LABORATORY MANUALION TO MAJOR SKILLS IN PRACTICAL WORK Introduction Objectives of practical work ‘Specific objectives of laboratory work Experimental errors Logarithms Natural sine/cosine table Plotting of graphs General instructions for performing experiments General instructions for recording experiments To determine resistance per unit length ofa given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current. To determine the resistance of a given wire using a metre __ bridge and hence determine the resistivity of the material of the wire. Toverify the laws of combination of resistances (series and parallel) using a metre bridge. ‘To compare the emf of two given primary cells (Daniel and Leclanche cells) using a potentiometer. To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell using a potentiometer. To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half- deflection method and to find its figure of merit. To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into (1) an ammeter of a desired range {say 0 to 30 mA) and (ti) a voltmeter of desired range (say 0 to 3 V) and to verify the same. To determine the frequency of alternating current using a sonometer and an electromagnet. To find the value of ‘v' for different values of ‘w’ in case of ‘concave mirror and to find the focal length. 23 28 36 42 49 53 59 65 69E10 Ell E12 E13 E14 E15 E16 E17 E18 To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs ‘between u and vor between 1/uand 1/v. To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens. To find the focal length of a concave lens with the help of a convex lens. To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation. To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope. To determine the refractive index of a liquid (water) using ( coneave mirror, (ii) convex lens and a plane mirror. To draw the I- Vcharacteristic curves of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias. To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown voltage. To study the characteristics of a common emitter n-p-n (or p-n-p) transistor and to find out the values of current and voltage gains. ACTIVITIES Al AQ Aa AS AG AT A8 Ag To assemble the components of a given electrical circutt. ‘To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram. ‘To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or without iron core. ‘To measure resistance, voltage (de/ac). current (dc) and check continuity of a given circuit using a multimeter. ‘To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a fuse and a power source. To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current. To study the effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the source) on a LDR (Light Dependent Resistor). To identify a diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items. Use of Multimeter to (A) check whether the diode is in working order and to check unidirectional flow of current in a diode: (B) identify 17 86 92 99 105 110 120 125 130 139 141 145: 150) 157 159 164 167 174 “xiiemitter, base collector of a transistor: (C) distinguish between n-p-n and p-1-p transistors and check whether the transistor is in working order. To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab. To observe polarisation of light using two polaroids. To observe diflraction of light due to a thin slit. To study the nature and size of the image formed by (1) a convex lens (ii) a concave mirror on a screen by using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens/mirror).. To obtain a lens combination with specified focal length by using two lenses from a given set of lenses. To determine the wavelength ofa laser beam by diffraction. To study various factors on which the internal resistance ofa cell depends. To construct a time switch and study the dependence of its time constant on various factors. To study infrared radiations emitted by different sources using phototfansistor. To design an automatic traffic signal system using suitable ‘combination of logte gates. ‘To study the luminosities of various electric lamps of different powers and make. To study frequency response of (i) a capacitor (ii) an. inductor (ti!) LCR series circuit. [ONS ‘To demonstrate that there are two kinds of charges and that like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. To demonstrate electrostatic shielding. To demonstrate (the use of an improvised fuse that melts with the flow ofa certain current through it, and (different kinds of fuses used in everyday life. To demonstrate that a higher resistance is offered by distilled water and a low resistance when sodium chloride is added to it. ‘To demonstrate the working of a lead accumulator. ‘To demonstrate that a current measuring device has finite non-zero resistance. 182 186 190 192 203 207 21 217 220 223 227 233 242 244 246 248 250 253 siiD7 D8. D9 D10 Dil p12 D13 Dia ‘To demonstrate that a voltage measuring device has non- 254 infinite resistance. To demonstrate the magnetic field lines with the help of iron filings. To study the effect produced on magnetic field pattern by bringing various materials in the surrounding space of a bar magnet. To show that the earth’s magnetic field has both vertical and horizontal components. To demonstrate repulston/attraction between two conductors carrying current in opposite/same direction. ‘To demonstrate the production of induced emf in a coil due to the movement of (i) a magnet towards and away from tt (i) simflar coil carrying current towards and away from it. ‘To demonstrate that a large emf is induced when direct, current is switched off in an inductive cireutt. ‘To demonstrate () the principle of transformer by winding primary and secondary on a steel rod; and (i) removal of eddy currents by using laminated core. APPENDICES Al AZ As A4 AS AS AT AS Ag Makinga simple electroscope and using it to detect charges on bodies Guideline for making a mechanical model of “Electron Driftin a metal wire Resistors and codes to indicate their values An improvised open-type fuse holder Making a square coil for study of magnetic field produced bya straight conductor, using only two dry cells as current source Making a solenoid for study of its magnetic field ‘Making a fine slit of uniform width equal to thickness as a razor blade Making a simple double slit for Young's experiment Mechanical analogue of scattering of a-particles by atomic nuclet DATA SECTION 287-31 “xivINTRODUCTION TO AJOR SKILLS IN PHYSICS PRACTICAL WORK 1 Inrroouction ‘The higher secondary stage is the most crucial and challenging stage of school education because at this stage the general undifferentiated curriculum changes into a discipline-based, content area-oriented course. At this stage, students take up physics as a discipline, with the aim of pursuing their future careers either in basic sciences or in science-based professional courses like engineering, medicine, information technology ete. Physics deals with the study of matter and energy associated with the inanimate as well as the animate world. Although all branches of _ selence require experimentation, controlled laboratory experiments are of central importance in physics. The basic purpose of laboratory experiments in physics, in general, is to verify and validate the concepts, principles and hypotheses related to the physical phenomena. Only doing this does not help the learners become independent thinkers or investigate on their own, In view of this. laboratory work is very much required and encouraged in different ‘ways.These may include not only doing experiments but investigate different facets involved in doing experiments. Many activities as well as project work will therefore ensure that the leamers are able to construct and reconstruct their ideas on the basis of first hand experiences through investigation in the laboratory. Besides, learners “will be able to integrate experimental work with theory which they are studying at higher secondary stage through their environment. _ The history of science reveals that many significant discoveries have been made while carrying out experiments. In the growth of physics, experimental work is as important as the theoretical understanding of a phenomenon. Performing experiments by one’s own hands ina laboratory is important as it generates a feeling of direct involvement in the process of generating knowledge. Carrying out experiments in a laboratory personally and analysis of the data obtained also help in inculcating ‘scientific temper, logical thinking, rational outlook, sense of self-confidence, ability to take initiative, objectivity, cooperative attitude, patience, self- reliance, perseverance, etc. Cartying out experiments also develop manipulative, observational and reporting skills.‘The ‘National Curriculum Framework’ (NCF-2005) and the Syllabus for Secondary and Higher Secondary stages (NCERT, 2006) have therefore, laid considerable emphasis on laboratory work as an integral part of the teaching-learning process. NCERT has already published Physics Textbook for Classes XII, based on the new syllabus. In order to supplement the conceptual understanding and to integrate the laboratory work in physics and contents of the physics course, this laboratory manual has been developed. The basic purpose of a laboratory manual in physics is to motivate the students towards practical work by involving them in “process-oriented performance” learning (as opposed to ‘product-or result-oriented performance) and to infuse life into the sagging practical work in schools. In view of the alarming situation with regard to the conduct of laboratory work in schools. it is hoped that this laboratory manual will prove to be of considerable help and value. 1 1.2 Obssectives oF practical work Physics deals with the understanding of natural phenomena and applying this understanding to use the phenomena for development of technology and for the betterment of society. Physics practical work involves ‘learning by doing’. It clarifies concepts and lays the seed for enquiry. Carefull and stepwise observation of sequences during an experiment or activity facilitate personal investigation as well as small group or team learning. ‘A practical physics course should enable students to do experiments on the fundamental laws and principles, and gain experience of using a variety of measuring instruments. Practical work enhances basic earning skills. Main skills developed by practical work in physics are discussed below. 11.2.1 Maweurstve seus ‘The learner develops manipulative skills in practical work if she/he is able to (comprehend the theory and objectives of the experiment (i) conceive the procedure to perform the experiment (i) setup the apparatus in proper order (iv) check the suitability of the equipment, apparatus, tool regarding their working and functioning () know the limitations of measuring device and find its least count, error etc.handle the apparatus carefully and cautiously to avoid any damage to the instrument as well as any personal harm (i) perform the experiment systematically (vit) make precise observations (tx) make proper substitution of data in formula, keeping proper units (SD in mind (9 calculate the result accurately and express the same with appropriate significant figures, justified by the degree of accuracy of the instrument (x) interpret the results, verify principles and draw conclusions ( emf and also emf E> emf E,. the gap ‘ac’ in the two way key to bring the cell E, in the circuit. ide the jockey on the potentiometer wire to obtain null deflection in galvanometer. Let it be at J. Note down the length AJ as em. , bring B, into circuit by closing the gap ‘b c’ and obtain the ‘point J, by sliding the jockey along the wire. Note the length AJ, m. according to the principle of potentiometer, when a steady current ‘through a wire of uniform thickness and material, potentialPN ee ea EN difference between any two points on it is directly proportional to th length of the wire between the points. Thus, (4.1) Wilt 42) veel where ¢ is potential gradient. “The length of potentiometer wire is increased to decrease ¢. A lov value of 6 makes the potentiometer more sensitive and accurate, case of two cells we have E,=04 B=oh where E, and £, are emfs of two cells, |, and |, are the balancing ler when E, and E,are connected to the circuit respectively and potential gradient along the potentiometer wire. B/E,= OL /04 Proceoure 1. Make the circuit connections according to Fig. E 4.2. Cor 2. Connect negative terminal of E to the end B of the potentior wire through a one way key K, and a rheostat. 8. Connect negative terminals of the cell B, and E, to the ter ‘a’ and‘ of the two way key. 4, Shunta resistance box R,,.. through a key K,, Connect comm terminal of the two way key to one end of Ryox- 5. Connect other end of the resistance box to a galvanomet whose other end is joined to a jockey. Jockey can be slided the potentiometer wire to obtain null deflection in galvanometer. 6. Bring the cell E, in the circuit by inserting the plug between gaps ‘a’ and ‘cof the two way key. 7. Leave the key K, open. Make rheostat resistance minimum. out high resistance (of the order of thousand ohm) from. resistance box. Make contact of the Jockey at the zero end of potentiometer wire. Note the direction of deflection the galvanometer. vag8. Next, move the jockey to bring it in contact with the other end of the wire. Note whether the direction of deflection of the galvanometer needle is opposite to that observed in step 7. 9. If the deflection of galvanometer needle is in opposite direction in the above two situations, connections are correct. If not, look out for the reason. Connections might be loose or emf of the battery E might be less than that of the cells E, and E,, Make necessary changes as required. Slide the jockey gently over the potentiometer wire till you get null deflection in the galvanometer. Plug in the key K, to Set the accurate position of the null (or balance) point. The resistance in the resistance box limits the current flowing through the galvanometer. Near the balance point, the current flowing through the galvanometer is small, insertion of the key K, short circuits the resistances and hence increases the current. This improves the sensitivity of balance point detection. Note the length of the wire AJ, and record it as l,. Repeat detection of balance point while moving the jockey in opposite direction and record the second value of I, - Next bring E, in the circuit by inserting plug between the gaps ‘b’ and ‘c’ of the two way key. Obtain the balance point J, in the ‘same way as you did in finding 1, and note the length AJ, as L,. 412. Repeat steps 6 to 11 three times by shifting the contact point of the rheostat and calculate 1,/l, for each set of readings, for E, and E,. 13. Record your observations in tabular form. 10. 1. No. of wires on the potentiometer board Range of the voltmeter = Least count of the voltmeter Potential drop across E =4.V Potential drop across E, =/:!V Potential drop across E, =/7V_ eV to. V vBPN ue BU EUS Curcurations Caleulate I, / I for each set of readings. Error mee 43) ~ Bea ae 3 EL Lob E, (44) a{2.)= ae el ee Sear Al, and Al, represent the error in the measurement of |, and |, Calculate (2) for the four sets of observations and write the maximum of the four values in the result as estimated error. 46The ratio of emfs E,/E, for Leclanche cell to Daniell cell =41(5) . Bee a B, 18 mean value ofthe ratio of emis of the two cells. UTIONS 1, Keys plugged into the resistance box must ensure good electrical contact. 2. Jockey should be pressed gently on the potentiometer wire to prevent formation of any kinks in it. 3. Position of rheostat contact should not be disturbed before finishing the task of finding the balance length with both . The area of cross section of the potentiometer wire may not be uniform throughout its length. 2. Avoid continuous discharge of the two cells whose emf are to be compared by keeping the keys open when E, and E, are not in use. 3. The length measurement may have error if the potentiometer wire is not taut and along the scale on the board. 4, Multiple key jockey may not have correct alignment with the scale. SION 1. Current should not be passed for a long time in order to avoid heating due to current. 2. Battery E should have greater emf than that of E, and E,, the two primary cells, so that a balance point is obtained on the wire. 3. High resistance box is used in order to make currents low so that the galvanometer coil is not damaged. 4, When looking for a balance point, there may be a small range of positions (rather than one position) of the jockey for 47°which there is no visible deflection of galvanometer. A good estimate of the balance point in such a case is the middle point of that range. Sie ASSESSMENT Avoltmeter connected across the terminals of a battery measures the potential difference. How is it different from emf? What would you conclude if galvanometer needle keeps shaking in your experimental set up? Use a voltmeter to obtain the ratio of potential difference of the two cells. Does it differ considerably from the ratio of their emfs? Ifnot, what can you conclude? SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS /ACTIVITIES Can the resistances of two resistors be compared using a potentiometer? yes, draw a circuit diagram and perform the experiment. = Pa gphot andj ony anon ans, Clete = the slope of graph. ‘Compare emf of cells available in the market and draw bar graphs for cells of different makes. vasdetermine the internal resistance of a given primary cell using itiometer, Leclanche cell or dry cell, an ammeter, one resistance (Rox )) (about 0-50 9), 3 one way plug keys, galvanometer, a resistance box (R,..,) (about 0-10 kQ), a low resistance rheostat bout 20 Q, jockey, lead accumulator and connecting wires. n a resistance Ris connected across a cell of emf E and internal ce r, then the current in the circuit is E Rer potential difference V (= RI) across the two terminals of the d Lare the distances of the balance null point from end A of for an open and a closed circuit respectively 5.1), then Eis proportional tol, and V is proportional to Lmae eee Proceoure close key K,, With keys K, and K, open and protective high resistance P from Ryoca: find the position of the point. For final reading, short ct the resistance P by closing the key and find the balance length |,. Take R= 10 (from Ryo.) close th key K, and quickly measure the balance length L Open K,as soon Fig. E 5.1 Circuit to measure internal resistance this has been done. 2f a primary cell using a potentiometer Keep the readings in the a constant throughout the abo 5. Reduce the value of Rin equal steps of 1 and for each value off obtain the balance length L 6. At the end of the experiment, open key K, and repeat step 2 find |, again. Oaservarions om (in the beginning of the experiment) cm (at the end of the experiment)It is an equation of a straight line (Fig. £5.2). 3. Plotagraph between 1/R and 1/L taking onthe axis and 7 on y-axis, 4. Draw a straight line as close to the points plotted as you can. The negative intercept on the y-axis gives the value of 1/r. Hence, obtain the value of r (Fig. E 5.2). The internal resistance of the given cell r_ F982 Graph between 1/R and 1/1 (9 by calculation ....0 (i) by graph ... IONS 1. The primary cell whose internal resistance is to be determined should not be disturbed during the experiment or else its internal resistance may change. 2. The emf of battery E should be more than the emf of the primary cell, E,. 3. Positive terminals of E and E, both should be connected at the same point on the potentiometer. 4. Always measure length from point A Le. the point at which positive terminals of battery are connected and measure this length upto the balance point.5. Insert K, and K, only when readings are taken otherwise the wires may get heated up due to continuous flow of current and may also affect the internal resistance of the cell. Sources OF ERROR 1. Potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross - section. 2, Brass strips at the ends may have a finite resistance. 3, Emf of the auxiliary battery producing the drop of potential along the wire may not be constant throughout the course of the experiment. 4, Heating of the potentiometer wire by current may introduce some error. D ISCUSSION 1, The theory of potentiometer assumes that there is a steady current in wire AB during the period of experiment. Therefore, ‘emf of the accumulator should be constant during the course of the experiment. 2. The position of the jockey can be read within the least count of the measuring scale + 0.1em. Moreover, the edge of the jockey ‘may further limit this least count. Itis therefore advised to use a sharp edged jockey. 3. There may also be a zero error in the measurement of |, due to the end of the scale not being exactly at the end of the wire. Sar ASSESSMENT 1. All the positive terminals of sources of emf are joined at point A of potentiometer, but ifall the negative terminals of sources, of emf are joined at point A then how will the balance lengtli be affected? 2. Find the internal resistance of a freshly prepared Leclanche cell. Does its internal resistance change with R? 3, State the factors on which the internal resistance of a cell depends. | ‘SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS /ACTIVITIES 1. Find the intemal resistance of dry eels of diferent makes. 2. Canthe intemal resistance ofa secondary cell be determined by this method? Give reason for your answer. 52To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit. RATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Amoving coil galvanometer, a battery or a battery eliminator (0 - 6 V), fone resistance ox (Ryox ) of range 0 - 10 k. one resistance box [Rycx.) of range 0 - 200°, two one way keys, voltmeter, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. Galvanometer Galvanometer is a sensitive = |= 2 sh 7 device used to detect very low ~~ current, Its working is based on : the principle that a coil placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque when an 1} @ I A electric current is set up in it. The re deflection of the coil is eee determined by a pointer attached to it, moving on the scale. Low Resistance Box Mics scotcanmgcurctis iy o, placed in a radial magnetic field, the coil experiences a deflection Fig. E 6.1 Circuit for finding resistance of galuanometer @which is related to as rete - y fa wen where k is a constant of proportionality and is termed as figure of merit of the galvanometer. ‘The circuit arrangement required for finding the resistance G of the galvanometer by half deflection method 1s shown in Fig. E 6.1.DPN Ty Tene oa) EL 65) 66) (E6.7) When a resistance Ris introduced in the circuit, the current I, flo through it is given by E R+G In this case, the key K, is kept open. Here E is the emf of battery, G is the resistance of the galvanometer whose resistance is té be determined. If the current J, produces a deflection @ in the galvanometer, from equation (E 6.1) we get Le 1,=k8 Combining equations (E 6.2) and (E 6.3) we get E R+G =ke On keeping both the keys K, and K, closed and by adjusting the value of shunt resistance S, the deflection of the 1 galvanometer needle becomes 5 (half). As G and S are in parallel combination and Rin series with it, the total resistance of the circuit R=R = G+s ‘The total current, [due to the emf Ein the circuit is given by I= = ae G+s If I, is the current through the galvanometer of resistance G, then Gr,=Sa-r) Y Is n G+s ‘Substituting the value of I from Equation (E 6.6). in equation (E 6.7) _ the current [, is given by ‘54Sos) E s G+s GS G+s BGS Fess FS b * R(G+s) +05 For galvanometer current [,, ifthe deflection through the galvanometer is reduced to half of its initial value ( ) then i ee n=k(5) R(G+S)+GS On dividing Eq. (E 6.2) by Eq. (E 6.8), or, R(G+S)+GS=2S(R+G) => RG=RS+GS = GR-S)=RS ‘By knowing the values of Rand S, the galvanometer resistance Gcan ‘be determined. Normally Ris chosen very high (~ 10 kQ) in comparison to S(~ 100 9) for which G-=s ‘The figure of merit (K) of the galvanometer is defined as the current required for deflecting the pointer by one division. That is i kat For determining the figure of merit of the galvanometer the key K, is ‘opened in the circuit arrangement. Using Eqs. (E 6.2) and (E 6.3) the figure of merit of the galvanometer is given by gees 6.9) E 6.10) soDONT tLe SB INN By knowing the values of E, R, Gand @ the figure of merit of the galvanometer can be calculated. Proceoure . Clean the connecting wires with sand paper and make neat and tight connections as per the circuit diagram (Fig. E 6.1). 2, From the high resistance box (Rex ) (1-10 kQ), remove 5 kQ key and then close the key K,. Adjust the resistance R from this resistance box to get full scale deflection on the galvanometer dial. Record the values of resistance, Rand deflection 8. 3. Insert the key K, and keep R fixed. Adjust the value of shunt resistance S to get the deflection in the galvanometer which is exactly half of 6. Note down S. Remove plug K, after noting down the value of shunt resistance, S. 4. Take five sets of observations by repeating steps 2 and 3 so that 6 is even number of divisions and record the observations for R, S,@ and @ in tabular form. 2 5. Calculate the galvanometer resistance G and figure of merit k of galvanometer using Eqs. (E 6.9) and (E 6.11) respectively. Oasservarions Emfof the battery B=... V Number of divisions on full scale of galvanometer = ... ‘Table E 6.1: Resistance of galvanometer Cacursrions ‘Mean value of G (resistance of galvanometer) = ¥ ‘Mean value of k (figure of merit of galvanometer) 561. Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method, G=...2 2. Figure of merit of galvanometer, k= ...ampere/division IONS Key K, should be inserted only after high value of Rhas been taken out from resistance box otherwise galvanometer coil may burn. 2. Adjust R such that deflection in galvanometer ts of even division 80 that @/2 is more conveniently obtained. * 3. Emfof the battery should be constant. 4. Useas high values of Ras practically possible. This ensures correct value of G. 5. All the connections and plugs in the resistance box should be tight. OF ERRORS 1. Plugs in the resistance boxes may be loose or they may not beclean. 2. The emf of the battery may not be constant. ON 1. By closing the key K, and adjusting the value of resistance in resistance box R,o. . You get the deflection 0/2 in the galvanometer. Then the resistance S equals G, the resistance of galvanometer, because half of the current passing through Ris shared by S and half by galvanometer. It is noteworthy that Ris so large compared to S or G that opening or closing the key K, makes insignificant difference in the current passing through R. ‘We define current sensitivity Cof the galvanometer as the deflection produced per unit current. With K, open, the current passing through it is E “R 2. R om3. From eq. E 6.9, RS = G (R- S). Galvanometer resistance G can also be determined from the slope of a graph plotted RS against (R-9) with RS on y-axis and (R-S) on x-axis. Sur ASSESSMENT 1. How will you use a galvanometer for measuring current? 2. (a) Out of galvanometer, ammeter and voltmeter which has the highest resistance and which has the lowest? Explain. (b) Which of the two meters has lower resistance — a milliammeter or amfcroammeter? 3. What are the factors on which sensitivity ofa galvanometer depends? 4. Internal resistance of the cell is taken to be zero. This implies that wwe have to use a freshly charged accumulator in the experiment or use a good battery eliminator. If the internal resistance is finite, ‘how will it affect the result? 5. Is it possible to find the galvanometer resistance by taking 1/3 deflection ? If so what changes would be required in the formula for calculation of value of G. SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1 1, Plota graph between Rand 5 (R along.x- axis). Use the graph to determine Gand k. : : ee ae How will you determine k from the graph? 9. Use the values of G and k to calculate the value of shunt resistance required to convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter of 0-SA range. 4. Calculate the value of series resistance required to convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of 0-30 V range.convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of into (i) an ammeter of a desired range (say 0 to 30 mA) and (ti) a eter of desired range (say 0 to 3 V) and to verify the same. JS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED of known resistance and figure of merit, a constantan ‘manganin wire of 26 or 30 SWG, a battery or a battery eliminator, way key, a rheostat of range 200 @, an ammeter of 0-30 mA ge, a voltmeter of 3 V range, connecting wires and sand paper. [CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AN AMMETER) is a sensitive device which can detect the presence of ‘small current in a circuit of the order of 100 mA. For measuring ment of the order of an ampere, a low resistance called shunt tance Sis connected in parallel across the galvanometer having tance G. ‘the total current in the circuit for full scale deflection, then the (1-1) passes through S, where I, is current that flows through er for full scale deflection. The instrument is calibrated toread the current directly in ampere and then it can be used as er. Since G and S are parallel to each other therefore, the difference across both are same, hence, 1,G=(I,-1,)S (27.1) jt) 1G ae S eT, (£7.2) ‘of merit of the galvanometer is represented by the symbol ke ents the current corresponding to one scale division; thus total number of divisions (on either side) of the galvanometer ‘value of current I, is given by| if n represents the actual deflection in the converted galvanometei then the total current will be Prroceoure per the procedure given in experiment 6. ~ 2. Count the total number of divisions Non either side of zero of galvanometer scale. 8. Calculate the current J, for full scale deflection in galvanometer by using the relation I, = Nk, where kis the of merit of the galvanometer. 4. Calculate the shunt resistance S using. eK S formula s = so, I-1, A "the given value of the specific resistance += A) calculate the length of the wire I, for resista Sluse the formula (= S®™ j, peo s pe f 6. Let the calculated length of the wire be FET cee Seq eee ae Fig. 71 Chet fy crt te cateon ead aed parallel to the galvanometer and complet the circuit as shown in Fig. E 7.1. 7. Adjust the length of the wire so that when we see full sca deflection in the galvanometer, the current in the ammeter: 30 mA. 8. Thus the galvanometer is now converted to an ammeter range is 30 mA. 9. Now measure the exact length of the shunt wire and calculate: resistance by using the previously measured value of radius the known value of specific resistance. 10. Compare the above value of resistance to the one calculated ixp wala S=—P, the form 60‘TIONS : Galvanometer resistance, G (given) Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k (given) =... ampere/division ‘Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer scale, N=... division ‘Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions, I,=kN=... Least count of the given screw gauge =... em Zero error =... cm Zero correction = ...cm Observed diameter of the wire: @ ..cm i) ...cm. (i) em @)..cm observed diameter, D= ... cm ‘Observed length of the shunt wire for the desired range, 4 ‘Shunt resistance from the observed length of the wire, 5’ ae. ‘convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter of the range, --- ampereLanoratory Manu. 5 the calculated resistance of the shunt wire, S=... 2. the observed resistance of the shunt wire, =... @ Parecaurions 1. Use the ammeter for verification which has the same range as t range of conversion. Cut about 3 to 4 cm extra to the calculated length of the wire. After adjusting the length of the wire, measure the length of wire between the two plugs carefully. (ii) Prarie conversion oF GALVANOMETER WD A VOLTMETER) By connecting a high resistance of suitable value in series with galvanometer, it is converted into a voltmeter. Voltmeter is alw: connected in parallel with the electrical component across potential difference is to be measured. fa galvanometer (having resistance G) shows a full scale fora maximum current L, the potential difference across galvanometer is. a 8 cess to range V, volt. then the re galvanometer, is, Prroceoure Fig. E 7.2 Circuit to vertfy conve v~——~ gatvanometer into a voltmeterThe figure of merit of the galvanometer, k (given) = ... ampere/division 3. Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer scale, 4. Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions, 1,=kN=... ampere Q To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of the range, Oto...V 1. The value of the calculated series resistance, R = ...! 2. The value of the observed series resistance, R = ...Q 8. Current for full scale deflection, I, = Q ampere 1. The resistance box used should be of high resistance. 2. The rheostat should be used as potential divider. 3. High resistance of the order of 10 k@ from the resistance box should be used first and then the battery key should bbe closed to avoid any damage to the galvanometer. OF ERROR ‘The wire may be of non-uniform area of cross section.D ISCUSSION 1. Ifthe area of cross section of the wire is non-uniform, how will affect the observation? 2. Use a rheostat as current divider and potential divider. 3. To check if friction in your instrument is small enough, meast in the same setting 5 to 10 times. If each time, the needle comes exactly the same point on the scale, friction in your instrument, quite small. Ser ASSESSMENT 1. How can you increase the range of the converted galvanometer: 0-60 ma? 2. How can you decrease the range of the converted galvanometer: 0-20 ma? 3. IfS< = “7 Atal or 5 = 7 -Theintercepts of the graph on both axes are 1 F + Graph of uversus vis a hyperbola. When u =v, then each equals 2f. Eq. (E 10.3) shows that values of wand v are interchangeable. ‘When an object (say, a pin) is placed in front of a thin convex: Jens at a distance equal to 2f, a real and inverted image ofsame 3F B size as that of the object is formed at a distance equal to 2fon the other side of the lens [Fig. E 10.2(a)]. If the object's ) position lies in between distance optical centre of the lens then a real, inverted and magnified image is formed at a point beyond 2ffrom. the optical centre on the other side of the lens [Fig. E 10.2(b)} Thus, by measuring the distances u and v, the focal length of the convex lens can be determined using Eq. (E 10.3). The focal length of the lens may also be determined by plotting graphs between uand v or between 1/uand 1/v. ROCEDURE 1. Obtain approximate value of the focal length of the thin convex lens by focusing the image of a distant object. It can be found by obtaining a sharp image of the Sun or a distant tree on a screen, say a plane wall, or a sheet of paper placed on the other side of the Jens and measuring the distance between the lens and the image with a scale. This distance is a rough estimate of the focal length, Sof the convex lens. Note: Do not look at the image of Sun directly as it may hurt your eyes. (10.3) pele, 2f and distance f from the 72-= 10.2 (@h @) Tormain of age by a conver 70°PONT inl ea ENO .. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform, and using the spirit level, make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws provided at the base of the bench. . Clamp the convex lens on an upright and mount it vertically almost near to the middle of the optical bench such that its principal axis. 4s parallel to the optical bench. In this position, the lens would lie ina plane perpendicular to the optical bench. |. For the determination of the index correction, bring a mounted pin close to the lens. Adjust the index needle (a sharp-edged/ knitting needle would also serve the purpose) horizontally st that its one end touches one of the curved surfaces of the lens a the other end touches the tip of the pin. Note the positions of two uprights on the scale provided on the optical bench. difference of the two would give the observed length of the needle. The actual length between the tip of the pin and optica centre O would be length of the index needle (as measured by a scale) plus half of the thickness of the lens because optical cent of a double convex lens with surfaces of equal curvature is at ‘geometrical centre. The difference of the two lengths is the correction. Find index correction for both the pins. |. Place the vertically mounted sharp pins P and P’ (Fig. E 10. on left and right hand sides of the lens) respectively. Adjust the pins P and P’ so that the heights of the tips of these pins become equal to the height of the optic: centre O of the lens from the base of the: optical bench. Let the pin P (placed on left hand side of the lens ) be the object pi and the pin P’ (lying on right hand side) be: the image pin. Put a small piece of paper Fig. E 10.3. The ray diagram for finding the on one of the pins (say on image pin P) to vo focal length of a convex lens. differentiate it from the object pin P’. 6. Displace the object pin P (on left side of the lens) to a distance slightly less than 2f from the optical centre O of the len: (Fig. E 10.3). Locate the position of the real and inverted image the other side of the lens above the image pin P’. . Using the method of parallax, adjust the position of the in pin P’ such that the image of the object pin P coincides with image pin P’. Note: As the value of u changes from 2/ tof, v changes from 2/1 infinity. Since the values of uand vare interchangeable, i.e., the obj and image are two conjugate points, therefore itis clear that complet range of values for both u asid v between fand infinity are obtained. for a movement of the object pin over the range 2f'to f. “808. Note the upright position of the object pin, convex lens and image pin on the optical bench and record the readings in an ‘observation table. 9. Move the object pin P closer to the optical centre O of the lens (say by 2 cm or 3 cm). Repeat the experiment and record at least six sets of readings for various distances of object pin between fand 2f from the lens. SERVATIONS . Approximate focal length of the convex lens 2. Length of the index needle as measured by the metre scale, L,=..cm, 3, Thickness of the thin convex lens (given), t = ...em 4, Actual length between the optical centre O of the lens and tip of the pin, [,=L,+t/2=...cm 5. Observed length of the index needle, {; = Distance between the centre of convex lens and tip of the object pin = Position of lens upright - position of object pin upright on the scale. cm = ..em-...em =...cm 6. Index correction for object distance, e, = |,~ {= em; similarly for image pin, e,=|-f = ...cm Table E 10.1: Determination of u, v and f 31Cacirarions A. Calculate the corrected values of uand v. Compute the value using Eq, (E 10.3). Tabulate them in the table and find the Maximum of six values of Afis to be reported with the result the experimental error. Caccuration OF FOCAL LENGTH BY PLOTTING GRAPHS (A detailed method of plotting graphs has been illustrated Chapter 1 Article 1.8 (p. no. 15). B. u—v Graph: Take u along x-axis and v along y-axis. Scales x- and y-axis should be same. Drawa hyperbola curve for vari values of wand v (Fig. E 10.4). Note that six sets of readings for: between f and 2f. give you 12 points on the graph interchanging values of wand v. ‘The point u = 2f v = 2fis shown as point Z u- v graph (Fig. E 10.4). The point Z Is the poi of intersection of a line OZ bisecting the ZXOY with hyperbola. Draw two lines AZ and perpendicular to Y- and X-axis, respectively. lengths AZ and BZ are both equal to distance 2 Thus by plotting the u-v graph, the focal len; of the lens can be obtained. Distance OA (= 2f) on y-axis =... cm Distance OB (= 2f) on x-axis = ... cm 40, _— 10 Mean focal length of the convex lens, f (em) <— Fig. E 10.4 versus v graph for convex ens = OA+OB _ ene 4 82 cm,C. 1/u-1/vgraph: Drawa straight line graph by plotting 1 /ualong the X-axis and 1/v along the Y-axis (Fig. E 10.5). Both the intercepts OA’ (on y-axis) and OB’ (on X-axis) will be equal to distance 1/f. Intercept OA’ (= 1/f) on y-axis aa Intercept OB’ (= 1/f) on x-axis =..cmr! Mean focal ke (fof the eee Vu(em") <—$ vy (not to scale}. ‘The focal length of the given converging thin convex lens: ( from calculations as shown in Observation Table E10.1 f+ 4f=...cm (here fis mean value of the focal length) (i) from u-vgraph =...cm, and (ii) from 1/u-1/v graph cm. RECAUTIONS - The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and mounted vertically. 2. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image formed will not be distinct. 8. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image needle. 4. An error may arise in the observations if the top of the optical bench is not horizontal and similarly if the tips of pins and optical centre of the lens are not at the same horizontal level. 5. The image and object needles should not be interchanged during the performance of the experiment, as this may cause change in index corrections for object distance and image distance. 6. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must touch the X29 10-008 = 0.06 - 0.04- 0.02 |O Fig. E 10.5 1/u versus 1/v graph for a convex tens 33"tip of the image needle and must not overlap. This should ensured while removing the parallax. 7. The general instructions to be followed in all optical ben experiments (as given in the description of optical bench) must taken care of. 8. The corrected values of the distances u and v must be put the formula for calculating fand then a mean of f should taken. Calculations for f must not be made using the me values of wand v. Sources OF ERROR 1, The uprights may not be vertical. Parallax removal may not be perfect. 3. If the knitting needle or index rod for finding index correction not sharp like a needle, its length may not be accurately found on scale. Discussion In plotting 1/v versus 1/u graph, if scales for the two axes are not same, then the straight line graph may (rather will) not be at 45° to x-axis. This may result in confusions and error in drawing the graph. Keeping the scale same and drawing the best fit graph at 45° to x-axis 4s the best method. Then, due to inherent errors in measurement 1/j on both axes may be a bit too large or a bit too small. Sar ASSESSMENT Draw the ray diagram for image formation in case of a convex lens for position of object varying from infinity to optical centre. 2. What are the differences between the image formed by a convex lens and a concave lens? 3. How does the focal length ofa thick convex lens differ from that of athin lens? 4. How can you recognise a convex lens, a circular glass slab and a concave lens, without touching them? 5. Where does the centre of curvature of the plane surface of a plano-convex lens lie? 6. Define the principal axis of a plano-convex lens? eaHow does the focal length of a convex lens change if is dipped in water? . What is the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of a plano-convex lens? . Can a virtual image produced by a lens be inverted? SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS /ACTIVITIES. 1. _Drawa graph by plotting u valong y-axis and u+ v along x-axis, Determine {focal length fof the convex lens from the slope. 2. EFFECT OF MEDIUM ON FOCAL LENGTH You have an aquarium, an open window at some distance from it, and a ‘magnitying glass of 50 mm diameter. With your 30 em scale find the rough focal length of the magnifying glass in air. Then dip i in water by left hand. and a white plastic bag (folded with a 5 em x 5 em card in it to make a white screen) by right hand. Focus image of a distant object on the screen by ‘adjusting the position of the screen. Is the rough focal length in water bigger ‘or smaller than that in air? Let a friend measure the focal length in water ‘and find the ratio of the two. 3, MEASURING LENGTH OF THE FILAMENT OF A CLEAR ELECTRIC LAMP ‘You cannot put the scale behind and in contact with the filament to measure its length. Of course you can do this measurement by vernier microscope, But can it be done by a simple convex lens and a scale only? You ean also ‘add things like clamp stand etc, as per needs of the experiment. Can you also measure the dark (cool) gap between adjacent segments of the filament of the lamp? 85"To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens. APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED ‘An optical bench with uprights for holding lens, mirror and needles, two needles (pins), a thin convex lens, a convex mirror, needle (may be a knitting needle or a peneil sharply pointed at bo ends), a metre scale and a spirit level. Pawoiete Fig. E 11.1 illustrates the formation of image of an object AB b: convex mirror MM’ (having a small aperture) in two differe situations. The image formed by a convex mirror is virtual and eree ‘Therefore, its focal length cannot be determined directly. However, can be determined by introducing a convex lens in between the ob} and the convex mirror (Fig. E 11.2). Fig. E 11.1(a) Object ts at infinity. A highly Fig. E 11.1(b) Object is in front of the mirror. v dliminished and point image is diminished virtual tmage & located at the focus behind produced between the pole the convex mirror focus behind the mirror An object AB is placed at point P” in front of a thin convex lens suc! that its real, inverted and magnified image 4’B’is formed at positCon the other side of the lens [Fig. E 11.2(b)]. Now a convex mirror is introduced between the convex lens and point C and so adjusted that the real and inverted image A’B’ coincides with the object AB at point P'[Fig. E 11.2 (a)]. This is possible if the light rays starting from the tip of the object, after passing through the lens, fall normally on the reflecting surface of the convex mirror and retrace their path. Any normal ray (perpendicular) to a spherical surface has to be along the radius of that sphere so that point C must be the centre of curvature of the convex mirror. Therefore, the distance P C is the radius of curvature R and half of it would be the focal length of the convex mirror. That is, @) Fig. E 11.2 Image formed by (a) convex mirror and convex lens-tmage A’ BY YY ~ coincicles with the object A B at P'(b) convex lens- image is inverted and magnified In case, if the focal length of the given thin convex lens is not known then approximate value of its focal length should be estimated first. Grae10. si 12. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform. Using the spirit level, make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws provided at the base of the bench. Place the uprights mounted with pin P, (object pin), convex Jens LL’, and convex mirror MM’ on the horizontal optical bench Fig. E11.2fa)}. Check that the lens, mirror, and pin P, are vertically placed on the optical bench. Also verify that the tip of the pin, optical centre of the convex lens LL’, and pole P’ of the convex miror MM’ lie on the same horizontal straight line, parallel to the optical bench. Determine the index correction between upright holding of the convex mirror and image pin respectively, using an index needle. Place the object pin P, from the convex lens LL’ at a distance slightly greater than the focal length of the lens. Adjust the position of the convex mirror MM’ till the light rays reflected back from the mirror pass through the lens and form a real and inverted image coinciding with the object pin P,, as shown in Fig.E 11.2 (a). This occurs when the rays starting from the tip of pin P,, after passing through the lens strike the mirror normally and are reflected back along their original paths. Remove the parallax between the image and object pins. Read the position of uprights holding the object pin P,, convex lens LL’, and convex mirror MM’ and record the observations in the observation table. Remove the convex mirror from its upright and fix image pin P, on it. Adjust the height of pin such that the tip of it also lies on the principal axis of the lens. That Is, the tips of the pins P, and P, and the optical centre O of the convex lens, all lie on a straight horizontal line parallel to the length of the optical bench. You may put a small piece of paper on image pin P, to differentiate it from the object pin P, Using the method of parallax and without changing the position oflens LL’ and object pin P,, adjust the position of image pin P, on the other side of the lens so that it coincides with the real and inverted image of the object pin P, formed by the convex ens [Fig. E 11.2(b)]. Note the position of the image pin. Repeat the experiment by changing the separation between the pin P, and lens LL’ and the mirror MM’. In this manner, take five sets of observations. "SsIBSERVATIONS 1. Focal length of the convex lens, f (estimated/given) = 2. Actual length of the index needle, | =...cm_ 3. Observed length of the index needle Position of mirror upright - position of pin upright on the scale =..em 4. Index correction, e= Actual length - observed length (1-1) : Determination of radius of curvature of convex mirror, R Table E 11. Calculate the mean value of radius of curvature of the convex mirror, R,and determine its focal length using the following relation re Bee af Ac, Ad Al, ar 89”when Ac, Ad, Al and AI are the least counts of the measuring instruments. Maximum of the five values of Afis to be reported with the result as the experimental error. Resucr ‘The focal length of the given convex mirror is (f+ Af. Here fis mean value of the focal length. Parccaurions The uprights supporting the pins, lens and mirror must be rigid and mounted vertically. .. The apertures of the given convex lens and convex mirror should be small, otherwise the image formed will be distorted. . Eye should be placed at a distance of about 25 cm or more from the image pin. | Optical bench should be horizontal. The tips of pins, centre of convex lens and pole of the mirror should be at the same horizontal level. Sources OF ERROR 1. The tip of the inverted image of the object pin should just touch the tip of the image pin and must not overlap. This should be ensured while removing the parallax. 2. Personal eye defects may make removal of parallax tedious. ‘3. The convex mirror should preferably be front-coated. Otherwise multiple reflections may take place. Discussion Itmay not be possible to perform this experiment with just any convex lens. The focal length of the lens used in this experiment should neither be too small nor too large. Why? Sar ASSESSMENT 1. Iffecal length of the concave mirror is determined, by using convex lenses of different focal lengths, do you expect any change in the result? If yes, what type of change? If not, why not?How will the result change if a convex lens of different refractive indices were used? 3. If the convex lens selected for the experiment has focal length less than that of the convex mirror, how would this selection limit the experiment? SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS /ACTIVITIES: 1. Repeat the experiment by using convex lenses of different focal lengths. Compare and analyse the results. 2. Repeat the experiment by using convex mirrors of different focal lengths with the help of the same convex lens. Discuss the results. iisAPPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED ‘An optical bench with uprights for holding the lenses and two a thin concave lens, a convex lens of focal length (~15 cm) than that of the concave lens, index needle (may be a knitting a metre scale and a spirit level. Painciete Figs. E 12.1 (a),(b),(€) and (d) illustrate the formation of image A’ BY ‘an object AB by a concave lens. Itis clear that the image formed b Fig. B 12.1 (@,M0) (@) The images formed by a concave lens for diferent object poROCEDURE E 12.2 Formation of image (a) by a convex lens: and (b) by a combination of ‘convex lens and concave lens concave lens is always virtual and erect in these cases. Therefore, its focal length cannot be determined directly. However, it can be determined indirectly by introducing a convex lens in between the object and the concave lens and producing a real image as illustrated in Fig. E12.2, Aconvex lens L, converges the light rays starting from the object AB to form a real and inverted image A’B’ at position I, [Fig. E 12.2(a)]. If ‘a concave diverging lens L, is inserted between the lens L, and point |, as shown in Fig. E 12.2 (b), for concave lens L, image A’ B’ behaves as virtual object. A real and inverted image A” B” is formed at point 1, by the diverging lens L, . Thus, for the concave lens L, the distances O’ I, and 0’ 1, would be the distances u and v, respectively. It is important to note that the focal length of convex lens L, must be smaller than the focal length of the concave lens L,. The second image A” B” is formed only when the distance between lens L, and first image A’B’ is less than the focal length of L,. The focal length of the concave lens L, can be calculated from the relation BSL oh Fes fae Here for the concave lens both distances u and v are positive and since u will be found to be less than v, fwill always be negative. 1, In case, if the focal length of the given thin convex lens is not known then rough value of its focal length (f,) should be estimated first to ensure that its focal length is less than that of the concave lens. (12.1) erat 93°Lasoratory Mi Place the optical bench on a rigid platform and using the spirit evel, make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws provid at the base of the bench. Place the uprights mounted with pin P, (object pin), convex ler L,, and another pin P, (image pin) on the optical bench. You ma put a small piece of paper on image pin P, to differentiate it the image of object pin P, (Fig. E 12.2(a)l. Check the collinearity of the tip of pin P,, optical centre O of co lens L,, and the tip of image pin P, along a horizontal straight lin which is parallel to the length of the optical bench. In this condit the planes of lens and both the pins would be perpendicular t the axis of the lens. For the determination of the index correction, bring a mountes pin close to the concave lens L,. Adjust the index needle (a ‘edged knitting needle would also serve the purpose) horizont such that its one end touches one of the curved surfaces of the ler and the other end touches the tip of the pin. Note the positions 0 the two uprights on the scale provided on the optical bench. difference of the two would give the observed length of the needle. The actual length between the tip of the pin and optice centre 0’ of the lens L, would be length of the index needle (a measured by a scale) plus half of the thickness of the lens at it optical centre. The difference of the two lengths is the index correction. (ifthe concave lens is thin at the centre, its thickness at the centr can be ignored). Separate the object pin P, from the convex lens by a dis slightly greater than the focal length J, of the lens. Locate its real and inverted image at point I, on the other side o the lens by removing the parallax between the image pin P, image of the object pin P, (Fig. E 12.3(a)l. Read the positions of the uprights holding the object pin P,, lens L,, and image pin P, (Le. point I,): Record these observatio in Table E 12.1. From now on, do not change the position of the convex Iens and the position of the object pin P,. Insert the concave lens L, between the convex lens L, and image pin P,. Now the image object pin will shift further from the convex lens L, toa point IS Adjust the position of the concave lens so that the point I, sufficiently away from the point I,. Incase the image formed by the combination of convex and lenses is not distinctly visible, try to see it on moving the concay lens nearer to the poi.t I, and to locate the image by using a perFig. E 12.8 Focal length of concave lens with the help of convex lens held in hand, and keeping the image pin P, at point I, as a guide to decide which way to shift the concave lens L,. After having seen the clear image at point I, and ensured that it lies within the range of the optical bench, move image pin P, to locate the image (or point I) ‘more accurately using the method of parallax (Fig. E 12.3(b)]. Since the image forming at |, is quite enlarged. it can be blurred. 11. Note the position of uprights holding the concave lens and image pin P,, te., point I,. Note the readings in the Observation Table. 12, Change the position of upright holding the object pin P, and repeat the steps 6 to 10. Take five sets of observations. IBSERVATIONS. . Focal length of the convex lens, f, =... cm ‘Length of the index needle as measured by the scale, $= ... cm 3. Thickness of the thin concave lens (given) at its optical centre, m 4. Actual length between the optical centre O of the lens and tip of the pin, [= 5+ t/2 =...cm 5. Observed length of the index needle, f = Distance between the pole of the lens and tip of the pin = Position of lens upright - position of pin upright on the scale =..em 95°Garcurarions ‘Table E 12.1: Determination of u, v, and f of concave lens ‘Concave Tens L, upright, d (em) 6. Index correction, e= 1-1’ =... em Find the focal length of the concave lens using the formula f = Exror where Au, Avrepresent least counts of the measuring scale. Values u, v, fare to be taken from the Observation Table. Maximum of five values of the error Afis to be reported with the result as error. “96‘The focal length of the given concave lens is (f+ Af) = Here f is mean value of the focal length. RECAUTIONS, - The concave lens must be placed near the convex lens. In fact, the second image I, is formed only when the distance between concave lens L, and first image I, (which acts as virtual object for the concave lens) is less than the focal length of the concave lens. 2. Since the image formed at I, is quite enlarged, it can be blurred. ‘Therefore, it would be preferable to use a thin and sharp object pin and shine it with light using a lighted electric bulb. 3. The convex lens and the pin P, must not be disturbed during the second part of the experiment 4. Adiminished, real and inverted image of the image pin P, might also be formed by the light rays reflecting from the concave surface of the lens L,. It should not be confused with the bold and bright image formed by the combination of convex and concave lenses. 5. Index correction/ bench correction for uand v should be made. JURCES OF ERROR 1. If tip of object pin and optical centre of the lens are not aligned properly (if not brought at the same horizontal level), image tip and image of object pin tip will not touch each other. There may be some gap between the two or there could be overlap between the two. In such situations, there can be error in removing parallax and it will lead to errors in the result. 2. For greater accuracy we should use sharply pointed object pin. ISCUSSION 1. As concave lens diverges the rays, the image formed by a concave ens alone will not be real and cannot be taken on a screen. To converge these diverging rays to form a real image, convex lens is used. 2. Diverging rays from concave lens can be made to fall normally on a concave mirror to get the real image formed at the point where object is placed. Hence, the focal length of the concave lens can be found by using a concave mirror also. o73. Since the image I, is quite enlarged, it can get blurred by aberration of the two lenses. Thus it is better to put a ‘behind object pin P, and thus do the entire experiment with o colour of light instead of with white light. For the same reason, P, should be quite thin and sharp compared to pin P,. Sue ASSESSMENT 1. In this experimental setup the combination of concave lens a convex lens separated by a distance d behaves as a single ieee oe focal length F. Check the relation p—"p +p — Ff forany the observations. 2. Calculate f by interchanging the value of wand v and comy with the experimentally determined value of f. ‘SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS /ACTIVITIES = 1. Plot a graph of uv against u-v with uv on y-axis and u-v seaxis, Determine Jfrom the slope of the graph. ‘Repeat the expertment by using concave and convex lenses of diferent fo lengths, compare and analyse the results 2. 8To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation. PARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Drawing board, triangular glass prism, metre scale, alpins, cellotape/drawing pins, graph paper, protractor, white paper sheets. RINCIPLE A triangular prism has three rectangular lateral surfaces and two triangular bases. The line along which any two faces (refracting surfaces) of the prism meet is the refracting edge of the prism and the angle between thems the angle of the prism. For this experiment, it is convenient to place the prism with its principal section ABC of the prism F gatt-nste-r9 is obtained by a horizontal plane sive-A perpendicular to the refracting i edge (Fig. E 13.1). Fig. E 13.1 Refraction of light through a glass prism | Aray of light PQ (from air to glass) incident on the first face AB at i an angle { is refracted at an angle r along QR and finally, emerges | along RS. The dotted lines in the figure represent the normal to the surfaces. The angle of incidence (from glass to air) at the second face AC is r’ and the angle of refraction (or emergence) is e. The angle between the direction of incident ray PQ (produced forward) i and the direction of emergent ray RS (produced backward) is the angle of deviation 8. iFrom geometrical considerations we have (131 ai ae (E_13.2) 8=(i-r+(e-r)=i+e-A At the position of the prism for minimum deviation 8,, the light Passes through the prism symmetrically, i.e. parallel’ to the b that when. =6,, (= e which implies r= r. ‘The advantage of putting the prism in minimum deviation positio that the image is brightest in this position. Prroceoure ie Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board with the cellotape or drawing pins. 2. Drawa straight line XY, using a sharp pencil nearly in the mid and parallel to the length of the paper. 3. Mark points 0,,0,, 0, , ... .on the straight line XY at suit distances of about 8 to 10 em and draw normals N, O,,N,0,, on these points (Fig. E 13.2). Place the prism with its refracting face AB on the line X¥ point O, in the middle of AB as shown in the figure. Draw ti boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil.6. Fix two alpins P, and Q, with sharp tips vertically about 10 cm apart, on the incident ray line P, Q, such that pin Q, ts close to point O,,. Close one eye (say left) and looking through the prism, bring your right eye in line with the images of the pins P,and Q.. Fixalpins R, and S, about 10cm apart vertically on the white paper sheet with their tips in line with the tips of the images of pins P, and Q,. In this way pins R, and S, will become collinear, with the images of pins P, and Q,. 7. Remove the pins R, and S, and encircle their pin pricks on the white paper sheet with the help of a sharp pencil. Remove the pins P, and Q, and encircle their pin pricks also. 8. Join the points ( or pin pricks) R, and S, with the help of a sharp pencil and scale, to obtain the emergent ray R,S,. Produce it backwards to meet the incident ray P,Q, (produced forward) at T,, Draw arrowheads on P,Q, and R, S, to show the direction of the rays. ‘9. Measure the angle of deviation 8, and the angle BAC (angle A) of the prism (Fig. E 13.1) with a protractor and write the values of these angles indicated in the diagram. 10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 for different values of angle of incidence (40°, 45', 50...) and measure the angles of deviation corresponding * 8,, 6... with the protractor, and indicate them in the respective diagrams. 11. Record observations in tabular form with proper units and significant figures. BS eccrvanons Least count of the protractor = ‘Angle of the prism, A = ...(degree) 101"Plotting the graph between i and 6 for the prism ‘Take angle of incidence talong x-axis and angle of deviation 6 along y-axis, using the observed values from Table E 13.1. Choose suitable scales on these axes and plot a graph between {and 6. Take care that you draw a free hand smooth curve passing practically through all the plotted points on the graph (Fig. E 13.3). or 8 1s 8) 8 in degrees) ——p. fe ee 30° 40—«50=S«GOSSSC«BOSSCO 4 Gin degrees) —> s Fig. E 18.3 Graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation Crrcurarions Draw tangent on the lowest point of the graph parallel to x-axis, tead the angle of minimum deviation 6, on the y-axis of the graph. Express the result with proper significant figures, Feesuur Angle of minimum deviation, 8, =... +... degree Precautions 1. Alpins should be fixed vertically to the plane of paper. 2. Distance PQ and RS should be about 10 cm in order to locate incident and emergent rays with greater accuracy. 3. Same angle of prism should be used for all observations. 4. Position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given set of observations. * 102JOURCES OF ERROR 1. Ifthe three angles of refraction between adjacent pairs of faces are not equal, then A+++ e. 2. There may be an error in measuring the values of the angles. Discussion 1. It is suggested that the value of angle of incidence be taken more than 35°. This is required for angles less than 35° as there is a possibility of total internal reflection inside the prism. 2. You must check your readings by applying the formula ite=Ats. 3. The i-6 curve that is obtained in this experiment is a non-linear curve, In such situations, more readings should be taken in the minimum deviation region to be able to obtain the value of angle of minimum deviation accurately. For example, if 3 readings are taken initially at 35°, 40°, 45° and 50° and if the (~8 data points are situated as shown in Fig. E 13.3 then a few more readings need to be taken for values of {in the range 45° to 55° say, at a difference of 1° or 2°. ‘Taking more readings in this region will help in drawing a smooth curve. This will enable you to locate the position of the lowest point on the graph more accurately. 4. In the condition of minimum deviation, the refracted ray inside the prism becomes parallel to its base so as to satisfy the condition r=. 5. The graph does not show a sharp minimum. We have same deviation for a range of angle of incidence near minimum deviation. ‘Therefore extra care should be taken in drawing tangential line to the i-6 graph at minimum deviation. Sar ASSESSMENT 1, Interpret the graph between {and 8. 2. If the experiment is performed with angle of emergence taken as angle of incidence, will there be any change in the 8 values? Ifyes, why? If not, why not? 3. What will happen if you go on decreasing the angle of ‘incidence? If you think there is a minimum, try to find its expression theoretically. What happens when i is less than the: minimum, angle of incidence? 103”SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS /ACTIVITIES 1 a Use the following equation to calculate refractive index ofthe material ofthe prism from the measured value of the angle A and 8, determined from the graph. un SIL Sin WAt5 9/21 Sinr ” ~sintaray “Measure the angle of emergence e corresponding to the value of each angle of incidence { and angle of deviation 8 you have observed. Compute the ‘values of (+ @) and (A +8) and see how they compare. Draw parallel horizontal ines cutting the (8 curve, you have drawn, at ‘various values of {and e. Find out the mid points of these horizontal lines and join these mid points. What is the shape of the curve so obtained? If ‘you find that this shape resembles that of a straight line, find its () slope (i) Y-intercept and (ii) x-intercept. Determine the refractive index of diferent liguids using a hollow prism by plotting {8 graph. ‘Measure rand rand e from the figures you have drawn. Find the refractive ‘ndex of the material of the prism from the values of { and rand e and 1, ¥ 104To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling mleroscope. >PARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED ‘Atravelling microscope, a glass slab, lycopodium powder /chalk dust and a paper. Fig-E.14.1 Formation of tmage I of a point 0 in a glass slab PRINCIPLE Ifa glass slab is placed in air on a horizontal surface and its bottom surface is viewed from top, it appears to be elevated due to the of refraction. The distance between this apparent and the top surface of the slab gives the apparent thickness of the slab. In case of normal observation, it can be shown that the refractive index of glass with respect to the medium, air is, oa real thickness of the slab ‘= apparent thickness of the slabT06 Proceoure Oasservanons - Find the least count of the microscope scale, being used. . Put a mark on a sheet of paper. 3. Place the paper on the horizontal platform of the microscope. the microscope in such a way that its lens system is above the mark. 4. Focus the microscope on the mark and record the read! @, using Main Scale Reading (MSR) and Vernier Sc: Reading (VSR) of its coinciding division as shown in Table E 14.1. ‘Next, place the glass slab over the mark on the sheet of paper, 6. Move the microscope upward until mark on the paper, through the slab is sharp and clear. Take the reading a, with main scale and coinciding division of the vernier scale. 7. Spread a little lycopodium powder/chalk dust over the top of the glass slab. Raise the lens system of the microscope and focus microscope to see some of their particles clearly and reading a, . Invert the slab and repeat steps 3 to 8. 9. Least Count (LC) of the travelling microscope: 20 Main Scale Divisions (MSD) = 1 cm (say) iMsD= om 20 50 Vernier Scale Divisions (VSD) = 49 MSD (say) 49 49 1 1 VSD = 55 MSD = 55% 35 cm ‘Least Count of the microscope = (1 MSD - 1 VSD) [ao-(s5)5] - at LC =0.001 cm‘Table E 14.1: Refractive index of glass slab Carcurations ‘The refractive index n,, is given by real thickness slab = ey ‘apparent thickness ofthe slab @,-a@, © Find n,, for the two sets of observations and then the mean value of n,,, Exror ‘The estimated uncertainty in the measurement of n,, 18. Any, _ (ab , Ac TS i (£14. where 40 . (Sa , Aas 142) b e a ee se [aa , daa] isa. ie © oe From Eq. (E14.1) oe (eae mess P ae = | ‘Aa= least count of microscope and hence uncertainty in 4, a, and a, measurements.Maximum value of An,, as obtained from the two sets of observations. should be reported with the result as experimental error. Resutr ‘The refractive index of glass of the slab was found to be n,,# AM, =... ‘Mpls mean value ofrefractive index of ass with respect tothe medium Precautions 1. The screws used in focussing the microscope should be moved in only one direction to avoid back-lash error. 2. Once the microscope is focused for the first reading L.e., a,, the focusing arrangement in the lens system should not be changed altered for subsequent readings namely for a, and ay. 3. The glass slab should be placed on a horizontal surface. 4, Use hand lens/magnifying glass to read the vernier scale to avoid error in finding vernier coinciding division. Sources OF ERROR 1. Position of the microscope may not be normal to the surface of the glass slab. 2. Ifthe layer of lycopodium powder/chalk dust spread on the glass slab is thick, it will not actually represent the top of the glass slab and thus produce error in the result. Discussion 1. You will get a feel of the apparent and real depths if you try to lift coin in a bucket filled with water, 2. Consider the situation in which rays coming from an object strike on the glass slab obliquely, Can you obtain a mathematical expression for n,,? Sur ASSESSMENT 1. Will a colourless slab be vistble if immersed in a transparent liquid of the same refractive index as that of the slab? State the reason for it. * 1082. You have three slabs of same dimensions - the first one being hollow and completely filled with water, the second one is made of crown glass and the third flint glass. Ifeach of them has a coloured mark at the bottom, in which case will it appear to have risen the most? Given It Myo, > Moron > Tater ‘SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES Use the method mentioned above to find the refractive indices of commonly available transparent liquids. You may use a thin glass beaker fr this experiment. 109”To determine the refractive index of a liquid (water) using (i) con mirror, (i) convex lens and a plane mirror. () Refractive index of water using concave mirror APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Concave mirror of small aperture and large focal length, laboratory stand with rigid base and clamp arrangement (heig the stand must be more than double the focal length of the g concave mirror). a pin, a metre scale, a spirit level, a plumb line, 1 ‘When an obj placed in fro the reflect surface of concave mi ‘MM’ at ad equal to its: of curvature image is for at the centi Fig. E 18.1 Formation of tmage AB of an object AB by a concave mirror MM Stee mw ee eee Placed at its centre of curvature. (a) Mirror without water and C20 = (b) Mirror with some water the methoa sharp-edged pin and its real and inverted image formed by @ coneave mirror. Fig. E 15.1(b) shows the location of centre of curvature C’ when the mirror is partially filled with some transparent liquid (say water). In this case the parallax between the object pin ‘and image of the pin would be removed at a shorter distance from the pole P of the mirror. The incident ray C'N is refracted at the water-air boundary along the path NM such that it falls hormally on the curved reflecting surface at point M. ‘The reflected ray retraces back on the same path along MN in water and meets the axis at C along NC, when produced. In air, actually the reflected ray travels along NC’. Thus the real and inverted image is formed at C’. Therefore the distance PC’ would be the apparent radius of curvature R’ of the water-filled concave mirror. Fig. E 15.1(b) shows the refraction of incident ray C’N in water. Let ZZ’ be the normal at the water surface. ZZNC’ and ZZNC are the angles of incidence i and refraction r, respectively. From geometrical arguments, it is clear that Zi= ZNC’P and Zr= ZNCP. Thus, the refractive index of water with respect to air n,,, can be given as: aint Nye. NC sinr NPAC NC Toca For a mirror having very small aperture and large radius of curvature, distances NC and NC’ can be approximated as distances PC and P’C’, respectively. Further, if only a little quantity of water is taken in the mirror, then distance PP’ can be neglected in comparison. to PC or PC’, Thus PCR EBanOaR: ‘Thus, using this method the refractive index of any transparent liquid can be determined. ROCEDURE 1. Obtain approximate value of focal length of the concave mirror by focussing the image of a distant object. It can be found by obtaining a sharp image of the Sun or a tree on a plane wall or on a sheet of paper, and measuring the distance between the mirror and image with a scale. This distance is an approximate value of the focal length f. of the concave mirror. Twice of this focal length is an approximate value of the radius of curvature of the mirror. anneONT Tose! Oaseaverions Note: Do not look at the Sun's image in a concave mirror a may hurt your eyes. Place the given concave mirror on the base of a firm and st laboratory stand keeping its reflecting surface upwards, spirit level to ensure that the plane on which the mirror n is horizontal. It makes the principal axis of the mirror ‘Some pieces of paper, plasticine or cork may be used to the position of mirror stable on the stand. ‘3. Pixa sharp edged bright pin in the clamp and place it ho Just above the mirror, Adjust the position of the pin such tip B lies just above the pole P of the mirror or lies on the princi axis of the mirror. ‘Shift the clamped pin to a distance roughly equal to twice rough focal length of the concave mirror (obtained in step 1) ft the pole P of the mirror placed on the laboratory stand. On again verify that the tip of the pin and pole P lie along the vertical line (principal axis of the mirror). Adjust the position of the pin till the parallax between the tip. the pin and its inverted image is removed. ‘Measure the vertical distance between the tip of the pin and mirror using a plumb line and metre scale. This distance bbe the real radius of curvature of the mirror. 7. Pour some water on the curved surface of the mirror. 8. Lower the pin slowly, till once again the parallax between the t ofthe pin and its inverted image formed by the water-filled mirre is removed. between the tip of the pin and the mirror. This distance wo be the apparent radius of curvature of the water-filled m 10. Repeat the experiment (steps 2 to 9) atleast two more times, 1. Approximate value of the focal length of the concave mirror, f=..cm, 2. Approximate value of the radius of curvature, R= 2;‘Table E 15.1: Observations for R, Rand n., C CULATIONS, Calculate n,,, and its mean value. Resutr 5 “The refractive index of water with respect to aris n.,, *AN., =. n, {8 mean value and An, is the maxinum of the three values of error, Precautions 1. Pin should be kept horizontal and above the curved reflecting surface of the horizontally placed concave mirror such that the tip of the pin lies above the pole of the mirror on its vertical principal axis. 2. Aperture of mirror should be small. 3. The mirror should be very thin otherwise multiple reflections will form an unclear image. 4. The quantity of water taken in the mirror should be sufficient so that the water surface remains horizontal, or else the surface may not remain horizontal because of surface tension. 5. Bye should be kept at a distance of more than 25 cm from the pin. 113°Sources OF ERROR ‘The line joining PC may not be vertical. D ISCUSSION 1. Ifthe refractive index of water is determined using concave mirrors of different radii of curvature, how will this affect the values of the refractive index? 2. A plumb line may be used to find the accurate value of PC and PC’. How can plumb line ensure correct measurement? Sar ASSESSMENT 1. Find the refractive index of water from this experiment considering that a concave mirror filled with water behaves as a combination of concave mirror and a plano-convex lens. 2. If you gradually increase the quantity of water in the mirror, starting with a few drops, do you expect any change in the position or brightness of the image? 3. If colours are added to water keeping its transparency, would this alter the value of refractive index and intensity of the image? 4. Ifa small quantity of some transparent liquid (like kerosene) lighter than water is added such that it forms a thin film on the water surface; can the experiment still be performed? If so, would the value of refractive index change? SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1. Determine the refractive indices of different liquids (white vinegar, kerosene, lyeerine, cooking ol). 2. Take a table lamp. Covering it with cellophane paper of various colours, determine the refractive index of aliquid (say. water) using a concave mirror. ‘Do you observe any change in the value of refractive index ofthe liquid? 3. Study the variation in the refractive index of salt/sugar solution by changing {ts concentration. vila(ii) Refractive index of water using convex lens and a plane mirror Deeararus AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Double convex lens (focal length nearly 20 em), plane mirror (bigger in size than the aperture of the lens), laboratory stand fixed with a pin in clamp, metre scale, plumb line, water dropper. Principe In this method, a real and inverted image coincides with the object placed on the principal focus point of a convex lens. The rays from a pin AB placed on the principal focus F of a convex lens emerges out parallel to its axis. When these rays fall normally on a plane mirror placed horizontally below the convex lens, they retrace their path and form a real and inverted image A’ B’ at the principal focal plane of the lens [Fig. E 15.2(a)]. The size of image A’ B’ is equal to the size of object pin AB and the tip of the pin gives the position of the second | principal focus. Then f (OF) is the focal length of the convex lens (for | a thin lens) where O is the optical centre of the lens. Fig. E 18.2 Image formed by a equiconvex tens backed by a plane mirror coinciding with the ‘object AB. (a) A’ Bf when there is air in between the lens and the mirror: and (b) A” B° when there is water in between the lens and mirror Now, if the space between the lens and the plane mirror is filled with a transparent liquid (say water) having refractive index n,,,, and the above procedure is repeated to find the position of the principal focus F in the new situation then the distance between the optical centre O 115116 (E 15.1) (E 15.2) ey P. ROCEDURE of the lens and point F’, OF (say f’) would be the focal length of the combination of the two lenses. The combination consists of a glass convex lens (radius of curvature of both the curved surfaces are same, Rand a water plano-concave lens of same radius of curvature, R. focal length f, of water lens can be determined from the relat between the three focal lengths. viz. f. f. and f.. i aes ire But with sign convention : = +e, /’= +e one finds f, =-ve noe Sem T= F Also, from the lens maker’s formula for a plano-concave lens Leen Fe Thus, R= (Nye tt Hence, R ra = { eS Following the procedure given in the Labratory Manual of Physics Class XI, (NCERT) Experiment-3, the radius of curvature R of the spherical surfaces of the convex lens (using a spherometer) can be determined, and Eq. 15.4 can be utilised for calculating n,,. ‘Therefore, by using this method, the refractive index of a transparent liquid can be determined. Place the plane mirror on the base of a rigid laboratory stand keeping its reflecting surface upwards. 2. Place the convex lens on the plane mirror. 3, Fix a sharp-edged bright pin in the clamp and place it horizontally and above the lens. Adjust the position of the pin such that its up B lies vertically above the optical centre of the convex lens. A plumb Iine and a spirit level may be used to achieve this.4, Shift the clamped pin gradually upward looking at the image and bring it to a height such that the tip B of the pin exactly coincides with the tip of its image B’. Ensure that there is no parallax between the object pin and its image. Measure the distance OF [Fig. E 15.2). For this, observe the distances of the pin from the upper and lower surfaces of the lens and take OF = fas the average of these two distances. 5. With the help ofa dropper, put a few drops of water under the lens so that the space between mirror and lens is filled with water. 6. Move the object pin upward and remove the parallax between the tip of the object pin and its image formed by the lens mirror system. Measure the distance OF’ [Fig. E 15.2(b)]. Here again, as before, measure the distances of the pin fromthe two surfaces of the lens and take OF’ =f” * as their average. 7. Repeat the experiment and record your observations in Table 15.2. IBSERVATIONS ‘Mean value of distance between the two legs of the spherometer I=..cm 2. Mean value of sagitta (bulge of the lens) = ...cm 3. Mean value of the radius of curvature of the lens em ‘Table15.2 : Focal length of convex lens, OF (= f) and water plano-convex lens OF’ (= f’)Carcurations bd) Error Aftwe - AR, Ao Ta Ro Soo ° where aR = [281.240] We use Eq. 15.1 for finding the value of Af, Note that Al. Ah, Afand Af represent least count of the measuring scale. : Resucr ‘The refractive index of a given liquid (say water) with respect to air is Mh AM Fre one Here, nis mean value and An,,, is the maximum of three values of error. Precautions 1, Pin should be kept horizontal and its tip should be above the optical centre of the lens on its vertical principal axis otherwise it will be difficult to remove the parallax. 2. The thin lens should be used so that the distance measured from its surface is nearly equal to the distance measured from the “Tis * Please reler Laboratory Manual Class XI (NCERT) Experiment-3,optical centre. Still it is better to measure distance from both the surfaces and take the average for for f. ‘3. Water should be gently put between the mirror and the lens surface with the help of a dropper so that it may fill up the air space between them without disturbing the position of the lens. Sources OF ERROR ee 1. ‘Two surfaces of the convex lens may not have the same radius of curvature. 2. The plane mirror may not be horizontal. Discussion 1. Convex lens used should be thin. How will the result change if a thick lens is used? 2. How is a plumb line effective in ensuring that the rays retrace thelr path after refraction through the lens and reflection from the mirror? Draw suitable diagram with principal axis at an angle to the vertical, showing the plane mirror at an angle to the horizontal. ; Sar ASSESSMENT ee ee eS 1. What will happen if you are given a convex lens of small focal length? 2. What are the basic assumptions you have made in performing ‘this experiment? 3. Why do we have to raise the object pin upward after filling water between the lens and the mirror? 1. Pind out refractive index of any other transparent liquid using this method. 2. Study the effect of change in concentration of a solution taken in between the lens and mirror on the refractive index of the solution. 8. Measure the focal length of the given convex lens using a plane mirror. Now replace the plane mirror with a convex mirror of the same curvature, and ‘repeat the experiment to find the focal length of the lens. Draw a suitable ray diagram. T19”Am To draw the I- V characteristic curves of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias. APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED A p-n junction diode (OA-79 or 1N4007), a resistor of value (30, 1/2W), one variable voltage power supply (0-12V), voltmeter {0-12V), milliammeter (0-200 mA), a plug key, connecting wires, sand paper and a microammeter (0-200 A). Terws AND DEFINITIONS 1, Forward bias: When an external voltage is applied to a p-n junction diode in such a way that the p-side is at a higher potential with respect to the n-side, it is said to be forward biased. Threshold voltage or “Cut-in" voltage: When the p-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the voltage is increased, initially a negligible current flows till the applied voltage crosses a certain value. After, a characteristic voltage, the diode current increases significantly (exponentially), even for a very small increase in the diode bias voltage. This voltage is called the threshold voltage or cut-in-voltage of the diode. 3. Reverse bias: When the n-region of a p-n Junction diode is at a higher potential with respect to the p-region, it is said to be reverse biased. In reverse bias, the p-side of the p-n junction diode is connected to the negative of the battery. 4. Reverse saturation current: As the applied voltage is increased in the reverse biased condition, starting from zero value, the current increases, but soon becomes constant. This current is very small {a few microamperesi. It is called the reverse saturation current.Ee i Zs P ROCEDURE Es ee Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter (V), ‘milliammeter (mA) and the microammeter (HA). Remove the insulating layers from the connecting wires and leads of diode using a sand paper. yv Connect the variable voltage power supply, p-n junction diode, voltmeter, milliammeter, resistor and a plug key in a circuit as shown in Fig. E 16.1 Initially when the key is open, you would note at this stage, that no current is flowing through the circuit. Now close the key. Fig. B 16.1 Forward biasing fora pn petion diode Give a small voltage to the circuit by slight and gentle turning of the power supply knob. Note the voltmeter reading across the diode and the corresponding milliammeter reading to find the current I flowing through the diode. Gradually, increase the applied voltage (in steps) in the circuit and note the corresponding voltmeter and milliammeter readings in Table E 16.1. ‘The value of current flowing through the diode would be negligibly ‘small till the voltage across the diode exceeds the value of its cut in or threshold voltage. After the cut- in voltage, the variation in current y will be rapid. Once the threshold voltage is reached, vary the diode voltage very slowly (preferably in steps of 0.1V) noting the corresponding current I flowing through the diode. Continue increasing voltage {ill the current reaches the limit of the milliammeter. Now disconnect the circuit and make the connections as shown in Fig. E 16.2 for the reverse bblas characteristics. Connect p-side Fig. E 16.2 Reverse biasing for a prn junction of p-n junction diode to the © ey TaiOaservarions amicroammeter. Gradually, increase the applied voltage (in steps) in the circuit and note the corresponding voltmeter and microammeter readings in Table E 16.2. In this part of experiment, with the given supply voltage you will get only flat portion of reverse bias characteristic curve. CAUTION Never increase the value of the voltage too much across the diode. Excessive current flow may damage the diode if it exceeds its limit. Maximum permissible current that can pass through the diode ¢: be known from the technical data as specified by the manufacturer. 1. pen junction diode used (diode no, 2. For forward biasing @ Range of the voltmeter =... V to... V (4) Least count of the voltmeter scale =... V (i) Range ofthe milliammeter =... mAto... mA (v)_Least count of the milliammeter scale = ... mA 3. For reverse biasing @ _ Range of the voltmeter = (i) Least count of the voltmeter scale = ... V (it) Range ofthe microammeter =... wAto... HA (iv) Least count the microammeter = ... HA ‘Table E 16.1; Variation of forward current with voltage across the : diode (forward bias) .Vto...V vTa2diode (reverse bias) | ‘Table E 16.2: Variation of reverse current with voltage across the | = Q Prormne GRAPH | 1. Plot a graph between | forward voltage across the | diode (V) along the positive x-axis and current flowing through the diode () along the positive y-axis. The graph as shown in Fig. E 16.3 represents a typical LV characteristic of a silicon diode used. Locate the knee and determine the cut-in voltage. 2. Now plot the reverse voltage (V,) along the negative x-axis and the corresponding current (in. wa) along the negative ee Sete ata, Mle R163 Tiptcal LV chomacierisths of a alleen, Ta 16d Dewonine the lode tn Jorward biasing and reverse | reverse saturation current. Baw. Resutr | A. The value of cut-in voltage for the given diode is ... V. B. The reverse saturation current for the given diode is...WA. Precaurions 1, Find out manufacturer's specification for maximum permissiblecurrent through the given diode in forward bias. Take care not to exceed this limit. 2. Find out manufacturers specification for maximum reverse voltage to be applied to the diode. Take care not to exceed this limit. 3. Itis important to take care that the potential difference across the diode is increased gradually, in small steps. Keep your eyes on the ammeter and let the current not exceed the specified limit. Discussion If we use different diodes (Ge or Si), what change do you observe in the I- Vcharacteristics? Does the threshold voltage / cut- in voltage of the diode depend on the material of the diode? Sar ASSESSMENT 1. How can you operate diode as a switch or as a rectifier? 2. What is the difference between a diode and a resistor? 3. Ifa resistor of higher value (greater than the resistor connected in the circuit) is connected in series with diode, then comment on the slope of linear region of I- V characteristics. SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS /ACTIVITIES 1, Perform the same experiment with a different value of R connected in series | ‘with the diode. What changes will be observed in | (a) cut -invottage? (©) actual value of current for same voltage for different values of R? (€) shape of I- Vcharacteristics? 2. Perform the same experiment with a light emitting diode (LED) in place of a ‘ode and plot the [- V characteristics. What change do you observe in the ‘threshold voltage when youi use different coloured LEDs? "124‘To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown voltage. *”ARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED A p-n junction Zener diode (IN 758), a variable de power supply (0-15 V. with least count 0.1 V, a microammeter (0-100 A), a voltmeter (0-15 V), a resistance of 125 Q, a high resistance rheostat and connecting wires. INCIPLE Zener diodes are essentially p-n junction diodes (both p and n regions are more heavily doped as compared to rectifying p-n junction diode) operated in the breakdown region of the reverse voltage characteristic. ‘These diodes are designated with sufficient power dissipation capacities to work in the breakdown region. The following two ‘an cause breakdown in a junction diode: (i) Avalanche breakdown With increasing reverse bias voltage. the electric field across the junction of p-n diode increases. Ata certain reverse bias, the electric field imparts a sufliciently high energy to a thermally generated carrier crossing the junction. This carrier, on colliding with a crystal {on on its way, disrupts a covalent bond and produces an electron-hole pair. These carriers on gaining sufficient energy from the applied field collide with other crystal ions and generate further electron-hole pairs. This process is cumulative and produces an avalanche of carriers in a very short time. This mechanism is known as avalanche multiplication, causes large reverse current and the diode is said to work in the region of, avalanche breakdown. (ii) Zener breakdown Ina Zener diode, both the p and n-sides are heavily doped. Due to the high dopant densities, the depletion layer junction width is small. ‘Since the junction width is small i.e. less than 10’ m, even a smallvoltage across it may create a very high field. This high junction fel may strip an electron from the valence band which can tunnel to th n-side through the thin depletion layer. Such a mechanism of emi of electrons after applying certain electric feld (~ 10° V/m) or volta (Ha) Fig. E 17.1 Zener diode characteristics curve ae fe e K Fig. E 17.2. Circuit for Zener diode v characteristic curve Vis termed as internal field emission ¥ gives rise to a high reverse current breakdown voltage. This breakdown termed as Zener breakdown and the volt at which it occurs is called Zener ‘The reverse current at Zener voltage is ca Zener current. ‘The very nature of breakdown suggests th the ideal V versus I characterist {schematically as shown in Fig. E 17.1) 0 Zener diode after breakdown will running parallel to the current axis imp! thereby, that a small change in voltage to almost infinite or very large change current. You will appreciate that this is we have called "breakdown" earlie However, there is a danger of such a current flow through the diode that it ce result in its excessive heating, To protect diode from such a damage. normally practical circuits, we connect a resista termed as protective resistance (R,) with d Zener diode which limits the maxim current which can ever pass through diode. A simple method of determining approximate value of protective resistance! practical circuits is discussed below: ‘Suppose we are given a Zener diode IN 75 with V,=10 V. This diode can withstand maximum power dissipation of 0.4 W (as p the ratings given by the manufacturer). can find a simple relation between pr resistance R, and Zener breakdown voltag ‘AZener diode having zener voltage Vz, power dissipation rating P, is connécta across a potential divider arrangement with maximum potential across it (Fig. E 17.2). Ifthe potential drop across the Zener diode V, and the rest drops across the protective resistance then we get V=V,+LR,(45-10)10 04 connected in series with the Zener diode IN 758 to protect it from damage. Therefore a resistance of value R,, = 125 Q should be ROCEDURE 1. Note the least count of the given voltmeter and microammeter. 2. The voltmeter and microammeter should read zero with zero applied voltage. If not, then correct the initial reading of the meter suitably. 3. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper and connect various components by the connecting wires as per the circuit arrangement (Fig. E 17.2). Take care that Zener diode is in reverse bias mode and the terminal of the microammeter and voltmeter marked positive are connected to the higher potential side of the power supply. 4. Ensure that the microammeter is connected in series with the Zener diode having a series protective resistance R, and voltmeter in parallel to the Zener diode. 5. Switch on the power supply. 6. Move the contact point of the potential divider to apply some reverse bias voltage (V,). For low reverse bias, the current is. negligibly small L.e., of the order of 10* A to 107° and hence with milliammeter or microammeter, you will observe zero reading. 7. Slowly increase the voltage across the Zener diode in steps and record the value of reverse bias voltage V, and also record the corresponding reverse current I, from’ the reading of the microammeter. Take care that the reverse voltage V, is increased insteps of 0.1 V. (17.2) ©17.2) 127Lasoratory MANvAL Oaseavarions 1. Range of the voltmeter 2. Least count of the voltmeter = 3. Range of the microammeter = ...WA to WA 4, Least count of the microammeter =...A. 5. Specification of Zener diode used (code no.) =... 6. Tocalculate the value of protective resistance R,, following 4s required. Maximum permissible power (power rating) of the Zener diod specified by the manufacturer, P» Maximum permissible voltage (voltage rating) of the Zener diod as specified by the manufacturer, V,=...V ‘Value of the protective resistor to be used in series with the diode, R, =...V (from E 17.2) 7. Note down the reading of the voltmeter and microammeter Table E 17.1. Vito. pve at cae Rou cr vi) Prortins GRAPH @ Plot a graph between reverse voltage. V, and reverse current, [ taking V_ along x-axis and I along y-axis by using the read! from Table E 17.1. (i) Discuss the nature of V, 1, graph and interpret it. (Gi) Note the value of the breakdown voltage from the V, - I, graph. 128‘The breakdown voltage of the Zener diode obtained from the graph is y, RECAUTIONS: 1. Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned properly with sand Paper. 2. Zero reading of voltmeter and microammeter should be checked properly. ISCUSSION 1, Ideally after breakdown, the current I, should become infinitely large. Is it so in your case? In case it is not and you find that the current does increase rapidly but not infinitely, then think of the reason. Does the protective resistance or any other contact resistance in the circuit has any role to play in this case? 2. From the manual of electric components, note down the breakdown voltages of the Zener diodes which can be used in any circuit for different voltages. 3. Discuss the role of Zener diode in voltage regulation. ELF ASSESSMENT . What is the principle of Zener diode? 2. How is reverse current obtained? 3. What happens at Zener breakdown? 4, What is meant by internal field emission? 5. . How can you use a Zener diode as a voltage regulator? Repeat the experiment using Zener diodes of different code numbers. Do you ‘observe any variation in their reverse breakdown voltages?APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Paunciete To study the characteristics of a common emitter n-p-n (or p-n-p) transistor and to find out the values of current and voltage gains. Atransistor (BC 147 or BC 177 or AC 128), a microammeter (0-100, a milliammeter (0-20 mA), two high resistance rheostats, a 100k0 carbon resistance, two de power supplies to provide voltage both for input (0-3V) and output (0-15V), two one way keys and wires. An n-p-n transistor is made up of a semiconductor such as Ge or ‘Si in which there is a thin p-type layer between two n-type layer Ap-1-p transistor has a thin n-type layer between two p-type layer ‘The schematic diagram of n-p-n and p-n-p transistors along with their circuit symbols are shown in Fig. E 18.1{a) and E 18.1(b respectively. Fig. E 18.1 (a) Schematic representations of npn and p-r-p transl along with their (b) circuit symbols ‘The middle portion of the transistor is called base. It is very thin and lightly doped. Emitter is of moderate size and heavily doped. collector is moderately doped and larger in size as compared with‘emitter. When a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, one of the terminals has to be common between the input and output. Thus, three circuit configurations are possible. (0 common emitter (CE) configuration (ti) common base (CB) configuration i) common collector (CC) configuration. CE configuration When a transistor is used in CE configuration, the ie e input is fed = between the base- { emitter terminals 2 e out and the output is Input Output Input rea derived between | | the collector- emitter terminals as shown in po pnp Fig. E 18.2 (a) @ ©) and (b). ‘The characteristics of a transistor Fig. E 282 pow ee eee ine oe Se a when the emitter is ae Obtained betwee collecto kept as a common and emitter terminals in CE configuration in (a) n-p-n temaran’ en transistor (b) p-n-p transistor grounded, the base as input terminal and the collector as output terminals, are called common emitter characteristics. Fig-E 18.3 (a) and (b) show the mA “(ay Te ASHE) ob oe ee = = K,Ne Take se ENLUAE ) Rig. E 18.3 Circuit diagram for studying the characteristics af (a) n-p-n transistor (@) prep transistor, in CE configuration circuit diagram for studying the common emitter characteristics 0 n-p-n and p-n-p transistors respectively. The CE characteristics. are of three types: () Input characteristics Tua) ‘The variation of the input current I, with input voltage V,,, keeping output voltage V,, constant is known as input characteristics. As long as the input voltage V,,. is less than Veg=10.0.V. ‘the knee voltage, current is small and beyond that the current [, rises [Fig. E 18.4(a)]. ‘Thus, the input resistance rts defined as the ratio of change in base - emitter voltage (AV iq) to the resulting change in base current (A/,) a at constant collector-emitter voltage (Vc). Also, it is defined as the reciprocal of slope at a fixed point on the input characteristics 20 curve i.e., Knee voltage 100: 00%, 04-05-08 10s = ne( @ AVe ‘The value of r, is of the order of a few hundred ohms. (1) Output characteristics ‘The variation in output collector current J, with output voltage Vo, for different values of input current I, 1s known as the output Fig. E 18.4 (a) Typical input characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration v132characteristics (Fig. E 18.4 (b)). Greater is the value of input current I, greater is the output current J, for a given output voltage V.,. ‘The output resistance r, is defined as the ratio of change in collector- emitter voltage (AV,,) to the change incollector current (A/,) at constant base current J,. Further it is also defined as the reciprocal of slope at a fixed point on the output 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Vex in volts. wo Fig. E 18.4 (b) Typical output characteristics of a ‘The values of r, are of the order of ¥ transistor in CE configuration 50 to 100 kQ. (I) Transfer characteristics The variation in output collector current J, with input base current I, at constant output voltage V,, is known as the transfer characteristics (Fig. E 18.4(c)]. The current gain B is defined as 1, (A) Fig. E 18.4 (e) Typical transfer characteristics of a Y______transistor in CE configuration 133” — aia183) ——s Paoceoure the ratio of the change in collector current (AJ,) to the change in base current (Al,) when the collector to emitter voltage Vor fixed f.e., Itis also called forward current gain. Voltage Gain: If AV, is change in the output voltage at the collector fa a small voltage change AV, in the emitter base, 1. First check whether the given transistor is n-p-n or p-n-p. 2. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig, E 18.3. (Note that the ba emitter junction is forward biased and the collector-base ji is reverse biased. For example, in an n-p-n transistor; base given a + ve voltage w.r.t. emitter. Also collector is given a hig + ve voltage w.r.t. emitter.) 3. To obtain the input characteristics of the transistor, keep the value of the collector-emitter voltage V,. fixed. First adjus V..= 0 V and then vary the base-emitter voltage V,. in steps 0 0.1 Vand for each value of V,, note the base current [, . 4. Repeat step 3 by keeping V,, fixed at three different value: You will observe that I, will continue to be zero for a numb of observations 1.¢., till Vjp = 0.6 to 0.7 V for silicon transiste and 0.2 to 0.3 V for germanium transistor. Thereafter, it w increase slowly and then rapidly, till I, is nearly 9Oper c of maximum range of the microammeter. 5. To obtain the output characteristics of transistor, keep the b current J, at 10 uA (say). Note the value of collector current keeping V..=0V. Now increase the value of V,,. very carefully in smalll steps. Note the corresponding values of I. (At first the value of [, will inet very rapidly and then increase slowly to almost a constant va IFig. E 18.4 (b)). I, should be retained constant as noted earlier, v1346. Repeat step 5 for three different values of I, i.e., say 20 LA, 30 WA, 40 A. You will observe that when J, increases [, also increases. IBSERVATIONS Range of the voltmeter used in the input circuit a Vito... Least count of the voltmeter used in the input circuit =... V Vto..V Range of the voltmeter used in the output circuit Least count of the voltmeter used in the output circutt = ... V ‘Range of the microarnmeter used in the input circuit = .. WA to... WA. Least count of the microammeter used in the input circuit =... WA ‘Range of the milliammeter used in the output circuit =... mA to ..mA Least count ofthe miliammeter used in the output cireuit Specification of the transistor used ‘Table E 18.1: Variation in input current I, with input voltage V,. for fixed value of V.- mA. fe Pr ane wp 135”ON Te ue BUENAS For transfer characteristics, using Table E 18.2 note the values of [, corresponding to different values of I, for a fixed value of Vi. ‘Table E 18.3: Variation in output current I. with input current J, for fixed value of V,, Pyornns GRAPH (For input characteristics, plot the graph between input voltage Vg and input current 1, for fixed value of V,,. taking Vj, along xaxis and I, along y-axis, using the readings from Table E 18.1, (i) Discuss the nature of V,,, versus I, graph and interpret it. (ii) For output characteristics, plot the graph between output voltage V., and output current [, for fixed value of I,, taking V,. along x-axis and [_ along y-axis, using the readings from Table E 18.2. iv) Discuss the nature of V,,. versus I, graph and interpret it. (*) For transfer characteristics, plot the graph between input current 1, and output current I, for fixed value of V,,. taking I, along x-axis and I, along y-axis, using the readings from Table E 18.3. (+) Discuss the nature of I, versus J, graph and interpret it. Catcurations (Draw a tangent on the input characteristics curve at a point on. the rapid rising portion [Fig. E 18.4(a)], and from it, determine the reciprocal of slope of the curve at that point. This gives the dynamic input resistance, of the transistor (el (i) Draw tangents on the output characteristics curve (at linearly rising part A, at turning point B and nearly horizontal part C) YI36[Fig, E 18.4(b)]. Measure the reciprocal of slopes which will give the dynamle output resistances, (Ven Nealon at operating points A, B and C [Fig. E18.4(b)]. Note that the dynamic output resistance depends on the operating point. (iii) Find the slope on the transfer characteristics of the transistor to ‘obtain current gain B of the transistor as (iv) Take the values of input resistance r, output resistance r, and current gain B and calculate the value of voltage gain A, of the transistor by using the relation For the given transistor (...) in the common emitter (CE) configuration 1. The characteristes of the transistor are shown in the graphs drawn. a At V,,=...V input resistance Current gain, B 2. 3. At Vge=...V output resistance 4 5. Voltage gain, A, P; CAUTIONS () Biasing of the transistor should be done considering whether the transistor is n-p-n or p-n-p. (i) Key should be plugged out to break the circuit when circuit is not in use.Discussion 1. Is there any change in characteristic curves if we use a p-n-p transistor instead of n-p-n transistor? 2. Why is the input circuit forward biased and output circuit reverse biased? 3. You notice the dynamic output resistance r, is different for different regions of the output characteristic curve. What do you infer from this? 4. Ifyou use some input resistance say 200 © at the input then the characteristic curves are called dynamic input characteristics of CE transistor. The resistors used in the circuit are basically to control the current so as to avoid the burning out or any damage to the transistor. If no resistor is used in the circuit and the experiment is performed, then the characteristics curves are known as the static input characteristics and static output characteristics. While obtaining the static characteristics, extra care has to be taken to avoid any damage to the transistor due to large flow of current beyond the permissible limits. = F ASSESSMENT 1. What do you mean by dynamic input resistance and why is it called dynamic? 2. For CE configuration, /, is not cut-off even for I,= 0. For determination of the cut-off voltage in CE mode, how will you reduce I, to zero? 3. Is I, almost independent of V.. for Vig > Vga in CE configuration? SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES, ‘Connect the n-p-n transistor in common base configuration. Draw the characteristic curves. Compare input and output characteristic curves of CB and CE configurations. Also ind r,and r,,