Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The researcher has found the following studies and literature as relevant to the system being
proposed.

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A. Related Literature

Foreign
The rapid growth in the creation and dissemination of digital objects by authors, publishers,
corporations, governments, and even librarians, archivists, and museum curators, has emphasized the
speed and ease of short-term dissemination with little regard for the long-term preservation of digital
information. However, digital information is fragile in ways that differ from traditional technologies, such
as paper or microfilm. It is more easily corrupted or altered without recognition. Digital storage media have
shorter life spans, and digital information requires access technologies that are changing at an ever-
increasing pace. Some types of information, such as multimedia, are so closely linked to the software and
hardware technologies that they cannot be used outside these proprietary environments [ 1998]. Because
of the speed of technological advances, the time frame in which we must consider archiving becomes much
shorter. The time between manufacture and preservation is shrinking.
While there are traditions of stewardship and best practices that have become institutionalized in
the print environment, many of these traditions are inadequate, inappropriate or not well known among
the stakeholders in the digital environment. Originators are able to bypass the traditional publishing,
dissemination, and announcement processes that are part of the traditional path from creation to archiving
and preservation. Groups and individuals who did not previously consider themselves to be archivists are
now being drawn into the role, either because of the infrastructure and intellectual property issues involved
or because user groups are demanding it. Librarians and archivists who traditionally managed the life cycle
of print information from creation to long-term preservation and archiving must now look to information
managers from the computer-science tradition to support the development of a system of stewardship in
the new digital environment. There is a need to identify new best practices that satisfy the requirements
and are practical for the various stakeholder groups involved.

In an effort to advance the state of the art and practice of digital archiving, the International Council
for Scientific and Technical Information (ICSTI), a community of scientific and technical information
organizations that includes national libraries, research institutes, publishers, and bibliographic database
producers, sponsored a study in March 1999 [Hodge 1999]. This study is the most recent in a series of
efforts on the part of ICSTI to highlight the importance of digital archiving. The topic was first raised in the
joint UNESCO/International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) Conference on Electronic Publishing in 1996.
The topic was highlighted at the technical session of the June 1997 Annual ICSTI meeting and a working
group was formed. The Electronic Publications Archive Working Group presented a white paper of the
major issues in December 1998 [ 1998]. At its December 1998 meeting, the ICSTI Board approved the study
on which this report is based. Based on common interest in this topic, [CENDI], an interagency working
group of scientific and technical information managers in the U.S. federal government, cosponsored the
study.

The project managers from the cutting-edge projects emphasized the importance of
considering best practices for archiving at all stages of the information management life cycle.
Acknowledging this important philosophy, the best practices identified by the study are presented in the
framework of the information life cycle, creation, acquisition, cataloging/identification, storage,
preservation and access.
Creation is the act of producing the information product. The producer may be a human author or
originator, or a piece of equipment such as a sensing device, satellite, or laboratory instrument. Creation is
viewed here in the broadest sense, as science is based increasingly on a variety of data types, products, and
originators. All project managers acknowledged that creation is where long-term archiving and
preservation must start. Even in rigorously controlled situations, the digital information may be lost without
the initial awareness on the part of the originator of the importance of archiving. Practices used when a
digital object is created ultimately impact the ease with which the object can be digitally archived and
preserved

In addition, there are several key practices involving the creator that are evolving within the
archiving projects. First, the creator may be involved in assessing the long-term value of the information.
In lieu of other assessment factors, the creator's estimate of the long-term value of the information may
be a good indication of the value that will be placed on it by people within the same discipline or area of
research in the future. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Digital Publications Preservation Steering
Committee has suggested that the creator provide a preservation indicator in the document. This would
not take the place of formal retention schedules, but it would provide an indication of the long-term value
that the creator, as a practicing researcher, attaches to the document's contents. Secondly, the
preservation and archiving process is made more efficient when attention is paid to issues of consistency,
format, standardization, and metadata description in the very beginning of the information life cycle. The
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (, USA) recently announced guidelines for the creation of digital documents.
Limits are placed on both the software that can be used and on the format and layout of the documents in
order to make short and long-term information management easier.
Many project managers acknowledged that the best practice would be to create the metadata at
the object-creation stage, or to create the metadata in stages, with the metadata provided at creation
augmented by additional elements during the cataloging/identification stage. However, only in the case of
data objects is the metadata routinely collected at the point of creation. Many of the datasets are created
by measurement or monitoring instruments, and the metadata is supplied along with the data stream. This
metadata may include location, instrument type, and other quality indicators concerning the context of the
measurement. In some cases, this instrument-generated metadata is supplemented by information
provided by the original researcher.
 For smaller datasets and other objects such as documents and images, much of the metadata
continues to be created by hand and after the fact. Metadata creation is not sufficiently incorporated into
the tools for the creation of these objects to rely solely on the creation process. As standards groups and
vendors move to incorporate XML (eXtensible Mark-up Language) and RDF (Resource Description
Framework) architectures in their word-processing and database products, the creation of metadata as
part of the origination of the object will be easier.
Acquisition and collection development is the stage in which the created object is "incorporated"
physically or virtually into the archive. The object must be known to the archive administration. There are
two main aspects to the acquisition of digital objects, collection policies and gathering procedures. In most
countries, the major difference in collection policies between formal print and electronic publications is the
question of whether digital materials are included under current deposit legislation. Guidelines help to
establish the boundaries in such an unregulated situation. It is also the case that there is just too much
material that could be archived from the Internet, so guidelines are needed to tailor the general collection
practices of the organization. The collection policies answer questions related to selecting what to archive,
determining extent, archiving links, and refreshing site contents.
Storage is often treated as a passive stage in the life cycle, but storage media and formats have
changed, with legacy information perhaps lost forever. Block sizes, tape sizes, tape drive mechanisms, and
operating systems have changed over time. Most organizations that responded to the question about the
periodicity of media migration anticipate a three- to five-year cycle.
The most common solution to this problem of changing storage media is migration to new storage
systems. This is expensive, and there is always concern about the loss of data or problems with the quality
when a transfer is made. Check algorithms are extremely important when this approach is used.
Preservation is the aspect of archival management that preserves the content as well as the look
and feel of the digital object. While the study showed that there is no common agreement on the definition
of long-term preservation, the time frame can be thought of as long enough to be concerned about changes
in technology and changes in the user community. Depending on the particular technologies and subject
disciplines involved, the project managers interviewed estimated the cycle for hardware/software
migration at two to ten years.
New releases of databases, spreadsheets, and word processors can be expected at least every two
to three years, with patches and minor updates released more often. While software vendors generally
provide migration strategies or upward compatibility for some generations of their products, this may not
be true beyond one or two generations. Migration is not guaranteed to work for all data types, and it
becomes particularly unreliable if the information product has used sophisticated software features. There
is generally no backward compatibility, and if backward compatability is possible, there is certainly loss of
integrity in the result.
Plans are less rigorous for migrating to new hardware and applications software than for storage
media. In order to guard against major hardware/software migration issues, the organizations try to
procure mainstream commercial technologies. For example, both the American Chemical Society and the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency purchased Oracle not only for its data management capabilities but
for the company's longevity and ability to impact standards development. Unfortunately, this level of
standardization and ease of migration is not as readily available among technologies used in specialized
fields where niche systems are required because of the interfaces to instrumentation and the volume of
data to be stored and manipulated.

Emulation, which encapsulates the behavior of the hardware/software with the object, is being
considered as an alternative to migration. For example, a MS Word 2000 document would carry metadata
information that indicates how to reconstruct the document and the MS Word 2000 software environment
at the bit and byte level. An alternative to encapsulating the software with every instance of the data type
is to create an emulation registry that uniquely identifies the hardware and software environments and
provides information on how to recreate the environment in order to preserve the use of the digital object.
[ 1998; 1999]

At this time, there is no system in place to provide the extensive documentation and emulation
information required for this approach to be operable, particularly to allow an archive to deal with the
variety of older technologies. Most importantly, there is no policy that requires the manufacturers to
deposit the emulation information. The best practice for the foreseeable future will be migration to new
hardware and software platforms; emulation will begin to be used if and when the hardware and software
industries begin to endorse it.
For purely electronic documents, PDF is the most prevalent format. This provides a replica of the
Postscript format of the document, but relies upon proprietary encoding technologies. PDF is used both for
formal publications and grey literature. The National Library of Sweden transforms dissertations that are
received in formats other than PDF to PDF and HTML. While PDF is increasingly accepted, concerns remain
for long-term preservation, and it may not be accepted as a legal depository format because of its
proprietary nature.
Preserving the "look and feel" is difficult in the text environment, but it is even more difficult in the
multimedia environment, where there is a tightly coupled interplay between software, hardware, and
content. The U.S. Department of Defense DITT Project is developing models and software for the
management of multimedia objects. Similarly, the University of California at San Diego has developed a
model for object-based archiving that allows various levels and types of metadata with distributed storage
of various data types. The UCSD work is funded by the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration
and the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
A key preservation issue is the format in which the archival version should be stored.
Transformation is the process of converting the native format to a standard format. On the whole, the
projects reviewed favored storage in native formats. However, there are several examples of data
transformation. AAS and ACS transform the incoming files into SGML-tagged ASCII format. The AAS believes
that "The electronic master copy, if done well, is able to serve as the robust electronic archival copy. Such
a well-tagged copy can be updated periodically, at very little cost, to take advantage of advances in both
technology and standards. The content remains unchanged, but the public electronic version can be
updated to remain compatible with the advances in browsers and other access technology." [ 1997]
The data community also provides some examples of data transformation. For example, the NASA
Data Active Archive Centers (DAACs) transform incoming satellite and ground-monitoring information into
standard Common Data Format. The U.K.'s National Digital Archive of Datasets (NDAD) transforms the
native format into one of its own devising, since NDAD could not find an existing standard that dealt with
all their metadata needs. These transformed formats are considered to be the archival versions, but the
bit-wise copies are retained, so that someone can replicate what the center has done.

In some countries, there are intellectual property questions related to native versus transformed
formats. According to , an author's rights are infringed if the original work is "distorted, mutilated or
otherwise modified." After much discussion, the NLC decided that converting an electronic publication to
a standard format to preserve the quality of the original and to ensure long-term access does not infringe
on the author's right of integrity. However, this assumption has not been tested in court
The previous life-cycle functions that have been discussed are performed for the purpose of
ensuring continuous access to the material in the archive. Successful practices must consider changes to
access mechanisms, as well as rights management and security requirements over the long term.
One of the most difficult access issues for digital archiving involves rights management. What rights
does the archive have? What rights do various user groups have? What rights have the owners retained?
How will the access mechanism interact with the archive's metadata to ensure that these rights are
managed properly? Rights management includes providing or restricting access as appropriate, and
changing the access rights as the material's copyright and security level changes.
Security and version control also impact digital archiving. raises many interesting questions
concerning privacy and "stolen information," particularly since the Internet Archive policy is to archive all
sites that are linked to one another in one long chain. [1997]. Similarly, there is concern among image
archivists that images can be tampered with without the tampering being detected. Particularly in cases
where conservation issues are at stake, it is important to have metadata to manage encryption,
watermarks, digital signatures, etc. that can survive despite changes in the format and media on which the
digital item is stored.
Local
(1996) pointed out in a lecture that a systematic acquisition work begin with knowing what should
be done and by whom. It is evident that professional archivists are responsible for duties such as managing
the acquisitions budget, determining policies and work procedures, and resolving difficult bibliographic
problems. She states further that the most routine tasks are usually left to the clerk and assistants. It
means that in whatever level, it is advantageous for the personnel to know and understand as much as
possible about all acquisition tasks.
(1994) affirms that technical services must be transformed through the innovativeness of its
leaders. This is so if archives want to become active agents of the electronic revolution with the
responsibility of collecting information in all forms. Her paper presented the past and present archival
practices and visions of an electronic library equipment. The working environments in the past demand a
variety of challenges. However, she emphasizes that knowledge of the basic concepts and process on
technical services is still a must whether it is an electronic library, or a library in an information technology
environment. Despite the changes, the basic process of performing archival activities remains constant
and what has changed is how the work is done.
(1994) discussed the future of archiving and the needed leadership to cope with the developments
in the field. He recommends the following: 1. To approach the age of the digital archival system, catalogers
must have a grasp of the rules on cataloging files and other non-traditional media, and 2) learn to use
microcomputers and explore its endless possibilities to improve procedures.
 (1993) stated in her study that the goals of nonprint materials must be consciously and
systematically determined through an assessment of user needs. Its database must consist of the widest
range of available learning resources and must be selected according to a profile of user needs. Its retrieval
system must reflect the objectives, interest learning and teaching styles and abilities of the school
community and its users must be educated to make active use of media materials by making the
responsibility to acquire, store, retrieve and disseminate information systematically.
The study used the descriptive method of research with two sets of questionnaires as her
instruments in gathering data. The result of the survey indicated three essential findings: that there is a
need to establish a media center responsible for the organization and management of audio visual resource
in order to fulfill its vital role as partner in the schools instructional program; that the utilization of newer
media resource is not maximized due to lack of awareness by the faculty of their existence; and that there
is an imperative need to organize the audiovisuals in the school for more effective and efficient use. A
union list of AV materials was urgently needed; and there is a need to formulate procedures and policies in
the overall management of media or audiovisual resources in the library.

(2001) pointed out that the Philippines employed a unique strategy in carrying out the work in
audiovisual (AV) archiving. In the absence of an operational AV archives in the country, most of the
activities of institutions with AV archive holdings such as the Philippine Information Agency, the UP Film
Center, the Cultural Center of the Philippines, Mowelfund, etc., are informally being coordinated by a
professional body composed of "archivists" working in the different institutions involved in archiving.

It should be noted though that during the early 1980s, the Philippines had a national film archive
that was fully operational in the real sense of the word. After the 1986 Edsa Revolution, the archive received
the least priority and was transferred to the Censors Body. No archiving activity was carried out by this unit
since then. The various tasks involved in AV archiving rested on the shoulders of related agencies, not by
their own chose but by necessity required of their work. AV archiving activities were separately being
undertaken. The turning point came when the Cultural Center of the Philippines, which wanted to organize
a Lino Brocka Retrospective, discovered that many of the Brocka films, particularly those that were
significant, were already destroyed. Some of the surviving prints were brought to the Philippine Information
Agency for restoration. With no previous experience on cases of this nature, PIA had to turn to other
agencies for materials that could be used as reference for the work. The UP Film Center, with its contacts
with international organizations and as a recipient of several fellowship awards from UNESCO, provided PIA
a copy of the International Federation of Film Archives (FIAF) Manual. This was the first inter-institutional
contact in the country that proved to be significant as it eventually led to a formal partnership among the
archivists from these institutions in what was to become later as the Society of Film Archivists (SOFIA).
The Society of Film Archivists (SOFIA) was formally organized in July, 1993 out of need and in
compliance with the recommendation of the ASEAN Planning Workshop Meeting on Film Retrieval,
Restoration and Archiving, which the Philippines organized in February, 1996. SOFIAs membership is made
up of individual AV archivists working in cultural organizations, information agencies, broadcasting and
academic institutions, film production companies, and film critics.
The role of SOFIA in the development of the AV archiving profession in the country is one that has
been evolving over time. At the beginning, SOFIA served as a venue for exchanging knowledge and skills.
As such, the kinds of projects undertaken during this stage were mostly training programs. Later, SOFIA
became an informal coordinating body for activities undertaken by the different institutions involved in
archiving. These projects were implemented by institutions as part of their in-house programs and
according to what these institutions can do best. This enabled the different institutions to avoid duplication
of efforts and therefore saved on scarce national resources. Presently, SOFIAs role has evolved into that
of a mobilizer and an advocate for the setting up of a central body that would formally be recognized by
the government and supported by the public sector.
The effectiveness of this model in the Philippines could be better appreciated in the context of the
prevailing situation operating at the time SOFIA was born and the commitment of the members to pursue
the work. Prevailing conditions that were considered important that helped bring about the results were
the following: a) a clear vision of what was needed.
These involved knowing where we were, where we want to go and how to get there; b) the
emergence of a Steering Group at the initial stage. This role was assumed by the Philippine Information
Agency. Through its work requirement and involvement in ASEAN, PIA initiated projects on the national
and regional levels that brought critical agencies together, identified local partners such as the Cultural
Center of the Philippines, the UP Film Center, etc., to assist in implementing the program, and identify
succeeding steps to build on previous accomplishments; c) empowerment of the identified partners. This
involved getting the partners committed to assume the responsibility of carrying out the work when the
agencies involved in AV archiving decided to bond together through SOFIA and initiated and sustained
programs and projects for AV archiving as a group or individually in coordination with each other,
empowerment of the identified partners had set in; and d) utilization of advocacy techniques that were
found effective. Apart from the traditional tools for promotion such as the media, SOFIA used techniques
such as requesting the President of the Republic of the Philippines to issue an Executive Order declaring a
week in a year as AV Archiving Week, among others. Organizing international conferences also helped
generate interest on the issues.
This is an overview of the criminal procedure in the Philippines. The sources of procedural criminal
law were the constitution, the revised penal code of 1930, the New Rules of Court of 1964, special laws,
and certain presidential orders and letters of instruction. These governed the pleading, practice, and
procedure of all courts as well as admission to the practice of law. All had the force and effect of law.
The rights of the accused under Philippine law are guaranteed under Article 3 of the 1987
constitution and include the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty, the right to enjoy due
process under the law, and the right to a speedy, public trial. Those accused must be informed of the
charges against them and must be given access to competent, independent counsel, and the opportunity
to post bail, except in instances where there is strong evidence that the crime could result in the maximum
punishment of life imprisonment. Habeas corpus protection is extended to all except in cases of invasion
or rebellion. During a trial, the accused are entitled to be present at every proceeding, to compel witnesses,
to testify and cross-examine them and to testify or be exempt as a witness. Finally, all are guaranteed
freedom from double jeopardy and, if convicted, the right to appeal.
Criminal action can be initiated either by a complaint--a sworn statement by the offended party, a
witness, or a police officer--or by "information." Information consists of a written accusation filed with the
court by a prosecutor, known as a fiscal at the provincial levels of government and below. No information
can be filed unless investigation by a judge, fiscal, or state prosecutor establishes a prima facie case.
Warrant for arrest is issued by a judge. Warrantless arrest by a police officer can be made legally only under
extraordinary circumstances. Former President Aquino immediately discontinued Marcos-era practices of
presidentially ordered searches and arrests without judicial process and prolonged "preventative detention
actions."
Trial procedure consists of arraignment, trial, and the court's judgment and sentencing. The accused must
be arraigned in the court where the complaint or information is filed. A defendant must be present to plead
to the charge, except in certain minor cases where a lawyer can appear for him or her. All offenses are
bailable, save the most serious cases when strong evidence of guilt exists. If a defendant has no lawyer, the
court is required to supply one. Prosecution is carried out by the state prosecutor or provincial fiscal, who
exercises broad discretion in screening cases and affixing charges. No jury is employed; the judge
determines all questions of law and fact and passes sentence. A written sentence must be read to the court.
Afterward, either party may appeal. ()
This is the overview of law enforcement in the Philippines. Until the mid-1970s, when a major restructuring
of the nation's police system was undertaken, the Philippine Constabulary alone was responsible for law
enforcement on a national level. Independent city and municipal police forces took charge of maintaining
peace and order on a local level, calling on the constabulary for aid when the need arose. The National
Police Commission, established in 1966 to improve the professionalism and training of local police, had
loose supervisory authority over the police. It was widely accepted, however, that this system had several
serious defects. Most noteworthy were jurisdictional limitations, lack of uniformity and
coordination, disputesbetween police forces, and partisan political involvement in police employment,
appointments, assignments, and promotions. Local political bosses routinely used police as private armies,
protecting their personal interests and intimidating political opponents.
In order to correct such deficiencies, the 1973 constitution provided for the integration of public
safety forces. Several presidential decrees were subsequently issued, integrating the police, fire, and jail
services in the nation's more than 1,500 cities and municipalities. On August 8, 1975, Presidential Decree
765 officially established the joint command structure of the Philippine Constabulary and Integrated
National Police. The constabulary, which had a well-developed nationwide command and staff structure,
was given the task of organizing the integration. The chief of the Philippine Constabulary served jointly as
the director general of the Integrated National Police. As constabulary commander, he reported through
the military chain of command, and as head of the Integrated National Police, he reported directly to the
minister (later secretary) of national defense. The National Police Commission was transferred to the
Ministry (later Department) of National Defense, retaining its oversight responsibilities but turning over
authority for training and other matters to the Philippine Constabulary and Integrated National Police.
The Integrated National Police was assigned responsibility for public safety, protection of lives and
property, enforcement of laws, and maintenance of peace and order throughout the nation. To carry out
these responsibilities, it was given powers "to prevent crimes, effect the arrest of criminal offendersand
provide for their detention and rehabilitation, prevent and control fires, investigate the commission of all
crimes and offenses, bring the offenders to justice, and take all necessary steps to ensure public safety." In
practice, the Philippine Constabulary retained responsibility for dealing with serious crimes or cases
involving jurisdictions far separated from one another, and the Integrated National Police took charge of
less serious crimes and local traffic, crime prevention, and public safety.
The Integrated National Police's organization paralleled that of the constabulary. The thirteen
Philippine Constabulary regional command headquarters were the nuclei for the Integrated National
Police's regional commands. Likewise, the constabulary's seventy-three provincial commanders, in their
capacity as provincial police superintendents, had operational control of Integrated National Police forces
in their respective provinces. Provinces were further subdivided into 147 police districts, stations, and
substations. The constabulary was responsible for patrolling remote rural areas. In Metro Manila's four
cities and thirteen municipalities, the Integrated National Police's Metropolitan Police Force shared the
headquarters of the constabulary's Capital Command. The commanding general of the Capital Command
was also the director of the Integrated National Police's Metropolitan Police Force and directed the
operations of the capital's four police and fire districts.
As of 1985, the Integrated National Police numbered some 60,000 people, a marked increase over
the 1980 figure of 51,000. Approximately 10 percent of these staff were fire and prison officials, and the
remainder were police. The Philippine National Police Academy provided training for Integrated National
Police officer cadets. Established under the Integrated National Police's Training Command in 1978, the
academy offered a bachelor of science degree in public safety following a two-year course of study.
Admission to the school was highly competitive.
Integrated National Police was the subject of some criticism, and the repeated object of
reform. Police were accused of involvement in illegal activities, violent acts and abuse. Charges of
corruption were frequent. To correct the Integrated National Police's image problem, the government
sponsored programs to identify and punish police offenders, and training designed to raise their standard
of appearance, conduct, and performance.
Dramatic changes were planned for the police in 1991. The newly formed Philippine National Police
was to be a strictly civilian organization, removed from the armed forces and placed under a new civilian
department known as the Department of the Interior and Local Government.
Local police forces were supported at the national level by the National Bureau of Investigation. As
an agency of the Department of Justice, the National Bureau of Investigation was authorized to "investigate,
on its own initiative and in the public interest, crimes and other offenses against the laws of the Philippines;
to help whenever officially requested, investigate or detect crimes or other offenses; (and) to act as a
national clearing house of criminal records and other information." In addition, the bureau maintained a
scientific crime laboratory and provided technical assistance on request to the police and constabulary.
Local officials also played a role in law enforcement. By presidential decree, the justice system in
the barangays empowered village leaders to handle petty and less serious crimes. The intent of the
program was to reinforce the authority of local officials and to reduce the workload on already overtaxed
Philippine law enforcement agencies. ()

B. Studies

Foreign

Two studies were concerned with the needs of data creators and the responsibility for archiving of
such data. In the traditional area of publishing it is quite clear where the responsibility for maintaining an
archive of published information lies: publishers do not regard it as residing with them, and if libraries wish
to preserve the books or journals they have bought, then it is their responsibility to do so. In electronic
publishing the issues are not nearly as clear. In many cases, for example, libraries do not hold the database
that resides with the publisher. (1997) recommended that a national body be established in the UK to
coordinate such archiving and that it should be funded from the public sector, with an extension of legal
deposit legislation to cover electronic publications. As far as unpublished data are concerned, universities
and the funding agencies which support scholarly research are major sponsors of digital resource creation
and, therefore, have a responsibility for ensuring that the research they help to create is preserved on a
long-term basis. (1998) sought to establish how much of these digital resources were being created, as
well as the level of provision which is being made for their preservation. The report also considered what
the future needs of these bodies were with regard to digital preservation

A further study (, 1998) produced a strategic policy

framework, which examined how different organizations are approaching the key stages in the life-cycle
of digitalresources, from creation, through access to preservation. Finally, the question of post-hoc rescue
or `digitalarchaeology' was

addressed ( 1998). Some data appear to be inaccessible due to the obsolescence of the hardware or
software required to read them. The study examined approaches to accessing digital materials where the
media have become damaged, through disaster or age, or where the hardware or software is either no
longer available or unknown. It illustrated some methods of recovery, showing that most data can be
rescued, if there is enough time and money, but emphasizing that the value of the data must be weighed
against the cost of recovery.

A clear message that emerged from the studieswas that a great deal of money can be wasted if
digitization projects are undertaken without due regard to the long-term preservation of the digital files. It
is relatively easy to produce a digital version of a book, manuscript or museum object. Unfortunately it is
also easy to do so in such a way that either the long-term preservation of the file becomes expensive,
because of the way it was created, or with the result that the work will have to be repeated because no
plan was in place for archiving the file.

But digital preservation is about much more than digitizing to facilitate the preservation of items
which were originally produced in a different medium. The preservation of digital materials which were
created in the digital domain provides an even greater challenge, since there is no opportunity to return to
the non-digital original. As the world moves increasingly towards dealing with this `born-digital'
information, the potentially devastating impact on the future of scholarship increases, and so must the
sense of duty to solve these problems

(1989) determined the impact of computer assisted cataloging on the archival staff and their
performance in the 21 Illinois community agencies identified as having computer assisted cataloging. The
focus of the study was on the volume of services, quality of catalog cards, and cataloging functions,
attitudes toward the job, personnel changes, and environmental changessince the advent of computer-
assisted cataloging. The major findings of the study are in two categories: duties and perceptions. The
duties included increased interarchival loan transactions, fewer workshops, a decrease in turn-around
time for cataloging and card production, a decrease in original cataloging, and a decrease in volume of
services since the advent of computer assisted cataloging.

The perceptions included the catalogers feelings that computer assisted cataloging was an
improvement over previous cataloging procedures and more positive than negative attitudes were
expressed toward the job. The only environmental change consisted of the addition of furniture.

Once, paper-based technologies ruled; to date, libraries actively promoted electronic information
tools whether simply via online catalogues or through the more sophisticated CD-ROMs or international
networks. With these electronic information tools, archivists could choose whether they would subscribe
to an expensive journal or provide access to it via the equivalent full text database online, or just possibly
charge the requestor for the service.

(1996) determined the importance of computers in providing access to information resources both
within and without library walls, He stated that the new technology is hard to resist, but it is essential that
the needs if the ordinary clients continue to be met by providing access to the technology and resources
in a central, public location, and making available the necessary instruction to use these media just as
readers assistance has been providing for traditional print based media in the past. Furthermore, he
emphasized that services provided should be examined closely and that policy decisions be taken to ensure
appropriate dissemination of information resources and the ability to pay. Facilitating access to
information, according to him, is of greatest importance.

Local

(1998) conducted a study on the development, organization, use and maintenance of nonbook
resources in the Mapua Institute of Technology Library. The researcher utilized the descriptive
method. Two sets of questionnaires were utilized, one for the 13 regular full time librarians and another
for the 53 regular full time faculty members. To supplement the information drawn out from the
questionnaires, personal interviews of the respondents and other librarians were conducted and content
or documentary analysis was made.

The study found out that there was no written procedural manual for nonbook materials in the
Mapua Institute of Technology library with regard to acquisition, organization, use and maintenance. The
study noted that one hundred percent of the respondents recommended the development of
the procedural manual,

(1991) determined how well the UPLB library card catalog was performing, what its deficiencies are,
and how well its level of effectiveness can be increased. It was found out that the subject catalog was more
useful in locating materials than the Author/Title catalogs.

(1978) conducted an experimental study on the effectiveness of the National Union catalog and
the Marcfiche as searching tools in the cataloging section of the Rizal library of the Ateneo de Manila
University. The results of the study indicated that there was no significant difference in the time spent in
searching the sample in either catalog, but there was a significant difference in the number of successful
searcher by searching at the Marcfiche.

The experimental study showed that successful search in the NUC (National Union Catalog) was
inhibited by: 1) title entries, 2) corporate authors, 3) foreign names of author entries, 4) see reference
entries that are overlooked in searching because of their typography, and 5) the exhausting manipulation
of the series of book catalogs.

On the other hand, successful search in the Marcfiche was inhibited by factors such as: 1) its title
index being in sequential arrangement, and 2) its being a new searching tool so that searchers have to be
more familiar with its many features to be able to use it at the optimum level. However, the number of
successful searches in Marcfiche was affected by the independent variables such as: 1) its multiple access
points through the multiple indexes, 2) ease in accessing the title index since the title of a work is easier to
determine than its main entry, and 3) its being in Marcfiche form, makes easier to handle or manipulate
them than a searching tool in book form and in a series of volumes like the NUC.

(1993) conducted a study on the state of selection process or weeding in selected archives in
Metro Manila. The study sought to find out the nature and extent of weeding, the existence of deselection
policies, the deselection methods and criteria used, the methods of disposing the discarded stock and the
problems encountered by the archivists in implementing the weeding process.

Based on the findings and conclusions of the study the author recommended the following: 1)
implement continuous and regular weeding process at least once every two years; 2) emphasize weeding
of less-used materials by transferring/relocating them in a stock room rather totally discard them in as
much as all are related to the curriculum; 3) for archives with no weeding policies yet, formulate sound
guidelines and perform deselection process in the light of these policies, and 4) to solve the deselection
problems encountered by the archivists, awareness of the importance of weeding through lectures or
seminars should be disseminated to the archivists.