Slag Cement in Concrete and Mortar: ACI 233R-03

ACI 233R-03
(Reapproved 2011)
Slag Cement
in Concrete and Mortar
Reported by ACI Committee 233

First Printing
March 2003
American Concrete Institute
Advancing concrete knowledge
Slag Cement in Concrete and Mortar
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ISBN 978-087031-120-8
ACI 233R-03
(Reapproved 2011)

Reported by ACI Committee 233
Russell T. Flynn* Thomas J. Grisinger*
Chair Secretary
Bryant Mather*
Editorial Committee Chair
James M. Aldred Darrell F. Elliot Mark D. Luther* Jere H. Rose*

Leonard Bell Roy Heaps V. Mohan Malhotra Della M. Roy
Bayard M. Call R. Douglas Hooton* William C. Moore Peter G. Snow
George R. Dewey* Gunnar M. Idorn H. Celik Ozyildirim Michael D. A. Thomas*
Ravindra Dhir Gerald D. Lankes Prasada R. Rangaraju
*
Members of the committee who prepared this report.
ACI Committee 233 expresses its gratitude to the lateBryant Mather. From his pioneering work until his death, Bryant had a profound influence on the understanding,
development, and promotion of the use of slag cement in concrete.
The committee acknowledges the contributions of Mark D. Luther, Past Chair, and Associate Member David Scott to the development of this report.
Previously, ACI and other standard- and code-writing organizations of concrete. This report does not address slags derived from the smelting of
referred to slag cement as ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS). materials other than iron ores. The material characteristics described and
Throughout the industry, however, the term slag cement has been the more the recommendations for its use pertain solely to cement ground from gran-
contemporary and commonly used terminology. ACI Committee 233, ulated iron blast-furnace slag.
Ground Slag in Concrete, decided to review the terminology relating to this
material. In 2001, the slag cement manufacturers, represented by the Slag Keywords: blast-furnace slag; cementitious material; concrete; granulated
Cement Association (SCA), approached the committee and requested a blast-furnace slag; hydraulic cement; mixture proportion; mortar; portland
change in terminology from GGBFS to slag cement. cement; slag cement; specification.
The technical merits of the terminology in question, as well as the effect on
the industry, have been analyzed and debated. Finding the request from the
SCA as appropriate and reasonable, the committee decided to make the change
CONTENTS
in terminology.
Chapter 1General information, p. 2
ACI Committee 233 and SCA have made similar requests to various ACI
1.1History
and ASTM technical and terminology committees to update or revise their 1.2Scope and objective
definitions and descriptions of this and related materials. 1.3Terminology
Subsequently, in this document, with the exception of some referenced 1.4Environmental considerations
publications, the term ground granulated blast-furnace slag has been 1.5Origin of blast-furnace slag
replaced with the term slag cement.
The use of iron blast-furnace slag as a constituent in concrete as an
1.6Chemical and physical properties
aggregate, a cementitious material, or both, is well known. Recent attention 1.7Processing
has been given to the use of slag cement as a separate cementitious constit- 1.8Specifications
uent in concrete. This report addresses the use of slag cement as a separate 1.9Hydraulic activity
cementitious material added along with portland cement in the production 1.10Factors determining cementitious properties
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Manuals, and Commentaries Chapter 2Storage, handling, and batching, p. 6
are intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and 2.1Storage
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use of 2.2Handling
individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance and
limitations of its content and recommendations and who will 2.3Batching
accept responsibility for the application of the material it
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all
responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall not be
liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom. ACI 233R-03 supersedes ACI 233R-95 (Reapproved 2000) and became effective
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract March 28, 2003.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by the Copyright 2003, American Concrete Institute.
Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by the mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
Architect/Engineer. tion or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in
writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
1
233R-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Chapter 3Proportioning concrete containing Mary (1951) described the preparation of slag cement by
slag cement, p. 233R-6 the Trief wet-process and its use in the Bort-les-Orgues
3.1Proportioning with slag cement Dam. This was done after World War II when the supply of
3.2Ternary systems portland cement was limited. The dam involved 660,000 m3
3.3Use with chemical admixtures (863,000 yd3) of concrete. The slag was ground wet and
charged into the mixer as a thick slurry.
Chapter 4Effects on properties of fresh A sample of the Trief wet-process cement was obtained by
concrete, p. 233R-7 the Corps of Engineers in December 1950 and tested at the
4.1Workability
Waterways Experiment Station (WES) (Waterways Experi-
4.2Time of setting
ment Station 1953). In the WES tests, the behavior of the
4.3Bleeding
ground slag from Europe was compared with slag ground in
4.4Rate of slump loss
the laboratory from expanded slag from Birmingham, Ala.
Each slag was activated with 1.5% sodium hydroxide and
Chapter 5Effects on properties of hardened
concrete and mortar, p. 233R-8 1.5% sodium chloride by mass, with generally similar results.
5.1Strength In the former Soviet Union and several European countries,
5.2Modulus of rupture the use of slag cement in alkali-activated systems where no
5.3Modulus of elasticity portland cement is used has been found to provide special
5.4Creep and shrinkage properties (Talling and Brandstetr 1989).
5.5Influence of curing on performance The first recorded production of blended cement in which
5.6Color blast-furnace slag was combined with portland cement was in
5.7Effects on temperature rise in mass concrete Germany in 1892; the first United States production was in
5.8Permeability 1896. By 1980, the use of slag cement in the production of
blended cement accounted for nearly 20% of the total hydraulic
5.9Resistance to sulfate attack
cement produced in Europe (Hogan and Meusel 1981).
5.10Reduction of expansion due to alkali-silica
Until the 1950s, slag cement was used in two basic ways:
reaction (ASR)
as a raw material for the manufacture of portland cement and
5.11Resistance to freezing and thawing
as a cementitious material combined with portland cement,
5.12Resistance to deicing chemicals
hydrated lime, gypsum, or anhydrite (Lewis 1981).
5.13Resistance to the corrosion of reinforcement
Since the late 1950s, use of slag cement as a separate
cementitious material added at the concrete mixer with portland
Chapter 6Uses of slag cement in concrete and
mortar, p. 233R-15 cement has gained acceptance in South Africa, Australia, the
6.1Introduction United Kingdom, Japan, Canada, and the United States,
6.2Ready-mixed concrete among other countries.
6.3Concrete products In 2000, production capacity for slag cement was esti-
6.4Mortars and grouts mated by the committee to exceed 2,000,000 metric tons or
Megagrams (Mg) annually in North America. In the United
Chapter 7References, p. 233R-15 States, production of slag cement was estimated to exceed
7.1Referenced standards and reports 1,500,000 Mg, up from approximately 700,000 Mg in 1990.
7.2Cited references In 2000 there were at least nine companies supplying slag
cement in the United States, up from just two in 1990. There
CHAPTER 1GENERAL INFORMATION are several companies making slag cement in Canada and
1.1History Mexico, some of which was imported to North America in
The use of ground granulated iron blast-furnace slag the late 1990s.
cement (slag cement) as a cementitious material dates back According to Solomon (1991), 13,293,000 Mg of iron blast-
to 1774 when Loriot made a mortar using slag cement in furnace slag was sold or used in the United States during that
combination with slaked lime (Mather 1957). year. Today, much of this material could be used for the
In 1862, Emil Langen proposed a granulation process to production of slag if granulating facilities were available at all
facilitate removal and handling of iron blast-furnace slag furnace locations. More sources of slag cement may become
leaving the blast furnace. Glassy iron blast-furnace slags available due to energy and environmental stimulus.
were later investigated by Michaelis, Prussing, Tetmayer, The majority of slag cement is batched as a separate ingre-
Prost, Feret, and Green. Their investigations, along with that dient at concrete production plants. A significant portion of
of Pasow, who introduced the process of air granulation, the slag cement is used in making blended hydraulic
played an important part in the development of iron blast- cements. Slag cement is also used for other applications
furnace slag as a hydraulic binder (Thomas 1979). This including stabilizing mine tailings and industrial waste.
development resulted in the first commercial use of slag-
lime cements in Germany in 1865. In France, these slag 1.2Scope and objective
cements were used as early as 1889 to build the Paris under- The objective of this report is to compile and present experi-
ground metro system (Thomas 1979). ences in research and field use of slag cement in concrete and
SLAG CEMENT IN CONCRETE AND MORTAR 233R-3
mortar, and to offer guidance in its specification, propor- Table 1.1Range of chemical composition of
tioning, and use. Presented is a detailed discussion of the blast-furnace slags in the United States and Canada
composition and production of slag cement, its use, and its Chemical constituents (as oxides)* Range of composition, % by mass
effects on the properties of concrete and mortar. SiO2 32 to 42
Slag from the production of metals other than iron differs Al2O3 7 to 16
greatly in composition and is not within the scope of this report.
CaO 32 to 45
MgO 5 to 15
1.3Terminology S 0.7 to 2.2
1.3.1 Definitions
Fe2O3 0.1 to 1.5
blast-furnace slagthe nonmetallic product, consisting
MnO 0.2 to 1.0
essentially of silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium and of
*
other bases, that is developed in a molten condition simulta- Except for sulfur.
neously with iron in a blast furnace.

issued a Comprehensive Procurement Guideline (U.S. Envi-
air-cooled blast-furnace slagthe material resulting
ronmental Protection Agency 1994) that designated a
from solidification of molten blast-furnace slag under atmo-
number of items, including cement and concrete containing
spheric conditions; subsequent cooling may be accelerated
slag cement, as products made with recovered materials.
by application of water to the solidified surface.
Section 6002 of the Resource Conservation and Recovery
expanded blast-furnace slagthe lightweight, cellular
Act (RCRA) requires agencies using appropriated federal
material obtained by controlled processing of molten blast-
funds to purchase products composed of the highest percent-
furnace slag with water or water and other agents, such as
ages of recovered materials practicable. The EPA (U.S. Envi-
steam, compressed air, or both.
ronmental Protection Agency 1994) also issued a Recovered
granulated blast-furnace slag (GBFS)the glassy
Materials Advisory Notice (RMAN) requiring that procuring
granular material formed when molten blast-furnace slag is
agencies ensure that their guide specifications do not
rapidly chilled, as by immersion in water.
inappropriately or unfairly discriminate against the use of
ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS)see slag cement in blended cement and in concrete.
cement, slag. In this report, the more commonly used slag
cement has replaced ground granulated blast-furnace slag.
1.5Origin of blast-furnace slag
cement, blendeda hydraulic cement consisting essentially
In the production of iron, the blast furnace is continuously
of an intimate and uniform blend of granulated blast-furnace
charged from the top with iron oxide (ore, pellets, sinter),
slag and hydrated lime; or an intimate and uniform blend of
fluxing stone (limestone or dolomite), and fuel (coke,
portland cement and granulated blast-furnace slag, portland
typically). Two products are obtained from the furnace:
cement, and pozzolan, or portland blast-furnace slag cement
molten iron that collects in the bottom of the furnace (hearth)
and pozzolan, produced by intergrinding portland cement
and liquid iron blast-furnace slag floating on the pool of
clinker with the other materials or by blending portland
molten iron. Both are periodically tapped from the furnace at
cement with the other materials, or a combination of inter-
a temperature of about 1500 C.
grinding and blending.
cement, portland blast-furnace slaga hydraulic
cement consisting of an intimately interground mixture of 1.6Chemical and physical properties
portland-cement clinker and granulated blast-furnace slag or The composition of blast-furnace slag is determined by that
an intimate and uniform blend of portland cement and fine of the ores, fluxing stone, and impurities in the coke charged
granulated blast-furnace slag in which the amount of the slag into the blast furnace. Typically, silica, calcium, aluminum,
constituent is within specified limits. magnesium, and oxygen constitute 95% or more of the blast-
cement, slaggranulated blast-furnace slag that has been furnace slag. Table 1.1 indicates the chemical analysis range for
finely ground and that is a hydraulic cement. major elements (reported as oxides) in blast-furnace slag
glassan inorganic product of fusion, which has cooled to produced in the United States and Canada in 1988.
a rigid condition without crystallization. The ranges in composition from source to source shown in
Table 1.1 are much greater than those from an individual
1.4Environmental considerations plant. Modern blast-furnace technology produces low
The use of slag cement in concrete and mortar is an envi- variability in the compositions of both the iron and the slag
ronmentally sound and efficient use of existing resources. from a single source.
The use of slag cement has several benefits, including To maximize cementitious properties, the molten slag
reduced energy, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and should be chilled rapidly as it leaves the blast furnace. Rapid
reduced virgin raw materials. Recognizing the positive envi- quenching or chilling minimizes crystallization and converts
ronmental impacts of using slag cement, the Environmental the molten slag into fine-aggregate-sized particles, generally
Protection Agency (EPA) actively encourages the expanded passing a 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, composed predominantly
use of slag cement, indicated as follows. of glass. This product is referred to as granulated blast-
Responding to Executive Order 12873 titled Federal furnace slag. The potential activity of a granulated blast-
Acquisition, Recycling, and Waste Prevention, the EPA furnace slag depends, to a large extent, on the chemistry and
4 SLAG CEMENT IN CONCRETE AND MORTAR (ACI 233R-03)
Fig. 1.2Blast-furnace slag pelletization process, using a

minimum of water usually applied at the vibrating feed plate
(Hogan and Meusel 1981).
After the GBFS is formed, it must be dewatered, dried, and

ground before it is used as a cementitious material. Magnets
Fig. 1.1Configuration of blast-furnace slag water gran- are often used before and after grinding to remove residual
ulator to include steam-condensing tower (Hogan and metallic iron. For increased cementitious activity at early ages,
Meusel 1981). the slag is typically ground finer than portland cement. As
with portland cement and pozzolans, the rate of reaction
the glass content. Glass content is often associated with increases with the fineness.
cementitious activity when ground. Other factors will also
have some influence. Slowly cooled slag, such as air-cooled 1.8Specifications
blast-furnace slag, is predominately crystalline and, there- ASTM C 989, first adopted in 1982, provides for three
fore, does not possess significant cementitious properties strength grades of slag cements. The grade depends on the
when ground. relative mortar strength of a slag-portland cement mortar
relative to that of a reference portland cement mortar. The
1.7Processing portland cement used influences the slag-activity index test.
Quenching with water is the most common process for ASTM C 989 specifies total alkali limits and 28-day
granulating slag to be used as a cementitious material. compressive strengths for the reference cement.
Simple immersion of the molten slag in water was often used Slag cement is classified as Grades 120, 100, and 80,
in the past. This quenching method is sometimes called the based on a slag-activity index expressed as:
pit process. More efficient modern granulation systems use SAI = slag-activity index, % = (SP/P) 100;
high-pressure water jets that impinge on the stream of SP = average compressive strength of the 50:50 slag-
molten slag at a water-slag ratio of about 10 to 1 by mass. In reference portland cement mortar cubes, MPa
this quenching method, called jet process granulation, the (psi); and
blast-furnace slag is quenched almost instantaneously to a P = average compressive strength of reference cement
temperature below the boiling point of water, producing slag mortar cubes, MPa (psi).
particles with a high glass content. This material is called Classification can be found in Table 1.2 (adapted from
granulated blast-furnace slag (GBFS). A close-up view of ASTM C 989).
the part of a jet-process granulator system where the water In addition to requirements on strength performance,
meets the molten blast-furnace slag is shown in Fig. 1.1. ASTM C 989 limits the residue on a 45 m (No. 325) sieve
Another process, sometimes referred to as air granulation, to 20% and the air content to a maximum of 12%.
involves use of the pelletizer (Cotsworth 1981). In this The specification also includes two chemical require-
process, the molten slag passes over a vibrating feed plate ments: one limiting the sulfide sulfur (S) to a maximum of
where it is expanded and cooled by water sprays. It then 2.5% and the other limiting the sulfate content (reported as
passes onto a rotating, finned drum, which throws the slag SO3) to a maximum of 4.0%.
into the air where it rapidly solidifies to spherical pellets Blended cements, which include slag cements and other
(Fig. 1.2). The resulting product may also have a high glass ingredients, have been used for over 100 years and have an
content and can be used either as a cementitious material or excellent service record (Lea 1971). ASTM C 595 covers
in the larger particle sizes, as a lightweight aggregate. Other blended cements. Three types of such cements are
processes for combining slag with water, which are used addressed: 1) slag-modified portland cement [Type I (SM)],
primarily for the production of lightweight aggregates, are which contains less than 25% slag cement; 2) portland blast-
also capable of producing a sufficiently glassy slag for use as furnace slag cement (Type IS), which contains 25 to 70%
a cementitious material (Robertson 1982). slag cement; and 3) slag cement (Type S), which contains
American Concrete Institute Copyrighted Materialwww.concrete.org
Table 1.2Slag-activity index standards for

various grades as prescribed in ASTM C 989
Slag-activity index, minimum %
Average of last five
consecutive samples Any individual sample
Grade 7-day index
80
100 75 70
120 95 90
28-day index
80 75 70
100 95 90
120 115 110
70% or more slag cement. These cements may be ground

together or ground separately and blended. Fig. 1.3Phase diagram indicating composition of port-
ASTM C 1157 was issued in 1992 as the first performance land cement and blast-furnace slag in the system CaO-
specification for hydraulic cements, and it features six SiO2-Al2O3 (based on Lea [1971] and Bakker [1983]).
blended cement types. Blast-furnace slag may be used as a
component in the production of ASTM C 1157 cement.
1.9Hydraulic activity
There is general agreement among researchers (Smolczyk
1978) that the principal hydration product that is formed
when slag cement is mixed with portland cement and water
is essentially the same as the principal product formed when
portland cement hydrates, that is, calcium-silicate hydrate
(CSH). As seen in the phase diagram in Fig. 1.3, portland
cement and slag cement lie in the same general field,
although slag cement has a higher silica content.
When slag cement is mixed by itself with water, initial Fig. 1.4Rate of heat liberation of cements with and without
hydration is slower than that of portland cement; therefore, slag cement at 27 C (80 F) (Roy and Idorn 1982).
portland cement, alkali salts, or lime are used to increase the
reaction rate. Hydration of slag cement in the presence of
Forss (1982) and Voinovitch, Raverdy, and Dron (1980)
portland cement depends largely upon breakdown and disso-
have shown that alkali hydroxide alone, that is, without
lution of the glassy slag structure by hydroxyl ions released
calcium hydroxide from portland cement hydration, can
during the hydration of the portland cement.
hydrate slag cement to form a strong cement paste structure,
When slag cement hydrates, it reacts with sodium and
which may be used in special applications such as soil stabi-
potassium alkali and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) to
lization and alkali-activated concrete.
produce additional CSH. Regourd (1980a,b,c) showed that a
small immediate reaction also takes place when slag cement 1.10Factors determining cementitious
is mixed with water, preferentially releasing calcium and properties
aluminum ions to solution. The reaction is limited, however, A discussion of the basic principles of slag cement hydration
until additional alkali, calcium hydroxide, or sulfates are makes it possible to identify the primary factors that, in practice,
available for reaction. will influence the effectiveness of the uses of slag cement in
Research by Regourd (1980a,b,c), Vanden Bosch (1980), concrete and mortar. These factors are:
and Roy and Idorn (1982) suggests that the hydration of slag a) Chemical composition of the slag cement and port-
cement in combination with portland cement at normal temper- land cement;
ature is a two-stage reaction. Initially and during the early b) Alkali-ion concentration in the reacting system;
hydration, the predominant reaction is with alkali hydroxide, c) Glass content of the slag cement;
but subsequent reaction is predominantly with calcium d) Fineness of the slag cement and the portland cement; and
hydroxide. Calorimetric studies of the rate of heat liberation e) Temperature during the early phases of the hydration
show this two-stage effect, in which the major amount of process.
slag cement hydration lags behind that of the portland- Due to the complexity of the influencing factors, it is not
cement component (Fig. 1.4). surprising that earlier attempts to relate the hydration of slag
With increasing temperature, the alkali hydroxides from cement to simplified chemical models failed to provide
the cement have greater solubility; therefore, they predomi- adequate evaluation criteria (Mather 1957; Hooton and
nate in promoting the early reactions of the slag cement. Emery 1980). The complexity of the reacting system
suggests that direct performance evaluations of workability, temperature rise control, time of setting and finishing, sulfate
strength characteristics, and durability are the most satisfactory resistance, and the control of expansion due to the alkali-silica
measures of the effectiveness of the use of slag cement in reaction (ASR). For example, where high sulfate resistance is
concrete and mortar. The ASTM C 989 slag-activity index is required, the slag cement content should be at least 50% by
often used as a basic criterion for evaluating the relative mass of total cementitious material, unless previous testing
cementitious potential of a slag cement. Furthermore, with a particular slag cement has indicated that a lower
proportioning for particular performance requirements percentage is adequate (Chojnacki 1981; Hogan and Meusel
should be based on tests of concrete including the same 1981; Fulton 1974; Lea 1971; Hooton and Emery 1990).
materials intended to be used in the work. Where slag cements are blended with portland cement, the
combination of cementitious materials will result in physical
CHAPTER 2STORAGE, properties that are characteristic of the predominant material.
HANDLING, AND BATCHING For example, as the percentage of slag cement increases, a
2.1Storage slower rate of strength gain should be expected, particularly
As is the case with portland cement and most pozzolans, at early ages, unless the water content is substantially
slag cement should be stored in bins or silos to provide reduced, chemical accelerators are used, or accelerated
protection from dampness and contamination. Color and curing is provided.
fineness of slag cement can be similar to those of portland Proportioning concrete mixtures using slag cement and
cement; therefore, necessary precautions should be taken to portland cement added separately to the mixer typically has
clearly mark handling and storage equipment. When two advantages over the use of blended cements:
compartmented bins are used, periodic checks for leaks
1) Each material can be ground to its own optimum
between adjacent bins should be conducted to avoid contam-
fineness; and
ination of the stored materials.
2) The proportions can be optimized to suit the particular
project requirements.
2.2Handling
The first significant use of separately ground slag cement
Slag cements are handled with the same kinds of equip-
was in South Africa where the proportion of slag was 50% of
ment as portland cement. The most commonly used items of
the cementitious materials due to batching convenience and
equipment are pneumatic pumps, screw conveyors, air
durability considerations (Wood 1981).
slides, and bucket elevators. Unlike some other finely
The proportioning techniques for concrete incorporating
divided materials that are extremely fluid when aerated, slag
slag cements are similar to those used in proportioning
cements do not require special gates or feeders.
concrete made with portland cement or blended cement.
Methods for proportioning are given in ACI 211.1. Due to the
2.3Batching
Slag cement should be batched by mass in accordance high proportions of slag cement commonly used, however,
with the requirements ASTM C 94 or CSA A 23.5. When allowances should be made for changes in solid volume due to
slag cement is batched cumulatively in the same weigh the difference in relative density (specific gravity) of slags
hopper with portland cement, the slag cement should follow (2.85 to 2.94 Mg/m3) and portland cement (3.15 Mg/m3).
the batching of portland cement. When the slag cement is While the differences in absolute volume of the cementi-
introduced into the mixer, it is preferable to introduce it simul- tious paste is minimal with regard to the yield of concrete, it
taneously with the other components of the concrete mixture. can change the finishing characteristics of the concrete
depending on the proportions of the slag cement and the total
CHAPTER 3PROPORTIONING CONCRETE cementitious material in the concrete mixture. In lean
CONTAINING SLAG CEMENT mixtures, the additional cementitious material will improve
3.1Proportioning with slag cement finishing characteristics. In concrete mixtures containing high
The proportion of slag cement in a concrete mixture will cementitious materials, the concrete may be sticky and have
depend on the purposes for which the concrete is to be used, poor finishability. This is normally addressed in the propor-
the curing temperature, the grade (activity) of the slag tioning of the concrete mixture by adjusting the ratio of coarse
cement, and the portland cement or other activator. In most to fine aggregate.
cases, slag cements have been used in proportions of 25 to Typically, concrete with slag cement is easier to place and
70% by mass of the total cementitious material. These propor- consolidate, hence greater functional volumes of coarse
tions are in line with those established in ASTM for the aggregate may be used to reduce water demand and drying
production of Type IS portland blast-furnace slag cement. shrinkage. Often, an increase in coarse aggregate is desirable
There appears to be an optimum blend of slag cement and because it often reduces the stickiness of concrete mixtures
portland cement that produces the greatest strength at 28 (Wood 1981; Fulton 1974). This is particularly true when
days. This optimum amount of slag cement is usually 40 to high cement contents are used.
50% by mass of the total cementitious material, although this Slag cement is usually substituted for portland cement on a
relationship varies depending on the grade of slag cement one-to-one basis by mass and is always included in the deter-
(Hogan and Meusel 1981; Fulton 1974). mination of the water-cementitious material ratio (w/cm).
Other considerations that determine the proportion of slag As discussed in Section 4.1, water demand for given
cement might include the requirements for permeability, slump may generally be 3 to 5% lower in concrete containing
slag cement than that found with concrete without slag CHAPTER 4EFFECTS ON PROPERTIES
cements (Meusel and Rose 1983). Exceptions may be found, OF FRESH CONCRETE
and these should be identified in the trial mixture propor- 4.1Workability
tioning studies. Fulton (1974) investigated workability in great detail and
suggested that a cementitious matrix containing slag
3.2Ternary systems cements exhibited greater workability due to the increased
The use of slag cement in combination with portland paste content and increased cohesiveness of the paste. Wood
cement and pozzolans, such as fly ash and silica fume, is not (1981) reported that the workability and placeability of
uncommon. The use of a ternary system may have some concrete containing slag cement was improved when
economic benefits, but it is generally used for improving compared with concrete containing no slag cement. He
engineering properties, such as high-performance concrete. further stated that this result was due to the surface charac-
Combinations of slag cement, portland cement, and silica teristics of the slag cement, which created smooth slip planes
fume were used in concrete mixtures in high-strength appli- in the paste. He also theorized that, due to the smooth, dense
cations for the Scotia Plaza in Toronto (Bickley et al. 1991) surfaces of the slag cement particles, the slag cement
and Society Tower (Engineering News Record 1991) in absorbed little if any water during initial mixing, unlike
Cleveland, Ohio. Combinations of slag cement, fly ash, and portland cement. Wu and Roy (1982) found that pastes
portland cement have been used as ballast for tunnel sections containing slag cements exhibited different rheological
when low heat generation in mass concrete was desired. In properties compared with pastes of portland cements alone.
addition, the combination of slag cement, fly ash, and port- Their results indicate a better particle dispersion and higher
land cement appears to be the most appropriate binding fluidity of the pastes and mortars, both with and without
material for the solidification and stabilization of low-level water-reducing admixtures.
nuclear waste forms (Langton 1989; Spence et al. 1989). Concrete containing slag cement is consolidated under
Since 1994, the Ohio Department of Transportation has mechanical vibration more easily than concrete that does not
used high-performance concrete containing portland cement contain slag cement (Fig. 4.1). Considering his earlier findings,
with 30% slag cement, 4.5% silica fume, and a 0.38 w/cm Fulton devised a test using the Vebe apparatus in which
(Ohio Department of Transportation 1994) for the construc- unconsolidated concrete was molded by vibration, and
tion of bridge decks. The Federal Aviation Administration differences in molding time of mixtures with and without
allows the use of slag cement with fly ash (Federal Aviation slag were compared. In all cases, the consolidation of the
Administration 1999). Beginning in 1997, mainline pave- concrete containing 50% slag cement was superior to that of
ments have featured combinations of portland cement with mixtures without slag cement. Meusel and Rose (1983)
slag cement and fly ash in Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. found that increased slump was obtained with all slag
There have been combinations of portland cement with cement blends tested when compared with concrete without
slag cement and fly ash that have been used in the United slag cement at the same water content (Fig. 4.2).
States in general-use concrete. Use of combinations of these Osborne (1989) presented results of slump, Vebe, and
materials appears to be increasing. compacting factor tests for concrete containing 0, 40, and 70%
Among the effects resulting from adding silica fume to slag cement. The tests showed that as the percentage of slag
ternary systems are increased strength and reduced permeability cement increased, the w/cm had to be reduced to maintain
at early ages. In addition, slag cement has been used in combi- workability properties more or less similar to the concrete with
nation with portland cement and ground quartz (silica flour) in no slag cement. Wimpenny, Ellis, and Higgins (1989) found
autoclaved concrete masonry (Hooton and Emery 1980). that in concrete with constant w/cm, the slump increased
significantly with increasing slag cement replacement.
3.3Use with chemical admixtures
Effects of chemical admixtures on the properties of 4.2Time of setting
concrete containing slag cement are similar to those for Using the ASTM C 403 penetration resistance test, Luther
concrete made with portland cement as the only cementitious and Mikols (1993) showed that the time of setting of
material. Information regarding the effect of admixtures on concrete made with 40% slag cement was not affected by
the properties of concrete can be found in ACI 212.3R. Small slag cement fineness over the range of 400 to 1400 m2/kg
changes in the dosage rate of air-entraining admixtures are range (Blaine fineness). Luther et al. (1994) presented infor-
sometimes necessary if the fineness or air content of the slag mation indicating that at approximately 21 C (70 F), the
cement is different than that of the portland cement. The setting time was increased by 1 h at 35 to 40% replacement,
amount of high-range water-reducing admixtures (HRWRAs) and an increase in slag cement replacement of portland
required to produce flowing concrete is usually 25% less than cement increased setting time. Together, this information
that used in concrete not containing slag cement (Wu and Roy suggests that the portland cement setting characteristics and
1982). When the dosage rate is based on the total cementitious the amount of portland cement are significant factors in
material, a given amount of retarder will have a greater controlling the setting time of concrete containing slag cement.
retarding effect as the proportion of slag cement in the concrete Delays in setting time can be expected when more than
is increased. The increased retardation is particularly notice- 25% slag cement is used as a replacement for portland
able with portland cements having low C3A and alkali levels. cement in concrete mixtures. The degree to which the setting
Fig. 4.1Relationship between response to vibration of concrete mixtures made with

portland cement with mixtures containing 50% slag cement (Fulton 1974).
with other concrete exhibiting slower setting times, care may

need to be taken to minimize the loss of moisture that causes
plastic-shrinkage cracking.
4.3Bleeding
Bleeding capacity and bleeding rate of concrete are influ-
enced by a number of factors including the ratio of the
surface area of solids to the unit volume of water, air content,
subgrade conditions, and concrete thickness. When slag
cements are used, bleeding characteristics can be estimated
depending on the fineness of the slag cement compared with
that of the portland cement and the combined effect of the
two cementitious materials. When slag cement is finer than
portland cement and is substituted on an equal-mass basis,
bleeding may be reduced; conversely, when the slag cement
is coarser, the rate and amount of bleeding may increase.
4.4Rate of slump loss

Meusel and Rose (1983) indicated that concrete
Fig. 4.2Effect of water content on slump of concrete mixtures containing slag cement at 50% substitution yielded slump
with and without slag cement (Meusel and Rose 1983) loss equal to that of concrete without slag cement. Experiences
(Note: 25.4 mm = 1 in.; 1 kg/m3 = 1.69 lb/yd3). in the United Kingdom indicated reduced slump loss,
particularly when the portland cement used in the blend
time is affected depends on the temperature of the concrete, exhibited rapid slump loss, such as that caused by false-set
the amount of slag cement used, the w/cm, and the character- characteristics of the cement (Lea 1971).
istics of the portland cement (Fulton 1974). The amount of
portland cement is also important. Hogan and Meusel (1981) CHAPTER 5EFFECTS ON PROPERTIES OF
found that for 50% slag cement, the initial setting time is HARDENED CONCRETE AND MORTAR
increased 1/2 to 1 h at 23 C (73 F); little if any change was 5.1Strength
found above 29 C (85 F). Compressive and flexural strength gain characteristics of
Although significant retardation has been observed at low concrete containing slag cement can vary over a wide range.
temperatures, addition of conventional accelerators, such as Compared with portland cement concrete, the use of Grade 120
calcium chloride or non-chloride accelerating admixtures, slag cements typically results in reduced strength at early
can reduce or eliminate this effect. Because the amount of ages (one to three days) and increased strength at later ages
portland cement in a mixture usually determines setting (seven days and beyond) (Hogan and Meusel 1981). Use of
characteristics, reducing the slag cement-portland cement Grade 100 results in lower strengths at early ages (1 to 21 days)
ratio may be considered in cold weather. At higher tempera- but equal or greater strength at later ages. Grade 80 typically
tures, the longer setting time is desirable in most cases. As gives reduced strength at early ages, although, by the 28th
day, the strength may be equivalent to or slightly higher than

a 100% portland cement mixture.
The extent to which slag cement affects strength depends
on the slag activity index of the particular slag cement and
the fraction in which it is used in the mixture. Figure 5.1 indi-
cates that the mortar strength development of 50% blends
depends upon the grade of slag cement as defined in ASTM
C 989. Consistent and stable long-term strength gain beyond
20 years has been documented for concrete made with portland
blast-furnace slag cement (Type IS) while exposed to moist
or air curing (Wood 1992).
Other factors that can affect the performance of slag
cement in concrete are w/cm, physical and chemical charac-
teristics of the portland cement, and curing conditions. As
seen in Fig. 5.2, the percentage of strength gain, relative to
portland-cement concrete, with Grade 120 slag cement is
greater in mixtures with a high w/cm than in mixtures with a
low w/cm (Fulton 1974; Meusel and Rose 1983). Malhotra
(1980) also noted the same trend. Fig. 5.1Strength relationship of mortar containing typical
slag cements meeting ASTM C 989 requirements, compared
The temperature at which concrete is cured will have a with portland cement mortar (data originate from Task
great effect on strength, particularly at early ages. Concrete Group E-38.06.02 report). (Note: 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa.)
containing slag cement responds well to elevated tempera-
ture curing conditions (Roy and Idorn 1982). In fact, strength
exceeding that of portland-cement concrete at 1 day and
beyond has been reported for accelerated curing conditions
(Hogan and Meusel 1981; Fulton 1974; Lea 1971).
Conversely, lower early-age strength is expected for
concrete containing slag cement when cured at normal or
low temperatures.
The proportion of the slag cement used affects the strength
and rate of strength gain as noted in Fig. 5.3. When highly
active slag cements have been used, the greatest 28-day
strengths are found with blends as high as 65% slag cement
(Fulton 1974; Hogan and Meusel 1981; Meusel and Rose
1983). Where early-age strengths are concerned, the rate of
strength gain is generally inversely proportional to the fraction
of slag cement used in the blend. Figure 5.4 compares compres-
sive strength development of various blends of slag cement and Fig. 5.2Effect of w/cm ratio on compressive strength of mix-
portland cement with a portland-cement mixture only. tures containing 50% slag cement, expressed as a percentage
of mixtures made with only portland cement (Meusel and
Rose 1983).
5.2Modulus of rupture
Of particular interest is the effect of slag cement when
concrete is tested for flexural strength (modulus of rupture).
When comparisons are made between concrete with and
without slag cement, where the slag cement is used at propor-
tions designed for greatest strength, the blends generally yield
higher modulus of rupture at ages beyond 7 days (Fulton
1974; Malhotra 1980; Hogan and Meusel 1981) (Fig. 5.5).
This is believed to be a result of the increased density of the
paste and improved bond at the aggregate-paste interface.
Early studies on flexural strength were conducted with
Type IS blended cements. Klieger and Isberner (1967) found
essentially the same flexural strength in concrete containing
portland blast-furnace slag cement as compared with Type I
portland-cement concrete. Stutterheim, as quoted by Fulton
(1974), also confirmed this using concrete containing equal
amounts of slag cement and portland cement and concrete Fig. 5.3Influence of slag cement on mortar cube compressive
with portland cement only. strength (Hogan and Meusel 1981). (Note: 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa.)
ages and greater at later ages when compared with concrete

containing portland cement only. Conversely, the opposite
trend occurred for mature concrete stored in air.
5.4Creep and shrinkage

Published data on creep and shrinkage of concrete
containing slag cement indicate somewhat conflicting results
when compared with concrete containing only portland
cement. These differences are likely to be affected by
differences in maturity and characteristics of the portland
cement from which the concrete specimens were made.
Overall, the published information suggests that drying
shrinkage is similar in portland-cement concrete and
concrete containing slag cement.
Klieger and Isberner (1967) found few differences
between concrete containing slag cement and concrete
containing only portland cement. On the other hand, Fulton
(1974) reported generally greater creep and shrinkage when
various slag cement blends were compared with portland
cement. Cook, Hinczak, and Duggan (1986) tested concrete
made with 35% slag cement and two different portland
cements. Minimum shrinkage or creep were reported to have
Fig. 5.4Compressive strength of concrete containing vari- different optimum gypsum contents. Whether the blended
ous blends of slag cement compared with concrete using cement was made by interblending or intergrinding also
only portland cement as a cementitious material (Hogan affected the optimum gypsum content.
and Meusel 1981). (Note: 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa.) Brooks, Wainwright, and Boukendakji (1992) investi-
gated the time-dependent properties of four different slag
sources and varying slag cement replacement levels between
30 and 70% by mass of total cementitious material. They
concluded that, compared with concrete containing only
portland cement, concrete containing slag cement had
similar or greater long-term strength, similar shrinkage,
lower basic creep, and similar or lower total creep.
Research commissioned by the Ohio Department of
Transportation on high-performance concrete mixtures for
application in bridge decks indicated that concrete
containing 30% slag cement showed less drying shrinkage
than the 100% portland-cement mixture (Lankard 1992).
The combination of 30% slag cement with silica fume
showed still less drying shrinkage.
Sivasundaram and Malhotra (1991) found that slag cement
concrete with varying cementitious material contents and
slag cement replacement amounts showed shrinkage to be
Fig. 5.5Flexural strength (modulus of rupture) of concrete similar at lower replacement percentages and less at higher
containing various blends of slag cement, compared with replacement percentages than the 100% portland-cement
concrete using only portland cement as cementitious material mixtures. Evaluating roller-compacted concrete, Togawa
(Hogan and Meusel 1981). (Note: 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa.) and Nakamoto (1989) found that the use of slag cement
reduced shrinkage.
5.3Modulus of elasticity Tazawa, Yonekura, and Tanaka (1989) concluded that the
Research conducted with four different slag cement drying shrinkage and creep of slag cement concrete was less
sources by Brooks, Wainwright, and Boukendakji (1992) than that of 100% portland-cement concrete when standard
concluded that the influence of the slag cement source on 28-day curing was used. The total cementitious material
strength, modulus of elasticity, and long-term deformation contents in this concrete ranged from 270 to 370 kg/m3 (455
was small and could not be associated quantitatively with to 624 lb/yd3), and the slag cement ranged in Blaine fineness
chemical composition. They further concluded that when from 441 m2/kg to 585 m2/kg. The report mentioned that for
tested under different moisture conditions, the secant specimens without adequate curing, the shrinkage was
modulus varied. The secant modulus of elasticity of water- higher than the reference portland cement mixtures, and the
stored concrete containing slag cement was similar at early specific creep was lower.
A potential for reducing shrinkage potential in a concrete surface. When these faces are exposed to the atmosphere,
mixture may be realized when the higher strength afforded however, the exposed area will oxidize to a uniform color.
by slag cement in a mixture allows the use of a lower total Colored concrete can be achieved with concrete containing
cementitious materials (paste) content. Such adjustment slag cement. Often the lighter shade of the cured and dried slag
should only be done when the specification allows it and it is cement concrete presents some advantage for achieving
otherwise appropriate. colored concrete, for concrete block, and concrete pavers and
other applications.
5.5Influence of curing on performance
Regardless of the cement or the blends of cementitious 5.7Effects on temperature rise in mass concrete
material used, concrete should be maintained at proper mois- Slag cement, when used at appropriate replacement levels,
ture and temperature condition during its early stages to fully can be an effective means of controlling temperature rise in
develop its strength and durability potential. There has been mass concrete. In all cases, the incorporation of slag cement
considerable discussion regarding the effects of curing on reduced the early rate of heat generation. This reduction is
concrete containing portland blast-furnace slag cement and directly proportional to the proportion of slag cement used.
concrete containing slag cement as a separate constituent. In The reduction in peak temperature and rate of heat gain is
Mathers 1957 study comparing Type II cement concrete seen in Fig. 5.6, where in-place measurements were reported
with portland blast-furnace slag cement concrete, he found by Bamforth (1980) comparing concrete with 100% portland
that both types of concrete resulted in strength loss to the cement to concrete with 30% fly ash and concrete with 75%
same degree when curing was stopped at three days. slag cement. The heat of hydration depends on the portland
Conversely, Fulton (1974) reports that concrete containing cement used and the activity of the slag cement. These
more than 30% slag cement is more susceptible to strength mixtures with and without slag cement were tested using the
loss due to poor curing conditions than concrete without slag heat of solution test method, ASTM C 186. The mixtures
cement. He attributes this susceptibility to reduced formation with slag cement produced the greater cumulative heat
of hydrate at early ages leading to increased loss of moisture (Bamforth 1980; Hogan and Museul 1981; Roy and Idorn
that would otherwise be available for hydration to continue. 1982). Although the heat of solution test method indicates
There is no doubt that, as with all cementitious materials, the total heat release potential of the cement, it does not indicate
rate and degree of hydration is reduced by the loss of moisture the rate of heat rise that is also important in mass concrete.
at an early age, with a resulting decrease in ultimate strength
gain. To attain proper strength and durability, curing should 5.8Permeability
follow the procedures prescribed in ACI 308. The use of slag cement in hydraulic structures is well
documented. The permeability of mature concrete
containing slag cement is much lower than that of concrete
5.6Color
not containing slag cement (Hooton and Emery 1990; Roy
Slag cement is considerably lighter in color than most
1989; Rose 1987). As the slag cement content is increased,
portland cement and will produce a lighter color in concrete
permeability of the concrete decreases. The microstructure
after curing. In certain operations, up to 30% slag cement has
of the cementitious matrix is changed through the reaction of
been used to replace white portland cement without a noticeable slag cement with the calcium hydroxide and alkalis released
color difference in the cured product. during the portland-cement hydration (Bakker 1980; Roy
There is a unique characteristic of concrete containing slag and Idorn 1982). Pores in concrete that normally contain
cement, either added separately or in blended cements, in calcium hydroxide are, in part, filled with calcium silicate
that during the second to fourth days after casting, a blue, hydrates resulting from the hydration of the slag cement
green, or blue-green coloration may appear. Coloration (Bakker 1980; Mehta 1980; Roy and Idorn 1982). As pointed
diminishes with age as oxidation takes place. This coloration out by Mehta (1980), the permeability of concrete depends
is attributed to a complex reaction of the sulfides in the slag on its porosity and pore-size distribution. The reduction in
cement with other compounds or elements in the cement. pore size due to slag cement is seen in Fig. 5.7, which
The degree and extent of the coloration depends on the compares the pore-size distribution in paste with and without
chemistry of the slag, the rate of oxidation, the percentage of slag cement. Where slag cements are used, reduction in the
slag cement used, the curing conditions, and the degree of pore size occurred before 28 days after mixing (Bakker
surface densification during finishing (denser being more 1980; Mehta 1980; Roy and Idorn 1982). Another example
colored and darker), among other factors. Where color is of reduced penetrability is shown in Fig. 5.8 taken from
important, correctly timed exposure to air, sunlight, or Smolczyk (1977), where concrete of varying w/cm and slag
wetting and drying promotes oxidation of the concrete cement content were evaluated for chloride diffusion over a
surface. Concrete containing slag cement has been found to period of two years.
yield blue coloration for extended periods when continuously
exposed to water, such as in swimming pools or when sealers 5.9Resistance to sulfate attack
are applied at early ages. The interior of the concrete may retain Partial replacement of portland cement with slag cement
a deep blue, green, or blue-green coloration for a considerable improves the sulfate resistance of concrete. High resistance
time period as might be observed on a freshly fractured concrete to sulfate attack has been demonstrated when the slag
Fig. 5.6Comparison of heat generated in mass concrete

with portland cement, portland-cement fly ash, and portland-
cement slag concrete mixtures (Bamforth 1980).
Fig. 5.8Results of chloride content in 20.3 to 40.6 mm (0.8
to 1.6 in.) deep layers in concrete beams stored in 3.0 molar
solution of NaCl (Smolczyk 1977).
amount of slag cement is required to provide high sulfate-

resisting properties to concrete. Their results, using ASTM
C 1012, indicate that this minimum would be 50% or greater
when used with Type I portland cement having a C3A
content up to 12%, as long as the Al2O3 content of the slag
cement was lower than 11% (Fig. 5.9).
Where slag cement is used in sufficient quantities, several
changes occur that improve resistance to sulfate attack.
Those changes include:
1) The C3A content of the mixture is proportionally
reduced depending on the percentage of slag cement used.
Lea (1971), however, reports that increased sulfate resis-
tance depends not only on the C3A content of portland
cement but also the alumina content of the slag cement. Lea
further reports from tests made by Locher that where the
Fig. 5.7Comparison of pore-size distribution of paste alumina content of the slag cement is less than 11%,
containing portland cement and paste containing 40% slag increased sulfate resistance was found, regardless of the C3A
and 60% portland cement, tested by mercury intrusion (Roy content of the portland cement where blends between 20 and
and Parker 1983).
50% slag cement were used;
2) Through the reduction of soluble calcium hydroxide by
cement proportion exceeds 50% of the total cementitious
the hydration of slag cement, the environment for the formation
material where Type II cements were used (Hogan and of calcium sulfoaluminate, the primary cause of deteriora-
Meusel 1981). Additional testing of slag cement in Canada tion due to sulfate attack is reduced; and
(Chojnacki 1981) showed that 50% blends of slag cement 3) Investigations indicate that resistance to sulfate attack
with Type I portland cement containing up to 12% C3A have depends greatly on the permeability of the concrete or
sulfate resistance equivalent to that of Type V cements. The cement paste (Bakker 1983; Mehta 1980; Roy and Idorn
slag cement was reported to have 7% Al2O3 (Chojnacki 1982). Again, the formation of calcium silicate hydrates in
1981). As reported by Hooton and Emery (1990), a minimum pore spaces, normally occupied by alkalies and calcium
hydroxide, reduces the permeability of the paste and

prevents the intrusion of the aggressive sulfates.
Hogan and Meusel (1981) demonstrated that slag was effec-
tive in reducing the expansion due to sulfate attack of mortar
bars with either Type II or Type V cement; the results for the
mortar made with Type II cement are illustrated in Fig. 5.10.
5.10Reduction of expansion due to alkali-silica

reaction (ASR)
Use of slag cement as a partial replacement for portland
cement is known to reduce the potential expansion of
concrete due to ASR (Bakker 1980; Hogan and Meusel
1981). The effectiveness of slag cement in controlling
damaging expansion due to ASR was first reported in 1950
(Cox, Coleman, and White 1950). Since that time there have
been more than 100 publications dealing with the affect of
slag cement on ASR. In a review of the published literature,
Thomas (1996) demonstrated that the efficiency of slag
cement depends on the nature of the slag cement, the reactivity Fig. 5.9Effect of various slag replacement levels on expan-
sions in 50,000 mg/L SO4 as Na2SO4 (slag Al2O3 = 8.4%).
of the aggregate, and the alkali content of the portland
cement. In most cases, 50% slag cement was sufficient for
controlling damaging expansion in concrete with highly
reactive aggregates and high-alkali cement.
Field studies in South Africa (Oberholster and Davies
1987; Oberholster 1989) have shown that 50% slag cement
(by volume) eliminated damaging expansion seen in portland-
cement concrete in beams and cubes, even when the alkali
content of the concrete was augmented to compensate for the
dilution of the portland cement.
In France and the Netherlands, ASR has been implicated in
a few structures containing 35 to 40% slag cement (Cornielle
1988, Heijnen, Larbi, and Siemes 1996); however, there
were no reported cases of ASR in concrete containing 50%
or more slag cement. The apparent low incidence of ASR in
the Netherlands has been attributed to the use of slag
cements at such levels (Heijnen 1992; Heijnen, Larbi, and
Siemes 1996). Fig. 5.10Sulfate resistance of mortar bars, Wolochow test,
Studies by Thomas and Innis (1998) examined the effect Type II (Hogan and Meusel 1981).
of slag cement on the expansion of concrete containing five
reactive aggregates from Canada using a test similar to the contents are used in percentages from 40 to 65% of total
ASTM C 1293 concrete prism test. Figure 5.11 shows the cementitious material, expansion is virtually eliminated
expansion of concrete prisms after two years of storage over when tested in accordance with ASTM C 227. Their test used
water (that is, approximately 100% relative humidity) at 38 C highly reactive Pyrex glass to obtain maximum expansion.
(100.4 F). Between 35 and 50% slag cement was required Similar results were reported by Klieger and Isberner (1967)
to control the expansion of concrete containing alkali-silica from tests in which portland and slag cements were used.
reactive aggregate to less than 0.04% at two years. Slag Results of tests using slag cement as a partial replacement
cement was not effective, however, in controlling the expansion for high-alkali cement with aggregate known to exhibit
of the aggregate. The same paper reports that low-alkali alkali-silica and alkali-carbonate reactions were reported by
cement (0.50% Na2O equivalent) was also ineffective in Soles, Malhotra, and Chen (1989). After two years of obser-
controlling the expansion of concrete containing this aggregate. vation, the slag cement blends were found to be effective in
The combination of slag cement with relatively small reducing expansion, but the reduction was less than that
amounts of silica fume conferred an additional measure of found with the low-alkali cement. When used in combination
control to expansion caused by ASR. with high-alkali cement, blends of 50% slag cement appear
The Appendix of ASTM C 989 reports that where slag to be effective in reducing the potential of ASRs.
cements are used in quantities greater than 40% of the total By the mid-1990s, the Mid-Atlantic states had collectively
cementitious material, reduced expansion due to the ASR is tested over 700 different aggregates for their potential to cause
found with cement having alkali contents up to 1.0%. Hogan deleterious ASR expansion using the ASTM C 1260 mortar-
and Meusel (1981) report (Fig. 5.12) that where slag cement bar test. After evaluating several slag cements from the eastern
content and air-void system are necessary for adequate

protection in freezing-and-thawing environments.
Air-entrained concrete containing 50% slag cement was
found to be resistant to freezing and thawing, even though a
measurable difference in mass loss was found when compared
to the concrete made with Type II portland cement and tested
using ASTM C 666 (Procedure A) (Hogan and Meusel 1981).
Similar results were found by Malhotra (1980) using various
percentages of slag cement with portland cement.
5.12Resistance to deicing chemicals

Although some laboratory tests with Type IS cement indicate
less resistance to deicing salts, many researchers have found,
Fig. 5.11Expansion of concrete prisms with various in field exposure, little difference when compared with
aggregates (Thomas and Innis 1998). concrete not containing slag cement (Klieger and Isberner
1967). Similar results were reported using blends of 50%
slag cement and 50% portland cement (Hogan and Meusel
1981), or slag cement percentages in excess of 35% (Afrani
and Rogers 1994).
Research conducted with slabs cast on grade and using
ASTM C 672 tests, all using exterior residential concrete
mixtures containing approximately 306 kg/m3 (516 lb/yd3)
of cementitious material and with Grade 100 and Grade 120
slag cements, identified 25% slag cement to be an optimum
amount for scaling resistance. Concrete with 25% slag
cement was more resistant to scaling than portland-cement
concrete. The laboratory portion of this work indicated that
scaling resistance was consistently comparable to that of
portland-cement concrete up to about 50% slag cement
content (Luther et al. 1994). ACI 301 and ACI 318 allow up
to 50% slag cement in severe-exposure-condition environ-
ments applicable to scaling resistance. Most research indicates
that scaling is usually found when the concrete has combina-
tions of a high w/cm, high percentages of slag cement, and
Fig. 5.12ASTM C 228 potential alkali-aggregate reactivity low air content. As with all air-entrained concrete, it is
for various slag replacements (Hogan and Meusel 1981). prudent to measure the air content of freshly placed concrete
to ensure that the required air content is being achieved.
seaboard, these states tended to require at least a 40% slag
cement in concrete containing a potentially reactive aggregate 5.13Resistance to the corrosion of reinforcement
where slag cement was the method of mitigation. Many investigations have shown that reduced perme-
Resistance to ASR is attributed to the following influences ability of concrete containing slag cement significantly
on the cement paste: reduces the penetration of chloride ions within the concrete
1) Reduced permeability; (Bakker 1980; Bakker 1983; Fulton 1974; Mehta 1980; Roy
2) Change of the alkali-silica ratio; 1989; Rose 1987; Mehta 1980; Hogan and Meusel 1981).
3) Dissolution and consumption of the alkali species; The reduction in permeability and the resistance to chloride-
4) Direct reduction of available alkali in the system; and ion intrusion increases as the level of slag cement increases
5) Reduction of calcium hydroxide needed to support the in the concrete mixture or mortar.
reaction. During the early use of concrete containing portland and
slag cement, there was considerable concern regarding the
5.11Resistance to freezing and thawing potential harmful effects of sulfide sulfur in slag cement.
Many studies related to resistance to freezing and thawing Since then, many investigations have shown that the use of
have been made using concrete containing slag cement. slag cements has no negative effect on the corrosion of steel
Results of these studies generally indicate that when (Fulton 1974; Lea 1971; Hogan and Meusel 1981). A slight
concrete made with portland blast-furnace slag cement was reduction in the pH of pore solution does not have a negative
tested in comparison with Type I and Type II cements, their impact on the passivity of reinforcing steel. The use of slag
resistances to freezing and thawing in water were essentially cement in good-quality concrete reduces concrete permeability,
the same (Fulton 1974; Klieger and Isberner 1967; Mather thus reducing the penetration of chloride ions and the depth
1957). As with all hydraulic cement concrete, proper air of carbonation that promote corrosion of steel.
CHAPTER 6USES OF SLAG CEMENT IN 6.4Mortars and grouts

CONCRETE AND MORTAR The use of slag cements typically improves the strength,
6.1Introduction permeability, flow, and cohesive characteristics of mortars
Generally, slag cement blended with portland cement or as and grouts. In these applications, slag cements are used in
a separately added constituent may be used in most concrete proportions similar to those used in the production of concrete.
and mortar applications and processes. The flexibility of The use of slag cement in the form of blended cements or
using different proportions of slag cement provides the separately blended with lime and portland cement for masonry
desired qualities of concrete that are most important to the mortars is well established. The same general properties found
owner, specifier, and concrete producer. in concrete are also to be expected in mortars and grouts.
Special uses of slag cement in grouts for stabilization and
6.2Ready-mixed concrete solidification of waste materials were reported by Langton
Most producers of ready-mixed concrete that use slag
(1989). The combination of ultra-fine slag cement, having
cement do so in proportions of 50% of total cementitious
air-permeability fineness greater than 1000 m2/kg, and
material during warm weather (Wood 1981). This proportion
portland cement or alkali salts are being used for grouting
usually produces the greatest strength and most favorable
fine cracks in existing dams and stabilization of fine sands.
cost-to-benefit ratio. Proportions of slag cement as low as 20
to 30% have been used during periods of colder weather
when setting time and rate of strength gain might be slower. CHAPTER 7REFERENCES
7.1Referenced standards and reports
In those jobs requiring performance characteristics, such as The documents of the various standards-producing organi-
sulfate resistance or reduced heat of hydration, concrete zations referred to in this document are listed below with
mixtures containing more than 50% slag cement might be their serial designation. Because some of these documents
more appropriate. On the other hand, when early strengths are revised frequently, generally in minor detail only, the
are required to facilitate quick form removal or when thin user of this document should check directly with the spon-
sections are placed at low temperatures, blends containing soring group if it is desired to refer to the latest revision.
less than 50% are recommended.
Particular advantages in the use of slag cement as a separate American Concrete Institute
cementitious material in ready-mixed concrete are: 116R Cement and Concrete Terminology
a) Increased flexibility to meet individual job requirements; 211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
b) Reduced cost of cementitious material; Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete
c) Improved workability; 212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
d) Reduced slump loss and associated strength reduction
301 Specifications for Structural Concrete
in hot-weather concrete applications; and
304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and
e) Increased compressive and flexural strength with slag
Placing Concrete
cement Grade 100 or 120.
308R Guide to Curing Concrete
318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
6.3Concrete products
The use of slag cement in precast concrete products is
usually restricted by the requirements for early strength (1 ASTM International
day) and the curing cycle used. Under normal curing condi- C 94/C 94 M Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
tions, 1-day strength is usually lower in concrete containing C 109/ Test Method for Compressive Strength of
slag cement, particularly when high percentages of slag C 109M Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or
cement are substituted for the portland cement. Therefore, [50-mm] Cube Specimens)
proportions with less slag cement, accelerating admixtures, C125 Terminology Relating to Concrete and
or both are required to achieve the desired stripping and Concrete Aggregates
handling strength. C 162 Terminology of Glass and Glass Products
Where accelerated curing conditions are used, slag cement C 186 Test Method for Heat of Hydration of
blends of 40 to 60% of total cementitious material are appli- Hydraulic Cement
cable in most concrete mixtures and curing cycles. Slag C 219 Terminology Relating to Hydraulic Cement
cements respond favorably to accelerated curing, and C 227 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of
increased strength at 1 day may be obtained when Grade 120 Cement-Aggregate Combinations (Mortar-Bar
slag cements are used with curing temperatures exceeding Method)
54.4 C (130 F) (Hogan and Meusel 1981). Improved early C 403/ Test Method for Time of Setting of Concrete
strength of slag cement to accelerated curing is an important C403 M Mixtures by Penetration Resistance
attribute in the manufacture of precast and prestressed compo- C 595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
nents for marine exposure where high durability is needed. C 666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to
Slag cement is also beneficial in those products made from Rapid Freezing and Thawing
no-slump concrete mixtures. The use of slag cement reduces C 672 Test Method for Scaling Resistance of
water demand and, therefore, allows for a reduction in water Concrete Surfaces Exposed to Deicing
content needed to obtain the desired consistency (Fulton 1974). Chemicals
C 989 Specification for Ground Iron Blast-Furnace Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolans in
Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars Concrete, Proceedings of the Fourth International Confer-
C 1012 Test Method for Length Change of ence, SP-132, American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hydraulic-Cement Mortars Exposed to a Hills, Mich., V. 2, pp. 1325-1341.
Sulfate Solution Cesareni, D., and Frigione, G., 1968, A Contribution to
C 1073 Test Method for Hydraulic Activity of the Study of the Physical Properties of Hardened Paste of
Ground Slag by Reaction with Alkali Portland Cements Containing Granulated Blast-Furnace
C 1157 Performance Specification for Hydraulic Slag, Proceedings, 5th International Symposium on the
Cement Chemistry of Cement, Cement Association of Japan,
C 1293 Test Method for Determination of Length Tokyo, V. 4, pp. 237-247.
Change of Concrete Due to Alkali-Silicate Chojnacki, B., 1981, Sulfate Resistance of Blended (Slag)
Reaction Cement, Report No. EM-52, Ministry of Transportation and
C 1260 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity Communications, Downsview, Ontario, Canada.
of Aggregates (Mortar-Bar Method) Cook, D. J.; Hinczak, I.; and Duggan, R., 1986, Volume
Changes in Portland-Blast Furnace Slag Cement Concrete,
Canadian Standards Association Supplementary Papers, Second International Conference on
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Use in Concrete Construction Concrete, V. 2, Madrid, Spain.
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ASTM International Concrete, Pit and Quarry, V. 45, No. 5, pp. 95-96.
100 Barr Harbor Dr. Engineering News Record, 1991, Society Tower, Concrete
West Conshohocken, PA 19428 Today, May 6, p. C-72.
Federal Aviation Administration, 1999, Specification Part
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ACI 233R-03

Reported by ACI Committee 233

Slag Cement in Concrete and Mortar

American Concrete Institute

Slag Cement in Concrete and Mortar

James M. Aldred Darrell F. Elliot Mark D. Luther* Jere H. Rose*

neously with iron in a blast furnace.

Fig. 1.2Blast-furnace slag pelletization process, using a

After the GBFS is formed, it must be dewatered, dried, and

Table 1.2Slag-activity index standards for

70% or more slag cement. These cements may be ground

Fig. 4.1Relationship between response to vibration of concrete mixtures made with

with other concrete exhibiting slower setting times, care may

4.4Rate of slump loss

day, the strength may be equivalent to or slightly higher than

ages and greater at later ages when compared with concrete

5.4Creep and shrinkage

Fig. 5.6Comparison of heat generated in mass concrete

amount of slag cement is required to provide high sulfate-

hydroxide, reduces the permeability of the paste and

5.10Reduction of expansion due to alkali-silica

content and air-void system are necessary for adequate

5.12Resistance to deicing chemicals

CHAPTER 6USES OF SLAG CEMENT IN 6.4Mortars and grouts

Spring and fall conventions to facilitate the work of its committees.

Educational seminars that disseminate reliable information on concrete.

Certification programs for personnel employed within the concrete industry.

Student programs such as scholarships, internships, and competitions.

Sponsoring and co-sponsoring international conferences and symposia.

Formal coordination with several international concrete related societies.

American Concrete Institute

The AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

was founded in 1904 as a nonprofit membership organization dedicated to public

The committees, as well as ACI as a whole, operate under a consensus format,

Individuals interested in the activities of ACI are encouraged to become a member.

Members are encouraged to participate in committee activities that relate to their

American Concrete Institute

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