice of a flow-
tip position and risk of associated complications in neonates. J control device include patient age and condition, pre-
Perinatol. 2013;33(4):307-312. scribed infusion therapy, and care setting.
8. Westergaard B, Classen V, Walther-Larsen S. Peripherally insert-
24.2 Administration sets with antifree-flow mecha-
ed central catheters in infants and children: indications, tech-
nisms are used with electronic infusion devices (EIDs).
niques, complications and clinical recommendations. Acta
Anaesthesiol Scand. 2013;57(3):278-287.
24.3 Dose-error reduction systems are considered in the
9. Shah PN, Kane D, Appukutty J. Depth of central venous cathe- selection and use of EIDs.
terization by intracardiac electrocardiogram in adults. Anesthesiol
Pain Med. 2013;2(3):111-114. Practice Criteria
10. Pittiruti M, Lamperti M. Late cardiac tamponade in adults sec-
ondary to tip position in the right atrium: an urban legend? A A. Choose a flow-control device for a given clinical
systematic review of the literature. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. application taking into account factors such as age,
2015;29(2):491-495. acuity, and mobility of the patient; severity of illness;
11. Chopra V, Flanders SA, Saint S, et al. The Michigan appropriate- type of therapy; dosing considerations; health care
ness guide for intravenous catheters (MAGIC): results from a setting; and the potential for side effects or adverse
multispecialty panel using the RAND/UCLA appropriateness effects of the therapy.1-6 (V)
method. Ann Intern Med. 2015;163(suppl 6):S1-S39. 1. Use manual flow-control devices such as flow
12. Pittiruti M, Bertollo D, Briglia E, et al. The intracavitary ECG
regulators and pressure bags or mechanical
method for positioning the tip of central venous catheters: results
pumps such as elastomeric balloon pumps,
of an Italian multicenter study. J Vasc Access. 2012;13(3):
357-365.
spring-based pumps, and negative-pressure
13. Zanobetti M, Coppa A, Bulletti F, et al. Verification of correct pumps for lower-risk infusions.1-5 (V)
central venous catheter placement in the emergency department: 2. Use EIDs for the administration of infusion
comparison between ultrasonography and chest radiography. therapies that require precise flow control and
Intern Emerg Med. 2013;8(2):173-180. for patient safety. Features (eg, antifree-flow
14. Katheria A, Fleming S, Kim J. A randomized controlled trial of protection, air-in-line, occlusion alarms) should
ultrasound-guided peripherally inserted central catheters com- be consistent with recommendations for safe and
pared with standard radiograph in neonates. J Perinatol. effective use.1-7 (V)
2013;33(10):791-794. 3. Consider use of smart pumps with dose-error
15. Gaballah M, Krishnamurthy G, Keller MS, McIntosh A, Munson
reduction software as they are associated with
DA, Cahill AM. US-guided placement and tip position confirma-
reduced risk for infusion-related medication
tion for lower-extremity central venous access in neonates and
infants with comparison versus conventional insertion. J Vasc
errors including error interceptions (eg, wrong
Intervent Radiol. 2014;25(4):548-555. rate) and reduced adverse drug events (refer to
16. Gekle R, Dubensky L, Haddad S, et al. Saline flush test: can bed- Standard 13, Medication Verification).
side sonography replace conventional radiography for confirma- B. Monitor flow-control devices during the administration
tion of above-the-diaphragm central venous catheter placement? of infusion therapy to ensure safe and accurate delivery
J Ultrasound Med. 2015;34(7):1295-1299. of the prescribed infusion rate and volume.1,8-15 (IV)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S48 05/01/16 11:30 PM

C. Do not rely on EID alarms to detect intravenous (IV) 11. Rothschild JM, Keohane CA, Cook EF, et al. A controlled trial of
infiltration or extravasation, as these alarms are not smart infusion pumps to improve medication safety in critically
intended to detect disruption of the fluid flow path- ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(3):679-680.
12. Nuckols T, Bower A, Paddock S, et al. Programmable infusion
way.13-15 (V)
pumps in ICUs: an analysis of corresponding adverse drug events.
D. Standardize the types of pumps used in an organiza-
J Gen Intern Med. 2007;23(suppl 1):41-45.
tion. When feasible, pumps available in the setting 13. Institute for Healthcare Improvement. Reduce adverse drug
should be standardized to promote user familiarity events (ADEs) involving intravenous medications. http://www.
with operation. Involve end users in the evaluation ihi.org/resources/Pages/Changes/ReduceAdverseDrugEvents
and selection of flow-control devices (see Standard InvolvingIntravenousMedications.aspx. Published 2015.
12, Product Evaluation, Integrity, and Defect 14. Iian R, Fowler FA, Ferguson ND, et al. Prolonged time to alarm
Reporting).2-4,16-25 (IV) in infusion devices operated at low flow rates. Crit Care Med.
E. Recognize the problem of alarm fatigue with multi- 2008;36(10):2763-2765.
ple electronic monitoring and therapeutic devices. 15. Pennsylvania Patient Safety Reporting System. IV infiltration: be
Implement evidence-based recommendations (eg, alarmed even when your infusion pump isnt. Patient Saf Advis.
2007;4(3):1-4.
alarm parameter settings) from professional agencies
16. Huber C. IV infusion alarms: dont wait for the beep. Am J Nurs.
through an interprofessional team process.3,25 (III)
2009;109(4):32-33.
F. Educate patients and/or caregivers in the home care 17. Bowcutt M, Rosenkoetter MM, Chernecky CC, Wall J, Wynn D,
setting about safe and effective use of flow-control Serrano C. Implementation of an intravenous medication infusion
devices using appropriate teaching materials and pump system: implications for nursing. J Nurs Manage.
methods (see Standard 8, Patient Education).6,26,27 2008;16(2):188-197.
(V) 18. Carayon P, Hundt A, Wetterneck T. Nurses acceptance of smart
IV pump technology. Int J Med Inform. 2010(6);79(6):401-411.
19. Nemeth C, Nunnally M, Bitan Y, Nunnally S, Cook RI. Between
REFERENCES choice and chance: the role of human factors in acute care equip-
ment decisions. J Patient Saf. 2009;5(2):114-121.
Note: All online references in this section were accessed August 25,
20. Breland B. Continuous quality improvement using intelligent
2015.
infusion pump data analysis. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2010;
1. Hadaway L. Infusion therapy equipment. In: Alexander M, 67(17):1446-1455.
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R. Infusion Nursing: 21. Skledar S, Niccolai C, Schilling D, et al. Quality-improvement
An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/ analytics for intravenous infusion pumps. Am J Health Syst
Elsevier; 2010:391-436. Pharm. 2013;70(8):680-686.
2. Weinstein SM. Infusion delivery systems and safety. In: Weinstein 22. Adachi W, Lodolce AE. Use of failure mode and effects analysis
SM, Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and Practice of Infusion in improving the safety of IV drug administration. Am J Health
Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Syst Pharm. 2005;62(9):917-920.
Williams & Wilkins; 2014:267-302. 23. Elias B, Moss J. Smart pump technology: what we have learned.
3. Emergency Care Research Institute (ECRI). Top 10 technology Comput Inform Nurs. 2011;29(3):184-190.
hazards 2015. https://www.ecri.org/Pages/2015-Hazards.aspx. 24. US Food and Drug Administration. Manufacturer and user facil-
4. Phillips LD, Gorski LA. Manual of IV Therapeutics: Evidence- ity device experience (MAUDE). http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/
Based Practice for Infusion Therapy. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: FA scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfMAUDE/search.CFM. Updated August 15,
Davis; 2014: 285-299. 2015.
5. Alexander M, Gorski L, Corrigan A, Bullock M, Dickenson A, 25. Cvach M. Monitor alarm fatigue: an integrative review. Bio Med
Earhart A. Technical and clinical application. In: Alexander M, Instrum Technol. 2012;46(4):268-277.
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Phillips L, eds. Core Curriculum for 26. US Food and Drug Administration. Infusion pump risk reduction
Infusion Nursing. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/ strategies for home health nurses. http://www.fda.gov/
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014:28-33. MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/GeneralHospital
6. Broadhurst D. Transition to an elastomeric infusion pump in DevicesandSupplies/InfusionPumps/ucm205411.htm. Published
home care. J Infus Nurs. 2012;35(3):143-151. April 22, 2010.
7. US Food and Drug Administration. Infusion pump risk reduction 27. US Food and Drug Administration. Home healthcare medical
strategies. http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/Productsand devices: a checklist. http://www.fda.gov/medicaldevices/product-
MedicalProcedures/GeneralHospitalDevicesandSupplies/Infusion sandmedicalprocedures/homehealthandconsumer/ucm070217.
Pumps/ucm202498.htm. htm. Updated May 5, 2015.
8. Hicks R, Becker S. An overview of intravenous-related medica-
tion administration errors as reported to MEDMARK, a
national medication error-reporting program. J Infus Nurs. 2006; 25. BLOOD AND FLUID WARMING
29(1):20-27.
9. Hertzel C, Sousa VD. Use of smart pumps for preventing medica- Standard
tion errors. J Infus Nurs. 2009;32(5):257-267.
10. Murdoch LJ, Cameron VL. Smart infusion technology: a mini- 25.1 Blood and fluid warming are performed only with
mum safety standard for intensive care? Br J Surg. 2008;17(10): devices specifically designed for that purpose.
630-636. 25.2 Blood is warmed in a manner to avoid hemolysis.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S49 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Practice Criteria 1. AABB. Standards for Blood Banks and Transfusion Services. 29th
ed. Bethesda, MD: AABB; 2014.
A. Use blood and fluid warmers only when warranted 2. AABB. Primer of Blood Administration (Revised September
by patient history, clinical condition, and prescribed 2010). Bethesda, MD: AABB; 2010.
therapy including, but not limited to, avoiding or 3. Smith C, Wagner K. Principles of fluid and blood warming in
treating hypothermia intraoperatively, during treat- trauma. Int Trauma Care. 2008;18(1):71-79.
ment of trauma, or from exposure, during plasma 4. ECRI Institute. Suggested guidelines for blood warmer use. http://
exchange for therapeutic apheresis, for patients www.mdsr.ecri.org/summary/detail.aspx?doc_id=8269.
known to have clinically significant cold agglutinins, 5. Maynard K. Administration of blood components. In: Fung MK,
Grossman BJ, Hillyer CD, Westhoff CM, eds. American
for neonate exchange transfusions, or during replace-
Association of Blood Banks Technical Manual. 18th ed. Bethesda,
ment of large blood volumes.1-11 (II)
MD: AABB; 2014:545-559.
B. Use only a US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)- 6. Hasankhani H, Mohammadi E, Moazzami F, Mokhtari M,
cleared blood warming device when clinically indi- Naghgizadh MM. The effects of intravenous fluids temperature
cated and in accordance with the manufacturers on perioperative hemodynamic situation, post-operative shiver-
directions for use, such as with large-volume or rapid ing, and recovery in orthopaedic surgery. Can Oper Room Nurs
transfusions, exchange transfusions, patients with J. 2007;25(1):20-27.
clinically significant conditions, and the neonate/ 7. Woolnough M, Allam J, Hemingway M, Cox M, Yentis SM.
pediatric population. The risk for clinically impor- Intra-operative fluid warming in elective caesarean section: a
tant hypothermia is increased when blood is trans- blinded randomized controlled trial. Int J Obstet Anesth.
fused through a central vascular access device (CVAD) 2009;18(4):346-351.
8. Torossian A. Thermal management during anaesthesia and ther-
(see Standard 62, Transfusion Therapy).1,5,11,12 (V)
moregulation standards for the prevention of inadvertent periop-
C. Use blood and fluid warmers equipped with warning
erative hypothermia. Best Pract Res Clin Anesth. 2008;22(4):
systems, including an audible alarm and visual tem- 659-668.
perature gauges and within the maintenance date.12 (V) 9. Self W, White S, McNaughton C, Storrow A, Slovis C, Collins S.
D. Do not use warming methods not expressly designed Warming intravenous fluids for improved patient comfort in the
for blood and fluid warming including, but not lim- emergency department: a pilot crossover randomized controlled
ited to, microwave ovens, hot water baths, and trial. West J Emerg Med. 2013;14(5):542-546.
other devices because temperatures and infection 10. Jeong S-M, Hahm K-D, Jeong Y-B, Yang H-S, Choi I-C. Warming
risks cannot be controlled.1,4,12 (V) of intravenous fluids prevents hypothermia during off-pump
E. Do not warm solutions and blood above a set point coronary artery bypass graft surgery. J Cardiothoracic Vasc
temperature recommended by the manufacturer of Anesth. 2008;22(1):67-70.
11. Trick N. Blood component therapy. In: Alexander M, Corrigan
the warming device.8 (V)
A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An
F. Warming of contrast media is sometimes performed in
Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/
the radiology or surgical environment to reduce the Elsevier; 2010:242-262.
viscosity and may help to reduce extravasation of 12. ASTM International. ASTM F2172-02(2011): standard specifica-
higher-viscosity contrast media. When contrast media tion for blood/intravenous fluid/irrigation fluid warmers. http://
is warmed, use a temperature log for the warmer, and www.astm.org/Standards/F2172.htm. Published 2011.
follow the device manufacturers guidelines for main- 13. Davenport M, Wang C, Bashir M, Neville A, Paulson E. Rate of
tenance of the warming device. Consult the manufac- contrast material extravasations and allergic-like reactions:
turers package insert for the specific contrast agent effect of extrinsic warming of low-osmolality iodinated CT
regarding whether warming is contraindicated.13,14 (V) contrast material to 37. Radiology. 2012;262(2):
475-484.
REFERENCES 14. American College of Radiology. ACR Manual on Contrast
Media. Version 10.1, 2015. http://www.acr.org//media/37D84
Note: All references in this section were accessed August 26, 2015. 428BF1D4E1B9A3A2918DA9E27A3.pdf.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S50 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Section Five: Vascular Access Device

(VAD) Selection and Placement
Section Standards Practice Criteria

I. To ensure patient safety, the clinician is competent in I. Short Peripheral Catheters
the use and placement of vascular access devices
(VADs), including knowledge of anatomy, physiology, A. Choose a short peripheral catheter as follows:
and appropriate infusion therapies for each type of 1. Consider the infusate characteristics (eg, irritant,
VAD. vesicant, osmolarity) in conjunction with antici-
II. Indications and protocols for VAD selection and pated duration of infusion therapy (eg, less than 6
placement are established in organizational policies, days) and availability of peripheral vascular access
procedures, and/or practice guidelines and according to sites.1-7 (IV)
manufacturers directions for use. 2. Use vascular visualization technology (eg, near
infrared, ultrasound) to increase success for
patients with difficult venous access (refer to
26. VASCULAR ACCESS DEVICE
Standard 22, Vascular Visualization).
(VAD) PLANNING
3. Do not use peripheral catheters for continuous
vesicant therapy, parenteral nutrition, or infusates
Standard with an osmolarity greater than 900 mOsm/L (see
26.1 The appropriate type of vascular access device Standard 58, Antineoplastic Therapy; Standard
(VAD), peripheral or central, is selected to accommo- 61, Parenteral Nutrition).1-3, 6-8 (IV)
date the patients vascular access needs based on the B. Select the smallest-gauge peripheral catheter that
prescribed therapy or treatment regimen; anticipated will accommodate the prescribed therapy and patient
duration of therapy; vascular characteristics; and need1,4: (V)
patients age, comorbidities, history of infusion therapy, 1. Consider a 20- to 24-gauge catheter for most infu-
preference for VAD location, and ability and resources sion therapies. Peripheral catheters larger than 20
available to care for the device. gauge are more likely to cause phlebitis.1-4,9 (IV)
26.2 Selection of the most appropriate VAD occurs as 2. Consider a 22- to 24- gauge catheter for neo-
a collaborative process among the interprofessional nates, pediatric patients, and older adults to
team, the patient, and the patients caregiver(s). minimize insertion-related trauma.1-4 (V)
26.3 The VAD selected is of the smallest outer diameter 3. Consider a larger-gauge catheter (16-20 gauge)
with the fewest number of lumens and is the least inva- when rapid fluid replacement is required, such as
sive device needed for the prescribed therapy. with trauma patients, or a fenestrated catheter
26.4 Peripheral vein preservation is considered when for a contrast-based radiographic study.1-4,10 (IV)
planning for vascular access. 4. Use a 20- to 24- gauge catheter based on vein
26.5 Safety-engineered devices are selected and consist- size for blood transfusion: when rapid transfu-
ently activated and/or used. sion is required, a larger-size catheter gauge is
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S51 05/01/16 11:30 PM

recommended (refer to Standard 62, Transfusion 1. Use a PICC with caution in patients who have
Therapy) cancer or are critically ill due to venous thrombo-
5. Use steel winged devices only for single-dose sis and infection risk.19,20 (III)
administration. The device is not left in place.1-3,5 2. Measure the vein diameter using ultrasound
(IV) before insertion and consider choosing a catheter
with a catheter-to-vein ratio of 45% or less (refer
to Standard 52, Central Vascular Access Device
II. Midline Catheters
[CVAD]-Associated Venous Thrombosis).
A. Choose a midline catheter as follows:
3. Do not use a PICC as an infection prevention
1. Consider infusate characteristics in conjunction
strategy.18,20 (III)
with anticipated duration of treatment (eg, 1-4
D. Collaborate with the interprofessional team to con-
weeks).1-3,5 (IV)
sider anti-infective CVADs in the following circum-
2. Consider a midline catheter for medications and
stances, as anti-infective CVADs have shown a
solutions such as antimicrobials, fluid replace-
decrease in colonization and/or CLABSI in some
ment, and analgesics with characteristics that are
settings.5,18 (I)
well tolerated by peripheral veins.11-14 (V)
1. Expected dwell of more than 5 days.
3. Do not use midline catheters for continuous vesi-
2. CLABSI rate remains high even after employing
cant therapy, parenteral nutrition, or infusates
other preventive strategies.
with an osmolarity greater than 900 mOsm/L
3. Patients with enhanced risk of infection (ie, neu-
(see Standard 61, Parenteral Nutrition).1-3, 6,11
tropenic, transplant, burn, or critically ill
(V)
patients).
4. Use caution with intermittent vesicant adminis-
4. Emergency insertions.
tration due to risk of undetected extravasation.
5. Do not use anti-infective CVADs in patients with
The administration of vancomycin for less than
allergies to the anti-infective substances, such as
6 days through a midline catheter was found to
chlorhexidine, silver sulfadiazine, rifampin, or
be safe in 1 study.1-3, 15 (IV)
minocycline.
5. Avoid the use of a midline catheter when the
E. Consider an implanted vascular access port for
patient has a history of thrombosis, hypercoagu-
patients who are anticipated to require intermittent
lability, decreased venous flow to the extremities,
long-term infusion therapy (eg, antineoplastic thera-
or end-stage renal disease requiring vein
py). When used intermittently, ports have a lower
preservation.1,16-17 (IV)
incidence of catheter-related bloodstream infection
(CR-BSI); however, continuous port access has infec-
III. Central Vascular Access Devices (CVADs) tion rates that are similar to other long-term
(Nontunneled, Tunneled, Implanted Ports) CVADs.3,6,21-23 (IV)
A. Use CVADs to administer any type of infusion 1. Contraindications to vascular access port inser-
therapy.3,6,17 (V) tion include severe uncorrectable coagulopathy,
B. To minimize unnecessary CVAD placement, identify uncontrolled sepsis or positive blood culture, and
an evidence-based list of indications for CVAD use burns, trauma, or neoplasm that preclude chest
including, but not limited to18: (IV) wall placement.22-23 (V)
1. Clinical instability of the patient and/or complex- 2. Radiologically guided insertion of implanted vas-
ity of infusion regimen (multiple infusates). cular access ports in the forearm may be an alter-
2. Episodic chemotherapy treatment anticipated for native site for patients in whom chest ports can-
more than 3 months. not be implanted.24 (IV)
3. Prescribed continuous infusion therapy (eg, par- 3. The implanted vascular access port, when not
enteral nutrition, fluid and electrolytes, medica- accessed, has the advantage of allowing for ease
tions, blood or blood products). of bathing and swimming and is associated with
4. Invasive hemodynamic monitoring. an improved patient self-image.2,17 (V)
5. Long-term intermittent infusion therapy (eg, any F. Consider a cuffed, tunneled CVAD for patients who
medication including anti-infectives in patients are anticipated to require intermittent or continuous
with a known or suspected infection). long-term infusion therapy (eg, antineoplastic thera-
6. History of failed or difficult peripheral venous py, parenteral nutrition).6,17,25 (V)
access, if use of ultrasound guidance has failed. G. Consider the need for a CVAD that is designed for
C. Recognize risks with peripherally inserted central power injection and know the pressure limits and
catheters (PICCs), including venous thrombosis and other limitations (eg, maximum number of power
an increased risk for central line-associated blood- injections) of the device and all attached or add-on
stream infection (CLABSI) in hospitalized patients. devices (eg, implanted port access needle, extension
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S52 05/01/16 11:30 PM

set, needleless connector) to avoid catheter rup- comparing 18-gauge nonfenestrated and 20-gauge fenestrated
ture.26-27 (V) catheters for catheter placement success, infusion rate, image
H. Plan proactively for a fistula or graft for patients quality, and complications. Am J Roentgenol. 2014;202(6):
1166-1170.
with chronic kidney disease (CKD) as a permanent
11. Alexandrou E, Ramjan L, Spencer T, et al. The use of midline
access for dialysis (refer to Standard 29, Hemodialysis
catheters in the adult acute care setting: clinical implications and
Vascular Access Devices [VADs]). recommendations for practice. J Assoc Vasc Access. 2011;16(1):
35-41.
IV. Arterial Catheters 12. Sharp R, Esterman A, McCutcheon H, Hearse N. The safety and
efficacy of midlines compared to peripherally inserted central
A. Place a peripheral arterial or pulmonary arterial
catheter for adult cystic fibrosis patients: a retrospective, observa-
catheter for short-term use for hemodynamic moni-
tional study. Int J Nurs Stud. 2014;51(5):694-702.
toring, obtaining blood samples, and analyzing 13. Deutsch GB, Sathyanarayana SA, Singh N, Nicastro J. Ultrasound
blood gas in critically ill patients.5 (V) guided placement of midline catheters in the surgical intensive
B. The most commonly used catheter gauge for radial care unit: a cost-effective proposal for timely central line removal.
catheters is a 20-gauge catheter; a low rate of com- J Clin Res. 2013;191(1):1-5.
plications was documented in one large study.28 (V) 14. Cummings M, Hearse N, McCutcheon H, Deuter K. Improving
antibiotic treatment outcomes through the implementation of a
midline: piloting a change in practice for cystic fibrosis patients.
REFERENCES J Vasc Nurs. 2011;29(1):11-15.
15. Caparas JV, Hu JP. Safe administration of vancomycin through a
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed August novel midline catheter: a randomized, prospective clinical trial. J
31, 2015. Assoc Vasc Access. 2014;15(4):251-256.
1. Perucca, R. Peripheral venous access devices. In: Alexander M, 16. National Kidney Foundation Vascular Access Work Group;
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (KDOQI). Clinical
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: practice guidelines and recommendations for vascular access. Am
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:456-479. J Kidney Dis. 2006;48(1)(suppl 1):S248-S273.
2. Hagle ME, Mikell M. Peripheral venous access. In: Weinstein SM, 17. Bullock-Corkhill M. Central vascular access device access and
Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and Practice of Infusion insertion. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J,
Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach.
Williams & Wilkins; 2014:303-334. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:
3. Alexander M, Gorski L, Corrigan A, Bullock M, Dickenson A, 480-494.
Earhart A. Technical and clinical application. In: Alexander M, 18. Marschall J, Mermel LA, Fakih M, et al; Society for Healthcare
Corrigan M, Gorski L, Phillips L, eds. Core Curriculum for Epidemiology of America. Strategies to prevent central line-asso-
Infusion Nursing. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/ ciated bloodstream infections in acute care hospitals: 2014
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014:1-85. update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(7):753-771.
4. Fabian B. Infusion therapy in the older adult. In: Alexander M, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/676533.
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion 19. Chopra V, Anand S, Hickner A, et al. Risk of venous thromboem-
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: bolism associated with peripherally inserted central catheters: a
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:571-582. systemic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2013;382(9889):
5. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the 311-325.
prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http:// 20. Chopra V, OHoro J, Rogers M, et al. The risk of bloodstream
www.cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published infection associated with peripherally inserted central catheters
April 2011. compared with central venous catheters in adults: a systematic
6. Chopra V, Flanders SA, Saint S, et al. The Michigan review and meta-analysis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol.
Appropriateness Guide for Intravenous Catheters (MAGIC): 2013;34(9):908-918.
results from an international panel using the RAND/UCLA 21. Loveday H, Wilson J, Pratt M, et al. epic3: National evidence-
Appropriateness Method. Ann Intern Med. 2015;163(suppl based guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated infections
6):S1-S39. in NHS hospitals in England. J Hosp Infect. 2013;86(suppl 1):
7. Gorski L, Hagle M, Bierman S. Intermittently delivered IV medi- S1-S70.
cation and pH: reevaluating the evidence. J Infus Nurs. 22. Walser E. Venous access ports: indications, implantation tech-
2015;38(1):27-46. nique, follow-up, and complications. Cardiovasc Intervent
8. Boullata JI, Gilbert K, Sacks G, Labossiere RJ, Crill C, Goday P; Radiol. 2012;35(4):751-764.
American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.) 23. Piran S, Ngo V, McDiarmid S, LeGal G, Petrcich W, Carrier M.
A.S.P.E.N. clinical guidelines: parenteral nutrition ordering, order Incidence and risk factors of symptomatic venous thromboembo-
review, compounding, labeling, and dispensing. J Parenter Enteral lism related to implanted ports in cancer patients. Thromb Res.
Nutr. 2014. doi:10.1177/0148607114521833. 2014;133:30-33.
9. Wallis MC, McGrail M, Webster J. Risk factors for peripheral 24. Wildgruber M, Borgmeyer S, Haller B, et al. Short-term and long-
intravenous catheter failure: a multivariate analysis of data from term outcome of radiological-guided insertion of central venous
an RCT. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(1):63-68. access port devices implanted at the forearm: a retrospective
10. Johnson P, Christensen G, Fishman E. IV contrast administration monocenter analysis in 1794 patients. Eur Radiol. 2015;25:
with dual source 128-MDCT: a randomized controlled study 606-616.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S53 05/01/16 11:30 PM

25. Moller T, Adamsen L. Hematologic patients clinical and psycho- 3. Avoid the hand or fingers, or the thumb/finger
social experiences with implanted long-term central venous cath- used for sucking.
eter. Cancer Nurs. 2010;33(6):426-435. 4. Avoid veins in the right arm of infants and chil-
26. Slaby J, Navuluri R. Chest port fracture caused by power injec-
dren after procedures treating congenital cardiac
tion. Semin Intervent Radiol. 2011;28(3):357-358.
defects that may have decreased blood flow to
27. Smith L. Implanted ports, computed tomography, power injectors,
and catheter rupture. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2008;12(5):809-812.
the subclavian artery.5,12-15 (V)
28. Nuttall G, Burckhardt J, Kane HA, et al. Surgical and patient risk C. For all patients:
factors for severe arterial line complications in adults. 1. Discuss with the patient the arm preference for
Anesthesiology. 2015 Dec 4. [Epub ahead of print] VAD site selection, including a recommendation
to use sites in the nondominant arm.6,7,16,17 (V)
2. Avoid the ventral surface of the wrist due to pain
27. SITE SELECTION on insertion and possible nerve damage (refer to
Standard 47, Nerve Injuries).
Standard 3. Avoid areas of flexion and areas of pain on pal-
27.1 Select the vein or site that best accommodates the pation; avoid compromised areas and sites distal
outer diameter and length of the vascular access device to these compromised areas, such as areas with
(VAD) required for the prescribed therapy. open wounds; areas on an extremity with an
27.2 Peripheral vein preservation is considered when infection; veins that are compromised (eg,
selecting a site for infusion therapy. bruised, infiltrated, phlebitic, sclerosed, corded,
27.3 Assess the patients condition; age; diagnosis; or engorged); areas of valves; areas of previous
comorbidities; condition of the vasculature at the inser- infiltration or extravasation; and areas of planned
tion site and proximal to the intended insertion site; procedures.3,4,7,11,13,18 (V)
condition of skin at intended insertion site; history of 4. Avoid veins in an upper extremity on the side of
previous venipunctures and access devices; type and breast surgery with axillary node dissection, with
duration of infusion therapy; and patient preference for lymphedema, or with an arteriovenous fistula/
VAD site selection. graft; after radiation therapy to that side of the
27.4 Placement of central vascular access devices body; or the affected extremity from a cerebro-
(CVADs) by clinicians competent in the procedure is vascular accident. For patients with chronic kid-
established in organizational policies, procedures, and/ ney disease, avoid unnecessary venipuncture of
or practice guidelines and in accordance with rules and peripheral veins in the upper extremity intended
regulations promulgated by the states Board of Nursing for future vascular access. A collaborative discus-
or other licensing agency. sion with the patient and the licensed independ-
ent practitioner (LIP) is needed to discuss the
benefits and risks of using a vein in an affected
Practice Criteria extremity (see Standard 29, Hemodialysis
I. Peripheral Venous Access via Short Vascular Access Devices [VADs]).7,19-25 (V)
Peripheral Catheters 5. Cannulation of hemodialysis fistulas, grafts, and
A. For adult patients: catheters for infusion therapy requires the order
1. Use the venous site most likely to last the full of a nephrologist or LIP, unless an emergency
length of the prescribed therapy, using the fore- situation exists.7,25 (V)
arm to increase dwell time, decrease pain during 6. Use ultrasonography (US) for short peripheral
dwell time, promote self-care, and prevent acci- catheter placement in adult and pediatric patients
dental removal and occlusions. Consider veins with difficult venous access and/or after failed
found on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the venipuncture attempts (see Standard 22, Vascular
upper extremities, including the metacarpal, Visualization).26-31 (I)
cephalic, basilic, and median veins.1-9 (IV)
2. Do not use veins of the lower extremities unless II. Peripheral Venous Access via Midline
necessary due to risk of tissue damage, thrombo- Catheters
phlebitis, and ulceration.3,10,11 (IV) A. Select sites in the upper arm, preferred, or secondarily
B. For pediatric patients: the region of the antecubital fossa, using the basilic,
1. Use the venous site most likely to last the full cephalic, median cubital, and brachial veins, with the
length of the prescribed therapy, considering basilic vein preferred. For neonates and pediatric
veins in the hand, forearm, and upper arm below patients, additional site selections include veins in the
the axilla. Avoid the antecubital area, which has leg with the tip below the groin and in the scalp with
a higher failure rate. the tip in the neck, above the thorax.7,12,13,32-34 (V)
2. For infants and toddlers, also consider veins of B. Avoid cannulation in areas with pain on palpation,
the scalp, and if not walking, the foot. areas of open wounds, areas on an extremity with an
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S54 05/01/16 11:30 PM

infection, veins that are compromised (eg, bruised, subclavian vein is recommended in adult patients,
infiltrated, phlebitic, sclerosed, corded, or engorged), rather than the femoral vein.47 (I)
and areas of planned procedures.3,7,11,12 (V) 1. If the patient has chronic kidney disease, consider
C. Avoid veins in the right arm of infants and children the internal jugular vein or, secondarily, the
after procedures treating specific congenital cardiac external jugular vein, weighing benefits and risks
defects that may have decreased blood flow to the for each access site.22 (V)
subclavian artery.12 (V) C. There is no preferred venous insertion site for a non-
D. Consider using vascular visualization technologies tunneled CVAD in infants and children to minimize
that aid in vein identification and selection for dif- the risk of infection.11 (V)
ficult intravenous access (see Standard 22, Vascular D. Use ultrasound (US) in adult patients for vein iden-
Visualization).27,28,31 (I) tification and selection to decrease risks of cannula-
tion failure, arterial puncture, hematoma, and
III. Central Venous Access via Peripherally hemothorax (see Standard 22, Vascular
Inserted Central Catheters Visualization).46,50-52 (I)
A. Select the median cubital, cephalic, basilic, and bra-
chial veins with sufficient size for peripherally
V. Central Venous Access via Tunneled
inserted central catheters (PICC) cannulation. A
Central Vascular Access Devices and
venous site in adults where the catheter-to-vein ratio
Implanted Ports
is equal to or less than 45% is recommended. For
A. Collaborate with the health care team and patient in
neonate and pediatric patients, additional site selec-
assessment and site selection for the placement of
tions include the axillary vein, the temporal vein and
tunneled catheters and implanted ports. Use the sub-
posterior auricular vein in the head, and the saphen-
clavicular or medial inframammary sites in children
ous and popliteal veins in the lower extremities. Use
to reduce complications.23,53-55 (IV)
the best available vein in neonates: upper and lower
extremities have similar complication rates, although
tip placement at removal was more frequently non- VI. Peripheral Arterial Access
central for PICCs in upper extremities.35-40 (IV) A. Include as selection criteria from physical assess-
B. Avoid areas of pain on palpation or areas with ment the presence of a pulse and presence of distal
wounds, and veins that are compromised (eg, circulation.3,56 (I A/P)
bruised, infiltrated, phlebitic, sclerosed, corded, or B. For adults, the radial artery is the most appropriate
engorged).3,41 (IV) access for percutaneous cannulation, with the bra-
C. Avoid PICCs in patients with chronic kidney disease chial artery followed by the dorsalis pedis as
due to the risks of central vein stenosis and occlusion, alternative sites. For pediatric patients, use the
as well as resultant venous depletion preventing future radial, posterior tibial, and dorsalis pedis arteries.
fistula construction (see Standard 29, Hemodialysis For adults and children, these sites are preferred
Vascular Access Devices [VADs]).19,22,42,43 (IV) over the femoral or axillary sites to reduce the risk
D. Use ultrasound (US) to aid in vein identification and of infection. The brachial artery is not used in pedi-
selection for decreased adverse events and first- atric patients due to the absence of collateral blood
attempt success (see Standard 22, Vascular flow.27,57,58 (III)
Visualization).36,39,44-46 (IV) 1. Prior to puncture of the radial artery, assess the
circulation to the hand. Review the medical his-
IV. Central Venous Access via Nontunneled tory (eg, trauma, previous radial artery cannula-
Central Vascular Access Devices tion, radial artery harvesting); assess for the use
A. To minimize the risk of catheter-related infection of anticoagulants; and perform a physical exami-
with a nontunneled CVAD, the subclavian vein is nation of hand circulation such as assessing
favored in adult patients, rather than the jugular or radial and ulnar pulses, and performing the Allen
femoral veins. However, for patients with chronic test, pulse oximetry, or Doppler flow study (refer
kidney disease, consider the risks of central vein ste- to Standard 43, Phlebotomy).
nosis and venous occlusion when the subclavian vein C. Do not administer infusion therapy in peripheral
is used; weigh the benefits and risks that accompany arteries via peripheral arterial catheters; these
each access site. Avoid areas of wounds or infections catheters are used for hemodynamic monitoring,
(see Standard 29, Hemodialysis Vascular Access blood gas analysis, and obtaining blood
Devices [VADs]; Standard 48, Central Vascular samples.3,59 (V)
Access Device [CVAD] Occlusion).11,19,41,47-49 (I) D. Use US in arterial identification and selection to
B. To minimize the risk of catheter-related thrombotic increase first-attempt success (see Standard 22,
complications with a nontunneled CVAD, the Vascular Visualization).60-62 (I)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S55 05/01/16 11:30 PM

VII. External Jugular Vein Access 13. Frey AM, Pettit J. Infusion therapy in children. In: Alexander M,
A. Clinicians having validated competency may insert Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
short peripheral catheters, midline catheters, and Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
PICCs using the external jugular vein in patients in
14. Germino K, Gerard J, Flood R. Greater saphenous vein location
acute care settings and in emergency situations when
in a pediatric population. J Pediatr Nurs. 2012;27(6):626-631.
other veins cannot be accessed.3,63,64 (V) 15. Malyon L, Ullman AJ, Phillips N, et al. Peripheral intravenous
B. When a short peripheral catheter is inserted into the catheter duration and failure in paediatric acute care: a prospec-
external jugular vein and infusion therapy is expect- tive cohort study. Emerg Med Australas. 2014;26(6):
ed to exceed 96 hours, collaborate with the LIP for 602-608.
an alternative vascular access site as soon as 16. Busch JD, Herrmann J, Heller F, et al. Follow-up of radiologi-
possible.7,21,63 (V) cally totally implanted central venous access ports of the upper
arm: long-term complications in 127,750 catheter-days. Am J
Roentgenol. 2012;199(2):447-452.
REFERENCES 17. OHalloran L, El-Masri MM, Fox-Wasylyshyn SM. Home intra-
venous therapy and the ability to perform self-care activities of
daily living. J Infus Nurs. 2008;31(6):367-374.
22, 2015.
18. Redfern WS, Braby JE. Pediatric infusion therapy. In: Weinstein
1. Cicolini G, Manzoli L, Simonetti V, et al. Phlebitis risk varies by SM, Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and Practice of Infusion
peripheral venous catheter site and increases after 96 hours: a Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott
large multi-centre prospective study. J Adv Nurs. 2014;70(11): Williams & Wilkins; 2014:687-742.
2539-2549. 19. American Nephrology Nurses Association [position statement].
2. Fields JM, Dean AJ, Todman RW, et al. The effect of vessel depth, Vascular access for hemodialysis. https://www.annanurse.org/
diameter, and location on ultrasound-guided peripheral intrave- sites/default/files/download/reference/health/position/vascAccess.
nous catheter longevity. Am J Emerg Med. 2012;30(7): pdf. Revised October 2013.
1134-1140. 20. Camp-Sorrell D, ed. Access Device Guidelines: Recommendations
3. Hadaway L. Anatomy and physiology related to infusion therapy: for Nursing Practice and Education. 3rd ed. Pittsburgh, PA:
In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, Oncology Nursing Society; 2011.
eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St 21. Chopra V, Flanders SA, Saint S, et al. The Michigan appropriate-
Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:139-177. ness guide for intravenous catheters (MAGIC): results from
4. Hagle ME, Mikell M. Peripheral venous access. In: Weinstein SM, an international panel using the RAND/UCLA appropriateness
Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and Practice of Infusion method. Ann Intern Med . 2015;163(suppl 6):
Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott S1-S39.
Williams & Wilkins; 2014:303-334. 22. Hoggard J, Saad T, Schon D, Vesely TM, Royer T; American
5. Helm RE, Klausner JD, Klemperer JD, Flint LM, Huang E. Society of Diagnostic and Interventional Nephrology, Clinical
Accepted but unacceptable: peripheral IV catheter failure. J Infus Practice Committee; Association for Vascular Access [position
Nurs. 2015;38(3):189-203. statement]. Guidelines for venous access in patients with chronic
6. Marsigliese AM. Evaluation of comfort level and complication kidney disease. Semin Dial. 2008;21(2):186-191.
rates as determined by peripheral intravenous catheter sites. Can 23. Institute of Medicine. Committee on Quality of Health Care in
Intraven Nurs Assoc Yearbook. 2001;17:26-39. America. Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the
7. Perucca R. Peripheral venous access devices. In: Alexander M, 21st Century. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2001.
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion 24. UK Renal Association. Preservation of sites for native vascular
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: access (guidelines 2.1-2.2). In: Clinical practice guideline: vascu-
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:456-479. lar access for haemodialysis. 6th ed. http://www.renal.org/docs/
8. Salgueiro-Oliveira A, Parreira P, Veiga P. Incidence of phlebitis in default-source/guidelines-resources/final-version-update-va-
patients with peripheral intravenous catheters: the influence of guidelines-2015-docx-2.pdf?sfvrsn=2. Published 2015.
some risk factors. Aust J Adv Nurs. 2012;30(2):32-39. 25. Smith SF, Duell DJ, Martin BC. Hemodialysis (renal replacement
9. Wallis MC, McGrail M, Webster J, et al. Risk factors for periph- therapy). In: Smith SF. Clinical Nursing Skills: Basic to Advanced
eral intravenous catheter failure: a multivariate analysis of data Skills. 8th ed. New York, NY: Pearson; 2012:804-809.
from a randomized controlled trial. Infect Control Hosp 26. Bauman M, Braude D, Crandall C. Ultrasound-guidance vs.
Epidemiol. 2014;35(1):63-68. standard technique in difficult vascular access patients by ED
10. Benaya A, Schwartz Y, Kory R, Yinnon AM, Ben-Chetrit E. technicians. Am J Emerg Med. 2009;27(2):135-140.
Relative incidence of phlebitis associated with peripheral intrave- 27. Egan G, Healy D, ONeill H, Clarke-Moloney M, Grace PA,
nous catheters in the lower versus upper extremities. Eur J Clin Walsh SR. Ultrasound guidance for difficult peripheral venous
Microbiol Infect Dis. 2015;34(5):913-916. access: systematic review and meta-analysis. Emerg Med J. 2013;
11. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the 30(7):521-526.
prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http:// 28. Heinrichs J, Fritze Z, Klassen T, Curtis S. A systematic review
www.cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published and meta-analysis of new interventions for peripheral intravenous
April 2011. cannulation of children. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2013;29(7):
12. Beauman SS, Swanson A. Neonatal infusion therapy: preventing 858-866.
complications and improving outcomes. Newborn Infant Nurs 29. Heinrichs J, Fritze Z, Vandermeer B, Klassen T, Curtis S.
Rev. 2006;6(4):193-201. Ultrasonographically guided peripheral intravenous cannulation
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S56 05/01/16 11:30 PM

of children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 47. Ge X, Cavallazzi R, Li C, Pan SM, Wang YW, Wang FL. Central
Ann Emerg Med. 2013;61(4):444-454. venous access sites for the prevention of venous thrombosis, ste-
30. Moore C. An emergency department nurse-driven ultrasound- nosis and infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;
guided peripheral intravenous line program. J Assoc Vasc Access. (3):CD004084. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004084.pub3.
2013;18(1):45-51. 48. Parienti JJ, du Cheyron D, Timsit JF, et al. Meta-analysis of sub-
31. Stolz LA, Stolz U, Howe C, Farrell IJ, Adhikari S. Ultrasound- clavian insertion and nontunneled central venous catheter-associ-
guided peripheral venous access: a meta-analysis and systematic ated infection risk reduction in critically ill adults. Crit Care Med.
review. J Vasc Access. 2015;16(4):321-326. 2012;40(5):1627-1634.
32. Alexandrou E, Ramjan L, Spencer T, et al. The use of midline cath- 49. Marik PE, Flemmer M, Harrison W. The risk of catheter-related
eters in the adult acute care setting: clinical implications and recom- bloodstream infection with femoral venous catheters as compared
mendations for practice. J Assoc Vasc Access. 2011(1);16:35-41. to subclavian and internal jugular venous catheters: a systematic
33. Deutsch GB, Sathyanarayana SA, Singh N, Nicastro J. Ultrasound- review of the literature and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med.
guided placement of midline catheters in the surgical intensive 2012;40(8):2479-2485.
care unit: a cost-effective proposal for timely central line removal. 50. Brass P, Hellmich M, Kolodziej L, Schick G, Smith AF. Ultrasound
J Surg Res. 2014;191(1):1-5. guidance versus anatomical landmarks for subclavian or femoral
34. Owen K. The use of 8 cm midlines in community IV therapy. Br vein catheterization. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(1):
J Nurs. 2014;23:S18-S20. CD011447. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011447.
35. Bullock-Corkhill M. Central venous access devices: access and 51. Brass P, Hellmich M, Kolodziej L, Schick G, Smith AF. Ultrasound
insertion. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, guidance versus anatomical landmarks for internal jugular vein
Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. catheterization. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(1):CD006962.
3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:480-494. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006962.pub2.
36. Dawson R. PICC zone insertion method (ZIM): a systematic 52. Wu SY, Ling Q, Cao LH, Wang J, Xu MX, Zeng WA. Real-time
approach to determine the ideal insertion site for PICCs in the two-dimensional ultrasound guidance for central venous
upper arm. J Assoc Vasc Access. 2011;16(3):156-165. cannulation: a meta-analysis. Anesthesiology. 2013;118(2):
37. Liem TK, Yanit KE, Moseley SE, et al. Peripherally inserted cen- 361-375. doi:10.1097/ALN.0b013e31827bd172.
tral catheter usage patterns and associated symptomatic upper 53. Fallon SC, Larimer EL, Gwilliam NR, et al. Increased complication
extremity venous thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. 2012;55(3):761-767. rates associated with Port-a-Cath placement in pediatric patients:
38. Nifong TP, McDevitt TJ. The effect of catheter to vein ratio on location matters. J Pediatr Surg. 2013;48(6):1263-1268.
blood flow rates in a simulated model of peripherally inserted 54. Maurer M, Dardess P, Carman, KL, et al. Guide to Patient and
central venous catheters. Chest. 2011;140(1):48-53. Family Engagement: Environmental Scan Report. Rockville, MD:
39. Sharp R, Cummings M, Fielder A, Mikocka-Walus A, Grech C, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; May 2012. AHRQ
Esterman A. The catheter to vein ratio and rates of symptomatic publication 12-0042-EF.
venous thromboembolism in patients with a peripherally inserted 55. Plumhans C, Mahnken AH, Ocklenburg C, et al. Jugular versus
central catheter (PICC): a prospective cohort study. Int J Nurs subclavian totally implantable access ports: catheter position,
Stud. 2015;52(3):677-685. complications and intrainterventional pain perception. Eur J
40. Wrightson DD. Peripherally inserted central catheter complica- Radiol. 2011;79(3):338-342.
tions in neonates with upper versus lower extremity insertion 56. Ball JW, Dains JE, Flynn JA, Solomon BS, Stewart RW. Blood
sites. Adv Neonatal Care. 2013;13(3):198-204. vessels. In: Seidels Guide to Physical Examination. 8th ed. New
41. Ciofi Silva CL, Rossi LA, Canini SR, Gonalves N, Furuya RK. York, NY: Mosby; 2015.
Site of catheter insertion in burn patients and infection: a system- 57. OHoro J, Maki D, Krupp A, Safdar N. Arterial catheters as a
atic review. Burns. 2014;40(3):365-373. source of bloodstream infection: a systematic review and meta-
42. El Ters M, Schears GJ, Taler SJ, et al. Association between prior analysis. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(6):1334-1339.
peripherally inserted central catheters and lack of functioning 58. Lorente L, Santacreu R, Martin M, Jimenez A, Mora M. Arterial
arteriovenous fistulas: a case-control study in hemodialysis catheter-related infection of 2,949 catheters. Crit Care.
patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;60(4):601-608. 2006;10(3):1-7. http://ccforum.com/content/10/3/R83.
43. McGill RL, Tsukahara T, Bhardwaj R, Kapetanos AT, Marcus RJ. 59. Hadaway L. Infusion therapy equipment. In: Alexander M,
Inpatient venous access practices: PICC culture and the kidney Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
patient. J Vasc Access. 2015;16(3):206-210. Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
44. Association for Vascular Access Board of Directors [position Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:391-436.
statement]. The use of ultrasound guidance by registered nurses 60. Gao YB, Yan JH, Gao FQ, Pan L, Wang XZ, Lv CJ. Effects of
for central venous catheter insertion. http://www.avainfo.org/ ultrasound-guided radial artery catheterization: an updated meta-
website/download.asp?id=279996. analysis. Am J Emerg Med. 2015;33(1):50-55.
45. de Carvalho Onofre P, da Luz Gonalves Pedreira M, Peterlini M. 61. Gu WJ, Tie HT, Liu JC, Zeng XT. Efficacy of ultrasound-
Placement of peripherally inserted central catheters in guided radial artery catheterization: a systematic review and
children guided by ultrasound: a prospective randomized, meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Care.
and controlled trial. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2012;13(5): 2014;18(3):R93.
e282-e287. 62. Shiloh AL, Savel RH, Paulin LM, Eisen LA. Ultrasound-guided cath-
46. Shekelle PG, Wachter RM, Pronovost PJ, et al. Making health eterization of the radial artery: a systematic review and meta-analysis
care safer II: an updated critical analysis of the evidence for of randomized controlled trials. Chest. 2011;139(3):524-529.
patient safety practices. Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep). 63. Infusion Nurses Society [position paper]. The role of the regis-
2013;(211):1-945. tered nurse in the insertion of external jugular peripherally
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S57 05/01/16 11:30 PM

inserted central catheters and external jugular peripheral intrave- 1. Perform hand hygiene before and after examin-
nous catheters. J Infus Nurs. 2008;31(4):226-227. ing the site to assess for swelling, erythema,
64. Tecklenburg F, Cochran J, Webb S, Habib D, Losek J. Central drainage, venous patterns, or discomfort.5,6 (V)
venous access via external jugular vein in children. Pediatr Emerg
2. Perform skin antisepsis prior to port access.
Care. 2010;26(8):554-557.
a. Use the preferred skin antiseptic agent of
>0.5% chlorhexidine in alcohol solution.4-7 (I)
28. IMPLANTED VASCULAR b. If there is a contraindication to alcoholic
ACCESS PORTS chlorhexidine, tincture of iodine, an iodophor
(povidone-iodine), or 70% alcohol may also
Standard be used.5 (I)
c. Allow skin antiseptic agent to fully dry prior
28.1 Placement and removal of an implanted vascular to port access.5 (V)
access port are considered surgical procedures and are D. Access the implanted vascular access port with the
to be performed by a licensed independent practitioner smallest-gauge noncoring needle to accommodate
(LIP) or advanced practice registered nurse (APRN) the prescribed therapy.
with validated competency operating within the states 1. To reduce the risk of needle dislodgment during
rules and regulations for professional practice and access, use a noncoring needle of a length that
according to organizational policies, procedures, and/or allows the needle to sit flush to the skin and
practice guidelines. securely within the port.7 (V)
28.2 Implanted vascular access ports are accessed using 2. Consider orienting the bevel of an implanted
noncoring safety needles. port access needle in the opposite direction from
28.3 Only implanted vascular access ports and noncor- the outflow channel where the catheter is attached
ing needles designed for power injection are used with to the port body. In vitro testing demonstrates a
power-injection equipment for radiologic imaging in greater amount of protein is removed when
accordance with manufacturers directions for use. flushing with this bevel orientation.8 (IV)
28.4 A sterile dressing is maintained over the access site 3. There is insufficient evidence to recommend an
if the implanted vascular access port remains accessed. optimal time for replacement of the noncoring
needle when the implanted vascular access port is
used for continuous infusions.5 (V)
Practice Criteria
E. Assess vascular access device (VAD) functionality by
A. Confirm that the implanted port has a labeled indi- using a 10-mL syringe or a syringe specifically designed
cation for power injection before using it for this to generate lower injection pressure (ie, 10-mL-diame-
purpose.1,2 (V) ter syringe barrel), taking note of any resistance (refer
1. Use at least 2 identification methods that may to Standard 40, Flushing and Locking).
include presence of identification cards, F. Flush and lock the implanted vascular access port
wristbands, or key chains provided by the with preservative-free 0.9% sodium chloride (USP)
manufacturer; review operative procedure or heparin lock solution (refer to Standard 40,
documentation; and palpate the port. Flushing and Locking).
2. Do not use palpation of the port as the only iden- 1. Flush accessed but noninfusing implanted vascu-
tification method as not all power-injection- lar access ports daily.9 (IV)
capable implanted vascular access ports have 2. There is insufficient evidence to recommend the
unique characteristics identifiable by palpation. optimal frequency for flushing an implanted vas-
3. During and after power injection be aware of the cular access port that is not accessed for infusion;
potential for catheter rupture, which can lead to refer to manufacturers directions for use and
extravasation, catheter fragment emboli, and the organizational policy.10-12 (V)
need for port removal and replacement. Suspect 3. Anticipate use of antimicrobial locking solutions
catheter rupture if the patient shows signs of local- for patients who have a history of catheter-relat-
ized swelling or erythema or reports pain (refer to ed bloodstream infections (CR-BSIs) (refer to
Standard 51, Catheter Damage [Embolism, Repair, Standard 40, Flushing and Locking).
Exchange]). G. Use a transparent semipermeable membrane (TSM)
B. Assess patient needs and preferences related to pain dressing or gauze dressing that covers the noncoring
management during port access (refer to Standard needle and access site when the port is accessed.
32, Local Anesthesia for Vascular Access Device Change the TSM dressing every 5-7 days and gauze
[VAD] Placement and Access). dressings every 2 days. When gauze is used under
C. Adhere to aseptic technique during implanted port the TSM dressing to support the wings of an access
access, including use of sterile gloves and mask.3,4 needle and does not obscure the access site, change
(V, Committee Consensus) the TSM dressing every 5-7 days.5-8,13-16 (IV)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S58 05/01/16 11:30 PM

H. Provide appropriate patient/caregiver education 11. Baram A, Majeen G, Abdullah H, Subhi A. Heparin versus saline
including placement procedure; type of port placed solutions for locking of totally implantable venous access port
(eg, power injectable, number of lumens); importance (TIVAP): cohort study of the first Kurdistan series of TIVAP. Adv
Lung Cancer. 2014;3(4):67-74.
of carrying port identification card (eg, in wallet);
12. Rosenbluth G, Tsang L, Vittinghoff E, Wilson S, Wilson-Ganz J,
routine care, including frequency of flushing; expec-
Auerbach A. Impact of decreased heparin dose for flush-lock of
tations of aseptic technique during access; use of implanted venous access port in pediatric oncology patients.
only noncoring needles (including appropriate type Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2014;61(5):855-858.
for power injection); and identification of potential 13. Gorski L, Perucca R, Hunter M. Central venous access devices:
complications and interventions.4,16 (V) care, maintenance, and potential complications. In: Alexander M,
I. Provide appropriate patient/caregiver education for Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
patients who are receiving infusions at home via an Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
accessed port, including checking the dressing daily; Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:495-515.
how to dress and undress to avoid pulling at the 14. Lapalu J, Losser MR, Albert O, et al. Totally implantable port
noncoring needle; protecting the site during bathing; management: impact of positive pressure during needle with-
drawal on catheter tip occlusion (an experimental study). J Vasc
making sure womens bra straps do not rub over the
Access. 2010;11(1):46-51.
accessed area; immediately reporting any signs or
15. Camp-Sorrell D, ed. Access Device Guidelines: Recommendations
symptoms of pain, burning, stinging, or soreness at for Nursing Practice and Education. Pittsburgh, PA: Oncology
the site; and recognizing the importance of stopping Nursing Society; 2011.
the infusion pump and immediately reporting any 16. Walser E. Venous access ports: indications, implantation tech-
wetness, leaking, or swelling noted at the site (see nique, follow-up, and complications. Cardiovasc Intervent
Standard 8, Patient Education).17 (V) Radiol. 2012;35(4):751-764.
17. Moller T, Adamsen L. Hematologic patients clinical and psycho-
social experiences with implanted long-term central venous cath-
REFERENCES eter. Cancer Nurs. 2010;33(6):426-435.
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed August

26, 2015.
1. Slaby J, Navuluri R. Chest port fracture caused by power injec- 29. HEMODIALYSIS VASCULAR
tion. Semin Intervent Radiol. 2011;28(3):357-358. ACCESS DEVICES (VADs)
2. Smith L. Implanted ports, computed tomography, power injectors,
and catheter rupture. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2008;12(5):809-812. Standard
3. Eisenberg S. Accessing implanted ports: still a source of contro-
versy. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2011;15(3):324-326. 29.1 The selection of the most appropriate type of vas-
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Basic infection con- cular access device (VAD) for hemodialysis occurs in
trol and prevention plan for outpatient oncology settings. http:// collaboration with the patient/caregiver and the inter-
www.cdc.gov/HAI/settings/outpatient/basic-infection-control- professional team based on the projected treatment
prevention-plan-2011/index.html. Published December 2011. plan.
29.2 Placement and removal of a tunneled or implanted
prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://
hemodialysis VAD, creation of an arteriovenous (AV)
April 2011.
fistula, and insertion of an AV graft are considered sur-
6. Bustos C, Aguinaga A, Carmona-Torre F, Pozo J. Long-term cath- gical procedures and will be performed by a licensed
eterization: current approaches in the diagnosis and treatment of independent practitioner (LIP) with validated compe-
port-related infections. Infect Drug Resistance. 2014;7:25-35. tency operating within the states rules and regulations
7. Bullock-Corkhill M. Central venous access devices: access and for professional practice.
insertion. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, 29.3 Removal of a temporary nontunneled or nonim-
Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. planted hemodialysis VAD is performed either by or
3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:480-494. upon the order of an LIP in accordance with state
8. Guiffant G, Durussel J, Flaud P, Vigier J, Merckx J. Flushing ports licensure rules and regulation and organizational
of totally implantable venous access devices, and impact of the
policies.
Huber point needle bevel orientation: experimental tests and
29.4 Hemodynamic monitoring and venipuncture are
numerical computation. Med Devices Evidence Res. 2012;5:
31-37.
not performed on the extremity containing an AV fis-
9. Goossens G, Jerome M, Janssens C, et al. Comparing normal tula or graft.
saline versus heparin to lock non-valved totally implantable
venous access devices in cancer patients: a randomized, non- Practice Criteria
inferiority, open trial. Ann Oncol. 2013;24(7):1892-1899.
10. Conway M, McCollom C, Bannon C. Central venous catheter A. Determine the access method in advance of begin-
flushing recommendations: a systematic evidence-based practice ning dialysis. The general order for vascular access
review. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs. 2014;31(4):185-190. preference is fistula, AV graft, and long-term VAD.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S59 05/01/16 11:30 PM

The patient/caregiver and interprofessional team http://www2.kidney.org/professionals/KDOQI/guideline_upHD_
should collaborate on the decision to place a hemo- VA/va_guide2.htm.
dialysis VAD or create a means of long-term vascu- 2. American Nephrology Nurses Association. Vascular access fact
sheet. http://www.annanurse.org/download/reference/practice/
lar access for the purpose of hemodialysis.1-7 (III)
vascularAccessFactSheet.pdf. Published 2013.
B. Use vein preservation techniques for patients who
3. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.
are likely to need vascular access for hemodialysis. Vascular access for hemodialysis. http://www.kidney.niddk
Avoid access devices that are associated with throm- .nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/vascularaccess . Published May
bosis and central venous stenosis, such as temporary 2014.
subclavian vein catheters and peripherally inserted 4. Mbamalu G, Whiteman K. Vascular access team collaboration to
central catheters (PICCs).1,2,7-9 (I) decrease catheter rates in patients on hemodialysis: utilization of
C. When feasible, use a matured AV fistula. Variables Kotters change process. Nephrol Nurs J. 2014;41(3):
such as clinical, anatomical, functional, and patho- 283-287.
logical issues are under study to identify predictors 5. United States Renal Data Center. Clinical indicators and preven-
of fistula maturation.1,2,7,10,11 (IV) tive care. http://www.usrds.org/2014/view/v2_03.aspx. Published
2014.
D. Monitor all access devices for signs or symptoms of
6. Lincoln M. Preventing catheter-associated bloodstream infections
dysfunction, infection, or other complications at
in hemodialysis centers: the facility perspective. Nephrol Nurs J.
each dialysis session.1,8 (V) 2011;38(5):411-415.
E. Do not routinely replace temporary catheters used 7. Santoro D, Benedetto F, Mondello P, et al. Vascular access for
for dialysis.9 (I) hemodialysis: current perspectives. Int J Nephrol Renovascular
F. Use povidone-iodine ointment or bacitracin/gramici- Dis. 2014;4(7):281-294.
din/polymixin ointment at the dialysis catheter exit 8. Robson J. A review of hemodialysis vascular access devices.
site when there is no interaction with the catheter J Infus Nurs. 2013;36(6):404-410.
material, according to the manufacturers directions 9. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the
for use.9 (I) prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://
G. Avoid using a hemodialysis catheter for routine www.cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published
April 2011.
blood sampling, blood transfusions, or other infu-
10. Dember L, Imrey B, Beck G, et al. Objectives and design of the
sion medications. In critically ill patients, a non-
hemodialysis fistula maturation study. Am J Kidney Dis.
cuffed catheter with a medial infusion port may be 2014;63(1):104-112.
placed for short-term vascular access for infusion 11. Schinstock C, Albright R, Williams A, et al. Outcomes of arterio-
therapy needs. Administer medications through the venous fistula creation after the Fistula First initiative. Clin J Am
medial infusion port and not the dialysis lumens. Soc Nephrol. 2011;6(8):1996-2002.
Because multiple lumens increase the risk of infec-
tion, limit the duration that a dialysis catheter with
a medial infusion port is used.8 (V)
H. Aspirate the locking solution and confirm a blood 30. UMBILICAL CATHETERS
return before use of a tunneled or nontunneled
dialysis catheter.8 (V) Standard
I. Wear sterile gloves and a mask when performing
30.1 Placement and removal of an umbilical arterial
dressing changes for hemodialysis access devices,
and venous catheter (UAC and UVC) are performed by
including AV fistulas and grafts (when dressings are
licensed clinicians with validated competency, operating
present). Clean gloves can be worn for accessing a
within the states rules and regulations for professional
tunneled catheter with an established cuff (see
practice in accordance with organizational policies and
Standard 41, Vascular Access Device [VAD]
procedures.
Assessment, Care, and Dressing Changes).2,6,8 (V)
30.2 The clinical need for the umbilical catheter is
J. Teach patients/caregivers/surrogates how to
assessed on a daily basis and promptly removed when
care for and protect the VAD and to report
no longer indicated.
any signs and symptoms of dysfunction, infection, or
other complications pertaining to the access device
in use (see Standard 8, Patient Education).1,2,8 (V) Practice Criteria
A. Establish organizational guidelines for appropriate
REFERENCES use of UACs and UVCs based on gestational age,
birth weight, and severity of illness in an effort to
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed August decrease their unnecessary use and associated com-
26, 2015.
plications.1-3 (IV)
1. National Kidney Foundation. KDOQI clinical practice guidelines. 1. Use UACs for obtaining blood samples and con-
Selection and placement of hemodialysis access. NKF; 2006. tinuous blood pressure monitoring.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S60 05/01/16 11:30 PM

2. Maintain patency and reduce risk of thrombosis 4. Ultrasound imaging using parasternal long- and
by continuous infusion of heparin 0.25 to 1 unit short-axis views for UVC tip location compares
per mL (total dose of heparin 25-200 units per kg favorably to radiography. Injection of normal
per day). saline through the catheter may assist in identify-
3. Use UVCs for the infusion of medications and ing the exact tip location. However, ultrasound
solutions, parenteral nutrition, and blood prod- will not rule out loops or curls in the catheter
ucts.2,4,5 (II) pathway.18,22,23 (IV)
B. Perform skin antisepsis prior to insertion: 5. Neonatal echocardiography may be superior to
1. Use povidone-iodine, >0.5% chlorhexidine in chest and abdominal radiography for identifying
alcohol solution, or aqueous chlorhexidine malpositioned catheters or in extremely low-
solution. birth-weight neonates.24,25 (V)
2. Use both aqueous and alcohol-based chlorhex- F. Choose a method for securing the UVC and UAC
idine with caution in preterm neonates, low-birth- based on promoting skin integrity, decreasing
weight neonates, and within the first 14 days of complications, and ease of use. There is a lack of
life, due to risks of chemical burns to the skin. evidence demonstrating the best method.26 (IV)
Systemic absorption has been reported due to skin G. Do not use topical antibiotic ointment or creams on
immaturity; however, systemic effects are not umbilical sites due to the risk of fungal infections
documented. Studies have not established the saf- and antimicrobial resistance.4 (I)
est and most effective chlorhexidine solution in H. Monitor for signs and symptoms of potential com-
neonates. Use all chlorhexidine antiseptic agents plications including, but not limited to, bleeding
with caution in infants under 2 months of age. from the umbilical stump; extravasation; hemor-
3. Avoid the use of tincture of iodine due to the rhage; air embolism; infection; thrombosis; pleural
potential deleterious effect on the neonatal thy- effusion; pericardial effusion; cardiac tamponade;
roid gland.4,6-11 (I) cardiac arrhythmias; liver damage; and peripheral
C. Determine the length of catheter to be inserted by vascular constriction. Anticipate the use of ultra-
anatomical measurement of shoulder to umbilicus sound or echocardiogram for diagnostic
length, by equations based on body weight, or with purposes.27-31 (IV)
other research-based protocols to achieve successful I. Remove umbilical catheters promptly when no
tip placement.12-16 (V) longer needed or if a complication occurs.
D. Place the catheter tip for: 1. Consider limiting UVC dwell time to 7 to 14
1. UVCs in the inferior vena cava near the junction days; risks of infection are increased with longer
with the right atrium. dwell times. UVC removal at 7 days followed by
2. UACs in the thoracic portion of the descending insertion of a peripherally inserted central cath-
aorta below the aortic arch (ie, high position) or eter (PICC) for continued infusion therapy is one
below the renal arteries and above the aortic strategy to reduce central line-associated blood-
bifurcation into the common iliac arteries (ie, stream infection.4,30,32,33 (III)
low position).12,17-19 (IV) 2. Consider limiting UAC dwell time to no more
E. Confirm the catheter tip location by radiography, than 5 days.4,34,35 (IV)
echocardiography, or ultrasonography before cath- 3. Remove umbilical catheters slowly over several
eter use. minutes after placing an umbilical tie around the
1. For UVC, obtain anteroposterior (AP) radio- stump. For removal of UACs, the final 5 cm of
graphic view of the chest and abdomen for tip catheter length should be slowly withdrawn at
location at or slightly cephalad to the diaphragm. 1 cm per minute to minimize arterial
Use of the cardiac silhouette is reported to be spasm.31 (V)
more accurate than positioning based on vertebral
bodies. When an AP view is insufficient to identify REFERENCES
the catheter pathway and tip location, a lateral or
cross-table view may be needed.17,18,20 (IV) Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
2. For difficult bedside UVC placement or patients 22, 2015.
with congenital cardiac conditions, fluoroscopy 1. Shahid S, Dutta S, Symington A, Shivananda S. Standardizing
guidance is safe.21 (V) umbilical catheter usage in preterm infants. Pediatrics.
3. For UAC, obtain AP radiographic view of the chest 2014;133(6):e1742-e1752.
and abdomen for tip location between the thoracic 2. Imamura T, Momoi N, Go H, et al. Evaluation of arterial catheter
vertebrae 6 and 10 for high position and between management in very preterm neonates: peripheral artery versus
lumbar vertebrae 4 and 5 for low position.17 (V) umbilical artery. Fukushima J Med Sci. 2012;58(1):1-8.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S61 05/01/16 11:30 PM

3. Oelberg DG, Baker A, Quast D, Worley L. Impact of umbilical 22. Michel F, Brevaut-Malaty V, Pasquali R, et al. Comparison of
catheterization on morbidity and mortality in extremely prema- ultrasound and X-ray in determining the position of umbilical
ture newborns. J Neonatal Perinat Med. 2014;7(1):13-19. venous catheters. Resuscitation. 2012;83(6):705-709.
4. OGrady N, Alexander M, Burns L, et al. Guidelines for the preven- 23. Simanovsky N, Ofek-Shlomai N, Rozovsky K, Ergaz-Shaltiel Z,
tion of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://www.cdc. Hiller N, Bar-Oz B. Umbilical venous catheter position: evalua-
gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published April 2011. tion by ultrasound. Eur Radiol. 2011;21(9):1882-1886.
5. Monagle P, Chan AK, Goldenberg NA, et al. Antithrombotic 24. Harabor A, Soraisham A. Rates of intracardiac umbilical venous
therapy in neonates and children: antithrombotic therapy and catheter placement in neonates. J Ultrasound Med. 2014;33(9):
prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest 1557-1561.
Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 25. Pulickal A, Charlagorla P, Tume S, Chhabra M, Narula P, Nadroo
2012;141(suppl 2):e737S-e801S. A. Superiority of targeted neonatal echocardiography for umbili-
6. Chapman A, Aucott S, Milstone A. Safety of chlorhexidine gluco- cal venous catheter tip localization: accuracy of a clinician perfor-
nate used for skin antisepsis in the preterm infant. J Perinatol. mance model. J Perinatol. 2013;33(12):950-953.
2012;32(1):4-9. 26. Elser HE. Options for securing umbilical catheters. Adv Neonatal
7. Chapman AK, Aucott SW, Gilmore MM, Advani S, Clarke W, Care. 2013;13(6):426-429.
Milstone AM. Absorption and tolerability of aqueous chlorhex- 27. Arnts IJJ, Bullens LM, Groenewoud JMM, Liem KD. Comparison
idine gluconate used for skin antisepsis prior to catheter insertion of complication rates between umbilical and peripherally inserted
in preterm neonates. J Perinatol. 2013;33(10):768-771. central venous catheters in newborns. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal
8. Maiwald M, Chan ES. The forgotten role of alcohol: a systematic Nurs. 2014;43(2):205-215.
review and meta-analysis of the clinical efficacy and perceived role 28. Yeh J, Vargas JH, Wozniak LJ, Smith JB, Boechat MI, Touma M.
of chlorhexidine in skin antisepsis. PLoS One. 2012;7(9):e44277. Massive liver mass and parenteral nutrition extravasation second-
9. Tamma PD, Aucott SW, Milstone AM. Chlorhexidine use in the ary to umbilical venous catheter complications. J Clin Neonatol.
neonatal intensive care unit: results from a national survey. Infect 2014;3(3):158.
Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31(8):846-849. 29. Weisz DE, Poon WB, James A, McNamara PJ. Low cardiac output
10. Popoola V, Milstone A. Decolonization to prevent Staphylococcus secondary to a malpositioned umbilical venous catheter: value of
aureus transmission and infections in the neonatal intensive care targeted neonatal echocardiography. AJP Rep. 2014;4(1):23-28.
unit. J Perinatol. 2014;34(11):805-810. 30. Keir A, Giesinger R, Dunn M. How long should umbilical venous
11. US Food and Drug Administration. Chlorascrub swabsticks. catheters remain in place in neonates who require long-term
http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/Safety- (5-7 days) central venous access? J Paediatr Child Health.
RelatedDrugLabelingChanges/ucm307251.htm. 2014;50(8):649-652.
12. Verheij GH, Te Pas AB, Smits-Wintjens VE, rmek A, Walther FJ, 31. Frey A, Pettit J. Infusion therapy in children. In: Alexander M,
Lopriore E. Revised formula to determine the insertion length of Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
umbilical vein catheters. Eur J Pediatr. 2013;172(8):1011-1015. Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
13. Gupta A, Peesay M, Ramasethu J. Simple measurements to place Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:550-570.
umbilical catheters using surface anatomy. J Perinatol. 32. Yumani DF, Dungen FA, Weissenbruch MM. Incidence and risk
2015;35(7):476-480. factors for catheter-associated bloodstream infections in neonatal
14. Kieran EA, Laffan EE, ODonnell CP. Estimating umbilical cath- intensive care. Acta Paediatrica. 2013;102(7):e293-e298.
eter insertion depth in newborns using weight or body measure- 33. Butler-OHara M, DAngio CT, Hoey H, Stevens TP. An evidence-
ment: a randomised trial [published online August 11, 2015]. based catheter bundle alters central venous catheter strategy in
Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2015;5(7):476-489. newborn infants. J Pediatr. 2012;160(6):972-977.
doi:10.1136/archdischild-2014-307668. 34. Coleman MM, Spear ML, Finkelstein M, et al. Short-term use of
15. Kumar P, Kumar C, Nayak M, Shaikh F, Dusa S, Venkatalakshmi umbilical artery catheters may not be associated with increased
A. Umbilical arterial catheter insertion length: in quest of a uni- risk for thrombosis. Pediatrics. 2004;113(4):770-774.
versal formula. J Perinatol. 2012;32(8):604-607. 35. Ergaz Z, Simanovsky N, Rozovsky K, et al. Clinical outcome of
16. Min SR, Lee H-S. Comparison of Wrights formula and the Dunn umbilical artery catheter-related thrombosis: a cohort study. J
method for measuring the umbilical arterial catheter insertion Perinatol. 2012;32(12):933-940.
length. Pediatr Neonatol. 2015;56(2):120-125.
17. Marshall M, Trotter C. Radiographic assessment of umbilical
venous and arterial catheter tip location. Neonatal Network. 31. APHERESIS CATHETERS
2014;33(4):208-216.
18. Hoellering AB, Koorts PJ, Cartwright DW, Davies MW. Standard
Determination of umbilical venous catheter tip position with
radiograph. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2014;15(1):56-61. 31.1 The selection of the most appropriate type of vas-
19. Grizelj R, Vukovic J, Bojanic K, et al. Severe liver injury while cular access device (VAD) for therapeutic apheresis
using umbilical venous catheter: case series and literature review. occurs in collaboration with the patient/caregiver and
Am J Perinatol. 2014;31(11):965-974. the interprofessional team based on the projected
20. Butler G, Al-Assaf N, Tarrant A, Ryan S, El-Khuffash A. Using treatment plan.
lateral radiographs to determine umbilical venous catheter tip
position in neonates. Ir Med J. 2014;107(8):256-258. Practice Criteria
21. DeWitt AG, Zampi JD, Donohue JE, Yu S, Lloyd TR. Fluoroscopy-
guided umbilical venous catheter placement in infants with con- A. Consider the following when choosing the most
genital heart disease. Congenit Heart Dis. 2015;10(4):317-325. appropriate VAD for therapeutic apheresis: the type
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S62 05/01/16 11:30 PM

of apheresis procedure (centrifugation-based or fil- tissue damage, or inadvertent injection of the drug into
ter-based systems); the patients vascular anatomy; the vascular system.
acuity; frequency and treatment duration; and 32.4 Protocols for the use of local anesthesia for VAD
underlying disease state.1-3 (IV) placement are established in organizational policies,
B. Peripheral or central VADs are recommended for procedures, and/or practice guidelines.
therapeutic apheresis as follows:
1. Use of 16- to 18-gauge peripheral catheters Practice Criteria
placed in antecubital veins for adults. Peripheral
vein access is not recommended in young chil- A. Consider local anesthetic agents for painful VAD
dren (< 30 kg) due to small veins but may be placement or access including, but not limited to,
possible with older children and adolescents. topical vapocoolant sprays, topical transdermal
Peripheral veins are not appropriate for filter- agents, intradermal lidocaine, and pressure-
based apheresis systems.1-5 (IV) accelerated lidocaine.1-11 (I)
2. Use a nontunneled or tunneled cuffed central B. Use the most effective and available local anesthetic
VAD with a catheter size of at least 11.5 Fr for method and/or agent, considering time to peak effec-
adults.1-3 (IV) tiveness, as well as adjunctive and less invasive
3. Implanted vascular access ports are used less anxiolytic, cognitive, behavioral, and complemen-
commonly.1-4 (IV) tary therapies, to reduce pain and discomfort prior
4. Peripherally inserted central catheters should not to each painful VAD puncture or procedure in chil-
be used for therapeutic apheresis due to small dren, some adults, and for large-bore vascular access
internal diameters and inability to accommodate in the hand (eg, 16 gauge).1,2,9,12-17 (I)
blood flow rates.3 (IV)
5. Arteriovenous (AV) fistulae and AV grafts may be REFERENCES
placed for long-term treatment.1-3 (IV)
1. Crowley M, Brim C, Proehl J, et al; 2011 ENA Emergency
REFERENCES Nursing Resources Development Committee. Emergency nursing
resource: difficult intravenous access. J Emerg Nurs.
1. Kalantari K. The choice of vascular access for therapeutic 2012;38(4):335-343.
apheresis. J Clin Apher. 2012;27(3):153-159. 2. Bueno M, Yamada J, Harrison D, et al. A systematic review and
2. Okafor C, Kalantarinia K. Vascular access considerations for meta-analyses of nonsucrose sweet solutions for pain relief in
therapeutic apheresis procedures. Semin Dial. 2011;25(2): neonates. Pain Res Manag. 2013;18(3):153-161.
140-144. 3. Fein JA, Zempsky WT, Cravero JP; Committee on Pediatric
3. Golestaneh L, Mokrzycki MH. Vascular access in therapeutic Emergency Medicine and Section on Anesthesiology and Pain
apheresis: update 2013. J Clin Apher. 2013;28(1):64-72. Medicine; American Academy of Pediatrics. Relief of pain and
4. Goldstein SL. Therapeutic apheresis in children: special consid- anxiety in pediatric patients in emergency medical systems.
erations. Semin Dial. 2012;25(2):165-170. Pediatrics. 2012;130(5):e1391-e1405.
5. Hunt EAK, Jain NG, Somers MJG. Apheresis therapy in children: 4. Hui-Chen F, Hsiu-Lin C, Shun-Line C, et al. The effect of EMLA
an overview of key technical aspects and a review of experience cream on minimizing pain during venipuncture in premature
in pediatric renal disease. J Clin Apher. 2013;28(1):36-47. infants. J Trop Pediatr. 2013;59(1):72-73.
5. Lunoe MM, Drendel AL, Levas MN, et al. A randomized clinical
trial of jet-injected lidocaine to reduce venipuncture pain for
32. LOCAL ANESTHESIA FOR young children. Ann Emerg Med. 2015;66(5):466-474.
VASCULAR ACCESS DEVICE 6. Oman KS, Fink R, Kleiner C, et al. Intradermal lidocaine or bac-
(VAD) PLACEMENT AND teriostatic normal saline to decrease pain before intravenous
ACCESS catheter insertion: a meta-analysis. J Perianesth Nurs.
2014;29(5):367-376.
7. Pywell A, Xyrichis A. Does topical amethocaine cream increase
Standard first-time successful cannulation in children compared with a
32.1 The clinician considers local anesthesia for vascu- eutectic mixture of local anaesthetics (EMLA) cream? A system-
lar access device (VAD) placement and access based atic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.
Emerg Med J. 2014;32(9):733-737.
upon assessment of patient condition, needs, risks, ben-
8. Ruetzler K, Sima B, Mayer L, et al. Lidocaine/tetracaine patch
efits, and anticipated discomfort of the procedure.
(Rapydan) for topical anaesthesia before arterial access: a
32.2 When local anesthesia is ordered or necessary, use double-blind, randomized trial. Br J Anaesth. 2012;109(5):
the agent and method that is least invasive and carries 790-796.
the least risk for adverse reactions. 9. Winfield C, Knicely C, Jensen C, et al. What is the least painful
32.3 When administering a local anesthetic, assess the method of anesthetizing a peripheral IV site? J Perianesth Nurs.
patient and intervene for potential allergic reactions, 2013;28(4):217-222.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S63 05/01/16 11:30 PM

10. Zempsky WT, Schmitz ML, Meyer JM. Safety and efficacy of visible soil is present, cleanse the intended VAD
needle-free powder lidocaine delivery system in adult patients insertion site prior to application of antiseptic
undergoing venipuncture or peripheral venous cannulation: rand- solution(s).1-3 (V)
omized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial [published online
D. Remove excess hair at the insertion site if needed to
May 15, 2015]. Clin J Pain. doi:10.1097/AJP.0000000000000257.
facilitate application of VAD dressings; use single-
11. Page DE, Taylor DM. Vapocoolant spray vs subcutaneous lido-
caine injection for reducing the pain of intravenous cannulation:
patient-use scissors or disposable-head surgical clip-
a randomized, controlled, clinical trial. Br J Anaesth. pers; do not shave as this may increase the risk for
2010;105(4):519-525. infection (although research is limited).4 (V)
12. Evans JG, Taylor DM, Hurren F, Ward P, Yeoh M, Howden BP. E. Immediately remove the VAD and promptly notify
Effects of vapocoolant spray on skin sterility prior to intravenous the licensed independent practitioner (LIP) in the
cannulation. J Hosp Infect. 2015;90(4):333-337. following situations:
13. Harrison D, Yamada J, Adams-Webber T, Ohlsson A, Beyene J, 1. If nerve damage is suspected, such as when the
Stevens B. Sweet-tasting solutions for reduction of needle-related patient reports paresthesias (numbness or tin-
procedural pain in children aged one to 16 years. Cochrane gling) related to VAD insertion (refer to Standard
Database Syst Rev. 2015;(5):CD008408. doi:10.1002/14651858.
47, Nerve Injuries).
CD008408.pub3.
2. If an artery is inadvertently accessed, apply pres-
14. Hunsaker S, Hillis D. Intraosseous vascular access for alert
patients. Am J Nurs. 2013;113(11):34-40.
sure to the peripheral site. Inadvertent arterial
15. Kassab M, Foster JP, Foureur M, Fowler C. Sweet-tasting solu- puncture during CVAD placement is a life-threat-
tions for needle-related procedural pain in infants one month to ening complication requiring immediate inter-
one year of age. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;(12):CD008411. vention. Treatment options include open opera-
doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008411.pub2. tive approach and repair and, more commonly,
16. Uman LS, Birnie KA, Noel M, et al. Psychological interventions endovascular management (see Standard 53,
for needle-related procedural pain and distress in children and Central Vascular Access Device [CVAD]
adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(10):CD005179. Malposition).5,6 (V)
doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005179.pub3. F. Make no more than 2 attempts at short peripheral
17. Waterhouse MR, Liu DR, Wang VJ. Cryotherapeutic topical
intravenous access per clinician, and limit total
analgesics for pediatric intravenous catheter placement: ice versus
attempts to no more than 4. Multiple unsuccessful
vapocoolant spray. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2013;29(1):8-12.
attempts cause patient pain, delay treatment, limit
future vascular access, increase cost, and increase
33. VASCULAR ACCESS SITE the risk for complications. Patients with difficult
PREPARATION AND DEVICE vascular access require a careful assessment of VAD
PLACEMENT needs and collaboration with the health care team to
discuss appropriate options.7 (IV)
G. Dedicate a tourniquet to only a single patient.8-10
Standard (III).
33.1 A new, sterile vascular access device (VAD) is used
for each catheterization attempt.
33.2 Skin antisepsis is performed prior to VAD place- II. Short Peripheral and Midline Catheters
ment. A. Consider implementation of specialized infusion
33.3 Aseptic technique is adhered to during all aspects teams to improve success rates with peripheral
of VAD placement. intravenous (IV) insertion (refer to Standard 4,
33.4 The VAD is not altered outside the manufacturers Infusion Team).
directions for use. B. Consider use of visualization technologies to aid in
33.5 Proper tip location for central vascular access vein identification and selection in patients with dif-
devices (CVADs) is verified prior to use. ficult venous access (refer to Standard 22, Vascular
Visualization).
C. Use an appropriate method to promote vascular
Practice Criteria
distention when placing short peripheral catheters.
I. General These include:
A. Provide patient education prior to inserting a VAD 1. Use of a blood pressure cuff or tourniquet
(refer to Standard 8, Patient Education). applied in a manner to impede venous flow
B. Obtain informed consent according to organiza- while maintaining arterial circulation. Loosely
tional policy or procedure (refer to Standard 9, apply tourniquet or avoid its use in patients who
Informed Consent). bruise easily, are at risk for bleeding, have com-
C. Ensure that the intended VAD site is visibly clean promised circulation, and/or have fragile
prior to application of an antiseptic solution; when veins.1,2,7 (I A/P)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S64 05/01/16 11:30 PM

2. Use of gravity (positioning the extremity lower hand hygiene; skin antisepsis using >0.5% chlo-
than the heart for several minutes), having the rhexidine in alcohol solution; maximal sterile barri-
patient open and close her or his fist, and lightly er precautions; and avoidance of the femoral vein in
stroking the vein downward.1,2,7 (I A/P) obese adult patients during placement under planned
3. Use of warmth. The use of dry heat has been and controlled conditions.3,15,16,33 (I)
found to increase the likelihood of successful B. Ensure adherence to proper technique through use
peripheral catheter insertion.11-14 (IV) of and completion of a standardized checklist com-
D. Perform skin antisepsis using the preferred skin anti- pleted by an educated health care clinician and
septic agent of >5% chlorhexidine in alcohol solu- empower the clinician to stop the procedure for any
tion. If there is a contraindication to alcoholic chlor- breaches in aseptic technique. Completion of a
hexidine solution, tincture of iodine, an iodophor checklist should be done by someone other than the
(povidone-iodine), or 70% alcohol may also be CVAD inserter.15,34
used. Use chlorhexidine with caution in premature C. Use a standardized supply cart or kit that contains
infants and infants under 2 months of age due to all necessary components for the insertion of a
risks of skin irritation and chemical burns. Allow the CVAD.15 (IV)
antiseptic agent to fully dry before insertion.3,15-19 (I) D. Use ultrasound technology when inserting CVADs
E. Adhere to and maintain aseptic technique with short to increase success rates and decrease insertion-
peripheral catheter insertion: related complications (refer to Standard 22, Vascular
1. Use a new pair of disposable, nonsterile gloves in Visualization).
conjunction with a no-touch technique for E. Measure upper-arm circumference before insertion
peripheral IV insertion, meaning that the inser- of a peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC)
tion site is not palpated after skin antisepsis.3,20 and when clinically indicated to assess the pres-
(V) ence of edema and possible deep vein thrombosis
2. Consider increased attention to aseptic tech- (DVT). Take this measurement 10 cm above the
nique, including strict attention to skin antisepsis antecubital fossa; assess for the location and other
and the use of sterile gloves, when placing short characteristics, such as pitting or nonpitting
peripheral catheters. While there is a lack of evi- edema.35 (V)
dence comparing bloodstream infection (BSI) F. Use the safest available insertion technique, includ-
rates with or without use of sterile gloves, longer ing the Seldinger, modified Seldinger technique
dwell times have raised concerns regarding risk (MST), or new techniques that eliminate multiple
for BSI. Furthermore, contamination of nonster- steps (eg, alterations to the Seldinger technique) for
ile gloves is documented.21-23 (V, Committee CVAD placement to reduce the risk for insertion-
Consensus) related complications such as air embolism, guide-
F. Consider the use of maximal sterile barrier precau- wire loss, or embolism, inadvertent arterial cannula-
tions with midline catheter insertion.24-26 (V) tion, and bleeding.30,36-39 (V)
G. Use the safest available insertion technique, includ- G. Ensure proper placement of the CVAD tip, within
ing the Seldinger, modified Seldinger technique the lower one-third of the superior vena cava (SVC)
(MST), or new techniques that eliminate multiple or cavoatrial junction or, if placed via the femoral
steps (eg, alterations to the Seldinger technique) for vein, within the inferior vena cava (IVC) above the
midline catheter placement, to reduce the risk for level of the diaphragm, before use of the CVAD for
insertion-related complications such as air embo- infusion. If required, the inserter should properly
lism, guidewire loss, embolism, inadvertent arterial reposition the CVAD and obtain a confirmation of
cannulation, and bleeding.26-31 (V) correct location (refer to Standard 23, Central
H. Ensure appropriate midline catheter tip location: Vascular Access Device [CVAD] Tip Location;
1. Adults and older children: at the level of the Standard 53, Central Vascular Access Device
axilla and distal to the shoulder.24-26,32 (V) [CVAD] Malposition).
2. Neonate/pediatric scalp vein placement: jugular H. Carefully evaluate and assess patients who have a
vein above the clavicle.32 (V) pacemaker in place for the most appropriate cathe-
3. Neonate/pediatric lower extremity vein place- ter and insertion site. Pacemakers are usually placed
ment (before walking age): in the leg with the tip on the left side of the chest or abdomen. The con-
below the inguinal crease.32 (V) tralateral side is preferred for CVAD placement, but
if the ipsilateral side is selected, a peripherally
III. Central Vascular Access Device (CVAD) inserted central catheter (PICC) may be the safest
A. Implement the central line bundle when placing choice. It is important to have the pacemaker
CVADs, which includes the following interventions: evaluated before and after CVAD insertion to
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S65 05/01/16 11:30 PM

determine integrity of the pacemaker unit and leads. 10. Pinto AN, Phan T, Sala G, Cheong EY, Siarakas S, Gottlieb T.
There are no published reports of displaced leads Reusable venesection tourniquets: a potential source of hospital
noted during CVAD insertion, and there are cur- transmission of multiresistant organisms. Med J Aust.
2001;195(5):276-279.
rently no practice guidelines developed related to
11. Emergency Nurses Association/Emergency Nursing Resources
pacemakers and CVADs.40 (V)
Development Committee. Emergency nursing resource: difficult
intravenous access. http://www.guideline.gov/content.
IV. Arterial Catheters aspx?id=36841. Published 2011.
A. Consider use of visualization technologies to aid in 12. Houston PA. Obtaining vascular access in the obese patient
artery identification and selection (refer to Standard population. J Infus Nurs 2013;36(1):52-56.
13. Fink RM, Hjort E, Wenger B, et al. The impact of dry versus
22, Vascular Visualization).
moist heat on peripheral IV catheter insertion in a hematology-
B. Perform skin antisepsis using the preferred skin anti-
oncology outpatient population. Oncol Nurs Forum.
septic agent of >0.5% chlorhexidine in alcohol 2009;36(4):E198-E204.
solution. If there is a contraindication to alcoholic 14. Lenhardt R, Seybold T, Kimberger O, Stoiser B, Sessler DI. Local
chlorhexidine solution, tincture of iodine, an iodo- warming and insertion of peripheral venous cannulas. BMJ.
phor (povidone-iodine), or 70% alcohol may also be 2002;325(7361):409-410.
used.3,41-42 (I) 15. Marschall J, Mermel LA, Fakih M, et al; Society for Healthcare
C. Wear a cap, mask, sterile gloves, and eyewear, and Epidemiology of America. Strategies to prevent central line-asso-
use a large, sterile fenestrated drape when placing a ciated bloodstream infections in acute care hospitals: 2014
peripheral arterial catheter.3,41-42 (II) update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(7):753-771.
D. Employ maximal sterile barrier precautions when http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/676533.
16. Loveday HP, Wilson JA, Pratt RJ, et al. epic3: national evidence-
placing pulmonary artery and arterial catheters in
based guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated infections
the axillary or femoral artery.3,41-42 (II)
in NHS hospitals in England. J Hosp Infect. 2014;86(suppl 1):
S1-S70.
17. Chapman AK, Aucott SW, Gilmore MM, et al. Absorption and
REFERENCES tolerability of aqueous chlorhexidine gluconate used for skin
antisepsis prior to catheter insertion in preterm neonates. J
Perinatol. 2013;33(10):768-771.
26, 2015.
18. Chapman AK, Aucott SW, Milstone AM. Safety of chlorhexidine
1. Perucca R. Peripheral venous access devices. In: Alexander M, gluconate used for skin antisepsis prior to catheter insertion in
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion preterm neonates. J Perinatol. 2012;32(1):4-9.
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: 19. US Food and Drug Administration. Chlorascrub swabsticks.
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:456-479. Directions for use in infants. http://www.fda.gov/Safety/Med
2. Phillips LD, Gorski LA. Manual of IV Therapeutics: Evidence- Watch/SafetyInformation/Safety-RelatedDrugLabelingChanges/
Based Practice for Infusion Therapy. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: FA ucm307251.htm. Published 2012.
Davis; 2014. 20. Rowley S, Clare C, Macqueen S, Molyneux R. ANTT v2: an
3. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the updated practice framework for aseptic technique. Br J Nurs.
prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http:// 2010;19(suppl 5):S5-S11.
www.cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published 21. Hall H, Trivedi U, Rumbaugh K, Dissanaike S. Contamination of
April 2011. unused, nonsterile gloves in the critical care setting: a comparison
4. Tanner J, Norrie P, Melen K. Preoperative hair removal to reduce of bacterial glove contamination in medical, surgical and burn
surgical site infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. intensive care units. Southwest Respir Crit Care Chron.
2011;(11):CD004122. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004122.pub4. 2014;2(5):3-10.
5. Cayne NS, Berland TL, Rockman CB, et al. Experience and tech- 22. Hughes KA, Cornwall J, Theis J-C, Brooks HJ. Bacterial contami-
nique for the endovascular management of iatrogenic subclavian nation of unused, disposable non-sterile gloves on a hospital ortho-
artery injury. Ann Vasc Surg. 2010;24(1):44-47. paedic ward. Australas Med J. 2013;6(6):331. http://www.ncbi.
6. Abi-Jaoudeh N, Turba UC, Arslan B, et al. Management of sub- nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3702138/pdf/AMJ-06-
clavian arterial injuries following inadvertent arterial puncture 331.pdf.
during central venous catheter placement. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 23. Hadaway L. Short peripheral intravenous catheters and infec-
2008;20(3):396-402. tions. J Infus Nurs. 2012;35(4):230-240.
7. Hagle ME, Mikell M. Peripheral venous access. In: Weinstein S, 24. Alexandrou E, Ramjan LM, Spencer T, et al. The use of midline
Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and Practice of Infusion catheters in the adult acute care setting: clinical implications and
Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott recommendations for practice. 2011;16(1):35-41.
Williams & Wilkins; 2014. 25. Caparas JV, Hu JP. Safe administration of vancomycin through a
8. Elhassan HA, Dixon T. MRSA contaminated venepuncture tour- novel midline catheter: a randomized, prospective clinical trial. J
niquets in clinical practice. Postgrad Med J. 2012;88(1038): Assoc Vasc Access. 2014;15(4):251-256.
194-197. 26. Dumont C, Getz O, Miller, S. Evaluation of midline vascular
9. Kane L, Krischock L, Lucas C. Phlebotomy tourniquets: vectors access: a descriptive study. Nursing 2014. 2014;44(10):60-66.
for bacterial pathogens. Arch Dis Child. 2011;96(suppl 1): 27. Deutsch GB, Sathyanarayana SA, Singh N, Nicastro J. Ultrasound
A47-A48. guided placement of midline catheters in the surgical intensive
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S66 05/01/16 11:30 PM

care unit: a cost-effective proposal for timely central line removal. 35. Maneval RE, Clemence BJ. Risk factors associated with catheter-
J Surg Res. 2013;191(1):1-5. related upper extremity deep vein thrombosis in patients with
28. Warrington WG, Penoyer DA, Kamps TA, Van Hoeck EH. peripherally inserted central venous catheters: a prospective obser-
Outcomes of using a modified Seldinger technique for long term vational cohort studypart 2. J Infus Nurs. 2014;37(4):
intravenous therapy in hospitalized patients with difficult venous 260-268.
access. J Assoc Vasc Access. 2012;17(1):24-31. 36. Bullock-Corkhill M. Central venous access devices: access and
29. Caparas JV, Hu JP, Hung HW. Does a novel method of PICC insertion. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J,
insertion improve safety? Nursing 2014. 2014;44(5):65-67. Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach.
30. Association for Vascular Access [position paper]. The use of 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:480-494.
Seldinger or modified Seldinger technique, in combination with 37. Doellman D, Nichols I. Modified Seldinger technique with ultra-
real-time imaging modalities for peripherally inserted central sound for peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) in the
catheter and midline placements by clinicians. http://www. pediatric patient: a precise advantage. J Assoc Vasc Access.
avainfo.org/website/download.asp?id=280292. Published 2011. 2009;14(2):93-99.
31. Cummings M, Hearse N, McCutcheon H, Deuter K. Improving 38. Williams TL, Bowdle TA, Winters BD, et al. Guidewires uninten-
antibiotic treatment outcomes through the implementation of a tionally retained during central venous catheterization. J Assoc
midline: piloting a change in practice for cystic fibrosis patients. Vasc Access. 2014;19(1):29-34.
J Vasc Nurs. 2011;29(1):11-15. 39. Calvache JA, Rodriguez MV, Trochez A, et al. Incidence of
32. Frey AM, Pettit J. Infusion therapy in children. In: Alexander M, mechanical complications of central venous catheterization using
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion landmark technique: do not try more than 3 times [published
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: online July 2, 2014]. J Intensive Care Med .
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:550-570. doi:10.1177/0885066614541407.
33. Shekelle PG, Wachter RM, Pronovost PJ, et al, eds. Executive 40. Pacana C, Durand JB. The risk of central venous placement ipsi-
summary. In: Making Health Care Safer II: An Updated Critical lateral to the permanent pacemaker. J Assoc Vasc Access.
Analysis of the Evidence for Patient Safety Practices. Rockville, 2009;14(1):28-30.
MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; March 2013. 41. OHoro JC, Maki DG, Krupp AE, Safdar N. Arterial catheters as
h t t p : / / w w w. n c b i . n l m . n i h . g o v / b o o k s / N B K 1 3 3 3 6 3 / p d f / a source of bloodstream infection: a systematic review and meta-
TOC.pdf. analysis. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(6):1334-1339.
34. National Healthcare Safety Network. Adherence for central line 42. Safdar N, OHoro JC, Maki DG. Arterial catheter related blood-
insertion practices (CLIP) surveillance, 2015. http://www.cdc. stream infection: incidence, pathogenesis, risk factors and preven-
gov/nhsn/acute-care-hospital/clip/index.html. tion. J Hosp Infect. 2013;85(3):189-195.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S67 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Section Six: Vascular Access Device

(VAD) Management
Section Standards cells, as their presence can greatly reduce flow

rates.4 (IV)
I. To ensure patient safety, the clinician is competent in
B. Consider use of an extension set between the periph-
vascular access device (VAD) management, including
eral catheter and needleless connector to reduce
knowledge of anatomy, physiology, and VAD manage-
catheter manipulation (refer to Standard 36, Add-on
ment techniques aimed at maintaining vascular access
Devices).
and reducing risk of complications.
C. Recognize that needleless connectors are potential
II. Indications and protocols for VAD management are
sites for intraluminal microbial contamination and
established in organizational policies, procedures, and/
require careful adherence to infection prevention
or practice guidelines and according to manufacturers
practices. There is no consensus on the design or
directions for use.
type of needleless connector to prevent or reduce
VAD-related bloodstream infection.3,5-8 (IV)
34. NEEDLELESS CONNECTORS D. Needleless connectors have different internal mecha-
nisms and fluid pathways. The device design that
Standard produces the least amount of thrombotic VAD
lumen occlusion remains controversial and requires
34.1 Use a luer-locking mechanism to ensure a secure further study.9-13 (IV)
junction when attaching needleless connectors to a vas- E. Follow manufacturers directions for the appropri-
cular access device (VAD) hub or access site. ate sequence of catheter clamping and final syringe
34.2 Disinfect needleless connectors prior to each entry disconnection to reduce the amount of blood reflux
into the device. into the VAD lumen and, thus, the incidence of
34.3 Use aseptic no-touch technique to change the intraluminal thrombotic occlusion. The sequence for
needleless connector. flushing, clamping, and disconnecting the syringe
34.4 Access needleless connectors only with a sterile depends upon the internal mechanism for fluid dis-
device. placement. Standardizing the type of needleless con-
nector within the organization may reduce risk for
Practice Criteria
confusion about these steps and improve out-
A. The need for a needleless connector placed between comes.14,15 (V)
the VAD hub and the administration set used for F. Perform a vigorous mechanical scrub for manual
continuous fluid infusion is unknown. The pri- disinfection of the needleless connector prior to each
mary purpose of needleless connectors is to pro- VAD access and allow it to dry.
tect health care personnel by eliminating needles 1. Acceptable disinfecting agents include 70% iso-
and subsequent needlestick injuries when attach- propyl alcohol, iodophors (ie, povidone-iodine),
ing administration sets and/or syringes to the VAD or >0.5% chlorhexidine in alcohol solution.7,16
hub or injection site for intermittent infusion.1-3 (II)
(Regulatory) 2. Length of contact time for scrubbing and drying
1. Avoid using a needleless connector for rapid depends on the design of the needleless connector
flow rates of crystalloid solutions and red blood and the properties of the disinfecting agent. For
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S68 05/01/16 11:30 PM

70% isopropyl alcohol, reported scrub times for blood culture from the VAD; upon
range from 5 to 60 seconds with biocide activity contamination; per organizational policies, pro-
occurring when the solution is wet and immedi- cedures, and/or practice guidelines; or per the
ately after drying. More research is needed for manufacturers directions for use (see Standard
other agents or combinations of agents due to 49, Infection).7,34,35 (IV)
conflicting reports regarding the optimal scrub I. Ensure that disinfecting supplies are readily avail-
time.3,17,18 (II) able at the bedside to facilitate staff compliance with
3. Use vigorous mechanical scrubbing methods needleless connector disinfection.14,36 (V)
even when disinfecting needleless connectors
with antimicrobial properties (eg, silver REFERENCES
coatings).19-24 (IV)
G. Use of passive disinfection caps containing disinfect-
27, 2015.
ing agents (eg, isopropyl alcohol) has been shown to
reduce intraluminal microbial contamination and 1. Hadaway L, Richardson D. Needleless connectors: a primer on
reduce the rates of central line-associated blood- terminology. J Infus Nurs. 2010;33(1):22-33.
stream infection (CLABSI). Use of disinfection caps 2. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Occu-
pational safety and health standards: bloodborne pathogens. https://
on peripheral catheters has limited evidence but
w w w. o s h a . g o v / p l s / o s h a w e b / o w a d i s p . s h o w _ document?
should be considered.
p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10051.
1. The length of exposure time to be effective 3. Marschall J, Mermel LA, Fakih M, et al. Strategies to prevent
depends upon product design; consult manufac- central line-associated bloodstream infections in acute care hospi-
turers directions for use.18 (V) tals: 2014 update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(7):
2. Once removed, these used caps are discarded 753-771.
and are never reattached to the needleless 4. Lehn RA, Gross JB, McIsaac JH, Gipson KE. Needleless connec-
connector.3,18 (II) tors substantially reduce flow of crystalloid and red blood cells
3. After removal, multiple accesses of the VAD may during rapid infusion. Anesth Analg. 2015;120(4):801-804.
be required to administer a medication (eg, flush 5. Btaiche IF, Kovacevich DS, Khalidi N, Papke LF. The effects of
syringes and administration sets) and require needleless connectors on catheter-related bloodstream infections.
Am J Infect Control. 2011;39(4):277-283.
additional disinfection before each entry.
6. Mermel LA. What is the predominant source of intravascular
Scrubbing time, technique, and agents for disin-
catheter infections? Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(2):211-212.
fection of the needleless connector between sub- 7. OGrady N, Alexander M, Burns L, et al. Guidelines for the pre-
sequent connections are unknown due to a lack vention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://www.
of research. Consider using a vigorous 5- to cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published April
15-second scrub time with each subsequent entry 2011.
into the VAD, depending upon the needleless 8. Flynn JM, Keogh SJ, Gavin NC. Sterile v aseptic non-touch tech-
connector design.25-30 (Committee Consensus) nique for needleless connector care on central venous access
4. Use a stopcock or manifold with an integrated devices in a bone marrow transplant population: a comparative
needleless connector rather than a solid cap due study [published online June 6, 2015]. Eur J Oncol Nurs.
to contamination from personnel hands and the doi:10.1016/j.ejon.2015.05.003.
9. Btaiche IF, Kovacevich DS, Khalidi N, Papke LF. The effects of
environment. Replace the stopcock with a needle-
needleless connectors on catheter-related thrombotic occlusions.
less connector as soon as clinically indicated.31-33
J Infus Nurs. 2010;34(2):89-96.
(III) 10. Lynch D. Achieving zero central line-associated bloodstream
H. Change the needleless connector no more frequently infections: connector design combined with practice in the
than 96-hour intervals. Changing on a more fre- long-term acute care setting. J Assoc Vasc Access. 2012;17(2):
quent time interval adds no benefit and has been 75-77.
shown to increase the risk of CLABSI. 11. Logan R. Neutral displacement intravenous connectors: evaluat-
1. When used within a continuous infusion system, ing new technology. J Assoc Vasc Access. 2013;18(1):
the needleless connector is changed when the 31-36.
primary administration set is changed (eg, 96 12. Caillouet B. Protection of intraluminal pathway with zero fluid
hours). displacement connector reduces catheter-related bloodstream
infections in a comprehensive cancer center. J Assoc Vasc Access.
2. For peripheral catheters with dwell times longer
2012;17(2):86-89.
than 96 hours, there are no studies on changing
13. Chernecky CC, Macklin D, Jarvis WR, Joshua TV. Comparison
the attached needleless connector/extension set. of central line-associated bloodstream infection rates when
3. Additionally, the needleless connector should be changing to a zero fluid displacement intravenous needleless con-
changed in the following circumstances: if the nector in acute care settings. Am J Infect Control. 2014;42(2):
needleless connector is removed for any reason; 200-202.
if there is residual blood or debris within the 14. Hadaway L. Needleless connectors: improving practice, reducing
needleless connector; prior to drawing a sample risks. J Assoc Vasc Access. 2011;16(1):20-25, 28-30, 32-33.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S69 05/01/16 11:30 PM

15. Hadaway L. Needleless connectors for IV catheters. Am J Nurs. 31. Pohl F, Hartmann W, Holzmann T, Gensicke S, Klbl O,
2012;112(11):32-44. Hautmann M. Risk of infection due to medical interventions via
16. Loveday H, Wilson J, Pratt R, et al. epic3: national evidence- central venous catheters or implantable venous access port
based guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated infections systems at the middle port of a three-way cock: luer lock cap vs.
in NHS hospitals in England. J Hosp Infect. 2014;86(suppl 1): luer access split septum system (Q-Syte). BMC Infect Dis.
S1-S70. 2014;14(1):41.
17. Pichler J, Soothill J, Hill S. Reduction of blood stream infections 32. Mermel L. Intraoperative stopcock and manifold colonization of
in children following a change to chlorhexidine disinfection of newly inserted peripheral intravenous catheters. Infect Control
parenteral nutrition catheter connectors. Clin Nutr. Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(9):1187-1189.
2013;33(1):85-89. 33. Loftus RW, Brown JR, Koff MD, et al. Multiple reservoirs con-
18. Moureau NL, Flynn J. Disinfection of needleless connector hubs: tribute to intraoperative bacterial transmission. Anesth Analg.
clinical evidence systematic review. Nurs Res Pract. 2015. http:// 2012;114(6):1236-1248.
www.hindawi.com/journals/nrp/2015/7967621. 34. Sherertz RJ, Karchmer TB, Palavecino E, Bischoff W. Blood
19. Edmiston CE Jr, Markina V. Reducing the risk of infection in drawn through valved catheter hub connectors carries a signifi-
vascular access patients: an in vitro evaluation of an antimicro- cant risk of contamination. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis.
bial silver nanotechnology luer activated device. Am J Infect 2011;30(12):1571-1577.
Control. 2010;38(6):421-423. 35. Sandora TJ, Graham DA, Conway M, Dodson B, Potter-Bynoe
20. Maki D. In vitro studies of a novel antimicrobial luer activated G, Margossian SP. Impact of needleless connector change fre-
needleless connector for prevention of catheter related blood- quency on central line-associated bloodstream infection rate. Am
stream infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(12):1580-1587. J Infect Control. 2014;42(5):485-489.
21. Chernecky CC, Waller JL, Jarvis WR. In vitro study assessing the 36. Smith JS, Kirksey KM, Becker H, Brown A. Autonomy and self-
antibacterial activity of three silver-impregnated/coated mechani- efficacy as influencing factors in nurses behavioral intention to
cal valve needleless connectors after blood exposure. Am J Infect disinfect needleless intravenous systems. J Infus Nurs.
Control. 2012;41(3):278-280. 2011;34(3):193-200.
22. Jacob JT, Chernetsky Tejedor S, Dent Reyes M, et al. Comparison
of a silver-coated needleless connector and a standard needleless
connector for the prevention of central line-associated blood-
stream infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2015;36(3): 35. FILTRATION
294-301.
23. Perez E, Williams M, Jacob JT, et al. Microbial biofilms on Standard
needleless connectors for central venous catheters: a comparison
of standard and silver-coated devices collected from patients in an 35.1 Parenteral nutrition solutions are filtered using an
acute care hospital. J Clin Microbiol. 2014;52(3):823-831. in-line or add-on filter appropriate to the type of
24. Casey AL, Karpanen TJ, Nightingale P, Cook M, Elliott TS. solution.
Microbiological comparison of a silver-coated and a non-coated 35.2 Blood and blood components are filtered using an
needleless intravascular connector in clinical use. J Hosp Infect. in-line or add-on filter appropriate to the prescribed
2012;80(4):299-303. component.
25. Wright M-O, Tropp J, Dillon-Grant M, et al. Preventing con- 35.3 Intraspinal infusion solutions are filtered using a
tamination of central venous catheter valves with the use of an
surfactant-free, particulate-retentive, and air-eliminating
alcohol-based disinfecting cap. Am J Infect Control.
filter.
2012;40(5):e179-e180.
26. Sweet MA, Cumpston A, Briggs F, Craig M, Hamadani M.
35.4 Medications withdrawn from glass ampoules are
Impact of alcohol-impregnated port protectors and needleless filtered using a filter needle or filter straw.
neutral pressure connectors on central line-associated blood-
stream infections and contamination of blood cultures in an Practice Criteria
inpatient oncology unit. Am J Infect Control. 2012;40(10):
931-934. A. Use filters adhering to manufacturers directions for
27. Ramirez C, Lee AM, Welch K. Central venous catheter protective use and filtration requirements of the infusion ther-
connector caps reduce intraluminal catheter-related infection. J apy solution or medication.1 (V)
Assoc Vasc Access. 2012;17(4):210-213. 1. Filters are contraindicated for use with certain
28. Merrill KC, Sumner S, Linford L, Taylor C, Macintosh C. Impact medications that would be retained on the filter
of universal disinfectant cap implementation on central line- material; consult with pharmacy or published
associated bloodstream infections. Am J Infect Control. drug resources regarding filtration indications.1
2014;42(12):1274-1277.
(V)
29. Stango C, Runyan D, Stern J, Macri I, Vacca M. A successful
2. Avoid filters when administering very small drug
approach to reducing bloodstream infections based on a disinfec-
tion device for intravenous needleless connector hubs. J Infus
volumes as drug retention may seriously decrease
Nurs. 2014;37(6):462-465. the volume of medication delivered to the
30. DeVries M, Mancos PS, Valentine MJ. Reducing bloodstream patient.1,2 (V)
infection risk in central and peripheral intravenous lines: initial 3. Recognize that there is evolving evidence docu-
data on passive intravenous connector disinfection. J Assoc Vasc menting the effect of particulate matter (eg, rub-
Access. 2014;19(2):87-93. ber, glass, latex) on capillary endothelium and
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S70 05/01/16 11:30 PM

the effect of microbubbles of air that may cause reduction in overall complications for patients in
cerebral and pulmonary ischemia; use of particu- pediatric intensive care units, including a significant
late-retentive and air-eliminating filters can reduction in systemic inflammatory response syn-
prevent potential damage from air/particulates drome (SIRS); a 0.2-micron filter was used for crys-
(eg, cardiac anomalies with right-to-left talline solutions and a 1.2-micron filter was used for
shunting).1,3-5 (V) lipid-containing admixtures.7,8 (III)
4. Use air-eliminating filters during treatment of J. There is insufficient evidence to support the routine
adults with Eisenmengers syndrome (heart defect use of in-line intravenous particulate filters for non-
that causes right-to-left shunting) as exclusion of blood/blood component therapy in peripheral intra-
air bubbles in administration sets is recommend- venous catheters for the purpose of preventing
ed as essential.6 (I A/P) infusion-related phlebitis.9 (I)
B. Change add-on filters to coincide with administra-
tion set changes; use a primary administration set REFERENCES
with a preattached, in-line filter whenever possible
to reduce tubing manipulation and risks of contami- Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed August
nation, misuse, and accidental disconnection/mis- 28, 2015.
connection.1 (V) 1. Hadaway L. Infusion therapy equipment. In: Alexander M,
C. Locate add-on bacteria- and particulate-retentive Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
and air-eliminating membrane filters as close to the Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
vascular access device (VAD) hub as possible.1 (V) Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:418-421.
D. Ensure that electronic infusion device (EID) pressure 2. Gasch J, Leopold CS, Knoth H. Drug retention by inline filters:
does not exceed the pounds per square inch (psi) effect of positively charged polyethersulfone filter membranes on
rating of the filter when an EID is used.1 (V) drug solutions with low concentration. Eur J Pharm Sci. 2011;44
(1-2):49-56.
E. Filter parenteral nutrition solutions without lipids
3. Jack T, Brent BE, Boehne M, et al. Analysis of particulate con-
using a 0.2-micron filter and lipid-containing emul-
taminations of infusion solutions in a pediatric intensive care
sions (3-in-1) using a 1.2-micron filter, and change unit. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36(4):707-711.
filters every 24 hours. 4. Barak M, Latz Y. Microbubbles: pathophysiology and clinical
1. When lipids are infused separately from dextrose/ implications. Chest. 2005;128:2918-2932.
amino acids, use a 0.2-micron filter for the dex- 5. Wilkins RG, Unverdorben M. Accidental infusion of air: a con-
trose/amino acid solution and infuse the lipid emul- cise review. J Infus Nurs. 2012;35(6):404-408.
sion below the 0.2 filter (eg, during piggyback). 6. Warnes CA, Williams RG, Bashore TM, et al. ACC/AHA 2008
2. Separate lipid emulsions may not require filtra- guidelines for the management of adults with congenital heart
tion; consult manufacturers directions for use. If disease. Circulation. 2008;118(23):e714-e833.
required, a 1.2-micron filter is used on the sepa- 7. Jack T, Boehne M, Brent BE, et al. In-line filtration reduces severe
complications and length of stay on pediatric intensive care unit:
rate lipid emulsion (refer to Standard 61,
a prospective, randomized, controlled trial. Intensive Care Med.
Parenteral Nutrition).
2012;38(6):1008-1016.
F. Filter blood and blood components using a filter 8. Boehne M, Jack T, Kditz H, et al. In-line filtration minimizes
designed to remove blood clots and harmful parti- organ dysfunction: new aspects from a prospective, randomized
cles; standard blood administration sets include a controlled trial. BMC Pediatr. 2013;13:21. http://www.biomed-
170- to 260-micron filter. Change the transfusion central.com/1471-2431/13/21.
administration set, and filter after each unit or no 9. Niel-Weise BS, Stijnen T, van den Broek PJ. Should in-line filters
less often than every 4 hours (refer to Standard 62, be used in peripheral intravenous catheters to prevent infusion-
Transfusion Therapy). related phlebitis? A systematic review of randomized controlled
G. Filter intraspinal infusion medications using a sur- trials. Anesth Analg. 2010;110(6):1624-1629.
factant-free 0.2-micron filter (refer to Standard 54,
Intraspinal Access Devices).
H. Use a filter needle or filter straw to withdraw any 36. ADD-ON DEVICES
medication from glass ampoules and replace the fil-
ter needle or filter straw with a new sterile needle
Standard
after the medication is withdrawn from the ampoule;
recognize that glass fragments may enter the ampoule 36.1 Add-on devices are used only when clinically indi-
when opened (refer to Standard 17, Compounding cated for a specific purpose and in accordance with
and Preparation of Parenteral Solutions and manufacturers directions for use.
Medications). 36.2 Add-on devices are of luer-lock or integrated
I. Consider fluid and medication filtration in critically design to ensure a secure junction, reduce manipulation,
ill patients; filter use was associated with a significant and minimize the risk of disconnection.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S71 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Practice Criteria 3. Gonzalez Lopez J, Arriba Vilela A, Fernandez del Palacio E,
Olivares Corral J, Benedicto Marti C, Herrera Portal P. Indwell
A. Consider the use of add-on devices (eg, single- and times, complications and costs of open vs closed safety peripheral
multilumen extension sets, manifold sets, extension intravenous catheters: a randomized study. J Hosp Infect.
loops, solid cannula caps, needleless connectors, in- 2014;86(2):117-126.
line filters, manual flow-control devices and stop- 4. Tamura N, Abe S, Hagimoto K, et al. Unfavorable peripheral
cocks) only for clinical indications. When indicated, intravenous catheter replacements can be reduced using an inte-
preferentially use systems that minimize manipula- grated closed intravenous catheter system. J Vasc Access.
tion and reduce multiple components, such as inte- 2014;15(4):257-263.
5. US Food and Drug Administration. Preventing tubing and luer
grated extension sets (see Standard 34, Needleless
misconnections. http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/Safety/
Connectors).1-4 (IV)
AlertsandNotices/TubingandLuerMisconnections/default.htm.
1. Clinical indications may include adding length, 6. US Food and Drug Administration. Safety considerations to miti-
enabling filtration capabilities, or enhancing gate the risks of misconnections with small-bore connectors
function of the infusion system (ie, adding an intended for enteral applications. http://www.fda.gov/downloads/
extension to decrease movement/manipulation at MedicalDevices/DeviceRegulationandGuidance/Guidance
the short peripheral catheter hub).1,2 (V) Documents/UCM313385.pdf. Published February 11, 2015.
2. Consider that the potential for contamination 7. Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). Stay connected
exists with all add-on devices. Limit the use of program. http://ismp.org/tools/stayconnectedprogram.aspx.
add-on devices whenever possible to decrease 8. American Nurses Association [position paper]. Safety issues
the number of manipulation episodes, acciden- related to tubing and catheter misconnections. http://www.nurs-
ingworld.org/position/practice/tube.aspx.
tal disconnections or misconnections, and
9. Marschall J, Mermel LA, Fakih M, et al; Society for Healthcare
costs.1-9 (IV)
Epidemiology of America. Strategies to prevent central line-asso-
B. Ensure that all add-on devices are compatible with ciated bloodstream infections in acute care hospitals: 2014
the administration system to prevent the risk of update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(7):
leaks, disconnections, or misconnections.5-6 (V) 753-771.
C. Change the add-on device with new vascular access 10. Cole D, Baslanti T, Gravenstein NL, Gravenstein N. Leaving
device (VAD) insertion, with each administration set more than your fingerprint on the intravenous line: a prospective
replacement, or as defined by the organization, and study on propofol anesthesia and implications of stopcock con-
whenever the integrity of the product is compro- tamination. Anesth Analg. 2015;120(4):816-867.
mised or suspected of being compromised.1,2 (V) 11. Loftus R, Brown J, Koff M, et al. Multiple reservoirs contribute
D. Avoid the use of stopcocks due to the increased risk to intraoperative bacterial transmission. Anesth Analg.
2012;114(6):1236-1248.
of infection.
12. Mermel L. Intraoperative stopcock and manifold colonization of
1. Propofol anesthesia may increase risk for postop-
newly inserted peripheral intravenous catheters. Infect Control
erative infection because of microorganism Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(9):1187-1189.
growth in stopcock dead spaces. Bacterial con- 13. Sandora TJ, Graham DA, Conway M, Dodson B, Potter-Bynoe
tamination of the patients skin, the providers G, Margossian SP. Impact of needleless connector change fre-
hands, and the environment contribute to infec- quency on central line-associated bloodstream infection rate. Am
tion risk associated with stopcocks.10,11 (IV) J Infect Control. 2014;42(5):485-489.
2. Use a stopcock or manifold with an integrated
needleless connection rather than a solid cap or
replace the stopcock with a needleless connector 37. VASCULAR ACCESS DEVICE
to reduce stopcock contamination.12,13 (IV) (VAD) STABILIZATION
Standard
REFERENCES
37.1 Stabilize and secure vascular access devices (VADs)
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed August to prevent VAD complications and unintentional loss of
28, 2015. access.
1. Hadaway L. Infusion therapy equipment. In: Alexander M,
37.2 Methods used to stabilize the VAD will not inter-
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R. eds. Infusion fere with assessment and monitoring of the access site
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: and will not impede vascular circulation or delivery of
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:391-436. the prescribed therapy.
2. Alexander M, Gorski L, Corrigan A, Bullock M, Dickenson A,
Earhart A. Technical and clinical application. In: Alexander M, Practice Criteria
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Phillips L, eds. Core Curriculum for
Infusion Nursing. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/ A. Consider use of an engineered stabilization device
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014:1-85. (ESD) to stabilize and secure VADs as inadequate
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S72 05/01/16 11:30 PM

stabilization and securement can cause unintentional ing; however, larger trials are needed to confirm
dislodgment and complications requiring premature these findings and identify patients for whom this
VAD removal. ESDs promote consistent practice might not be suitable.5,15-17 (III)
among all clinicians, reduce VAD motion that can E. Use adhesive-based ESDs with peripherally inserted
lead to complications, reduce interruption of needed central catheters (PICCs) as they may reduce risk of
infusion therapy, and may decrease cost of care. infection and catheter dislodgment and are
1. The effect of adhesive ESDs on peripheral cathe- considered to be safer than sutures. Sutures were
ter complication rates is unclear due to the lim- associated with fewer complications when com-
ited number and quality of randomized trials. pared to use of tape with PICCs in pediatric patients
2. Studies on central vascular access devices in a randomized, controlled trial that excluded use
(CVADs) are limited to small populations or of stabilization devices.3,18-20 (III)
descriptive study design. F. Subcutaneous ESDs have been successful in stabiliz-
3. Many devices merge the interventions of catheter ing PICCs and CVADs inserted through the internal
stabilization with the dressing of the VAD, yet jugular vein of adults. Patient outcomes and patient
there is an absence of data for these combination and inserter satisfaction have been favorable; how-
devices. ever, additional studies with other CVADs are
4. Decisions about the most appropriate method for needed.21-23 (V)
VAD stabilization and securement include patient G. For CVADs, the use of staples as an alternative to
age, skin turgor and integrity, previous adhesive sutures reduces exposure to contaminated sharps
skin injury, and any type of drainage from the and shortens securement time but increases pain on
insertion site.1-6 (IV) application and removal and does not adequately
B. Avoid use of tape or sutures, as they are not effective secure the CVAD. A system using a special catheter
alternatives to an ESD. Rolls of nonsterile tape can clamp designed for staple use demonstrated signifi-
become contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, cantly less time for securing the VAD in a variety of
although its contribution to VAD infection has not insertion sites, but additional VAD outcome data are
been quantified. Sutures are associated with needle- needed.24-26 (IV)
stick injury, in addition to supporting the growth of H. Do not use rolled bandages, with or without elastic
biofilm and increasing the risk of catheter-related properties, to secure any type of VAD because they
bloodstream infection.7-10 (II, Regulatory) do not adequately secure the VAD, can obscure
C. Do not rely on VAD dressings (ie, standard, nonbor- signs and symptoms of complications, and can
dered transparent semipermeable membrane [TSM] impair circulation or the flow of infusion. The pres-
dressings, gauze and tape dressings) as a means for ence of skin disorders that contradict the use of
VAD stabilization as there is insufficient evidence medical adhesives (ie, pediatric epidermolysis bullo-
supporting their benefits as stabilization devices.11 (I) sa, toxic epidermal necrolysis) may necessitate the
D. For peripheral catheters, consider 2 options for cath- use of tubular gauze mesh rather than adhesive
eter stabilization: (1) an integrated stabilization ESD.4 (V)
feature on the peripheral catheter hub combined I. Assess the integrity of the ESD with each dressing
with a bordered polyurethane securement dressing change and change the ESD according to the manu-
or (2) a standard round hub peripheral catheter in facturers directions for use. Remove adhesive ESDs
combination with an adhesive ESD. Both have dem- during the dressing change to allow for appropriate
onstrated equivalent complication rates, although skin antisepsis and apply a new ESD. An ESD
complication rates for both types were not greatly designed to remain in place for the life of the VAD
reduced with either type of ESD.12,13 (III) (eg, sutures, subcutaneous ESD) may need to be
1. Use of a bordered polyurethane securement removed and replaced if appropriate stabilization is
dressing alone on a peripheral catheter with a no longer being achieved.3,22,23,27 (IV)
traditional hub allowed more peripheral cathe- J. Be aware of the risk of medical adhesive-related skin
ters to reach 72 hours of dwell time with fewer injury (MARSI) associated with the use of adhesive-
needing to be restarted; however, more data are based ESDs.
needed.14 (V) 1. Assess skin when the device is changed; antici-
2. Cyanoacrylate tissue adhesives for securement have pate potential risk for skin injury due to age,
been studied in vitro, in animals, and in small pilot joint movement, and presence of edema.
trials of peripheral venous and arterial catheters. 2. Apply barrier solutions to skin exposed to the
Tissue adhesive plus a standard transparent dress- adhesive dressing to reduce the risk of MARSI.
ing have shown a slight trend toward reduction in Compound tincture of benzoin should not be
catheter failure with these adhesives in combina- used due to increased risk of MARSI because it
tion with a standard transparent membrane dress- may increase the bonding of adhesives to skin,
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S73 05/01/16 11:30 PM

causing skin injury when the adhesive-based ESD 15. Simonova G, Rickard CM, Dunster KR, Smyth DJ, McMillan D,
is removed.8 (I) Fraser JF. Cyanoacrylate tissue adhesives: effective securement
K. Never readvance a dislodged VAD into the vein. technique for intravascular cathetersin vitro testing of safety
and feasibility. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2012;40(3):
After assessment of the tip location, the infusion
460-466.
therapy, and other influencing factors, the VAD
16. Edwards M, Rickard CM, Rapchuk I, et al. A pilot trial of bor-
could be stabilized at the current location; however, dered polyurethane dressings, tissue adhesive and sutureless
removal, reinsertion at a new site, or exchange could devices compared with standard polyurethane dressings for secur-
be the most appropriate intervention.28 (V) ing short-term arterial catheters. Crit Care Resusc. 2014;16(3):
175-183.
REFERENCES 17. Reynolds H, Taraporewalla K, Tower M, et al. Novel technolo-
gies can provide effective dressing and securement for peripheral
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed October arterial catheters: a pilot randomised controlled trial in the oper-
5, 2015. ating theatre and the intensive care unit. Aust Crit Care.
2015;28(3):140-148.
1. Alekseyev S, Byrne M, Carpenter A, Franker C, Kidd C, Hulton
18. OGrady N, Alexander M, Burns L, et al. Guidelines for the pre-
L. Prolonging the life of a patients IV: an integrative review of
vention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://www.cdc.
intravenous securement devices. Medsurg Nurs. 2011;21(5):
gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published April 2011.
285-292.
19. Graf J, Newman C, McPherson M. Sutured securement of periph-
2. Helm RE, Klausner JD, Klemperer JD, Flint LM, Huang E.
erally inserted central catheters yields fewer complications in
Accepted but unacceptable: peripheral IV catheter failure. J Infus
pediatric patients. J Paren Enteral Nutr. 2006;20(6):S32-S35.
Nurs. 2015;38(3):189-203.
20. Yamamoto A, Solomon J, Soulen M, et al. Sutureless securement
3. Waterhouse J, Bandisode V, Brandon D, Olson M, Docherty SL.
device reduces complications of peripherally inserted central
Evaluation of the use of a stabilization device to improve the
venous catheters. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2002;13(1):77-81.
quality of care in patients with peripherally inserted central cath-
21. Cordovani D, Cooper RM. A prospective trial on a new suture-
eters. AACN Adv Crit Care. 2014;25(3):213-220.
less securement device for central venous catheters. Can J Anesth.
4. Hetzler R, Wilson M, Hill EK, Hollenback C. Securing pediatric
2013;60(5):504-505.
peripheral IV catheters: application of an evidence-based practice
22. Egan GM, Siskin GP, Weinmann R IV, Galloway MM. A prospec-
model. J Pediatr Nurs. 2011;26(2):143-148.
tive postmarket study to evaluate the safety and efficacy of a new
5. Marsh N, Webster J, Flynn J, et al. Securement methods for
peripherally inserted central catheter stabilization system. J Infus
peripheral venous catheters to prevent failure: a randomised con-
Nurs. 2013;36(3):181-188.
trolled pilot trial. J Vasc Access. 2015;16(3):237-244.
23. Hughes ME. Reducing PICC migrations and improving patient
6. Ullman AJ, Cooke M, Rickard CM. Examining the role of secure-
outcomes. Br J Nurs. 2014;23(suppl 2):S12-S18.
ment and dressing products to prevent central venous access
24. Vinjirayer A, Jefferson P, Ball D. Securing central venous cathe-
device failure: a narrative review. J Assoc Vasc Access. 2015;20
ters: a comparison of sutures with staples. Emerg Med J.
(2):99-110.
2004;21(5):582-583.
7. Lalayanni C, Baliakas P, Xochelli A, et al. Outbreak of cutaneous
25. Motonaga GK, Lee KK, Kirsch JR. The efficacy of the arrow
zygomycosis associated with the use of adhesive tape in haema-
staple device for securing central venous catheters to human skin.
tology patients. J Hosp Infect. 2012;81(3):213-215.
Anesth Analg. 2004;99(5):1436-1439.
8. McNichol L, Lund C, Rosen T, Gray M. Medical adhesives and
26. Silich B, Chrobak P, Siu J, Schlichting A, Patel S, Yang J.
patient safety: state of the science: consensus statements for the
Improving safety and efficiency during emergent central venous
assessment, prevention, and treatment of adhesive-related skin
catheter placement with a needleless securing clamp. Emerg Med
injuries. J Wound Ostomy Continence Nurs. 2013;40(4):
J. 2013;30(8):683-686.
365-380.
27. Inwood S. An exploration of the past, present and future of cath-
9. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA
eter securement. Br J Nurs. 2014;23(suppl 8):S26-S27.
Fact Sheet: Securing Medical Catheters. Washington, DC: OSHA;
28. Gorski L, Perucca R, Hunter M. Central venous access devices:
2004:2.
care, maintenance, and potential complications. In: Alexander M,
10. Griswold S, Bonaroti A, Rieder CJ, et al. Investigation of a safety-
engineered device to prevent needlestick injury: why has not
StatLock stuck? BMJ. 2013. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2012-002327.
11. Webster J, Gillies D, ORiordan E, Sherriff KL, Rickard CM.
Gauze and tape and transparent polyurethane dressings for cen-
tral venous catheters. Cochrane Database Syst Rev.
2011;(11):CD003827. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003827.pub2.
38. JOINT STABILIZATION
12. Bausone-Gazda D, Lefaiver C, Walters S. A randomized controlled
trial to compare the complications of 2 peripheral intravenous Standard
catheter-stabilization systems. J Infus Nurs. 2010;33(6):371-384.
13. Delp J, Hadaway L. New product decisions: the process and 38.1 Joint stabilization devices, such as an arm board or
outcome for a community health system. J Assoc Vasc Access. splint, are used to facilitate infusion delivery and main-
2011;16(2):74-76, 78-79, 82-84. tain device patency and are not considered restraints.
14. Jackson A. Retrospective comparative audit of two peripheral IV 38.2 A joint stabilization device is a single-patient-use
securement dressings. Br J Nurs. 2012;21(suppl 2):10-15. device.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S74 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Practice Criteria 10. Schler AB, Schols JM, Halfens RJ. Risk and associated factors
of pressure ulcers in hospitalized children over 1 year of age. J
A. Joint stabilization devices may be used to facilitate Spec Pediatr Nurs. 2014;19(1):80-89.
infusion delivery, maintain device patency, and 11. Visscher M, Taylor T. Pressure ulcers in the hospitalized neonate:
minimize complications.1,2 (III) rates and risk factors. Sci Rep. 2014;4:7429.
B. The joint stabilization device is: 12. Akl KF. Misuse of the wooden tongue depressor. Indian J Pediatr.
1. Padded as needed and supports the area of flex- 2010;77(5):579.
ion (eg, hand, arm, elbow, foot) in order to main- 13. Phillips LD, Gorski LA. Techniques for initiation and mainte-
tain a functional position.3-5 (I A/P) nance of peripheral infusion therapy. In: Manual of IV
Therapeutics: Evidence-Based Practice for Infusion Therapy. 6th
2. Applied in a manner that permits visual inspec-
ed. Philadelphia, PA: FA Davis; 2014:309-405.
tion and assessment of the vascular access site
14. Simandl G. Disorders of skin integrity and function. In: Porth
and vascular pathway and does not exert such CM. Essentials of Pathophysiology. 4th ed. New York, NY:
pressure as to cause circulatory constriction, Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2015:
pressure ulcers, skin impairment, or nerve dam- 1153-1184.
age in the area of flexion or under the device.6-12 15. Holzel H, Macqueen S, MacDonald A, et al. Rhizopus microspo-
(IV) rus in wooden tongue depressors: a major threat or minor incon-
3. Considered when a short peripheral catheter is venience? J Hosp Infect. 1998;38(2):113-118.
placed in the antecubital fossa. This site is not 16. Leeming JG, Moss HA, Elliott TS. Risk of tongue depressors to
recommended, but if a short peripheral catheter the immunocompromised. Lancet. 1996;348(9031):889.
is present, the joint is stabilized.13 (V) 17. Mitchell SJ, Gray J, Morgan ME, Hocking MD, Durbin GM.
Nosocomial infection with Rhizopus microsporus in preterm
4. Removed periodically for assessment of circula-
infants: association with wooden tongue depressors. Lancet.
tory status, range of motion and function, and
1996;348(9025):441-443.
skin integrity.3,6,10,14 (I A/P)
C. Wooden tongue depressors as joint stabilization
devices should not be used in preterm infants or 39. SITE PROTECTION
immunocompromised individuals.15-17 (IV)
Standard
39.1 The use of site protection and/or physical immobi-
REFERENCES
lization devices to protect vascular access devices
1. Dalal S, Chawla D, Singh J, Agarwal R, Deorari A, Paul V. Limb (VADs) or VAD sites, and their proper application and
splinting for intravenous cannulae in neonates: a randomised patient monitoring, are established in organizational
controlled trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. policies, procedures, and/or practice guidelines.
2009;94(6):F394-F396. 39.2 The use of physical immobilization devices (ie,
2. Tripathi S, Kaushik V, Singh V. Peripheral IVs: factors affecting restraints) to protect VAD sites is not routinely imple-
complications and patency randomized controlled trial. J Infus mented and is avoided whenever possible.
Nurs. 2008;31(3):182-188.
3. Moore KL, Dalley AF, Agur AMR. Upper limb. In: Clinically
Oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. New York, NY: Wolters Kluwer/ Practice Criteria
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2010:671-819.
A. Specific patient populations including pediatric,
elderly, or those with cognitive dysfunction are at
risk of accidental VAD dislodgment or patient
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:391-436. removal of the VAD. Consider VAD site or line pro-
5. Hockenberry M, Wilson D. Wongs Essentials of Pediatric tection methods (such as clear plastic domes) for the
Nursing. 9th ed. St Louis, MO: Elsevier; 2013:685. duration of the VAD, and if all other measures have
6. Apold J, Rydrych D. Preventing device-related pressure ulcers: been tried or have failed, physical immobilization
using data to guide statewide change. J Nurs Care Qual. devices (such as soft devices restraining a hand or
2012;27(1):28-34. hands). All patients may need temporary VAD site
7. Black J, Alves P, Brindle CT, et al. Use of wound dressings to protection from water, other contaminants, or move-
enhance prevention of pressure ulcers caused by medical devices. ment due to activities of daily living.1-13 (V)
Int Wound J. 2015;12(3):322-327.
1. Select a site protection method or immobilization
8. Black JM, Cuddigan JE, Walko MA, Didier LA, Lander MJ,
device based on an assessment of the patients
Kelpe MR. Medical device related pressure ulcers in hospitalized
patients. Int Wound J. 2010;7(5):358-365.
physical, behavioral, cognitive, and psychologi-
9. Haesler E, ed; National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel, European cal status.1,2,14-18 (V)
Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel and Pan Pacific Pressure Injury 2. Use site protection methods or immobilization
Alliance. Prevention and Treatment of Pressure Ulcers: Clinical devices in a manner that permits visual inspec-
Practice Guideline. Perth, Australia: Cambridge Media; 2014. tion and assessment of the vascular access site
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S75 05/01/16 11:30 PM

and vascular pathway and does not exert such Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams &
pressure as to cause circulatory constriction, Wilkins; 2014:687-742.
pressure ulcers, skin impairment, or nerve dam- 7. Rickard CM, McCann D, Munnings J, McGrail MR. Routine resite
of peripheral intravenous devices every 3 days did not reduce com-
age under the device and in accordance with
plications compared with clinically indicated resite: a randomised
manufacturers directions for use. Physical
controlled trial. BMC Med. 2010;8:53. http://www.biomedcentral.
immobilization devices should be distal to the com/1741-7015/8/53. Published September 10, 2010.
VAD site. The site protection method or select- 8. The Joint Commission (TJC). Hospital-Provision of Care,
ed immobilization device should not interfere Treatment, and Services: PC.03.02.01. Oakbrook Terrace, IL:
with the prescribed infusion rate, delivery TJC; 2015.
method, ability to assess the vascular access 9. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the
site, or catheter stabilization/securement.2,6,15,19 prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://
(I A/P) www.cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published
3. Rigid site protection devices and all immobiliza- April 2011.
tion devices should be removed at established 10. Phillips LD, Gorski LA. Manual of IV Therapeutics: Evidence-
Based Practice for Infusion Therapy. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: FA
intervals to allow assessment of the extremitys
Davis; 2014:462-539.
circulatory status and provide an opportunity
11. Saibu R, Mitchell P, Salifu M, et al. Dialysis line separation:
for supervised range-of-motion activities.15-19 maximizing patient safety through education and visibility of
(I A/P) access site for patients on hemodialysis. Nephrol Nurs J.
4. Regularly assess patient safety without the physi- 2011;38(6):515-526.
cal immobilization device as to its need. The 12. Wallis MC, McGrail M, Webster J, et al. Risk factors for periph-
physical immobilization device should be removed eral intravenous catheter failure: a multivariate analysis of data
as soon as the patients condition allows.8,16,20-22 from a randomized controlled trial. Infect Control Hosp
(V, Regulatory) Epidemiol. 2014;35(1):63-68.
B. Educate the patient, caregiver, or surrogate on the 13. Weingart S, Hsieh C, Lane S, Cleary A. Standardizing central
need for and appropriate use of physical immobili- venous catheter care by using observations from patients with
cancer. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2014;18(3):321-326.
zation devices (refer to Standard 8, Patient
14. Balas MC, Casey CM, Happ MB. Comprehensive assessment and
Education).
management of the critically ill. In: Boltz M, Capezuti E, Fulmer
C. Document, at a minimum, the rationale for the TT, Zwicker D, eds. Evidence-Based Geriatric Nursing Protocols
physical immobilization device; type and location of for Best Practice. 4th ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2012.
the immobilization device; release and reapplication 15. Bradas CM, Sandhu SK, Mion LC. Physical restraints and side
of the device; site and circulatory assessment; any rails in acute and critical care settings. In: Boltz M, Capezuti E,
complications caused by the immobilization device; Fulmer TT, Zwicker D, eds. Evidence-Based Geriatric Nursing
patients response to the immobilization device; Protocols for Best Practice. 4th ed. New York, NY: Springer;
reassessment of the need for the immobilization 2012.
device; patient education; and removal of the 16. Hospital conditions of participation: patients rights, final rule.
device.23,24 (V, Regulatory) Fed Regist. 2006;71(236):71378-71428. Codified at 42 CFR
482. http://www.cms.hhs.gov/CFCsAndCOPs/downloads/
finalpatientrightsrule.pdf . Published December 8,
REFERENCES 2006.
17. Mion LC. Physical restraint in critical care settings: will they go
away? Geriatr Nurs. 2008;29(6):421-423.
31, 2015.
18. The Joint Commission (TJC). Comprehensive Accreditation
1. Antonelli MT. Restraint management: moving from outcome to Manuals. E-dition v.February 1, 2015. Hospital-Provision of
process. J Nurs Care Qual. 2008;23(3):227-232. Care, Treatment, and Services: PC.03.02.03. Oakbrook Terrace,
2. Frey AM, Pettit J. Infusion therapy in children. In: Alexander M, IL: TJC; 2015.
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion 19. Smith SF, Duell DJ, Martin BC. Application of immobilizing
Therapy: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: devices: restraints. Clinical Nursing Skills: Basic to Advanced
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:550-570. Skills. 8th ed. New York, NY: Pearson; 2012:160-173, 1010-
3. Jumani K, Advani S, Reich NG, Gosey L, Milstone AM. Risk 1013.
factors for peripherally inserted central venous catheter complica- 20. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. State operations pro-
tions in children. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167(5):429-435. vider certification, transmittal 37. https://www.cms.gov/
4. Ludwick R, OToole R, Meehan A. Restraints or alternatives: Regulations-and-Guidance/Guidance/Transmittals/downloads/
safety work in care of older persons. Int J Older People Nurs. R37SOMA.pdf. Published October 17, 2008.
2012;7(1):11-19. 21. The Joint Commission (TJC). HospitalProvision of Care,
5. Phillips LD, Gorski LA. Manual of IV Therapeutics: Evidence- Treatment, and Services: PC.03.02.07. Oakbrook Terrace, IL:
Based Practice for Infusion Therapy. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: FA TJC; 2015.
Davis; 2014:271-272. 22. The Joint Commission (TJC). Nursing Care CenterProvision of
6. Redfern WS, Brany JE. Pediatric infusion therapy. In: Weinstein Care, Treatment, and Services: PC.03.02.13. Oakbrook Terrace,
SM, Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and Practice of Infusion IL: TJC; 2015.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S76 05/01/16 11:30 PM

23. The Joint Commission (TJC). HospitalProvision of Care, deposits, drug precipitate, and other debris from
Treatment, and Services: PC.03.02.05. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: the lumen. Factors to consider when choosing
TJC; 2015. the flush volume include the type and size of
24. The Joint Commission (TJC). HospitalRecord of Care,
catheter, age of the patient, and type of infusion
Treatment, and Services: RC.02.01.05. Oakbrook Terrace, IL:
therapy being given. Infusion of blood compo-
TJC; 2015.
nents, parenteral nutrition, contrast media, and
other viscous solutions may require larger flush
volumes.10 (IV)
40. FLUSHING AND LOCKING
2. If bacteriostatic 0.9% sodium chloride is used,
limit flush volume to no more than 30 mL in a
Standard 24-hour period to reduce the possible toxic
40.1 Vascular access devices (VADs) are flushed and effects of the preservative, benzyl alcohol.11 (V)
aspirated for a blood return prior to each infusion to 3. Use only preservative-free solutions for flushing
assess catheter function and prevent complications. all VADs in neonates to prevent toxicity.12 (V)
40.2 VADs are flushed after each infusion to clear the 4. Use 5% dextrose in water followed by preserva-
infused medication from the catheter lumen, thereby tive-free 0.9% sodium chloride (USP) when the
reducing the risk of contact between incompatible medication is incompatible with sodium chlo-
medications. ride. Do not allow dextrose to reside in the cath-
40.3 The VAD is locked after completion of the final eter lumen as it provides nutrients for biofilm
flush to decrease the risk of intraluminal occlusion and growth.13 (V)
catheter-related bloodstream infection (CR-BSI), 5. Do not use sterile water for flushing VADs.14 (V)
depending on the solution used. D. Assess VAD functionality by using a 10-mL syringe
or a syringe specifically designed to generate lower
injection pressure (ie, 10-mL-diameter syringe bar-
Practice Criteria
rel), taking note of any resistance.
A. Use single-dose systems (eg, single-dose vials or pre- 1. During the initial flush, slowly aspirate the VAD
filled labeled syringes) for all VAD flushing and for blood return that is the color and consist-
locking. ency of whole blood, which is an important
1. Commercially available prefilled syringes may component of assessing catheter function prior
reduce the risk of CR-BSI and save staff time for to administration of medications and solutions
syringe preparation.1-3 (IV) (refer to Standard 48, Central Vascular Access
2. If multiple-dose vials must be used, dedicate a Device [CVAD] Occlusion; Standard 53,
vial to a single patient (see Standard 49, Central Vascular Access Device [CVAD]
Infection).4 (V) Malposition).
3. Do not use intravenous (IV) solution containers 2. Do not forcibly flush any VAD with any syringe
(eg, bags or bottles) as a source for obtaining size. If resistance is met and/or no blood return
flush solutions.3-6 (IV) noted, take further steps (eg, checking for closed
4. Inform patients that disturbances in taste and clamps or kinked sets, removing dressing, etc.) to
odor may occur with prefilled flush syringes and locate an external cause of the obstruction.
may be related to several causes including sys- Internal causes may require diagnostic tests,
temic conditions (eg, diabetes, Crohns disease), including, but not limited to, a chest radiograph
medications (eg, antineoplastics), and radiation. to confirm tip location and mechanical causes
Leaching of substances from the plastic syringe (eg, pinch-off syndrome), color duplex ultra-
into the saline has been reported, although it is sound, or fluoroscopy to identify thrombotic
not thought to be harmful to health.7-9 (II) causes (see Standard 52, Central Vascular Access
B. Perform disinfection of connection surfaces (ie, Device [CVAD]-Associated Venous Thrombosis;
needleless connectors, injection ports) before flush- Standard 53, Central Vascular Access Device
ing and locking procedures (refer to Standard 34, [CVAD] Malposition).10 (IV)
Needleless Connectors). 3. After confirmation of patency by detecting no
C. Flush all VADs with preservative-free 0.9% sodium resistance and the presence of a blood return, use
chloride (USP). syringes appropriately sized for the medication
1. Use a minimum volume equal to twice the inter- being injected. Do not transfer the medication to
nal volume of the catheter system (eg, catheter a larger syringe.3,15 (V)
plus add-on devices). Larger volumes (eg, 5 mL 4. Do not use prefilled flush syringes for dilution of
for peripheral VAD, 10 mL for central vascular medications. Differences in gradation markings,
access devices [CVADs]) may remove more fibrin an unchangeable label on prefilled syringes,
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S77 05/01/16 11:30 PM

partial loss of the drug dose, and possible con- 1. Establish a standardized lock solution for each
tamination increase the risk of serious medica- patient population, organization-wide.28,29 (V)
tion errors with syringe-to-syringe drug 2. Randomized controlled trials have shown equiv-
transfer.3,16 (V) alent outcomes with heparin and sodium chlo-
E. Following the administration of an IV push medica- ride lock solutions for multiple-lumen nontun-
tion, flush the VAD lumen with preservative-free neled CVADs, peripherally inserted central cath-
0.9% sodium chloride (USP) at the same rate of eters (PICCs), and implanted ports while accessed
injection as the medication. Use an amount of flush and when the access needle is removed. There is
solution to adequately clear the medication from the insufficient evidence to recommend one lock
lumen of the administration set and VAD.3 (V) solution over the other.30-33 (I)
F. Use positive-pressure techniques to minimize blood 3. Use heparin or preservative-free 0.9% sodium
reflux into the VAD lumen. chloride (USP) for locking CVADs in children.29
1. Prevent syringe-induced blood reflux by leaving (II)
a small amount (eg, 0.5-1 mL) of flush solution 4. Consider using heparin 10 units per mL for lock-
in a traditional syringe (ie, not a prefilled syringe) ing PICCs in home care patients.34 (III)
to avoid compression of the plunger rod gasket 5. Volume of the lock solution should equal the
or by using a prefilled syringe designed to pre- internal volume of the VAD and add-on devices
vent this type of reflux.10,17 (IV) plus 20%. Flow characteristics during injection
2. Prevent disconnection reflux by using the appro- will cause overspill into the bloodstream. Lock
priate sequence for flushing, clamping, and dis- solution density is less than whole blood, allow-
connection determined by the type of needleless ing leakage of lock solution and ingress of blood
connector being used (refer to Standard 34, into the catheter lumen when the CVAD tip loca-
Needleless Connectors). tion is higher than the insertion site.10,35-37 (IV)
3. Consider using pulsatile flushing technique. In 6. Change to an alternative locking solution when
vitro studies have shown that 10 short boluses the heparin lock solution is thought to be the
of 1 mL interrupted by brief pauses may be cause of adverse drug reactions from heparin;
more effective at removing solid deposits (eg, when heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and
fibrin, drug precipitate, intraluminal bacteria), thrombosis (HITT) develops; and when there are
compared to continuous low-flow techniques. spurious laboratory studies drawn from the
Clinical studies are needed to provide more CVAD that has been locked with heparin. High
clarity on the true effect of this technique.10,18 concentrations of heparin used in hemodialysis
(IV) catheters could lead to systemic anticoagulation.
4. When feasible, consider orienting the bevel of an Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) has
implanted port access needle in the opposite been reported with the use of heparin lock solu-
direction from the outflow channel where the tions, although the exact rates are unknown (see
catheter is attached to the port body. In vitro test- Standard 43, Phlebotomy).11,38 (II)
ing demonstrates a greater amount of protein is 7. Monitoring platelet counts for HIT is not recom-
removed when flushing with this bevel orienta- mended in postoperative and medical patients
tion.19 (IV) receiving only heparin in the form of a catheter
G. Lock short peripheral catheters immediately lock solution due to a very low incidence of HIT
following each use. of 1% or less (see Standard 52, Central Vascular
1. In adults, use preservative-free 0.9% sodium Access Device [CVAD]-Associated Venous
chloride (USP) for locking.10,20-24 (I) Thrombosis).38 (II)
2. In neonates and pediatrics, use heparin 0.5 units 8. Because of conflicts with religious beliefs, inform
to 10 units per mL or preservative-free 0.9% patients when using heparin derived from animal
sodium chloride (USP). Outcome data in these products (eg, porcine, bovine), and obtain con-
patient populations are controversial.25,26 (II) sent. Use preservative-free 0.9% sodium chloride
3. For short peripheral catheters not being used for (USP) instead of heparin when possible.39 (V)
intermittent infusion, consider locking once every J. Lock hemodialysis CVADs with heparin lock solu-
24 hours.27 (III) tion 1000 units/mL, 4% citrate, or antimicrobial
H. There is insufficient evidence to recommend the lock solutions. Use recombinant tissue plasminogen
solution for locking midline catheters. activator to lock hemodialysis catheters once per
I. Lock CVADs with either heparin 10 units per mL or week as a strategy to reduce CR-BSI.40-43 (I)
preservative-free 0.9% sodium chloride (USP), K. Lock apheresis CVADs with heparin 100 units/mL,
according to the directions for use for the VAD and 4% citrate, acid-citrate-dextrose Formula A, or
needleless connector. other antimicrobial lock solutions.40-42,44,45 (IV)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S78 05/01/16 11:30 PM

L. Use solution containing heparin (eg, 1 unit per mL lation, hypocalcemia that could produce cardiac
of 0.9% sodium chloride [USP]) or preservative-free arrest, and protein precipitate formation with
0.9% sodium chloride (USP) as a continuous flow to concentrations greater than 12%.36,43 (I)
maintain patency of arterial catheters used for 5. Monitor taurolidine, an amino acid with antimi-
hemodynamic monitoring. The decision to use pre- crobial effects, for thrombotic lumen occlusion
servative-free 0.9% sodium chloride (USP) instead and protein precipitation, which could cause
of heparin infusion should be based on the clinical lumen occlusion.30,51,57 (I)
risk of catheter occlusion, the anticipated length of 6. Use standardized formulations and licensed inde-
time the arterial catheter will be required, and pendent practitioner (LIP)-approved protocols
patient factors such as heparin sensitivities.46-48 (II) for all antimicrobial lock solutions to enhance
M. Apply the following recommendations for neonates patient safety. Consult with pharmacy when
and pediatrics. combinations of antimicrobial solutions are
1. Use a continuous infusion of heparin 0.5 units planned so that correct information about com-
per kg for all CVADs in neonates. patibility and stability of the solution are
2. Use continuous infusion of heparin 0.25 to 1 unit addressed.53,58 (II)
per mL (total dose of heparin 25-200 units per kg 7. The length of time that antimicrobial lock solu-
per day) for umbilical arterial catheters in neo- tions should reside inside the CVAD lumen is
nates to prevent arterial thrombosis. unclear; up to 12 hours per day may be required.
3. Use heparin 5 units per mL, 1 mL per hour as a This will limit use in patients receiving continu-
continuous infusion for neonates and children ous or frequent intermittent infusions.53 (II)
with peripheral arterial catheters (see Standard 8. Aspirate all antimicrobial locking solutions from
30, Umbilical Catheters).29 (II) the CVAD lumen at the end of the locking peri-
N. Use antimicrobial locking solutions for therapeutic od. Do not flush the lock solution into the
and prophylactic purposes. Use in patients with patients bloodstream, as this could increase
long-term CVADs, patients with a history of multi- development of antibiotic resistance and other
ple CR-BSIs, high-risk patient populations, and in adverse effects. Gentamicin-resistant bacteria
facilities with unacceptably high rates of central line- from gentamicin lock solution have been reported
associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI), despite to increase CLABSI rates.42,58,59 (II)
application of other methods of CLABSI reduc-
tion.42,49-52 (I) REFERENCES
1. Antibiotic lock solutions contain supratherapeu-
tic concentrations of antibiotics and may be
1, 2015.
combined with heparin. Anticipate the chosen
antibiotic to be based on the specific infecting 1. Bertoglio S, Rezzo R, Merlo FD, et al. Pre-filled normal saline
organism or on prevalent organisms within the syringes to reduce totally implantable venous access device-asso-
organization when prophylaxis is the goal. For ciated bloodstream infection: a single institution pilot study
therapeutic use, start the antibiotic lock solutions [published online March 15, 2013]. J Hosp Infect. doi:10.1016/j.
jhin.2013.02.008.
within 48 to 72 hours of diagnosis; however, the
2. Keogh S, Marsh N, Higgins N, Davies K, Rickard C. A time and
duration of use remains controversial.53 (II)
motion study of peripheral venous catheter flushing practice
2. Antiseptic locking solutions include ethanol, using manually prepared and prefilled flush syringes. J Infus
taurolidine, citrate, 26% sodium chloride, Nurs. 2014;37(2):96-101.
methylene blue, fusidic acid, and ethylenedia- 3. Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). Safe Practice
minetetra-acetic acid (EDTA) used alone or in Guidelines for Adult IV Push Medications. Horsham, PA: ISMP;
numerous combinations.51 (I) 2015.
3. Follow catheter manufacturers instructions for 4. Dolan S, Barnes S, Cox T, Felizardo G, Patrick M, Ward K. APIC
intraluminal locking with ethanol. Changes in Position Paper: Safe Injection, Infusion, and Medication Vial
CVADs made of polyurethane material, but not Practices in Healthcare. Washington, DC: Association for
silicone, have led to catheter rupture and split- Practitioners in Infection Control; 2009.
5. Perz JF, Thompson ND, Schaefer MK, Patel PR. US outbreak
ting. Monitor for thrombotic lumen occlusion as
investigations highlight the need for safe injection practices and
ethanol has no anticoagulant activity, hemolysis,
basic infection control. Clin Liver Dis. 2010;14(1):137-151.
and hepatic toxicity. Irreversible precipitation of 6. See I, Nguyen DB, Chatterjee S, et al. Outbreak of Tsukamurella
plasma proteins that could add to CVAD lumen species bloodstream infection among patients at an oncology
occlusion is associated with ethanol concentra- clinic, West Virginia, 2011-2012. Infect Control. 2014;35(3):
tions greater than 28%.37,54-56 (I) 300-306.
4. Monitor sodium citrate, an anticoagulant with 7. Celetti SJ, Vaillancourt R, Pascuet E, Sharp D. Taste and/or odour
antimicrobial effects, for systemic anticoagu- disturbances in pediatric patients undergoing IV flush with
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S79 05/01/16 11:30 PM

normal saline administered by prefilled syringe. Can J Hosp 26. Kumar M, Vandermeer B, Bassler D, Mansoor N. Low-dose
Pharm. 2012;65(5):368-372. heparin use and the patency of peripheral IV catheters in children:
8. Chaveli-Lpez B. Oral toxicity produced by chemotherapy: a a systematic review. Pediatrics. 2013;131(3):e864-e872.
systematic review. J Clin Exp Dent. 2014;6(1):e81-e90. 27. Schreiber S, Zanchi C, Ronfani L, et al. Normal saline flushes per-
9. Maheswaran T, Abikshyeet P, Sitra G, Gokulanathan S, formed once daily maintain peripheral intravenous catheter patency:
Vaithiyanadane V, Jeelani S. Gustatory dysfunction. J Pharm a randomised controlled trial. Arch Dis Child. 2015;100(7):700-703.
Bioallied Sci. 2014;6(suppl 1):S30. 28. Peterson K. The development of central venous access device
10. Goossens GA. Flushing and locking of venous catheters: available flushing guidelines utilizing an evidence-based practice process. J
evidence and evidence deficit [published online May 14, 2015]. Pediatr Nurs. 2013;28(1):85-88.
Nurs Res Pract. doi:10.1155/2015/985686. 29. Monagle P, Chan AK, Goldenberg NA, et al. Antithrombotic
11. Gahart BL, Nazareno AR. Intravenous Medications. 30th ed. St therapy in neonates and childrenantithrombotic therapy and
Louis, MO: Mosby; 2014. prevention of thrombosis: American College of Chest Physicians
12. Allegaert K. Neonates need tailored drug formulations. World J evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl
Clin Pediatr. 2013;2(1):1-5. 2):e737S-e801S.
13. Seneviratne C, Yip J, Chang J, Zhang C, Samaranayake L. Effect 30. Lpez-Briz E, Ruiz Garcia V, Cabello JB, Bort-Marti S, Carbonell
of culture media and nutrients on biofilm growth kinetics of Sanchis R, Burls A. Heparin versus 0.9% sodium chloride inter-
laboratory and clinical strains of Enterococcus faecalis. Arch mittent flushing for prevention of occlusion in central venous
Oral Biol. 2013;58(10):1327-1334. catheters in adults. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.
14. Pennsylvania Patient Safety Authority. Sterile water should not be 2014;10:CD008462. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008462.pub2.
given freely. Penn Patient Saf Advis. 2008;5(2). http://patient- 31. Dal Molin A, Allara E, Montani D, et al. Flushing the central
safetyauthority.org/ADVISORIES/AdvisoryLibrary/2008/ venous catheter: is heparin necessary? J Vasc Access.
Jun5%282%29/Pages/Home.aspx. Published June 2008. 2014:15(4):241-248.
15. Hadaway L. Misuse of prefilled flush syringes: implications for 32. Conway MA, McCollom C, Bannon C. Central venous catheter
medication errors and contamination. Infect Control Resource. flushing recommendations: a systematic evidence-based practice
2008;4(4):2-4. review. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs. 2014;31(4):185-190.
16. Hadaway L. Infusion therapy equipment. In: Alexander M, 33. Rosenbluth G, Tsang L, Vittinghoff E, Wilson S, Wilson-Ganz J,
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion Auerbach A. Impact of decreased heparin dose for flush-lock of
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: implanted venous access ports in pediatric oncology patients.
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:391-436. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2014;61(5):855-858.
17. Hadaway L. Flushing vascular access catheters: risk for infection 34. Lyons MG, Phalen AG. A randomized controlled comparison of
transmission. Infect Control Resource. 2007;4(2):1-8. flushing protocols in home care patients with peripherally insert-
18. Ferroni A, Gaudin F, Guiffant G, et al. Pulsative flushing as a ed central catheters. J Infus Nurs. 2014;37(4):270-281.
strategy to prevent bacterial colonization of vascular access 35. Lee T, Lok C, Vazquez M, Moist L, Maya I, Mokrzycki M.
devices. Med Devices (Auckland, NZ). 2014;7:379-383. Minimizing hemodialysis catheter dysfunction: an ounce of pre-
19. Guiffant G, Durussel JJ, Flaud P, Vigier JP, Merckx J. Flushing vention [published online February 19, 2012]. Int J Nephrol.
ports of totally implantable venous access devices, and impact of doi:10.1155/2012/170857.
the Huber point needle bevel orientation: experimental tests and 36. Schilcher G, Scharnagl H, Horina JH, et al. Trisodium citrate
numerical computation. Med Devices (Auckland, NZ). 2012; induced protein precipitation in haemodialysis catheters might
5:31. cause pulmonary embolism. Nephrol Dial Transplant.
20. Peterson F, Kirchhoff K. Analysis of the research about heparin- 2012;27(7):2953-2957.
ized versus nonheparinized intravenous lines. Heart Lung. 37. Schilcher G, Schlagenhauf A, Schneditz D, et al. Ethanol causes
1991;20(6):631-640. protein precipitation: new safety issues for catheter locking tech-
21. Goode C, Titler M, Rakel B, et al. A meta-analysis of effects of niques. PLoS One. 2013;8(12):e84869.
heparin flush and saline flush: quality and cost implications. Nurs 38. Linkins LA, Dans AL, Moores LK, et al. Treatment and preven-
Res. 1991;40(6):324-330. tion of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: antithrombotic ther-
22. Mok E, Kwong TK, Chan MF. A randomized controlled trial for apy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of
maintaining peripheral intravenous lock in children. Int J Nurs Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines.
Pract. 2007;13(1):33-45. Chest. 2012;141(suppl 2):e495S-e530S.
23. Benner K, Lucas AJ. ASHP therapeutic position statement 39. Eriksson A, Burcharth J, Rosenberg J. Animal derived products
on the institutional use of 0.9% sodium chloride injection to may conflict with religious patients beliefs. BMC Med Ethics.
maintain patency of peripheral indwelling intermittent infusion 2013;14(1):48.
devices. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2012;69(14): 40. Moran JE, Ash SR. Locking solutions for hemodialysis catheters:
1252-1254. heparin and citratea position paper by ASDIN. Semin Dial.
24. Wang R, Luo O, He L, Li JX, Zhang MG. Preservative-free 0.9% 2008;21(5):490-492.
sodium chloride for flushing and locking peripheral intravenous 41. Yon CK, Low CL. Sodium citrate 4% versus heparin as a lock
access device: a prospective controlled trial. J Evid Based Med. solution in hemodialysis patients with central venous catheters.
2012;5(4):205-208. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2013;70(2):131-136.
25. Cook L, Bellini S, Cusson RM. Heparinized saline vs normal 42. Marschall J, Mermel LA, Fakih M, et al. Strategies to prevent
saline for maintenance of intravenous access in neonates: an evi- central line-associated bloodstream infections in acute care hospi-
dence-based practice change. Adv Neonatal Care. 2011;11(3): tals: 2014 update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol.
208-215. 2014;35(7):753-771.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S80 05/01/16 11:30 PM

43. Grudzinski A, Agarwal A, Bhatnagar N, Nesrallah G. Benefits 41. VASCULAR ACCESS DEVICE
and harms of citrate locking solutions for hemodialysis catheters:
(VAD) ASSESSMENT, CARE,
a systematic review and meta-analysis. Can J Kidney Health Dis.
2015;2(1):13.
AND DRESSING CHANGES
44. Osby M, Barton P, Lam CN, Tran MH. Acid-citrate-dextrose
Formula A versus heparin as primary catheter lock solutions Standard
for therapeutic apheresis. Transfusion . 2014;54(3):
735-743.
41.1 The entire infusion system, from the solution con-
45. Passero BA, Zappone P, Lee HE, Novak C, Maceira EL, Naber tainer to the vascular access device (VAD) insertion site,
M. Citrate versus heparin for apheresis catheter locks: an efficacy is regularly checked for system integrity, infusion accu-
analysis. J Clin Apher. 2015;30(1):22-27. racy, and expiration dates of the infusate, dressing, and
46. Halm MA. Flushing hemodynamic catheters: what does the administration set.
science tell us? Am J Crit Care. 2008;17(1):73-76. 41.2 Site care, including skin antisepsis and dressing
47. Goh LJ, Teo HS, Masagoes M. Heparinized saline versus normal changes, are performed at established intervals and
saline in maintaining patency of arterial and central venous cath- immediately if the dressing integrity becomes damp,
eters. Proc Singapore Healthc. 2011;20(3):190-196. loosened, or visibly soiled, or if moisture, drainage, or
48. Tully RP, McGrath BA, Moore JA, Rigg J, Alexander P.
blood are present under the dressing.
Observational study of the effect of heparin-containing flush
41.3 A sterile dressing is applied and maintained on all
solutions on the incidence of arterial catheter occlusion.
J Intensive Care Soc. 2014;15(3):213-215.
peripheral, nontunneled, peripherally inserted central
49. Mermel LA, Allon M, Bouza E, et al. Clinical practice guidelines catheters, accessed implanted VADs, and tunneled
for the diagnosis and management of intravascular catheter- cuffed catheters, at least until the insertion site is well
related infection: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society healed.
of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49(1):1-45. 41.4 Aseptic technique is followed when providing site
50. OGrady N, Alexander M, Burns L, et al. Guidelines for the pre- care and dressing changes on VADs.
vention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://www. 41.5 Label the dressing with the date performed or date
cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published April to be changed based on organizational policies and pro-
2011. cedures.
51. Zacharioudakis IM, Zervou FN, Arvanitis M, Ziakas PD,
Mermel LA, Mylonakis E. Antimicrobial lock solutions as a
method to prevent central line-associated bloodstream infections: Practice Criteria
a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Infect Dis.
2014;59(12):1741-1749. A. Visually inspect the entire infusion system from the
52. van de Wetering MD, van Woensel J, Lawrie TA. Prophylactic solution container, progressing down the adminis-
antibiotics for preventing gram positive infections associated with tration set to the VAD insertion site with each infu-
long-term central venous catheters in oncology patients. Cochrane sion intervention.
Database Syst Rev. 2013;(11):CD003295. doi:10.1002/14651858. 1. Inspect the infusion system for clarity of the infu-
CD003295.pub3. sate; integrity of the system (ie, leakage, luer con-
53. Justo JA, Bookstaver PB. Antibiotic lock therapy: review of tech- nections secure) and of the dressing; correct
nique and logistical challenges. Infect Drug Resist. 2014;7:343-363. infusate; accurate flow rate; and for expiration
54. Mermel LA, Alang N. Adverse effects associated with ethanol
dates of the infusate and administration set.1,2
catheter lock solutions: a systematic review. J Antimicrob
(V)
Chemother. 2014;69(10):2611-2619.
55. Tan M, Lau J, Guglielmo BJ. Ethanol locks in the prevention and
B. Assess VAD function by flushing and aspirating for
treatment of catheter-related bloodstream infections. Ann a blood return prior to each intermittent VAD use
Pharmacother. 2014;48(5):607-615. (eg, intermittent medication) and as clinically indi-
56. Oliveira C, Nasr A, Brindle M, Wales PW. Ethanol locks to cated with continuous infusions (eg, occlusion
prevent catheter-related bloodstream infections in parenteral alarms). Recognize the risk of contamination with
nutrition: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2012;129(2):318-329. each manipulation of the infusion system (refer to
57. Liu Y, Zhang A-Q, Cao L, Xia H-T, Ma J-J. Taurolidine lock Standard 36, Add-on Devices; Standard 40, Flushing
solutions for the prevention of catheter-related bloodstream infec- and Locking).
tions: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized con- C. Assess the VAD catheter-skin junction site and sur-
trolled trials. PLoS One. 2013;8(11):e79417.
rounding area for redness, tenderness, swelling, and
58. Bookstaver PB, Rokas K, Norris LB, Edwards JM, Sherertz RJ.
drainage by visual inspection and palpation through
Stability and compatibility of antimicrobial lock solutions. Am J
Health Syst Pharm. 2013;70(24):2185-2198.
the intact dressing and through patient reports
59. Landry DL, Braden GL, Gobeille SL, Haessler SD, Vaidya CK, about any discomfort including pain, paresthesias,
Sweet SJ. Emergence of gentamicin-resistant bacteremia in hemo- numbness, or tingling.
dialysis patients receiving gentamicin lock catheter prophylaxis. 1. Central vascular access devices (CVADs) and
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;5(10):1799-1804. midline catheters: assess at least daily.3-6 (V)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S81 05/01/16 11:30 PM

2. Short peripheral catheters: assess minimally at medical adhesive-related skin injury (MARSI) asso-
least every 4 hours; every 1 to 2 hours for ciated with the use of adhesive-based engineered
patients who are critically ill/sedated or have stabilization devices (ESDs). Use a skin barrier solu-
cognitive deficits; hourly for neonatal/pediatric tion to reduce the risk of MARSI. Do not use com-
patients; and more often for patients receiving pound tincture of benzoin due to increased risk of
infusions of vesicant medications.7 (V) MARSI because it may increase the bonding of
3. Patients receiving outpatient or home care: adhesives to skin, causing skin injury when the
instruct the patient or caregiver to check the adhesive-based ESD is removed (refer to Standard
VAD site at least once per day for signs of com- 37, Vascular Access Device [VAD] Stabilization).
plications and to report signs/symptoms or dress- H. Perform dressing changes on CVADs and midline
ing dislodgment immediately to their health care catheters at a frequency based on the type of
provider; for continuous infusions via a short dressing.
peripheral catheter, instruct to check the site 1. Change transparent semipermeable membrane
every 4 hours during waking hours.2,7 (V) (TSM) dressings at least every 5 to 7 days and
D. Measure the external CVAD length and compare to gauze dressings at least every 2 days; research has
the external CVAD length documented at insertion not supported the superiority of a TSM dressing
when catheter dislodgment is suspected (refer to versus a gauze dressing; note that a gauze dress-
Standard 10, Documentation in the Medical Record; ing underneath a TSM dressing is considered a
Standard 53, Central Vascular Access Device gauze dressing and changed at least every
[CVAD] Malposition). 2 days.3-5,16 (II)
E. Measure upper-arm circumference when clinically 2. Select a gauze dressing if there is drainage from
indicated to assess the presence of edema and pos- the catheter exit site. If gauze is used to support
sible deep vein thrombosis (DVT). Take this mea- the wings of a noncoring needle in an implanted
surement 10 cm above the antecubital fossa; identify port and does not obscure the insertion site, it is
the location and other characteristics, such as pitting not considered a gauze dressing.2-5 (V)
or nonpitting. Compare to baseline measurement to 3. Secure dressings to reduce the risk of loosening/
detect possible catheter-associated venous thrombo- dislodgment, as more frequent dressing changes
sis; a 3-cm increase in arm circumference and edema due to dislodgment are associated with increased
were associated with upper-arm DVT (see Standard risk for infection; more than 2 dressing changes
10, Documentation in the Medical Record; Standard for disruption were associated with a greater
33, Vascular Access Site Preparation and Device than 3-fold increase in risk of infection.17 (III)
Placement; Standard 52, Central Vascular Access 4. Change the dressing immediately to closely
Device [CVAD]-Associated Venous Thrombosis).8 assess, cleanse, and disinfect the site in the event
(IV) of drainage, site tenderness, other signs of infec-
F. Perform skin antisepsis as part of the site care pro- tion, or if dressing becomes loose/dislodges.3-5,17
cedure: (III)
1. The preferred skin antiseptic agent is >0.5% 5. Change the adhesive-based ESD based on manu-
chlorhexidine in alcohol solution.3-5,9,10 (I) facturers directions for use (refer to Standard 37,
2. If there is a contraindication to alcoholic chlor- Vascular Access Device [VAD] Stabilization).
hexidine solution, tincture of iodine, an iodophor I. Perform dressing changes on short peripheral cath-
(povidone-iodine), or 70% alcohol may also be eters if the dressing becomes damp, loosened, and/or
used.3,5 (I) visibly soiled and at least every 5 to 7 days.3 (V,
3. Allow any skin antiseptic agent to fully dry prior Committee Consensus)
to dressing placement; with alcoholic chlorhex- J. Use chlorhexidine-impregnated dressings over
idine solutions, for at least 30 seconds; for iodo- CVADs to reduce infection risk when the extralumi-
phors, for at least 1.5 to 2 minutes.3,5,11 (V) nal route is the primary source of infection. Even
4. Use chlorhexidine with care in premature infants when organizations show a low baseline central line-
and infants under 2 months of age due to risks of associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) rate,
skin irritation and chemical burns.3-5,12-14 (IV) further reduction in CLABSI rate has been demon-
5. For pediatric patients with compromised skin strated with use of chlorhexidine-impregnated dress-
integrity, remove dried povidone-iodine with ings. The efficacy of chlorhexidine dressings in long-
sterile 0.9% sodium chloride (USP) or sterile term CVAD use, beyond 14 days when intraluminal
water.15 (V) sources of infection are the primary source, has not
G. Assess skin underneath dressing. Anticipate poten- been shown.18 (I)
tial risk for skin injury due to age, joint movement, 1. Do not use if any history of reactions to chlor-
and presence of edema. Be aware of the risk of hexidine.5 (V)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S82 05/01/16 11:30 PM

2. Use chlorhexidine-impregnated dressings with 8. Maneval RE, Clemence BJ. Risk factors associated with catheter-
caution in premature neonates and among related upper extremity deep vein thrombosis in patients with
patients with fragile skin and/or complicated skin peripherally inserted central venous catheters: a prospective
observational cohort study: part 2. J Infus Nurs. 2014;37(4):
pathologies; contact dermatitis and pressure
260-268.
necrosis have occurred.5,18-20 (V)
9. Paglianlonga F, Consolo S, Biasuzzi A, et al. Reduction in cathe-
3. Monitor for erythema and dermatitis at the ter-related infections after switching from povidone-iodine to
dressing site.5,18-20 (V) chlorhexidine for the exit-site care of tunneled central venous
K. Consider bathing patients over 2 months of age with catheters in children on hemodialysis. Hemodial Int.
a 2% chlorhexidine preparation on a daily basis if 2014;18(suppl 1):S13-S18.
other CLABSI prevention strategies have not been 10. Yamamoto N, Kimura H, Misao H, et al. Efficacy of 1.0%
effective.4,23-29 (I) chlorhexidine-gluconate ethanol compared with 10% povidone-
L. Consider the use of a hemostatic agent to reduce iodine for long-term central venous catheter care in hematology
initial site bleeding if other methods (eg, pressure) departments: a prospective study. Am J Infect Control.
fail to reduce the need for unplanned dressing 2014;42(5):574-576.
11. Magalini S, Pepe G, Panunzi S, et al. Observational study on
changes after peripherally inserted central catheter
preoperative surgical field disinfection: povidone-iodine and
(PICC) insertion.28 (V)
chlorhexidine-alcohol. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci.
M. Consider use of chlorhexidine-impregnated dress- 2013;17(24):3367-3375.
ings with peripheral arterial catheters as an infection 12. US Food and Drug Administration. Chlorascrub swabsticks:
reduction intervention.3,17,29 (III) directions for use in infants. http://www.fda.gov/Safety/
N. When the subcutaneous tunnel is well healed, con- MedWatch/SafetyInformation/Safety-RelatedDrugLabeling
sideration may be given to no dressing with a tun- Changes/ucm307251.htm. Updated 2012.
neled, cuffed CVAD.3,5,30,31 (III) 13. Chapman AK, Aucott SW, Gilmore MM, et al. Absorption and
O. Do not use rolled bandages, with or without elastic tolerability of aqueous chlorhexidine gluconate used for skin
properties, to secure any type of VAD (refer to antisepsis prior to catheter insertion in preterm neonates.
Standard 37, Vascular Access Device [VAD] J Perinatol. 2013;33(10):768-771.
14. Chapman AK, Aucott SW, Milstone AM. Safety of chlorhexidine
Stabilization).
gluconate used for skin antisepsis prior to catheter insertion in
preterm neonates. J Perinatol. 2012;32(1):4-9.
REFERENCES 15. Doellman D, Pettit J, Catudal P, Buckner J, Burns D, Frey AM;
Association for Vascular Access. Best practice guidelines in the
care and maintenance of pediatric central venous catheters. 2010;
1, 2015.
PEDIVAN.
1. Perucca R. Peripheral venous access devices. In: Alexander M, 16. Webster J, Gillies D, ORiordan E, Sherriff KL, Rickard CM.
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion Gauze and tape and transparent polyurethane dressings for cen-
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: tral venous catheters. Cochrane Database Syst Rev.
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:456-479. 2011;(11):CD003827. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003827.pub2.
2. Gorski L, Perucca R, Hunter M. Central venous access devices: 17. Timsit JF, Bouadma L, Ruckly S, Schwebel C, Garrouste-Orgeas
care, maintenance and potential complications. In: Alexander M, M, Bronchard R. Dressing disruption is a major risk factor for
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R. eds. Infusion catheter-related infections. Crit Care Med. 2012;40(6):
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: 1707-1714.
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:496-498. 18. Safdar N, OHoro JC, Ghufran A, et al. Chlorhexidine-
3. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the impregnated dressing for prevention of catheter-related blood-
prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http:// stream infection: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(7):
www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pubs.html. Published April 201l. 1703-1713.
4. Marschall J, Mermel LA, Fakih M, et al; Society for Healthcare 19. Ullman AJ, Cooke ML, Mitchell M, et al. Dressings and
Epidemiology of America. Strategies to prevent central line-asso- securement devices for central venous catheters (CVC).
ciated bloodstream infections in acute care hospitals: 2014 Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(9):CD010367. doi:
update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(7):753-771. 10.1002/14651858.CD010367.pub2.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/676533. 20. Weitz NA, Lauren CT, Weiser JA, et al. Chlorhexidine gluconate-
5. Loveday HP, Wilson JA, Pratt RJ, et al. epic3: National evidence- impregnated central access catheter dressings as a cause of erosive
based guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated infections contact dermatitis: a report of 7 cases. JAMA Dermatol.
in NHS hospitals in England. J Hosp Infect. 2014;86(suppl 1): 2013;149(2):195-199.
S1-S70. 21. Wall JB, Divito SJ, Talbot SG. Chlorhexidine gluconate-impreg-
6. Alexandrou E, Ramjan LM, Spencer T, et al. The use of midline nated central-line dressings and necrosis in complicated skin dis-
catheters in the adult acute care setting: clinical implications and order patients. J Crit Care. 2014;29(6):1130:e1-e4.
recommendations for practice. J Assoc Vasc Access. 22. Miller S, Maragakis L. Central line-associated bloodstream
2011;16(1):35-41. infection prevention. Curr Opinion Infect Dis. 2012;25(4):
7. Gorski LA, Hallock D, Kuehn SC, et al. INS position paper: rec- 412-422.
ommendations for frequency of assessment of the short periph- 23. OHoro J, Silva G, Munoz-Price S, Safdar N. The efficacy of daily
eral catheter. J Infus Nurs. 2012;35(5):290-292. bathing with chlorhexidine for reducing healthcare-associated
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S83 05/01/16 11:30 PM

bloodstream infections: a meta-analysis. Infect Control Hosp misuse, and disconnection; when feasible use an
Epidemiol. 2012;33(3):257-267. administration set with devices as an integral part of
24. Noto MJ, Domenico HJ, Byrne DW, et al. Chlorhexidine bathing the set (refer to Standard 36, Add-on Devices).
and health care-associated infections: a randomized clinical trial.
B. Check the packaging of administration sets for latex
JAMA. 2015;313(4):369-378.
and avoid use of a latex-containing set for patients
25. Montecalvo M, McKenna D, Yarrish R, et al. Chlorhexidine
bathing to reduce central venous catheter-associated bloodstream
with a latex allergy (refer to Standard 14, Latex
infection: impact and sustainability. Am J Med. 2012;125(5): Sensitivity or Allergy).
505-511. C. Attach the administration set and prime just prior to
26. Climo M, Yokoe D, Warren D, et al. Effect of daily chlorhexidine administration.1,2 (V, Regulatory)
bathing on hospital-acquired infection. N Engl J Med. D. Label administration sets for infusion via VADs with
2013;368(6):533-542. the date of initiation or date of change based on
27. Milstone AM, Elward A, Song X, et al. Daily chlorhexidine bath- organizational policies and procedures. Label admin-
ing to reduce bacteraemia in critically ill children: a multicentre, istration sets used for medications that are adminis-
cluster-randomised, crossover trial. Lancet. 2013;381(9872):1099- tered via specialized access devices (ie, intraspinal,
1106.
intraosseous, subcutaneous) to indicate the correct
28. Sievert D, Armola R, Halm M. Chlorhexidine gluconate bathing:
administration route and device, and place the label
does it decrease hospital-acquired infections? Am J Crit Care.
2011;20(2);166-170.
near the connection to the device.3,4 (V)
29. Blough L, Hinson K, Hen J. The science of a seal for PICC line E. Trace all catheters/administration sets/add-on devic-
management. J Assoc Vasc Access. 2010;15(2):66-73. es between the patient and the solution container
30. OHoro JC, Maki DG, Krupp AE, Safdar N. Arterial catheters as before connecting or reconnecting any infusion/
a source of bloodstream infection: a systematic review and meta- device, at each care transition to a new setting or
analysis. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(6):1334-1339. service, and as part of the handoff process.5-7 (IV)
for Nursing Practice and Education. Pittsburgh, PA: Oncology
II. Primary and Secondary Continuous
Nursing Society; 2011.
Infusions
32. Olson K, Rennie RP, Hanson J, et al. Evaluation of a no-dressing
intervention for tunneled central catheter exit sites. J Infus Nurs.
A. Replace primary and secondary continuous adminis-
2004;27(1):37-44. tration sets used to administer solutions other than
lipid, blood, or blood products no more frequently
than every 96 hours. There is strong evidence that
42. ADMINISTRATION SET changing the administration sets more frequently
CHANGE does not decrease the risk of infection.8-11 (I)
B. Change a secondary administration set that is
Standard detached from the primary administration set every
24 hours as it is now a primary intermittent admin-
42.1 Administration set changes are performed rou-
istration set (see Practice Criteria III, Primary
tinely, based on factors such as type of solution admin-
Intermittent Infusions).3 (V)
istered, frequency of the infusion (continuous versus
C. Avoid disconnecting primary continuous adminis-
intermittent), immediately upon suspected contamina-
tration sets from the VAD hub or access site. (V,
tion, or when the integrity of the product or system has
Committee Consensus)
been compromised.
42.2 In addition to routine changes, the administration
III. Primary Intermittent Infusions
set is changed whenever the peripheral catheter site is
A. Change intermittent administration sets every 24
changed or when a new central vascular access device
hours. When an intermittent infusion is repeatedly
(CVAD) is placed.
disconnected and reconnected for the infusion, there
42.3 A vented administration set is used for solutions
is increased risk of contamination at the spike end,
supplied in glass or semirigid containers, and a non-
catheter hub, needleless connector, and the male luer
vented administration set is used for plastic solution
end of the administration set, potentially increasing
containers.
risk for catheter-related bloodstream infection
42.4 Administration sets are attached to a vascular
(CR-BSI). There is an absence of studies addressing
access device (VAD) hub or access site with a luer-
administration set changes for intermittent infu-
locking mechanism to ensure a secure junction.
sions.10 (V, Committee Consensus)
B. Aseptically attach a new, sterile, compatible cover-
Practice Criteria
ing device to the male luer end of the administration
I. General set after each intermittent use. Do not attach the
A. Minimize the use of add-on devices for administration exposed male luer end of the administration set to a
sets as each device is a potential source of contamination, port on the same set (looping).3,12 (V)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S84 05/01/16 11:30 PM

IV. Parenteral Nutrition 2. Dolan SA, Felizaredo G, Barnes S, et al. APIC position paper: safe
A. Replace administration sets for parenteral nutrition injection, infusion, and medication vial practices in health care.
(PN) solutions (total nutrient admixtures [TNA] and Am J Infect Control. 2010;38(3):167-172.
amino acid/dextrose formulations) at least every 24
hours; there are also recommendations to change the
administration set with each new PN container (see Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:391-436.
Standard 61, Parenteral Nutrition).9-11 (IV) 4. Alexander M, Gorski L, Corrigan A, Bullock M, Dickerson A,
B. Replace administration sets used for intravenous fat Earhart A. Technical and clinical application. In: Alexander M,
emulsions (IVFEs) infused separately every 12 hours. Corrigan A, Gorski L, Phillips L, eds. Core Curriculum for
Change the administration set with each new con- Infusion Nursing. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/
tainer; the characteristics of IVFE (iso-osmotic, near Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014:1-85.
neutral-alkaline pH, and containing glycerol) are 5. US Food and Drug Administration. Preventing tubing and luer
conducive to the growth of microorganisms.11 (V) misconnections. http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/Safety/
C. Use administration sets free of di-ethylhexyl-phtha- AlertsandNotices/TubingandLuerMisconnections/default.htm.
6. The Joint Commission. Sentinel event alert: managing risk during
late (DEHP) to administer lipid-based infusates,
transition to new ISO tubing connector standards. http://www.
such as IVFE or TNA. DEHP is lipophilic and is
jointcommission.org/assets/1/6/SEA_53_Connectors_8_19_14_
extracted into the lipid solution with commonly final.pdf. Published August 20, 2014.
used polyvinyl chloride administration sets and 7. US Food and Drug Administration. MedWatch: the FDA safety
containers. DEHP is considered a toxin, and stud- information and adverse event reporting program. http://www.
ies have demonstrated increased DEHP levels in fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/default.htm.
lipid solutions, which is especially a risk with neo- 8. Ullman AJ, Cooke ML, Gillies D, et al. Optimal timing for intravas-
natal, pediatric, and long-term home care cular administration set replacement. Cochrane Database Syst Rev.
patients.11,13 (III) 2013;(9):CD003588. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003588.pub3.
9. Marschall J, Mermel LA, Fakih M, et al; Society for Healthcare
V. Propofol Infusions Epidemiology of America. Strategies to prevent central line-asso-
ciated bloodstream infections in acute care hospitals: 2014
A. Replace administration sets used to administer
update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(7):753-771.
propofol infusions every 6 or 12 hours per the
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/676533.
manufacturers recommendations or when the con- 10. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the
tainer is changed.14 (I) prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://
VI. Blood and Blood Components April 2011.
A. Change the transfusion administration set and filter 11. Ayers P, Adams S, Boullata J, et al. A.S.P.E.N. parenteral nutrition
after the completion of each unit or every 4 hours. If safety consensus recommendations. J Parenter Enteral Nutr.
more than 1 unit can be infused in 4 hours, the 2014;38(3):296-333.
transfusion set can be used for a 4-hour period (refer 12. Institute for Safe Medication Practices. Failure to cap IV tubing
to Standard 62, Transfusion Therapy). and disconnect IV ports place patients at risk for infections. ISMP
Med Saf Alert. Published July 26, 2007. https://www.ismp.org/
newsletters/acutecare/articles/20070726.asp.
VII. Hemodynamic and Arterial Pressure
13. US Food and Drug Administration. FDA public health notifica-
Monitoring tion: PVC devices containing the plasticizer DEHP. http://www.
A. Replace the disposable or reusable transducer and/ fda.gov/MedicalDevices/Safety/AlertsandNotices/
or dome and other components of the system, PublicHealthNotifications/UCM062182. Published 2002.
including the administration set, continuous flush 14. Diprivan injectable emulsion [package insert]. Wilmington, DE:
device, and flush solution used for invasive hemody- AstraZeneca; 2008. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_
namic pressure monitoring every 96 hours, immedi- docs/label/2008/019627s046lbl.pdf.
ately upon suspected contamination, or when the 15. Daud A, Rickard C, Cooke M, et al. Replacement of administra-
integrity of the product or system has been compro- tion sets (including transducers) for peripheral arterial catheters:
mised. Minimize the number of manipulations and a systemic review. J Clin Nurs. 2012;22(3-4):303-317.
entries into the system.15 (II)
43. PHLEBOTOMY
REFERENCES

Standard
30, 2015. 43.1 Perform patient identification and proper labeling
1. US Pharmacopeia (USP). General Chapter <797>: pharmaceuti- of all blood sample containers at the time of sample col-
cal compoundingsterile preparations. In: U.S. Pharmacopeia/ lection and in the presence of the patient.
National Formulary. 37/32 ed. Rockville, MD: United States 43.2 Use blood conservation techniques for phlebotomy
Pharmacopeial Convention Inc; 2014. to reduce the risk of hospital-acquired anemia.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S85 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Practice Criteria 1. Eliminating unnecessary laboratory tests.
2. Reducing the frequency of obtaining blood
I. General
samples.
A. Control blood sampling procedures to prevent
3. Drawing blood samples based on clinical need
errors in the preanalytic phase before the sample
rather than a routine schedule.
reaches the laboratory. These errors delay treatment
4. Using small-volume collection tubes (eg, requir-
decisions due to spurious lab values, enhance the
ing less than 2 mL of blood).
potential for patient harm, and increase costs of
5. Using point-of-care testing methods.
care. A centralized phlebotomy service for hospital-
6. Using closed loop systems for venous and arterial
ized patients has been shown to reduce preanalytic
VADs as these systems return the blood to the
errors, such as hemolysis and specimen labeling.
patient.
Competent nursing staff should perform sample col-
7. Using the push-pull or mixing method.5,11,15-23
lections from vascular access devices (VADs).1-4 (IV)
(III)
B. Educate the patient about the purpose and process
I. Place all blood specimens in a closed, leakproof con-
for blood sampling.5,6 (V)
tainer and dispatch to the laboratory immediately
C. Assess the patient for fasting prior to collection of
using an appropriate delivery method; or if delivery
blood samples, if appropriate for the requested labo-
must be delayed (eg, home-drawn specimens), prop-
ratory values.5-7 (V)
erly store and control the temperature to reduce the
D. Use the same unique numbers for both patient iden-
risk for inaccurate laboratory values and the poten-
tification and specimen labeling to reduce preana-
tial for hemolysis.5-7 (V)
lytic errors and enhance patient safety. Use multiple
process improvement methods such as staff engage- II. Blood Sampling via Direct Venipuncture
ment, transparency of data on mislabeled and unla- A. Perform venipuncture for phlebotomy on the oppo-
beled specimens, process changes, root cause analy- site extremity of an infusion. If phlebotomy must be
sis, and accountability measures. An electronic sys- performed on the extremity with infusing solutions,
tem (eg, bar-code or radio-frequency technology) for a vein below or distal to the site of infusion should
patient identification and sample container labeling be used.7 (V)
has been shown to reduce these errors.7-9 (V) B. Avoid venipuncture on upper extremities with
E. Perform all infection prevention practices including lymphedema, compromised circulation associated
hand hygiene, appropriate use of gloves, single- with radiation therapy, paralysis, or hemiparesis
patient tourniquets, single-use venipuncture and from a cerebrovascular accident. When possible,
sampling devices, use of safety-engineered devices, restrict venipuncture to the dorsum of the hand in
and appropriate skin antisepsis (see Standard 16, patients with an actual or planned dialysis fistula or
Hand Hygiene; Standard 18, Medical Waste and graft. Evidence for avoiding all venipuncture on the
Sharps Safety).5,10 (V, Regulatory) side of axillary node dissection comes from conflict-
F. Use vacuum tubes in the correct sequence according ing studies; however, there remains a recommenda-
to the manufacturers directions for use (eg, color of tion to avoid all venipuncture procedures on these
the rubber stopper); appropriately mix the tube con- upper extremities (refer to Standard 27, Site
tents and blood; discard the needle and tube holder Selection).
as 1 unit; and never remove the rubber stopper from C. Perform venipuncture for phlebotomy with a straight
the tubes as methods to decrease blood exposure, or winged needle on veins in the antecubital fossa
accidental needlestick injury, and error in sample (eg, median cubital, cephalic, and basilic veins) due
analysis.5,10,11 (V, Regulatory) to the lower rates of hemolysis associated with these
G. Do not rely on visual inspection of the blood sample devices and sites.13,14,24 (II)
to detect hemolysis. Hemolysis causes spurious values D. Perform skin antisepsis prior to all venipunctures.
for many tests (eg, electrolytes, glucose, cardiac bio- Appropriate agents include 70% alcohol, >0.5%
markers, coagulation times). Contact the clinical labo- chlorhexidine in alcohol solution, tincture of iodine,
ratory about parameters for the free hemoglobin level and povidone-iodine. Excessive alcohol on the skin
that would cause a sample to be rejected.4,12-14 (III) has previously been thought to cause hemolysis;
H. Employ blood conservation strategies to reduce however, 1 study has shown this to not be a cause
phlebotomy-associated blood loss, which is a sig- (see Standard 33, Vascular Access Site Preparation
nificant cause of hospital-acquired anemia in patients and Device Placement).25-28 (II)
of all ages. This blood loss often results in the need E. Use additional precautions for obtaining blood cul-
for blood transfusion and its inherent risks. tures to avoid false-negative and false-positive
Collaborate with the laboratory about the minimum results and to reduce incorrect classification as
volume of blood required for each test. Blood con- central line-associated bloodstream infection
servation strategies include: (CLABSI).
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S86 05/01/16 11:30 PM

1. Use a dedicated phlebotomy team to reduce in patients receiving anticoagulants or with
blood culture contamination. bleeding disorders.
2. Obtain blood for culturing from a peripheral 2. Risks associated with use of a VAD include
venipuncture. Use a central vascular access device increased hub manipulation and the potential for
(CVAD) for drawing blood cultures only when intraluminal contamination, alterations in VAD
clinically indicated for diagnosis of catheter- patency, and erroneous lab values associated
related bloodstream infection (CR-BSI). with adsorption of medications infused through
3. Consider use of a standardized sterile blood cul- the VAD.41-48 (IV)
ture collection kit to reduce sample contamination. B. Consider use of a CVAD phlebotomy bundle check-
4. Disinfect the rubber stopper of the blood culture list combined with periodic direct observations for
bottles using 70% alcohol. Iodine products are adherence to the checklist to reduce CR-BSI. There
not recommended as they can degrade the stop- is no consensus on the exact contents of such a
per material. checklist.49,50 (V)
5. Draw blood for culture before drawing the sam- C. Use the discard or push-pull (ie, mixing) methods
ple for other tests. for obtaining a sample from CVADs. No studies of
6. Draw a quantity of blood that is sufficient for these specific techniques are found for peripheral or
isolating organisms (ie, 20-30 mL for adults; no midline catheters. Apply these additional factors
more than 1% of the total blood volume for based on patient age and type of CVAD.
infants and children). 1. A 3-mL discard volume produces the same mea-
7. Discard the initial blood sample (eg, 5 mL) when surement outcomes when compared to a 5-mL
drawing from a direct venipuncture. Do not dis- discard volume in multiple types of CVADs in a
card the first sample when the sample is obtained pediatric population. The exception to this dis-
from any type of CVAD.27-29 (II) card volume is coagulation studies obtained from
F. To improve phlebotomy practice: a CVAD exposed to heparin.51 (IV)
1. Avoid tight fist clenching or repetitively opening 2. Discard volumes of 6 mL from nontunneled cath-
and closing the fist to prevent pseudohyper- eters and 9 mL from tunneled cuffed catheters
kalemia.30,31 (V) were sufficient to remove infused glucose,
2. Use a straight or winged needle instead of obtain- although the discard volume for implanted ports
ing the sample during the procedure to insert a could not be established.50,51 (IV)
short peripheral catheter.4,11,24,32,33 (II) 3. The push-pull or mixing method produces good
3. Avoid use of a tourniquet or blood pressure cuff outcomes for measuring levels of actinomycin-D
if possible. If a tourniquet is required, limit tour- and vincristine, obtaining chemistry panels and
niquet time to less than 1 minute to reduce the complete blood counts, and therapeutic drug
risk of hemolysis and inaccurate chemistry lab monitoring for gentamicin and doxorubicin from
values caused by changes in vascular endotheli- CVADs. These studies do not provide consensus
um from increased venous pressure and hypoxia. on the required number of push-pull cycles or the
Immediately release the tourniquet when the volume of blood to be pulled; however, 5 cycles
blood begins to flow into the collection is the most common.41,44,52,53 (III)
container.12,34-36 (IV) 4. Do not use the reinfusion method (ie, delivery of
4. For coagulation studies, do not discard the initial the discard specimen into the VAD after obtain-
sample except when a winged needle with an ing the sample) due to risk of contamination and
attached extension set is used. Air in the exten- blood clot formation.50,53,54 (IV)
sion set prevents the correct ratio of blood to D. Short peripheral catheters
anticoagulant additive in the tube.37-39 (IV) 1. Consider obtaining a blood sample from an
5. Perform venipuncture in neonates by a skilled indwelling short peripheral catheter for pediatric
phlebotomist instead of heel lance methods patients, adults with difficult venous access, pres-
due to the increased pain from the heel ence of bleeding disorders, and the need for
lance.40 (II) serial tests. Infusing solutions should be stopped
for at least 2 minutes prior to obtaining the
blood sample; waste 1 to 2 mL of blood before
III. Blood Sampling via a Vascular obtaining the sample.55-58 (IV)
Access Device 2. Sampling of blood from indwelling short periph-
A. Carefully analyze risks versus benefits before eral catheters is reliable for many routine
deciding to use a VAD for obtaining blood blood tests, including coagulation studies.
samples. Obtaining blood cultures from short peripheral
1. Risks of venipuncture include anxiety, pain, catheters at insertion or during the dwell is not
damage to skin and nearby nerves, and hematoma recommended.29,59-61 (II)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S87 05/01/16 11:30 PM

3. Obtaining a blood sample during the insertion of blood sampling from a CVAD. Research has not
a short peripheral catheter is associated with established the length of time for stopping fluid
higher rates of hemolysis and spurious lab val- flow or the amount of flush solution. One study
ues, regardless of whether the sample was drawn suggests a wait time of 10 minutes after stopping
directly from the catheter hub or from an the infusion before drawing the sample.46 (IV)
attached extension set. The effect of this process 6. Use the largest lumen for blood sampling from
on the outcome of the catheter is unknown.4,11,14,24 multilumen CVADs. For CVADs with staggered
(II) lumen exit sites, the sample should be drawn
4. Veins of the antecubital fossa produce the lowest from the lumen exiting at the point farthest away
rates of hemolysis. However, short peripheral from the heart. One study suggests larger vol-
catheters inserted for infusion into veins of the umes (10-20 mL) of flush solution provide more
antecubital fossa are not recommended due to accurate peak levels of antibiotics when com-
higher catheter complication rates in areas of pared to smaller volumes (3 mL).46,69 (IV)
joint flexion (see Standard 27, Site Selection).24 7. Avoid using a CVAD for obtaining blood samples
(II) for culturing as these samples are more likely to
5. Lengthy tourniquet time and difficult catheter produce false-positive results. Use of a CVAD for
insertion can produce inaccurate lab values.13,62 this purpose should be limited to the absence of
(IV) peripheral venipuncture sites or when there is a
E. For midline catheters, no evidence is available need for diagnosis of a CR-BSI. Remove and
regarding obtaining blood samples. discard the used needleless connector prior to
F. Central vascular access devices drawing a blood sample to reduce risk of a false-
1. For therapeutic drug monitoring, draw the blood positive blood culture result.70-72 (IV)
sample from a dedicated lumen not used for infu- 8. Do not routinely use CVADs infusing parenteral
sion of the drug being monitored.63 (IV) nutrition for blood sampling as this is a signifi-
2. When a dedicated CVAD lumen cannot be used, cant risk factor for CR-BSI.47,48 (V)
test results may be falsely elevated, requiring G. Arterial catheters
careful evaluation if dosage adjustment is depend- 1. Prior to puncture of the radial artery, assess cir-
ent upon the accuracy of the test results. Retesting culation to the hand. Review medical history (eg,
via direct venipuncture may be necessary. trauma, previous radial artery cannulation, radi-
Conflicting studies show elevated antibiotic lev- al artery harvesting); assess presence of antico-
els with blood sampling from CVADs while oth- agulants; and perform a physical examination of
ers have shown no difference. In vitro and in vivo hand circulation such as assessing radial and
studies of immunosuppressant medications (eg, ulnar pulses, Allen test, pulse oximetry, or
cyclosporin and tacrolimus) given through Doppler flow study.73,74 (I A/P)
CVADs constructed of silicone, polyurethane, 2. Use a 20-gauge catheter or smaller to reduce
and polyurethane with silver have shown exces- damage to the radial artery.73 (IV)
sively high drug levels.45,63-65 (III) 3. Because palpation is needed to feel the arterial
3. Ensure that a standardized protocol is used con- pulsation, use sterile gloves for puncture and
sistently by all staff including thorough flushing catheter insertion into any artery (refer to
of the VAD lumen (eg, 10-20 mL preservative- Standard 33, Vascular Access Site Preparation
free 0.9% sodium chloride [USP]) followed by an and Device Placement).
adequate volume of wasted blood when using the 4. For arterial blood gases, expel air from the
discard method.44,45,63,65 (IV) syringe immediately after obtaining the sample,
4. Carefully assess coagulation values from a blood and place the syringe on ice for immediate trans-
sample obtained from a heparinized CVAD. In 1 port to the lab.5 (V)
small study, coagulation values correlated with 5. Maintain patency of arterial catheters with 0.9%
values drawn from a separate venipuncture, sodium chloride (USP) with or without added
except international normalization ratio (INR), heparin. Do not use solutions containing glucose
when heparinized peripherally inserted central in adults as this results in falsely elevated glucose
catheters (PICCs) were flushed with 10 mL of levels, possible overtreatment with insulin, and
0.9% sodium chloride and 6 mL of blood was dangerously low serum levels of glucose. Store
discarded. Retesting via a direct venipuncture is solutions intended for arterial infusion in a loca-
required when questionable results are tion different from solutions intended for venous
obtained.66-68 (IV) infusion. Ensure that the label on the solution
5. Stop all infusions, and flush the lumen with pre- container is visible and not obscured by the pres-
servative-free 0.9% sodium chloride (USP) prior to ence of a pressurized device.75,76 (IV)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S88 05/01/16 11:30 PM

6. Use a closed loop system to reduce hospital-acquired 16. Carroll PD, Widness JA. Nonpharmacological, blood conserva-
anemia and subsequent need for transfusion.21 (II) tion techniques for preventing neonatal anemia: effective and
promising strategies for reducing transfusion. Semin Perinatol.
2012;36(4):232-243.
REFERENCES 17. Sztefko K, Beba J, Mamica K, Tomasik P. Blood loss from labora-
tory diagnostic tests in children. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2013;
51(8):1623-1626.
30, 2015.
18. Branco BC, Inaba K, Doughty R, et al. The increasing burden of
1. Gorski L, Perucca R, Hunter M. Central venous access devices: phlebotomy in the development of anaemia and need for blood
care, maintenance, and potential complications. In: Alexander M, transfusion amongst trauma patients. Injury. 2012;43(1):78-83.
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion 19. Clark SL, Cunningham JL, Rabinstein AA, Wijdicks EF.
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Electrolyte orders in the neuroscience intensive care unit: worth
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:495-515. the value or waste? Neurocrit Care. 2011;14(2):216-221.
2. Lippi G, Becan-McBride K, Behlov D, et al. Preanalytical qual- 20. Salisbury AC, Reid KJ, Alexander KP, et al. Diagnostic blood loss
ity improvement: in quality we trust. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2013; from phlebotomy and hospital-acquired anemia during acute myo-
51(1):229-241. cardial infarction. Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(18):1646-1653.
3. Dunn EJ, Moga PJ. Patient misidentification in laboratory medi- 21. Page C, Retter A, Wyncoll D. Blood conservation devices in criti-
cine: a qualitative analysis of 227 root cause analysis reports in cal care: a narrative review. Ann Intensive Care. 2013;3(1):1-6.
the Veterans Health Administration. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 22. Tiwari D, Rance C. Hospital-acquired anaemia secondary to
2010;134(2):244-255. phlebotomy in elderly patients. Adv Aging Res. 2014;3(2):70-71.
4. Lippi G, Plebani M, Di Somma S, Cervellin G. Hemolyzed speci- doi:10.4236/aar.2014.32012.
mens: a major challenge for emergency departments and clinical 23. Parco S, Visconti P, Vascotto F. Hematology point of care testing
laboratories. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2011;48(3):143-153. and laboratory errors: an example of multidisciplinary manage-
5. World Health Organization (WHO). WHO guidelines on draw- ment at a childrens hospital in northeast Italy. J Multidiscip
ing blood: best practices in phlebotomy. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. Healthc. 2014;7:45-50.
gov/books/NBK138665. Published 2010. 24. Heyer NJ, Derzon JH, Winges L, et al. Effectiveness of practices
6. Phillips LD, Gorski L. Phlebotomy techniques. In: Phillips LD, to reduce blood sample hemolysis in EDs: a laboratory medicine
Gorski L. Manual of IV Therapeutics. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: best practices systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Biochem.
FA Davis; 2014:406-461. 2012;45(13-14):1012-1032.
7. Ranum A, Hagle M. Diagnostic testing and values. In: Weinstein 25. OGrady N, Alexander M, Burns L, et al. Guidelines for the pre-
S, Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and Practices of Infusion vention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://www.
Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published April
Williams & Wilkins; 2014:108-141. 2011.
8. Morrison AP, Tanasijevic MJ, Goonan EM, et al. Reduction in 26. Salvagno GL, Danese E, Lima-Oliveira G, Guidi GC, Lippi G.
specimen labeling errors after implementation of a positive Avoidance to wipe alcohol before venipuncture is not a source of
patient identification system in phlebotomy. Am J Clin Pathol. spurious hemolysis. Biochem Medica (Zagreb). 2013;23(2):201-
2010;133(6):870-877. 205.
9. Seferian EG, Jamal S, Clark K, et al. A multidisciplinary, multi- 27. Maiwald M, Chan ES. The forgotten role of alcohol: a system-
faceted improvement initiative to eliminate mislabelled laborato- atic review and meta-analysis of the clinical efficacy and per-
ry specimens at a large tertiary care hospital. BMJ Qual Saf. ceived role of chlorhexidine in skin antisepsis. PLoS One. 2012;
2014;23(8):690-697. 7(9):e44277.
10. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Disposal of 28. Garcia RA, Spitzer ED, Beaudry J, et al. Multidisciplinary team
contaminated needles and blood tube holders used for phleboto- review of best practices for collection and handling of blood cul-
my. http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/shib101503.html. tures to determine effective interventions for increasing the yield
11. Berg J, Ahee P, Berg J. Variation in phlebotomy techniques in of true-positive bacteremias, reducing contamination, and elimi-
emergency medicine and the incidence of haemolysed samples. nating false-position central line-associated bloodstream infec-
Ann Clin Biochem. 2011;48(6):562-565. tions. Am J Infect Control. 2015;43(11):1222-1237.
12. Saleem S, Mani V, Chadwick MA, Creanor S, Ayling RM. A 29. Proehl JA, Leviner S, Bradford JY, et al. Clinical practice guide-
prospective study of causes of haemolysis during venepuncture: line: prevention of blood culture contamination: Emergency
tourniquet time should be kept to a minimum. Ann Clin Biochem. Nurses Association. https://www.ena.org/practice-research/
2009;46(pt 3):244-246. research/CPG/Documents/BCCCPG.pdf.
13. Wollowitz A, Bijur PE, Esses D, John Gallagher E. Use of but- 30. Bailey IR, Thurlow VR. Is suboptimal phlebotomy technique
terfly needles to draw blood is independently associated with impacting on potassium results for primary care? Ann Clin
marked reduction in hemolysis compared to intravenous catheter. Biochem. 2008;45(3):266-269.
Acad Emerg Med. 2013;20(11):1151-1155. 31. Seimiya M, Yoshida T, Sawabe Y, et al. Reducing the incidence of
14. Stauss M, Sherman B, Pugh L, et al. Hemolysis of coagulation pseudohyperkalemia by avoiding making a fist during phleboto-
specimens: a comparative study of intravenous draw methods. my: a quality improvement report. Am J Kidney Dis. 2010;56(4):
J Emerg Nurs. 2012;38(1):15-21. 686-692.
15. McEvoy MT, Shander A. Anemia, bleeding, and blood transfu- 32. Straszewski SM, Sanchez L, McGillicuddy D, et al. Use of sepa-
sion in the intensive care unit: causes, risks, costs, and new strat- rate venipunctures for IV access and laboratory studies decreases
egies. Am J Crit Care. 2013;22(6):eS1-eS13. hemolysis rates. Intern Emerg Med. 2011;6(4):357-359.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S89 05/01/16 11:30 PM

33. Dietrich H. One poke or two: can intravenous catheters provide 50. Wyant S, Crickman R. Determining the minimum discard volume
an acceptable blood sample? A data set presentation, review of for central venous catheter blood draws. Clin J Nurs.
previous data sets, and discussion. J Emerg Nurs. 2014;40(6): 2012;16(5):454-458.
575-578. 51. Cole M, Price L, Parry A, et al. A study to determine the mini-
34. Cengiz M, Ulker P, Meiselman HJ, Baskurt OK. Influence of mum volume of blood necessary to be discarded from a central
tourniquet application on venous blood sampling for serum venous catheter before a valid sample is obtained in children with
chemistry, hematological parameters, leukocyte activation and cancer. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2007;48(7):687-695.
erythrocyte mechanical properties. Clin Chem Lab Med. 52. Chen J, Boodhan S, Nanji M, et al. A reliable and safe method of
2009;47(6):769-776. collecting blood samples from implantable central venous cathe-
35. Serdar MA, Kenar L, Hasimi A, et al. Tourniquet application time ters for determination of plasma gentamicin concentrations.
during phlebotomy and the influence on clinical chemistry test- Pharmacotherapy. 2011;31(8):776-784.
ing: is it negligible? Turk J Biochem. 2008;33:85-88. 53. Adlard K. Examining the push-pull method of blood sampling
36. Elhassan HA, Dixon T. MRSA contaminated venepuncture tourni- from central venous access devices. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs.
quets in clinical practice. Postgrad Med J. 2012;88(1038):194-197. 2008;25(4):200-207.
37. Raijmakers MT, Menting CH, Vader HL, van der Graaf F. 54. Cosca P, Smith S, Chatfield S, et al. Reinfusion of discard blood
Collection of blood specimens by venipuncture for plasma-based from venous access devices. Oncol Nurs Forum. 1998;25(6):
coagulation assays: necessity of a discard tube. Am J Clin Pathol. 1073-1076.
2010;133(2):331-335. 55. Berger-Achituv S, Budde-Schwartzman B, Ellis MH, Shenkman Z,
38. Favaloro EJ, Lippi G. Discard tubes are sometimes necessary Erez I. Blood sampling through peripheral venous catheters is
when drawing samples for hemostasis. Am J Clin Pathol. reliable for selected basic analytes in children. Pediatrics.
2010;134(5):851. 2010;126(1):e179-e186.
39. Smock KJ, Crist RA, Hansen SJ, Rodgers GM, Lehman CM. 56. Corbo J, Fu L, Silver M, Atallah H, Bijur P. Comparison of labo-
Discard tubes are not necessary when drawing samples for spe- ratory values obtained by phlebotomy versus saline lock devices.
cialized coagulation testing. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. Acad Emerg Med. 2007;14(1):23-27.
2010;21(3):279-282. 57. Baker RB, Summer SS, Lawrence M, Shova A, McGraw CA,
40. Shah VS, Ohlsson A. Venepuncture versus heel lance for blood Khoury J. Determining optimal waste volume from an intrave-
sampling in term neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. nous catheter. J Infus Nurs. 2013;36(2):92-96.
2011;(10):CD001452. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001452.pub4. 58. Hambleton VL, Gmez IA, Andreu FAB. Venipuncture versus
41. Skolnik JM, Zhang AY, Barrett JS, Adamson PC. Approaches to peripheral catheter: do infusions alter laboratory results? J Emerg
clear residual chemotherapeutics from indwelling catheters in Nurs. 2014;40(1):20-26.
children with cancer. Ther Drug Monit. 2010;32(6):741-748. 59. Prue-Owens LKK. Use of peripheral venous access devices for
42. Asheghan M, Khatibi A, Holisaz MT. Paresthesia and forearm obtaining blood samples for measurement of activated partial
pain after phlebotomy due to medial antebrachial cutaneous thromboplastin times. Crit Care Nurse. 2006;26(1):30-38.
nerve injury. J Brachial Plexus Peripheral Nerve Inj. 2011;6(1): 60. Zengin N, Enc N. Comparison of two blood sampling methods
1-2. in anticoagulation therapy: venipuncture and peripheral venous
43. Ohnishi H, Watanabe M, Watanabe T. Butterfly needles reduce catheter. J Clin Nurs. 2008;17(3):386-393.
the incidence of nerve injury during phlebotomy. Arch Pathol Lab 61. Ortells-Abuye N, Busquets-Puigdevall T, Daz-Bergara M,
Med. 2012;136(4):352. Paguina-Marcos M, Snchez-Prez I. A cross-sectional study to
44. Kontny NE, Hempel G, Boos J, Boddy AV, Krischke M. compare two blood collection methods: direct venous puncture
Minimization of the preanalytical error in plasma samples for and peripheral venous catheter. BMJ Open. 2014;4(2):e004250.
pharmacokinetic analyses and therapeutic drug monitoring using 62. Halm MA, Gleaves M. Obtaining blood samples from peripheral
doxorubicin as an example. Ther Drug Monit. 2011;33(6): intravenous catheters: best practice? Am J Crit Care.
766-771. 2009;18(5):474-478.
45. Hacker C, Verbeek M, Schneider H, Steimer W. Falsely elevated 63. Garbin LM, Tonani M, Salvador M, et al. Cyclosporine level:
cyclosporin and tacrolimus concentrations over prolonged peri- difference between blood samples collected through peripheral
ods of time due to reversible adsorption to central venous cathe- and central venous access. J Clin Nurs. 2013;22(3-4):395-404.
ters. Clin Chim Acta. 2014;433:62-68. 64. Ritzmo C, Albertioni F, Cosic K, Soderhall S, Eksborg S.
46. Fairholm L, Saqui O, Baun M, Yeung M, Fernandes G, Allard JP. Therapeutic drug monitoring of methotrexate on the pediatric
Monitoring parenteral nutrition in hospitalized patients: issues oncology ward: can blood sampling from central venous accesses
related to spurious bloodwork. Nutr Clin Pract. 2011;26(6): substitute for capillary finger punctures? Ther Drug Monit.
700-707. 2007;29(4):447-451.
47. Ayers P, Adams S, Boullata J, et al. A.S.P.E.N. parenteral nutrition 65. Wilson K, Jamerson PA. Comparison of central venous catheter
safety consensus recommendations translation into practice. Nutr and peripheral vein samples of antibiotics in children with cystic
Clin Pract. 2014;29(3):277-282. fibrosis. J Spec Pediatr Nurs. 2013;18(1):33-41.
48. Buchman AL, Opilla M, Kwasny M, Diamantidis TG, Okamoto 66. Humphries L, Baldwin KM, Clark KL, Tenuta V, Brumley K. A
R. Risk factors for the development of catheter-related blood- comparison of coagulation study results between heparinized
stream infections in patients receiving home parenteral nutrition. peripherally inserted central catheters and venipunctures. Clin
J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2014;38(6):744-749. Nurse Spec. 2012;26(6):310-316.
49. Secola R, Lewis MA, Pike N, Needleman J, Doering L. Feasibility 67. Boyd A, Dunne A, Townsend K, Pai AB. Sampling for interna-
of the use of a reliable and valid central venous catheter blood tional normalized ratios in patients on hemodialysis with central
draw bundle checklist. J Nurs Care Qual. 2012;27(3):218-225. venous catheters. Nephrol Nurs J. 2006;33(4):408-411.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S90 05/01/16 11:30 PM

68. Rioux J-P, De Bortoli B, Qurin S, Dziel C, Troyanov S, Madore (eg, bloodstream infection). Signs and symptoms of
F. Measurement of the international normalized ratio (INR) in complications with or without infusion through the
hemodialysis patients with heparin-locked central venous cathe- catheter include, but are not limited to, the
ters: evaluation of a novel blood sampling method. J Vasc Access.
presence of:
2008;10(3):180-182.
1. Any level of pain and/or tenderness with or with-
69. Mogayzel PJ Jr, Pierce E, Mills J, et al. Accuracy of tobramycin
levels obtained from central venous access devices in patients
out palpation.
with cystic fibrosis is technique dependent. Pediatr Nurs. 2. Changes in color (erythema or blanching).
2008;34(6):464-468. 3. Changes in skin temperature (hot or cold).
70. Halm M, Hickson T, Stein D, Tanner M, VandeGraaf S. Blood 4. Edema.
cultures and central catheters: is the easiest way best practice? 5. Induration.
Am J Crit Care. 2011;20(4):335-338. 6. Leakage of fluid or purulent drainage from the
71. Mathew A, Gaslin T, Dunning K, Ying J. Central catheter blood puncture site.
sampling: the impact of changing the needleless caps prior to col- 7. Other types of dysfunction (eg, resistance when
lection. J Infus Nurs. 2009;32(4):212-218. flushing, absence of a blood return).2-4 (I)
72. Sherertz RJ, Karchmer TB, Palavecino E, Bischoff W. Blood
C. Consider labeling catheters inserted under subopti-
drawn through valved catheter hub connectors carries a signifi-
mal aseptic conditions in any health care setting
cant risk of contamination. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis.
2011;30(12):1571-1577.
(eg, emergent). Remove and insert a new catheter
73. Wallach SG. Cannulation injury of the radial artery: diagnosis as soon as possible, preferably within 24 to
and treatment algorithm. Am J Crit Care. 2004;13(4):315-319. 48 hours.5-7 (IV)
74. Hadaway L. Anatomy and physiology related to infusion therapy. D. If unable to insert a new catheter in patients with
In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, difficult venous access and continuation of infusion
eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St therapy is required, immediately contact the licensed
Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:139-177. independent practitioner (LIP) about delays in
75. Sprint WP, Woodcock T, Cook T, Gupta K, Hartle A. Arterial administering the prescribed therapy (refer to
line blood sampling: preventing hypoglycaemic brain injury Standard 26, Vascular Access Device [VAD]
2014: the Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and
Planning).
Ireland. Anaesthesia. 2014;69(4):380-385.
E. Notify the LIP about signs and symptoms of sus-
76. Gupta K, Cook T. Accidental hypoglycaemia caused by an arte-
rial flush drug error: a case report and contributory causes analy-
pected catheter-related infection and discuss the
sis. Anaesthesia. 2013;68(11):1179-1187. need for obtaining cultures (eg, drainage, blood
culture) before removing a peripheral catheter (refer
to Standard 49, Infection).
44. VASCULAR ACCESS DEVICE F. In the event of extravasation, detach all administra-
(VAD) REMOVAL tion sets and aspirate from the catheter hub prior to
catheter removal to remove the vesicant medication
Standard from the catheter lumen and as much as possible
from the subcutaneous tissue (refer to Standard 46,
44.1 The clinical need for each peripheral and nontun- Infiltration and Extravasation).
neled central vascular access device (CVAD) is assessed
on a daily basis.
44.2 Vascular access devices (VADs) are removed upon II. Nontunneled Central Vascular Access
an unresolved complication, discontinuation of infusion Devices (CVADs)
therapy, or when deemed no longer necessary for the A. Assess and discuss with the patients health care
plan of care. team the continuing need for the nontunneled
44.3 VADs are not removed based solely on length of CVAD on a daily basis and remove when it is no
dwell time because there is no known optimum dwell time. longer needed for the plan of care. Criteria for justi-
fication of continued use of a CVAD include but are
not limited to:
Practice Criteria
1. Clinical instability of the patient (eg, alteration in
I. Short Peripheral and Midline Catheters vital signs, oxygen saturation).
A. Remove the short peripheral catheter if it is no 2. Prescribed continuous infusion therapy (eg, par-
longer included in the plan of care or has not been enteral nutrition, fluid and electrolytes, medica-
used for 24 hours or more.1 (IV) tions, blood or blood products).
B. Remove short peripheral and midline catheters in 3. Hemodynamic monitoring.
pediatric and adult patients when clinically indicat- 4. Prescribed intermittent infusion therapy (eg, any
ed, based on findings from site assessment and/or medication including anti-infectives in patients
clinical signs and symptoms of systemic complications with a known or suspected infection).
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S91 05/01/16 11:30 PM

5. Documented history of difficult peripheral catheter is correctly positioned at the cavoatrial
venous access.8-13 (V) junction, is functioning correctly with a blood
B. Employ strategies to facilitate timely CVAD removal return, and has no evidence of any infection. The
including, but not limited to: decision to remove the CVAD should also con-
1. Daily patient rounds by an interprofessional sider the severity of deep vein thrombosis (DVT)-
team. related symptoms, presence of contraindications
2. Use of a standardized tool including factors to be for systemic anticoagulation, and the continued
considered for making the decision to remove the need for infusion therapy requiring a CVAD (eg,
CVAD. vesicants, irritants) (see Standard 52, Central
3. Assessment by designated infusion/vascular Vascular Access Device [CVAD]-Associated
access nursing staff. Venous Thrombosis).4,21,22 (I)
4. Assessment by designated unit-based nurse with- 4. Remove a CVAD with a primary or secondary
out other patient care responsibilities when other malpositioned catheter tip location that cannot
strategies are unsuccessful.11,14-19 (IV) be repositioned to the cavoatrial junction (refer
C. Assess and report signs and symptoms of CVAD to Standard 53, Central Vascular Access Device
complications to the LIP including, but not limited [CVAD] Malposition).
to, the presence of: 5. In the event of infiltration or extravasation from a
1. Pain and/or tenderness in unusual locations of CVAD, consult with the health care team regard-
neck, chest, or upper abdomen. ing diagnostic imaging studies and the appropri-
2. Changes in color (erythema or blanching) at or ate medical management prior to removal (refer
surrounding the insertion site. to Standard 46, Infiltration and Extravasation).
3. Changes in skin temperature at or surrounding E. For CVAD removal:
the insertion site. 1. Place the patient in a supine flat or Trendelenburg
4. Edema. position, unless contraindicated, when removing
5. Unusual respiratory and neurological changes. any type of CVAD.
6. Leakage of fluid or purulent drainage from the 2. While documentation of air embolism during
puncture site. PICC removal has not been found, the exit site
7. Catheter dysfunction (eg, resistance when flush- could be at the same level as the patients heart,
ing, alteration in gravity infusion, absence of increasing the risk of air entering through an
blood return). intact skin-to-vein tract and fibrin sheath.
8. Changes in catheter function associated with arm 3. Documentation of air embolism from removal of
position changes (refer to Standard 47, Nerve a femorally inserted CVAD has not been found,
Injuries; Standard 49, Infection; Standard 52, although there is evidence of air entering the
Central Vascular Access Device [CVAD]-Associated catheter during insertion and during other proce-
Venous Thrombosis; Standard 53, Central Vascular dures through the femoral vein. The exit site will
Access Device [CVAD] Malposition). most likely be at or below the level of the heart,
D. Collaborate with the health care team members to possibly decreasing but not eliminating the risk
plan removal and insertion of a new catheter to meet of air embolism on removal (see Standard 50, Air
vascular access needs in the presence of unresolved Embolism).23-26 (V)
complication(s) and a continued need for infusion F. Never forcibly remove a CVAD if resistance is
therapy. encountered. Contact the LIP to discuss appropriate
1. Insertion of a peripherally inserted central cath- interventions for successful removal. Forcible
eter (PICC) or midline catheter has been sug- removal can result in catheter fracture and emboli-
gested as a viable alternative upon removal of zation. Catheter pieces retained in the vein should be
other types of CVADs (see Standard 26, Vascular removed with endovascular techniques to reduce the
Access Device [VAD] Planning).19,20 (IV) risk of infection, thrombosis, and migration of the
2. The decision to remove or salvage a CVAD due catheter piece.27,28 (V)
to suspected or confirmed catheter-related blood-
stream infection (CR-BSI) should be based on III. Surgically Placed CVADs: Tunneled
blood culture results; specific cultured Cuffed/Implanted Ports
organism(s); patients current condition; avail- A. Assess the clinical need for a tunneled cuffed cathe-
able vascular access sites; effectiveness of antimi- ter and implanted port on a regular basis.29 (II)
crobial therapy; and LIP direction (refer to B. Arrange for removal with the LIP when infusion
Standard 49, Infection). therapy is completed, in the presence of an unresolved
3. Do not remove a CVAD in the presence of complication, and when it is no longer needed for
CVAD-associated vein thrombosis when the the plan of care. Before removal, consider the
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S92 05/01/16 11:30 PM

possibility for infusion therapy to resume in the 6. OGrady N, Alexander M, Burns L, et al. Guidelines for the pre-
future (eg, patients with sickle cell anemia, cystic vention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://www.
fibrosis, or cancer diagnoses).29 (II) cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published April
2011.
C. Consult with the health care team regarding the
7. Stuart RL, Cameron DR, Scott C, et al. Peripheral intravenous
decision to remove or salvage a CVAD due to sus-
catheter-associated Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: more
pected or confirmed CR-BSI (refer to Standard 49, than 5 years of prospective data from two tertiary health services.
Infection). Med J Aust. 2013;198(10):551-553.
D. Immediately report cuff or port body exposure to 8. Tejedor S, Tong D, Stein J, et al. Temporary central venous cath-
the health care team and anticipate appropriate eter utilization patterns in a large tertiary care center: tracking the
interventions (eg, resuture of incision), including idle central venous catheter. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol.
CVAD removal.30,31 (V) 2012;33(1):50-57.
E. Ensure complete removal of the subcutaneous cuff 9. Dumyati G, Concannon C, van Wijngaarden E, et al. Sustained
to prevent subcutaneous abscess and delayed heal- reduction of central line-associated bloodstream infections out-
ing. Fluoroscopy and ultrasound guidance may be side the intensive care unit with a multimodal intervention focus-
ing on central line maintenance. Am J Infect Control.
necessary to verify cuff location and facilitate surgi-
2014;42(7):723-730.
cal removal.32,33
10. Weeks KR, Hsu Y-J, Yang T, Sawyer M, Marsteller JA. Influence
of a multifaceted intervention on central line days in intensive
care units: results of a national multisite study. Am J Infect
IV. Arterial Catheters
Control. 2014;42(10):S197-S202.
A. Assess the clinical need for the arterial catheter on a 11. Burdeu G, Currey J, Pilcher D. Idle central venous catheter-days
daily basis and remove when it is no longer needed pose infection risk for patients after discharge from intensive
for the plan of care.34 (V) care. Am J Infect Control. 2014;42(4):453-455.
B. Apply digital pressure to the insertion site using a 12. Zingg W, Sandoz L, Inan C, et al. Hospital-wide survey of the use
sterile gauze pad until hemostasis is achieved by of central venous catheters. J Hosp Infect. 2011;77(4):304-308.
using manual compression. Hemostatic pads 13. Milstone AM, Reich NG, Advani S, et al. Catheter dwell time and
designed to potentiate clot formation used in combi- CLABSIs in neonates with PICCs: a multicenter cohort study.
nation with manual pressure have shown effective- Pediatrics. 2013;132(6):e1609-e1615.
ness equal to or better than manual pressure in small 14. Ilan R, Doan J, Cload B, Squires M, Day A. Removing non-
essential central venous catheters: evaluation of a quality improve-
randomized trials. A sterile dressing should be
ment intervention. Can J Anesth. 2012;59(12):1102-1110.
applied to the access site.35,36 (III)
15. Faruqi A, Medefindt J, Dutta G, Philip SA, Tompkins D, Carey J.
C. Assess and document the circulatory status distal to Effect of a multidisciplinary intervention on central line utiliza-
the area of cannulation after removal of the arterial tion in an acute care hospital. Am J Infect Control.
catheter.34 (V) 2012;40(6):e211-e215.
16. Arora N, Patel K, Engell CA, LaRosa JA. The effect of interdisci-
plinary team rounds on urinary catheter and central venous
REFERENCES
catheter days and rates of infection. Am J Med Qual.
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September 2014;29(4):329-334.
30, 2015. 17. Thom KA, Li S, Custer M, et al. Successful implementation of a
unit-based quality nurse to reduce central line-associated blood-
1. Mestre G, Berbel C, Tortajada P, et al. Successful multifaceted stream infections. Am J Infect Control. 2014;42(2):139-143.
intervention aimed to reduce short peripheral venous catheter- 18. Hammarskjld F, Berg S, Hanberger H, Taxbro K, Malmvall B-E.
related adverse events: a quasiexperimental cohort study. Am J Sustained low incidence of central venous catheter-related infec-
Infect Control. 2012;41(6):520-526. tions over six years in a Swedish hospital with an active central
2. Wallis MC, McGrail M, Webster J, et al. Risk factors for periph- venous catheter team. Am J Infect Control. 2014;42(2):122-128.
eral intravenous catheter failure: a multivariate analysis of data 19. Al Raiy B, Fakih MG, Bryan-Nomides N, et al. Peripherally
from a randomized controlled trial. Infect Control. 2014;35(1):63- inserted central venous catheters in the acute care setting: a safe
68. alternative to high-risk short-term central venous catheters. Am J
3. Webster J, Osborne S, Rickard CM, New K. Clinically-indicated Infect Control. 2010;38(2):149-153.
replacement versus routine replacement of peripheral venous 20. Deutsch GB, Sathyanarayana SA, Singh N, Nicastro J. Ultrasound-
catheters. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(4):CD007798. guided placement of midline catheters in the surgical intensive
doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007798.pub3. care unit: a cost-effective proposal for timely central line removal.
4. Chopra V, Flanders SA, Saint S, et al. The Michigan appropriate- J Surg Res. 2014;191(1):1-5.
ness guide for intravenous catheers (MAGIC): results from a 21. Kearon C, Akl EA, Comerota AJ, et al. Antithrombotic therapy
multispecialty panel using the RAND/UCLA appropriateness for VTE disease: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of
method. Ann Intern Med. 2015;163(suppl 6):S1-S39. thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians
5. Fakih MG, Jones K, Rey JE, et al. Peripheral venous catheter care evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141
in the emergency department: education and feedback lead to (suppl 2):e419S-e494S.
marked improvements. Am J Infect Control. 2012;41(6): 22. Debourdeau P, Farge D, Beckers M, et al. International clinical
531-536. practice guidelines for the treatment and prophylaxis of
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S93 05/01/16 11:30 PM

thrombosis associated with central venous catheters in patients 30. Zawacki WJ, Walker TG, DeVasher E, et al. Wound dehiscence
with cancer. J Thromb Haemost. 2013;11(1):71-80. or failure to heal following venous access port placement in
23. Clark DK, Plaizier E. Devastating cerebral air embolism after patients receiving bevacizumab therapy. J Vasc Intervent Radiol.
central line removal. J Neurosci Nurs. 2011;43(4):193-196. 2009;20(5):624-627.
24. Feil M. Reducing risk of air embolism associated with central 31. Burris J, Weis M. Reduction of erosion risk in adult patients with
venous access devices. Penn Patient Saf Advis. 2012;9(2):58-62. implanted venous access ports. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2014;18(4):
25. Arnott C, Kelly K, Wolfers D, Cranney G, Giles R. Paradoxical 403-405.
cardiac and cerebral arterial gas embolus during percutaneous 32. Kim SM, Jun HJ, Kim HS, Cho SH, Lee JD. Foreign body reac-
lead extraction in a patient with a patent foramen ovale. Heart tion due to a retained cuff from a central venous catheter. Ann
Lung Circ. 2015;24(1):e14-e17. Dermatol. 2014;26(6):781-783.
26. Jalota L, Aryal MR, Jain S. Iatrogenic venous air embolism from 33. Barnacle AM, Mitchell AW. Technical report: use of ultrasound
central femoral vein catheterisation. BMJ Case Rep. March 13, guidance in the removal of tunnelled venous access catheter cuffs.
2013. doi:10.1136/bcr-2013-008965. Br J Radiol. 2005;78(926):147-149.
27. Quaretti P, Galli F, Fiorina I, et al. A refinement of Hongs tech- 34. Greene MT. Expanded approaches to access and monitoring. In:
nique for the removal of stuck dialysis catheters: an easy solution Weinstein SM, Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Priniciples and Practice
to a complex problem. J Vasc Access. 2013;15(3):183-188. of Infusion Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/
28. Ryan SE, Hadziomerovic A, Aquino J, Cunningham I, OKelly K, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014:391-426.
Rasuli P. Endoluminal dilation technique to remove stuck tun- 35. Dai N, Xu DC, Hou L, Peng WH, Wei YD, Xu YW. A
neled hemodialysis catheters. J Vasc Interv Radiol. comparison of 2 devices for radial artery hemostasis after transra-
2012;23(8):1089-1093. dial coronary intervention. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2014;30(3):
29. Schiffer CA, Mangu PB, Wade JC, et al. Central venous catheter 192-196.
care for the patient with cancer: American Society of Clinical 36. Oozawa S, Akagi T, Sano S. A new hemostasis tool after percu-
Oncology clinical practice guideline. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31(10): taneous angioplasty: the hemcon pad hemostasis device. J Vasc
1357-1370. Med Surg. 2014;2(125):2.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S94 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Section Seven: Vascular Access Device

(VAD)-Related Complications
Section Standards B. Recognize risk factors that can be addressed:

1. Chemical phlebitis may be related to infusates
I. To ensure patient safety, the clinician is competent to
with dextrose >10% or high osmolarity (>900
recognize signs and symptoms of vascular access device
mOsm/L); certain medications (depending on
(VAD)-related complications during insertion, manage-
dosage and length of infusion), such as potassi-
ment, and removal, and appropriately intervene.
um chloride, amiodarone, and some antibiotics;
II. Prevention, assessment, and management of compli-
particulates in the infusate; too large a catheter
cations are established in organizational policies, proce-
for the vasculature with inadequate hemodilu-
dures, and/or practice guidelines.
tion; and skin antiseptic solution that is not fully
dried and pulled into the vein during catheter
insertion. Consider using a midline catheter or
45. PHLEBITIS PICC for infusates listed above or identified as
causing phlebitis, depending on length of infu-
Standard sion time and anticipated duration of therapy.
Allow skin to thoroughly dry after application of
45.1 The clinician assesses the vascular access site for
antiseptic solution.7,11,19-25 (IV)
phlebitis; determines the need for and type of interven-
2. Mechanical phlebitis may be related to vein wall
tion; educates the patient and/or caregiver about phlebi-
irritation, which can come from too large a cath-
tis, the intervention, and any follow-up; and assesses
eter for the vasculature, catheter movement,
patient response to treatment.
insertion trauma, or catheter material and stiff-
ness. Choose the smallest catheter for therapy, 20
Practice Criteria or 22 gauge if possible; secure catheter with sta-
bilizing device; avoid areas of flexion, and stabi-
A. Assess regularly, based on patient population, type lize joint as needed.11,16,20,21,23,26,27 (IV)
of therapy, and risk factors, the vascular access 3. Bacterial phlebitis may be related to emergent
sites of short peripheral catheters, midline cathe- vascular access device (VAD) insertions and poor
ters, and peripherally inserted central catheters aseptic technique. Label a catheter inserted dur-
(PICCs) for signs and symptoms of phlebitis using ing emergent conditions so it can be removed and
a standardized tool or definition. Instruct the resited as needed. Move catheter in a lower
patient to report pain or discomfort at the vascular extremity to an upper extremity in adults; move
access site. Signs and symptoms of phlebitis include to a new proximal site or opposite side for pedi-
pain/tenderness, erythema, warmth, swelling, indu- atrics if possible. Consider a central vascular
ration, purulence, or palpable venous cord. The access device (CVAD) and/or consider alternative
number or severity of signs and symptoms that route for medication.9-11,20,21 (IV)
indicate phlebitis differs among published clini- 4. Patient-related factors include current infection,
cians and researchers (see Standard 41, Vascular immunodeficiency, and diabetes; insertion in a
Access Device [VAD] Assessment, Care, and lower extremity except for infants; and age 60
Dressing Changes).1-18 (III) years.16,20,24,27 (IV)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S95 05/01/16 11:30 PM

5. Postinfusion phlebitis, although rare, occurs post
TABLE 1
catheter removal through 48 hours due to any of
the factors above.11,28 (IV)
C. If phlebitis is present with short peripheral catheters,
Phlebitis Scale
Grade Clinical Criteria
midline catheters, and PICCs, determine the possible
etiology of the phlebitis, such as chemical, mechanical, 0 No symptoms
bacterial, or postinfusion; apply warm compress; ele- 1 Erythema at access site with or without pain
vate limb; provide analgesics as needed; consider other 2 Pain at access site with erythema and/or edema
pharmacologic interventions such as anti-inflammato-
3 Pain at access site with erythema
ry agents; and consider removal as necessary. Topical
gels or ointments to treat phlebitis require further Streak formation
study for efficacy) (see Standard 44, Vascular Access Palpable venous cord
Device [VAD] Removal).11,20,23,29-34 (III) 4 Pain at access site with erythema
1. Chemical phlebitis: evaluate infusion therapy Streak formation
and need for different vascular access, different
Palpable venous cord > 1 inch in length
medication, or slower rate of infusion; determine
if catheter removal is needed. Provide interven- Purulent drainage
tions as above.7,20 (IV)
2. Mechanical phlebitis: stabilize catheter, apply TABLE 2
heat, elevate limb, and monitor for 24 to 48
hours; if signs and symptoms persist past 48
Visual Infusion
hours, consider removing catheter.23,33 (V)
3. Bacterial phlebitis: if suspected, remove catheter.
Phlebitis Scale
Consider the need to collaborate with the licensed Score Observation
independent practitioner regarding the need for 0 IV site appears healthy
continued or alternative vascular access when the 1 One of the following is evident:
VAD is removed.10,11,35 (IV) slight pain near IV site OR Slight redness near IV site
4. Postinfusion phlebitis: if bacterial source, moni- 2 Two of the following are evident:
tor for signs of systemic infection; if nonbacte- Pain at IV site
rial, apply warm compress; elevate limb; pro- Erythema
Swelling
vide analgesics as needed; and consider other
pharmacologic interventions such as anti- 3 All of the following signs are evident:
Pain along path of cannula
inflammatory agents or corticosteroids as Induration
necessary.28,33 (V)
4 All of the following signs are evident and extensive:
D. When the short peripheral catheter, midline catheter, Pain along path of cannula
or PICC is removed, monitor the vascular access site Erythema
for 48 hours to detect postinfusion phlebitis or, Induration
upon discharge, give the patient and/or caregiver Palpable venous cord
written instructions about signs and symptoms of 5 All of the following signs are evident and extensive:
phlebitis and the person to contact if this occurs.11 Pain along path of cannula
Erythema
(V) Induration
E. Use a standardized phlebitis scale or definition, Palpable venous cord
which is valid, reliable, and clinically feasible. The Pyrexia
population for which the scale is appropriate should Abbreviation: IV, intravenous.
be identified as adult or pediatric. Jackson A. A battle in vein infusion: phlebitis. Nursing Times. 1998;28(94).
Reprinted with permission.
1. Two phlebitis scales have demonstrated validity
and reliability in some studies and have been
used for adult patients. Recent evidence recom-
mends further study for valid and reliable assess- F. Review phlebitis incidents causing harm or injury,
ment tools.6,12,36-39 (I) using incident or occurrence reports or medical
2. The Phlebitis Scale (Table 1) has concurrent record reviews, for quality improvement opportuni-
validity, interrater reliability, and is clinically ties (see Standard 6, Quality Improvement).41-43 (V)
feasible.8 (IV)
REFERENCES
3. Visual Infusion Phlebitis Scale (Table 2) has
content validity, interrater reliability, and is Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
clinically feasible.6,40 (IV) 30, 2015.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S96 05/01/16 11:30 PM

1. Anson L, Edmundson E, Teasley S. Implications of evidence- 20. Dychter S, Gold D, Carson D, Haller M. Intravenous therapy: a
based venipuncture practice in a pediatric health care Magnet review of complications and economic considerations of periph-
facility. J Contin Educ Nurs. 2010;41(4):179-185. eral access. J Infus Nurs. 2012;35(2):84-91.
2. Barra R, Lorca P, Muoz S. Randomized controlled trial of vas- 21. Helm RE, Klausner JD, Klemperer JD, Flint LM, Huang E.
cular access in newborns in the neonatal intensive care unit. J Accepted but unacceptable: peripheral IV catheter failure. J Infus
Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs . 2007;36(5): Nurs. 2015;38(3):189-203.
450-456. 22. Mowry JL, Hartman LS. Intravascular thrombophlebitis related
3. Dugan S, Le J, Jew R. Maximum tolerated osmolarity for periph- to the peripheral infusion of amiodarone and vancomycin. West
eral administration of parenteral nutrition in pediatric patients. J J Nurs Res. 2011;33(3):457-471.
Parenteral Enteral Nutr. 2014;38(7):847-851. 23. Phillips LD, Gorski L. Complications of infusion therapy: periph-
4. Dumont C, Getz O, Miller S. Evaluation of midline vascular eral and central vascular access devices. In: Phillips LD, Gorski L.
access: a descriptive study. Nursing. 2014;44(10):60-66. Manual of IV Therapeutics: Evidence-Based Practice for Infusion
5. Foster L, Wallis M, Paterson B, James H. A descriptive study of Therapy. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: FA Davis; 2014:540-611.
peripheral intravenous catheters in patients admitted to a pediat- 24. Salgueiro-Oliveira A, Parreira P. Incidence of phlebitis in patients
ric unit in one Australian hospital. J Infus Nurs. 2002;25(3): with peripheral intravenous catheters: the influence of some risk
159-167. factors. Aust J Adv Nurs. 2012;30(2):32-39.
6. Gallant P, Schultz A. Evaluation of a visual infusion phlebitis 25. Spiering M. Peripheral amiodarone-related phlebitis: an institu-
scale for determining appropriate discontinuation of peripheral tional nursing guideline to reduce patient harm. J Infus Nurs.
intravenous catheters. J Infus Nurs. 2006;29(6):338-345. 2014;37(6):453-460.
7. Gorski LA, Hagle ME, Bierman S. Intermittently delivered IV 26. Cicolini G, Bonghi AP, Di Labio L, Di Mascio R. Position of
medication and pH: reevaluating the evidence. J Infus Nurs. peripheral venous cannulae and the incidence of thrombophlebi-
2015;38(1):27-46. tis: an observational study. J Adv Nurs. 2009;65(6):1268-1273.
8. Groll D, Davies B, MacDonald J, Nelson S, Virani T. Evaluation 27. Rego Furtado LC. Incidence and predisposing factors of phlebitis
of the psychometric properties of the phlebitis and infiltration in a surgery department. Br J Nurs. 2011;20(14):S16-S18, S20,
scales for the assessment of complications of peripheral vascular S22-S25.
access devices. J Infus Nurs. 2010;33(6):385-390. 28. Webster J, McGrail M, Marsh N, Wallis MC, Ray-Barruel G,
9. Maki DG, Ringer M. Risk factors for infusion-related phlebitis Rickard CM. Postinfusion phlebitis: incidence and risk factors
with small peripheral venous catheters. Ann Intern Med. [published online May 14, 2015]. Nurs Res Pract.
1991;114(10):845-854. doi:10.1155/2015/691934.
10. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the 29. Di Giacomo M. Comparison of three peripherally-inserted cen-
prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http:// tral catheters: pilot study. Br J Nurs. 2009;18(1):8-16.
www.cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published 30. dos Reis P, Silveira R, Vasques C, de Carvalho E. Pharmacological
April 2011. interventions to treat phlebitis: systematic review. J Infus Nurs.
11. Perucca R. Peripheral venous access devices. In: Alexander M, 2009;32(2):74-79.
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion 31. Eppert H, Goddard K. Administration of amiodarone during
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: resuscitation of ventricular arrhythmias. J Emerg Nurs.
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:456-479. 2010;36(1):26-28.
12. Ray-Barruel G, Polit D, Murfield J, Rickard C. Infusion phlebitis 32. Leal A, Kadakia K, Loprinzi C, et al. Fosaprepitant-induced
assessment measures: a systematic review. J Eval Clin Pract. phlebitis: a focus on patients receiving doxorubicin/
2014;20(2):191-202. cyclophosphamide therapy. Support Care Cancer. 2014;22(5):
13. Salgueiro-Oliveira A, Parreira P. Incidence of phlebitis in patients 1313-1317.
with peripheral intravenous catheters: the influence of some risk 33. Liu H, Han T, Zheng Y, Tong X, Piao M, Zhang H. Analysis of
factors. Aus J Adv Nurs. 2012;30(2):32-39. complication rates and reasons for nonelective removal of PICCs
14. Tagalakis V, Kahn SR, Libman M, Blostein M. The epidemiology in neonatal intensive care unit preterm infants. J Infus Nurs.
of peripheral vein infusion thrombophlebitis: a critical review. 2009;32(6):336-340.
Am J Med. 2002;113(2):146-151. 34. Zheng G, Yang L, Chen H, Chu J, Mei L. Aloe vera for preven-
15. Vanhatalo T, Tammela O. Glucose infusions into peripheral veins tion and treatment of infusion phlebitis. Cochrane Database Syst
in the management of neonatal hypoglycemia20% instead of Rev. 2014;(6):CD009162. doi://10.1002/14651858.CD009162.
15%? Acta Paediatr. 2010;99(3):350-353. pub2.
16. Wallis M, McGrail M, Rickard C, et al. Risk factors for periph- 35. Joanna Briggs Institute. Management of peripheral intravascular
eral intravenous catheter failure: a multivariate analysis of data devices. Aust Nurs J. 2008;16(3):25-28.
from a randomized controlled trial. Infect Control Hosp 36. Powell J, Tarnow KG, Perucca R. The relationship between
Epidemiol. 2014;35(1):63-68. peripheral intravenous catheter indwell time and the incidence of
17. Washington G, Barrett R. Peripheral phlebitis: a point-prevalence phlebitis. J Infus Nurs. 2008;3(1):39-45.
study. J Infus Nurs. 2012;35(4):252-258. 37. Schultz AA, Gallant P. Evidence-based quality improvement pro-
18. Zingg W, Pittet D. Peripheral venous catheters: an under-evaluated ject for determining appropriate discontinuation of peripheral
problem. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2009;34(suppl 4):S38-S42. intravenous cannulas. Evid Based Nurs. 2005;8(1):8.
19. Biggar C. Comparison of postinfusion phlebitis in intravenous 38. Uslusoy E, Mete S. Predisposing factors to phlebitis in patients
push versus intravenous piggyback cefazolin. J Infus Nurs. with peripheral intravenous catheters: a descriptive study. J Am
2012;35(6):384-388. Acad Nurse Pract. 2008;20(4):172-180.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S97 05/01/16 11:30 PM

39. Marsh N, Mihala G, Ray-Barruel G, Webster J, Wallis MC, 2. Infusion of antibiotics and corticosteroids
Rickard CM. Inter-rater agreement on PIVC-associated phlebitis through a peripheral catheter.
signs, symptoms and scales [published online July 17, 2015]. J 3. Current infection.
Eval Clin Pract. doi:10.1111/jep.12396.
4. Subsequent peripheral catheters after the first
40. Bravery K, Dougherty L, Gabriel J, Kayley J, Malster M, Scales
insertion.
K. Audit of peripheral venous cannulae by members of an IV
therapy forum. Br J Nurs. 2006;15(22):1244-1249.
5. Inability or difficulty with communicating pain,
41. Mestre G, Berbel C, Tortajada P, et al. Successful multifaceted tightness, or other discomfort.
intervention aimed to reduce short peripheral venous catheter- 6. Altered mental status or cognition (eg, agitation,
related adverse events: a quasiexperimental cohort study. Am J confusion, sedation).
Infect Control. 2013;41(6):520-526. 7. Age-related changes to vasculature, skin, and
42. Tofani BF, Rineair SA, Gosdin CH, et al. Quality improvement subcutaneous tissue.
project to reduce infiltration and extravasation events in a pedi- 8. Diseases that produce changes in vasculature or
atric hospital. J Pediatr Nurs. 2012;27(6):682-689. impaired circulation (eg, diabetes, lymphedema,
43. Woody G, Davis BA. Increasing nurse competence in peripheral systemic lupus, Raynauds disease, peripheral
intravenous therapy. J Infus Nurs. 2013;36(6):413-419.
neuropathy, peripheral vascular disease).
9. Medications that alter pain sensation (eg, narcot-
ics) or suppress the inflammatory response (eg,
46. INFILTRATION AND steroids).
EXTRAVASATION 10. Difficulty with peripheral venous access related
to obesity, history of multiple venipunctures, and
Standard infusion therapy.
11. Peripheral catheters indwelling longer than 24
46.1 The clinician assesses the peripheral and central hours.
vascular access device site for signs and/or symptoms of 12. Use of deep veins with insufficient catheter
infiltration and extravasation before each infusion and length.
on a regular basis and educates the patient and/or care- 13. Length of the injection or infusion time for vesi-
giver about infiltration/extravasation, any interven- cant medications.1-9 (IV)
tions, and any required follow-up. D. Recognize the differences between vesicant, nonvesi-
46.2 Appropriate intervention(s) are implemented as cant, and irritant solutions and medications. There
determined by the characteristics of the solution or is no accepted scoring system for classification of
medication escaping from the vein. medications as a vesicant or irritant, leaving clini-
cians to rely upon specific drug information, case
reports, and other published literature. Each facility
Practice Criteria
should reach a consensus on what medication is
A. Select the most appropriate vascular access device considered to be a vesicant and irritant based on
(VAD) and insertion site to reduce the risk for infil- their internal formularies.
tration/extravasation. Do not use winged metal 1. Identify the vesicant nature of antineoplastic and
needles for infusion as they are associated with an noncytotoxic medications prior to administra-
increased risk of infiltration (refer to Standard 26, tion and be prepared to use the correct antidote
Vascular Access Device [VAD] Planning; Standard treatment for each medication.
27, Site Selection). 2. Vesicant medications can produce varying
B. Assess all VADs for patency and the absence of signs degrees of tissue damage, including blistering
and symptoms of infiltration and extravasation and necrosis. Surgical washout procedure,
prior to each intermittent infusion and on a regular debridement, and skin grafting may be indicated.
basis for continuous infusions. Assessment includes 3. Nonvesicant solutions and medications may pro-
observation, palpation, flushing to identify resis- duce tissue damage in neonates and infants.
tance, aspiration for a blood return, and listening to 4. Vesicant and nonvesicant solutions and medica-
the patients report of pain. Frequency of VAD site tions can produce compartment syndrome with
assessment depends upon the specific patient popu- the possibility of arterial and nerve damage that
lation and characteristics of the infusion therapy could lead to complex regional pain syndrome or
(refer to Standard 40, Flushing and Locking; amputation of the extremity if not quickly
Standard 41, Vascular Access Device [VAD] recognized.
Assessment, Care, and Dressing Changes). 5. Tissue damage from irritant medications is asso-
C. Recognize risk factors associated with infiltration ciated with a large volume of concentrated medi-
and extravasation including: cation escaping into the tissue.2,3,10-15 (IV)
1. Insertion sites in the hand, antecubital fossa, and E. Identify causes of infiltration/extravasation that may
upper arm when compared to sites in the forearm. indicate the need for more frequent monitoring or
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S98 05/01/16 11:30 PM

removal and insertion of a new VAD, including but redness; however, extravasation into deep tissue
not limited to: may not produce visible color changes.
1. Mechanical issues associated with VAD site selec- 4. Fluid leakage from the puncture site, subcutane-
tion, catheter size, insertion techniques, central ous tunnel, or port pocket.
vascular access device (CVAD) tip location, 5. Blister formation may appear within hours (eg,
securement, and normal body movement (eg, contrast media) or may be delayed for days with
respiratory and cardiac function). antineoplastic agents. Progression to ulceration
a. Peripheral sites most often associated with may vary from a few days to 1 to 2 weeks,
infiltration/extravasation are the hand and depending upon the medication that
wrist, foot and ankle, and antecubital fossa. extravasated.1,4,6,13,16 (IV)
b. Ultrasound-guided peripheral catheter inser- G. Immediately stop the infusion when the patient
tion of deep veins of the upper arm is associ- reports pain, burning, stinging, and/or tightness, at
ated with higher rates of infiltration/extrava- or around the insertion site, catheter tip, or entire
sation when compared to other peripheral venous pathway, as this should not be considered
catheter insertion sites. Short catheter length normal with any infusion. These symptoms
and vessel depth are associated with higher require further assessment to determine the appro-
rates of infiltration/extravasation (refer to priate intervention(s).
Standard 22, Vascular Visualization). 1. Assess the area distal (located below) to the VAD
c. Extravascular CVAD tip location can occur in site for capillary refill, sensation, and motor
many anatomical locations and at any point in function.
the dwell time (refer to Standard 53, Central 2. Aspirate for a blood return, although the periph-
Vascular Access Device [CVAD] Malposition). eral catheter tip could be inside the vein lumen,
2. Pharmacologic or physiochemical properties yet an additional puncture of the vein wall has
associated with drug concentration and volume occurred.
escaping into the tissue; hyperosmolarity and 3. Do not flush the VAD, as this would inject addi-
nonphysiological pH; the medications ability to tional medication into the tissue.
bind DNA, kill replicating cells, and/or cause 4. Disconnect the administration set from the cath-
vascular dilatation; and excipients, such as alco- eter hub, and aspirate from the catheter or
hol or polyethylene glycol, used in the formula- implanted port access needle with a small syringe,
tion of some medications. although a very small amount of fluid may be
3. Obstructive issues, such as vein thrombosis or retrieved.
stenosis proximal to (located above) the insertion 5. Remove the peripheral catheter or implanted
site and tip location, limiting blood flow and port access needle.
causing overflow of infusing solutions from the 6. Never apply pressure to the area.
puncture site.3,5,16 (IV) 7. Using a skin marker, outline the area with visible
F. Limit the amount of solution that enters the tissue signs of infiltration/extravasation to allow for
through early recognition of signs and symptoms of assessing changes.
infiltration/extravasation. Signs and symptoms pro- 8. Photograph the area to identify progression or
gress from simple to complex, and the clinical pre- exacerbation of the tissue injury.
sentation can be confused with phlebitis or flare 9. Notify the licensed independent practitioner
reactions. (LIP) about the event, and activate the estab-
1. Pain may be the initial symptom and may be sud- lished treatment protocol or the prescribed treat-
den and severe when associated with a rapid ment.
injection of solution or medications; may be out 10. Anticipate use of radiographic tests to identify
of proportion to the injury; may appear with pas- the catheter tip location. Timing of CVAD
sive stretching of the muscles in the extremity; removal depends on the plan of care, which is
pain intensity may increase over time. based on the identified extravascular location of
2. Edema may appear as a raised area under the the catheter tip. Surgical intervention may be
skin near the peripheral VAD site or as an needed as determined by the LIP.
enlarged and tense extremity due to fluid accu- 11. Estimate the volume of solution that has escaped
mulating in compartments of the extremity. into the tissue based on the original amount of
Compare circumference of both extremities. solution in the container, the amount remaining
Edema from a CVAD may appear as a raised area when stopped, and rate of injection or infusion.
on the neck or chest. The need for surgical consultation is based on
3. Changes in color may include blanching from the clinical signs and symptoms and their
nonvesicant solutions; vesicants can produce progression.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S99 05/01/16 11:30 PM

12. Elevate the extremity to encourage lymphatic iii. Terbutaline injection has been used for
reabsorption of the solution/medication.2,3,6,17 vasopressor extravasation due to the inter-
(IV) mittent shortages of phentolamine.
H. Follow the established treatment protocol or LIP iv. Hyaluronidase is not considered to be an
prescription as appropriate for the solution and antidote to the specific extravasated drug.
medication in the tissue with the goal of limiting the Instead, it is an enzyme that increases
exposure of subcutaneous tissue to the solution or absorption and dispersion of the drug in
medication. Provide convenient access to the list of the tissue and its use is reported with anti-
vesicants and irritants, infiltration/extravasation neoplastic and noncytotoxic drugs; hyper-
management protocols, electronic order forms, sup- osmolar solutions (eg, parenteral nutrition
plies, and other materials needed to manage the and calcium salts); and radiographic con-
event.14,17-19 (IV) trast media. Recombinant hyaluronidase
I. Use the appropriate method for clinical management is not derived from animals and may have
of the infiltration/extravasation site. a lower risk of allergic response. Do NOT
1. Apply dry, cold compresses when the goal is to inject by the IV route. Subcutaneous injec-
localize the medication in the tissue and reduce tion within 1 hour of the extravasation
inflammation. event produces the best response. Follow
a. Do not use cold compresses with extravasa- the manufacturers directions for dose and
tion of vinca alkaloids and vasopressors and administration. Use of dry heat in con-
in the presence of vaso-occlusive events (eg, junction with hyaluronidase works syner-
sickle cell anemia). gistically to increase blood flow and dis-
b. Remove the cold compress 15 minutes before perse the extravasated drug.
the infusion of dexrazoxane begins. v. Apply topical nitroglycerin 2% as a 1-inch
c. Neutralize the medication with the appropri- strip to the site of vasopressor extravasation;
ate antidote. repeat every 8 hours as clinically indicated.
2. Apply dry, warm compresses when the goal is to 5. Use nonpharmacologic methods (eg, elevation,
increase local blood flow, and disperse the medi- heat application, surgical washout) for extrava-
cation through the tissue. sation of acidic and alkaline medications as sub-
a. Do not exceed 42C (107.6F) in pediatrics. cutaneous injections could cause gas formation
b. Dilute the medication further with the appro- and exacerbate the tissue injury.2,3,17,20,21 (IV)
priate antidote. J. Do not rely on the alarm from an electronic infusion
3. Use dry, cold compresses for nonirritant and pump to identify infiltration/extravasation; alarms
hyperosmolar fluids and medications. are not designed to detect the presence or absence of
4. Administer the appropriate antidote for the solu- complications.
tions or medication in the tissue. 1. Electronic infusion pumps do not cause infiltra-
a. Daily intravenous (IV) infusion of dexrazox- tion/extravasation; however, they will exacerbate
ane over 3 days is the recommended antidote the problem until the infusion is stopped.
for anthracycline extravasation. Infusion 2. Automated power or pressure injectors produce
should begin within 6 hours of the extravasa- a jet of fluid exiting the catheter tip. It has been
tion and be infused into the opposite extremity. postulated that this jet could induce vessel perfo-
b. Inject other antidotes into the subcutaneous ration and extravasation.
tissue surrounding the extravasated site. Use a 3. Medication with a high viscosity requires less
small needle (eg, 25 gauge or smaller) and force to cause fluid flow when it is warmed to
change it for each injection. Follow the spe- 37C. Fluid warming may be associated with
cific manufacturers directions for dose and lower rates of extravasation (see Standard 24,
administration. Flow-Control Devices).22-24 (IV)
i Sodium thiosulfate is recommended for K. Educate the patient and caregivers about:
mechlorethamine and has been suggested 1. The risks of receiving a vesicant medication prior
for large extravasates of cisplatin. to administration, emphasizing the specific signs
ii. Phentolamine is preferred for vasopressor and symptoms to immediately report.
extravasation. Normal perfusion of the 2. The possible progression of the signs and symp-
area is seen within 10 minutes. Repeated toms of infiltration/extravasation.
injection may be necessary if hypoperfu- 3. Changes that should be reported to the LIP (eg,
sion is still present or if vasoconstriction is changes in extremity mobility and sensation, ele-
extending to a greater area. vated temperature, and other signs of infection).
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S100 05/01/16 11:30 PM

4. Protecting the site from sunlight. 8. Kadom N, Hashim HD, Olsen C, Cefaratti M, Bulas D, Shalaby-
5. The frequency of follow-up visits to the LIP and/ Rana E. Nursing role model for computed tomography: contrast
or other medical consultants as needed (see injection decreases extravasation rates. J Pediatr Nurs.
2010;27(2):113-118.
Standard 8, Patient Education).2,6 (IV)
9. Wallis MC, McGrail M, Webster J, et al. Risk factors for periph-
L. Use a standardized tool or definition for assessing
eral intravenous catheter failure: a multivariate analysis of data
and documenting infiltration/extravasation from all from a randomized controlled trial. Infect Control. 2014;35(1):
types of VADs that is valid, reliable, and clinically 63-68.
feasible. This assessment should occur initially and 10. Barbee MS, Owonikoko TK, Harvey RD. Taxanes: vesicants,
regularly based on organizational policies and pro- irritants, or just irritating? Ther Adv Med Oncol. 2014;6(1):
cedures; continue until resolution; and be oriented 16-20.
to the patients size and age. Several scales have been 11. Haslik W, Hacker S, Felberbauer F, et al. Port-a-Cath extravasa-
published; however, only 1 pediatric tool has been tion of vesicant cytotoxics: surgical options for a rare complica-
tested for validity and interrater reliability. The cho- tion of cancer chemotherapy. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2015;41(3):378-
sen grading scale should also be accompanied by 385.
12. Kalyani BS, Fisher BE, Roberts CS, Giannoudis PV. Compartment
appropriate interventions to manage each level on
syndrome of the forearm: a systematic review. J Hand Surg Am.
the tool.3,17,25 (IV)
2011;36(3):535-543.
M. Use a standardized format to document initial and 13. Prasarn ML, Ouellette EA. Acute compartment syndrome of the
ongoing assessment and monitoring of the infiltra- upper extremity. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2011;19(1):49-58.
tion/extravasation site and to document all factors 14. Paquette V, McGloin R, Northway T, DeZorzi P, Singh A, Carr
involved with the event.6,17 (IV) R. Describing intravenous extravasation in children (DIVE
N. Monitor the site, as needed based on severity of the study). Can J Hosp Pharm. 2011;64(5):340-345.
event and the venue of care. Assess changes of the 15. Loubani OM, Green RS. A systematic review of extravasation
area by measurement and/or photography; observe and local tissue injury from administration of vasopressors
skin integrity, level of pain, sensation, and motor through peripheral intravenous catheters and central venous cath-
function of the extremity.6 (IV) eters. J Crit Care. 2015;30(3):653.e9-17. doi:10.1016/jcrc.2015.
01.014.
O. Review infiltration/extravasation incidents causing
16. Al-Benna S, OBoyle C, Holley J. Extravasation injuries in adults.
harm or injury, using incident or occurrence reports
ISRN Dermatol. 2013. doi:10.1155/2013/856541.
or medical record reviews for quality improvement 17. Hanrahan KM, ed. Hyaluronidase for Treatment of Intravenous
opportunities (refer to Standard 6, Quality Extravasations: Evidence-Based Practice Guideline. Iowa City,
Improvement). IA: University of Iowa College of Nursing, Office for Nursing
Research; 2012.
REFERENCES 18. Prez Fidalgo JA, Garca Fabregat L, Cervantes A, Margulies A,
Vidall C, Roila F. Management of chemotherapy extravasation:
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed October
ESMO-EONS clinical practice guidelines. Eur J Oncol Nurs.
1, 2015.
2012;16(5):528-534.
1. Warren D. Implementation of a protocol for the prevention and 19. Restieaux M, Maw A, Broadbent R, Jackson P, Barker D,
management of extravasation injuries in the neonatal intensive Wheeler B. Neonatal extravasation injury: prevention and man-
care patient. Int J Evid Based Healthc. 2011;9(2):165-171. agement in Australia and New Zealanda survey of current
2. Boulanger J, Ducharme A, Dufour A, Fortier S, Almanric K. practice. BMC Pediatrics. 2013. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-13-34.
Management of the extravasation of anti-neoplastic agents. 20. Ebbinghaus S, Kobayashi H. Safe heat application for pediatric
Support Care Cancer. 2015;23(5):1459-1471. patients: a hot item. J Nurs Care Qual. 2010;25(2):168-175.
3. Reynolds PM, Maclaren R, Mueller SW, Fish DN, Kiser TH. 21. Saleem S, Rice L. Limb amputation in hemoglobin SC disease
Management of extravasation injuries: a focused evaluation of after application of ice and elevation. Am J Hematol.
noncytotoxic medications. Pharmacotherapy. 2014;34(6):617- 2007;82(1):53-54.
632. 22. Huber C, Augustine A. IV infusion alarms: dont wait for the
4. American College of Radiology. ACR Manual on Contrast beep. Am J Nurs. 2009;109(4):32-33.
Media. Version 10.1, 2015. http://www.acr.org/~/media/37D844 23. Weber P, Coursey C, Howle L, Nelson R, Nichols E, Schindera S.
28BF1D4E1B9A3A2918DA9E27A3.pdf. Modifying peripheral IV catheters with side holes and side slits
5. Dykes TM, Bhargavan-Chatfield M, Dyer RB. Intravenous con- results in favorable changes in fluid dynamic properties during
trast extravasation during CT: a national data registry and prac- the injection of iodinated contrast material. Am J Roentgenol.
tice quality improvement initiative. J Am Coll Radiol. 2009;193(4):970-979.
2015;12(2):183-191. 24. Davenport MS, Wang CL, Bashir MR, Neville AM, Paulson EK.
6. Polovich M, Olsen M, LeFebvre K, eds. Chemotherapy and Rate of contrast material extravasations and allergic-like
Biotherapy Guidelines and Recommendations for Practice. 4th reactions: effect of extrinsic warming of low-osmolality iodinated
ed. Pittsburgh, PA: Oncology Nursing Society; 2014. CT contrast material to 37C. Radiology. 2012;262(2):
7. Gorski LA, Hallock D, Kuehn SC, Morris P, Russell JM, Skala 475-484.
LC. Recommendations for frequency of assessment of the short 25. Pop RS. A pediatric peripheral intravenous infiltration assessment
peripheral catheter site. J Infus Nurs. 2012;35(5):290-292. tool. J Infus Nurs. 2012;35(4):243-248.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S101 05/01/16 11:30 PM

47. NERVE INJURIES symptoms of paresthesia, such as radiating electrical
pain, tingling, burning, prickly feeling, or numbness.
Standard Stop the procedure upon the patients request and/or
when the patients actions indicate severe pain.
47.1 During peripheral venipuncture and catheter dwell Inform the licensed independent practitioner (LIP)
time, reports of paresthesia-type pain require immediate of the patients report of symptoms as early recogni-
removal of the vascular access device (VAD). tion of nerve damage produces a better prognosis.
47.2 During the insertion or dwell of central vascular Consultation with an appropriate surgeon (ie, hand
access devices (CVADs), clinicians will maintain a high specialist) may be required. Details of the patients
index of suspicion for nerve injuries when the patient report of symptoms should be documented in the
complains of respiratory difficulty or unusual presenta- medical record.9,14,21-25 (V)
tions of pain or discomfort. E. Do not use subcutaneous probing techniques or
multiple passes of the needle or catheter when per-
Practice Criteria forming any puncture procedure as this increases the
risk of nerve damage.21,22 (V)
A. Recognize normal and potential anatomical varia- F. Immediately remove a peripheral catheter when a
tions of veins, arteries, and nerves used for periph- patient reports paresthesia-type pain during the
eral or CVAD insertion. Recognize that anatomical dwell of a peripheral catheter, as fluid accumulating
variations in these structures are common and can in the tissue can lead to nerve compression injuries.
be complex, thus increasing the risk of temporary or Fluid can originate from infiltrated intravenous
permanent nerve injury during VAD insertion and solutions, hematoma, and edema associated with the
dwell.1-10 (I A/P) inflammatory process of phlebitis and
B. Selecting specific peripheral venous and arterial thrombophlebitis.9,19,20,23 (V)
puncture sites for the purpose of avoiding nerves is G. Perform neurovascular assessment, observing for
not possible; however, common sites have a greater intensification of paresthesia (eg, pain, burning or
risk of nerve injury. Venipuncture sites with the localized tingling, numbness) as these may indicate
greatest risk include: advancing nerve damage including:
1. Distal sensory branches of the radial and ulnar 1. Neuroma, a mass of connective tissue and nerve
nerves for sites in the dorsal hand. fibers that prohibit regeneration of nerves at the
2. Superficial radial nerve at the cephalic vein of the injury site. Surgical removal is used to restore
radial wrist. function.22,26 (V)
3. Median nerve on the volar aspects of the wrist. 2. Compartment syndrome, producing nerve com-
4. Median and anterior interosseous nerve at or pression resulting in lack of nerve tissue perfu-
above the antecubital fossa. sion. Pain progresses from paresthesia to paral-
5. Lateral and medial antebrachial nerves for the ysis. Pallor and loss of peripheral pulse indicate
antecubital fossa. an advanced stage of compartment syndrome.
6. Brachial plexus nerve for subclavian and jugular Surgical fasciotomy is required within a few
sites. hours to prevent loss of the extremity.14,27,28
Arterial sites with the greatest risk include: (IV)
1. Brachial (median nerve). 3. Complex regional pain syndrome is a chronic,
2. Radial (median and radial nerve). debilitating condition that can result from veni-
3. Axillary (brachial plexus). puncture. It is characterized by ongoing neuro-
As nerves cross a joint of the upper or lower extrem- pathic pain over a regional area; is not propor-
ity, there is an increase in neural tissue, increasing tional to the original injury; and progresses to
the risk of nerve injury in these areas. Motor, sen- include sensory, motor, and autonomic changes.
sory, and autonomic nerve injury is possible due to Frequently this syndrome spreads to nontrau-
direct nerve puncture or nerve compression.8,9,11-17 (I matized extremities. It requires lifelong manage-
A/P) ment with medications; nerve blocks; and chem-
C. Review the patients medication list for systemic ical, thermal, or surgical sympathectomy.29,30
anticoagulant medication(s) prior to making a punc- (IV)
ture in a vein or artery. Use appropriate means to H. In the presence of any CVAD, observe for respira-
control bleeding at attempted and successful sites to tory difficulties or dyspnea and changes in the eye,
reduce the risk of hematoma that can lead to nerve such as pupil constriction with equal light reaction
injury due to compression.7,9,18-20 (V) and upper eyelid drooping.
D. Immediately stop the VAD insertion procedure and 1. Subclavian and jugular insertion sites can produce
carefully remove the VAD if the patient reports damage to the phrenic nerve, which is seen on a
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S102 05/01/16 11:30 PM

chest radiograph as an elevated right hemi- 13. Cousins TR, ODonnell JM. Arterial cannulation: a critical
diaphragm. Right shoulder and neck pain, dis- review. AANA J. 2004;72(4):267-271.
tended neck veins, and hiccups may also be pre- 14. Mackinnon S. Pathophysiology of nerve compression. Hand Clin.
2002;18(2):231-241.
sent. Phrenic nerve injury can come from direct
15. Alomari A, Falk A. Median nerve bisection: a morbid complica-
trauma associated with multiple needle insertions,
tion of a peripherally inserted central catheter. J Assoc Vasc
compression due to the presence of the catheter Access. 2006;7(3):129-131.
itself, intraventricular tip locations, hematoma, 16. Puhaindran ME, Wong HP. A case of anterior interosseous nerve
and infiltration/extravasation of infusing fluids. syndrome after peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) line
CVAD removal is indicated.31-38 (V) insertion. Singapore Med J. 2003;44(12):653-655.
2. Peripherally inserted central catheters (PICCs) 17. Kim HJ, Park SH, Shin HY, Choi YS. Brachial plexus injury as a
and jugular inserted catheters have been reported complication after nerve block or vessel puncture. Korean J Pain.
to produce eye changes, which are suggestive of 2014;27(3):210-218.
inflammation of cervical sympathetic nerves. 18. Ho K, Lim H. Femoral nerve palsy: an unusual complication after
Known as Horners syndrome, this has been femoral vein puncture in a patient with severe coagulopathy.
Anesth Analg. 1999;89(3):672-673.
reported with trauma from insertion technique
19. Dawson J, Christie M. Just a sharp scratch: permanent radial,
and vein thrombosis.39,40 (V)
median and ulnar neuropathy following diagnostic venepuncture.
Br J Hosp Med. 2007;68(3):160-161.
REFERENCES 20. Spinner RJ, Edwards WD, Amrami KK. Hemorrhagic cystic
lesion of the median nerve: an unusual complication of venipunc-
1. Troupis TG, Michalinos A, Manou V, et al. Report of an unusual ture. Clin Anat. 2013;26(5):540-543.
combination of arterial, venous and neural variations in a cadav- 21. Newman B. Arm complications after manual whole blood dona-
eric upper limb. J Brachial Plexus Peripheral Nerve Inj. tion and their impact. Transfus Med Rev. 2013;27(1):44-49.
2014;9(1):2. 22. Boeson MB, Hranchook A, Stoller J. Peripheral nerve injury from
2. Yamada K, Katsuda I, Hida T. Cubital fossa venipuncture sites intravenous cannulation: a case report. AANA J. 2000;68(1):
based on anatomical variations and relationships of cutaneous 53-57.
veins and nerves. Clin Anat. 2008;21(4):307-313. 23. Di Fabio R, Casali C, Pierelli F. Iatrogenic selective lesion of the
3. Wongkerdsook W, Agthong S, Amarase C, Yotnuengnit P, median nerve at the elbow. Acta Neurol Belg. 2010;110(1):97.
Huanmanop T, Chentanez V. Anatomy of the lateral antebrachial 24. Masoorli S. Nerve injuries related to vascular access insertion and
cutaneous nerve in relation to the lateral epicondyle and cephalic assessment. J Infus Nurs. 2007;30(6):346-350.
vein. Clin Anat. 2011;24(1):56-61. 25. Moore AE, Zhang J, Stringer MD. Iatrogenic nerve injury in a
4. Damwan A, Agthong S, Amarase C, Yotnuengnit P. Medial ante- national no-fault compensation scheme: an observational cohort
brachial cutaneous nerve: anatomical relationship with the study. Int J Clin Pract. 2012;66(4):409-416.
medial epicondyle, basilic vein and brachial artery. Int J Morphol. 26. Robson A, See M, Ellis H. Applied anatomy of the superficial
2014;32(2):481-487. branch of the radial nerve. Clin Anat. 2008;21(1):38-45.
5. Beldner S, Zlotolow D, Melone C, Agnes A, Jones M. Anatomy 27. Kanj WW, Gunderson MA, Carrigan RB, Sankar WN. Acute
of the lateral antebrachial cutaneous and superficial radial nerves compartment syndrome of the upper extremity in children: diag-
in the forearm: a cadaveric and clinical study. J Hand Surg. nosis, management, and outcomes. J Child Orthop. 2013;7(3):
2005;30(6):1226-1230. 225-233.
6. Paraskevas G, Raikos A, Chouliaras K, Papaziogas B. Variable 28. Gourgiotis S, Villias C, Germanos S, Foukas A, Ridolfini MP.
anatomical relationship of phrenic nerve and subclavian vein: Acute limb compartment syndrome: a review. J Surg Educ.
clinical implication for subclavian vein catheterization. Br J 2007;64(3):178-186.
Anaesth. 2011;106(3):348-351. 29. Elahi F, Reddy CG. Venipuncture-induced complex regional pain
7. Kim KH, Byun EJ, Oh EH. Ultrasonographic findings of superfi- syndrome: a case report and review of the literature. Case Rep
cial radial nerve and cephalic vein. Ann Rehabil Med. Med. 2014. doi:10.1155/2014/613921.
2014;38(1):52-56. 30. Horowitz S. Venipuncture-induced neuropathic pain: the clinical
8. Mikuni Y, Chiba S, Tonosaki Y. Topographical anatomy of super- syndrome, with comparisons to experimental nerve injury mod-
ficial veins, cutaneous nerves, and arteries at venipuncture sites in els. Pain. 2001;94(3):225-229.
the cubital fossa. Anat Sci Int. 2013;88(1):46-57. 31. Rigg A, Hughes P, Lopez A, Filshie J, Cunningham D, Green M.
9. Horowitz S. Venipuncture-induced nerve injury. J Neuropathic Right phrenic nerve palsy as a complication of indwelling central
Pain Symptom Palliation. 2005;1(1):109-114. venous catheters. Thorax. 1997;52(9):831-833.
10. Chiavaras MM, Jacobson JA, Billone L, Lawton JM, Lawton J. 32. Aggarwal S, Hari P, Bagga A, Mehta S. Phrenic nerve palsy: a rare
Sonography of the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve with complication of indwelling subclavian vein catheter. Pediatr
magnetic resonance imaging and anatomic correlation. J Nephrol. 2000;14(3):203-204.
Ultrasound Med. 2014;33(8):1475-1483. 33. Takasaki Y, Arai T. Transient right phrenic nerve palsy associated with
11. Zhang J, Moore AE, Stringer MD. Iatrogenic upper limb nerve central venous catheterization. Br J Anaesth. 2001;87(3):510-511.
injuries: a systematic review. ANZ J Surg. 2011;81(4):227-236. 34. Sav T. Hiccups, a rare complication arising from use of a central
12. Stevens R, Mahadevan V, Moss A. Injury to the lateral cutaneous venous catheter. Hemodialysis Int. 2010;14(3):337-338.
nerve of forearm after venous cannulation: a case report and lit- 35. Tosello B, Michel F, Merrot T, et al. Hemidiaphragmatic paralysis
erature review. Clin Anat. 2012;25(5):659-662. in preterm neonates: a rare complication of peripherally inserted
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S103 05/01/16 11:30 PM

central catheter extravasation. J Pediatr Surg. 2011;46(7): other. These include alkaline drugs such as phe-
E17-E21. nytoin, diazepam, ganciclovir, acyclovir, ampicil-
36. Yang CW, Bae JS, Park TI, et al. Transient right hemidiaphrag- lin, imipenem, and heparin; acidic drugs such as
matic paralysis following subclavian venous catheterization: pos-
vancomycin and parenteral nutrition solutions;
sible implications of anatomical variation of the phrenic nerve: a
ceftriaxone and calcium gluconate; and mineral
case report. Korean J Anesth. 2013;65(6):559-561.
37. Shawyer A, Chippington S, Quyam S, Schulze-Neick I, Roebuck
precipitate in parenteral nutrition solutions with
D. Phrenic nerve injury after image-guided insertion of a tun- increased levels of calcium and phosphate.
nelled right internal jugular central venous catheter. Pediatr Reduce risk through adequate flushing with pre-
Radiol. 2012;42(7):875-877. servative-free 0.9% sodium chloride (USP)
38. Ahn EJ, Baek CW, Shin HY, Kang H, Jung YH. Phrenic nerve between infusions or use separate catheter lumens
palsy after internal jugular venous catheter placement. Korean J if available.1-7 (IV)
Anesth. 2012;63(2):183-184. 5. Recognizing risk of lipid residue occlusion when
39. Links DJR, Crowe PJ. Horners syndrome after placement of a administering 3-in-1 parenteral nutrition solu-
peripherally inserted central catheter. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. tions.1,2,4-6 (IV)
2006;30(5):451-452.
B. Identify signs of CVAD occlusion:
40. Suominen PK, Korhonen A-M, Vaida SJ, Hiller AS. Horners
1. Inability to withdraw blood or sluggish blood
syndrome secondary to internal jugular venous cannulation. J
Clin Anesth. 2008;20(4):304-306.
return.
2. Sluggish flow.
3. Inability to flush or infuse through the CVAD.
48. CENTRAL VASCULAR ACCESS 4. Frequent occlusion alarms on electronic infusion
DEVICE (CVAD) OCCLUSION device.
5. Infiltration/extravasation or swelling/leaking at
Standard infusion site.1-6 (IV)
C. Investigate and evaluate potential causes for a
48.1 Central vascular access devices (CVADs) are regu-
CVAD occlusion:
larly assessed for patency and proper function as
1. Check for external mechanical causes such as a
defined by the ability to flush the catheter without
tight suture at catheter site, kinked/clamped cath-
resistance and the ability to yield a blood return.
eter, clogged filter or needleless connector.1,2,5,6
48.2 Thrombolytic agents and clearing agents used to
(IV)
clear occluding substances from a CVAD are adminis-
2. Suspect precipitation based on the type(s) of
tered based on an evaluation of potential causes of
administered medications or solutions, observa-
occlusion and on the order of a licensed independent
tion of the catheter or infusion set for any visible
practitioner (LIP) or an LIP-approved protocol.
precipitate, history of infusion rate, and flushing
48.3 The LIP is notified if catheter patency is not
frequency.1,2,7 (IV)
restored and appropriate alternative actions are imple-
3. Suspect thrombotic occlusions based on visible
mented, such as radiographic studies to identify catheter
blood in catheter or add-on devices, inability to
tip location or dye studies to evaluate catheter flow.
aspirate blood, sluggish flow.1,3-5 (IV)
Catheter salvage is preferred over catheter removal for
4. Internal mechanical causes may also cause CVAD
management of CVAD occlusions.
occlusion including pinch-off syndrome, second-
ary CVAD malposition, and catheter-associated
venous thrombosis (refer to Standard 51,
Practice Criteria
Catheter Damage [Embolism, Repair,
A. Reduce the risk for CVAD occlusion by: Exchange]); Standard 52, Central Vascular
1. Using proper flushing and locking procedures Access Device [CVAD]-Associated Venous
(refer to Standard 40, Flushing and Locking). Thrombosis; Standard 53, Central Vascular
2. Using the appropriate sequence of catheter Access Device [CVAD] Malposition).
clamping and final syringe disconnection based D. Do not leave a CVAD with an occlusion untreated;
on the type of needleless connector (ie, negative, do not leave an occluded CVAD lumen untreated
positive, neutral displacement) to reduce the because another lumen is patent.1 (V)
amount of blood reflux into the CVAD lumen E. Resolve external mechanical causes after checking
(refer to Standard 34, Needleless Connectors). the infusion system, from the administration set
3. Checking for incompatibility when 2 or more down to the dressing (eg, clamped or kinked cathe-
drugs are infused together; consult with pharma- ter).1,2,6 (V)
cist when unsure of compatibility.1,2 (V) F Review the patients medication record and collabo-
4. Identifying medications/solutions at high risk for rate with the pharmacist and the LIP regarding an
precipitation if they come into contact with each appropriate intervention when the suspected cause
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S104 05/01/16 11:30 PM

of occlusion is medication precipitate or lipid when there is recurrent occlusion after multiple
residue. Treatment of these occlusions includes direct alteplase instillations. Alteplase infusion
instilling an amount of a catheter-clearance agent has also been reported as safe and efficacious in
based on the catheter lumen priming volume and critically ill pediatric patients.1,12 (IV)
allowing it to dwell for 20 to 60 minutes: 6. Other additional thrombolytic agents under
1. Acidic drug precipitate (low pH, less than 6): investigation for treatment of CVAD occlusions
0.1N hydrochloric acid. include recombinant urokinase, retaplase,
2. Alkaline drug precipitate (pH greater than 7): tenectaplase, and alfimeprase.1,2 (V)
sodium bicarbonate 8.4% or sodium hydroxide H. Recognize that thrombi in and around the CVAD
0.1 mmol/L. facilitate adhesion of bacteria, leading to coloniza-
3. Lipid residue: 70% ethanol in a sufficient volume tion and potentially infection. Studies suggest that
to fill the catheter lumen; for pediatric patients, a tPA use should heighten the awareness of risk for
dose of 0.55 mL/kg has been used with no more infection in these patients.13,14 (V)
than 3 mL maximum. Use ethanol with caution I. Avoid applying excessive force to an occluded
with polyurethane CVADs as ethanol may dam- CVAD when a thrombolytic or clearing agent is
age the catheter material; refer to vascular access instilled to reduce the risk of causing an intraluminal
device (VAD) manufacturers directions for use level of pressure that could cause catheter damage. A
regarding exposure to any form of alcohol.1,2,4,6 negative-pressure technique should be used to reduce
(IV) the risk of catheter damage and to remove intralumi-
G. Review the patients medication record and collabo- nal fluid so that the clearing agent has a better
rate with the pharmacist and the LIP regarding an opportunity to reach the occluding substance.1-4 (V)
appropriate intervention when the suspected cause J. Use a syringe no smaller than 10 mL for administra-
of occlusion is thrombosis. Use a thrombolytic agent tion of a thrombolytic or catheter clearance agent.1
for suspected thrombotic occlusion: (IV)
1. Instillation of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA, K. Aspirate degradation products and discard prior to
alteplase) 2 mg/2 mL, which is allowed to remain flushing the lumen.1 (V)
in CVAD lumen for 30 minutes to 2 hours and L. Consider alternative actions such as a referral to
repeated 1 time if necessary, is recommended as interventional radiology if the CVAD clearance pro-
safe and effective in restoring catheter patency in cedure does not result in catheter patency; catheter
neonatal, pediatric, and adult patients. For pedi- removal should be considered if catheter patency is
atric patients weighing 30 kg or less, use the not restored.1,3 (V)
same concentration; however, the volume of tPA M. Collaborate with LIP to obtain orders and diagnos-
should be equal to 110% of the catheter priming tic tests to verify suspected CVAD malposition or
volume.1,3-6,8 (III) pinch-off syndrome. Intermittent or positional
2. Instillation of tPA based on manufacturers direc- occlusion may be symptoms of pinch-off syndrome,
tions for use, as above, is recommended in cur- the compression of the catheter between the clavicle
rent guidelines. While lower tPA doses, use of and first rib alongside the subclavian vein (refer to
cryopreserved aliquots of alteplase, and alteplase Standard 51, Catheter Damage [Embolism, Repair,
aliquoting to increase volume (eg, greater than Exchange]); Standard 53, Central Vascular Access
2 mL) for hemodialysis catheters have been Device [CVAD] Malposition).
reported in the literature and may be part of N. Monitor outcomes, including causes of occlusions in
organizational protocols, there is limited research types of CVADs, treatment success or failure, and
available to support the efficacy of thrombolytic other measures required. Identify barriers to imple-
drugs for alternative dosing.1,9-11 (I) menting CVAD occlusion prevention and interven-
3. Consider use of tPA in community and long-term tions, and implement appropriate strategies including
care settings.1 (IV) policies and procedures and clinician education and
4. Stop all infusions, when possible, if treating a training (see Standard 6, Quality Improvement).1 (V)
multilumen CVAD to optimize thrombolysis dur-
ing the dwell time, and facilitate maximum con- REFERENCES
tact between the thrombolytic agent and the
thrombus on the internal catheter lumen and Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed October
external catheter surface at or near the tip.1 (IV) 2, 2015.
5. Infusion of low doses of alteplase to manage 1. Hill J, Broadhurst D, Miller K, et al. Occlusion management guide-
occlusions in hemodialysis catheters (eg, 1-4 mg) line for central vascular access devices (CVADs). J Can Vasc Access
over 30 minutes and up to 3 to 4 hours has been Assoc. 2013;(suppl 1):3-34. http://cvaa.info/PUBLICATIONS/
reported in both adult and pediatric populations OcclusionManagementGuideline/tabid/229/Default.aspx.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S105 05/01/16 11:30 PM

2. Ast D, Ast T. Nonthrombotic complications related to central Practice Criteria
vascular access devices. J Infus Nurs. 2014;37(5):
349-358. A. Assess for signs and symptoms of a VAD-related
3. Baskin JL, Reiss R, Willmas JA, et al. Thrombolytic therapy for infection which may include, but is not limited to,
central venous catheter occlusion. Haematologica. 2012;97(5): erythema; edema; any pain or tenderness or drain-
641-649. age; fluid in the subcutaneous pocket of a totally
4. Giordano P, Saracco P, Grassi M, et al. Recommendations for the implanted intravascular device or subcutaneous tun-
use of long-term central venous catheter (CVC) in children with nel for any tunneled catheter; induration at the exit
hemato-oncological disorders: management of CVC-related site or over the pocket; spontaneous rupture and
occlusion and CVC-related thrombosison behalf of the coagu-
drainage; necrosis of the overlying skin at the VAD
lation defects working group of the Italian Association of
insertion site; and/or body temperature elevation.
Pediatric Hematology and Oncology (AIEOP). Ann Hematol.
2015;94(11):1765-1776.
Immediately notify the licensed independent practi-
5. Bolton D. Preventing occlusion and restoring patency to central tioner (LIP) when signs and symptoms of a VAD-
venous catheters. Br J Comm Nurs. 2013;18(11):539-540. related infection are present, and implement planned
6. Doellman D. Prevention, assessment, and treatment of central interventions.1 (IV)
venous catheter occlusions in neonatal and young pediatric B. Consider site selection for VAD placement as a strat-
patients. J Infus Nurs. 2011;34(4):251-258. egy to prevent infection. To minimize the risk of
7. Steadman E, Raisch DW, Bennett CL, et al. Evaluation of a catheter-related infection with a nontunneled central
potential clinical interaction between ceftriaxone and calcium. vascular access device (CVAD), the subclavian vein
Antimicrob Agents Chemother . 2010;54(4): is recommended in adult patients, rather than the
1534-1540.
jugular or femoral (refer to Standard 27, Site
8. Anderson DM, Pesaturo KA, Casavant J, Ramsey EZ. Alteplase
Selection).
for the treatment of occlusion in pediatric patients. Ann
Pharmacother. 2013;47(3):405-409.
C. Remove a peripheral venous catheter if the patient
9. van Miert C, Jill R, Jones L. Interventions for restoring patency develops symptoms of infection (eg, erythema
of occluded central venous catheter lumens. Cochrane Database extending at least 1 cm from the insertion site, indu-
Syst Rev. 2012;(4):CD007119. doi:10.1002/14651858. ration, exudate, fever with no other obvious source
CD007119.pub2. of infection) or the patient reports any pain or ten-
10. Ponce D, Mendes M, Silva T, et al. Occluded tunneled venous derness associated with the catheter.1-3 (IV)
catheter in hemodialysis patients: risk factors and efficacy of D. Do not remove a functioning CVAD based solely on
alteplase. Artif Organs. 2015;39(9):741-747. temperature elevation and the absence of confirma-
11. Mendes ML, Castro JH, Silva TN, Barretti P, Ponce D. Effective tory evidence of catheter-related infection. Use clini-
use of alteplase for occluded tunneled venous catheter in
cal judgment regarding the appropriateness of
hemodialysis patients. Artif Organs . 2014;38(5):
removing the catheter if an infection is evidenced
399-403.
12. Ragsdale CE, Oliver MR, Thompson AJ, Evans MC. Alteplase
elsewhere or if a noninfectious cause of fever is sus-
infusion versus dwell for clearance of partially occluded central pected.2,4 (IV)
venous catheters in critically ill pediatric patients. Pediatr Crit E. Collaborate with the LIP and patient to collectively
Care Med. 2014;15(6):253-260. determine if the CVAD can be salvaged. For hemo-
13. Thakarar K, Collins M, Kwong L, Sulis C, Korn C, Bhadelia N. dynamically stable outpatients with catheter-related
The role of tissue plasminogen activator use and systemic hyper- bloodstream infection (CR-BSI), catheter salvage
coagulability in central-line associated bloodstream infections. may be a safe and appropriate strategy. Removal of
Am J Infect Control. 2014;42(4):417-420. the CVAD is required if there is clinical deteriora-
14. Rowan CM, Miller KE, Beardsley AL, et al. Alteplase use for tion or persisting or relapsing bacteremia. The inser-
malfunctioning central venous catheters correlates with catheter-
tion of a new CVAD at a new site should be a col-
associated bloodstream infections. Pediatr Crit Care Med.
laborative decision based on the specific risks and
2013;14(3):306-309.
benefits for each patient. Factors to consider in the
decision to salvage a catheter include:
49. INFECTION 1. The type of VAD (eg, percutaneous versus surgi-
cally inserted long-term catheter).
2. Difficulty with inserting a new CVAD.
Standard
3. Presence of bleeding disorders.
49.1 The clinician implements infection prevention 4. The infecting organism(s) as confirmed by paired
measures with the goal of preventing infusion- and vas- blood cultures.
cular access device (VAD)-related infections. 5. The presence of other complicating conditions
49.2 The clinician assesses the patient with a VAD for including, but not limited to, severe sepsis, sup-
signs and/or symptoms of infection and educates the purative thrombophlebitis, endocarditis, or the
patient and/or caregiver about infection, risks, any presence of vascular or other hardware (eg, a
interventions, and any required follow-up. pacemaker).1,5-8 (IV)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S106 05/01/16 11:30 PM

F. Anticipate the removal of a short-term CVAD (in M. Culture the tip of short-term central vascular and
situ less than or equal to 14 days) in a pediatric arterial catheters suspected of being the cause of a
patient with an uncomplicated CR-BSI and treat CR-BSI using a semiquantitative (roll-plate) method
with systemic antibiotics for at least 7 to 14 days or quantitative (sonication) method upon removal.
based on the pathogen. Infections with Culture the introducer/sheath tip from a pulmonary
Staphylococcus aureus, gram-negative bacilli, or artery catheter when a CR-BSI is suspected.1 (IV)
Candida require immediate removal of the infected N Culture the reservoir contents of a port body of an
CVAD and a defined course of systemic antibiotic implanted port and the catheter tip when it is
therapy, except in rare circumstances when no alter- removed for suspected CR-BSI.1 (IV)
native venous access is available. Patients with a O. Consider contamination of the infusate (such as par-
long-term CVAD and an uncomplicated CR-BSI enteral solution, intravenous medications, or blood
because of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus or products) as a source of infection. This is a rare
Enterococcus may retain the CVAD and complete a event, but an infusate can become contaminated
course of systemic antibiotics with the use of antibi- during the manufacturing process (intrinsic con-
otic lock therapy. Closely monitor and clinically tamination) or during its preparation or administra-
evaluate pediatric patients treated without catheter tion in the patient care setting (extrinsic contamina-
removal, including additional blood cultures and the tion). An infusate-related bloodstream infection is
use of antibiotic lock therapy with systemic therapy the isolation of the same organism from the infusate
for catheter salvage.8 (V) and from separate percutaneous blood cultures,
G. Consider the use a prophylactic antimicrobial lock with no other identifiable source of infection.2,7-9
solution in a patient with a long-term CVAD who (IV) (see Standard 43, Phlebotomy).
has a history of multiple CR-BSIs despite optimal P. For a suspected CR-BSI, obtain paired blood sam-
maximal adherence to aseptic technique. Aspirate all ples for culture, drawn from the catheter and a
antimicrobial locking solutions from the CVAD peripheral vein, before the initiation of antimicro-
lumen at the end of the locking period (refer to bial therapy. Blood cultures from both the catheter
Standard 40, Flushing and Locking). and venipuncture must be positive for the same
H. Remove a CVAD from a patient with CR-BSI associ- organism with clinical signs and symptoms and no
ated with any of the following conditions: severe other recognized source. Consider quantitative
sepsis; suppurative thrombophlebitis; endocarditis; blood cultures or the differential period of central
bloodstream infection that continues despite greater line culture versus peripheral blood culture positivi-
than 72 hours of antimicrobial therapy to which the ty >2 hours for the diagnosis of CR-BSI (see
infecting microbes are susceptible; or infections due Standard 43, Phlebotomy).1,6,10,11 (IV)
to S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, fungi, or mycobacteria
following collaboration with the LIP.1,4 (IV)
REFERENCES
I. Do not use a guidewire exchange to replace a non-
tunneled catheter suspected of infection.2 (V) Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed October
J. Consider a catheter exchange procedure when other 5, 2015.
vascular access sites are limited and/or bleeding dis-
1. Mermel LA, Allon M, Bouza E, et al. Clinical practice guidelines
orders are present. Consider an antimicrobial- for the diagnosis and management of intravascular catheter-
impregnated catheter with an anti-infective intralu- related infection: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society
minal surface for catheter exchange.1 (IV) of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49(1):1-45. Erratum in: Clin
K. Collect a specimen of purulent exudates from a Infect Dis. 2010;50(3):457; Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(7):1079.
peripheral or CVAD exit site for culture and gram 2. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the
staining to determine the presence of gram-nega- prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://
tive or gram-positive bacteria as ordered by an www.cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published
LIP.1 (IV) April 2011.
L. Do not routinely culture the CVAD tip upon remov- 3. Rickard CM, Webster J, Wallis MC, et al. Routine versus clini-
cally indicated replacement of peripheral intravenous catheters: a
al unless the patient has a suspected CR-BSI.
randomised controlled equivalence trial. Lancet .
Catheter colonization may be detected but does not
2012;380(9847):1066-1074.
indicate the presence of a bloodstream infection. 4. Chopra V, Flanders SA, Saint S, et al. The Michigan appropriate-
This practice results in inappropriate use of anti- ness guide for intravenous catheters (MAGIC): results from an
infective medications, thus increasing the risk of international panel using the RAND/UCLA appropriateness
emergence of antimicrobial resistance. Recognize method. Ann Intern Med. 2015;163(suppl 6):S1-S39.
that the catheter tip culture will identify microor- 5. Caroff D, Norris A, Keller S, et al. Catheter salvage in home infu-
ganisms on the external catheter and not microor- sion patients with central line-associated bloodstream infection.
ganisms located on the intraluminal surface.1 (IV) Am J Infect Control. 2014;42(12):1331-1333.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S107 05/01/16 11:30 PM

6. Chopra V, Anand S, Krein SL, Chenoweth C, Saint S. Bloodstream 3. Using luer-locking connections, equipment with
infection, venous thrombosis, and peripherally inserted central safety features designed to detect or prevent air
catheters: reappraising the evidence. Am J Med. 2012;125(8): embolism such as administration sets with air-
733-741.
eliminating filters and electronic infusion devices
7. Kumar A, Kethireddy S, Darovic GO. Catheter-related and infu-
with air sensors.
sion-related sepsis. Crit Care Clin. 2013;29(4):989-1015.
8. Huang EY, Chen C, Abdullah F, et al. Strategies for the preven-
4. Not leaving unprimed administration sets
tion of central venous catheter infections: an American Pediatric attached to solution containers.
Surgical Association Outcomes and Clinical Trials Committee 5. Ensuring the VAD is clamped before changing
systematic review. J Pediatr Surg. 2011;46(10):2000-2011. http:// administration sets or needleless connectors.1,2,8,10
anestesinorr.se/filer/november/Strategies%20for%20the%20pre- (IV)
vention%20of%20central%20venous%20catheter.pdf. D. Implement special precautions to prevent air embo-
9. The Joint Commission. Preventing central line-associated blood- lism during placement and removal of central vascu-
stream infections: a global challenge, a global perspective. http:// lar access devices (CVADs), including but not limit-
www.jointcommission.org/preventing_clabsi. Published May ed to the following points1,8-11: (IV)
2012.
1. Place patient in a supine position during CVAD
10. Septimus E. Clinician guide for collecting cultures. http://www.
removal, or Trendelenburg position if tolerated,
cdc.gov/getsmart/healthcare/implementation/clinicianguide.html.
Published April 7, 2015.
so the CVAD insertion site is at or below the level
11. Garcia RA, Spitzer DE, Beaudry J, et al. Multidisciplinary team of the heart.8 (IV)
review of best practices for collection and handling of blood cul- 2. Instruct the patient to perform a Valsalvas
tures to determine effective interventions for increasing the yield maneuver at the appropriate point during cathe-
of true-positive bacteremias, reducing contamination, and elimi- ter withdrawal. The Valsalvas maneuver may be
nating false-positive central line-associated bloodstream infec- contraindicated because it increases intra-abdom-
tions. Am J Infect Control. 2015;43(11):1222-1237. inal and intrathoracic pressure, which reduces
cardiac output and affects blood pressure.
Contraindications include, but are not limited to,
50. AIR EMBOLISM patients with cardiac dysfunction, recent myo-
cardial infarction, glaucoma, and retinopathy.12-15
Standard (I A/P)
a. When the Valsalvas maneuver is contraindi-
50.1 All add-on devices, needleless connectors, and cated, use a Trendelenburg or left lateral decu-
administration sets are of a luer-lock design to ensure a bitus position, or have the patient hold her or
secure junction. his breath as applicable.8,16 (IV)
50.2 Air is always purged from syringes, administra- 3. After removal of a CVAD, apply digital pressure
tion sets, needleless connectors, and any other add-on until hemostasis is achieved by using manual
devices. compression with a sterile dry gauze pad.1,8 (IV)
50.3 Patients and/or caregivers managing infusion 4. Apply a sterile petroleum-based ointment with a
therapy in nonacute care settings are instructed in how sterile dressing to the access site for at least 24
to prevent an air embolism and implement critical hours to seal the skin-to-vein tract, and decrease
actions if an air embolism is suspected. the risk of air embolus.1,8 (IV)
5. Encourage the patient to remain in a flat or
reclining position, if able, for 30 minutes after
Practice Criteria
removal. While documentation of air embolism
A. Instruct the patient and/or caregivers not to discon- during removal of a peripherally inserted central
nect or reconnect any intravenous (IV) administra- catheter (PICC) has not been reported, the exit
tion sets or connectors from the catheter hub unless site could be at the same level as the patients
they have been instructed in IV administration and heart, increasing the risk of air entering through
evaluated as competent in the procedure, such as an intact skin-to-vein tract and fibrin sheath.2 (V)
with patients in the home care setting.1-5 (IV) E. Suspect air embolism with the sudden onset of dysp-
B. Never use scissors or razors near the catheter.1,6,7 nea, continued coughing, breathlessness, chest pain,
(IV) hypotension, tachyarrhythmias, wheezing, tachyp-
C. For all vascular access devices (VADs), use the fol- nea, altered mental status, altered speech, changes in
lowing techniques to prevent air embolism: facial appearance, numbness, or paralysis as clinical
1. Priming and air purging of all administration events from air emboli produce cardiopulmonary
sets. and neurological signs and symptoms.8,11,16,17 (IV)
2. Patient positioning and catheter-occluding 1. Immediately take the necessary action to prevent
procedures during removal. more air from entering the bloodstream by
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S108 05/01/16 11:30 PM

closing, folding, clamping, or covering the exist- 14. Hackett DA, Chow CM. The Valsalva maneuver: its effect on
ing catheter or by covering the puncture site with intra-abdominal pressure and safety issues during resistance exer-
an air-occlusive dressing or pad if the catheter cise. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27(8):2338-2345.
15. Zhang XY, Cao TS, Yuan LJ. The mechanics of left ventricular
has been removed.8,17 (IV)
filling during the strain phase of the Valsalva maneuver in healthy
2. Immediately place the patient on the left side in
subjects. Am J Med Sci. 2013;346(3):187-189.
the Trendelenburg position or in the left lateral 16. Hsu M, Trerotola SO. Air embolism during insertion and replace-
decubitus position if not contraindicated by ment of tunneled dialysis catheters: a retrospective investigation
other conditions such as increased intracranial of the effect of aerostatic sheaths and over-the-wire exchange. J
pressure, eye surgery, or severe cardiac or res- Vasc Intervent Radiol. 2015;26(3):366-371.
piratory diseases. The goal is to trap the air in the 17. Ziewacz JE, Arriaga AF, Bader AM, et al. Crisis checklists for the
lower portion of the right ventricle.1,8,16 (IV) operating room: development and pilot testing. J Am Coll Surg.
3. Implement additional actions: 2011;213(2):212-217.e10.
a. Initiate code team if in acute care setting or
call emergency medical services if in patients
home or alternative care setting. 51. CATHETER DAMAGE
b. Notify licensed independent practitioner (LIP). (EMBOLISM, REPAIR,
c. Provide 100% oxygen if available and further EXCHANGE)
support actions as needed.1,2,8 (V)
Standard
51.1 Assessment of the patients risk-to-benefit ratio is
REFERENCES
performed prior to repair or exchange of the vascular
Note: All references in this section were accessed September 3, 2015. access catheter.
51.2 Catheter repair is initiated upon the order of a
1. Broadhurst D. Death by air: how much is too much? Vasc Access. licensed independent practitioner (LIP).
2013;7(1):16-26.
51.3 Central vascular access device (CVAD) exchange is
2. Feil M. Reducing risk of air embolism associated with central
initiated upon the order of an LIP.
venous access devices. Penn Patient Saf Advis. 2012;9(2):58-64.
h t t p : / / p a t i e n t s a f e t y a u t h o r i t y. o r g / A D V I S O R I E S /
51.4 The clinician implements maximal sterile barrier
AdvisoryLibrary/2012/Jun;9(2)/Pages/58.aspx. (MSB) precautions for the CVAD exchange procedure.
3. Makino Y, Shimofusa R, Iwase H, et al. Massive gas embolism 51.5 After completion of the exchange procedure,
revealed by two consecutive postmortem computed-tomography appropriate CVAD tip location is determined and docu-
examinations. Forensic Sci Int. 2013;231(1-3):e4-e10. mented prior to resumption of the prescribed therapy.
4. Nussinovitch U, Ronen B, Farber E, Yanir Y. Devastating air
embolism. Transfusion. 2012;52(12):2516.
Practice Criteria
continuum. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, I. General
Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. A. Assess vascular access device (VAD) function using a
3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:109-126. 10-mL syringe:
6. Menon R, Allford M. To shave or not to shave: air embolism fol- 1. Do not forcefully push against resistance, pre-
lowing central venous catheter laceration. Anaesth Intensive
venting catheter damage or rupture.
Care. 2010;38(2):395.
2. If VAD has blood return, no resistance to flush-
7. Pearson F, Browell C, Duggan J. Air embolism caused by a lac-
eration to central venous catheter during shaving. Anaesthesia.
ing, and no other signs/symptoms of complica-
2011;66(3):229. tions, use syringes appropriately sized for the
8. Cook LS. Infusion-related air embolism. J Infus Nurs. medication being injected (refer to Standard 40,
2013;36(1):26-36. Flushing and Locking).
9. Davies I, Griffin J. A novel risk of air embolism with intravenous B. Recognize that catheter dysfunction, such as the
paracetamol. BMJ Case Rep. March 2012. doi:10.1136/bcr. inability to aspirate blood with localized pain and/or
01.2012.548. subcutaneous swelling, may be an indication of
10. Swayze SC, James A. The unfamiliar catheter. AHRQ Web MM. catheter embolism; additionally, leaking at the site
https://psnet.ahrq.gov/webmm/case/294/the-unfamiliar-catheter. can indicate catheter rupture. In the presence of
11. Campbell J. Recognising air embolism as a complication of vas-
these signs and symptoms, evaluate catheter integri-
cular access. Br J Nurs. 2014;23(suppl 14):S4-S8.
ty before using the VAD for infusions or blood
12. Dada T, Gupta V, Deepak KK, Pandey RM. Narrowing of the ante-
rior chamber angle during Valsalva maneuver: a possible mecha-
sampling.1-4 (IV)
nism for angle closure. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2006;16(1):81-91. C. Catheter damage increases the risk for catheter frac-
13. Duszak RS, Pakalnis VA, Talavera F, Charles S, Brown LL, Roy ture and embolization, air emboli, bleeding, cathe-
H. Valsalva retinopathy. Medscape. http://emedicine.medscape. ter-lumen occlusion, and bloodstream infection.
com/article/1228106-overview. Published October 13, 2014. Intervention in a timely manner is recommended to
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S109 05/01/16 11:30 PM

reduce the risk of these complications. Options to III. Catheter Repair
consider for managing a damaged or ruptured cath- A. Clamp or seal catheter (eg, close an existing clamp,
eter include use of a repair procedure, an exchange add a clamp, cover the damaged area with adhesive
procedure, or insertion of a new catheter at a differ- dressing material, or fold the external segment and
ent site. Factors to consider in making this decision secure) between the patient and the damaged area to
include, but are not limited to, the patients age, prevent air embolism or bleeding from the device
immune status, length of time remaining on infusion immediately upon discovery of catheter damage.
therapy, characteristics of infusion therapy (eg, Label the damaged catheter Do Not Use while
osmolarity), external catheter length, and resulting waiting for the repair procedure to be performed.8,20
changes in proper tip location with repair.5-12 (V) (V)
D. Recognize the early signs and symptoms of pinch-off B. Use a repair kit designed for the device being repaired
syndrome in subclavian vein insertion sites, includ- and according to the manufacturers directions for
ing difficulty aspirating, resistance to flushing, use. If no device-specific repair kit is available, con-
patient report of pain, possible swelling at the inser- sider other alternatives, such as catheter exchange or
tion site, and a change in the clinical picture with insertion of a new catheter.9,10,21,22 (V)
arm or shoulder movement.2-4,8 (IV) C. Perform regular assessments after repair to confirm
the integrity of the repair, and identify any continu-
II. Catheter Embolism ing problems, as the repaired catheter may not have
A. Prevent catheter embolism through the following the same strength as the original catheter. Remove
actions: the VAD if the repair was unsuccessful or the device
1. Do not withdraw the catheter or wire from the is unable to be repaired.8,9,21 (V)
needle during insertion.
2. Do not use power injection with VADs that are IV. Catheter Exchange
not labeled for this purpose.4,8,13 (IV) A. Prior to performing a CVAD exchange, the clinician
B. The most frequent mechanisms of catheter fragmen- assesses the risk-benefit of the procedure for all
tation are catheter pinch-off syndrome, catheter patients, with particular attention to high-risk popu-
damage during catheter exchange, separation of the lations such as:
catheter from an implanted port, and fracture of a 1. Patients with burns or transplants.23,24 (IV)
portion of an implanted port catheter. 2. Neonates and infants.25-27 (IV)
1. Suspect catheter embolism when the patient 3. Patients with an infection or suspected infec-
exhibits symptoms such as palpitations, arrhyth- tion.28-30 (IV)
mias, dyspnea, cough, or thoracic pain that are B. A catheter exchange with or without a guidewire
not associated with the patients primary disease may be considered if there is a need for a different
or comorbidities. In some cases there are no signs type of catheter, a catheter is malpositioned or mal-
or symptoms, but damage often occurs after functioning and venous access is limited, or other
lengthy usage.2-4,6,8,14-17 (IV) sites are unavailable.
2. Catheter separation may occur at the lumen-hub 1. Nontunneled catheters may be exchanged if there
junction or other external connections, with is no evidence of infection.31 (I)
resultant bleeding or exsanguination. Gently tug 2. Tunneled cuffed catheters may be exchanged
on all connections after insertion to verify a while avoiding infected tunnel or local site
secure hold; all connections must be visible dur- infection.25,27,32 (IV)
ing hemodialysis.18,19 (V) 3. If there is limited vascular access or unavailable
3. For totally implanted CVADs via the subclavian sites in the presence of an actual or suspected
vein with increased risk for catheter embolism infected catheter or catheter-related bloodstream
due to pinch-off syndrome, consider regular infection (CR-BSI), consider an antimicrobial
chest radiograph assessments for this syndrome impregnated, coated, or bonded catheter for
and for catheter embolism.3,4,8,14,17 (IV) catheter exchange.23,28,33 (IV)
C. Examine VAD catheter tip and length after removal, C. During a CVAD exchange procedure:
comparing the removed length to the inserted length 1. Use maximal sterile barrier (MSB) precautions.
for damage and possible fragmentation. If damage is 2. Use techniques to reduce the risk of air
seen or suspected, a chest radiograph or further embolism.
evaluation may be warranted.3,4,8,15 (IV) 3. Obtain a radiograph or use other approved tech-
D. The clinician should carefully assess the patient for nologies to confirm correct CVAD tip location
signs or symptoms of catheter embolism and for cath- prior to initiating or resuming prescribed
eter damage when VAD removal is difficult.4,15 (V) therapies.31,34 (I)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S110 05/01/16 11:30 PM

D. Routine exchanges are not necessary for CVADs that system: analysis of 73 cases with fracture of catheter. Eur J Surg
are functioning and without evidence of local or Oncol. 2010;36(1):100-103.
systemic complications.31,34 (I) 17. Mirza B, Vanek VW, Kupensky DT. Pinch-off syndrome: case
report and collective review of the literature. Am Surg.
2004;70(7):635-644.
REFERENCES 18. Patterson C, Wake A. Central venous catheter failure. Anaesthesia.
2013;68(6):645.
19. Saibu R, Mitchell P, Salifu M, et al. Dialysis line separation:
3, 2015.
maximizing patient safety through education and visibility of
1. Harrison E, Lal S. Central venous catheter embolisation. BMJ access site for patients on hemodialysis. Nephrol Nurs J.
Case Rep. November 21, 2012. doi:10.1136/bcr-2012-007249. 2011;38(6):515-526.
2. Kim JT, Oh TY, Chang WH, Jeong YK. Clinical review and 20. Hagle ME, Cook AM. Central venous access. In: Weinstein SM,
analysis of complications of totally implantable venous access Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and Practice of Infusion
devices for chemotherapy. Med Oncol. 2012;29(2):1361-1364. Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott
3. Surov A, Buerke M, Endres J, Kosling S, Spielman R-P, Behrmann Williams & Wilkins; 2014:335-390.
C. Intravenous port catheter embolization: mechanisms, clinical 21. Hwang FR, Stavropoulos SW, Shlansky-Goldberg RD, et al.
features, and management. Angiology. 2008;59(1):90-97. Tunneled infusion catheter breakage: frequency and repair kit
4. Surov A, Wienke A, Carter JM, et al. Intravascular embolization outcomes: part 1. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2008;19(2):201-206.
of venous catheter: causes, clinical signs, and management: a 22. Stanelle E, Idowu O, Kim S. A durable repair of a broken silastic
systematic review. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2009;23(6):677-685. catheter using a topical skin adhesive. J Pediatr Surg.
5. Cohen AB, Dagli M, Stavropoulos SW Jr, et al. Silicone and poly- 2011;46(4):784-785.
urethane tunneled infusion catheters: a comparison of durability 23. Kagan R, Neely A, Yakuboff K, et al. A performance improve-
and breakage rates. J Vasc Intervent Radiol. 2011;22(5):638-641. ment initiative to determine the impact of increasing the time
6. Earhart A. Recognizing, preventing, and troubleshooting central- interval between changing centrally placed intravascular cathe-
line complications. Am Nurse Today. 2013;8(11):18-22. ters. J Burn Care Res. 2014;35(2):143-147.
7. Faraj W, Zaghal A, El-Beyrouthy O, Kutoubi A. Complete cath- 24. OMara MS, Reed NL, Palmieri TL, Greenhalgh DG. Central
eter disconnection and migration of an implantable venous access venous catheter infections in burn patients with scheduled cathe-
device: the disconnected cap sign. Ann Vasc Surg. 2010;24(5):692. ter exchange and replacement. J Surg Res. 2007;142(2):341-350.
e11-5. 25. Masumoto K, Esumi G, Teshiba R, Nagata K, Taguchi T.
8. Gorski L, Perucca R, Hunter M. Central venous access devices: Usefulness of exchanging a tunneled central venous catheter using
care, maintenance, and potential complications. In: Alexander M, a subcutaneous fibrous sheath. Nutrition. 2011;27(5):526-529.
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion 26. McCoy M, Bedwell S, Noori S. Exchange of peripherally inserted
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: central catheters is associated with an increased risk for blood-
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:495-515. stream infection. Am J Perinatol. 2011;28(6):419-424.
9. Letachowicz K, Letachowicz W, Klinger M, et al. Repair of dam- 27. Sharpe E, Pettit J, Ellsbury D. A national survey of neonatal
aged connectors of tunneled cuffed catheters with a two-piece peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) practices. Adv
adaptor for peritoneal dialysis. J Assoc Vasc Access. Neonatal Care. 2013;13(1):55-74.
2012;13(2):203-207. 28. Chaftari A, El Zakhem A, Jamal M, Ying J, Hachem R, Raad I.
10. Lundgren I, Zhou C, Malone F, McAfee N, Gantt S, Zerr D. The use of minocycline-rifampin coated central venous catheters
Central venous catheter repair is associated with an increased risk for exchange of catheters in the setting of Staphylococcus aureus
of bacteremia and central line-associated bloodstream infection in central line associated bloodstream infections. BMC Infect Dis.
pediatric patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(4):337-340. 2014. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-14-518.
11. Sharp R, Esterman A, McCutcheon H, Hearse N, Cummings M. 29. Guttmann D, Trerotola S, Stavropoulos S, et al. Malfunctioning
The safety and efficacy of midlines compared to peripherally and infected tunneled infusion catheters: over-the-wire catheter
inserted central catheters for adult cystic fibrosis patients: a retro- exchange versus catheter removal and replacement. J Vasc
spective, observational study. Int J Nurs Stud. 2014;51(5): Intervent Radiol. 2011;22(5):642-646.
694-702. 30. Raad I, Kassar R, Ghannam D, Chaftari A, Hachem R, Jiang Y.
12. Schulmeister L. Management of non-infectious central venous Management of the catheter in documented catheter-related
access device complications. Semin Oncol Nurs. 2010;26(2): coagulase-negative staphylococcal bacteremia: remove or retain?
132-141. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49(8):1187-1194.
13. Weinstein SM, Hagle ME. Complications and nursing interven- 31. OGrady NP, Alexander M, Burns LA, et al. Guidelines for the
tions. In: Weinstein SM, Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. http://
Practice of Infusion Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters www.cdc.gov/hicpac/BSI/BSI-guidelines-2011.html. Published
Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014:203-244. April 2011.
14. Ababou A, Ztot S, Ismaili M, Elhassani A. Spontaneous rupture 32. Shanaah A, Brier M, Dwyer A. Fibrin sheath and its relation to
of subclavian intraport catheter with cardiac and pulmonary subsequent events after tunneled dialysis catheter exchange.
embolism. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2013;27(2):e10-e11. Semin Dial. 2013;26(6):733-737.
15. Hudman L, Bodenham A. Practical aspects of long-term venous 33. Mermel LA, Allon M, Bouza E, et al. Clinical practice guidelines
access. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2013;13(1):6-11. for the diagnosis and management of intravascular catheter-
16. Lin CH, Wu HS, Chan DC, Hsieh CB, Huang MH, Yu JC. The related infection: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society
mechanisms of failure of totally implantable central venous access of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49(1):1-45.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S111 05/01/16 11:30 PM

34. Marschall J, Mermel LA, Fakih M, et al; Society for Healthcare 2. Thrombosis rates for subclavian and internal
Epidemiology of America. Strategies to prevent central line-asso- jugular CVAD are comparable for long-term use
ciated bloodstream infections in acute care hospitals: 2014 in patients with cancer.8 (II)
update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(7):753-771.
3. For short-term use, subclavian sites have lower
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/676533.
DVT rates than femoral sites, but there is no
significant difference between jugular and femo-
ral sites.8 (II)
C. For PICCs, measure the vein diameter using ultra-
52. CENTRAL VASCULAR ACCESS sound before insertion. Choose a catheter with a
DEVICE (CVAD)-ASSOCIATED catheter-to-vein ratio of 45% or less.
VENOUS THROMBOSIS 1. A study of 6Fr triple-lumen PICCs was stopped
before completion due to an unacceptably high
Standard rate of DVT.
52.1 The clinician assesses the patient for suspected 2. 5Fr and 6Fr PICCs develop DVT more rapidly in
central vascular access device (CVAD)-associated venous patients with cancer when compared to smaller-
thrombosis; provides timely and appropriate informa- diameter PICCs (eg, 4Fr).
tion to the licensed independent practitioner (LIP); and 3. Reverse taper on the hub end of the catheter,
assesses patient response to treatment. resulting in the largest outer diameter being
inserted into the smallest vein diameter, is thought
to be a contributing factor. However, 1 compari-
Practice Criteria
son study between tapered and nontapered PICCs
A. Assess the patient for risk factors for venous throm- could not find a difference between the catheter
bosis before CVAD insertion. Risk factors include, design, although the rate for both catheters was
but are not limited to: high. Trimming a PICC to a patient-specific
1. History of deep vein thrombosis. length can result in the largest diameter of a
2. Presence of chronic diseases associated with a reverse-tapered PICC inserted into the vein and
hypercoagulable state such as cancer, diabetes, has been suggested as a factor in DVT.1,7,9-13 (I)
irritable bowel syndrome, congenital heart dis- D. Ensure that all CVAD tips are located in the lower
ease, or end-stage renal failure. third of the superior vena cava or cavoatrial junc-
3. Surgical and trauma patients. tion as tips located in the mid-to-upper portion of
4. Critical care patients; hyperglycemia in nondia- the superior vena cava are associated with greater
betic children in critical care may be a predictor rates of DVT. Adjustment of PICCs to achieve cor-
of venous thromboembolism. rect tip location is not reported to be associated with
5. Known presence of genetic coagulation abnor- an increased rate of DVT (see Standard 23, Central
malities (eg, Factor V Leiden, prothrombin Vascular Access Device [CVAD] Tip Location).6,14-16
mutation). (II)
6. Pregnancy or the use of oral contraceptives. E. Recognize that the majority of CVAD-associated
7. Age extremes in young children and older adults. DVT is clinically silent and does not produce overt
8. History of multiple CVADs, especially with dif- signs and symptoms. Clinical signs and symptoms
ficult or traumatic insertion and the presence of are related to obstruction of venous blood flow and
other intravascular devices (eg, pacemakers).1-5 include, but are not limited to:
(II) 1. Pain in the extremity, shoulder, neck, or chest.
B. Choose the type of CVAD with the least risk of 2. Edema in the extremity, shoulder, neck, or chest.
thrombosis. 3. Erythema in the extremity.
1. Peripherally inserted central catheters (PICCs) 4. Engorged peripheral veins on the extremity,
are associated with higher rates of deep vein shoulder, neck or chest wall.
thrombosis (DVT) than other CVADs due to 5. Difficulty with neck or extremity motion.8,14 (II)
insertion into veins with smaller diameter and F. Measure upper-arm circumference before insertion
greater movement in the upper extremity. Critical of a PICC and when clinically indicated to assess the
care patients and those with cancer are at a presence of edema and possible DVT. Take this
greater risk of DVT with PICCs when compared measurement 10 cm above the antecubital fossa;
to other CVADs. PICC insertion sites in the ante- assess for the location and other characteristics such
cubital fossa have higher rates of DVT than mid- as pitting or nonpitting edema (refer to Standard 33,
upper arm insertion sites. PICC insertion through Vascular Access Site Preparation and Device
the internal jugular vein rather than veins of the Placement).
upper extremity is associated with lower rates of G. Anticipate diagnosis of CVAD-associated DVT with
DVT than arm veins.6,7 (I) color-flow Doppler ultrasound in veins of the upper
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S112 05/01/16 11:30 PM

extremity because it is noninvasive and avoids expo- 1. Grant JD, Stevens SM, Woller SC, et al. Diagnosis and manage-
sure to radiation. Venography with contrast injec- ment of upper extremity deep-vein thrombosis in adults.
tion, computed tomography venography, or magnetic J Thromb Haemost. 2012;108(6):1097-1108.
2. Costello JM, Clapper TC, Wypij D. Minimizing complications
resonance venography may also be used to assess
associated with percutaneous central venous catheter placement
veins that are obscured by the clavicle or ribs.1,17 (II)
in children: recent advances. Pediatr Crit Care Med.
H. Anticipate prescription of therapeutic doses of anti- 2013;14(3):273-283.
coagulant medication in the presence of upper 3. Gentile A, Petit L, Masson F, et al. Subclavian central venous
extremity DVT for at least 3 months after CVAD catheter-related thrombosis in trauma patients: incidence, risk
removal. For CVADs with a longer dwell time, con- factors and influence of polyurethane type. Crit Care.
tinue the treatment for as long as the CVAD is in 2013;17(3):R103.
situ.18 (II) 4. Tala JA, Silva CT, Pemira S, Vidal E, Faustino EV. Blood glucose
I. CVAD flushing and locking procedures have no effect as a marker of venous thromboembolism in critically ill children.
on catheter-associated venous thrombosis, as the J Thromb Haemost. 2014;12(6):891-896.
technique and solutions used are directed to the inter- 5. Mino JS, Gutnick JR, Monteiro R, Anzlovar N, Siperstein AE.
Line-associated thrombosis as the major cause of hospital-
nal CVAD lumen rather than the vein lumen.19 (V)
acquired deep vein thromboses: an analysis from National
J. Do not remove a CVAD in the presence of DVT
Surgical Quality Improvement Program data and a call to reassess
when the catheter is correctly positioned at the prophylaxis strategies. Am J Surg. 2014;208(1):45-49.
cavoatrial junction, the catheter is functioning cor- 6. Saber W, Moua T, Williams EC, et al. Risk factors for catheter-
rectly with a blood return, and there is no evidence related thrombosis (CRT) in cancer patients: a patient-level data
of any infection (refer to Standard 44, Vascular (IPD) meta-analysis of clinical trials and prospective studies.
Access Device [VAD] Removal). J Thromb Haemost. 2011;9(2):312-319.
K. Encourage the patient to use nonpharmacologic 7. Chopra V, Anand S, Hickner A, et al. Risk of venous thromboem-
strategies for thrombosis prevention whenever pos- bolism associated with peripherally inserted central catheters: a
sible, including early mobilization of the catheter- systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2013;382(9889):
ized extremity, performance of normal activities of 311-325.
8. Ge X, Cavallazzi R, Li C, Pan SM, Wang YW, Wang FL. Central
daily living, gentle limb exercise, and adequate
venous access sites for the prevention of venous thrombosis, ste-
hydration.14 (II)
nosis and infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev.
L. Prophylaxis with anticoagulant therapy is not rec- 2012;(3):CD004084. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004084.pub3.
ommended, although a meta-analysis in cancer 9. Trerotola SO, Stavropoulos SW, Mondschein JI, et al. Triple-
patients with tunneled cuffed catheters and implant- lumen peripherally inserted central catheter in patients in the
ed ports found that symptomatic DVT is reduced critical care unit: prospective evaluation. Radiology.
with heparin and asymptomatic DVT is reduced 2010;256(1):312-320.
with warfarin. Another retrospective analysis in can- 10. Itkin M, Mondshein JI, Stavropoulos SW, Shlansky-Goldberg
cer patients suggests that antiplatelet agents may RD, Soulen MC, Trerotola SO. Peripherally inserted central cath-
protect against DVT in patients with PICCs; how- eter thrombosisreverse tapered versus nontapered catheters: a
ever, additional study is needed.20-22 (I) randomized controlled study. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2014;25(1):85-
91.e1.
M. Recognize that catheter-related bloodstream infection
11. Sharp R, Cummings M, Fielder A, Mikocka-Walus A, Grech C,
and symptomatic catheter-associated DVT may
Esterman A. The catheter to vein ratio and rates of symptomatic
develop simultaneously and is probably caused by the venous thromboembolism in patients with a peripherally inserted
fibrin sheath supporting the development of throm- central catheter (PICC): a prospective cohort study. Int J Nurs
bosis and allowing for adherence of organisms. This Stud. 2015;52(3):677-685.
may be a greater problem in critically ill patients as 12. Steele D, Norris CM. Cutting peripherally inserted central cath-
opposed to home care patients as no correlation eters may lead to increased rates of catheter-related deep vein
between infection, lumen occlusion, and thrombosis thrombosis. J Infus Nurs. 2014;37(6):466-472.
was reported in a study of cancer patients receiving 13. Chopra V, Ratz D, Kuhn L, Lopus T, Lee A, Krein S. Peripherally
home parenteral nutrition. A more recent study inserted central catheter-related deep vein thrombosis: contempo-
showed an increased risk of catheter-associated rary patterns and predictors. J Thromb Haemost. 2014;12(6):
847-854.
bloodstream infection in CVADs that had been
14. Yacopetti N. Central venous catheter-related thrombosis: a sys-
treated with alteplase for malfunctioning.23-26 (IV)
tematic review. J Infus Nurs. 2008;31(4):241-248.
N. Recognize that pulmonary emboli and postthrom- 15. Jumani K, Advani S, Reich NG, Gosey L, Milstone AM. Risk
botic syndrome are associated with upper extremity factors for peripherally inserted central venous catheter
DVT.1 (IV) complications in children. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167(5):
429-435.
REFERENCES 16. Baxi SM, Shuman EK, Scipione CA, et al. Impact of postplacement
adjustment of peripherally inserted central catheters on the risk of
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September bloodstream infection and venous thrombus formation. Infect
3, 2015. Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2013;34(8):785-792.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S113 05/01/16 11:30 PM

17. Bates SM, Jaeschke R, Stevens SM, et al. Diagnosis of DVT: breast tissue are associated with a change in CVAD
antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: tip position.1,2 (I A/P)
American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical B. Recognize that primary CVAD malposition may
practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl 2):e351S-e418S.
occur during the insertion procedure, resulting in
18. Kearon C, Akl EA, Comerota AJ, et al. Antithrombotic therapy
intravascular or extravascular tip location.
for VTE disease: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of
thrombosisAmerican College of Chest Physicians evidence-
1. Intravascular malposition includes the aorta;
based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl contralateral innominate and subclavian veins;
2):e419S-e494S. ipsilateral or contralateral internal jugular veins
19. Gorski L, Perucca R, Hunter M. Central venous access devices: and tributaries; azygos vein; right or left internal
care, maintenance, and potential complications. In: Alexander M, thoracic vein; pericardiophrenic vein; internal
Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion mammary vein; deep in the right atrium (more
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: than 2 cm below cavoatrial junction); the right
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:495-515. ventricle; and a number of small tributary veins
20. Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgi- of the innominate and superior vena cava (SVC).
cal patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombo-
Femoral insertion sites may produce malposition
sis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based
of the catheter tip in the lumbar, iliolumbar, and
clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl 2):
e195S-e226S.
common iliac veins. Malpositions are reported
21. Ahn DH, Illum HB, Wang DH, Sharma A, Dowell JE. Upper with and without difficult guidewire and/or cath-
extremity venous thrombosis in patients with cancer with periph- eter advancement. Critical care patients may
erally inserted central venous catheters: a retrospective analysis of have a tendency for a higher rate of malposition
risk factors. J Oncol Pract. 2013;9(1):e8-e12. on peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC)
22. Akl EA, Ramly EP, Kahale LA, et al. Anticoagulation for people insertion because of difficulty in patient position-
with cancer and central venous catheters. Cochrane Database ing, use of mechanical ventilation, and different
Syst Rev. 2014;(10):CD006468. doi:10.1002/14651858. venous blood flow characteristics. Primary mal-
CD006468.pub5. position with PICCs is reported to be approxi-
23. Nakazawa N. Infectious and thrombotic complications of central
mately 3 times more common than with other
venous catheters. Semin Oncol Nurs. 2010;26(2):121-131.
CVADs.1,3-9 (I A/P)
24. Chittick P, Sherertz RJ. Recognition and prevention of nosoco-
mial vascular device and related bloodstream infections in the
2. Extravascular malposition includes tip location
intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2010;38(suppl 8):S363-S372. in the mediastinum producing infiltration/
25. Chopra V, Anand S, Krein SL, Chenoweth C, Saint S. Bloodstream extravasation; in the pleura producing hemotho-
infection, venous thrombosis, and peripherally inserted central rax or pleural effusion; in the pericardium pro-
catheters: reappraising the evidence. Am J Med. 2012;125(8): ducing pericardial effusion and cardiac tampon-
733-741. ade; and in the peritoneum producing intra-
26. Rowan CM, Miller KE, Beardsley AL, et al. Alteplase use for abdominal bleeding.2,4,10-12 (I A/P)
malfunctioning central venous catheters correlates with catheter- C. Recognize that acquired and congenital anatomical
associated bloodstream infections. Pediatr Crit Care Med. variations cause CVAD malposition during
2013;14(3):306-309.
insertion.
1. Acquired abnormalities include stenosis, throm-
bosis, and malignant or benign lesions compress-
53. CENTRAL VASCULAR ACCESS ing the vein.
DEVICE (CVAD) MALPOSITION 2. Congenital abnormalities include persistent left
superior vena cava (PLSVC) and variations of
Standard the inferior vena cava, azygous vein, and pulmo-
nary veins. PLSVC is the most common form of
53.1 The clinician verifies the documented anatomic
congenital anomaly and will probably be undi-
location of the central vascular access device (CVAD)
agnosed until placement of a CVAD is required.
tip upon insertion prior to initial infusion through the
PLSVC may be present with or without other
catheter.
congenital cardiac anomalies. Before using a
CVAD in a PLSVC, cardiac imaging studies are
Practice Criteria needed to determine blood flow characteristics.
A. Recognize normal vascular, intrathoracic, intraperi- Blood flow into the left atrium and the presence
toneal, and neck anatomy and its relationship to of right-to-left cardiac shunting pose a signifi-
acceptable CVAD tip location. CVAD tips move due cant risk for air or thrombotic emboli to a vari-
to patient position, respiration, and arm movement. ety of anatomic locations (eg, brain, kidney) and
Descent of diaphragm and abdominal contents with may require repositioning the CVAD.2,13,14
position change from lying to standing, obesity, and (I A/P)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S114 05/01/16 11:30 PM

D. Use dynamic ultrasound during the insertion proce- J. Assess the patient and the CVAD for signs and
dure to reduce the risk of inadvertent arterial inser- symptoms of catheter dysfunction and associated
tion. Ultrasound is also useful to rule out cephalad complications before each CVAD infusion as
tip orientation in the jugular vein prior to removal these factors will be the first indication of a
of the sterile field (refer to Standard 22, Vascular problem:
Visualization). 1. Absence of blood return from all catheter lumens.
E. Use tip location technology to enhance awareness of 2. Changes in blood color and pulsatility of the
primary CVAD malposition during the insertion blood return from all catheter lumens.
procedure (refer to Standard 23, Central Vascular 3. Difficulty or inability to flush the CVAD.
Access Device [CVAD] Tip Location). 4. Arterial versus venous waveform from an
F. If arterial placement of a CVAD is suspected, assess attached pressure transducer.
waveforms using a pressure transducer, blood gas 5. Atrial and ventricular dysrhythmias.
values for a sample taken from the CVAD, or com- 6. Changes in blood pressure and/or heart rate.
puted tomography (CT) angiogram with contrast. 7. Shoulder, chest, or back pain.
Pulsatile flow and color of the blood are not always 8. Edema in the neck or shoulder.
reliable indicators for arterial location.2,6,15 (I A/P) 9. Changes in respiration.
G. Recognize that secondary CVAD malposition may 10. Complaints of hearing gurgling or flow stream
occur at any time during the catheter dwell time. sounds on the ipsilateral side.
1. Secondary intravascular malposition is also 11. Paresthesia and neurological effects due to ret-
known as tip migration and is related to spo- rograde infusion into the intracranial venous
radic changes in intrathoracic pressure (eg, sinuses.2,10,14-17,25 (IV)
coughing, vomiting); original tip located high in K. Anticipate diagnostic tests including chest radio-
the SVC; deep vein thrombosis; congestive heart graph with or without contrast injection, fluorosco-
failure; neck or arm movement; and positive py, echocardiogram, CT scan, and/or magnetic reso-
pressure ventilation. The most common locations nance imaging (MRI) to diagnose secondary malpo-
for secondary CVAD malposition include inter- sition based on clinical signs and symptoms and
nal jugular; innominate (brachiocephalic); sub- problems with functionality of the catheter. Provide
clavian, axillary, and azygos veins; and deep in the radiology department with clinical information
the right atrium. Risk factors for implanted port to enhance their ability to identify the problem.
tip migration are reported to be an original tip Routine chest radiograph at specific intervals may
positioned high in the SVC and presence of lung not identify tip migration because of the sporadic
cancer.1,16-18 (I A/P) and unpredictable nature of this type of malposition.
2. Secondary extravascular CVAD malposition is Chest radiographs for diagnostic purposes should
associated with erosion of the catheter tip include catheter tip location.2,6,7,13,16,18,26 (IV)
through the vessel wall, usually into a low-pres- L. Manage malposition depending upon the location of
sure space with the risk of bleeding into that the CVAD, the continued need for infusion therapy,
space. Fistula formation between veins and arter- and the patients acuity. Collaboration with the
ies or veins and other structures (eg, trachea) is licensed independent practitioner (LIP) may be
possible. Cardiac tamponade from a CVAD is required.
associated with fluid infusion and may be diag- 1. For PICCs with intracardiac location that is more
nosed with echocardiogram.2,17,19,20 (I A/P) than 2 cm below the cavoatrial junction, retract
H. Recognize that the growth of infants and children catheter based on electrocardiogram (ECG)
results in suboptimal intravascular tip location when results, or from measurement of the specific dis-
a CVAD is indwelling for extended periods of time. tance on the chest radiograph.
Correlate growth to tip location, and plan for 2. For PICCs with jugular vein location, noninva-
CVAD changes as needed.21 (V) sive techniques are preferred. Reported effective
I. Before and after using a power-injectable PICC for methods include elevating the patients head,
CT contrast agent injection, a scout scan, or topo- flushing the catheter, walking, or a combination
gram, is recommended to determine the current of these techniques. Invasive techniques include
PICC tip location. Power injection is reported to partial PICC retraction with guidewire tech-
cause PICC tip migration. Tip migration may be niques, catheter flushing while advancing, and
related to a sudden change in viscosity between retraction and advancement under fluoroscopy.
the contrast agent in the catheter lumen and the 3. Withdrawal of large catheters from an accessed
postprocedure flush of sodium chloride. No evidence artery (eg, carotid) with site compression increases
for other types of CVAD malposition related to risk of brain ischemia from lack of blood flow,
power injection is available.22-24 (IV) hematoma, or emboli. Consult with the LIP
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S115 05/01/16 11:30 PM

before removal from arteries to determine if sur- 5. Mai CL, Leissner KB. Acute back pain and paresthesia after
gical removal or use of a percutaneous closure femoral venous catheter placement. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth.
device is most appropriate. 2007;21(2):317-318.
6. Curtis O, Metcalfe M, Thompson M. Managing complications of
4. Fluid aspiration through the CVAD before
the misplaced central venous catheter. EJVES Extra.
removal may be indicated if cardiac tamponade
2011;22(1):e6-e8.
is suspected. Consult with the LIP. 7. Ibrahim GM. Central venous catheter placement: where is the
5. Removal from other extravascular tip locations tip? Am J Crit Care. 2012;21(5):370-371.
may cause hematoma or pleural or peritoneal 8. Pikwer A, Baath L, Davidson B, Perstoft I, Akeson J. The inci-
effusions. dence and risk of central venous catheter malpositioning: a pro-
6. Removal when an infiltration or extravasation spective cohort study in 1619 patients. Anaesth Intensive Care.
has occurred will require a treatment plan for the 2008;36(1):30-37.
specific medication involved.2,6,26-28 (IV) 9. Pittiruti M, Lamperti M. Late cardiac tamponade in adults sec-
M. Withhold infusion through a malpositioned catheter ondary to tip position in the right atrium: an urban legend? A
until proper tip position has been established. Assess systematic review of the literature. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth.
2015;29(2):491-495.
the infusion therapy being administered and, if pos-
10. Turi G, Tordiglione P, Araimo F. Anterior mediastinal central line
sible, insert a short peripheral catheter to continue
malposition. Anesth Analg. 2013;117(1):123-125.
therapy. If the infusion therapy is not possible 11. Nazir O, Wani M, Jain A, Misra R. Central venous catheter
through a peripheral vein, the nurse should assess malposition into intrapleural space. J Sci Soc. 2014;41(3):
the potential risk for discontinuing therapy and con- 197.
sult with the LIP regarding changing the infusion 12. Weil BR, Ladd AP, Yoder K. Pericardial effusion and cardiac
therapy until the proper CVAD tip location can be tamponade associated with central venous catheters in children:
reestablished.14,29 (V) an uncommon but serious and treatable condition. J Pediatr Surg.
N. Arm movement, body habitus, patient manipulation 2010;45(8):1687-1692.
(eg, Twiddlers syndrome), and inadequate catheter 13. Povoski SP, Khabiri H. Persistent left superior vena cava: review
stabilization cause CVAD dislodgment (movement of the literature, clinical implications, and relevance of alterations
in thoracic central venous anatomy as pertaining to the general
of the CVAD into or out of the insertion site), result-
principles of central venous access device placement and venogra-
ing in changes of the external catheter length and
phy in cancer patients. World J Surg Oncol. 2011;9(1):173.
alteration of CVAD tip location. 14. Chen C-Y, Chu Y-C, Chang W-K, Chan K-H, Chen P-T.
1. Never advance any external portion of the Diagnosis and insertion of Hickman catheter for a patient with
CVAD that has been in contact with skin into the persistent left superior vena cava. Acta Anaesthesiol Taiwan.
insertion site. No antiseptic agent or technique 2013;51(1):44-48.
applied to skin or the external catheter will ren- 15. Chirinos JC, Neyra JA, Patel J, Rodan AR. Hemodialysis catheter
der skin or the catheter to be sterile, and no stud- insertion: is increased PO2 a sign of arterial cannulation? A case
ies have established an acceptable length of time report. BMC Nephrol. 2014;15(1):127.
after insertion for such catheter manipulation. 16. Wu C-Y, Fu J-Y, Feng P-H, et al. Risk factors and possible
2. Measure the external CVAD length and compare mechanisms of intravenous port catheter migration. Eur J Vasc
Endovasc Surg. 2012;44(1):82-87.
to the external CVAD length documented at
17. Askegard-Giesmann JR, Caniano DA, Kenney BD. Rare but
insertion. Dislodgment could indicate the tip
serious complications of central line insertion. Semin Pediatr
location is suboptimal, increasing the risk for Surg. 2009;18(2):73-83.
catheter-related thrombosis. 18. Alwassia A, Chaubey VK, Patibandla B, Bartley A, Chhabra L.
3. Management may require catheter exchange or Wandering peripherally inserted central catheter tip: an under-
removal and insertion at a new site.29,30 (V) recognised intensivist challenge. BMJ Case Rep. 2013.
doi:10.1136/bcr-2013-200313.
REFERENCES 19. Choi H, Kang B. An uncommon arteriovenous fistula resulting
from haemodialysis catheterization despite applying ultrasound
1. Johnston A, Bishop S, Martin L, See T, Streater C. Defining guidance: malposition of catheter into right subclavian artery.
peripherally inserted central catheter tip position and an evalua- Hong Kong J Emerg Med. 2011;18(3):166.
tion of insertions in one unit. Anaesthesia. 2013;68(5):484-491. 20. Andrews MH, Chisholm BD. Spontaneous migration of a portacath
2. Gibson F, Bodenham A. Misplaced central venous catheters: into the azygos vein with subsequent development of a tracheo-
applied anatomy and practical management. Br J Anaesth. azygos fistula. J Med Imaging Radiat Oncol. 2015;59(2):200-203.
2013;110(3):333-346. 21. Redfern W, Braby J. Pediatric infusion therapy. In: Weinstein S,
3. Shinoda K, Taki H, Hounoki H, Tsuda R, Tobe K. Accidental Hagle M, eds. Plumers Principles and Practice of Infusion
cannulation of a femoral central venous catheter into the iliolum- Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott
bar vein: incidental detection by bone scintigraphy. Clin Nucl Williams & Wilkins; 2014:687-742.
Med. 2015;40(2):182-183. 22. Lozano LAS, Marn C, Goodman LR. Power injectable peripher-
4. Takahara S, Aizaki T, Hatakeyama Y, Matsushima S, Kawamura ally inserted central venous catheter lines frequently flip after
K. Complication of femoral vein CV port catheter malposition. power injection of contrast. J Comput Assist Tomogr.
Kitasato Med J. 2013;43(1):74-78. 2012;36(4):427-430.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S116 05/01/16 11:30 PM

23. Morden P, Sokhandon F, Miller L, et al. The role of saline flush successful retrieval using a minimally invasive technique. Ir Med
injection rate in displacement of CT-injectable peripherally J. 2014;107(9):292-293.
inserted central catheter tip during power injection of contrast 28. Chopra V, Flanders SA, Saint S, et al. The Michigan appropriateness
material. Am J Roentgenol. 2014;202(1):W13-W18. guide for intravenous catheters (MAGIC): results from a
24. Lambeth L, Goyal A, Tadros A, Asadoorian M, Roberts AC, multispecialty panel using the RAND/UCLA appropriateness
Karimi A. Peripherally inserted central catheter tip malposition method. Ann Intern Med . 2015;163(suppl 6):
caused by power contrast medium injection. J Vasc Intervent S1-S39.
Radiol. 2012;23(7):981-983. 29. Gorski L, Perucca R, Hunter M. Central venous access devices:
25. Pereira S, Preto C, Pinho C, Vasconcelos P. When one port does care, maintenance, and potential complications. In: Alexander M,
not return blood: two case reports of rare causes for misplaced Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
central venous catheters. Braz J Anesth (English ed). 2014. doi: Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
10.1016/j-bjane.2014.02.007. Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:495-515.
26. Bechara CF, Barshes NR, Pisimisis G, Kougias P, Lin PH. Management 30. McGoldrick M. Infection prevention and control. In: Alexander
of inadvertent carotid artery sheath insertion during central venous M, Corrigan A, Goski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
catheter placement. JAMA Surg. 2013;148(11):1063-1066. Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
27. Redmond C, ODonohoe R, Breslin D, Brophy D. Inadvertent Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:204-228.
subclavian artery cannulation with a central venous catheter;
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S117 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Section Eight: Other Infusion Devices
Section Standards Practice Criteria

I. To ensure patient safety, the clinician is competent in A. Anticipate intraspinal (epidural/intrathecal) infusion
the management of intraspinal, intraosseous (IO), and administration for patients in practice settings from
subcutaneous devices, including knowledge of anatomy, acute care to outpatient and home care who require
physiology, infusion administration, and management pain management (eg, during/after a surgical proce-
techniques aimed at maintaining access and reducing dure, women in labor, chronic malignant and non-
risk of complications. malignant pain) and for spasticity control. Infusions
II. Intraspinal, IO, and subcutaneous access and medi- may include opioids alone, opioids in combination
cation/solution infusion are initiated upon the order of with dilute local anesthetics, and opioids in combi-
a licensed independent practitioner (LIP). nation with local anesthetics and clonidine.
III. Insertion, care and management, and complication Antineoplastic agents and pain medications may be
management for intraspinal, IO, and subcutaneous administered via an intraventricular access device.1-9
access are established in organizational policies, proce- (IV)
dures, and/or practice guidelines. B. Provide comprehensive education to clinicians who
care for patients receiving intraspinal infusions to
include the following content: related anatomy and
54. INTRASPINAL ACCESS physiology; pharmacology; patient assessment and
DEVICES monitoring; use and troubleshooting of access devic-
es; side effect management; recognition and manage-
ment of complications and emergency situations;
Standard
device removal; patient and caregiver education; and
54.1 Intraspinal access devices and administration sets review of organizational policies and procedures
are identified and labeled as a specialized infusion (see Standard 5, Competency Assessment and
administration system and differentiated from other Validation).5 (V)
infusion administration and access systems. C. Administer only preservative-free medications via an
54.2 Only preservative-free medications are adminis- intraspinal route; these include, but are not limited
tered via the intraspinal route. to, morphine, fentanyl, hydromorphone, ziconotide,
54.3 Removal of a temporary intraspinal access clonidine, bupivacaine, baclofen, and 0.9% sodium
device (intrathecal and epidural) is performed either chloride (USP).1,4,6 (V)
by or upon the order of a licensed independent prac- D. Titrate medications carefully during medication ini-
titioner (LIP) in accordance with rules and regulations tiation when converting from one route to another
promulgated by the states Board of Nursing and in (eg, intravenous to epidural to intrathecal), when
accordance with organizational policy. Removal of converting from one medication to another, and
long-term implanted ports/reservoirs/pumps or tun- when adding adjuvant medications. Dosing and opi-
neled intraspinal devices are considered surgical oid conversion guidelines should be used, and dos-
procedures. ing should start extremely low when converting
from one medication to another.1,2 (V)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S118 05/01/16 11:30 PM

E. Perform a medication reconciliation with every 5. After the first 24 hours postplacement of a ven-
patient encounter; ask patients to report every tricular reservoir, leave the site open to air.4 (V)
medication that they take including prescription, 6. Consider the use of chlorhexidine-impregnated
over-the-counter, and complementary/herbal medi- dressings for patients with an epidural access
cations, as concomitant medication use may increase device. A significant reduction in epidural skin
the risk of complications of intraspinal therapy (see colonization and catheter tip colonization has
Standard 13, Medication Verification).8 (V) been demonstrated with their use.12,13 (III)
F. Maintain strict aseptic technique while wearing a 7. Reduce the risk of accidental dislodgment by tap-
mask and sterile gloves during any intraspinal access ing a tension loop of tubing to the patients
or maintenance procedure.4,6,10,11 (V) body.6 (V)
G. Confirm proper placement of the intraspinal access 8. Subcutaneous tunneling and sutures resulted in
device before any infusion or medication adminis- fewer incidents of premature dislodgment of
tration.4,6,11 (V) thoracic epidural catheters when compared to
1. Aspirate epidural access devices prior to medica- taping.14 (III)
tion administration to ascertain the absence of L. Identify catheter tip dislodgment by routinely assess-
spinal fluid and blood; if greater than 0.5 mL ing for changes in external catheter length; clinical
serous fluid is aspirated, notify the LIP, and do evidence of catheter tip dislodgment may include
not administer the medication. decrease in pain control (eg, intrathecal placement
2. Aspirate intrathecal and ventricular access devic- dislodges to epidural space) or an increase in side
es prior to medication administration to ascer- effects (eg, epidural placement dislodges to intrathe-
tain the presence of spinal fluid and the absence cal space).4,7 (V)
of blood. M. Assess and monitor patients after initiating or
H. Filter infusion medications using a surfactant-free restarting an intraspinal infusion in a fully equipped
0.2-micron filter.6,11 (V) and staffed environment (eg, hospital setting) for at
I. Administer continuous infusions using an electronic least the first 24 hours. Be especially vigilant when
infusion device with antifree-flow protection. monitoring higher-risk patients, such as those with
Patient-controlled analgesia may be used with epi- sleep apnea, psychiatric conditions, or patients tak-
dural infusions.4,7,8 (V) ing concomitant medications.2,8 (V)
J. Perform the access procedure and medication filling N. Maintain peripheral intravenous access for at least
of an implanted intraspinal delivery system with a 24 hours due to the potential need for naloxone
medication reservoir at regular intervals in accordance administration for evidence of respiratory depres-
with the manufacturers directions for use.4,8 (V) sion.6 (V)
1. Ensure strict attention to needle placement to O. Assess the patients response to therapy at estab-
avoid accidental injection into surrounding lished intervals. Recommendations include assessing
tissue. at the following time intervals: hourly for the first
2. Observe patients for at least 30 minutes after a 24 hours and then every 4 hours; assessment of out-
pump refill. patients and patients receiving home care should
3. Ensure availability of naloxone to treat inadvert- occur with every patient encounter.5,7,8 (V)
ent overdoses. 1. Pain rating using a validated, appropriate pain
K. Apply a sterile dressing, and stabilize the intraspinal scale based on the patients age and condition
access site: (eg, 0-10), both at rest and with activity.
1. Routine dressing changes for short-term epidural 2. Blood pressure, pulse, respiratory rate, tempera-
and intrathecal access devices are not recom- ture.
mended due to risk for dislodgment.4 (V) 3. Level of sedation if opioid is being administered.
2. Perform site care and dressing changes over a 4. Number of bolus doses, if used (eg, patient-con-
tunneled and accessed implanted epidural device trolled epidural analgesia).
in accordance with organizational policy; there 5. Fetal status and response to intraspinal infusion
are no evidence-based recommendations for rou- for the patient in labor.
tine site care and dressing changes. (V, Committee 6. Presence of any side effects: pruritis, nausea, uri-
Consensus) nary retention, orthostatic hypotension, motor
3. If site care is performed, allow any skin antiseptic block.
agent to fully dry as all antiseptic agents have the 7. Signs of catheter insertion site infection or epi-
potential to be neurotoxic.4,6 (V) dural abscess, such as back pain, tenderness,
4. Use a transparent semipermeable membrane erythema, swelling, drainage, fever, malaise,
(TSM) dressing to allow for site visualization.6 neck stiffness, progressive numbness, or motor
(V) block.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S119 05/01/16 11:30 PM

8. Dressing for intactness and absence of moisture/ 8. Prager J, Deer T, Levy R, et al. Best practices for intrathecal drug
leakage. delivery for pain. Neuromodulation. 2014;17(4):354-372.
9. Catheter and administration set connections. 9. Reisfield GM, Wilson GR; Center to Advance Palliative Care.
Fast fact #98: intrathecal drug therapy for pain. http://www.capc.
10. Changes in sensory or motor function that may
org/fast-facts/98-intrathecal-drug-therapy-pain. Published 2007.
indicate an epidural hematoma, including unex-
10. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L; Healthcare
plained back pain, leg pain, bowel or bladder Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for
dysfunction, and motor block. isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious
11. Oxygen saturation levels via pulse oximeter and agents in healthcare settings. http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/2007ip/
carbon dioxide levels as prescribed. 2007isolationprecautions.html. Published 2007.
12. Electronic infusion device for history of analgesic 11. Smith S, Duell DJ, Martin B. Clinical Nursing Skills. 8th ed.
use and correct administration parameters. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; 2011.
P. Address the following patient education topics1,4,8: 12. Ho KM, Litten E. Use of chlorhexidine-impregnated dressing to
(V) prevent vascular and epidural catheter colonization and infection:
1. The importance of reporting alcohol use and all a meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006;58(2):281-287.
13. Kerwat K, Eberhart L, Kerwat M, et al. Chlorhexidine gluconate
medications used including prescription, over-
dressings reduce bacterial colonization rates in epidural and
the-counter, and complementary medications.
peripheral regional catheters. BioMed Res Int. 2015.
2. Signs and symptoms to report, including changes doi:10.1155/2015/1149785.
in pain perception, new or worsening side effects, 14. Sellmann T, Bierfischer V, Schmitz A, et al. Tunneling and suture
and fever. of thoracic epidural catheters decrease the incidence of catheter
3. Clinical signs of overdose including dizziness, dislodgement. Sci World J. 2014. doi:10.1155/2014/610635.
sedation, euphoria, anxiety, seizures, and respir-
atory depression.
4. Patients with implanted infusion pump systems: 55. INTRAOSSEOUS (IO) ACCESS
caution with active repetitive bending or twisting DEVICES
of spine as these may increase the risk for cathe-
ter damage or dislodgment; increased pain and Standard
withdrawal symptoms may be indicative of
55.1 The clinician evaluates the patient and anticipates
problems.
appropriate use of the intraosseous (IO) route in the
event of difficult vascular access for emergent, urgent,
REFERENCES and medically necessary situations.
8, 2015. Practice Criteria
1. American Pain Society (APS). Principles of Analgesic Use in the A. In the event of adult or pediatric cardiac arrest,
Treatment of Acute Pain and Cancer Pain. 6th ed. Glenview, IL: anticipate use of the IO route if intravenous access is
APS; 2008:47-51. not available or cannot be obtained quickly. Pediatric
2. Deer T, Prager J, Levy R, et al. Polyanalgesic consensus confer- advanced life support guidelines suggest the use of
ence 2012: recommendations for the management of pain by
the IO route as the initial vascular access route.1-7
intrathecal (intraspinal) drug deliveryreports of an interdiscipli-
(II)
nary expert panel. Neuromodulation. 2012;15(5):467-482.
3. Raffaeli W, Magnani F, Andruccioli J, Sarti D. Intrathecal drug
B. The IO route may also be considered for emergent
administration for the treatment of cancer and non-cancer chron- and nonemergent use in patients with limited or no
ic pain. In: Carrillo-Ruiz J, ed. Topics in Neuromodulation vascular access; when the patient may be at risk of
Treatment. doi:10.5772/1255. increased morbidity or mortality if access is not
4. Stearns CK, Brant JM. Intraspinal access and medication admin- obtained, such as during shock, life-threatening or
istration. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, status epilepticus, extensive burns, major traumatic
Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. injuries, or severe dehydration; and/or when delay of
3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:525-539. care is compromised without rapid vascular access.
5. Pasero C, Eksterowicz N, Primeau M, Cowley C. Registered Use of IO infusion is also reported in anesthesia.8-18
nurse management and monitoring of analgesia by catheter tech-
(IV)
niques: position statement. Pain Manage Nurs. 2007;8(2):48-54.
C. Increase and improve appropriate IO use through
6. Camp-Sorrell D (ed), Cope DG, Ezzone SA, et al. Access Device
Guidelines: Recommendations for Nursing Practice and
education and competency programs as underuse of
Education. 3rd ed. Pittsburgh, PA: Oncology Nursing Society; the IO route in emergency departments is reported.19
2011:75-80. (II)
7. Gordon D, Schroeder M; Center to Advance Palliative Care. Fast 1. Include the following in competency programs:
fact #85: epidural analgesia. http://www.capc.org/fast-facts/85- initial and ongoing validation of safe insertion
epidural-analgesia. Published 2007. knowledge and skills through demonstration;
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S120 05/01/16 11:30 PM

demonstration of appropriate maintenance; abil- blood or bone marrow also assists in confirmation
ity to recognize complications related to IO but may be difficult in certain patients (eg, severe
access (see Standard 5, Competency Assessment dehydration) and therefore is not an indication of
and Validation).20,21 (V) improper placement if other indications of place-
D. Use an appropriate IO device; 3 categories of devic- ment confirmation are present.10,24,27 (V)
es are available, including manual needles, impact J. Apply a sterile dressing over the IO access site, and
driven, and drill powered. Performance (success stabilize device.18,29 (V)
rates, time of placement, ease of use, user prefer- K. Limit dwell time of the IO device to no longer than
ence) of different IO devices was evaluated with few 24 hours. Assess for an appropriate replacement
comparative studies and weak evidence supporting vascular access device (VAD) (see Standard 26,
superiority of the battery-powered IO drill over Vascular Access Device [VAD] Planning).11,18,20 (V)
manual needles and other semiautomatic devic- L. Monitor for complications associated with IO
es.11,12,22-26 (IV) access. While relatively uncommon, the most com-
E. Select an appropriate IO site based on the clinical mon reported complication is infiltration/extravasa-
situation and device specifics. Refer to manufactur- tion from dislodgment and compartment syndrome.
ers directions for use as each IO device has approval Infants and young children may be at greater risk for
for particular sites. extravasation and subsequent compartment syn-
1. Insertion sites most commonly reported in the drome due to small bone size and too long needle
literature for use in both adults and children length.10-12,14,15,18,24,26,27,30,31 (IV)
include the proximal and distal tibia and the 1. Reduce risk for infiltration/extravasation through
proximal humerus, the distal femur for children, avoiding multiple attempts at IO access at the
and the sternum in adults. same site; ensuring proper needle placement;
2. Other sites less commonly reported in the securing IO device; rechecking IO placement,
literature and that may be off-label for IO access especially before infusing highly irritating solu-
include the radius, ulna, pelvis, and tions/known vesicants and large volume infu-
clavicle.10,11,15,18,23,24,27 (IV) sions; ongoing and frequent assessment of the IO
F. Avoid IO access in the following sites/situations: site and extremity; and limiting infusion time to
1. Absolute contraindications (related to anatomic less than 24 hours.27,30-32 (IV)
issues): compartment syndrome in target extrem- 2. Rarely reported complications include iatrogenic
ity; previously used IO site or recent failed IO fracture, infection, fat emboli, and osteomyelitis.
attempt; fractures at or above the site; previous Infectious complications were more likely to
orthopedic surgery/hardware; presence of infec- occur with prolonged infusion or if bacteremia
tion or severe burns near the insertion site; and was present during the time of
local vascular compromise. insertion.10-12,14,15,18,24,26,27,30-32 (IV)
2. Presence of bone diseases such as osteogenesis
imperfecta, osteopetrosis, and osteoporo- REFERENCES
sis.11,12,15,18,23,27,28 (IV)
G. Consider the use of lidocaine as a local anesthetic Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
during insertion (subcutaneously at the intended 8, 2015.
site). For infusion-related pain, consider IO admin- 1. Neumar RW, Otto CW, Link MS, et al. Part 8: adult advanced
istration of 2% preservative-free and epinephrine- cardiovascular life support: 2010 American Heart Association
free lidocaine given slowly prior to infusion initia- guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency car-
tion.12,13,15,18,23,26-28 (V) diovascular care. Circulation. 2010;122(suppl 3):S729-S767.
H. Adhere to aseptic technique during IO access. 2. Kleinman NE, Chameides L, Schexnayder SM, et al. Part 14:
Perform skin antisepsis using an appropriate pediatric advanced life support: 2010 American Heart Association
solution (eg, >0.5% chlorhexidine in alcohol solu- guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency car-
tion, povidone-iodine, 70% alcohol) based on diovascular care. Circulation. 2010;122(suppl 3):S876-S908.
organizational policies and procedures. There is no 3. Deakin CD, Nolan JP, Soar J, et al. Section 4: European
Resuscitation Council guidelines for resuscitation, 2010: adult
evidence addressing the optimal antiseptic
advanced life support. Resuscitation. 2010;81:1305-1352.
solution.12,18,23,26,27,29 (V)
4. Biarent D, Bingham R, Eich C, et al. Section 6: European
I. Confirm proper placement of the IO device by Resuscitation Council guidelines for resuscitation, 2010: pediat-
assessment of the needle position, sensation of loss ric life support. Resuscitation. 2010;81:1364-1388.
of resistance upon bone penetration, absence of any 5. Leidel BA, Kirchoff C, Bogner V, et al. Comparison of intraosse-
signs of infiltration upon flushing with 5- to 10-mL ous versus central venous access in adults under resuscitation in
(adults) or 2- to 5-mL (pediatric) preservative-free the emergency department with inaccessible peripheral veins.
0.9% sodium chloride (USP). The ability to aspirate Resuscitation. 2012;83:40-45.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S121 05/01/16 11:30 PM

6. Reades R, Studnek JR, Vandeventer S, Garrett J. Intraosseous 25. Olaussen A, Williams B. Intraosseous access in the prehospital
versus intravenous vascular access during out of hospital cardiac setting: literature review. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2012;27(5):468-
arrest: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med. 472.
2011;58(6):509-516. 26. Garside J, Prescott S, Shaw S. Intraosseous vascular access in
7. Hoskins SL, do Nascimento P Jr, Lima RM, Espana-Tenorio JM, critically ill adults: a review of the literature. Nurs Crit Care. Feb
Kramer GC. Pharmacokinetics of intraosseous and central venous 2015. doi:10.1111/nicc.12163.
drug delivery during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. 27. Dev SP, Stefan RA, Saun T, Lee S. Insertion of an intraosseous
Resuscitation. 2012;83:107-112. needle in adults. N Engl J Med. 2014;24:e35.
8. Rouhani S, Meloney L, Ahn R, Nelson B, Burke TF. Alternative 28. Paxton JH. Intraosseous vascular access: a review. Trauma.
rehydration methods: a systematic review and lessons for 2012;14(3):195-232.
resource-limited care. Pediatrics. 2011;127(3):e748-e757. 29. Parker M, Henderson K. Alternative infusion access devices. In:
9. Neuhaus D, Weiss M, Engelhardt T, et al. Semi-elective intraosse- Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds.
ous infusion after failed intravenous access in pediatric anesthe- Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St
sia. Pediatr Anesth. 2010;20(2):168-171. Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:516-524.
10. Tobias JD, Ross AK. Intraosseous infusions: a review for the 30. Dolister M, Miller S, Borron S. Intraosseous vascular access is
anesthesiologist with a focus on pediatric use. Anesth Analg. safe, effective and costs less than central venous catheters for
2010;110(2):391-401. patients in the hospital setting. J Assoc Vasc Access.
11. Luck RP, Haines C, Mull CC. Intraosseous access. J Emerg Med. 2013;14(3):216-224.
2010;39(4):468-475. 31. Taylor CC, Clarke NMP. Amputation and intraosseous access in
12. The Consortium on Intraosseous Vascular Access for Emergent infants. BMJ. 2011;342:d2778.
and Nonemergent Situations in Various Healthcare Settings [posi- 32. Atanda A Jr, Statter MB. Compartment syndrome of the leg after
tion paper]. Recommendations for the use of intraosseous access intraosseous infusion: guidelines for prevention, early detection,
for emergent and nonemergent situations in various healthcare and treatment. Am J Orthop. 2008;37(12):e198-e200.
settings: a consensus paper. J Infus Nurs. 2010;33(6):346-351.
13. Emergency Nurses Association/Emergency Nursing Resources
Development Committee. Emergency nursing resource: difficult
intravenous access. http://www.guideline.gov/content.
56. CONTINUOUS
aspx?id=36841. Published 2011. SUBCUTANEOUS INFUSION
14. Hansen M, Meckler G, Spiro D, Newgard C. Intraosseous line AND ACCESS DEVICES
use, complications, and outcomes among a population-based
cohort of children presenting to California hospitals. Pediatr Standard
Emerg Care. 2011;27(10):928-932.
15. Anson JA. Vascular access in resuscitation: is there a role for the 56.1 The clinician assesses the patient for appropriate-
intraosseous route? Anesthesiology. 2014;120(4):1015-1031. ness of the subcutaneous route in relation to the pre-
16. Anson JA, Sinz EH, Swick JT. The versatility of intraosseous scribed medication or solution, the patients clinical
vascular access in perioperative medicine: a case series. J Clin condition, and the presence of adequate subcutaneous
Anesth. 2014;27(1):63-67. tissue.
17. Neuhaus D. Intraosseous infusion in elective and emergency anes-
thesia: when should we use it? Curr Opin Anesthesiol.
2014;27(3):282-287. Practice Criteria
18. Vizcarra C, Clum S. Intraosseous route as alternative access for A. Consider administration of isotonic solutions (5%
infusion therapy. J Infus Nurs. 2010;33(3):162-174.
dextrose in water or 0.9% sodium chloride) via a
19. Voigt J, Waltzman M, Lottenberg L. Intraosseous vascular access
subcutaneous access device (hypodermoclysis) for
for in-hospital emergency use: a systematic clinical review of the
literature and analysis. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2012;28(2):185-199.
treatment of mild to moderate dehydration.1-8 (V)
20. Infusion Nurses Society [position paper]. The role of the regis- B. Consider the subcutaneous route for continuous
tered nurse in the insertion of intraosseous devices. J Infus Nurs. opioid (eg, morphine, hydromorphone, fentanyl)
2009;32(4):187-188. and other infusion therapies/medications (eg, immu-
21. National Association of EMS Physicians [position paper]. noglobulin therapy, terbutaline). In addition, admin-
Intraosseous vascular access in the out-of-the hospital setting. http:// ister other medication on an intermittent basis via a
www.naemsp.org/Documents/Position%20Papers/POSITION%20 subcutaneous access device.2,5,9-11 (V)
IntraosseousVascularAccessintheoutofhospitalsetting.pdf . C. Use hyaluronidase to facilitate the dispersion and
Published 2006. absorption of 1,000 mL or more of subcutaneously
22. Weiser G, Hoffmann, Galbraith R, Shavit I. Current advances in
administered hydration solutions in adults and pedi-
intraosseous infusion: a systematic review. Resuscitation.
atric patients. The dosage of subcutaneous solutions
2012;83:20-26.
23. Fowler R, Gallagher JV, Isaacs SM, et al. The role of intraosseous
administered is dependent upon the patients age,
vascular access in the out-of-hospital environment [resource weight, clinical condition, and laboratory values.
document to NAEMSP position statement]. Prehospital Emerg The rate and volume of subcutaneous fluid
Care. 2007;11(1):63-66. administration should not exceed those employed
24. Hunsaker S, Hillis D. Intraosseous vascular success for alert for intravenous infusion.2,3,5-7,12-20 (V)
patients. Am J Nurs. 2013;113(11):34-39.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S122 05/01/16 11:30 PM

D. Consider the use of hyaluronidase to increase the dis- 1. A stainless steel winged needle is not recom-
persion and absorption of other injected drugs.19,20 (V) mended.5 (IV)
1. In patients taking salicylates (eg, aspirin), ster- J. Perform skin antisepsis prior to inserting the subcu-
oids (eg, cortisone or estrogens), or antihista- taneous access device using 70% isopropyl alcohol,
mines, a larger dose of hyaluronidase for equiva- povidone-iodine, or >0.5% chlorhexidine in alco-
lent dispersing effect may be required.19 (V) hol solution.6,23 (V)
2. Do not use hyaluronidase to enhance the disper- K. Aspirate the subcutaneous infusion access device to
sion and absorption of dopamine and/or alpha- confirm the absence of a blood return prior to
agonist drugs, as the drugs are incompatible. medication and fluid administration.5,6,10 (V)
Consult the drug manufacturers references prior to L. Apply a transparent semipermeable membrane
administering any drug with hyaluronidase.19 (V) (TSM) dressing over the subcutaneous access site to
3. When hyaluronidase is added to a local anes- allow for continuous observation and assessment.
thetic agent, it hastens the onset of analgesia and Change the TSM dressing with each subcutaneous
tends to reduce the swelling caused by local infil- site rotation but immediately if the integrity of the
tration, but the wider spread of the local anes- dressing is compromised.2,5,7 (V)
thetic solution increases its absorption; this M. The optimal subcutaneous infusion rate is unknown.
shortens its duration of action and tends to Medication infusion rates of 3 to 5 mL per hour are
increase the incidence of systemic reaction.19 (V) reported, and hydration infusion rates of up to 1500
4. Use with caution in a nursing mother as it is not mL over 24 hours are reported. More than 1 subcu-
known if hyaluronidase is excreted in breast taneous infusion site may be used to accomplish a
milk.19 (V) larger infusion volume. Follow the manufacturers
5. Assess for adverse reactions of hyaluronidase of recommended subcutaneous administration rate/infu-
mild local access site reactions such as redness, sion method for immunoglobulin infusions.2,6,7,9 (V)
pain, anaphylactic-like reactions, and allergic N. Regulate the infusion of medications administered
reactions.19 (V) as a continuous infusion via a subcutaneous access
E. Select a site for subcutaneous access to include areas device using an electronic infusion device that has
with intact skin that are not near a joint and have the ability to titrate the rate up or down if required
adequate subcutaneous tissue, such as the upper to improve tolerability.5,21 (V)
arm, subclavicular chest wall, abdomen (at least 2 O. Infuse isotonic fluids for hydration via a subcutaneous
inches away from the umbilicus), upper back, and access device using a manual flow regulator.4,6,7 (V)
thighs and/or as recommended by the drug manufac-
turer. Avoid areas that are scarred, infected, or
acutely inflamed.1,2,5-7,21 (V) REFERENCES
F. Rotate the subcutaneous access site used for medica- Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
tion administration every 7 days and as clinically 8, 2015.
indicated based on the access site assessment
findings.5,6 (V) 1. Smith L. Hypodermoclysis with older adults. Nursing.
2014;44(12):66.
G. Rotate the subcutaneous access site used for hydra-
2. Humphrey P. Hypodermoclysis: an alternative to IV infusion
tion solutions every 24 to 48 hours or after 1.5 to 2
therapy. Nursing. 2011;41(11):16-17.
liters of solution has infused and as clinically indicat- 3. Mei A, Auerhahn C. Hypodermoclysis: maintaining hydration in
ed based on the access site assessment findings.2,7 (V) the frail older adult. Ann Long Term Care. 2009;17(5):28-30.
H. Assess the subcutaneous access site and rotate the http://www.annalsoflongtermcare.com/content/hypodermoclysis-
site when there is erythema, swelling, leaking, local maintaining-hydration-frail-older-adult.
bleeding, bruising, burning, abscess, or pain.1,5-7 (V) 4. Scales K. Use of hypodermoclysis to manage dehydration. Nurs
1. For patients receiving subcutaneous immuno- Older People. 2011;23(5):16-22.
globulin infusions, some swelling and site erythe- 5. Parker M, Henderson K. Alternative infusion access devices. In:
ma, pain, and pruritis are common and tend to Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds.
decrease over time. Persistent reactions may Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St
Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:516-524.
require a slower infusion rate or decreased vol-
6. Lybarger E. Hypodermoclysis in the home and long-term care
ume per site, longer needle, or site change.10,22 (V)
settings. J Infus Nurs. 2009;32(1):40-44.
I. Use a small-gauge (ie, 24- to 27-gauge) infusion 7. Walsh G. Hypodermoclysis: an alternative method for rehydra-
device to establish subcutaneous access, and insert tion in long-term care. J Infus Nurs. 2005;28(2):123-129.
the subcutaneous infusion device according to the 8. Emergency Nurses Association/Emergency Nursing Resources
manufacturers guidelines. Use a subcutaneous Development Committee. Emergency nursing resource: difficult
needle labeled for high flow rates when indicated by intravenous access. http://www.guideline.gov/content.
the drug manufacturer.5-7,21 (V) aspx?id=36841. Published December 15, 2011.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S123 05/01/16 11:30 PM

9. Justad M. Continuous subcutaneous infusion: an efficacious, 18. Spandorfer P, Mace S, Okada P, et al. A randomized clinical trial
cost-effective analgesia alternative at the end of life. Home of recombinant human hyaluronidase-facilitated subcutaneous
Healthc Nurse. 2009;27(3):140-147. versus intravenous rehydration in mild to moderately dehydrated
10. Younger MEM, Blouin W, Duff C, Epland KB, Murphy E, Sedlak children in the emergency department. Clin Ther.
D. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: ensuring 2012;34(11):2232-2245.
success. J Infus Nurs. 2015;38(1):70-79. 19. Hylenex [package insert]. San Diego, CA: Halozyme Therapeutics,
11. Lednik L, Baker M, Sullivan K, Poynter M, OQuinn L, Smith C. Inc; 2015. http://www.hylenex.com/files/doc_downloads/
Is self-administration of subcutaneous immunoglobulin therapy June2015/Hylenex-Package-Insert-LBL301-02-Rev-
safe in a home care setting? An evidence-based practice journey. January-2015.pdf.
Home Healthc Nurse. 2013;31(3):134-141. 20. Rosengren S, Dychter S, Printz MA, et al. Clinical immunogenicity
12. Gabriel J. The use of subcutaneous infusion in medication admin- of rHuPH20, a hyaluronidase enabling subcutaneous drug
istration. Br J Nurs. 2013;22(suppl 3):S6-S12. administration. AAPS J. 2015;17(5):1144-1156.
13. Bartz B, Klein C, Seifert A, Herget I, Ostgathe C, Stiel S. 21. HyQvia [package insert]. Westlake Village, CA: Baxter Healthcare
Subcutaneous administration of drugs in palliative care: results of Corporation; 2014. http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Biologics
a systematic observational study. J Pain Symptom Manage. BloodVaccines/BloodBloodProducts/ApprovedProducts/
2014;46(4):540-547. LicensedProductsBLAs/FractionatedPlasmaProducts/
14. Arthur A. Innovations in subcutaneous infusions. J Infus Nurs. UCM414440.pdf.
2015;38(3):179-187. 22. Younger ME, Aro L, Blouin W, et al. Nursing guidelines for
15. Kuensting L. Comparing subcutaneous fluid infusion with intrave- administration of immunoglobulin replacement therapy. J Infus
nous fluid infusion in children. J Emerg Nurs. 2013;39(1):86-91. Nurs. 2013;36(1):58-68.
16. Mace S, Harb H, Friend K, Turpin R, Armstrong E, Lebel F. Am 23. McGoldrick M. Infection prevention and control. In: Alexander
J Emerg Med. 2013;31(6):928-934. M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion
17. Spandorfer P. Subcutaneous rehydration updating a traditional Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO:
technique. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2011;27(3):230-236. Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:212.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S124 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Section Nine: Infusion Therapies
Section Standards administration; address concerns about the appro-

priateness of orders with the pharmacist, prescribing
I. Infusion therapy administration is initiated upon the
licensed independent practioner (LIP), supervisor,
orders of a licensed independent practitioner (LIP) in
and/or risk management, or as defined in organiza-
accordance with organizational policies and proce-
tional policy.1-4 (V)
dures.
B. Recognize physiologic characteristics and effects on
II. References and resources that include current infor-
drug dosage and volume limitations, pharmacologic
mation about parenteral medications and solutions,
actions, interactions, side effects/toxicities, monitor-
including indications, dosing, acceptable infusion
ing parameters, and response to infusion therapy
routes/rates, compatibility data, and adverse/side effects,
when administering solutions and medications to
are readily available to the clinician at the point of care.
special patient populations (eg, neonatal, pediatric,
III. At least 2 patient identifiers are used to ensure accu-
pregnant, older adults) (refer to Standard 2, Special
rate patient identification when administering infusion
Patient Populations).
medications and solutions.
C. Administer solutions and medications prepared and
IV. Aseptic technique is adhered to during all aspects of
dispensed from the pharmacy or as commercially
parenteral medication and solution administration.
prepared solutions and medications in accordance
with USP <797>; if compounded outside of the
pharmacy (immediate-use compounded sterile
57. PARENTERAL MEDICATION
product), initiate administration within 1 hour after
AND SOLUTION ADMINISTRATION
the start of the preparation (refer to Standard 17,
Compounding and Preparation of Parenteral
Standard Solutions and Medications).
57.1 The clinician reviews information regarding the D. Identify and verify medications and infusion solu-
prescribed medication/solution including indications, tions and medications:
dosing, acceptable infusion routes/rates, compatibility 1. Review the label for accuracy against the order
data, and adverse/side effects for appropriateness prior (name, dosage, concentration, administration
to administration. route, frequency, infusion rate); integrity of
57.2 Medications and infusion solutions are identi- solution (eg, no leakage/discoloration/precipi-
fied, compared against the medication order, and veri- tate/gas formation); integrity of packaging (eg,
fied by reviewing the label for the name (brand and open or damaged packaging); sterility (within
generic), dosage and concentration, beyond-use date, beyond-use or expiration date); and in the alter-
expiration date, sterility state, route, rate, and fre- native care settings, verify appropriate storage/
quency of administration, and any other special refrigeration.
instructions. 2. Perform a medication reconciliation at each care
transition and when a new medication(s) is
ordered to reduce the risk of medication error,
Practice Criteria
including omissions, duplications, dosing errors,
A. Review the order for appropriateness of prescribed and drug interactions.
infusion solution or medication for the patients age 3. Use technology according to organizational poli-
and condition, access device, dose, rate and route of cies and procedures (eg, bar code, smart pump
administration; follow the rights of medication with dose-error reduction software), when
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S125 05/01/16 11:30 PM

available, to verify medications prior to adminis- 4. Route tubing having different purposes in differ-
tration. ent directions (eg, IV catheters routed toward the
4. Discard and do not use any medication syringes head; feeding tubes routed toward the feet).8,9 (IV)
that are unlabeled unless the medication is pre- L. Anticipate the implementation of new connector
pared at the patients bedside and immediately standards from the International Organization for
administered without a break in the process. Standardization (ISO). New connectors that will
5. Perform an independent double check by 2 clini- make it nearly impossible to connect from one deliv-
cians according to organizational procedures for ery system to another (eg, enteral to IV) are being
high-alert medications (refer to Standard 13, engineered and introduced into the health care sys-
Medication Verification). tem. This requires awareness, organizational prepa-
E. Limit the use of add-on devices (eg, extension sets) ration, and clinician education and training.10 (V)
to only those clinically indicated due to increased M. There is insufficient evidence to recommend the fre-
risk for contamination from manipulation and to quency of routine replacement of IV solution con-
the risk for accidental disconnections and miscon- tainers (without postmanufacturer additives) with
nections (refer to Standard 36, Add-on Devices). the exception of parenteral nutrition solutions, which
F. Prepare solutions and medications for administra- are replaced every 24 hours. Replacing other IV solu-
tion (eg, spiking infusion container, priming) just tion containers less often than every 24 hours is
prior to administration.5,6 (V) considered in times of product shortages, but such
G. Administer intravenous (IV) push medications and decisions are weighed against the risk of infection.
any subsequent flush at the rate recommended by One study found no relationship between length of
the manufacturer or in accordance with organiza- time used and likelihood of colonization and suggests
tional procedures or guidelines, and use an appro- routine replacement at regular time intervals may not
priate volume of flush solution to ensure administra- be necessary. Further research is recommended (see
tion of the entire dose. Standard 61, Parenteral Nutrition).11,12 (III)
1. Administer IV push medications through the N. Provide patient/caregiver education including, but
needleless connector port closest to the patient in not limited to, infusion administration and signs and
an existing IV infusion to allow the medication symptoms to report, including those that may occur
to reach the circulatory system as soon as after the patient leaves the health care setting (refer
possible.6 (V) to Standard 8, Patient Education).
H. Do not add medications to infusing containers of IV O. Evaluate and monitor response to and effectiveness
solutions.7 (V) of prescribed therapy; documenting patient response,
I. Assess vascular access device (VAD) function and adverse events, and interventions; communicating
patency prior to administration of parenteral solu- the results of laboratory tests; and achieving effec-
tions and medications (refer to Standard 40, Flushing tive delivery of the prescribed therapy.1,13 (V)
and Locking). P. Discontinue infusion medications/solutions:
J. Perform disinfection of connection surfaces (ie, 1. Upon LIP order.
needleless connectors, injection ports) before medi- 2. In the event of a severe reaction (eg, anaphylac-
cation administration, flushing, and locking proce- tic/anaphylactoid reaction, speed shock, circula-
dures (refer to Standard 34, Needleless Connectors). tory overload); notify rapid response team as
K. Reduce the risk for administration set misconnec- available and LIP immediately.13 (V)
tions: Q. Document as follows:
1. Trace all catheters/administration sets/add-on 1. Type of therapy, drug, dose, rate, time, route,
devices between the patient and the container and method of administration.
before connecting or reconnecting any infusion/ 2. When multiple vascular access devices (VADs) or
device, at each care transition to a new setting or catheter lumens are used, document which solu-
service, and as part of the handoff process. tions and medications are being infused through
2. Label administration sets with the infusing solu- each device or lumen.
tion/medication near the patient connection and 3. Condition and patency of VAD site prior to and
near the solution container. after infusion therapy.
3. Instruct the patient, caregivers, and unlicensed 4. Discontinuation of therapy and reason for dis-
assistive personnel (UAP) to obtain assistance continuation.
from licensed staff whenever there is a real or 5. Patients response to infusion therapy including
perceived need to connect or disconnect devices symptoms, side effects, or adverse events and
or infusions unless the patient or caregiver is laboratory tests as appropriate.
independently administering infusion medica- 6. Patient/caregiver participation in, and under-
tions, as in a home care setting. standing of, therapy, interventions, and patient
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S126 05/01/16 11:30 PM

education (refer to Standard 10, Documentation antineoplastic agents are to be placed on hold or discon-
in the Medical Record). tinued.
58.2 Compounding of antineoplastic agents is in accord-
REFERENCES ance with state and federal regulations; the American
Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP); the Drug
Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September Quality and Security Act; and the United States
9, 2015. Pharmacopoeia (USP)-National Formulary (NF), includ-
1. Turner M, Hankins J. Pharmacology. In: Alexander M, Corrigan ing but not limited to General Chapter <797>.
A, Gorski L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An 58.3 Clinical management of potential adverse events,
Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/ including treatment and management of anaphylactic
Elsevier; 2010:263-298. reactions and extravasation injuries, is addressed in
2. CNA/NSO. CNA HealthPro nurse claims study: an analysis of organizational policies, procedures, and/or practice
claims with risk management recommendations, 1997-2007. guidelines.
http://www.hpso.com/Documents/Risk%20Education/individuals/
rnclaimstudy.pdf. Published 2009.
Practice Criteria
3. Reising DL. Make your nursing care malpractice-proof. Am
Nurse Today. 2012;7(1):24-28. A. Ensure that personal protective equipment (PPE)
4. Austin S. Seven legal tips for safe nursing practice. Nursing. and engineering controls are in place for clinicians
2008;38(3):34-39. working with antineoplastic drugs in the health care
5. Dolan S, Felizardo G, Barnes S [position paper]. Safe injection, setting. Antineoplastic drugs are considered hazard-
infusion, and medication vial practices in healthcare. Am J Infect
ous drugs, and organizational policies and proce-
Control. 2010;38(3):167-172.
dures to reduce risk for drug exposure should be in
6. Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). Safe practice
guidelines for adult IV push medications. http://www.ismp.org/ place (see Standard 15, Hazardous Drugs and
Tools/guidelines/ivsummitpush/ivpushmedguidelines.pdf . Waste).
Published 2015. 1. Provide access to PPE; safety data sheets (SDSs;
7. Potter PA, Perry AG, Stockert P, Hall A. Fundamentals of formerly material safety data sheets); spill kits;
Nursing. 8th ed. St Louis, MO: Mosby/Elsevier; 2013:609. containment bags; and designated waste disposal
8. Simmons D, Symes L, Guenter P, Graves K. Tubing misconnec- containers in all areas where hazardous drugs are
tions: normalization of deviance. Nutr Clin Pract. 2011;26(3): handled.1-6 (V)
286-293. 2. During compounding, employ the following:
9. US Food and Drug Administration. Tubing and luer misconnec-
double chemotherapy gloves; protective gown;
tions: preventing dangerous medical errors. http://www.fda.gov/
eye/respiratory protection; ventilated engineering
MedicalDevices/Safety/AlertsandNotices/TubingandLuer
Misconnection s/default.htm.
controls such as a class II biological safety cabi-
10. The Joint Commission. Sentinel event alert: managing risk during net (BSC) or compounding aseptic containment
transition to new ISO tubing connector standards. http://www. isolator (CACI); closed system drug transfer
jointcommission.org/assets/1/6/SEA_53_Connectors_8_19_14_ device.1,6 (V, Regulatory)
final.pdf. Published August 20, 2014. 3. During drug administration, employ the follow-
11. American Society of Health-System Pharmacists; University of ing: double gloves; protective gown; eye protec-
Utah Drug Information Service. Intravenous solution conservation if liquid could splash; respiratory protection
tion strategies. http://www.ashp.org/DocLibrary/Policy/ if inhalation potential; and a closed system drug
Conservation-Strategies-for-IV-Fluids.pdf. Published March 20, transfer device.1,2 (V)
2014.
4. Drug administration sets should be attached and
12. Rickard CM, Vannapraseuth B, McGrail MR, et al. A cross-sec-
primed prior to the addition of the antineoplastic
tional study investigating the relationship between intravenous
infusate colonization and fluid container hang time. J Clin Nurs.
agent within the BSC or CACI.7 (V)
2009;18(2):3022-3028. B. Ensure that only qualified clinicians administer anti-
13. Phillips LD, Gorski LA. Manual of IV Therapeutics: Evidence- neoplastic therapy based on completion of a special-
Based Practice for Infusion Therapy. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: FA ized education and competency program; annual
Davis; 2014. assessment of competency is recommended.4,5,8 (V)
C. Ensure that informed consent was obtained prior to
initiation of antineoplastic therapy, which should
58. ANTINEOPLASTIC THERAPY include a description of risks, benefits, and treat-
ment alternatives; an opportunity to ask questions;
and the right to accept or refuse treatment. A variety
Standard of approaches may be used to obtain informed con-
58.1 Antineoplastic agents are administered only upon sent (see Standard 9, Informed Consent).4,5 (V)
written orders, including new orders or changes to D. Assess patients level of understanding of treatment
existing orders. Verbal orders are acceptable only if and provide patient/caregiver education related to
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S127 05/01/16 11:30 PM

antineoplastic therapy, including mechanism of drainage and/or history of lymph node dissec-
action, potential side effects, signs and symptoms to tion.
report/whom to call, physical and psychological 5. Do not use an established IV site that is greater
effects, and schedule of administration/treatment than 24 hours old. If a new IV site is initiated,
plan.4,5,7,9 (V) use the smallest catheter possible. If the IV
E. Assess patient prior to each treatment cycle, includ- attempt is unsuccessful, additional attempts
ing a review of current laboratory data and diagnos- should be proximal to the previous attempt or on
tic tests, current medication list (including over-the- the opposite arm.
counter and complementary and alternative thera- 6. Instruct patient in the importance of immediately
pies), pretreatment vital signs and weight, expected reporting any pain, burning, sensation changes,
side effects of therapy, and presence of new signs or or feeling of fluid on skin during the infusion.
symptoms of toxicity.10 (V) 7. Confirm and document a positive blood return
F. Implement safeguards to reduce the risk of medica- prior to vesicant administration. Do not admin-
tion errors with antineoplastic drugs. Antineoplastic ister in the absence of a blood return (see
drugs are high-alert medications. Standard 46, Infiltration and Extravasation).
1. Use standardized orders, standardized dosage 8. Provide dilution by administering through a free-
calculation, established dosage limits, computer- flowing infusion of a compatible solution.
ized prescriber order entry (CPOE), bar-code 9. Assess and verify blood return every 2 to 5 mL
technology, and smart pumps (see Standard 13, for IV push and every 5 to 10 minutes during an
Medication Verification).11 (V) infusion, remaining with the patient during the
2. Consult with pharmacist to review drug interac- entire infusion.
tions with each change in the patients medica- 10. Discontinue infusion at first sign of extravasation
tion list.4 (V) (see Standard 46, Infiltration and Extravasation).
3. At the time of the order, independently verify the H. Administer vesicant medications safely via central
antineoplastic order by 2 clinicians who are vascular access devices (CVADs).5,10,14 (V)
qualified in antineoplastic administration to 1. Confirm and document a positive blood return
include confirmation of 2 patient identifiers, drug prior to vesicant administration. Do not admin-
names, dose, volume, route, rate, calculation for ister in the absence of a blood return (see
dosing, treatment cycle, and day.4,10-13 (V) Standard 46, Infiltration and Extravasation).
4. Prior to administration, independently verify the 2. Do not administer if signs of inflammation,
antineoplastic order by 2 clinicians who are swelling, or signs of venous thrombosis present
qualified in antineoplastic administration to (refer to Standard 52, Central Vascular Access
include drug name, dose, volume, rate of admin- Device [CVAD]-Associated Venous Thrombosis).
istration, expiration date, infusion pump rate, 3. Ensure proper placement, and adequately secure
and appearance/physical integrity of the and stabilize the noncoring needle within
drugs.4,10,11,13 (V) implanted vascular access ports.
5. Consider involving patient and family members 4. Provide dilution by administering through a free-
in medication identification; patients often flowing infusion of a compatible solution.
observe and report errors and adverse events. 5. Assess and verify blood return every 2 to 5 mL
Strategies to involve patients in the process of for IV push and every 5 to 10 minutes during an
medication verification should be considered a infusion.
risk-reduction strategy.9 (IV) 6. Discontinue infusion at first sign of extravasation
6. Monitor cumulative chemotherapy dose, as appro- (see Standard 46, Infiltration and Extravasation).
priate, to ensure that the drug is discontinued if 7. Safely dispose of hazardous drugs and materials
the maximum lifetime dose is reached.10,11 (V) contaminated with hazardous drugs (refer to
G. Administer vesicant medications safely via a short Standard 15, Hazardous Drugs and Waste).
peripheral catheter5,10,14: (V)
1. Limit to intravenous (IV) push or infusions last- REFERENCES
ing less than 30 to 60 minutes.
2. Do not use an infusion pump for peripheral vesi- Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
cant administration. 9, 2015.
3. Do not use scalp veins in the neonate and pediat- 1. Connor TH, MacKenzie BA, DeBord DG, et al; National Institute
ric patient. for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). NIOSH List of
4. Avoid the following sites: dorsal hand, wrist, Antineoplastic and Other Hazardous Drugs in Healthcare
antecubital fossa, near a joint, and in the limb Settings. Cincinnati, OH: US Department of Health and Human
where there is impaired circulation or lymphatic Services; 2014. Publication no. 2014-138.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S128 05/01/16 11:30 PM

2. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). in a setting in which the clinician is prepared to recog-
NIOSH alert: preventing occupational exposures to antineoplas- nize and manage severe adverse reactions.
tic and other hazardous drugs in health care settings. Publication 59.2 Patients who receive biologic therapies are screened
no. 2004-165. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2004-165/pdfs/2004-
for absence of contraindications to administration prior
165.pdf. Published 2004.
to the beginning of therapy and prior to each adminis-
3. Rizalar S, Tural E, Altay B. Nurses protective measures during
chemotherapy preparation and administration in Turkey. Int J
tration.
Nurs Pract. 2012;18(1):91-98.
4. Neuss MN, Polovich M, McNiff K, et al. 2013 updated American Practice Criteria
Society of Clinical Oncology/Oncology Nursing Society chemo-
therapy administration safety standards including standards for A. Implement safeguards to reduce the risk of medica-
the safe administration and management of oral chemotherapy. tion adverse reactions and errors with biologic
Oncol Nurs Forum. 2013;40(3):225-233. therapies; immunosuppressant therapies are high-
5. Polovich M, Olsen M, LeFebvre K. Chemotherapy and Biotherapy alert medications.1 (V)
Guidelines and Recommendations for Practice. 4th ed. Pittsburgh, 1. Standardize prescribing, storage, dispensing, and
PA: Oncology Nursing Society; 2014. drug administration through strategies such as
6. United States Pharmacopeial (USP) Convention. USP-NF General computerized prescriber order entry (CPOE),
Chapter <797>: pharmaceutical compoundingsterile prepara- bar-code technology, and smart pumps using
tions. http://www.usp.org/usp-healthcare-professionals/com-
dose-error reduction systems (refer to Standard
pounding/compounding-general-chapters. Published 2015.
13, Medication Verification).
7. Schulmeister L. Antineoplastic therapy. In: Alexander M,
2. Ensure clinician access to drug information.1 (V)
Nursing: An Evidence-Based Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: 3. Collaborate with the licensed independent prac-
Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:351-371. titioner (LIP) and pharmacy regarding special
8. Oncology Nursing Society. Oncology Nursing Society position on safeguards; due to serious risks associated with
the education of the nurse who administers chemotherapy and some biologic agents, risk evaluation and mitiga-
biotherapy. https://www.ons.org/advocacy-policy/positions/edu- tion strategies (REMS) may be required by the
cation/rn. Published 2015. US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).2
9. Schwappach DLB, Wernli M. Medication errors in chemothera- (Regulatory)
py: incidence, types, and involvement of patients in prevention 4. Anticipate potential orders for premedications,
a review of the literature. Eur J Cancer Care. 2010;19(3):285-
such as acetaminophen and diphenhydramine,
292.
which may help to prevent infusion reactions
10. Dahlin C, Lynch M, Polovich M, et al. Vesicant administration
and extravasation management. In: Esparza DM, ed. Oncology
common to many biologics. Nonsteroidal anti-
Policies and Procedures. Pittsburgh, PA: Oncology Nursing inflammatory agents may help prevent fevers
Society; 2014. when interleukin-2 is administered.3-8 (V)
11. Goldspiel B, Hoffman JM, Griffith NL, et al. ASHP guidelines on 5. Ensure availability of drugs for treatment of
preventing medication errors with chemotherapy and biotherapy. adverse reactions in the treatment setting, includ-
Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2014;72(8):e6-e35. ing drugs to treat anaphylaxis; consider patient
12. Markert A, Thierry V, Kleber M, et al. Chemotherapy safety and safety as a primary factor when selecting the
severe adverse events in cancer patients: strategies to efficiently treatment setting.3,5-9 (V)
avoid chemotherapy errors in in- and outpatient treatment. Int J B. Store, prepare, and administer biologic infusion prod-
Cancer. 2008;124(3):722-728.
ucts according to the manufacturers package inserts
13. Bruce S. Before you press that button: a look at chemotherapy
and in accordance with USP <797>, and dispose of
errors. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2013;17(1):31-32.
biologic waste per state guidelines.5,10 (V)
for Nursing Practice and Education. Pittsburgh, PA: Oncology 1. Do not use immunoglobulin products that have
Nursing Society; 2011. been frozen.
2. Reconstitute or prepare liquid products in a
clean environment consistent with USP <797>
59. BIOLOGIC THERAPY (refer to Standard 17, Compounding and
Preparation of Parenteral Solutions and
Medications).
Standard 3. Check expiration dates, and never use expired
59.1. Biologic infusion therapies include, but are not product.
limited to, colony-stimulating factors, gene therapy, 4. Examine solution for particulates, turbidity, or
monoclonal antibodies, fusion proteins, interleukin clumping, and do not use if present.
inhibitors, and immunoglobulins; are ordered in accord- 5. Ensure that biologic products are at room tem-
ance with state laws and regulations, and administered perature before infusing.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S129 05/01/16 11:30 PM

6. Avoid switching immunoglobulin products as 3. Identify the best method for infusion delivery.
this puts the patient at greater risk for adverse Most often, a syringe pump is used; manually
reactions.5 (V). pushing the SCIg is also an option for some
C. Ensure competency in the administration of biologic patients.16 (V)
infusion therapies to include knowledge of the clini- 4. Educate the patient/caregiver about drug prepa-
cal implications, safe preparation of the agents, ration, subcutaneous administration, the impor-
infection prevention, ability to establish venous tance of site rotation, what to do with missed
access, knowledge of appropriate subcutaneous doses, and what to monitor or report during or
infusion sites, provision of patient/family education, after the injection.16,17 (V)
and management of therapy-related adverse H. Consider nurse-administered home administration
events.3,5-7,9 (V) of intravenous immunoglobulin in long-term, stable
D. Assess patients3-8,11-16: (IV) patients who require extended therapy for primary
1. For risk factors before initiation of therapy, immune deficiency diseases.
including, but not limited to, comorbidities; 1. Data suggest that treatment outcomes were
infections (viral, fungal, or bacterial); allergy enhanced by home administration as reflected by
profile (food, medications, drug-drug interac- improved adherence to therapy as measured
tions); history of any previous treatment with by infusion frequency and decreased cost per
and reaction to biologicals; TB testing; history of infusion.19 (IV)
malignancies; weight changes; and hepatitis B
and C screening. REFERENCES
2. For any significant changes in health status prior Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
to each infusion, such as changes in weight, pres- 10, 2015.
ence of any acute illness, infection, or presence of 1. Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). ISMP list of high
diarrhea. alert medications in community/ambulatory healthcare. http://
3. Check vital signs prior to infusion and as indi- ismp.org/communityRx/tools/ambulatoryhighalert.asp. Published
cated during infusion. 2011.
2. US Food and Drug Administration. Approved risk and mitigation
4. Review laboratory data specific to the biological
strategies. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/rems/index.
therapy prior to initiation and during subsequent
cfm.
infusions as indicated.
3. Eisenberg S. Biologic therapy. J Infus Nurs. 2012;35(5):301-313.
E. Inform the patient and caregiver about all aspects of 4. Rosman Z, Shoenfeld Y, Zandman-Goddard G. Biologic therapy
biologic therapy, including physical and psychologi- for autoimmune diseases: an update. BMC Med. 2013;(11):88.
cal effects, side and adverse effects, and management doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-88.
of adverse events, such as infusion reactions, risks 5. Younger M, Blouin W, Duff C, Epland K, Murphy E, Sedlak D.
and benefits, and delayed reactions (see Standard 8, Nursing guidelines for administration of immunoglobulin replace-
Patient Education).5-7 (V) ment therapy. J Infus Nurs. 2013;36(1):58-68.
F. Select the most appropriate flow-control method for 6. Czaplewski L, Vizcarra C. Antineoplastic and biologic therapy. In:
the biologic therapy, taking into account factors Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski L, Phillips L, eds. Core Curriculum
for Infusion Nursing. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/
such as manufacturers recommendations for infu-
sion rates; dosing considerations; volume; duration
7. Vizcarra C. Biologic therapy. In: Alexander M, Corrigan A, Gorski
and use of filters; age, acuity, and mobility of the L, Hankins J, Perucca R, eds. Infusion Nursing: An Evidence-Based
patient; health care setting; and the potential for side Approach. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier; 2010:
effects or adverse effects of the therapy (see Standard 299-315.
24, Flow-Control Devices).5-7 (V) 8. Vogel W. Infusion reactions: diagnosis, assessment, and manage-
G. Consider the option of self-administered subcutane- ment. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2010;14(2):E10-E21.
ous immunoglobulin (SCIg) when feasible. Studies 9. Rheumatology Nurses Society [position statement].
have shown higher immunoglobulin gamma (IgG) Administration of biologic infusions. http://www.prweb.com/
trough levels, lower cost, and enhanced compliance releases/rheumatology/nursing/prweb12558929.htm. Published
and quality of life.16-18 (II) March 3, 2015.
10. United States Pharmacopeial (USP) Convention. USP-NF General
1. Ensure that the first SCIg dose is administered in a
Chapter <797>: pharmaceutical compoundingsterile prepara-
controlled setting under medical supervision.16 (V)
tions. http://www.usp.org/usp-healthcare-professionals/com-
2. Limit infusion volume of standard SCIg to no pounding/compounding-general-chapters. Published2015.
more than a 30-mL volume per site. For 11. Tehrani R, Ostrowski R, Hariman R, Jay W. Review of biologic
hyaluronidase-facilitated SCIg, follow manufac- therapies. Neuro-opthalmology. 2009;33(6):286-299.
turers recommendations for site volume limits 12. Rosman Z, Shoenfeld Y, Zandman-Goddard G. Biologic therapy
(see Standard 56, Continuous Subcutaneous for autoimmune diseases: an update. BMC Med. 2013;11:88.
Infusion and Access Devices).16 (V) http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/11/88.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S130 05/01/16 11:30 PM

13. Goh L, Ash S. Update on biologic therapies in ankylosing spon- for patients who have obstructive sleep apnea or are
dylitis: a literature review. Int J Rheum Dis. 2012;15(5):445-454. opioid nave.17-21 (II)
14. Page E, Dar W, Knechtle S. Biologics in organ transplantation. E. Consider a double check by another clinician using
Transplant Int. 2012;25(7):707-719.
independent verification prior to initiation of the
15. Namey M, Halper J, OLeary S, Beavin J, Bishop C. Best prac-
PCA and when the syringe, solution container,
tices in multiple sclerosis. J Infus Nurs. 2010;33(2):98-111.
16. Younger M, Blouin W, Duff C, Epland K, Murphy E, Sedlak D.
drug, or rate is changed. Give special attention to
Subcutaneous immunoglobulin replacement therapy: ensuring drug, concentration, dose, and rate of infusion
success. J Infus Nurs. 2015;38(1):70-79. according to the order and as programmed into
17. Lingman-Framme J, Fasth A. Subcutaneous immunoglobulin for the electronic infusion device (EID) in order to
primary and secondary immunodeficiencies: an evidence-based reduce the risk of adverse outcomes and medica-
review. Drugs. 2013;73(12):1307-1319. tion errors (see Standard 13, Medication
18. Abolhassani H, Sadaghiani M, Aghamohammadi A, Ochs H, Verification).14,20 (V)
Rezaei N. Home-based subcutaneous immunoglobulin versus F. Provide patient and caregiver education appropriate
hospital-based intravenous immunoglobulin in treatment of pri- to duration of therapy and care setting and include
mary antibody deficiency: systematic review and meta analysis. J
the purpose of PCA therapy, operating instructions
Clin Immunol. 2012;32(6):1180-1192.
for the EID, expected outcomes, precautions, poten-
19. Luthra R, Quimbo R, Iyer R, Luo M. An analysis of intravenous
immunoglobulin site of care: home versus hospital. Am J Pharm
tial side effects, and contact information for support
Benefits. 2014;6:e41-e49. services.8,14,17,20-24 (II)
G. Evaluate the effectiveness of PCA/AACA/PNCA and
absence of adverse events using valid and reliable
60. PATIENT-CONTROLLED monitoring and assessment methods or scales and
ANALGESIA documentation tools through:
1. Regular assessment and reassessment of patient
Standard self-report of pain or objective measure of pain,
using a consistent pain-assessment scale appro-
60.1 The clinician is competent in the care of patients priate to the patient.
receiving patient-controlled analgesia (PCA), with 2. Monitoring for potential adverse effects includ-
knowledge of the appropriate drugs used with PCA, ing, but not limited to, sedation and respiratory
including pharmacokinetics and equianalgesic dosing, depression. If risk factors are present, monitoring
contraindications, side effects and their management, more frequently and using capnography, pulse
appropriate administration modalities, and anticipated oximetry, and/or other clinically effective
outcomes. methods.
60.2 The patient and caregiver are educated in the use 3. Regular evaluation of PCA injections and
of PCA. The patients and caregivers comprehension attempts.
and ability to comply with procedures are evaluated 4. Considering the need for change in treatment
and documented prior to and on initiation of therapy. methods as necessary.8,11,14,17,20,21,25-35 (II)
60.3 The use of infusion devices for PCA adheres to H. Participate in selection and evaluation of PCA EIDs
manufacturers directions for use. and quality processes to promote patient safety,
which includes dose-error reduction systems (DERSs),
Practice Criteria bar-coding technology, and Healthcare Failure Mode
and Effect Analysis (HFMEA).14,20,21,27,29,36-44 (V)
A. Assess the patient for the appropriateness of PCA
therapy and the patients comprehension of, and
ability to participate in, the intended therapy.1-7 (I) REFERENCES
B. Assess the patient for appropriateness of using Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
authorized agent-controlled analgesia (AACA) if the 11, 2015.
patient is unable to actively participate in PCA or
parent/nurse-controlled analgesia (PNCA) for 1. American Pain Society. Principles of Analgesic Use in the
Treatment of Acute Pain and Cancer Pain. 6th ed. Glenview, IL:
infants.8-11 (V)
American Pain Society; 2009.
C. Use standardized medication concentrations and
2. Anghelescu DL, Faughnan LG, Oakes LL, Windsor KB, Pei D,
standardized or preprinted order sets for PCA and Burgoyne LL. Parent-controlled PCA for pain management in
AACA.12-16 (V) pediatric oncology: is it safe? J Pediatr Hematol Oncol.
D. Identify patient risk factors which include, but are 2012;34(6):416-420.
not limited to, older age, morbid obesity, obstructive 3. Bainbridge D, Martin J, Cheng DC. Patient-controlled versus
sleep apnea, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, nurse-controlled analgesia after cardiac surgery: a meta-analysis.
renal insufficiency, and continuous basal infusions Can J Anesth. 2006;53(5):492-499.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S131 05/01/16 11:30 PM

4. Crisp CC, Bandi S, Kleeman SD, et al. Patient-controlled versus 20. The Joint Commission. Sentinel event alert: safe use of opioids in
scheduled, nurse-administered analgesia following vaginal recon- hospitals. http://www.jointcommission.org/assets/1/18/SEA_49_
structive surgery: a randomized trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. opioids_8_2_12_final.pdf. Published 2012.
2012;207(5):433.e1-433.e6. 21. Surprise JK, Simpson MH. One hospitals initiatives to encourage
5. Horgas AL, Yoon SL, Grall M. Pain management. In: Boltz M, safe opioid use. J Infus Nurs. 2015;38(4):278-283.
Capezuti E, Fulmer T, Zwicker D. Evidence-Based Geriatric 22. Moyano J, Zambrano S. The influence of information leaflets on
Nursing Protocols for Best Practice. 4th ed. New York, NY: morphine consumption in postoperative patients using patient-
Springer; 2012:246-267. controlled analgesia. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2011;
6. Hudcova J, McNicol ED, Quah CS, Lau J, Carr DB. Patient con- 25(4):335-339.
trolled opioid analgesia versus conventional opioid analgesia for 23. Patak L, Tait A, Mirafzali L, Morris M, Dasgupta S, Brummett C.
postoperative pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev . Patient perspectives of patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) and
2006(4):CD003348. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003348.pub2. methods for improving pain control and patient satisfaction. Reg
7. Myers M, Eckes E. A novel approach to pain management in Anesth Pain Med. 2013;38(4):326-333.
persons with sickle cell disease. Medsurg Nurs. 2012;21(5): 24. Yankova Z. Patients knowledge of patient-controlled analgesia
293-298. (PCA) and their experience of postoperative pain relief: a review
8. Cooney MF, Czarnecki M, Dunwoody C, et al; American Society of the impact of structured preoperative education. J Adv
for Pain Management. Nursing position statement with clinical Perioper Care. 2008;3(3):91-99.
practice guidelines: authorized agent controlled analgesia. Pain 25. Crosta QR, Ward TM, Walker AJ, Peters LM. A review of pain
Manage Nurs. 2013;14(3):176-181. measures for hospitalized children with cognitive impairment. J
9. DArcy Y. PCA by proxy: taking the patient out of patient-con- Spec Pediatr Nurs. 2014;19(2):109-118.
trolled analgesia. Dimens Crit Care Nurs. 2013;32(4): 26. Herr K, Coyne PJ, McCaffery M, Manworren R, Merkel S. Pain
200-203. assessment in the patient unable to self-report: position statement
10. Webb RJ, Shelton CP. The benefits of authorized agent controlled with clinical practice recommendations. Pain Manage Nurs.
analgesia (AACA) to control pain and other symptoms at the end 2011;12(4):230-250.
of life. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2015;50(3):371-374. 27. Institute for Safe Medication Practices. Fatal PCA adverse events
11. Czarnecki ML, Hainsworth K, Simpson PM, et al. Is there an continue to happen better patient monitoring is essential to
alternative to continuous opioid infusion for neonatal pain con- prevent harm. Acute Care ISMP Med Saf Alert. May 30, 2013.
trol? A preliminary report of parent/nurse-controlled analgesia in https:// www.ismp.org/newsletters/acutecare/showarticle.
the neonatal intensive care unit. Paediatr Anaesth. 2014;24(4): aspx?id=50.
377-385. 28. Institute for Safe Medication Practices. Proceedings from the
12. Ehringer G, Duffy B. Promoting best practice and safety through ISMP summit on the use of smart infusion pumps: guidelines for
preprinted physician orders. In: Henriksen K, Battles JB, Keyes safe implementation and use. http://www.ismp.org/Tools/guide-
MA, Grady ML, eds. Advances in Patient Safety: New Directions lines/smartpumps/comments/printerVersion.pdf. Published 2009.
and Alternative Approaches. Rockville, MD: Agency for 29. Maddox RR, Danello S, Williams CK, Fields M. Intravenous
Healthcare Research and Quality; 2008. Publication 08-0034-2. infusion safety initiative: collaboration, evidence-based best prac-
http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/advances2/vol2/Advances- tices, and smart technology help avert high-risk adverse drug
Ehringer_17.pdf. events and improve patient outcomes. In: Henriksen K, Battles
13. Institute for Safe Medication Practices. Guidelines for standard JB, Keyes MA, Grady ML, eds. Advances in Patient Safety: New
order sets. http://www.ismp.org/Tools/guidelines/StandardOrder Directions and Alternative Approaches. Rockville, MD: Agency
Sets.pdf. Published 2010. for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2008. Publication no.
14. San Diego Patient Safety Council. Tool kit: patient controlled 08-0034-4.
analgesia (PCA) guidelines of care for the opioid nave patient. 30. Maddox RR, Williams CK. Clinical experience with capnography
http://www.carefusion.com/pdf/The_Center/2008-PCA-toolkit- monitoring for PCA patients. APSF Newsletter. 2012;26(3):47-
disclaimer-updated-may-30-2014.pdf. Published 2009. Updated 50. http://www.apsf.org/newsletters/pdf/winter_2012.pdf.
2014. 31. McCarter T, Shaik Z, Scarfo K, Thompson LJ. Capnography
15. Schein JR, Hicks RW, Nelson WW, Sikirica V, Doyle DJ. Patient monitoring enhances safety of postoperative patient-controlled
controlled analgesia-related medication errors in the postopera- analgesia. Am Health Drug Benefits. 2008;1(5):28-35.
tive period: causes and prevention. Drug Saf. 2009;32(7): 32. Nisbet AT, Mooney-Cotter F. Comparison of selected sedation
549-559. scales for reporting opioid-induced sedation assessment. Pain
16. Weber LM, Ghafoor VL, Phelps P. Implementation of standard Manage Nurs. 2009;10(3):154-164.
order sets for patient-controlled analgesia. Am J Health Syst 33. Overdyk FJ, Carter R, Maddox RR, Callura J, Herrin AE,
Pharm. 2008;65(12):1184-1191. Henriquez C. Continuous oximetry/capnometry monitoring
17. Jarzyna D, Jungquist CR, Pasero C, et al; American Society for reveals frequent desaturation and bradypnea during patient-con-
Pain Management Nursing guidelines on monitoring for opioid- trolled analgesia. Anesth Analg. 2007;105(2):412-418.
induced sedation and respiratory depression. Pain Manage Nurs. 34. Voepel-Lewis T, Marinkovic A, Kostrzewa A, Tait AR, Malviya S.
2011;12(3):118-145.e10. The prevalence of and risk factors for adverse events in children
18. Smetzer J, Cohen MR, Jenkins R. APSF offers recommendations receiving patient-controlled analgesia by proxy or patient-con-
for safe post-op opioid administration and monitoring. ISMP trolled analgesia after surgery. Anesth Analg. 2008;107(1):70-75.
Med Saf Alert. 2009;14(19):3. 35. Patino M, Redford DT, Quigley TW, Mahmoud M, Kurth CD,
19. Smetzer J, Cohen MR, Jenkins R. Beware of basal opioid infu- Szmuk P. Accuracy of acoustic respiration rate monitoring in
sions with PCA therapy. ISMP Med Saf Alert. 2009;14(5):1-3. pediatric patients. Paediatr Anaesth. 2013;23(12):1166-1173.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S132 05/01/16 11:30 PM

36. Cronrath P, Lynch T, West D, et al. PCA oversedation: application Practice Criteria
of healthcare failure mode effect analysis (HFMEA). Nurs
Econ. 2011;29(2):79-87. A. Prescribe PN safely and appropriately.
37. Drummond G, Bates A, Mann J, Arvind D. Characterization of 1. Use the enteral route in preference to the
breathing patterns during patient-controlled opioid analgesia. Br parenteral route for nutrition support whenever
J Anaesth. 2013;111(6):971-978. feasible.1-6 (I)
38. Foinard A, Dcaudin B, Barthlmy C, Lebuffe G, Debaene B, 2. For patients who will transition from an acute
Odou P. Impact of infusion set characteristics on the accuracy of care to the home setting, include the following
patient-controlled morphine administration: a controlled in-vitro factors in the discharge planning process: insur-
study. Anaesthesia. 2014;69(2):131-136.
ance coverage, home safety, and a physical, nutri-
39. Gentile DL, St Marie B. Pain management. In: Weinstein SM,
tional, and psychological needs assessment.7 (V)
Therapy. 9th ed. New York, NY: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott
3. Use standardized order forms or templates and
Williams & Wilkins; 2014:651-683. computerized prescriber order entry (CPOE)
40. Jahansouz F, Rafie S, Chu F, Lamott J, Atayee R. Impact of smart whenever feasible, as they have been found to
infusion pump implementation on intravenous patient-controlled prevent errors related to prescriptions for PN.8,9
analgesia medication errors. Calif J Health Syst Pharm. (IV)
2013;25(5):145-150. 4. Develop licensed independent practitioner (LIP)-
41. Moss J. Reducing errors during patient-controlled analgesia approved written protocols for PN component
therapy through failure mode and effects analysis. Jt Comm J substitution or conservation methods in the event
Qual Patient Saf. 2010;36(8):359-364. of drug/component shortages.9 (V)
42. Prewitt J, Schneider S, Horvath M, Hammond J, Jackson J,
B. Prepare and compound PN properly.
Ginsberg B. PCA safety data review after clinical decision support
1. Compound PN solutions/emulsions in the phar-
and smart pump technology implementation. J Patient Saf.
2013;9(2):103-109.
macy using a primary engineering control in
43. Reston J. Smart pumps and other protocols for infusion pumps: accordance with USP <797> standards.10
brief review. In: Shekelle PG, Wachter RM, Pronovost PJ, et al, (Regulatory)
eds. Making Health Care Safer II: An Updated Critical Analysis 2. Attach administration tubing to the PN container
of the Evidence for Patient Safety Practices. Rockville, MD: and prime the tubing just prior to use.10 (Regulatory)
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; March 2013: 3. Assess for compatibility and stability before add-
48-54. ing medications and other substances to PN solu-
44. Tran M, Ciarkowski S, Wagner D, Stevenson JG. A case study on tions/emulsions in compliance with USP <797>
the safety impact of implementing smart patient-controlled anal- standards. In acute care settings, no additions
gesic pumps at a tertiary care academic medical center. Jt Comm
should be made to the PN solutions outside of
J Qual Patient Saf. 2012;38(3):112-119.
the compounding pharmacy; in home settings,
additions to the PN solution should be limited in
61. PARENTERAL NUTRITION number and made as close as possible to infusion
initiation.4,10 (V, Regulatory)
4. Label PN solutions/emulsions in accordance with
Standard
USP <797> standards. Medications and other
61.1 The decision to implement parenteral nutrition substances added to PN solutions/emulsions are
(PN) occurs in collaboration with the patient/caregiver also documented on the label.10 (Regulatory)
and the interprofessional team based on the projected C. PN administration.
treatment plan. 1. Filter PN solutions without lipids using a
61.2 PN is administered using filtration appropriate to 0.2-micron filter and lipid-containing emulsions
the type of solution/emulsion. (3-in-1) using a 1.2-micron filter to reduce the
61.3 PN is administered using an electronic infusion risk of microbial, precipitate, or particulate con-
device (EID) with antifree-flow control and appropri- tamination. When lipids are infused separately
ate alarms. from dextrose/amino acids, a 0.2-micron filter is
61.4 Compounding of PN is in accordance with state used for the dextrose/amino acid solution, and
and federal regulations, the American Society of Health- the lipid emulsion must be infused below the
System Pharmacists (ASHP), the Drug Quality and 0.2-micron filter (eg, during piggyback).
Security Act, and the United States Pharmacopoeia Separate lipid emulsions may not require filtration;
(USP) National Formulary (NF) including, but not lim- consult manufacturers directions for use. If
ited to, General Chapter <797>. required, a 1.2-micron filter is used on the sepa-
61.5 Medications are not added to or coinfused with rate lipid emulsion.1-9 (II)
the PN solutions/emulsions before or during infusion 2. Do not exceed a hang time of 24 hours for PN
without consultation with a pharmacist regarding com- containing dextrose and amino acids alone or
patibility and stability. with fat emulsion added as a 3-in-1 formulation.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S133 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Do not exceed a hang time of 12 hours for fat 10. Do not attach administration sets until the time
emulsions alone.4 (IV) of infusion.4 (V)
3. Replace administration sets for PN solutions D. Monitor and provide patient education.
(total nutrient admixtures [TNA] and amino 1. Include physiological, sociological, and psycho-
acid/dextrose formulations) at least every 24 logical aspects of response to therapy for patients
hours. There are also recommendations to change who are on long-term PN.18-20 (II)
the administration set with each new PN con- 2. Monitoring of the patient receiving PN includes
tainer. Containers and administration sets should body weight; fluid and electrolyte balance; meta-
be di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP)-free (refer bolic tolerance, especially glucose control; organ
to Standard 42, Administration Set Change). function; nutrition therapy-related complica-
4. Administer PN solutions/emulsions containing tions; functional performance; and psychological
final concentrations exceeding 10% dextrose or responses. Educate the home patient/caregiver
other additives that result in an osmolarity of about signs and symptoms of metabolic intoler-
greater than 900 mOsm/L through a central vas- ance, infection, and access device complications
cular access device (CVAD) (see Standard 23, to report to the health care team.5-7,18-20 (V)
Central Vascular Access Device [CVAD] Tip 3. Monitor blood glucose on and off PN during
Location; Standard 26, Vascular Access Device initial cycling in the acute care or home setting.5-7
[VAD] Planning).11-16 (III) (V)
5. Reserve the administration of PN solutions/emul- 4. Teach patients or family members of patients
sions with a final concentration of 10% dextrose who receive home PN about access device care,
or lower administered via a short peripheral or weight and hydration monitoring, blood/urine
midline catheter for situations in which a CVAD glucose monitoring, EID use and troubleshoot-
is not currently feasible and delay of feeding ing, signs and symptoms to report, and assist
would be detrimental to the patient. Consider patients to fit PN into their lifestyle (see Standard
dextrose and other additives that affect osmolar- 8, Patient Education).1,7,18-22 (V)
ity and do not exceed an osmolarity of 900
mOsm/L for peripheral PN solutions. Clinical REFERENCES
trials demonstrate that peripheral PN causes phle-
bitis. The risk/benefit decision to use peripheral Note: All electronic references in this section were accessed September
PN should include as many phlebitis-mitigating 14, 2015.
techniques as possible (see Standard 26, Vascular 1. Durfee S, Adams S, Arthur E, et al; Home and Alternate Site Care
Access Device [VAD] Planning).11-16 (IV). Standards Task Force, American Society for Parenteral and
6. Use EIDs with antifree-flow protection and Enteral Nutrition. A.S.P.E.N. standards for nutrition support:
alarms for occlusion. Consider the use of smart home and alternate site care. Nutr Clin Pract. 2014;29(4):542-
pumps with dose-error reduction software as 555.
they are associated with reduced risk for infu- 2. Corkins M, Griggs K, Groh-Wargo S, et al; Task Force on
sion-related medication errors, including error Standards for Nutrition Support: Pediatric Hospitalized Patients,
American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. A.S.P.E.N.
interceptions (eg, wrong rate) and reduced
standards for nutrition support: pediatric hospitalized patients.
adverse drug events (refer to Standard 13,
Nutr Clin Pract. 2013;28(2):262-276.
Medication Verification; Standard 24, Flow- 3. Ukleja A, Freeman K, Gilbert K, et al; Task Force on Standards
Control Devices). for Nutrition Support: Adult Hospitalized Patients, American
7. Reduce the risk of catheter-related bloodstream Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. A.S.P.E.N. stand-
infection (CR-BSI) when administering PN. ards for nutrition support: adult hospitalized patients. Nutr Clin
a. Avoid blood sampling via the CVAD used for Pract. 2010;25(4):403-414.
PN when feasible (refer to Standard 43, 4. Ayers P, Adams S, Boullata J, et al. A.S.P.E.N. parenteral nutri-
Phlebotomy). tion safety consensus recommendations. J Parenter Enteral Nutr.
b. Consider use of a designated single-lumen 2014;38(3):296-333.
catheter to administer lipid-containing PN 5. Krzywda E, Meyer D. Parenteral nutrition. In: Alexander M,
solutions.17 (IV)
8. Avoid unplanned interruptions in the administra-
tion of PN. Tapering the rate of administration is 6. American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. Standards
not required for adult patients but is recom- of practice for nutrition support nurses. Nutr Clin Pract.
mended for children < 3 years of age.4 (V) 2007;22(5):558-586.
9. Keep PN solutions refrigerated and protected from 7. Winkler M, Guenter P. Long-term home parenteral nutrition: it
light until shortly before the time of administration takes an interdisciplinary approach. J Infus Nurs. 2014;37(5):
to avoid oxidation of vitamins.1,4 (IV) 389-395.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S134 05/01/16 11:30 PM

8. Boullata J, Glibert K, Sacks G, et al. A.S.P.E.N. clinical standards: components, platelets, granulocytes, cryoprecipi-
parenteral nutrition ordering, order review, compounding, label- tate) only after alternative therapy has been consid-
ling, and dispensing. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2014;38(3): ered. Transfuse blood and blood components in
334-377.
accordance with evidence-based indications to
9. Gahart B, Nazareno A. Intravenous Medications: A Handbook
ensure patient safety, optimal patient outcomes, and
for Nurses and Health Professionals. 31st ed. St Louis, MO:
Elsevier/Mosby/Sanders; 2015.
eliminate unnecessary transfusions.1-6 (V)
10. US Pharmacopeia (USP). General Chapter <797>: pharmaceuti- B. Ensure that informed consent was obtained. Consent
cal compoundingsterile preparations. In: U.S. Pharmacopeia/ should include a description of risks, benefits, and
National Formulary. 37/32 ed. Rockville, MD: United States treatment alternatives, an opportunity to ask ques-
Pharmacopeial Convention Inc; 2014. tions, and the right to accept or refuse the
11. Dugan S, Le J, Jew RK. Maximum tolerated osmolarity for transfusion.7,8 (V)
peripheral administration of parenteral nutrition in pediatric C. Perform a baseline physical assessment prior to
patients. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2014;38(7):847-851. obtaining blood for transfusion, including vital signs,
12. Gazitua R, Wilson K, Bistrian BR, Blackburn GL. Factors deter- lung assessment, identification of conditions that
mining peripheral vein tolerance to amino acid infusions. Arch
may increase the risk of transfusion-related adverse
Surg. 1979;114(8):897-900.
reactions (eg, current fever, heart failure, renal dis-
13. Stranz M, Kastango E. A review of pH and osmolarity. Int J
Pharm Compd. 2002;6(3):216-220.
ease, and risk of fluid volume excess), the presence of
14. Hoheim DF, OCallaghan TA, Joswiak BJ, et al. Clinical experi- an appropriate and patent vascular access device
ence with three-in-one admixtures administered peripherally. (VAD), and current laboratory values.8,9 (V)
Nutr Clin Pract. 1990;5(3):118-122. D. Choose an appropriate VAD based on patient condi-
15. Isaacs JW, Millikan WJ, Stackhouse J, Hersh T, Rudman D. tion and transfusion needs:
Parenteral nutrition of adults with 900-milliosmolar solution via 1. Short peripheral catheters: use 20 to 24 gauge
peripheral vein. Am J Clin Nutr. 1977;30(4):552-559. based on vein size and patient preference. When
16. Hoffmann E. A randomized study of central venous versus rapid transfusion is required, a larger-size cathe-
peripheral intravenous nutrition in the postoperative period. Clin ter gauge is recommended (14-18 gauge).8,10 (IV)
Nutr. 1989;8(4):179-180.
2. Central vascular access devices (CVADs): accept-
17. Loveday HP, Wilson JA, Pratt RJ, et al. epic3: national evidence-
able for transfusions; recognize that with periph-
based guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated infections in
NHS hospitals in England. J Hosp Infect. 2014;86(suppl 1):S1-S70.
erally inserted central catheters, infusion may be
18. Kirby D, Corrigan M, Speerhas R, Emery D. Home parenteral slower based on catheter length and lumen
nutrition tutorial. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2012;36(6):632-644. size.8,11 (V)
19. Baxter JP, Fayers PM, McKinley AW. A review of the quality of 3. Neonatal/pediatric patients: umbilical venous
life of adult patients treated with long-term parenteral nutrition. catheters or small saphenous vein catheters (24
Clin Nutr. 2006;25(4):543-553. gauge) are commonly used in infants and/or pedi-
20. Stern JM, Jacyna N, Lloyd DAJ. Review article: psychological atric patients.8,10,12 (V)
aspects of home parenteral nutrition, abnormal illness behavior E. Perform patient and blood product identification:
and risk of self-harm in patients with central venous catheters. 1. At the time that the blood component is released
Alimentary Pharmacol Ther. 2008;27(10):910-918.
from the transfusion service to include: recipi-
21. Winkler MF, Smith CE. The impact of long-term home parenteral
ents 2 independent identifiers; ABO group and
nutrition on the patient and family. J Infus Nurs. 2015;38(4):
290-300.
Rh type; donation identification number; ABO
22. The Oley Foundation Web site. www.oley.org. group and Rh type if required; crossmatch test
interpretation if performed; special transfusion
requirements; expiration date/time; and date/
62. TRANSFUSION THERAPY time of issue.7,8,13 (V)
2. During an independent double check by 2 adults
Standard in the presence of the patient (eg, hospital/outpa-
tient setting: 2 persons trained in the identifica-
62.1 Verification of the correct patient and blood prod-
tion of the recipient and blood components; in
uct is performed in the presence of the patient prior to
home setting: registered nurse and responsible
transfusion.
62.2 Blood and blood components are filtered using an adult):
in-line or add-on filter appropriate to the prescribed a. Verify the blood component: review the
therapy. licensed independent practitioners (LIPs)
order for transfusion; type of blood compo-
nent (red blood cell, plasma, platelet); patient
Practice Criteria
blood type compatibility with the unit to be
A. Administer human blood and blood components transfused; crossmatch test interpretation if
(whole blood, red blood cells, plasma and plasma performed; donor identification number; unit
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S135 05/01/16 11:30 PM

expiration date/time; and any product modifi- pediatric patients or adult patients at risk for fluid
cation such as irradiation or cytomegalovirus overload. Platelets should be administered over 30
(CMV) seronegative component.7,8,13 (V) minutes to 4 hours. Each unit of plasma should be
b. A 1-person verification process may be used administered as quickly as tolerated by the patient
with automated identification technology (eg, or over 15 to 60 minutes.8,13 (V)
bar code with appropriate logic/interface K. Electronic infusion devices (EIDs) can be used to
application). The use of computerized bar deliver blood or blood components without signifi-
code-based blood identification systems cant risk of hemolysis of red blood cells. EIDs that
resulted in a large increase in discovered near- have a labeled indication for blood transfusion
miss events. Emerging technology includes should be used. Follow the manufacturers direc-
radiofrequency identification devices.8,14-16 tions for use (see Standard 24, Flow-Control
(IV) Devices).8,17 (IV)
F. Inspect each blood component prior to transfusion, L. Use only a blood-warming device, with a labeled
and do not use if container is not intact or if the indication, when clinically necessary, such as with
appearance is not normal (eg, excessive hemolysis, large-volume or rapid transfusions, exchange trans-
significant color change in blood bag compared to fusions, patients with clinically significant condi-
administration set, presence of floccular material, tions, and the neonate/pediatric population. The risk
cloudy appearance) and return it to the transfusion for clinically important hypothermia is increased
service.8,13 (V) when blood is transfused through a CVAD (see
G. Administer blood or blood components with 0.9% Standard 25, Blood and Fluid Warming).7,8 (V)
sodium chloride. No other solutions or medications M. Consider the use of an externally applied compres-
should be added to or infused through the same sion device or electronic rapid infusion device,
administration set with blood or blood components according to manufacturers directions for use,
unless they have been approved by the US Food and when rapid transfusion is required. Externally
Drug Administration (FDA) for this use.7,8,13 (I A/P) applied compression devices should be equipped
H. Filter all blood components and follow the manufac- with a pressure gauge, totally encase the blood bag,
turers directions for filter use. and apply uniform pressure against all parts of the
1. Use a filter designed to remove blood clots and blood container. Pressure should not exceed 300 mm
harmful particles; standard blood administration Hg. For rapid infusion, a larger-gauge catheter may
sets include a 170- to 260-micron filter.7,8,13 (V) be more effective than a pressure device.8 (V)
2. Do not use microaggregate filters routinely; these N. Monitor for adverse transfusion events.
are most often used for reinfusion of blood shed 1. Check the patients vital signs prior to transfu-
and collected during surgery.8 (V) sion, within 5 to 15 minutes after initiating trans-
3. Leukoctye reduction filtration is generally pre- fusion, after the transfusion, and as needed
ferred prestorage or shortly after blood collec- depending on patient condition.8 (V)
tion. Bedside leukocyte reduction is a less effi- 2. Initiate the transfusion slowly at approximately 2
cient method and has been associated with dra- mL per minute for the first 15 minutes, and
matic hypotension in some patients. Use of leu- remain near the patient; increase the transfusion
kocyte-reduced blood products (red cells and rate if there are no signs of a reaction and to
platelets) decreases the risk of febrile transfusion ensure the completion of the unit within 4
reactions, risk of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) hours.8 (V)
alloimmunization, and transmission of CMV.8 3. Stop the transfusion immediately if signs and
(V) symptoms of a transfusion reaction are present;
4. Never use leukocyte filtration when transfusing notify the LIP and transfusion service, and
granulocyte or hematopoietic progenitor administer emergency medications as pre-
cells.7,8,13 (V) scribed.7,8,13,18 (V)
I. Change the transfusion administration set and filter 4. Monitor patients for transfusion reactions for at
after the completion of each unit or every 4 hours. If least 4 to 6 hours to detect febrile or pulmonary
more than 1 unit can be infused in 4 hours, the reactions associated with the transfusion; for
transfusion set can be used for a 4-hour period (see patients not under direct observation after the
Standard 42, Administration Set Change).8 (V) transfusion, provide patient education about
J. Administer and complete each unit of blood or signs and symptoms of a delayed transfusion
blood component within 4 hours. Consider asking reaction and importance of reporting.7,8,12,18 (V)
the transfusion service to divide a unit of red blood O. Ensure safe transfusion practice if transfusing in an
cells or whole blood into smaller aliquots when out-of-hospital setting including the following: doc-
slower infusion of a unit is required, such as with umentation showing no identified adverse events
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S136 05/01/16 11:30 PM

during previous transfusions; immediate access to 13. AABB. Circular of information for the use of human blood and
the LIP by phone during the transfusion; another blood components. http://www.aabb.org/tm/coi/Documents/
competent adult present and available to assist with coi1113.pdf. Published 2013.
14. Nuttal GA, Abenstein JP, Stubbs JR, et al. Computerized bar code-
patient identification and calling for medical assis-
based identification systems and near-miss transfusion episodes
tance if needed; ability to transport blood product in
and transfusion errors. Mayo Clin Proc. 2013;88(4):354-359.
cooling containers verified for correct temperature; 15. Askeland RW, McGrane SP, Reifert DR, Kemp JD. Enhancing
ability to appropriately dispose of medical waste; transfusion safety with an innovative bar-code-based tracking
and a well-designed patient and caregiver education system. Healthc Q. 2009;12(Sp):85-89.
process, including clearly written instructions 16. Hohberger C, Davis R, Briggs L, Guitierrez A, Veeramani D.
regarding transfusion reactions.8 (V) Applying radiofrequency identification (RFID) technology in
P. Consider participation in the National Healthcare transfusion medicine. Biologicals. 2012;40(3):209-213.
Safety Networks (NHSNs) voluntary program to 17. Frey B, Eber S, Weiss M. Changes in red blood cell integrity
monitor recipient adverse reactions and quality con- related to infusion pumps: a comparison of 3 different pump
trol incidents related to blood transfusions. mechanisms. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2003;4(4):465-470.
18. Crookston KP, Koenig JC, Reyes MD, et al. Transfusion reaction
Participation provides organizations with data that
identification and management at the bedside. J Infus Nurs.
can be used for interorganizational comparison and
2015;38(2):104-113.
quality improvement activities.19 (V) 19. National Healthcare Safety Network. Blood safety surveillance.
http://www.cdc.gov/nhsn/acute-care-hospital/bio-hemo/index.
REFERENCES html. Updated September 14, 2015.

14, 2015.
63. MODERATE SEDATION/
1. Ghiglione M, Puca KE. Patient blood management. In: Fung MK,
Grossman BJ, Hillyer CD, Westhoff CM, eds. AABB Technical
ANALGESIA USING
Manual. 18th ed. Bethesda, MD: AABB; 2014:599-619.
INTRAVENOUS INFUSION
2. Tolich DJ, Blackmur S, Stahorsky K, Wabeke D. Blood manage-
ment: best practice transfusion strategies. Nursing. 2013;43(1): Standard
40-47.
3. Carson JL, Grossman BJ, Kleinman S, et al; Clinical Transfusion 63.1 The registered nurse may administer moderate
Medicine Committee of the AABB. Red blood cell transfusion: a sedation/analgesia using intravenous (IV) infusion in
clinical practice guideline from the AABB. Ann Intern Med. accordance with rules and regulations promulgated by
2012;157(1):49-58. the states Board of Nursing and in accordance with
4. Roback JD, Caldwell SA, Carson JL, et al. Evidence-based prac- organizational policies and procedures.
tice guidelines for plasma transfusion strategies. Transfusion. 63.2 The registered nurse is competent in the adminis-
2010;50(6):1227-1239. tration of moderate sedation/analgesia, including knowl-
5. Roback J. Evidence-based guidelines for blood transfusion. J edge of preprocedure assessment, different sedation lev-
Infus Nurs. 2012;35(1):187-190.
els; safe medication administration; and reversal agents
6. Kaufman RM, Djulbegovic B, Gernsheimer T, et al. Platelet trans-
for moderate sedation/analgesia, as well as airway man-
fusion: a clinical practice guideline from the AABB. Ann Intern
Med. 2015;162(3):205-213.
agement; monitoring of physiological parameters; com-
7. AABB. Standards for Blood Banks and Transfusion Services. 29th mon complications and interventions; and resuscitation
ed. Bethesda, MD: AABB; 2014. through age-appropriate cardiac life support validation.
8. Maynard K. Administration of blood components. In: Fung MK, 63.3 An emergency cart and reversal agents are imme-
Grossman BJ, Hillyer CD, Westhoff CM, eds. AABB Technical diately accessible, and clinicians with expertise in air-
Manual. 18th ed. Bethesda, MD: AABB; 2014:545-559. way management, emergency intubation, advanced
9. Phillips L, Gorski LA. Manual of IV Therapeutics: Evidence- cardiopulmonary life support, and management of
Based Practice for Infusion Therapy. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: FA potential complications are immediately available.
Davis; 2014:682-765.
10. Stupnyckyj C, Smolarek S, Reeves C, McKeith J, Magnan M.
Changing blood transfusion policy and practice. Am J Nurs. Practice Criteria
2014;114(12):50-59. A. Ensure competency and advanced knowledge and
11. Hendricks M, Kolmer V. Blood and blood component therapy. In:
skills when administering IV sedation/analgesia.1-7
Weinstein SM, Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles & Practice of
(IV)
Intravenous Therapy. 9th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/
B. Identify a list of medications that may be adminis-
12. Josephson CD, Meyer E. Neonatal and pediatric transfusion tered by the registered nurse: medications for mod-
practice. In: Fung MK, Grossman BJ, Hillyer CD, Westhoff CM, erate sedation that may be administered include
eds. AABB Technical Manual. 18th ed. Bethesda, MD: AABB; benzodiazepines (midazolam, diazepam); narcotics
2014:571-597. (fentanyl, meperidine); propofol; neuroleptic
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S137 05/01/16 11:30 PM

tranquilizers (droperidol); and antihistamines term therapeutic, diagnostic, or surgical procedures. http://aamsn.
(diphenhydramine).2-4,7 (IV) org. Published 2009.
C. Ensure patient informed consent was obtained 2. American Association of Nurse Anesthetists (AANA). Registered
nurses engaged in the administration of sedation and analgesia.
according to organizational policy and procedure
http://www.aana.com/resources2/professionalpractice/Pages/
(see Standard 9, Informed Consent).4,7 (IV)
Registered-Nurses-Engaged-in-the-Administration-of-Sedation-
D. Establish the discharge plan prior to the procedure, and-Analgesia.aspx. Published 1996. Updated November 2005.
including the need to have a family member/care- 3. Society of Gastroenterology Nurses and Associates (SGNA)
giver/friend drive the patient home and observe the [position statement]. Statement on the use of sedation and anal-
patient post procedure.4,7 (IV) gesia in the gastrointestinal endoscopy setting. https://www.sgna.
E. Perform a comprehensive preprocedural assessment org/Portals/0/Education/PDF/Position-Statements/Sedation_
to include medical history/current condition, current 2013-FINAL.pdf. Published 1991. Updated 2013.
medications, allergies, previous sedation experience, 4. Caperilli-White L, Urman RD. Developing a moderate sedation
drug/alcohol/tobacco use, and verification of NPO policy: essential elements and evidence-based considerations.
(nothing by mouth) status. AORN J. 2014;99(3):416-430.
5. Varndell W, Elliott D, Fry M. Assessing, monitoring and manag-
1. Consult with an anesthesia licensed independent
ing continuous intravenous sedation for critically ill adult patients
practitioner (LIP) based on any problematic
and implications for emergency nursing practice: a systematic
issues identified during the assessment, such as literature review. Australas Emerg Nurs J. 2015;18(2):59-67.
significant opioid use, history of intolerance to 6. Conway A, Rolley J, Page K, Fulbrook P. Issues and challenges
moderate sedation, airway issues, allergies, and associated with nurse-administered procedural sedation and anal-
significant comorbidities.2,4,7 (IV) gesia in the cardiac catheterisation laboratory: a qualitative study.
F. Initiate and maintain vascular access throughout the Clin Nurs. 2014;23(3-4):374-384.
procedure and recovery for administration of medications 7. Amornyotin S. Registered nurse-administered sedation for gastro-
and for potential need for emergency resuscitative intestinal endoscopic procedure. World J Gastrointest Endosc.
medications, oxygen, and/or reversal agents; moderate 2015;7(8):769-776.
sedation may convert to deep sedation and loss of 8. Conway A, Page K, Rolley JX, Worrall-Carter L. Nurse-
administered procedural sedation and analgesia in the cardiac
consciousness due to the types of agents used, the
catheter laboratory: an integrative review. Int J Nurs Stud. 2011;
patients physical status, and drug sensitivities.2,4,7 (IV)
48(8):1012-1023.
G. Monitor the patient continuously throughout the 9. American Society of Anesthesiologists. Standards for basic anes-
procedure, including blood pressure, respiratory rate, thetic monitoring. http://www.asahq.org/quality-and-practice-
oxygen saturation, cardiac rate and rhythm, and level management/standards-and-g uidelines/search?q=basic anesthetic
of consciousness. The clinician who is monitoring the monitoring. Published 1986. Updated 2011.
patient receiving moderate sedation should have no 10. Celis-Rodrguez E, Birchenall C, de la Cal M, et al. Clinical
other responsibilities during the procedure.2-4,7,8 (IV) practice guidelines for evidence-based management of sedoanal-
H. Use of capnography is recommended to measure gesia in critically ill adult patients. Med Intensiva. 2013;37(8):
adequacy of ventilation.4,7,9 (IV) 519-574.
1. Use valid and reliable tools or established organ- 11. Dorfman TL, Sumamo Schellenberg E, Rempel GR. An evalua-
tion of instruments for scoring physiological and behavioral cues
izational criteria to assess adequacy of sedation
of pain, non-pain related distress, and adequacy of analgesia and
and analgesia and readiness for discharge home
sedation in pediatric mechanically ventilated patients: a system-
or transfer to a hospital unit.2-4,7,9-11 (II) atic review. Int J Nurs Stud. 2014;51(4):654-676.
I. Observe the patient for at least 90 minutes after the
procedure if reversal agent administration is
required.7 (IV) 64. THERAPEUTIC PHLEBOTOMY
J. Provide patient and caregiver education prior to,
and reinforcement after the procedure, about the Standard
sedation/analgesia infusion; procedure; restrictions;
potential complications related to the infusion site 64.1 All hazardous waste, including that from therapeu-
and the procedure; emergency instructions; and tic phlebotomy, will be disposed of according to organ-
24-hour contact phone number.4,7 (IV) izational policies and procedures.
Practice Criteria
REFERENCES
A. Include the following in orders for therapeutic phle-
Note: All of the electronic references in this section were accessed
botomy: laboratory values to be assessed specific to
September 14, 2015.
the patients diagnosis, parameters for laboratory val-
1. American Association of Moderate Sedation Nurses (AAMSN) ues guiding the indication for phlebotomy, frequency
[position statement]. The role of the registered nurse in the of phlebotomy, and specific volume of blood to be
management of patients receiving conscious sedation for short- withdrawn.1-3 (IV)
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S138 05/01/16 11:30 PM

B. Prevent, manage, and recognize common side vital signs, dressing applied or catheter locking, and
effects, such as hypovolemia, nausea/vomiting, or patient instructions.1 (V)
rare adverse events, by using a reclining chair or
exam table/bed for the procedure; monitoring vital REFERENCES
signs before and after the procedure; encouraging
oral hydration before and after the procedure; ask- 1. Cook LS. Therapeutic phlebotomy: a review of diagnoses and
ing about fear of needles or blood; and administer- treatment considerations. J Infus Nurs. 2010:33(2):81-88.
ing parenteral solution replacement if prescribed, 2. Hagle ME, Mikell M. Peripheral venous access. In: Weinstein SM,
indicating the type of solution, amount, and rate of Hagle ME, eds. Plumers Principles and Practice of Infusion
infusion.1,2,4-13 (IV)
C. Select the most appropriate vascular access device
3. Siddique A, Kowdley K. Review article: the iron overload syn-
(VAD) based on patient condition, anticipated dromes. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2012;35(8):876-893.
length of treatments needed, and other infusion 4. Antle E. Who needs a therapeutic phlebotomy? Clin J Oncol
therapies: Nurs. 2010;14(6):694-696.
1. Short peripheral catheter using an 18- to 20-gauge 5. Brissot P, Ball S, Rofail D, Cannon H, Jin V. Hereditary hemo-
device and inserted before phlebotomy and chromatosis: patient experiences of the disease and phlebotomy
removed upon completion. treatment. Transfusion. 2011;51(6):1331-1338.
2. Central vascular access device (CVAD) if already 6. Davaine J, Sebbag U, Bardou-Jacquet E, Brissot P. Brachial artery
placed, and therapeutic phlebotomy will not pseudoaneurysm after phlebotomy for iron overload: first case
compromise other infusion therapies. report. Transfusion. 2013;53(6):1373-1375.
7. France CR, France JL, Kowalsky JM, et al. Assessment of donor
3. Apheresis catheter.1,11 (V)
fear enhances prediction of presyncopal symptoms among volun-
D. Blood collection receptacles may include collection
teer blood donors. Transfusion. 2012;52(2):375-380.
bags used for volunteer blood donation or bags spe- 8. France CR, France JL, Menitove J, et al. How afraid are you of
cifically designed for therapeutic phlebotomy; having blood drawn from your arm? A simple fear question pre-
syringes may also be used based on the VAD. Do not dicts vasovagal reactions without causing them among high
use vacuum containers to facilitate blood flow due school donors. Transfusion. 2013;53(2):315-321.
to risk of air embolism.1 (V) 9. Holsworth R, Cho Y, Weidman J, Sloop G, Cyr J. Cardiovascular
E. After completion of the phlebotomy, manual pres- benefits of phlebotomy: relationship to changes in hemorheologi-
sure should be maintained at the venipuncture site cal variables. Perfusion. 2014;29(2):102-116.
after removal of the peripheral catheter until bleed- 10. Powden S. Blood-injection-injury phobia: preventative interven-
ing has stopped, then a dressing applied. The patient tion for syncope. J Contin Educ Top Issues. 2014;16(2):52-54.
11. Rombout-Sestrienkova E, Nieman F, Koek G, et al.
should remain in a reclining position for several
Erythrocytapheresis versus phlebotomy in the initial treatment of
minutes, then instructed to rise slowly.1,2,4 (V)
HFE hemochromatosis patients: results from a randomized trial.
F. Provide patient education, including potential side Transfusion. 2012;52(3):470-477.
effects such as a hematoma, syncope, and nausea/ 12. van Dongen A, Abraham C, Ruiter R, Veldhuizen I. The influence
vomiting. Instructions should include the type and of adverse reactions, subjective distress, and anxiety on retention
amount of physical activity before and after the proof first-time blood donors. Transfusion. 2013;53(2):337-343.
cedure.1,4 (V) 13. Wieling W, France C, van Dijk N, Kamel H, Thijs R, Tomasulo P.
G. Documentation should include total volume of Physiologic strategies to prevent fainting responses during or after
blood withdrawn, patient response to the procedure, whole blood donation. Transfusion. 2011;51(12):2727-2738.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S139 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Appendix A.
Infusion Team Definition

This team is defined as a group of nursing personnel centrally structured within an acute health care facility
charged with the shared mission of outcome accountability for the delivery of infusion therapy. While this
team may not be directly providing each infusion, they provide the advanced knowledge for safe practices to
support the primary care staff. Thus, the roles of the infusion team members include direct care providers,
educators, consultants, coaches, mentors, advocates, coordinators, and managers.
This team is led by infusion nurse specialists (eg, CRNIs) and may contain a staff mix of registered
nurses, licensed practical nurses, and unlicensed assistive personnel. Unlicensed team members work under
the direction of the licensed professional infusion nursing staff.
The scope of services for the infusion team consists of a variety of activities related to the safe insertion,
delivery, and maintenance of all infusion and vascular access therapies including fluids and medications,
blood and blood components, and parenteral nutrition. The identified services of this team should be based
on the fact that infusion therapy is needed in all areas of the organization and by all ages of patients/clients.
This team will provide guidance for establishing policy and practices according to the nationally recognized
Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice.
Goals for this team include accuracy, efficiency, and consistency for safe delivery of all infusion services,
along with reduction and/or elimination of complications. Meeting this goal will reduce liability, lower costs,
and decrease length of stay, while promoting vascular preservation, greater patient satisfaction, and better
outcomes.
Responsibility for performing direct clinical practice should be divided between the infusion team and
the primary nursing staff based on documented clinical outcomes, patient populations and their specific needs
and risks, and the complexity of the knowledge and skill(s) required to perform each nursing intervention.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and published research recognize that the use of
teams in the health care setting reduces mistakes and enhances patient safety, thereby indicating that the use
of an infusion team is strongly recommended for all health care organizations.
Source: Hadaway L, Dalton L, Mercanti-Erieg L. Infusion teams in acute care hospitals: call for a business approach:
an Infusion Nurses Society white paper. J Infus Nurs. 2013;36(5):356-360.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S140 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Appendix B. Illustrations
Figure 1 Principal veins of the body. From Dorlands Illustrated Medical Dictionary. 30th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier; 2003: 2014. Used
with permission.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S141 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Figure 2 Superficial venous drainage of upper limb. A. Forearm, arm, and pectoral region. B. Dorsal surface of hand. C. Palmar surface of hand. The
arrows indicate where perforating veins penetrate the deep fascia. Blood is continuously shunted from these superficial veins in the subcutaneous
tissue to deep veins via the perforating veins. From Agur AMR, Dalley AF. Grants Atlas of Anatomy. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2013:498. Used with permission.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S142 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Figure 3 Veins of axilla. The basilic vein joins the brachial veins to become the axillary vein near the inferior border of teres major, the axillary vein
becomes the subclavian vein at the lateral border of the first rib, and the subclavian joins the internal jugular to become the brachiocephalic vein
posterior to the sternal end of the clavicle. Numerous valves, enlargements in the vein, are shown. The cephalic vein in this specimen bifurcates
to end in the axillary and external jugular veins. From Agur AMR, Dalley AF. Grants Atlas of Anatomy. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2013:509. Used with permission.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S143 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Figure 4 Cubital fossa: surface anatomy and superficial dissectionanterior view. Cutaneous nerves and superficial veins. From Agur AMR, Dalley
AF. Grants Atlas of Anatomy. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2013:546. Used with permission.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S144 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Figure 5 Superficial veins of the necklateral view. The superficial temporal and maxillary veins merge to form the retromandibular vein. The
posterior division of the retromandibular vein unites with the posterior auricular vein to form the external jugular vein (EJV). The facial vein receives
the anterior division of the retromandibular vein, forming the common facial vein that empties into the internal jugular vein. From Agur AMR, Dalley
AF. Grants Atlas of Anatomy. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2013:754. Used with permission.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S145 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Glossary
A Anti-infective CVAD. Central vascular access device

coated or impregnated with antiseptic or antimicro-
Add-on Device. Additional component, such as an in-
bial agents.
line filter, stopcock, Y-site, extension set, manifold
Antimicrobial Locking Solutions. Solutions using
set, and/or needleless connector, that is added to the
supratherapeutic concentrations of antibiotic, or a
administration set or vascular access device.
variety of antiseptic agents, to lock the central vascu-
Administration Set. A tubing set composed of plastic
lar access device (CVAD) lumen for a prescribed
components that is used to deliver infusions and that
period of time for prevention or treatment of cathe-
typically includes a spike, a drip chamber, injection
ter-related bloodstream infection (CR-BSI).
ports, and a male luer-lock end. Variations may
Antineoplastic Agent. Medication that prevents the
include a Y-set, integrated filter, and microbore tubing.
development, growth, or proliferation of malignant
Admixture. To mix; to combine 2 or more medications.
cells.
Advanced Practice Registered Nurse (APRN). A nurse
Antiseptic. A substance used to reduce the risk of infec-
practitioner, clinical nurse specialist, nurse anesthe-
tion by killing or inhibiting the growth of microor-
tist, or nurse midwife.
ganisms.
Adverse Event. Any unintended or untoward event that
Apheresis. Process of separating blood into 4 compo-
occurs with a patient receiving medical treatment that
nents: plasma, platelets, red blood cells, and white
is related to a medication, product, equipment, proce-
blood cells, removing 1 of the components and then
dure, etc.
reinfusing the remaining components.
Air Embolism. The presence of air in the vascular sys-
Arterial Pressure Monitoring. Monitoring of arterial
tem that obstructs venous blood flow primarily to the
pressure through an indwelling arterial catheter con-
lungs or brain.
nected to an electronic monitor.
Airborne Precautions. A type of isolation precaution to
Arteriovenous (AV) Fistula. Surgical anastomosis
reduce the risk of infection from airborne transmis-
between an artery and vein.
sion of airborne droplet nuclei that may remain sus-
Arteriovenous (AV) Graft. Surgical structure created
pended in the air.
between an artery and a vein, usually of a manufac-
Allen Test. A test performed on the radial and ulnar
tured synthetic material.
artery of the hand prior to arterial puncture to ascer-
Aseptic No-Touch Technique. A theoretical frame-
tain adequate arterial perfusion.
work for safe and effective aseptic practice that can
Alternative Site. A health care setting outside of the
be applied to all clinical procedures.
acute care hospital that includes, but is not limited to,
Aseptic Technique. A primary infection prevention
the home, long-term care and assisted living facility,
method to maintain objects and areas maximally free
outpatient center/clinic, and physician office.
from microorganisms (eg, through use of sterile sup-
Ambulatory Infusion Device. Infusion device specifi-
plies, barriers, and absolute separation of sterile items
cally designed to be worn on the body to promote
from those that are not sterile).
patient mobility and independence.
Assent. Agreement by an individual not competent to
Amino Acids. Organic components of protein.
give legally valid informed consent (eg, a child or
Ampoule. Hermetically sealed glass medication con-
cognitively impaired person).
tainer that must be broken at the neck to access the
Authorized Agent-Controlled Analgesia. A competent
medication.
person authorized and educated by the prescriber to
AntiFree-Flow Protection. Administration set technol-
activate the analgesic dose when a patient is not able
ogy that prevents intravenous solutions from flowing
to do so.
into the patient when the administration set is
removed from the flow-control device.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S146 05/01/16 11:30 PM

B Catheter Dislodgment. Catheter movement into or out
of the insertion site indicating tip movement to a sub-
Bacteria. Microorganisms that may be nonpathogenic
optimal position.
(normal flora) or pathogenic (disease causing).
Catheter Exchange. Replacement of existing central
Beyond-Use Date (BUD). The date added to a product
vascular access device (CVAD) with a new CVAD
label during the compounding process after which a
using the same catheter tract.
product may not be used, based on the fact that the
Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infection (CR-BSI). A
manufacturers original container has been opened,
clinical definition used when the catheter is identified
exposed to ambient atmospheric conditions, and may
through specific laboratory testing to be the source of
not have the integrity of the original packaging.
the bloodstream infection.
Biofilm. A thin coating, usually a resistant layer, of
Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infection
microorganisms that form on and coat the surfaces of
(CLABSI). A laboratory-confirmed, primary blood-
an implanted or indwelling device.
stream infection in a patient with a central line in
Biologic Therapy. Treatments for disease by the admin-
place for more than 2 calendar days before the devel-
istration of substances that produce a biological reac-
opment of the bloodstream infection (BSI), and the
tion in the organism and include the use of sera,
BSI is not related to an infection at another site. The
antitoxins, vaccines, cells, tissues, and organs.
CLABSI definition is used for surveillance purposes
Examples of biologic therapies include immunoglob-
and may overestimate the true incidence of catheter-
ulins, monoclonal antibodies, interferons, interleu-
related bloodstream infection (CR-BSI). Refer to the
kins, and vaccines.
Centers for Disease Control and Preventions (CDCs)
Biological Safety Cabinet (BSC). Used during drug
National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) for the
compounding; a ventilated cabinet that has an open
current CLABSI surveillance criteria.
front with inward airflow to protect personnel, down-
Central Vascular Access Device (CVAD). Catheter
ward high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)-filtered
inserted into a peripheral or centrally located vein
laminar flow to protect the product, and HEPA-
with the tip residing in the superior or inferior vena
filtered exhausted air to protect the environment.
cava.
Blood Return. A component of VAD patency assess-
Central Vascular Access Device (CVAD) Malposition.
ment; blood that is the color and consistency of
CVAD tip located in an aberrant position and no longer
whole blood upon aspiration.
located in the original vena cava or cavoatrial junction.
Blood/Fluid Warmer. An electronic device with ade-
Extravascular Malposition. CVAD tip located out-
quate temperature controls that raises refrigerated
side of the vein in nearby anatomical structures
blood or parenteral solutions to a desired tempera-
such as mediastinum, pleura, pericardium, or
ture during administration.
peritoneum.
Body Surface Area. Surface area of the body expressed
Intravascular Malposition. CVAD tip located in a
in square meters. Used in calculating pediatric dos-
suboptimal or aberrant position inside a vein;
ages, managing burn patients, and determining radia-
occurs as primary or secondary malposition.
tion and many classes of drug dosages.
Primary CVAD Malposition. CVAD tip positioned
Bolus. Concentrated medication and/or solution given
in a suboptimal or unacceptable location occur-
rapidly over a short period of time.
ring during the insertion procedure.
Secondary CVAD Malposition. CVAD tip found to
be in a suboptimal or unacceptable location at
C
any time during the catheter dwell time; com-
Catheter. A hollow tube made of thermoplastic poly- monly referred to as tip migration.
urethane, silicone elastomer, or metal; inserted into Certification/Board Certification. A voluntarily earned
the body and used for injecting or evacuating fluids. credential that demonstrates the holders specialized
Catheter-Associated Venous Thrombosis (CAVT). A knowledge, skills, and experience within a given spe-
secondary vein thrombosis related to the presence of cialty; awarded by a third-party, nongovernmental
a CVAD; includes the presence of an extraluminal entity or association, such as the Infusion Nurses
fibrin sheath encompassing all or part of the Certification Corporation (INCC), after the individu-
CVADs length, with a mural or veno-occlusive al has met predetermined and standardized criteria.
thrombosis overlying the fibrin sheath; may be Chemical Incompatibility. Change in the molecular
located in deep veins or superficial veins when structure or pharmacological properties of a substance
placed for CVAD use. that may or may not be visually observed when a solu-
Catheter Clearance. The process to reestablish catheter tion or medication contacts an incompatible solution
lumen patency using medications or chemicals or medication within the vascular access device (VAD)
instilled into the lumen for a specific period of time. lumen, administration set, or solution container.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S147 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Cleaning. The removal of visible soil (eg, organic and maintain a patent airway independently and continu-
inorganic material) from objects and surfaces. ously and to respond appropriately to physical stimu-
Thorough cleaning is essential before performing dis- lation and verbal commands. The drugs, doses, and
infection and sterilization procedures because inor- techniques used are not intended to produce loss of
ganic and organic materials that remain on the sur- consciousness.
faces interfere with the effectiveness of these pro- Contact Precautions. Strategies implemented to prevent
cesses. the transmission of infectious agents such as wound
Closed System Drug Transfer Device. A drug transfer drainage, which are spread by direct or indirect con-
device that mechanically prohibits the transfer of tact between the patient and environment.
environmental contaminants into the system and the Contamination. Introduction or transference of patho-
escape of hazardous drugs or vapor concentrations gens or infectious material from one source to anoth-
outside the system; used in compounding and admin- er.
istering sterile doses of chemotherapy and other haz- Cross Contamination. The indirect movement of path-
ardous drugs. ogens or other harmful substances from one patient
Closed System Transfer. The movement of sterile prod- to another patient.
ucts from one container to another in which the con- Cultural Competency. The delivery of infusion services
tainers, closure system, and transfer devices remain that are respectful of and responsive to the beliefs,
intact through the entire transfer process, compro- culture, practices, and linguistic needs of patients and
mised only by the penetration of a sterile, pyrogen- their families served by the health care organization.
free needle or cannula through a designated closure
or port to effect transfer, withdrawal, or delivery. D
Color Coding. System that identifies products and Dead Space. As applied to needleless connectors, this is
medications by the use of a color system. the internal space outside the intended fluid pathway
Compatibility. Capable of being mixed and adminis- into which fluid can move.
tered without undergoing undesirable chemical and/ Decontamination. The removal of pathogenic microor-
or physical changes or loss of therapeutic action. ganisms from objects so they are safe to handle, use,
Competence. Capability of the individual to apply or discard.
knowledge, critical thinking, interpersonal, decision- Deep Sedation. Drug-induced depression of conscious-
making, and psychomotor skills to the performance ness; the patient responds persistently to repeated or
of infusion therapy. painful stimulation; the capacity to preserve respira-
Competency. An integration of behaviors in the varied tory function may be diminished and support to
circumstances of the work environment demonstrat- maintain the airway and spontaneous respiration
ing the individuals ability to perform the desired job- may be required. Cardiovascular function is generally
related activities and tasks. preserved.
Competency Assessment. The process of reviewing and Delegation. The process by which a registered nurse
documenting the individuals demonstrated ability to (RN) directs another person to perform tasks or
perform a job, role, specific tasks, or other patient activities not commonly performed by that person;
care activities. the RN retains accountability for the outcome of the
Compounding. The act of preparing, mixing, assem- delegated tasks or activity.
bling, packaging, and labeling a drug, drug delivery Difficult Vascular Access. Multiple unsuccessful veni-
device, or device according to a practitioners pre- puncture attempts (ie, maximum of 4) to cannulate a
scription for an individual patient or based on a pro- vein; the need for special interventions to establish
fessional agreement between the practitioner, patient, venous cannulation based on a known history of dif-
and pharmacist. ficulty due to diseases, injury, and/or frequent unsuc-
Compounding Aseptic Containment Isolator cessful venipuncture attempts.
(CACI). Used during drug compounding to provide Dilution. To add a diluent (eg, 0.9% sodium chloride,
health care worker protection from exposure to unde- sterile water) to a solution of medication in order to
sirable levels of airborne drugs and to provide an make it less concentrated or to provide additional
aseptic environment when compounding sterile prep- solution for ease of administration and titration, or to
arations. decrease the tissue irritation of a medication.
Computerized Prescriber Order Entry (CPOE). A sys- Disclosure. The process of revealing to the patient and
tem in which clinicians directly enter medication, test, family all the facts necessary to ensure understanding
or procedure orders into a computer system; medica- of what occurred when a patient experiences a sig-
tion orders are transmitted directly to the pharmacy. nificant complication from a medical error or mis-
Conscious Sedation. Minimally depressed level of con- take; information that is necessary for the patients
sciousness in which the patient retains the ability to well-being or relevant to future treatment.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S148 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Disinfectant. Agent that eliminates all microorganisms Expiration Date. The date and time, when applicable,
except bacterial spores. beyond which a product should not be used; the
Disinfection. A process that eliminates many or all product should be discarded beyond this date and
pathogenic microorganisms, except bacterial spores, time; assigned on the basis of both stability and risk
on inanimate objects. level, whichever is the shorter period.
Disinfection Cap. Plastic cap containing an antiseptic Extravasation. Inadvertent infiltration of vesicant solu-
solution placed on top of the connection surface of a tion or medication into surrounding tissue; rated by a
needleless connector to disinfect the surface and pro- standard tool.
vide protection between intermittent uses. Extrinsic Contamination. Contamination that occurs
Distal. Farthest from the center, or midline, of the body after the manufacturing process of a product.
or trunk, or from the point of attachment; opposite of
proximal. F
Doppler Flow Study. A form of ultrasound technology Fat Emulsion (Intravenous Fat Emulsion [IVFE]).
that produces audible sounds to determine character- Combination of liquid, lipid, and an emulsifying sys-
istics of circulating blood. tem formulated for intravenous use.
Dose-Error Reduction System. Electronic infusion Filter. A special porous device used to prevent the pas-
devices (EIDs) manufactured with drug libraries con- sage of air or other undesired substances; product
taining drug name and soft and hard infusion limits; design determines size of substances retained.
EIDs designed to prevent errors in solution and Flow-Control Device. Instrument used to regulate infu-
mediation delivery, often called smart pumps. sion flow rate; includes categories of manual devices
Droplet Precautions. A type of isolation precaution to (eg, slide, roller clamp, screw), mechanical infusion
reduce the risk of infection from pathogens spread devices (see definition), and electronic infusion devic-
through close respiratory or mucous membrane con- es (see definition).
tact with respiratory secretions. Flushing. The act of moving fluids, medications, blood,
and blood products out of the vascular access device
E into the bloodstream; used to assess and maintain
patency and prevent precipitation due to solution/
Electronic Infusion Device (EID). Device that is pow-
medication incompatibility.
ered by electricity or battery to regulate infusion rate;
may be either a positive-pressure pump or controller G
(gravity fed) used to regulate the flow rate of the infu-
sion therapy. Gap Analysis. Assessment of the difference(s) between
Embolus. Mass of undissolved matter present in blood actual and required knowledge, skill, or performance;
or lymphatic vessel; an embolus may be solid, liquid, may be done on an individual, department, or organ-
or gaseous. izational level.
Engineered Stabilization Device. A device or system Guidewire. A long, flexible metal structure, composed
placed subcutaneously or topically; specifically of tightly wound coiled wire in a variety of designs;
designed and engineered to control movement at the contains safety mechanisms that allow it to be insert-
catheter hub. ed into the vein or artery.
Engineering Controls. Devices that isolate or remove
H
the blood-borne pathogens hazard from the work-
place, such as sharps disposal containers, self-sheath- Hazardous Drugs. Drugs exhibiting 1 or more of the
ing needles, needleless systems, and sharps with following 6 characteristics in humans or animals:
engineered protections. carcinogenicity, teratogenicity or other developmen-
Epidural Space. Space surrounding the spinal cord and tal toxicity, reproductive toxicity, organ toxicity at
its meninges; contains fatty tissue, veins, spinal arter- low doses, genotoxicity, and structure and toxicity
ies, and nerves; considered a potential space that is profiles of new drugs that mimic existing drugs deter-
not created until medication or air is injected. mined hazardous by the above criteria.
Erythema. Redness of skin along a vein track that Hazardous Waste. In the context of this document,
results from vascular irritation or capillary conges- hazardous waste is differentiated from medical waste
tion in response to irritation; may be a precursor to and refers to that generated from administration of
or indication of phlebitis. hazardous drugs (eg, containers and intravenous sup-
Evidence-Based Practice. Application of the best avail- plies used to administer hazardous drugs).
able synthesis of research results in conjunction with Healthcare Failure Mode and Effect Analysis
clinical expertise and with attention to and inclusion (HFMEA). A systematic, proactive method used to
of patient preferences. evaluate a process or device for the purposes of
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S149 05/01/16 11:30 PM

identifying where and how a process might fail; 1. Hand hygiene per Centers for Disease Control
results are used to identify and prioritize the most and Prevention (CDC) recommendations.
needed process changes. 2. Aseptic technique is followed.
Health Literacy. The degree to which individuals have 3. No hazardous drugs are used.
the capacity to obtain, process, and understand basic 4. Only simple transfer of no more than 3 sterile,
health care information and services needed to make nonhazardous drugs in the manufacturers origi-
appropriate decisions. nal containers are involved in the compounding,
Hemodynamic Pressure Monitoring. A general term for and no more than 2 entries into any 1 container
determining the functional status of the cardiovascu- occur.
lar system as it responds to acute stress such as myo- 5. No more than 1 hour elapses from the time com-
cardial infarction and cardiogenic or septic shock. A pounding begins to the time of administration to
pulmonary artery catheter is used to directly measure the patient begins. (No intervening steps between
intracardiac pressure changes, cardiac output, blood compounding and administration should occur.)
pressure, and heart rate. 6. No batching or storage of CSPs occurs.
Hemolysis. Destruction of the membrane of the red 7. The preparation is labeled with patient identifi-
blood cells resulting in the liberation of hemoglobin, cation, names, and amounts of all ingredients,
which diffuses into the surrounding fluid. name or initials of preparer, and exact 1-hour
Hemostasis. An arrest of bleeding or of circulation. beyond-use date (BUD) and time.
Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT). An acute, Immunocompromised. Having an immune system with
transient prothrombotic disorder caused by heparin- reduced capability to react to pathogens or tissue
dependent, platelet-activating antibodies; a hyperco- damage.
agulable state with a strong association to venous and Implanted Pump. A catheter surgically placed into a
arterial thrombosis. vessel, body cavity, or organ attached to a subcutane-
High-Alert Medication. Medications that possess a ous reservoir that contains a pumping mechanism for
heightened risk of causing significant patient harm continuous medication administration.
when used in error. Implanted Vascular Access Port. A catheter surgically
Hospital Disinfectant. A disinfectant registered by the placed into a vessel, body cavity, or organ attached to
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for use in a reservoir located under the skin.
hospitals, clinics, dental offices, and any other medi- Incompatible. Incapable of being mixed or used simul-
cal-related facility. taneously without undergoing chemical or physical
Hypertonic. Solution of higher osmotic concentration changes or producing undesirable effects.
than that of a reference solution or of an isotonic Independent Double Check. A process whereby 2 peo-
solution; having a concentration greater than the nor- ple working apart from each other verify each com-
mal tonicity of plasma. ponent of a work process.
Hypodermoclysis. The treatment of dehydration by Infection. The presence and growth of a pathogenic
infusing fluids into the subcutaneous tissues at rates microorganism(s) having a local or systematic effect.
greater than 3 mL/hour; solutions are isotonic or Infiltration. Inadvertent administration of a nonvesi-
near-isotonic. cant solution or medication into surrounding tissue;
Hypotonic. Solution of lower osmotic concentration rated by a standard tool.
than that of a reference solution or of an isotonic Informed Consent. A persons voluntary agreement,
solution; having a concentration less than the normal based upon adequate knowledge and understanding
tonicity of plasma. of relevant information, to participate in research or
to undergo a diagnostic, therapeutic, or preventive
I procedure.
Immediate-Use Compounded Sterile Preparations Infusate. Parenteral solution administered into the vas-
(CSPs). Used in emergent situations or in situations cular or nonvascular systems; infusion.
where adhering to low-risk compounding procedures Infusion Team. A group of nursing personnel centrally
would add additional risk due to delays in patient structured within an acute health care facility charged
care (eg, medications with short stability that must be with the shared mission of outcome accountability
prepared immediately before administration outside for the delivery of infusion therapy. While this team
health care facilities, such as in home infusion). may not be directly providing each infusion, they
Immediate-use CSPs do not need to be compounded provide the advanced knowledge for safe practices to
in an ISO Class 5 environment, and garbing and support the primary care staff. Thus the roles of infu-
gowning are not required, as long as all of the follow- sion team members include direct care providers,
ing criteria are met: educators, consultants, coaches, mentors, advocates,
coordinators, and managers. This team is led by infu-
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S150 05/01/16 11:30 PM

sion nurse specialists (eg, CRNIs) and may contain Latex Safe Environment. A health care setting in which
a staff mix of registered nurses, licensed practical all products containing natural rubber latex intended
nurses, and unlicensed assistive personnel. Unlicensed for contact with mucosa or nonintact skin are
team members work under the direction of the removed or covered. The goal is to prevent contact
licensed professional infusion nursing staff. (See between high-allergen and airborne latex with aller-
Appendix A). gic individuals or those at risk for developing aller-
Instill/Instillation. Administration of a solution or gies. Dry, molded, or extruded rubber, such as medi-
medication into a vascular access device (VAD) cal vial stoppers and syringe plungers, create less risk
intended to fill the VAD rather than systemic infu- of allergen exposure than those items formed by
sion; examples include locking solutions to maintain dipping forms in liquid latex (eg, gloves).
catheter patency, thrombolytic medications, and Lean Six Sigma. Refers to the 8 types of waste that
medications/solutions used to dissolve precipitate. organizations strive to eliminate as DOWNTIME
Interprofessional/Interprofessional Collaboration. A (defects, overproduction, waiting, nonutilized tal-
cooperative approach to patient care that depends ent, transportation, inventory, motion, and extra
upon the overlapping knowledge, skills, and abilities processing); resources that do not create value are
of each professional health team member. wasteful and should be eliminated.
Intraosseous (IO). The spongy, cancellous bone of the Licensed Independent Practitioner (LIP). A practitioner
epiphysis and the medullary cavity of the diaphysis, permitted by law and by the organization to provide
which are connected; the vessels of the IO space con- care and services, without direction or supervision,
nect to the central circulation by a series of longitudi- within the scope of the practitioner license and con-
nal canals that contain an artery and a vein; the sistent with individually assigned clinical responsibili-
Volkmanns canals connect the IO vasculature with ties.
the major arteries and veins of the central circulation. Locking. The instillation of a solution into a vascular
Intrathecal. Within the brain or spinal canal in the access device (VAD) used to maintain patency in
space under the arachnoid membrane. between VAD use and/or reduce risk of catheter-
Intraventricular Access Device. An access device con- related bloodstream infection (CR-BSI).
sisting of a reservoir (or port) that is attached to a Long-term. Referring to vascular access devices placed
catheter placed in a lateral ventricle of the brain. Used for anticipated need of greater than 1 month.
for aspiration of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or to Lumen. The interior space of a tubular structure, such
deliver medications into the CSF. as a blood vessel or catheter.
Intrinsic Contamination. Contamination that occurs
during the manufacturing process of a product. M
Irritant. An agent capable of producing discomfort (eg,
Manual Flow-Control Device. A device that controls
burning, stinging) or pain as a result of irritation in
fluid flow rate by manual adjustment of components
the internal lumen of the vein with or without imme-
such as a roller clamp or flow regulator; requires reli-
diate external signs of vein inflammation.
ance on counting drops; is affected by factors such as
Isotonic. Having the same osmotic concentration as the
dislodgment of the components or distance between
solution with which it is compared (eg, plasma).
the fluid container and the device; and therefore is the
J least accurate.
Maximal Sterile Barrier Protection. Equipment and
Joint Stabilization. The practice of using a device to clothing used to avoid exposure to pathogens, includ-
support and stabilize a joint when veins or arteries in ing sterile coverings for the clinicians and patient:
or near that joint must be used for VAD placement; mask, gown, protective eyewear, cap, gloves, large or
should not be considered as a physical restraint. full body drapes, and towels.
Just Culture. A model of shared accountability in Mechanical Infusion Device. A device that uses a non-
health care based on the premise that organizations electronic method to regulate infusion flow rate;
are accountable for the systems they design and for examples include the elastomeric balloon device and
how they respond to staff behaviors fairly and justly; the spring-coil piston syringe device.
a just culture understands that individuals should not Medical Adhesive-Related Skin Injury
be held responsible for system failure. (MARSI). Redness, tears, or erosion of the skin, or
development of vesicles or bulla in an area exposed to
L
medical adhesive and lasting for 30 minutes or more
Laminar Flow Hood. A contained workstation with following adhesive removal.
filtered air flow; assists in preventing bacterial con- Medical Waste (Regulated). Includes contaminated
tamination and collection of hazardous chemical sharps; liquid or semiliquid blood or other potentially
fumes in the work area. infectious materials; contaminated items that would
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S151 05/01/16 11:30 PM

release blood or other potentially infectious material vessel image to a screen or by capturing an image of
in a liquid or semiliquid state if compressed; items the superficial veins and reflecting it to the skin
that are caked with dried blood or other potentially surface.
infectious materials and are capable of releasing these Needleless Connector (NC). A device that allows inter-
materials during handling; and microbiological mittent access to a vascular access device with an
wastes containing blood or other potentially infec- administration set or syringe without the use of nee-
tious materials. dles; types are categorized by description (ie, simple
Medication Reconciliation. The process of collecting or complex) and function (ie, negative, positive, or
and documenting complete and accurate medication neutral) upon set or syringe disconnection.
information for each patient, including all medica- Anti-Reflux NC. Contains a pressure-sensitive inter-
tionsprescribed, over-the-counter, and herbals/ nal mechanism designed to prevent blood reflux
nutritional supplementsthat the patient is currently into the catheter lumen when the flow of infusion
taking. solution has stopped.
Microaggregate Blood Filter. Filter that removes micro- Complex NC. Has a variety of moving internal com-
aggregates (includes platelets, leukocytes, and fibrin ponents that allow fluid flow in both directions;
that are present in stored blood) and reduces the eg, mechanical valves.
occurrence of nonhemolytic febrile reactions. Negative Displacement NC. Allows blood reflux
Micron (). A unit of length equal to 1 millionth of a into vascular access device (VAD) lumen upon
meter, or 1 thousandth of a millimeter. disconnection due to movement of valve mecha-
Microorganism. Extremely small living body not per- nism or removal of syringe/set.
ceptible to the naked eye. Neutral NC. Contains an internal mechanism
Mid-arm Circumference. Measurement of upper arm at designed to prevent blood reflux into the catheter
a predetermined distance above the insertion site of a lumen upon connection or disconnection.
peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) or mid- Positive Displacement NC. Allows a small amount
line catheter. of fluid to be held in the device; upon set or
Midline Catheter. A catheter inserted into the upper syringe disconnection, this fluid is pushed
arm via the basilic, cephalic, or brachial vein, with through the catheter lumen to clear any blood
the internal tip located level at or near the level of the that refluxed into the lumen.
axilla and distal to the shoulder. Simple NC. Allows a straight fluid pathway through
Milliosmoles (mOsm). One thousandth of an osmole; the center lumen without any internal mecha-
osmotic pressure equal to 1 thousandth of the molec- nism to control flow; example is a prepierced
ular weight of a substance divided by the number of septum accessed with either a blunt cannula or
ions that the substance forms in a liter of solution. male luer device; eg, split septum.
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC). The lowest Needleless Systems. A device that does not use needles
concentration of a drug that will inhibit bacterial for (1) the collection of bodily fluids or withdrawal of
growth. body fluids after initial venous or arterial access is
Moderate Sedation. Drug-induced depression of con- established; (2) the administration of medication or
sciousness in which a patient is able to persistently solutions; or (3) any other procedure involving the
respond to verbal commands or light tactile stimula- potential for occupational exposure to blood-borne
tion; interventions are not needed to maintain a pat- pathogens due to percutaneous injuries from con-
ent airway, and the cardiorespiratory functions are taminated sharps.
sufficient and also usually preserved. Neonate. Pertaining to the first 4 weeks of life.
Multidrug-Resistant Organism (MDRO). A microor- Noncritical Equipment. Items that come in contact
ganism, predominantly bacteria, resistant to 1 or with intact skin but not mucous membranes.
more classes of antimicrobial agents. MDROs include, Nonpermeable. Prevents passage of fluid or gases.
but are not limited to, methicillin-resistant Nontunneled Central Venous Access Device. A vascu-
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resist- lar or nonvascular access device inserted by puncture
ant enterococci (VRE), and certain gram-negative directly through the skin and the intended location
bacilli (GNB) that have important infection control without a portion of the device allowed to remain in
implications. a subcutaneous tract.
Nonvesicant. Solutions and medications that do not
N
produce tissue damage when inadvertently delivered
Near-Infrared Light Devices. A device using near- into subcutaneous tissue.
infrared light, a range of 700 to 1000 nanometers Nurse Practice Act. Legislation that defines the practice
on the electromagnetic spectrum; works by either of registered nurses and licensed practical or voca-
transilluminating the extremity and projecting the tional nurses within each state.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S152 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Nursing Diagnosis. The patient problem identified for Pathogen. A microorganism or substance capable of
intervention by analysis of assessment findings in producing disease.
comparison to what is considered to be normal. Patient Care Setting. Where patient care is provided;
Nursing Intervention. In the nursing process, the step may include hospital, outpatient, or physician office
after planning; involves aspects of actual caring for setting, skilled nursing facility, assisted living facility,
the patient and requires full knowledge of assessment and the home.
and planning stages of the nursing process. Pediatric. Newborn to 21 years of age. (Note: the
Nursing Process. An orderly, logical approach to American Academy of Pediatrics states that pediatrics
administering nursing care so that the patients needs is actually the fetal period to 21 years of age.)
for such care are met comprehensively and effectively; Percutaneous. Technique performed through the skin.
includes steps of assessment, problem identification, Peripheral. Pertaining to or situated at or near the
outcome identification, planning, intervention, and periphery; situated away from a center or central
evaluation. structure.
Peripherally Inserted Central Catheter (PICC). A cath-
O eter inserted through veins of the upper extremity or
neck in adults and children; for infants, may be
Occlusion. The state of being occluded; the inability to
infuse or inject solution into a catheter; the inability inserted through veins of the scalp or lower extremi-
to aspirate blood from a catheter or both. ty; catheter tip is located in the superior or inferior
Off-Label Use (Extra-Label Use). The use of an vena cava, preferably at its junction with the right
approved drug in the treatment of a condition or for atrium, regardless of insertion site.
a purpose for which it has not been approved or Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). The equipment
cleared for use by the US Food and Drug worn to minimize exposure to a variety of hazards,
Administration (FDA). including blood-borne pathogens; examples of PPE
Older Adult. Greater than 65 years of age, as defined include items such as gloves, eye protection, gown,
by the American Geriatric Society. and face mask.
Osmolality. The characteristic of a solution determined pH. The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance.
by the ionic concentration of the dissolved substances Phlebitis. Inflammation of a vein; may be accompanied
by pain, erythema, edema, streak formation, and/or
per unit of solvent; measured in milliosmoles per liter.
palpable cord; rated by a standard scale.
Osmolarity. The number of osmotically active particles
Phlebotomy. Withdrawal of blood from a vein by
in a solution.
direct venipuncture or via a central vascular access
device (CVAD).
P Physical Restraint. Physical, mechanical, or manual
Palpable Cord. A vein that is rigid and hard to the touch. device that immobilizes or decreases the ability of the
Palpation. Examination by application of the hands or patient to move arms, legs, body, or head freely.
fingers to the surface of the body in order to detect Pinch-off Syndrome. A relatively rare but significant
evidence of disease or abnormalities in the various and often unrecognized complication; occurs when
organs; also used to determine location of peripheral the central vascular access device (CVAD) enters the
superficial veins and their condition. costoclavicular space medial to the subclavian vein
Parenteral. Administered by any route other than the and is positioned outside the lumen of the subclavian
alimentary canal, such as the intravenous, subcutane- vein in the narrow area bounded by the clavicle, first
ous, intramuscular, or mucosal route. rib, and costoclavicular ligament. Catheter compres-
Parenteral Nutrition. The intravenous provision of sion causes intermittent or permanent catheter occlu-
total nutritional needs for a patient who is unable to sion and, because of the scissoring effect of catheter
take appropriate amounts of food enterally; typical compression between the bones, can result in catheter
components include carbohydrates, proteins, and/or tearing, transection, and catheter embolism.
fats, as well as additives such as electrolytes, vita- Policy. Written, nonnegotiable statement(s) that estab-
mins, and trace elements. lish rules guiding the organization in the delivery of
Paresthesia. Pain associated with nerve injury including patient care.
tingling, prickling, or shock-like sensations. Pounds per Square Inch (psi). A measurement of
Particulate Matter. Unwanted matter relating to or pressure; 1 psi equals 50 mm Hg or 68 cm H20.
composed of fine particles found in intravenous Power Injectable. A device (eg, vascular access device
medication and solutions, including undissolved [VAD], extension set) capable of withstanding injec-
drugs or precipitate, rubber cores, glass particles, and tions pressure used for radiology procedures, usually
plastic pieces. 300 to 325 pounds per square inch (psi).
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S153 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Practice Guidelines. Provide direction in clinical care identifies potential improvements in processes or
decisions based on the current state of knowledge systems that would tend to decrease the likelihood
about a disease state or therapy. of such events in the future, or determines, after
Preanalytic Phase. The period of time before a body analysis, that no such improvement opportunities
fluid specimen reaches the laboratory; includes exist.
obtaining, labeling, and transporting the specimen to
the laboratory. S
Precipitation. The act or process of a substance or drug
Safety-Engineered Device (also known as Sharps with
in solution to settle in solid particles; most commonly
Engineered Sharps Injury Protections). A nonneedle
caused by a change in pH.
sharp or a needle device used for withdrawing body
Preservative-Free. Contains no added substance capa-
fluids, accessing a vein or artery, or administering
ble of inhibiting bacterial growth. Free of any addi-
medications or other solutions, with a built-in safety
tive intended to extend the content, stability, or steril-
feature or mechanism that effectively reduces the risk
ity of active ingredients, such as antioxidants, emulsi-
of an exposure incident. Used to prevent percutane-
fiers, or bacteriocides.
ous injuries and blood exposure before, during, or
Priming Volume. Amount of fluid required to fill the
after use.
fluid pathway of the vascular access device (VAD),
Sentinel Event. See Serious Adverse Event.
any add-on devices, and administration set.
Sepsis. The systemic response caused by the presence of
Procedure. Written statement of a series of steps
infectious microorganisms or their toxins in the
required to complete an action.
bloodstream.
Process. Actual performance and observation of perfor-
Serious Adverse Event. Any undesirable experience
mance based on compliance with policies, proce-
associated with the use of a medical product/medica-
dures, and professional standards.
tion in a patient; the event is serious and should be
Product Integrity. The condition of an intact, uncom-
reported to the US Food and Drug Administration
promised product suitable for intended use.
(FDA) when the patient outcome is death, disability,
Proximal. Closest to the center or midline of the body
life threatening, requires initial or prolonged hospi-
or trunk, nearer to the point of attachment; the oppo-
talization, or requires intervention to prevent perma-
site of distal.
nent damage.
Psychomotor. Characterizing behaviors that place pri-
Sharps. Objects in the health care setting that can be
mary emphasis on the various degrees of physical
reasonably anticipated to penetrate the skin and to
skills and dexterity as they relate to the preceding
result in an exposure incident; including, but not lim-
thought process.
ited to, needle devices, scalpels, lancets, broken glass,
Pulsatile Flushing Technique. Repetitive injection of
or broken capillary tubes.
short (eg, 1 mL) pushes followed by a brief pause for
Short-term. When used in reference to a vascular access
the purpose of creating turbulence within the vascular
device, a time frame of less than 1 month.
access device (VAD) lumen.
Site Protection. Method or product used to protect the
Purulent. Containing or producing pus.
external vascular access device (VAD), insertion site,
and dressing.
Q Skill Validator. Individual with documented compe-
Quality Improvement. An ongoing, systematic process tency in a specific skill who is qualified by training
for monitoring, evaluating, and problem solving. and education to objectively assess the performance
of others.
Smart Pump. Electronic infusion device (EID) with an
R
imbedded computer software aimed at reducing drug
Radiopaque. Impenetrable to x-rays or other forms of dosing errors through the presence and use of a drug
radiation; detectable by radiographic examination. library.
Reconstitute. The act of adding diluent to a powder to Standard. Authoritative statement enunciated and
create a solution. promulgated by the profession by which the quality
Risk Management. Process that centers on identifica- of practice, service, or education can be judged.
tion, analysis, treatment, and evaluation of real and Standard Precautions. Guidelines designed to protect
potential hazards. workers with occupational exposure to blood-borne
Root Cause Analysis (RCA). The process for identify- pathogens. All blood and body fluids are treated as
ing basic or causal factors that underlie variation in potentially infectious.
performance, including the occurrence or possible Statistics. The systematic science of collecting, organ-
occurrence of a sentinel event; focuses primarily on izing, analyzing, and interpreting numerical data.
systems and processes, not individual performance; Sterile. Free from living organisms.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S154 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Stylet. A sharp rigid metal hollow-bore object within a Transparent Semipermeable Membrane (TSM). A ster-
peripheral catheter designed to facilitate venipuncture ile air-permeable dressing that allows visual inspec-
and catheter insertion. tion of the skin surface beneath it; water resistant.
Stylet Wire. A long wire guide inside the catheter lumen Tunneled Cuffed Catheter. A central vascular access
used to provide stiffness for advancement of a vascu- device (CVAD) with a segment of the catheter lying
lar access device (VAD) into the vein; may be multiple in a subcutaneous tunnel with the presence of a cuff
pieces welded together and is not intended for into which the subcutaneous tissue grows to offer
advancement into the vein alone. security for the catheter; indicates that the skin exit
Subcutaneous Infusion. Administration of medications site and vein entry site are separated by the subcuta-
into the tissues beneath the skin. neous tunnel.
Surrogate. Also referred to as legally authorized rep-
resentative; someone who acts on behalf of the U
patient when the patient cannot participate in the Ultrasound. A device using sound waves at frequencies
decision-making process; surrogates may be desig- greater than the limit of human hearing; sound waves
nated by the patient and know the patients prefer- directed into human tissue to identify and display
ences or may be court appointed with or without physical structures on a screen.
this knowledge; without such knowledge a surro- Umbilical Catheter. A catheter that is inserted into 1 of
gate is required to make decisions that are in the the 2 arteries or vein of the umbilical cord.
patients best interest. Unlicensed Assistive Personnel (UAP). A category of
Surveillance. Active, systematic, ongoing observation of health care workers who work as assistants to and
the occurrence and distribution of disease within a under the direction of licensed health care profession-
population and of the events or conditions that als, including both nursing and medical assistants.
increase or decrease the risk of such disease occurrence. Unusual Occurrence (or Event). An unexpected occur-
rence or event resulting in death, life-threatening, or
T serious injury to a patient that is not related to a
natural course of the patients illness or underlying
Tamper-Proof. Unable to be altered.
condition. An unusual occurrence also includes an
Therapeutic Phlebotomy. Removal of a specific volume
incident resulting in the abuse of a patient.
of blood from a patient as ordered by the licensed
USP Chapter <797>. Chapter 797 Pharmaceutical
independent practitioner (LIP) for the treatment of a
compoundingsterile preparations, in the United
specific condition or disease.
States Pharmacopeia (USP) National Formulary (NF)
Thrombolytic Agent. A pharmacological agent capable
are enforceable sterile compounding standards issued
of lysing blood clots.
by the USP that describe the guidelines, procedures,
Thrombophlebitis. Inflammation of the vein in con-
and compliance requirements for compounding sterile
junction with formation of a blood clot (thrombus).
preparations and set the standards that apply to all
Thrombosis. The formation, development, or existence
settings in which sterile preparations are compounded.
of a blood clot within the vascular system.
Transducer. A device that converts one form of energy
V
to another.
Transfusion Reaction. Complication of blood transfu- Vascular Access Device (VAD). Catheters, tubes, or
sion where there is an immune response against the devices inserted into the vascular system, including
transfused blood cells or other components of the veins, arteries, and bone marrow.
transfusion. Vesicant. An agent capable of causing tissue damage
Transillumination. Shining a light at a specific body when it escapes from the intended vascular pathway
part (ie, extremity) to identify structures beneath the into surrounding tissue.
skin. Visible Light Devices. A device using light from 400 to
Transmission-Based Precautions. The use of Airborne, 700 nanometers, or the middle of the electromagnetic
Droplet, and/or Contact Precautions, which are spectrum, to transilluminate an extremity to locate
implemented in addition to Standard Precautions superficial veins.
when strategies beyond Standard Precautions are Visualization Technology. Device that employs the use
required to reduce the risk for transmission of infec- of sound or light waves to allow for the location and
tious agents. identification of blood vessels.
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S155 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Index
A blood sampling and, S86, S87

catheter damage and, S108
Add-on devices, S71
catheter exchange and, S110
needleless connectors, S68
central vascular access devices and, S47
Administration set changes, S84
chlorhexidine-impregnated dressings and, S82
Advanced Practice Registered Nurse (APRN), S14
CVAD removal and, S107
Adverse events, S31
CVAD salvage and, S106
Airborne Precautions, S42
disinfection caps and, S69
Air embolism, S108
identifying, S17
Analgesia, S63
intermittent vascular access ports and, S52
intravenous infusion for, S137
monitoring rates of, S22
patient-controlled, S131
nontunneled CVAD removal and, S91
Anesthesia. See Local anesthesia
parenteral nutrition and, S134
Antimicrobial locking solutions, S58, S78, S79, S107
short peripheral and midline catheter removal and,
Antineoplastic therapy, S127
S91
Antiseptic agents, S65
sterile glove, aseptic technique and, S65
Apheresis catheters, S62
sutures and, S73
flushing and locking, S78
umbilical catheters and, S61
Arterial catheters
vascular access devices and, S77
venous thrombosis and, S113
peripheral or pulmonary, S53
Catheter repair, S110
removal, S93
Central line-associated bloodstream infection
site preparation and device placement, S66
(CLABSI)
site selection, S55
antimicrobial locking solutions and, S79
Arterial pressure monitoring: administration set
central vascular access devices and, S52
changes and, S85
chlorhexidine-impregnated dressings and, S82
Assent, S12, S27
disinfection caps and, S69
B needleless connectors and, S69
phlebotomy and, S86
Bar-code technology, S22, S34, S128, S129, S136 rate calculation, S21
Biologic therapy, S129 tip location and, S47
Blood and blood components Central vascular access
administration set changes, S85 flushing and locking, S77
transfusion, S135 planning, S52
warming, S49 removal, S92
Blood sampling, S85 site preparation and device placement, S65
tip location, S46
C
Central vascular access devices
Catheter damage, S109 hemodialysis vascular access, S59
Catheter embolism, S110 implanted ports, S52, S55, S57, S58, S92
Catheter exchange, S110 nontunneled, S52, S55, S91
Catheter-related bloodstream infection (CRBSI) peripherally inserted central catheters, S55
administration set changes and, S84 tunneled, S52, S55, S92
adverse events and, S21 Central venous access device-associated thrombosis,
antimicrobial locking solutions and, S58, S79 S112
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S156 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Central venous access device malposition, S114 H
Certification, S14
Hand hygiene, S38
Color coding, S34
Hazardous drugs and waste, S36
Competency assessment and validation, S18
Hemodialysis vascular access devices, S59
Complications
air embolism, S108
Hemodynamic pressure monitoring: administration set
catheter damage, S109
changes and, S85
catheter embolism, S110
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, S78
extravasation, S98
infection, S106 I
infiltration, S98
malposition, S114 Implanted vascular access ports
nerve injuries, S102 placement, S58
occlusion, S104 planning, S52
phlebitis, S95 removal, S92
venous thrombosis, S112 site selection, S55
Compounding, S39, S127, S133 Infection
Contact Precautions, S42 prevention and control
durable medical equipment disinfection, S43
D hand hygiene, S38
medical waste and sharps safety, S40
Defect reporting, S32 parenteral solutions and medications compound-
Disinfection ing and preparation, S39
durable medical equipment, S43 Standard Precautions, S41
needleless connectors, S68 Transmission-based Precautions, S42
Disinfection caps, S69 vascular access device-related, S106
Documentation, S28 Infiltration, S98
adverse and serious adverse events, S31 rate calculation, S21
in medical record, S28 Informed consent, S26
medication verification, S34 assent, S12, S27
product evaluation, integrity, and defect reporting, Infusion Nurse Specialist (CRNI), S14
S32 Infusion team, S17, S140
Dose-error reduction system, S34, S48, S129, S131, Intraosseous access devices, S120
S134 Intraspinal access devices, S118
Dressing changes, S81 Intrathecal access devices, S118
Droplet Precautions, S42
Durable medical equipment disinfection, S43 J
Joint stabilization devices, S74
E
Electronic infusion devices (EID), S48 L
flow control device, S49 Latex sensitivity or allergy, S35
Engineered stabilization device, S72, S82 Licensed Practical/Vocational Nurse (LPN/LVN), S14
Epidural access devices, S118 Light devices, S44
Evidence-based practice and research, S24 Local anesthesia, S63
External jugular vein access, S56 Locking, S77
Extravasation, S98
M
F
Medical adhesive-related skin injury, S73, S82
Filtration, S70 Medical Assistants (MAs), S14
blood and blood components, S136 Medical waste, S40
intravenous infusions, S119 Medications
parenteral nutrition, S133 beyond-use date, S40
Flow-control devices, S43, S48 compounding, S39, S127, S133
manual, S72 verification, S34
Fluid warming, S49 Midline catheters
Flushing, S77 flushing and locking, S78
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S157 05/01/16 11:30 PM

planning, S52 Phlebotomy, S85
removal, S91 blood sampling via direct venipuncture, S86
site preparation and device placement, S64 blood sampling via vascular access devices, S87
site selection, S54 therapeutic, S138
Moderate sedation/analgesia, S137 Pinch-off syndrome, S77, S104-S105, S110, S149
Multidrug-resistant organisms, S41, S42, S43 Practice setting, S11
Pregnant patients, S11
N Product evaluation, integrity, and defect reporting, S32
Near-infrared light devices, S44 Propofol infusions: administration set changes, S85
Needleless connectors, S68 Pulmonary arterial catheters, S53
Neonatal patients, S11
Q
Nerve injuries, S102
Nontunneled central vascular access devices Quality improvement, S21
planning, S52 R
removal, S91 Radiologic Technologist, S15
site preparation and device placement, S65 Registered Nurse (RN), S13
site selection, S55 Removal, vascular access device
Nursing assistive personnel (NAP), S14 arterial catheters, S93
Nursing practice standards nontunneled central vascular access devices, S92
competency assessment and validation, S18 short peripheral and midline catheters, S91
documentation in medical record, S28 surgically placed central vascular access devices, S92
evidence-based practice and research, S23 Respiratory Care Practitioner, S15
informed consent, S26
infusion team structure, S17 S
patient care, S11
Safety
patient education, S25
adverse and serious adverse events, S31
quality improvement, S21
durable medical equipment disinfection, S43
scope of practice, S13
hazardous drugs and waste, S36
special populations, S11
latex sensitivity or allergy, S35
O medical waste and sharps, S40
medication verification, S34
Occlusion: central vascular access devices, S104 product evaluation, integrity, and defect
Older adult patients, S11 reporting, S32
Standard Precautions, S41
P
Transmission-based Precautions, S42
Paramedics, S15 Scope of practice, S13
Parenteral nutrition, S133 Sedation, intravenous infusion for, S137
administration set changes, S85 Sentinel events, S31
Parenteral solutions and medications Serious adverse events, S31
administration, S125 Sharps safety, S40
administration set changes, S85 Short peripheral catheters
compounding and preparation, S39 flushing and locking, S40
Patient care standards, S11 planning, S51
Patient-controlled analgesia, S131 removal, S91
Patient education, S25 site preparation and device placement, S64
Pediatric patients, S11 site selection, S54
Peripheral arterial catheters, S53 Site care and dressing changes, S81
flushing and locking, S78 Site protection, S75
planning, S52 Site selection, S54
removal, S91 Skin antisepsis, S65
site preparation and device placement, S65 Smart pumps, S34, S48, S125, S128, S129, S134
site selection, S55 Stabilization
Phlebitis, S95 joint, S74
rate calculation, S22 vascular access devices, S72
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S158 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Standard Precautions, S41 site protection, S75
Subcutaneous infusions site selection, S54
access devices, S122 stabilization, S72
administration set changes, S84 Vascular access devices. See Central vascular
access devices
T add-on devices, S71
Therapeutic phlebotomy, S138 administration set changes, S84
Therapist/Technologist/Technician, S15 anesthesia for placement and access, S63
Transfusion therapy, S135 apheresis, S62
blood warming, S49 assessment, site care, and dressing changes, S81
Transmission-based Precautions, S42 blood sampling via, S87
Tunneled central vascular access devices complications, S95
planning, S52 filters, S70
removal, S92 flushing, S77
site selection, S55 for hemodialysis, S59
joint stabilization devices, S74
U locking, S77
management, S68
Ultrasonography, S45 midline catheters, S52
Umbilical catheters, S60 needleless connectors, S68
United States Pharmacopeia (USP) National Formulary phlebotomy, S85
(NF), General Chapter < 797 >, S39 planning, S51
Unlicensed Assistive Personnel, S14 removal, S91
short peripheral catheters, S51
V
site preparation and device placement, S64
Vascular access site protection, S75
administration set changes, S84 site selection, S54
assessment, S81 stabilization, S72
complications, S95 types, S51
local anesthesia, S63 umbilical, S60
planning, S51 Vascular visualization, S44
removal, S91 Venipuncture, direct: for blood sampling, S86
site preparation and device placement, S64 Venous thrombosis, S112
JIN-D-15-00057.indd S159 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Performance Under Pressure
BD Nexiva Diffusics
Closed IV Catheter System
For high-pressure injection
A simple solution when

the pressure is on.
Accommodating CT power injection protocols can
be challenging when it comes to selecting and using
an IV catheterespecially when efficiency and safety
are top priorities. You need a catheter that can do
double duty.
Thats why the BD Nexiva Diffusics Closed IV
Catheter System was created. Its unique catheter
tip features multiple teardrop-shaped holes to
diffuse flow and reduce forces that can cause
catheter motion in the vein by up to 67%.*
BD Diffusics technology enables the use of a smaller

IV catheter (22 gauge up to 6.5 mL/sec)* with those
patients that require a smaller catheter and may
provide a lower cost alternative to more costly IV
access options like PICCs. Lets just say we thrive
under pressure.
To order or learn about all the ways BD is caring
for you and your patients, visit bd.com/INS2 today
or call (888) 237-2762.
BD Medical
9450 South State Street
* Compared to a non-diffusion tip IV catheter.
Sandy, Utah 84070
BD, BD Logo and all other trademarks are property of Becton, Dickinson and Company. 1-888-237-2762
2015 BD MSS0933 (12/15) www.bd.com/INS2
NAN3901S-IBC.indd 3 31/12/15 3:39 PM

NANv39n1S-C4.indd 4 31/12/15 4:08 PM

Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice (INS, 2016)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice (INS, 2016)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice (INS, 2016)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are the benefits of using closed IV catheter systems compared to open systems?

What are the benefits of using closed IV catheter systems compared to open systems?

What dwell time was found for BD Nexiva catheters in a 2014 clinical study?

What dwell time was found for BD Nexiva catheters in a 2014 clinical study?

Supplement to

Funded by an educational grant from BD Medical

NANv39n1S-Cover.indd 1 31/12/15 4:27 PM

Longer dwell times can

Use of the BD Nexiva Closed IV Catheter System

* Compared to 96 hours with an open system.

NAN3901S-IFC.indd 2 31/12/15 3:38 PM

Lisa Gorski, MS, RN, HHCNS-BC, CRNI, FAAN

315 Norwood Park South, Norwood, MA 02062

JIN-D-15-00057.indd 1 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Infusion Therapy Standards of Practice Reviewers

JIN-D-15-00057.indd 2 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Editor Editorial Reviewers Peggy Link, MSN, RN, CRNI

JIN-D-15-00057.indd 3 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Foreword S1 SECTION THREE: III. Central Venous Access via

JIN-D-15-00057.indd 4 05/01/16 11:30 PM

The Journal of Infusion Nursing is a

JIN-D-15-00057.indd 5 05/01/16 11:30 PM

VOLUME 39 | NUMBER 1S | JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2016 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society S1

JIN-D-15-00057.indd S1 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Vineet Chopra, MD, MSc

S2 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society Journal of Infusion Nursing

JIN-D-15-00057.indd S2 05/01/16 11:30 PM

ABOUT THE STANDARDS OF

Lisa Gorski, MS, RN, HHCNS-BC, CRNI, FAANChair

Lynn Hadaway, MEd, RN-BC, CRNI

Mary E. Hagle, PhD, RN-BC, FAAN

Mary McGoldrick, MS, RN, CRNI

VOLUME 39 | NUMBER 1S | JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2016 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society S3

JIN-D-15-00057.indd S3 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Darcy Doellman, MSN, RN, CRNI, VA-BC

STANDARDS OF PRACTICE COMMITTEE

S4 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society Journal of Infusion Nursing

JIN-D-15-00057.indd S4 05/01/16 11:30 PM

VOLUME 39 | NUMBER 1S | JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2016 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society S5

JIN-D-15-00057.indd S5 05/01/16 11:30 PM

A MESSAGE FROM BD MEDICAL

Alicia Mares, BSN, RN, CRNI

S6 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society Journal of Infusion Nursing

JIN-D-15-00057.indd S6 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Mary Alexander, MA, RN, CRNI, CAE, FAAN

VOLUME 39 | NUMBER 1S | JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2016 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society S7

JIN-D-15-00057.indd S7 05/01/16 11:30 PM

METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPING

S8 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society Journal of Infusion Nursing

JIN-D-15-00057.indd S8 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Practice Criteria Recommendations

VOLUME 39 | NUMBER 1S | JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2016 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society S9

JIN-D-15-00057.indd S9 05/01/16 11:30 PM

STRENGTH OF THE BODY OF

S10 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society Journal of Infusion Nursing

JIN-D-15-00057.indd S10 05/01/16 11:30 PM

Section One: Infusion Therapy Practice

1. PATIENT CARE Practice Criteria

JIN-D-15-00057.indd S11 05/01/16 11:30 PM

S12 Copyright 2016 Infusion Nurses Society Journal of Infusion Nursing