Update in the Management

o f A c u t e I s c h e m i c S t ro k e
Nelson J. Maldonado, MD, Syed O. Kazmi, MD, Jose Ignacio Suarez, MD*

KEYWORDS
 Acute ischemic stroke  Thrombolysis  Hemicraniectomy  Critical care
 Neurocritical care  Outcomes  Neuroprotection  Cerebral edema

KEY POINTS
 All patients with acute ischemic stroke presenting within 4.5 hours of symptom onset must
be considered for thrombolytic therapy. The sooner intravenous thrombolysis is adminis-
tered, the better the outcome.
 Careful attention to blood pressure control is necessary. For patients receiving thrombo-
lytic therapy, blood pressure should be kept lower than 180/105 mm Hg at all times within
the first 24 hours.
 Patients with acute ischemic stroke requiring mechanical ventilation should be intubated
using rapid sequence intubation while avoiding hypotension.
 Young patients presenting with severe strokes involving the middle cerebral artery terri-
tory should be considered for early decompressive hemicraniectomy to decrease mortal-
ity and improve functional outcome.
 All patients with acute ischemic stroke should be evaluated emergently and transported to
specialized stroke centers to receive the best available care.

INTRODUCTION

Stroke is a common neurologic emergency and an important cause of death and

disability in the United States. According to American Heart Association (AHA) statis-
tics, approximately 795,000 Americans each year suffer a new or recurrent stroke, and
approximately 137,000 of them will die.1 Fortunately, overall evaluation, management,
and outcome of patients with ischemic stroke have improved significantly. For
example, stroke is currently the fourth cause of death in the United States, down
from number 3 a few years ago. Much of this is due to the advent of thrombolytic ther-
apy and the development of stroke systems of care, which have changed the way

Disclosures: None.
Division of Vascular Neurology and Neurocritical Care, Department of Neurology, Baylor Col-
lege of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, MS NB302, Houston, TX 77030, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected]

Crit Care Clin - (2014) --

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccc.2014.06.002 criticalcare.theclinics.com
0749-0704/14/$ see front matter 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Maldonado et al

practitioners view and treat this devastating disease.2,3 Tools developed to improve
early detection and increase potential for treatment include (1) the Newcastle face,
arm, speech test (FAST) stroke warning sign and symptoms directed to educate the
general population; (2) the Cincinnati prehospital stroke scale directed to emergency
medical services (EMS) personnel; and (3) the stroke Chain of Survival directed to the
EMS, emergency department (ED), and hospital stroke teams. The overall goal of
these tools is to improve response time and care of patients with stroke and thus in-
crease the number of patients receiving comprehensive treatments, including throm-
bolytic therapy, critical care, and rehabilitation.
In this review, we present an update on the management of acute ischemic stroke
divided into the first 24 hours and then beyond with pertinent measures for the inten-
sive care unit (ICU) setting. While discussing management within the initial 24 hours,
we further differentiate between patients who receive recombinant tissue plasmin-
ogen activator (rt-PA) and patients who do not, as management differs between these
2 groups. Beyond the first 24 hours, the management of the patient with ischemic
stroke is usually the same regardless of initial thrombolytic therapy.

INITIAL 24 HOURS FOR PATIENTS ELIGIBLE FOR THROMBOLYTIC THERAPY

The ultimate goal in the early management of acute ischemic stroke is to be able to
administer thrombolytic therapy to all eligible patients in a timely manner. The benefit
of this therapy is time dependent, TIME is BRAIN.
The initial evaluation of a patients with potential stroke starts with immediate stabi-
lization of the airway, breathing, and circulation, which is usually performed by first
responders (Table 1). Subsequently, patients should be transferred to hospitals or pa-
tient care areas appropriately staffed and equipped with dedicated stroke teams,
stroke units, and neurocritical care expertise, as this has been shown to improve out-
comes in terms of reduced death and disability rates compared with conventional
care.2,3
Once in the ED, an initial clinical assessment remains the main tool for an accurate
diagnosis of stroke. A brief patient history, including the determination of the time of
symptom onset (last time the patient was seen normal), comorbidities, and medica-
tions will determine eligibility for thrombolytic therapy. The physical examination
should be divided into a general and neurologic examination. Such examinations
will help rule out other etiologies that can mimic stroke, such as trauma, infection, psy-
chiatric disorders, and other systemic abnormalities.
The use of a stroke rating scale, such as the NIHSS (National Institutes of Health
Stroke Scale), which is considered an abbreviated neurologic examination, has
been developed as a tool to assess initial stroke symptoms, stroke severity, and guide
management decisions before and after thrombolytic therapy.4,5 Very importantly, the
NIHSS should serve as a communication tool among ED physicians, neurologists,
intensivists, and other health care personnel. The NIHSS can be used as a monitoring
tool of progression or worsening throughout the patient in-hospital stay (Table 2). In
addition, the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) can help monitor the level of consciousness
and can guide in decisions regarding institution of mechanical ventilation, as will be
discussed later (see Table 2).
After the initial physical examination is performed, the only tests that should always
precede the decision to administer rt-PA in eligible patients are a noncontrast
enhanced computed tomography (CT) scan of the brain, to rule out intracranial hem-
orrhage (absolute contraindication) (Fig. 1), and serum glucose (point-of-care testing)
to evaluate for severe hyperglycemia or hypoglycemia. Other testing, such as
 Management of Acute Ischemic Stroke 3

hematologic workup, metabolic panel, coagulation tests, baseline troponins, and

electrocardiogram (ECG), are recommended but should not delay the initiation of
thrombolytic therapy.

Intravenous Thrombolytics
Intravenous (IV) rt-PA is currently the only treatment approved by the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) for acute ischemic stroke within the first few hours of symptom
onset. In 1995, the National Institute of Neurologic Disorders rt-PA Stroke Study
Group published a landmark study in acute stroke treatment.4 The investigators
showed that patients treated with rt-PA within 3 hours of symptom onset had a sub-
stantially better chance of functional independence with minimal or no disability
3 months after treatment with a single IV dose (0.9 mg/kg, maximum dose 90 mg).
More recently, the European Cooperative Acute Stroke Study III trial showed that it
was safe and still beneficial to increase the time window from symptom onset from
3.0 to 4.5 hours on selected patients (Box 1).5
It is crucial to understand that the benefit of thrombolytic therapy is time dependent
and treatment should be initiated as quickly as possible. A pooled analysis from 4 of
the most relevant IV rt-PA studies demonstrated that treatment within the first 90 mi-
nutes of onset increased the odds of an excellent outcome by 2.6-fold, in the 91-min-
ute to 180-minute window by 1.6-fold, and in the 181-minute to 270-minute window by
1.3-fold.6
Despite this evidence, very few stroke patients are being treated with thrombolytic
therapy in the United States. The AHA has been active at increasing awareness and
enhancing treatment rates for this patient population. Currently the AHA acute stroke
management guidelines recommend a door to needle time (bolus administration) of
60 minutes or less from hospital arrival.7
In patients without recent use of oral anticoagulants or heparin, treatment with IV
rt-PA can be initiated before availability of coagulation test results but the infusion
should be discontinued if the international normalized ratio (INR) is greater than 1.7
or prothrombin time is abnormally elevated by local laboratory standards.
In patients without history of thrombocytopenia, treatment with IV rt-PA can be initi-
ated before availability of platelet count but should be discontinued if platelet count is
less than 100,000/mm3.

Antiplatelets and Anticoagulants

Antiplatelet and anticoagulant medications are not recommended for the first 24 hours
after patients have received thrombolytic therapy. There is evidence that patients who
receive aspirin within this time frame are at increased risk of hemorrhagic
transformation.8
If IV anticoagulation is considered after 24 hours of thrombolysis administration, a
noncontrast head CT scan or other sensitive diagnostic imaging method should be
performed to rule out any intracranial hemorrhage before initiating this treatment.

Blood Pressure Management

Blood pressure (BP) monitoring and management is another important measure in the
acute phase of ischemic stroke. BP needs to be closely monitored for the first 24 hours
after thrombolytic therapy: initially every 15 minutes for 2 hours after starting the infu-
sion, then every 30 minutes for 6 hours, and last every hour for 18 hours.
Before initiation of IV rt-PA in an eligible patient, the BP must be kept below
185/110 mm Hg and once the treatment is given it must be maintained below
180/105 mm Hg at all times for the first 24 hours. Current recommendations for BP
 4
Maldonado et al
Table 1
Summary of key treatment modalities for patients with acute ischemic stroke

Intervention Eligible for Thrombolysis Not Eligible for Thrombolysis

First 24 h from symptom onset
Initial evaluation Airway, Breathing, and Circulation; NIHSS; GCS
Airway protection Etomidate 0.20.3 mg/kg IV; lidocaine 12 mg/kg IV; rocuronium 0.61.2 mg/kg IV
with rapid
sequence intubation
Blood pressure control Maintain <180/105 mm Hg Maintain <220/120 mm Hg
Use labetalol 1020 mg IV over 12 min, may Use labetalol 1020 mg IV over 12 min, may repeat; or nicardipine
repeat; or nicardipine 515 mg/h 515 mg/h
Avoid hypotension Avoid hypotension
IV fluids 0.9% saline
Dysphagia screening Yes; before any medications or food is given
Antiplatelets None Aspirin 81325 mg/d orally or clopidogrel 75 mg/d orally
DVT prophylaxis Mechanical devices only Low-molecular weight heparin (preferred) or unfractionated heparin
GI prophylaxis H2-receptor blockers or proton-pump inhibitor
Temperature Maintain core body temperature <37.2 C; use acetaminophen and/or ibuprofen; refractory cases use external cooling
devices
Blood glucose Maintain 140180 mg/dL
Statins Yes; several options; high dose preferred
Beyond 24 h from symptom onset
Airway protection with Etomidate 0.20.3 mg/kg IV; lidocaine 12 mg/kg IV; rocuronium 0.61.2 mg/kg IV
rapid sequence
intubation
 IV fluids 0.9% saline
Blood pressure Reasonable to initiate long-term antihypertensives; reduction 15%20% of initial value
control
Management of Head elevation 30 45 ; mannitol 1.01.5 g/kg IV bolus and subsequent doses of 0.251.0 g/kg, discontinue if serum
cerebral edema osmolarity >325 mOsm/L or serum sodium >155 mEq/L; hypertonic saline: 3% saline (250300 mL IV bolus) or 23.4% saline
(30 mL IV bolus), both require central line; induced hyperventilation (keep PaCO2 3035 mm Hg) and wean as soon as
feasible in increments of 12 breaths/min; sedation and analgesia
Temperature Maintain core body temperature <37.2 C; use acetaminophen and/or ibuprofen; refractory cases use external cooling
devices
Blood glucose Maintain 140180 mg/dL
DVT prophylaxis Low-molecular weight heparin (preferred) or unfractionated heparin
GI prophylaxis H2-receptor blockers or proton-pump inhibitor
Statins Yes; several options; high dose preferred
Antiplatelets Aspirin 81325 mg/d orally or clopidogrel 75 mg/d orally
Oral anticoagulants If cardioembolic source confirmed or suspected: warfarin (any atrial fibrillation); direct-thrombin and activated factor X
inhibitors (nonvalvular atrial fibrillation)
CEA Early CEA for patients with small, nondisabling strokes and large territory at risk, and stable neurologic examination

Management of Acute Ischemic Stroke

Decompressive Age 1860 y; <45 h from symptom onset; NIHSS >15; >50% involvement of MCA territory by head imaging; should be
craniectomy performed as early as possible and before neurologic deterioration
Hemorrhagic Discontinue thrombolytics or anticoagulants immediately; administer cryoprecipitate, fresh-frozen plasma; consider platelet
transformation transfusion and prothrombin complex concentrate; neurosurgical evaluation

Abbreviations: CEA, carotid endarterectomy; DVT, deep venous thrombosis; GCS, Glasgow Coma Scale; GI, gastrointestinal; IV, intravenous; MCA, middle cerebral
artery; NIHSS, National Institutes of Health stroke scale.

5
6 Maldonado et al

Table 2
National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)

NIHSS (range: 042 points): >15 indicates GCS (range: 315): a decrease by 2 points
severe stroke; and increase 4 points indicates neurologic deterioration
indicates neurologic deterioration
1A Eye Opening Response
Level of consciousness  Spontaneousopen with blinking at
0Alert baseline: 4 points
1Drowsy  To verbal stimuli, command, speech:
2Obtunded 3 points
3Coma/unresponsive  To pain only (not applied to face): 2 points
1B  No response: 1 point
Orientation questions (2) Verbal Response
0Answers both correctly  Oriented: 5 points
1Answers 1 correctly  Confused conversation, but able to answer
2Answers neither correctly questions: 4 points
1C  Inappropriate words: 3 points
Response to commands (2)  Incomprehensible speech: 2 points
0Performs both tasks correctly  No response: 1 point
1Performs 1 task correctly Motor Response
2Performs neither  Obeys commands for movement: 6 points
Best gaze  Purposeful movement to painful stimulus:
0Normal horizontal movements 5 points
1Partial gaze palsy  Withdraws in response to pain: 4 points
2Forced deviation  Flexion in response to pain (decorticate
Visual posturing): 3 points
0No visual field defect  Extension response in response to pain
1Partial hemianopia (decerebrate posturing): 2 points
2Complete hemianopia  No response: 1 point
3Bilateral hemianopia
Facial palsy
0Normal
1Minor facial weakness
2Partial facial weakness
3Complete unilateral palsy
Motor arm
a. Left
b. Right
0No drift
1Drift before 10 s
2Falls before 10 s
3No effort against gravity
4No movement
UN Amputation
Motor leg
a. Left
b. Right
0No drift
1Drift before 5 s
2Falls before 5 s
3No effort against gravity
4No movement
UN Amputation
Limb ataxia
0No ataxia
1Ataxia in 1 limb
2Ataxia in 2 limbs
UN Amputation
 Management of Acute Ischemic Stroke 7

Sensory
0No sensory loss
1Mild sensory loss
2Severe sensory loss
Best language
0Normal
1Mild aphasia
2Severe aphasia
3Mute or global aphasia
Articulation
0Normal
1Mild dysarthria
2Severe dysarthria
UN Intubated
Extinction or inattention
0Absent
1Mild (loss 1 sensory modality lost)
2Severe (loss 2 modalities lost)

elevation include IV boluses of labetalol 10 to 20 mg or an IV drip of nicardipine 5 to

15 mg/h.5,7

Early Imaging
The purpose of performing brain imaging is to confirm clinical suspicion of stroke, and
to differentiate brain ischemia from hemorrhage, which is indispensable information
before administration of thrombolytic therapy. Brain imaging will define the size and
vascular distribution of ischemic stroke, which may influence immediate and long-
term treatment decisions (see Fig. 1).
The most commonly used brain imaging modalities are CT and magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) (including diffusion-weighted imaging or DWI sequence). The latter has
a better resolution and higher sensitivity and specificity to determine brain ischemia.9
However, the imaging time for MRI is longer and is not available in all institutions.
Various advanced MRI and CT imaging techniques are available. However, to date
there is no evidence that these advanced techniques are beneficial compared with
plain head CT.10 Noncontrast-enhanced CT scan remains sufficient for identification
of contraindications to thrombolysis and must be obtained within 25 minutes of the pa-
tients arrival in the ED.7
Several head CT scan findings have been reported in the acute phase of patients
with ischemic stroke (see Fig. 1).9,10 The most salient features include the following:
loss of gray-white differentiation (lenticular obscuration or insular ribbon sign); swelling
of the gyri that produces sulcal effacement; the hyperdense middle cerebral artery
(MCA) sign, which represents an increased density within the occluded artery and
possible large-vessel occlusion; hyperdense MCA dot sign, which may represent
a clot within a branch of the MCA; and intracranial hemorrhage, which is an absolute
contraindication for IV thrombolysis as mentioned previously.
A noninvasive evaluation of the intracranial and extracranial vessels is often per-
formed in patients considered candidates for endovascular treatment (see later in
this article). Such studies include magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) or CT angiog-
raphy (CTA) and can help screen patients with major vessel occlusions. However,
these studies should not delay IV rt-PA administration. Further imaging, needed to
clarify stroke etiology, can be done during the subsequent 24 hours. These include
brain MRI or vessel studies, such as carotid ultrasound, transcranial Doppler
8 Maldonado et al

Fig. 1. Imaging studies of a 36-year-old woman who presented with an acute ischemic
stroke involving her right MCA territory and NIHSS of 18. (A) Baseline head CT within 3 hours
of symptom onset showed loss of gray-white matter differentiation in the right MCA terri-
tory and sulcal effacement. (B) Hyperdense right MCA sign is seen (arrow). (C) After IV
thrombolysis, patient was taken to cerebral angiogram, which showed complete occlusion
of right MCA (arrow). (D) Patient underwent endovascular therapy and a follow-up cerebral
angiogram showed recanalization of occluded right MCA (arrows). (E) MRI of her brain
showing a large right MCA territory infarction (DWI). (F) A follow-up head CT scan 24 hours
later showed right hemispheric edema with some midline shift. (G) Patient underwent right
decompressive hemicraniectomy as shown on the head CT scan. (H) Patient was discharged
to rehabilitation and 6 weeks later underwent right cranioplasty as shown on head CT scan.
She returned to clinic 3 months later ambulating with a cane.

ultrasound, CTA, and MRA. If there is concern for acute medical deterioration, then a
repeat emergent head CT scan or brain MRI should be considered to evaluate for
hemorrhagic conversion, recurrent strokes, or cerebral edema. It is also recommen-
ded to perform a follow-up head CT scan in all patients after 24 hours of IV rt-PA
administration to rule out hemorrhagic conversion.
 Management of Acute Ischemic Stroke 9

Fig. 1. (continued)

Other Testing
There are other diagnostic tests that can be performed acutely in the evaluation of
ischemic stroke (Box 2).7 Some of these diagnostic evaluations should be performed
in all patients, such as basic serum laboratory testing, ECG, and determination of arte-
rial oxygen saturation (SaO2). However, many of these are optional and should be per-
formed in selected patients and depending on specific circumstances.

Endovascular Management
There has been much advancement in endovascular management for treatment of acute
ischemic stroke. This includes endovascular pharmacologic thrombolysis, manipulation of
10 Maldonado et al

Box 1
Inclusion and exclusion criteria for patients with acute ischemic stroke for IV thrombolysis
within 4.5 hours of symptom onset

Within 3 hours of symptom onset

Inclusion criteria
Measurable neurologic deficit (abnormal NIHSS) due to ischemic stroke
Clear onset of symptoms <3 hours before beginning treatment
Aged 18 years
Head CT scan without ICH
Exclusion criteria
Severe head trauma or prior stroke in previous 3 months
Suspicion of subarachnoid hemorrhage
Arterial puncture at noncompressible site in previous 7 days
History of previous ICH
Intracranial neoplasm, arteriovenous malformation, or aneurysm
Recent intracranial or intraspinal surgery
Elevated blood pressure (systolic >185 mm Hg or diastolic >110 mm Hg) not responsive to IV
medications
Active systemic bleeding
Acute bleeding diathesis
Platelet count <100,000/mm3
Heparin received within 48 hours, resulting in abnormally elevated aPTT
Current use of warfarin with INR greater than 1.7 or PT greater than 15 seconds
Current use of direct thrombin inhibitors or direct factor Xa inhibitors
Blood glucose concentration less than 50 mg/dL (2.7 mmol/L)
Head CT demonstrates hypodensity greater than one-third cerebral hemisphere
Relative exclusion criteria
Only minor or rapidly improving stroke symptoms
Pregnancy
Seizure at onset with postictal neurologic impairments
Major surgery or serious trauma within previous 14 days
Recent gastrointestinal or urinary tract hemorrhage (within previous 21 days)
Acute myocardial infarction within previous 3 months
From 3 to 4.5 hours of symptom onset
Inclusion criteria
Measurable neurologic deficit (abnormal NIHSS) due to ischemic stroke
Clear onset of symptoms 34.5 hours before beginning treatment
Aged 18 years
Head CT scan without ICH
Relative exclusion criteria
 Management of Acute Ischemic Stroke 11

Aged older than 80 years

Severe stroke (NIHSS>25)
Taking an oral anticoagulant regardless of INR
History of both diabetes and prior ischemic stroke

Abbreviations: aPTT, activated thromboplastin time; CT, computed tomography; ICH, intracra-
nial hemorrhage; INR, international normalized ratio; IV, intravenous; NIHSS, National Insti-
tutes of Health stroke scale.
Data from The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Study Group. Tis-
sue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 1995;333:15817; and Hacke
W, Kaste M, Bluhmki E, et al. Thrombolysis with alteplase 3 to 4.5 hours after acute ischemic
stroke. N Engl J Med 2008;359:131729.

the clot using a guidewire or microcatheter, mechanical and aspiration thrombectomy, and
stent retriever technology.11 These techniques theoretically allow better recanalization of
the occluded vessel albeit at the expense of valuable time. The Prolyse in Acute Cerebral
Thromboembolism II trial12 of recombinant prourokinase (r-pro-UK) was published in 1999
and showed that intra-arterial (IA) use of r-pro-UK within 6 hours of stroke symptom onset
achieved MCA recanalization in 66% of the treated arm compared with 18% in the control

Box 2
Current recommendations and practice regarding ancillary testing in patients with acute
ischemic stroke

ALL patients
 Blood glucose (point-of-care or laboratory testing)
 SaO2
 Serum electrolytes and creatinine
 Complete blood count
 Serum troponin levels
 PT/INR and aPTT
 ECG
SELECTED patients (to be decided on individual patients)
 TT and/or ECT if patient is taking direct thrombin inhibitors or direct factor Xa inhibitors
 Liver function tests
 Toxicology screen and blood alcohol level
 Pregnancy test
 Chest radiography
 Electroencephalogram
 Echocardiogram

Abbreviations: aPTT, activated thromboplastin time; ECG, electrocardiogram; ECT, ecarin time;
INR, international normalized ratio; PT, prothrombin time; SaO2, arterial oxygen saturation; TT,
thrombin time.
Data from Refs.4,5,7,11,34
12 Maldonado et al

group. This IA approach, which was extrapolated to rt-PA, is thought to be more efficacious
for proximal arterial occlusions.13 Hence, large proximal thrombi of a major intracranial
vessel in patients ineligible for intravenous rt-PA has been considered an indication for IA
thrombolysis. However, the optimal dose of IA rt-PA is not well established, and has not
been approved by the FDA.14
Endovascular techniques, such as the mechanical embolus removal in cerebral
ischemia (MERCI) retriever, Penumbra System, Solitaire FR revascularization tech-
nique, and the thrombectomy revascularization of large vessel occlusion (TREVO)
retrieval system, have been shown to increase rates of recanalization either with or
without intravenous rt-PA. The MERCI retriever was evaluated in patients ineligible
for intravenous rt-PA and with arterial occlusions who presented within 8 hours of stroke
symptom onset in the MERCI trial.15 The Penumbra System was evaluated in a pro-
spective study of patients with NIHSS scores of 8 or higher who presented within 8 hours
of symptom onset.16 The SWIFT study (Solitaire FR With the Intention for Thrombec-
tomy)17 and the TREVO 2 study18 compared the Solitaire FR and TREVO devices
with the MERCI Retrieval system, respectively. Both devices were independently
deemed superior to the MERCI Retrieval system in achieving recanalization. Hence,
when mechanical thrombectomy is pursued, stent retrievers, such as Solitaire FR
and TREVO, are generally preferred to coil retrievers, such as MERCI.7 The relative
effectiveness of the Penumbra System versus stent retrievers has not yet been charac-
terized. However, these devices have not been demonstrated to improve patient out-
comes compared with IV rt-PA. The Interventional Management of Stroke III11 trial
and the Local versus Systemic Thrombolysis for Acute Ischemic Stroke19 trial showed
that there was no difference between endovascular treatment compared with standard
IV rt-PA for acute ischemic stroke. The MR RESCUE (Mechanical Retrieval and Recan-
alization of Stroke Clots Using Embolectomy) trial was not able to identify a favorable
penumbral pattern on neuroimaging that would benefit from endovascular therapy for
acute ischemic stroke nor did it show embolectomy to be superior to standard of care.20
The usefulness of emergent intracranial or extracranial angioplasty/stenting has not
been well established in the setting of acute ischemic stroke. With regard to intracra-
nial atherosclerotic disease, the SAMMPRIS (Stenting and Aggressive Medical
Management for Preventing Recurrent Stroke in Intracranial Stenosis) trial effectively
proved that aggressive medical management was superior to percutaneous translu-
minal angioplasty and stenting in the subacute setting for patients with symptomatic
intracranial stenosis.21 Whether the SAMMPRIS trial results can be extrapolated to the
management of acute ischemic stroke remains to be determined.

Dysphagia Screening
All patients should have an NPO (nothing by mouth) status at the time of hospital arrival
and be screened for swallowing deficits before eating or drinking or taking oral med-
ications.7 The presence of a gag reflex is not a valid screen for dysphagia. If patients
fail their swallowing evaluation, alternative ways of nutrition need to be implemented to
decrease the risk of aspiration and to be able to provide adequate caloric intake as
soon as possible.

INITIAL 24 HOURS FOR PATIENTS INELIGIBLE FOR THROMBOLYTIC THERAPY

Pharmacologic Strategies
Antiplatelet agents
Patients not eligible for IV rt-PA should be administered aspirin immediately. This can
be given orally if the patient is able to swallow. Otherwise, aspirin should be given
 Management of Acute Ischemic Stroke 13

rectally. Two large randomized-controlled clinical trials demonstrated reduction in

death and disability with aspirin when it was begun 48 hours after stroke onset.22,23
The role of clopidogrel remains limited in the acute stroke setting. However, a recent
randomized, controlled clinical trial demonstrated better protection with aspirin and
clopidogrel for subsequent strokes compared with aspirin alone in the first 90 days
without increasing the risk of intracranial hemorrhage (ICH).24 The use of other anti-
platelet agents, such as IV abciximab,2528 tirofiban,29 and eptifibatide,30 have been
studied in the setting of acute stroke but are not yet recommended.

Anticoagulants/Antithrombotic agents
The use of anticoagulants in the setting of an acute ischemic stroke has been
declining. Data on the administration of heparin and other anticoagulants in the emer-
gent setting has been negative or inconclusive.14,3136 The optimal timing on the use of
warfarin for patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation is unknown. However, it seems
reasonable to initiate anticoagulation with a goal of reaching a therapeutic range within
7 to 14 days.37,38 Newer antithrombotic agents, such as the direct thrombin inhibitor,
dabigatran, and Factor Xa inhibitors, apixaban and rivaroxaban, have been shown to
prevent recurrent stroke in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation.

BP management
The threshold for BP management is 220/120 for patients who are ineligible for IV
thrombolysis. This higher cutoff is due mainly in part to the theory of peri-infarct
penumbral protection. Higher BP may result in hypertensive encephalopathy and
worsening cerebral edema.7 There have been multiple studies including randomized
control trials looking at BP reduction in the setting of an acute ischemic stroke and
outcomes.3943 The results of these studies have been inconclusive with no concrete
evidence to support a precise BP parameter in the days following the ischemic insult.
It is currently recommended to lower the BP no more than 15% within the first 24 hours
after an ischemic stroke.7
Arterial hypotension has been associated with poor clinical outcomes and should be
avoided.4346 The exact definition for arterial hypotension should be defined on an
individual basis. Urgent correction of hypotension is mandated in all cases of cerebral
ischemia, as this can worsen neurologic outcome. Use of vasopressors to reverse
hypotension is considered reasonable if necessary.7 The administration of high-
dose albumin,47 mechanical flow augmentation,48,49 and induced hypertension5053
are not well established in the setting of acute ischemic stroke, and cannot be recom-
mended at this time.

Deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis

Deep venous thrombosis (DVT) prophylaxis should be initiated on admission. DVT and
associated pulmonary embolism (PE) account for significant morbidity and mortality
after a stroke.54 Low molecular weight heparin or heparinoid is more effective than
unfractionated heparin in preventing DVT.55,56 However, there is insufficient evidence
to determine whether there is a difference for clinically important end points, such as
symptomatic DVT/PE, ICH, major extracranial hemorrhage, and mortality.56

Temperature
Normothermia should be the goal for patients with acute ischemic stroke. Hyperther-
mia is associated with poor neurologic outcomes5759 with a twofold increased risk in
short-term mortality in patients with acute stroke and hyperthermia within the first
24 hours of hospitalization. Even though hyperthermia may be secondary to the stroke
that led to the hospitalization, other reasons must be considered first, such as
14 Maldonado et al

infection, medications, and DVT. It is important to keep in mind that some infectious
disorders like endocarditis are associated with fever and may be the cause of the
stroke.
Once the workup and treatment of underlying causes of hyperthermia have been
initiated, it is paramount to reduce the body temperature. The latter can be accom-
plished by either mechanical or pharmacologic means. The first line of treatment is
acetaminophen, followed by ibuprofen and aspirin. There are no clinical trials available
to determine whether medications are better than placebo in this setting. In patients
who are refractory to medications, other measures, such as cooling devices, can be
tried, but management of shivering may be necessary.60

Blood glucose control

Normoglycemia should be maintained after an acute ischemic stroke in the ICU.
Hypoglycemia (blood glucose <60 mg/dL) should be treated, as this can result in per-
manent brain damage. Symptoms such as disorientation, dizziness, and slowing of
speech have been noted with glucose levels drop below 47 mg/dL.61,62 Treatment
of hyperglycemia in an acute stroke was studied in the Glucose Insulin in Stroke
Trial-UK with inconclusive results.63 It is reasonable to maintain a blood glucose level
within a range of 140 to 180 mg/dL in hospitalized patients following the recommen-
dations from the AHA/American Stroke Association (ASA)7 and American Dietetic As-
sociation recommendations until further data from randomized, controlled clinical
trials become available.64

Gastrointestinal prophylaxis
Gastrointestinal (GI) hemorrhage after an acute ischemic stroke has been studied and
can be a cause of mortality in the ICU setting.65 ICU patients at risk for GI bleeding
include those on mechanical ventilation, patients in a coma, patients receiving therapy
with ulcerogenic drugs, and patients with prior GI bleeds.66,67 Usually, GI bleeding in
ICU patients is associated with erosive gastritis localized to the fundus and body of the
stomach.68 H2-recceptor blockers or proton pump inhibitors are the agents of choice
for lesions that cause GI bleeding and should be used as prophylaxis.69
Because clopidogrel is a prodrug that requires conversion to its active metabolite,
strong CYP2C19 inhibitors, such as omeprazole and esomeprazole will reduce its an-
tiplatelet effect. The FDA prescribing information recommends avoiding concomitant
administration of clopidogrel and these proton pump inhibitors.

Hydration and fluid status

Patients with acute stroke should be maintained euvolemic at all times in the ICU, pref-
erably by administering isotonic crystalloids, such as 0.9% saline. Hypovolemia and
dehydration should be avoided, as they can worsen cerebral ischemia. In addition,
hypervolemia and the administration of hypotonic solutions should be avoided in pa-
tients with large strokes because of the risk of cerebral edema. The infusion of human
albumin has not been shown to improve outcome in patients with acute stroke and is
currently not recommended.47

Nonpharmacologic Strategies
Cardiac monitoring
Continuous cardiac monitoring, which is easily accomplished in the ICU setting, is
indicated for at least the first 24 hours after symptom onset. This is not only to deter-
mine possible stroke etiology but also to monitor for possible acute arrhythmias sec-
ondary to stroke.7072 However, longer monitoring, such as prolonged Holter
monitoring, has been demonstrated to be more effective in identifying atrial fibrillation
 Management of Acute Ischemic Stroke 15

or other arrhythmias after stroke.73 Current 2014 AHA/ASA guidelines recommend

prolonged rhythm monitoring for approximately 30 days within 6 months of the index
event.74

MANAGEMENT OF ACUTE ISCHEMIC STROKE BEYOND THE INITIAL 24 HOURS

Patients with acute ischemic stroke remain at high risk of experiencing secondary
brain damage and recurrent cerebral ischemia beyond the initial 24 hours of symptom
onset whether they receive IV thrombolysis or not. Therefore, there is a need for
ongoing close monitoring and management particularly if patients require ICU care
(see Table 1). Several studies support the fact that admission to a specialized stroke
unit significantly improves patients outcomes by decreasing death and disability.
Therefore, the availability of stroke unit care is one of the cornerstone recommenda-
tions for improving stroke management.2,7,7577 Furthermore, many of these patients
become critically ill requiring ventilatory support or develop complications that require
management in a neuro-ICU. The availability of a specialized neuro-ICU with care
directed by a neurocritical care team is associated with reduction of mortality and
overall improved outcomes of these patients.78
Pharmacologic Strategies
BP management
BP is initially increased then declines spontaneously within the first few days after
stroke. It is very important to understand that after an ischemic stroke the cerebral
autoregulatory mechanisms may become abnormal and fail, and in these instances
the cerebral blood flow will become directly proportional to the mean BP. If the latter
happens, then any drop in BP could potentially decrease the cerebral blood flow at the
already ischemic/penumbra region, thereby increasing stroke size. On the other hand,
excessively high BP may worsen outcomes as well. The recommended medications
are the same and have been discussed previously.7
General management
Management of volume status, BP, glucose and temperature, and DVT and GI prophy-
laxis were discussed previously for the initial 24-hour management for patients who
are not eligible for IV thrombolysis.7 The same measures should apply for all patients
beyond the first 24 hours of symptom onset (see Table 1).
Mixed Pharmacologic and Nonpharmacological Strategies
Airway management and mechanical ventilation
Approximately 10% of patients with acute ischemic stroke will experience respiratory
failure requiring ventilatory support, and the frequency is usually much higher in those
patients with significant MCA involvement.7982 The most common triggers for initia-
tion of mechanical ventilation are decreased level of consciousness (defined as
GCS <8) with concern for airway protection, elective intubation before procedures,
and management of elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) and cerebral edema. Other
indications for mechanical ventilation include respiratory and cardiac decompensation
including hypoxemia (PaO2 <60 mm Hg), hypercarbia (PaCO2 >60 mm Hg), pulmonary
edema, and tachypnea (respiratory rate >35/min) with use of accessory muscles.
Acute rises in ICP, hypertension, and hypotension are the most feared conse-
quences of endotracheal intubation. Therefore, it is recommended that rapid
sequence intubation (RSI) techniques are used and that medications that minimize
complications are chosen.8385 Classic RSI involves successive administration of a
rapid-acting induction agent and neuromuscular blocking agent.86 Previous practice
16 Maldonado et al

of applying cricoid pressure via the Sellick maneuver is currently controversial as to

whether it effectively prevents aspiration.87 Preferred IV medications include etomi-
date (0.20.3 mg/kg), which provides short-term sedation without significantly
lowering the BP; lidocaine (12 mg/kg), which blunts the cough reflex preventing sub-
sequent dangerous rises in ICP; and rocuronium (0.61.2 mg/kg), which provides
muscle paralysis without affecting ICP. Depolarizing neuromuscular blockading agent
succinylcholine (12 mg/kg) is sometimes used instead of rocuronium because of its
shorter half-life. However, it has been associated with ICP elevations and hyperkale-
mia in neurologic patients. Once patients are mechanically ventilated, it is important to
administer sedation for comfort and to avoid BP and ICP fluctuations. Sedation after
intubation in neurologic patients is often achieved by shorter-acting medications, such
as fentanyl, propofol, or midazolam.
There are no randomized-controlled clinical trials investigating various modes of
ventilation and strategies in patients with acute ischemic stroke. Especially when
ICP is a concern in patients with large stroke, to maintain a fixed minute ventilation,
volume control is the most commonly used mode of ventilation. The main goals of me-
chanical ventilation are to maintain adequate oxygenation (SaO2 >92%), and CO2
(PaCO2 between 35 and 45 mm Hg) levels without causing lung injury. Lung-
protective ventilation should be undertaken whenever possible.88,89 Such ventilatory
strategy includes ventilation with a lower tidal volume, which involves an initial tidal
volume of 6 to 8 mL per kilogram of predicted body weight, positive end-expiratory
positive pressure of 5 cm H2O, and a plateau pressure of 30 cm of water or less. How-
ever, tight monitoring of PaCO2 is mandatory, as a side effect of this therapy is hyper-
carbia. Significant changes in PaCO2 either toward high or low levels will affect the
cerebral vasculature autoregulation capabilities, which can be deleterious to the
already injured brain tissue.
Weaning from mechanical ventilation should be carried out in a fashion similar to
other patients in the ICU.89 The main criteria for weaning and trial of extubation include
the following: improvement or correction of underlying disease, adequate oxygenation
(SaO2 >92% with FiO2 <50%), adequate ventilation, hemodynamic instability (no hypo-
tension or minimal vasopressor support), rapid shallow breathing index less than 105,
absence of major electrolyte abnormalities, and adequate airway protection. The latter
is usually the main impediment to extubation in this patient population as patients
frequently have poor gag reflexes and may have injury to the lower brainstem, along
with prolonged alteration of level of consciousness. Whether early tracheostomy im-
proves outcome remains to be determined. However, a common practice is to
perform early tracheostomies in patients with large MCA and posterior fossa strokes.

Acute neurologic worsening

Acute neurologic worsening can be defined as an increase in the NIHSS by more than
4 points or a decrease in the GCS by more than 2 points.4,5,7 Approximately 25% of
patients with acute stroke will experience neurologic deterioration within the first
few days after symptom onset. The most common reasons for neurologic deteriora-
tion are cerebral edema, hemorrhagic transformation, stroke progression, recurrent
stroke, and seizures.

Cerebral edema Infarcted brain matter swells, which in turn can lead to compression
of surrounding structures and ultimately to tissue shifts and elevated ICP.9093 The
latter usually occurs late and after tissue shifts and clinical signs of herniation have
developed.90 Therefore, ICP monitoring is rarely performed in this setting. The condi-
tions in which cerebral edema occur after ischemic stroke are not fully clarified, but it is
 Management of Acute Ischemic Stroke 17

believed that tissue hypoxia and neuronal cell death will trigger the process. Cerebral
edema will occur in all strokes. However, the degree of neurologic complications that
cerebral edema can produce will vary from asymptomatic to life-threatening, depend-
ing on several factors, such as stroke size and location (MCA and cerebellar strokes),
patients age (younger patients are at higher risk), and preexisting level of brain atro-
phy.9094 Cytotoxic edema will usually peak between days 3 and 4 after stroke; how-
ever, some patients can develop brain edema within the first 24 hours, known as
malignant edema, specifically large MCA and cerebellar infarctions.91,93,94
Careful observation in the ICU is required for patients at risk of significant edema. In
general, the factors associated with life-threatening edema include the following:
NIHSS greater than 15; greater than 50% hypodensity in the MCA territory, complete
posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA), or superior cerebellar artery (SCA) territories
on head CT scan; effacement of the basal cisterns, displacement of the pineal gland or
brainstem, and hydrocephalus on head CT scan.9094 Clinical signs of brain tissue shift
and herniation include a decrease in GCS greater than 2 points, unilaterally dilated or
poorly responsive pupils, and extensor posturing.
Several medical interventions have been used to treat cerebral edema and hernia-
tion. These interventions are similar to those used in other neurocritical care conditions
associated with cerebral edema.92,93,9597 Positioning of the patient with head eleva-
tion of 30 to 45 will improve cerebral venous drainage and any agent that causes
cerebral vasodilation should be avoided. In addition, strategies such as controlled hy-
perventilation, sedation and analgesia, hypertonic agents, osmotic diuretics, cerebro-
spinal fluid diversion, and decompressive surgery can be done depending on ICP and
edema severity (see Table 1).

Seizures The frequency of seizures in patients with acute ischemic stroke has been
reported at approximately 10%, but may be higher in those with hemorrhagic transfor-
mation.98,99 Patients should undergo immediate treatment as soon as seizures are
suspected or encountered in a similar fashion as other neurologic patients (see
Table 1).100 There are no data supporting the administration of prophylactic antiepi-
leptic drugs and as such should be avoided.

Surgical options
Endarterectomy There has been much controversy as to the role of early versus late
carotid endarterectomy (CEA) for patients with ischemic strokes due to large vessel
disease. Some investigators have justified early or even immediate surgical interven-
tion on the basis of reducing the risk of recurrent strokes while waiting for revascular-
ization.101,102 On the other hand, there is a concern that CEA in the acute phase may
cause hemorrhagic transformation of the ischemic infarct by hyperperfusion injury
with a potential to increase cerebral edema. A systematic review was carried out on
47 studies to examine the optimal timing of CEA.103 The investigators reported that
there was a higher number of stroke and death rates with emergent CEA with no
improvement in clinical status over time, especially in those patients with large
disabling strokes with an unstable neurologic status. However, early CEA for carotid
stenosis in small, nondisabling strokes with a higher vascular territory at risk and sta-
ble neurologic examination may be appropriate.104106 The most common indication
for emergent surgical intervention is in the setting of a new neurologic deficit following
a CEA to correct a technical issue that may have resulted in acute thrombosis.7 Pa-
tients with a mobile or sessile intraluminal thrombus at the carotid bifurcation may
benefit from emergent CEA, although better results have been reported with anticoa-
gulation followed by delayed surgery.107110
18 Maldonado et al

Decompressive craniectomy and external ventricular drain insertion Severe cerebral

edema may not only lead to brainstem compression but also to compression of cere-
bral vessels, which can in turn produce cerebral infarctions.9193 This will further
decrease the potential for meaningful clinical recovery in patients who survive these
insults.
Earlier case series reports suggested that surgical decompression can reduce mor-
tality from 80% to about 20% in patients with malignant MCA strokes.91,92 However, it
was unclear whether this surgical procedure was associated with improved functional
outcome. Vahedi and colleagues111 showed in a pooled analysis of 3 randomized
controlled clinical trials that in a selective patient population, early decompressive
hemicraniectomy with durotomy not only resulted in decreased mortality (79% in
the surgery group vs 29% in the control group) but also improved functional outcome.
Based on these results, decompressive hemicraniectomy with durotomy has become
accepted as a modality of treatment for the following patients: age 18 to 60 years, sur-
gical procedure within 45 hours of symptom onset and preferably before initiation of
treatment for elevated ICP, NIHSS greater than 15, and evidence by imaging studies
of greater than 50% involvement of the MCA territory. A more recent clinical trial eval-
uating decompressive hemicraniectomy in older stroke patients (6182 years) also
showed a significant reduction in mortality (70% in the surgery group vs 33% in the
control group) with improvement in severe disability (38% vs 18%).112 However,
most survivors required assistance with most bodily needs. Due to these results,
the decision to perform decompressive surgery should be made on an individual basis
in older patients because of the potential undesired outcome of survival with severe
disability.
Large strokes of the cerebellum (complete PICA and SCA territories) are usually
associated with swelling in the posterior fossa, where the brainstem is located. Brain-
stem compression can be lethal, progression is usually rapid toward loss of brain stem
functions. Decompressive suboccipital craniectomy and insertion of an external ven-
tricular drain is often lifesaving if done early in the course of the stroke and is associ-
ated with improved quality of life in at least 50% of survivors.113,114

Hemorrhagic transformation The natural history of ischemic strokes shows that about
1% of patients can undergo spontaneous symptomatic hemorrhagic transformation.
However, when thrombolytic therapy is administered, the rate of hemorrhagic trans-
formation will increase to 6% to 10% depending on how early after the onset of stroke
symptoms that IV rt-PA is given.48
Even though most hemorrhagic transformation will occur within the first 24 hours
after IV rt-PA, we have included this subtopic here because of the potential for surgical
intervention.8 Once the possibility of ICH is suspected in patients with neurologic
deterioration, prompt management is required. If symptoms of ICH present during
the IV rt-PA infusion, then it should be stopped immediately and a noncontrast head
CT scan should be obtained along with blood coagulation parameters, including
type and screen and fibrinogen levels. Once ICH is confirmed, then coagulopathy
reversal must be instituted immediately. There is no standardized and tested protocol
for management of thrombolytic-associated ICH; however, most centers administer
cryoprecipitate to restore fibrinogen levels to normal.7,9 In addition, platelet infusion,
fresh-frozen plasma, or prothrombin complex concentrates are also given because
often these patients have abnormal platelet function and elevated INR.115 Further-
more, a neurosurgical consultation should be sought. However, any neurosurgical
procedure in this setting is performed as a life-saving maneuver and needs to be
determined individually.
 Management of Acute Ischemic Stroke 19

SUMMARY

Advances in the acute care of a patients with ischemic stroke, including the use of
intravenous cerebral thrombolysis and intra-arterial catheter-based modalities for ce-
rebrovascular disease, came of age around the same time that neurocritical care
gained wider recognition as a subspecialty. Emergent therapy, followed by deliberate
and thoughtful management at the bedside provided by dedicated stroke teams,
stroke units, and neurocritical care expertise, can improve outcome. Practitioners
continue to search for methods to deliver rapid care to patients who may benefit, while
also evaluating the care given at the bedside to decrease complications and increase
the chance for full functional outcome.

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