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Topic 8: Holography
Aim: To cover the basic of holographic recording and reconstruction
and review holographic materials.

Contents:

 Photography
 Holographic Recording
 Hologram Formation
 Reconstruction
 Types of Holograms
 Holographic Material
 Mass Production of Holograms

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Photography
Record optical distribution as Optical Density given by intensity
only.

Object
Image

D(x; y) = log10(E (x; y)) , D0

where
E (x; y) = ju(x; y)j2
Do not record the Phase Information, so

 No depth information
 Two dimensional projection of three dimensional scene.
 Similar for coherent and incoherent, (different transfer function)

We have to do something different to retain phase information.

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Basic Holography
To retain phase information we must encode complex distribution as
intensity pattern.

Encode by adding reference beam:

Object Wave

Holographic Plate

Object

P
0

Reference Wave

At P0 we have two optical distributions

o(x; y) exp ((x; y)) ! Scattered from object
r exp(x sin) ! Reference Wave
where r is a constant and is angle from plate normal

Assume that the beams are coherent, then Amplitudes add to give,
u(x; y) = r exp(x sin) + o(x; y) exp ((x; y))
Intensity in P0 is given by
g(x; y) = ju(x; y)j2
which after some expansion is given by,
g(x; y) = jr j2 + jo(x; y)j2 + 2ro(x; y) cos (x sin , (x; y))

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There is no image, so for all practical cases:

o(x; y) ! Varies slowly over (x; y)

so we can assume that

jrj2 + jo(x y)j2  constant

;

but we have that:

! NOT small
the intensity can be written as:

g(x; y) = g0 + 2ro(x; y) cos (x sin , (x; y))

which is high frequency cos() fringes in plane P0

 Amplitude of fringes encodes o(x; y)

 Location of fringes encodes (x; y)

We have encoded both the Amplitude and the Phase of the object
wave o(x; y) as an intensity distribution.

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Shape of Fringes
Maxima of intensity when
x sin , (x; y) = 2n
so if large, then (x; y) displaces fringes from regular pattern

If (x; y) is a random variable, then mean separation

d=
sin

Example: = 30 , and = 633nm (He-Ne) then

d = 2  1:3m
or
700lines/mm High Frequency
Need a very high resolution photographic emulsion.
Fine Grain, very slow photographic material needed. (special photo-
graphic material)
Need to record the fringe locations, so need a higher resolution than
this, 1200 lines/mm is typical.
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Hologram Formation
Expose emulsion in the linear region and develop to form negative.

Amplitude Transmission is then:

Ta = 10D0 =2( g),=2 = Kg(x; y),=2

we have that the intensity

g(x; y) = g0 + 2ro(x; y) cos (x sin , (x; y))

j j
where we have assumed o(x; y) 2 is slow varying. This can be writ-
ten as:
g(x; y) = g0 + g(x; y)
where we have that:

g(x; y) = 2ro(x; y) cos (x sin , (x; y))

This gives the Amplitude Transmission as

Ta = K (g0 + g),=2
which can then be written as
 ,
 =2
,=2 1 + g
Ta = Kg0
,=2 (1 + g),=2
= Kg0
g0
where
g
g =
g0

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Assume: that g0  jg(x y)j.

; (Assume low contrast fringes on a
large background).

Expand the term, to second order to get;

(1 + g)
,=2 = 1 , g + ( + 2) (g)2
2 8
Substituting this back into the expression the Ta we get
 
,=2 1 , g + ( + 2) (g)2
Ta = Kg0
2 8
which we will write as:

Ta = T0 , ag + b(g)2
where T0 , a and b are constants given by:

T0
K g0 =
,=2
,=2
a = K g0
2
K( + 2) ,=2
b = g0
8
For most emulsions  1 so T0  a  b, but

g  1
so that
T0  jagj  jb(g)2j

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Reconstruction
Reconstruct with the original reference beam,
Ta

Exposed and Developed

Holographic film/plate

Reconstruction Beam

which is
u(x; y) = r exp(x sin)
The Complex Amplitude transmitted by the hologram is then
v(x; y) = Ta(x; y) u(x; y)
Look at First Two Terms: (assume b = 0),
v(x; y) = u(x; y) T0 , u(x; y) ag(x; y)
which with substitution for u(x; y) and g, gives
T0r exp(x sin ) +
v(x; y) =

cos(x sin , (x; y))

2ro(x; y)
ar exp(x sin)
g0
If we new expand the cos() term and cancel term, be get three terms
v(x; y) = T0r exp(x sin ), (1)
ar 2
o(x; y) exp((x; y)), (2)
g0
ar 2
o(x; y) exp(,(x; y)) exp(2x sin) (3)
g0
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Look at the three terms.

1. Partially transmitted reconstruction beam in direction .

2. Reconstruction of original complex object wave. Both ampli-
,
tude and phase reconstructed. Note sign, which gives phase
shift or . (discussed later).
3. Conjugate Reconstruction Similar to Reconstruction, but com-
plex conjugate. In direction where sin = 2 sin

So provided that is NOT small, three terms will be separated.

(3) Conjugate
Reconstruction

Hologram (1) DC Term

Reconstruction Beam
(2) Reconstruction

Ta

Three terms separated. Only want (2) which is full three dimensional
reconstruction of object wave.

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We see in 3-D
We live in a 3-D world, and we see in 3-D.

3-D Object
Right Image

Left Image

We have two eyes separated by about 65 mm.

We see two images of the same object from different directions,

Left Eye Right Eye

Brain matches up the vertical disparities and interperates the differ-

ence as depth.

Because of our two eyes we can see in 3-D.

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Scattered Light from Object

If we consider our wave model, then we have:

Object Wave
3-D Object
Right Image

Left Image
o(x,y)

Plane P0

See two different images, and again the brain makes the 3-D scene.

GreenRecord Amplitude distribution in plane P0 , and play-it-back.

Reconstructed Object Wave

3-D Object
(Vitrual)
Right Image

Left Image

Plane P0
Reconstruction Wave

Reconstruct Amplitude Distribution in plane P0 we will still see the two

images, and hence a 3-D virtual image of the original object.
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Non-Linear Terms
Add in the third term of

u(x; y)bg(x; y)2

which by substituting for f gives
 2

cos(x sin , (x; y))

2ro(x; y)
r exp(x sin)b
g0
If we then expand the cos() term and collect terms, we get

2br 3 2
o (x; y) exp(x sin)+ (4)
g20
br 3 2
o (x; y) exp(2) exp(,x sin )+ (5)
g20
br 3 2
o (x; y) exp(,2) exp(3x sin ) (6)
g20
We get three additional terms,

4 Additional transmitted term, (Note: o2 (x; y)  constant.

5 Reconstruction of square of object wave, but in direction ,.
6 Reconstruction of square of Conjugate in direction , where
sin = 3 sin

With correct choice of none of these three additional terms will effect
term (2) and (3) (the required reconstruction).

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Full Reconstruction

6
3 (Wanted)

1+4
Hologram

2 (Wanted)

Useful terms (2) and (3) separated from the other 4 unwanted terms.

Note if > 30 then term 6 will be lost.

Holography is not effected by terms to second order.

Able to control the intensity of the second order terms by the changing
jj j j
ratio of r 2 to o(x; y) 2 during exposure. It can be shown that
 
r2
I2
I5
 16
( + 2)2 o2
+2

(See tutorial)

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Practical System
Want all terms separated, so not small

 30 typical
Need very high resolution photographic material, (1200 line/mm typ-
ical)

Very fine grains, so Very Slow. so either long exposure or lots of

light.

Beam Splitter
Mirror
Laser

Mirror M/S Objective

Reference Beam

Holographic Plate
Object

To get interference we need beam path to be approx. the same

length.

Note: Reference beam not usually collimated. Mathematics are the


same a few parabolic phase terms.
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Low Power Holography

Use small CW laser (10mW) with 10cm plate. Typical exposure

 1sec
Major stability problem.

Fringe pattern must not move more that 1=4 of fringe during expo-
sure. All components must be stable to =2 or better.

Require solid table, mechanical isolation, stable temperature and min-

imal air currents.

High Power Holography

Same basic system, but use high powered pulsed laser, eg Ruby,

 5 ! 30 nsecs
Able to make holograms of fast moving objects, (turbine blades, bul-
lets, even people)

Stability not a problem, but very expensive, and safety a major issue.

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Types of Holograms
1) Thin Amplitude Hologram
Expose holographic film to give Amplitude Transmittance

Ta = T0 , ag + bg2
where we have T0 > ag.

To get into Linear Region of the H-D curve, we need Optical Density,
D
D1 ) T 01 :

so 90% of intensity of reconstruction beam absorbed in the holo-

gram.

Estimate of Efficiency: Transmitted light split between 1 order and

DC terms.
 2
 ar 2 
Reconstruction 

o(x; y)
g0
j j
DC T0 r 2
so substituting for TO and a, we get ratio

2 joj2
Reconstruction
DC
 4 jr j2
so if  1 5 and Object to Reference ratio  0 2 then
: :

Reconstruction
DC
01 :

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We get an intensity split of

-1 (1 Unit)

DC (10 Units)
r
+1 (1 Unit)
T(x,y)

So only about 1=12 of transmitted light goes into useful +1 order

reconstruction.

So about 1=10th of reconstruction beam transmitted by hologram,

and about 1=10th of that into useful reconstruction, so:

So total efficiency  1%
Possible to get 2 !
3% by use of Toe of H-D curve, also get some
thick hologram effects that than improve things, but very difficult to
exceed 5%.

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2) Thin Phase Holograms

Modify the process so that the Amplitude transmittance is

Ta = exp((x; y))
where (x; y) is a monotonic function of g(x; y) (typically non-linear).
(See tutorial problem).

No Light Absorbed ) Brighter Reconstruction

Usual method is to bleach hologram,

Gelatin

Silver

Positive Bleach
Gelatin

Silver Salts

Negative Bleach Gelatin Only

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Two bleach types:

1. Positive Bleach Replace silver with a transparent salt, phase

different encoded in thickness of gelatin plus salts.
2. Reversal Bleach Remove silver and let gelatin fall to encode
negative of phase distribution.

Process works, but again chemistry difficult, Problems are

 Stronger high order (non-linear) terms.

 Third (and Fourth) order terms become important.
 Noise (scatter) due to crystal structure of salts and cracking of
the gelatin.
 Need to use strong reducing agents and/or hazardous organic
solvents.


Expect about 10 efficiency due to no absorption, often able to be
!
20 25% with careful chemistry.

Maximum possible efficiency is 33%

Process used for holographic lenses and commercial systems, (see

later).

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White Light Holograms

Thin hologram is like a diffraction grating.

White Light ) Spectrum

Possible to use narrow band filter, but very inefficient.

Consider Three Dimensional Bragg Plane structure

Range of
0

d

We get strong reflection, if and only if,

0 = 2d sin
So Bragg Plane structure acts a a wavelength selector.

If we modulate shape of Bragg planes )

modulate amplitude/phase
of reflected light. Hence we can make a hologram

Full mathematical theory possible, but beyond this course. (see ref-
erences).

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Holography -20- Autumn Term

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Formation of White Light Hologram

Form interference in Three Dimensions (standing waves in depth of
emulsion)

Object Wave
Reference Wave

Object

Interference in 3D
(Thick Emulsion)

Thick emulsion (15m is typical).

Bragg plane separation  2  300m

=

Need very small silver grains, so special (very slow) holographic ma-
terial.

Fringes much finer, so much greater stability problem.

Need thick material, (typically 15m,  40 Bragg planes being typi-

cal.)

Usually Bleach to get thick three dimensional (phase) structure, typi-

cally known as

Volume Hologram

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Reconstruction of White Light Holograms

Illuminate which White Light.

Reconstruction 3-D Structure

Virtual
Object

White
Light

Three Dimensional Bragg planes select single wavelength.

Modulation of planes gives reconstruction.

See Virtual Object behind plate

Able to get diffraction efficiencies up to about 80% at wavelength .

Note: Hologram is Recorded in Coherent (monochromatic) light, but

can be Reconstructed in White (polychromatic) light.

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Practical System
We can use fact that unexposed holographic plates are  90% trans-
mitting to give simple recording system,

Reference Beam

Laser M/S Objective Mirror

Holographic Plate
(90% transmitting)
Object Beam
Reflective Objects (coins)

The reference and object illumination beam are combined and the
object beam is reflected back from the objects.

Simple system, but limited it depth of object since beam paths are not
equal. For typical He-Ne laser works for objects up to about 3 cm in
depth.

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White Light Real Image

Like reconstruction to occur in-front of plate. No simple geometry
(object get in the way).

Use a Double Hologram technique.

1. Make a simple off-axis thin hologram of object.

2. Use conjugate reconstruction as object beam for white light
hologram.

-1 Order
Reconstruction

Reference
Beam
Reconstruction
Beam

Original Thick Holographic

Hologram Emulsion

On reconstruction the object appears in-front of the plate.

Mainly used for holographic display, eg, microscope hologram outside

Room 4212

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Silver Halide Material

Most common (in EC) by Agfa Geavert, (Holotest).

1. 10E75 Normal material for thin amplitude or phase holograms.


2000 lines/mm. Use with He-Ne.
2. 10E56 as 10E75 but for use with Argon lasers (514nm).
3. 8E75HD Fine grain thick emulsion for white light holograms
(high quality thin holograms). 6000 lines/mm. Use with He-

Ne, ( 10 less sensitive that 10E).
4. 8E56HD as 8E75HD but for use with Argon lasers (514nm).

These are available as 35mm film, sheet film and plates up to 20 

30.

Range of materials by Kodak (US only), and Russian suppliers.

Best material developed in Russia due to major programme on white

light display holograms to record art treasures.

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Thermo-Plastic Plate:

Thermo-Plastic

Intensity g(x,y)
(Fringe pattern) Transparent
Electrode
Charged Photo-
Conductor

Expose to intensity g(x; y), surface change built-up proportional to the

incident intensity.

Heat, (thermo-plastic become flexible)

+ Thermo-Plastic
+

+
Charge Distribution + Transparent
Electrode
+
+
+
Large -ve Voltage

Apply Large voltage, plastic distorts under electrostatic attraction.

Cool to freeze fringe pattern into the plate. (thin phase hologram)

1. Re-usable re-heat plate and discharge.

2. No wet chemicals, fast and easy.
3. Slightly less sensitive than silver halide.
4. Small plates (30  30mm).
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Dichromated Gelatin (DCG):

Emulsion of Potassium Dichromate and other chemicals in gelatin

Expose to light and develop (in IPA and Ethanol). Cross bonds
formed in the actual gelatin that gives phase shifts.

 Very good for volume holograms (98% efficiency possible).

 Very insensitive (big Argon lasers)
 Chemical process not understood (black-art).
 Ultra sensitive to humidity

Used in expensive holographic systems.

Photo-Polymers:
Synthetic DCG with cross links in polymer chains replacing cross-
links in natural gelatin.

Two manufactures:

1. Polaroid: Similar to DCG, (80 ! 90% efficiency). Still problem

with humidity.
2. Du-Pont: Not as good DE, but is easy to handle and not sensi-
tive to humidity. Rather insensitive to light.

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Photo-resist plus Embossing:

Photo-resist is a form of Perspex mainly used in semi-conductor in-
dustry. Sensitive to Blue and UV light.

Expose and develop to get (typically binary), thin phase hologram

Photo-resist

Substrate

Optical Path
Difference

Either use as hologram (holographic lens), or more often.

Make Stamp:
Use a brass substrate, and then etch the pattern.

Ion-Etching

Photo-Resits
Brass Substrate

(If etch deep, get some 3-D Bragg effect, so partial white light possi-
ble).

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Stamp holograms (exactly like CDs or records),

Brass Stamp

Soft Plastic
Solid Substrate

Coat with Aluminum to get reflective structure.

Embosed Fringe Pattern

Aluminium Coating
Solid Substrate

 Mass production process, so VERY cheap. (used on Credit

Cards and advertising). 10p each.
 Security item, difficult (but NOT impossible) to copy.
 Poor quality, with limited 3-D effect. Not useful in optical sys-
tems, but major commercial use of holography.

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Holography -29- Autumn Term

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