Early Islamic Qiblas

Dan Gibson
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Early Islamic Qiblas
2
Dan Gibson
EARLY ISLAMIC QIBLAS
A survey of mosques built between

1AH/622 C.E. and 263 AH/876 C.E.
BY
DAN GIBSON
With maps, charts and photographs
VANCOUVER
Published by
INDEPENDENT SCHOLARS PRESS
2017
3

Copyright Dan Gibson 2017
Published by ISP (Independent Scholars Press is an imprint of CanBooks, Vancouver, Canada.)
All rights reserved. No part of this printed book may be reproduced by any means, graphic, electronic,
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or by any information storage retrieval system
without the written permission of the author except in the case of quotations embodied in critical articles
and reviews. This printed book may only be reproduced with the permission of the author.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gibson, Daniel 1956 -
Early Islamic Qiblas: A survey of mosques built between 1AH/622 C.E. and 263 AH/876 C.E. / Dan
Gibson
p. cm. - (Studies in antiquity and early Islam)
Includes bibliographic references and index
ISBN: 978-1-927581-22-3
1. Islamic Empire - History 622-661
2. Islamic Empire - History 661-75- - Historiography
3. Middle East - Civilization - History 0 To 622 - Historiography
Other books by the same author:

The Nabataeans, Builders of Petra
Qurnic Geography
The author can be reached at: [email protected]

Contact Ingram to order copies
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Dan Gibson
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Qiblas 3
Qibla Data 5
The Short List and Maps 8
Individual Mosques 11
Qub Mosque 12
Mosque of the Prophet 15
Qiblatain Mosque 17
Janad Mosque 18
Guangzhou Grand Mosque 19
Jowatha Mosque 21
Cheraman Juma Mosque 22
Umar ibn al-Khattb Mosque 23
Hama alKabr Mosque 25
Mosque of the Prophet Yunus 27
Kfa Mosque 28
Amr ibn -Al-As Mosque 30
Hala Sultan Tekke 31
Mosque of Sidi Ukba 32
Dome of the Rock 33
Qar Humeima 34
Amman Umayyad Mosque 36
an Grand Mosque 38
Khirbat al Minya 40
Wsi Great Mosque 43
Tarik Khana Mosque 45
Mihrab introduced 46
Al-Aqa Mosque 47
Jmi al-Umawi al-Kabr 49
Khirbat al-Mafjar 51
Anjar Palace Mosque 53
al Umawi al Kabr Mosque 55
al Khamis Mosque 56
Mosque of Bora 57
5
Mosque of Rufa 59
Grand Hussein Mosque 60
Qar al Hayr al Gharbi 61
Banbhore Mosque 63
Qar al- Hayr al Sharqi 65
Amman Umayyad Palace 67
al-Zaytna Mosque 69
Baalbeck Mosque 71
First mention of Mecca in literature 73
Huajuexiang Mosque 75
Mushatta Palace 76
arrn Mosque 78
Fenghuang Mosque 80
Shibm Palace 81
Mosque of Manr 82
Qar Ukhaydir 83
Rib Fortress 85
Beer Ora Qiblatain 87
Sah Ramdah Mosque 88
Sumail Omani Mosque 89
Raqqa Mosque 91
Ishfan 92
Jobs Tomb Shrine 93
Bibi Samarkand 94
Crdoba Mosque 96
Shrine of Kazmiyya 98
Uqba Ibn Nafi Mosque 100
Great Mosque of Smarra 102
Great Mosque of Ssa 103
Abu Dulaf Mosque 105
Mosque of the Three Doors 106
Shibm Aqyan Jmi al Kabr 107
Ibn ln 108
Ansaq Friday Mosque 109
Masjid i Jmi Fahraj 110
allah Al Bald Mosque 111
Summary of Qiblas 113
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Dan Gibson
The Accuracy of Google Earth 115

Obtaining Qibla Calculations 121
The Qibla Misunderstanding 127
Could the Arabs accurately determine Qiblas 135
Examining an account 135
Arab and Chinese astronomy 136
Navigation by the stars likely developed on land, not on the seas 138
What Tools Were Available? 139
Using Qiys 139
Some Basic Tools 142
The origins of western longitude 143
Distance, not time 144
Arabic poetry 146
The Arab Compass 147
Al-Jh and Bash values 150
Lunar Time 151
Lunar Mansions 153
Arab Calendar 156
The Astrolabe 158
Sun location 160
Nautical manuals 160
Compass 160
Mountain Peaks 160
Pythagorean Theorem 161
Getting into a navigators mind 162
Using ishrt or local guides 163
Basic Information 165
The Portolan Method 167
Pigeons 168
Mathematical Solutions 169
Summary 170
When Did the Qibla Change? 172
Addendum 180
Supporting Evidence 183
The original Holy City had clay and loam 183
The Holy City is called Bacca in Qurn 184
Earthquakes may give the valley its name 188
7v
The well of Zamzam 188

The Qurns attention on northern Arabia 189
The Holy Citys high and low side 190
The Holy City could be entered by a crack in the rock 191
The Holy City had walls 193
The Holy City has a stream from one mountain to another mountain 193
The Zumurrud 194
The Petra region contains mention of gods found in the Qurn, hadiths and histories 195
Petra was the centre of a twice yearly pilgrimage 196
Petra is missing in all early Islamic literature 199
The sacred area was marked out by large stones 200
Games of chance 201
Battle for Medina (The Battle of the Trench) 202
Battle with the Banu Lihyan 203
Al-ajjj and the city of Khaybar 204
The order of the Battle for Mecca 205
The back way into the Holy City 206
The current location of the Quraysh tribe 208
The lack of evidence from north and south of Mecca 209
Khlids pilgrimage 210
Trebuchet Stones 215
The Cave of ir 215
More Supporting Evidence 219
The Mother of All Cities 219
Described as the center of the trade route 220
Mecca missing on early maps 221
The Holy City produced large armies 222
There is scarce rainfall in Mecca 222
The original Holy City had grapes growing in it 222
The original Holy City had trees 223
Grass grew in the original Holy City valley 223
The origins of the Black Stone 223
Cartographic evidence 226
The Abbasid writers 228
Literary Vacuum 230
The Abbsid historians 234
The Petra origins of Arabic Language 237
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Dan Gibson
What about Jerusalem and Al-Aqa Mosque? 238

Location of Al Bay 241
Location of Aqaba 241
Location of if and nearby locations 249
Nakhlah and other locations 253
Public Baths 254
Arafah and Mn 255
Markets 260
Camping Spots 262
Islamic Petra 263
Qarmatian rebellion 270
Conclusion 271
Bibliography 273
Index 288
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viii
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Dan Gibson
Dedication and Acknowledgements
This book is dedicated to all the men and women who have endeavored to help me in my research
and the eventual publishing of this book.
First and foremost I must acknowledge Dr. George E. Kelsey who influenced my life in many ways.
Besides instilling in me a love and appreciation for the Arabic language, he influenced my thinking
in more ways than could be expressed here. One small event, however, will always stand out in my
mind. I was just over twenty two years of age when he tossed me his car keys and surprisingly asked
me to drive some visiting scholars to the ancient city of Petra. It was to be my first of over sixty visits
to this amazing city. Over the years I drove many of Dr. Kelseys friends to ancient sites and from
each of them I learned a great deal, never imagining that some years later I would be building on that
knowledge and uncovering some amazing facts about the history of Arabia.
Second, I must acknowledge Gerald Longjohn, who also influenced my life in many ways. In 1981 he
asked me if I wanted to go visiting with him. Those visits changed my life. During that year we visited
many of the ruling families of the United Arab Emirates, and I ended up spending hours sitting with
Sheikh Shakhbut bin Sultan Al Nahyan who loved to tell stories of the old life in the desert before the
coming of oil. From Sheikh Shakhbut I learned the value of sitting with the older men and listening
to them account stories of the old days. Much has been lost during the last few decades, and there are
few who can recount the old stories any more.
Third I would like to acknowledge the advice and encouragement given by the late Dr. Andrew Rip-
pin. Always kind and considerate, he was quick to point out areas that needed improvement, and
resources that I had not yet discovered.
Last, I would like to dedicate this book to the many people who have enriched my research and influ-
enced my thinking over the years. I list their names below in alphabetical order:
Dr. Andrew G Bannister, Melbourne School of Theology
Prof. Juan Antonio Belmonte, Instituto de Astrofsica de Canarias
Joseph P. Elacqua, Ph.D candidate at Leiden University
Prof. Dr. Saba Fars, Toulouse University - Jean Jaurs
Sbastien Garnier (EHESS-Paris)
Alain Jean-Mairet, Switzerland
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Dr. Jeffrey Kotyk, Leiden University
Dr. Ahmed Amine Khelifa, Indpendent Researcher, France
Dr. Dietrich Kuhl MA, Chairman of the Board of the Institute of Islamic Studies of
the Evangelical Alliance of Germany, Austria and Switzerland
Duane Alexander Miller, PhD; Lecturer and Researcher in Muslim-Christian Rela

tions; The Christian Institute of Islamic Studies (San Antonio, Texas); author of Liv
ing among the Breakage and Two Stories of Everything: The Competing Metanarratives
of Islam and Christianity.
Dr. Andreas Neumann, author of Rechtsgeschichte, Rechtsfindung und Rechtsfortbil

dung im Islam (Hamburg 2012)
W. Richard Oakes, Jr., PhD from the University of Edinburgh
Abdurrahim Ozer, Instructor, History Department, Bilkent University, Turkey
Jerome Parker, Paris I Pantheon-Sorbonne History Dep. Alumnus, Independant

Scholar
Seth Vitrano-Wilson
I am sure there are many more names that I should include in this list, and I apologize
to anyone who was overlooked. Some scholars on this list provided support, some asked good
questions, and some worked long hours helping me proof the manuscript and address issues
that I had missed. I am sure there are still some errors in this book, and I full credit for hav-
ing slipped up on them. If you have any trouble, please email me, or visit my YouTube page
and ask the questions there.
Once again I want to thank so many people, including my own family who have been sup-
portive over the years and helpful during the long winter months that I worked on writing
up this project.
Dan Gibson
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Dan Gibson
Introduction
After publishing the book Qurnic Geography1 in 2011, fellow historians and academics encouraged me
to publish my research data on early Qiblas more fully. Qurnic Geography focused on the geographical
references in the Qurn, with only minor attention given to the mosques of early Islam that pointed to
the city of Petra in Jordan.2 This book contains eight papers released in 2016 and 2017 which attempted
to provide some of my research and address a few resulting issues in greater detail.
Revisiting my original data has allowed me the opportunity to re-evaluate what I had done some seven
years earlier, both in technique as well as in scope. I have revised my opinion on a couple of mosques, and
have added a number of additional mosques. The result is a two-page table listing as many early mosques
as I have discovered to date. I am always interested in finding more mosques, especially if the date of their
construction can be ascertained with any confidence.3 When visiting old mosques, I have found that the
strongly held opinions of local people that this is a very early mosque does little to ascertain the actual
date of construction. You will find a couple of these old mosques at the end of the table, to demonstrate
that while these mosques are old, there is insufficient data to date them with any certainty.
This book attempts to correct the age-old opinion that early mosques were aligned incorrectly. The 1986
Encyclopedia of Islam, Volume 5, page 88 states: Another reason why mosques may be incorrectly aligned
is that their qiblas were not computed from geographical data at all but were inspired by tradition. Thus, for
example, mosques in the Magrib and the Indian subcontinent generally face due east or due west, respectively.
Likewise, in early Muslim Egypt the Qibla adopted was the azimuth of the rising sun at the winter solstice. Several
mosques in Cairo face this direction, which was favored as the qiblat al-aba, but which is about 10 off the
qibla computed mathematically using mediaeval geographical coordinates and about 20 off the true qibla for
Cairo. No survey has yet been made of the orientation of mediaeval mosques. Such a survey would be of consider-
able interest for the history of Islamic architecture as well as the history of science. (Emphasis is mine).
1 Qurnic Geography, by Dan Gibson, Independent Scholars Press, 2011, Vancouver, Canada
2 These are found in Qurnic Geography, starting in page 251, chapter eighteen, which is a mere 22 pages out
of total of 480 pages.
3 Please email me at: [email protected]
1
My own small survey done over the last 20 years is a step in this direction, visiting as many of the early
mosques as I could find, taking photographs, examining foundations, and checking the qibla direction. I
must thank the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the website: archnet.org who have been
most helpful in providing architectural information on many mosques.
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Dan Gibson
Qiblas
According to the Qurn the Qibla is the direction that a Muslim must face when he prays. Most Mus-
lims believe the Qibla originally faced Bait ul Maqdis (The Holy House) in the city of Jerusalem.4 Islamic
sources tell us that this Qibla was used from 610 CE until 623 CE. Seventeen months after the prophet
Muammads arrival in Medina the date is given as 11 February 624 God instructed Muammad to
change the Qibla direction towards Masjid al-arm, which is understood by Muslims to be the Kaba area
in Mecca in Saudi Arabia.5 According to traditional accounts from Muammads companions, this change
happened very suddenly during the noon prayer in Medina, in a mosque at the edge of town, known as the
Qub mosque.6 While prayers were taking place, Muammad received a revelation from God instructing
him to change the Qibla to Masjid al-arm. (literally Turn then your face in the direction of the Masjid
al Masjid al-arm.7) According to traditional accounts contained in the hadith and sira, Muammad,
who had been facing Jerusalem, upon receiving this revelation, immediately turned around to face Mecca,
and those praying behind him also did so.8
The Qurn does not specifically identify or allude to Jerusalem as being the first Qibla. The practice of
facing Jerusalem appears in the biographies of Muammad and some hadith collections.9 There is also
disagreement as to when this practice started and for how long it lasted.
The Muslim records are not clear on where the original Qibla actually pointed, as the Qurn only men-
tions Masjid al-arm (The Forbidden Sanctuary) and not Mecca. This is complicated by other hadith and
historical accounts where Syria is mentioned in relation to the first early Qibla and by others that refer to
bayt muqadis10 and al-Aqa or the far mosque.11
Many things are not clear from early Islamic literature, most of which was written over 200 years after
the events they describe. By this time the Arabic language had evolved so that the word qibla not only
referenced the direction of prayer, but now also referred to the direction south.12 For example, southern
Lebanon becomes qiblat-lubnn. Therefore one has to read the Arabic texts very carefully noting what
4 Bukhri 1:392
5 abar, Vol. 7, page 24 see footnote
6 Bukhri 1:397. Also The History of Landmarks of Medina, Past and Present, by S. A. H. al-Kairi, 1410 (H), and
also Qiblatain Mosque, Abdel Wahd El Wakl, London UK.
7 Qurn, Sura 2:144
8 abar Vol. 7, page 131 footnote 209) and abar Volume 7, page 25
9 Tamar Mayer; Suleiman Ali Mourad (2008). Jerusalem: idea and reality. Routledge. p. 87. Retrieved 5 Sept
2016.)
10 abar, Volume 6, 1218, page 132
11 Qurn, Sura 17:1
12 Akhbr Al-Madna, (Arabic) 199 AH page 86
3
opinions each writer is supporting. However, there seems to be general agreement that the original Qibla
pointed somewhere north, and the final qibla pointed south, towards Mecca in Saudi Arabia. In order to
determine the direction of the original qibla, I began traveling and examining the earliest mosques I could
find.
Starting in 1979, shortly after moving to the Middle East, I began a personal survey of the archeological
history of Arabia. During the following twenty five years I lived in Jordan, the United Arab Emirates, and
Yemen. My first trip into Saudi Arabia was in 1980, and I continued to visit and explore as many of the
archeological sites as possible.
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Dan Gibson
Qibla Data
In the year 2000, I moved into southern Jordan, under the joint-sponsorship of the Jordanian Ministry of
Antiquities and the Ministry of Tourism, to survey and produce books and materials for modern visitors to
southern Jordan. I was aware of a number of historians that were alluding to the importance of northern
Arabia in Islamic history, rather than a history around the city of Mecca.13 It was during this time (around
2004) that I began to seek correlations between the Islamic accounts and the geography of southern-
Jordan. Eventually I became convinced that there was enough material to warrant some full time, serious
study to the possibility of an early Islamic setting in southern Jordan.
So I cleared my schedule, and began to study the early Qiblas in earnest, hoping that it would put to rest
any arguments in favor of southern Jordan. To my surprise, I began finding mosques with Qiblas that
faced southern Jordan. As more and more of these Qiblas came to light, it became apparent that they
faced the ancient city of Petra. As I turned my attention to Petra, I realized that the descriptions of early
Mecca fit Petra perfectly, allowing me to recognize the location of the first Kaba, the two mountains of
Marwa and afa, and many other sites.14
So I added a section to my forthcoming book, Qurnic Geography, which was published by The Indepen-
dent Scholars Press in 2010. The subject of this book was a survey of the historical places mentioned in the
Qurn. It was over 400 pages in length, with less than a quarter of it dealing with the first original Qiblas.
In 2014, I began working with a British film company on the production of a documentary film about the
original location of Masjid al-arm. That film, The Sacred City, was released in 2016.15
If my research is correct, (which I believe it is) then the traditional story of the Qibla being changed from
Jerusalem to Mecca in February 624 CE cannot be true. What can be attested to is that the early Qibla
was actually facing Petra in Jordan, and that starting in 727 CE, slowly over one hundred years after the
beginning of Islam, the Qibla gradually changed to Mecca in Saudi Arabia. The last remaining mosque
built facing Petra that we can firmly date, was in 125 AH or 743 CE.
Initially the film faced resistance everywhere. When broadcasters approached Muslim experts for their
opinions, they rightfully said that they had never heard of this, and it sounded most unlikely. But slowly
the book and film audience has grown and has caused some controversy.
This book is a reply to repeated requests to release more of my data and is meant to complement Qurnic
Geography and also the film. I start with a table containing the mosques I have been able to find and ex-
amine, a few maps, and then several pages of data on each of the mosques mentioned in the tables.
13 http://www.free-minds.org, Where Was Mohammed?, retrieved Nov 11, 2007 & Hagarism, The Making of the
Islamic World, Crone and Cook, Cambridge University Press, 1977
14 See page 266 in this publication
15 See http://sacredcity.ca
5
Year Year Original Degrees of Rebuilt fac-

City Country Name
AH CE Qibla Error ing Mecca
1 622 Medina Saudi Arabia Qub Mosque unknown - 435 AH
2 623 Medina Saudi Arabia Jami-al Nabi unknown - 707 & 1951
5 626 Medina Saudi Arabia Qiblatain Mosque Petra & Jer. - 1987 CE
6 627 Janad Yemen Janad Mosque unknown - 1011 CE
6 627 Guangzhou China Grand Mosque Petra 2.81 never
8 629 al-Kilabiyah Saudi Arabia Jowatha Mosque unknown - 9th century
8 629 Methala, Kerala India Cheraman Juma Petra .26 unknown
13 634 Dawmat al Jandal Saudi Arabia Umar ibn al-Khattb unknown - 1793
15 637 Hama Syria Jmi Hama alKabr Petra 0.61 never
16 637 Mosoul Iraq Jami al-Yunus unknown - 1393 CE
16 638 Kfa Iraq Masjid Kfa unknown - 749 CE
21 642 Fusa Egypt Amr ibn -Al-As Petra - 211 AH
28 649 Larnaca Cyprus Hala Sultan Tekke unknown - 1323 CE
67 686 Biskra Algeria Mosque of Sidi Ukba unknown - 416&1214AH
71 690 Jerusalem Israel Dome of the Rock unknown - never
80 699 Humeima Jordan Qar Humeima Petra 7.33 never
82 701 Amman Jordan Umayyad Mosque Petra 11.34 never
86 705 an Yemen Grand Mosque Petra & Jer 0.36 never
87 706 Khirbat al Minya Israel Khirbit al Minya Petra 0.8 never
87 706 Wsi Iraq ajjj Mosque between .29 never
89 708 Damghan Iran Masjid i Tarik Khana Petra 5.59 never
89 708 Mihrab Introduced
90 709 Jerusalem Israel Al-Aqa Mosque Petra 3.43 never

91 709 Damascus Syria al-Umawi al-Kabr between 1.75 never
95 714 Jericho Israel Khirbat al-Mafjar Petra 0.59 never
95 714 Anjar Lebanon Anjar Palace Mosque Petra 3.61 never
96 715 Aleppo Syria Umawi al Kabr unknown - 1260 CE
99 717 Manama Bahrain Masid al Khamis unknown - 449 AH
102 721 Bora Syria Mosque of Bora between 0.35 never
105 724 Bghdad Iraq Mosque of Rufa unknown - unknown
106 725 Amman Jordan Grand Hussein Mosque unknown - unknown
107 726 Hayr al Gharbi Syria Hayr al Gharbi between 3.21 never
109 727 Banbhore Pakistan Banbhore Mosque Mecca 2.44 never
110 728 Hayr al Sharqi Syria Qar Hayr al Sharqi between 2.8 never
112 730 Amman Citadel Jordan Umayyad Palace Mecca 1.36 never
115 732 Tunis Tunisia Jmi al-Zaytuna parallel 0.99 never
122 740 Baalbeck Lebanon Baalbeck Mosque between 0.67 never
122 741 First mention of Mecca in literature
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Dan Gibson

City Country Name
124 742 Xian China Huajuexiang Mosque unkown - 1392 CE
125 743 Amman Airport Jordan Mushatta Palace Petra 3.99 never
127 744 arrn Turkey Mosque and University between 0.32 never
uknown uknown Hangzhou China Fenghuang Mosque unknown - 1279 CE
135 753 Shibm Yemen Shibm Palace unknown - unknown
145 762 Bghdad Iraq Mosque of Manr Mecca - demolished
146 764 Kfa Iraq Qar Ukhaydir Mecca 3.9 never
153 770 Rib Tunisia Rib Fortress parallel - never
uknown uknown Beer Ora Israel Beer Ora Qiblatain unknown - never
uknown uknown Bowhar Oman Sah Ramdah Mosque Petra 0.58 never
uknown uknown Sumail Oman Sumail Omani Mosque Petra 1.55 never
155 772 Raqqa Syria Raqqa Mosque between 0.86 never
155 772 Ishfan Iran Masjid al Jmi unknown - 419 AH
uknown uknown allah Oman Jobs Tomb Shrine unknown - unknown
uknown uknown Samarkand Ukbekistan Bibi Samarkand Petra & Jer. 1.78 never
168 784 Crdoba Spain Crdoba Mosque parallel 2.01 never
183 799 Bghdad Iraq Shrine of Kazmiyya unknown - unknown
221 836 Qayrawn Tunisia Jmi Uqba Ibn Nafi parallel 4.22 never
232 847 Smarra Iraq Great Mosque of Smarra Mecca 1.13 never
236 850 Ssa Tunisia Great Mosque of Ssa parallel 6.78 never
245 859 Smarra Iraq Abu Dulaf Mosque Mecca 4.6 never
252 866 Qrwn (Kairouan) Tunisia Mosque with Three Doors parallel 3.54 never
257 871 Shibm Aqyan Yemen Jmi al Kabr unknown - 12 century
263 876 Cairo Egypt Ibn ln Mosque Mecca 9.27 -
uknown uknown Asnaq Iran Friday Mosque Mecca 4.15 -
uknown uknown Fahraj Iran Masjid i Jmi Mecca 10.84 9 century
uknown uknown allah Oman Al Bald Mosque Mecca 5.33 10th century
All mosques after this chart have a Mecca Qibla

Above: Qibla data drawn from undisturbed Qiblas of new mosques built during these years.
7
The Short List and Maps

Below are the mosques that point to Petra

City Country Name
86 705 an Yemen Grand Mosque Petra & Jer 0.36 never
90 709 Jerusalem Israel Al Aqa Mosque Petra 3.43 never
Note above: Mosque degrees of error vary from 11.34 to 0.26 with an average of 2.5 from Petra.
Above: Mosques from the first century of Islam where we can still determine their original Qilba direction 1 -
109 AH
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Dan Gibson
Above: Mosques that point to Mecca where we can still determine their original Qibla direction 109-245 AH.
Above: Mosques that point between Mecca and Petra 87 -155 AH
Above: Mosques that point parallel to a line drawn between Mecca and Petra 115- 252 AH
9
The satellite photo below illustrates the accuracy of the Qiblas that pointed to Petra. While the early Arabs
were not able to get their qiblas absolutely exact, there are only two qibas that lie outside of a 75 km (45
mile) circle below. While two qibla are outside of this inner circle, many of the Qiblas are less than 20
kms from Petra, and a few are extremely accurate.
Once I realized that Petra was the focus of the fi rst mosque qiblas, I began a thorough search of all of the
early Islamic accounts. I also lived within that 45 mile circle, and searched much of it for three years,
carefully checking every major archeological site in that region.
10
Dan Gibson
Individual Mosques
In the following pages, I examine each of the individual mosques listed in the charts on the previous pag-
es. I provide further information such as GPS coordinates, a history of the mosque, photos, and comments
on the Qibla. To learn more about those mosques that point between or parallel check the first mosque
where this phenomena started. The mosques are listed in order of the Islamic date AH (after Hijra). When
unsure, check back to the master chart on pages 8 and 9.
Where I can accurately determine the original Qibla direction, I provide a table and a series of compasses.
An example is illustrated below.
The left compass is that of the actual mosque. This mosque points at 304.32 on a 360 degree compass
(as compared to a 224 degree early Arab compass which we will use later). The next compass to the right
shows a Qibla that would point at Petra. In this case the mosque in question misses Petra by only 0.26
degrees. The next compass to the right shows a Qibla direction to Mecca. This particular mosques Qibla
misses Mecca by 75.01 degrees. The compass on the far right shows what a Jerusalem Qibla would have
been from this mosque. In this case the mosques Qibla misses Jerusalem by 1.65 degrees.
Actual Mosque Petra Mecca Jerusalem

304.32 304.06 229.31 305.97
Misses by: 0.26 75.01 1.65
These compasses allow you to compare the various possible Qibla directions of this mosque. The conclu-
sion is that this mosques Qibla points closest to Petra, but Jerusalem is quite close as well. This is why
it is important to survey all of the mosques, to get an accurate understanding of where the original Qibla
might actually be. The chart above is for the Qub Mosque, which is the principle example of why Mus-
lims have claimed that they used to pray to Jerusalem. And while it is true that this mosques Qibla is very
close to Jerusalem, it is actually pointing closer to Petra. But it must be compared with other mosques of
the same period to get a clear picture of where the earliest Qiblas pointed.
11
Qub Mosque
Rebuilt
Year Year Original Degrees of
City Country Name facing
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
1 622 Medina Saudi Arabia Qub Mosque unknown - 435 AH
GPS Coordinates:
24.4683.33N 39.610833E
More information can be obtained from:

http://archnet.org/sites/548

304.32 304.06 229.31 305.97
Misses by: 0.26 75.01 1.65
I have not been able to personally visit the mosques in Medina so I have had to rely on reports from friends
who have been there and who have taken photos. The Qub Mosque, which is just outside of Medina, is
the first and oldest mosque ever built in Saudi Arabia, and believed to be the oldest surviving mosque
anywhere. It is believed that the first stones were positioned by the prophet Muammad on his emigration
from the city of Mecca to Medina, and that the mosque was completed by his companions. Muammad
spent more than 20 nights in this mosque (after migrating) praying qar (a short prayer) while waiting for
Ali whose house was behind this mosque. This mosque was originally built around 622 CE, but subsequent
renovations and rebuilding have changed it so much that it is not possible to examine the original founda-
tions and determine the direction of the original Qibla.
Some believe that Caliph Uthmn made the first renovations to this mosque during his lifetime.16 It was
renovated again in 435 AH, then in 555 AH and 671, 733, 840, 881 and 1245 AH.17 In 1985 it was again
16 Ibn a;-Zubla, Akhbr Al-Madna, (Arabic), pg. 115

17 http://archnet.org/sites/548 Retrieved September 2016
12
Dan Gibson
demolished and rebuilt. With so many renovations, it is no longer possible to determine the original Qibla
direction.
There are many Hadiths that mention the mosque of Qub. It is best known as being the place where they
received the announcement about the change of directing of prayer. Below are some of these Hadiths. No-
tice what these Hadiths say about where the previous Qibla faced. Note that the Arabic word for north
and also for Damascus is the same: sham.
Ibn Umar reported that the people were praying the morning prayer in the Qub mosque when a person came
to them and said, Allah has revealed some of the Qurn to the Prophet in which we have been ordered to face
the Kaba, so face it. They immediately turned their faces from Sham to the Kaba.18
While the people were offering the Fajr prayer at Qub, someone came to them and said: It has been revealed to
Allahs Apostle tonight, and he has been ordered to pray facing the Kaba. So turn your faces to the Kaba. Those
people were facing Sham so they turned their faces towards Kaba.19
Narrated Al-Bara: The Prophet prayed facing Bait-ul-Maqdis for sixteen or seventeen months but he wished that
his Qibla would be the Ka`ba. and he offered Àsr prayers and some people prayed with him. A man from among
those who had prayed with him, went out and passed by some people offering prayer in another mosque, and
they were in the state of bowing. He said, I (swearing by Allah) testify that I have prayed with the Prophet fac-
ing Mecca. Hearing that, they turned their faces to the Ka`ba while they were still bowing. Some men had died
before the Qibla was changed towards the Ka`ba. They had been killed and we did not know what to say about
them. So Allah revealed:-- And Allah would never make your faith (i.e. prayer) to be lost (i.e. your prayers of-
fered (towards Jerusalem). Truly Allah is Full of Pity, Most Merciful towards mankind.
Narrated Ibn Umar: While some people were offering Fajr prayer in the Qub mosque, someone came and said,
Allah has revealed to the Prophet Qurnic instructions that you should face the Kaba, so you too, should face
it. Those people then turned towards the Kaba.20
Narrated Al Bara: We prayed along with the Prophet facing Bayt al Maqdus for sixteen or seventeen months.
Then Allah ordered him to turn his face towards the Qibla: And from whence-so-ever you start forth (for
prayers) turn your face in the direction of al-Masjid al-Harm. 21
Narrated Ibn Umar: While some people were at Qub morning prayer, a man came to them and said, Last night
Qurnic Verses have been revealed whereby the Prophet has been ordered to face the Kaba so you too should
face it. So they, keeping their postures, turned towards the Kaba. Formerly the people were facing sham: And
from whence-so-ever you start forth, turn your face in the direction of al-Masjid al-Harm, and whence-so-ever
you are, turn your face towards it. 22
18 Fiqh us Sunnah, 1.115 and repeated word for word in al Muwatta Hadith 14.6
19 Sahih al-Bukhri 1.397
20 Sahih al-Bukhri 6.15, 6:17, 6:18 (4492) (4493) (4404)
21 Sahih al-Bukhri 6:19
13
Narrated Ibn Umar: While some people were offering Fajr prayer at Qub mosque, someone came to them and
said, Qurnic literature has been revealed to Allahs Apostle tonight, and he has been ordered to face the Kaba
so you too, should turn your faces towards it. Their faces were then towards Sham, so they turned towards the
Qibla. 23
Narrated Abdullah bin Umar: While the people were at Qub offering the morning prayer, suddenly a person
came to them saying, Tonight Divine Inspiration has been revealed to Allahs Apostle and he has been ordered
to face the Kaba: therefore you people should face it. Their faces were towards sham, so they turned their faces
towards the Kaba.24
Narrated Anas: None remains of those who prayed facing both Qiblas except myself.25
In the illustration below we can see that both Jerusalem and Petra are about the same direction from
Medina. They are separated by only 4.45 so they were both basically in the same direction. This would
apply to all of the mosques in Medina, so it is virtually impossible to determine from the Medina mosques
if they faced Jerusalem or Petra. More mosques must be examined to understand the Qibla more fully.
However, it is also interesting to note that this similarity in Qibla directions may have caused later Mus-
lims to believe the first Qibla was towards Jerusalem, when the literature only mentioned Sham or north.

24 Sahih al-Bukhri 9.357
14
Dan Gibson
Mosque of the Prophet
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
2 623 Medina Saudi Arabia Jami-al Nabi unknown - 707 & 1951
GPS Coordinates:
24.468333N 39.610833E
The modern mosque on this site was

built in 1951. There are no records of
the Qibla direction of the earlier 707 CE
or 622 CE mosques.
The Mosque of the Prophet was first built in 622 CE by the Muslim community after they reached the
city of Yathrib, which would later be called Medina. There is no record of the Qibla direction of the first
mosque. The mosque was situated next to the Prophets house, and it consisted of a square enclosure built
with palm trunks and mud walls. It was accessed through three doors: Rahmah to the south, Jibrl to the
west and al-Nis to the east. Within this enclosure, the Prophet created a shaded area to the south called
the suffrah and aligned the prayer space facing north. As we noted in the previous mosque, this could have
been towards Petra or Jerusalem as both are in about the same direction.
After the death of the Prophet, the mosque was enlarged to twice its size. In 707, Umayyad Caliph al-
Wald tore down the old structure, in order to build a larger mosque, with stone foundations and a teak
roof supported on stone columns. The new mosque included the house of the Prophet under which he was
buried.
This reconstruction of the mosque also included changing the Qibla wall. This is clearly communicated
by al-abar below:26
In this year al-Wald b. Abd al-Malik ordered the pulling down of the mosque of the Messenger of God, may
God bless and preserve him, and the pulling down of the rooms of the wives of the Messenger of God, may God
bless and preserve him, and the incorporation of them into the mosque. Muammad b. Umar mentioned that
Muammad b. Jafar b. Wardan al-Banns said: I saw the messenger sent by al-Wald b. Abd al-Malik. He ar-
26 abar Vol. 23, Year 88, page 141
15
rived in the month of Rabi I in the year 88 (February-March 707 CE) with a turban wound round his head.
He entered into the presence of Umar b. Abd al-Azz bearing al-Walds letter ordering him to incorporate the
rooms of the wives of the Messenger of God, may God bless and preserve him, into the mosque, and to buy (the
land) behind it and beside it so that it might [measure] two hundred cubits by two hundred cubits. He also said
to him (in the letter) : Move the Qibla if you are able, and you are able, because of the standing of your ma-
ternal uncles ...27
Many historians believe that the moving of the Qibla at this time refers only to destroying the Qibla
wall and rebuilding it again as part of the larger construction. If the reader does not know of the change
of Qibla direction at this time, then this interpretation seems logical.
However, the passage specifically mentions moving the Qibla and the possible objection of the people,
and Umar b. Abd al-Azz needing to have the support of his maternal uncles, which all points towards a
momentous change that the people of Medina might strongly object to. This is one of the evidences that
we have in literature that the Qibla was changed at this time. More literary evidences can be found in the
book Qurnic Geography.
27 abar Volume 23, Year 88, page 141
16
Dan Gibson
Qiblatain Mosque, Medina
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
24292.72N 393443.17E
For more information see:

Masjid al-Qiblatain (Mosque of the Two Qiblas) is a mosque in Medina that is historically important for
Muslims. As the name states, this mosque uniquely contained two Qiblas. This is an important mosque for
our study as the original structure was built around 626 CE and further renovations maintained the origi-
nal two Qiblas. In 1987 the mosque was completely renovated, removing the old prayer niche that faced
north, but maintaining the one facing Mecca. This mosque has undergone several major reconstructions,
the latest being in 1987. Nothing remains of the original mosque, but Abdel Wahd el Wakl, an architect,
made excellent drawings of the earlier structures before the mosque was torn down and replaced with
the new building. When the old mosque was torn down, the foundation stones of the earlier mosque un-
derneath revealed that the original building faced north towards both Petra and Jerusalem which were in
almost the same direction. This is true of every mosque in Medina. (map below).
17
Janad Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
6 627 Janad Yemen Janad Mosque unknown - 1011 CE
GPS Coordinates:
13407.49 N 44100.06E
This mosque is located in Yemen, near the city of Taiz which I visited in 1984. It was rebuilt in 919-1011
CE (317-407 AH), destroyed in 1162-63 CE (558 AH) and rebuilt in 1180 CE (575 AH.) The qibla of the
rebuilt mosque faces closer to Mecca than any other direction. Since this mosque was rebuilt so many
times, it is impossible to determine its original qibla direction.
For more information see: http://archnet.org/sites/3811
Left: The author (right) with several other young men drove
through much of Yemen from 1983-1985. They preferred a
Volkswagen van because of its high clearance allowing it to
go where many Toyota pick-ups could not. They had permis-
sion to travel from the Yemeni government and collected
many fascinating stories of their exploits.
18
Dan Gibson
Guangzhou Grand Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
23 733.65N 1131513.21E

291.66 294.97 284.55 296.52
Misses by: 2.81 7.11 4.86
The Great Mosque of Guangzhou, known also as Huaisheng Mosque (Memorial of the Holy Prophet)
or the Guangta Mosque (Light Tower Mosque) is thought to be the earliest surviving mosque in China,
and has the earliest freestanding minaret in China. Manuscripts from 1206 claim that the mosque was
originally built by an uncle of the Prophet, Abu Waqqas, on a trade mission to China in the 630s, dur-
ing Muammads lifetime. The mosque was then rebuilt in 1350 during the Yuan dynasty under the rule
of Zhizheng (1341-1368), and rebuilt again in 1695 under Emperor Kangzi of the Qing dynasty after it
was destroyed in a fire. The Huaisheng Light Tower, the mosques unique namesake minaret, was built
at an earlier period. Like its contemporaries at Quanzhou, Hangzhou and Yangzhou, the Great Mosque
of Guangzhou is notable for its integration of the local Han building tradition with imported Arab styles.
19
I personally examined this mosque with a GPS unit in 2008 and found it challenging to determine if the
builders rebuilt on the original foundations. The current mosque faces 12 degrees north of where the qibla
should be, meaning that it faces Petra. Because of its great distance from Arabia, local Muslims feel that
it is close enough to Mecca.
Left: The author at the door

of the mosque complex and
beside the light tower that
acted as a minaret.
20
Dan Gibson
Jowatha Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
8 629 al-Kilabiyah Saudi Arabia Jowatha Mosque unknown - 9th century
Above: The Jawatha mosque was rebuilt in the 9th century to face Mecca. The original qibla is unknown.
Jawatha Mosque is located in the village of Al-Kilabiyah, about 12 km northeast of Hofuf, Al-Ahsa, Saudi
Arabia. It was the earliest mosque built in eastern Arabia and most of the original structure is in ruins
but the site is still used for prayer. It was built in the seventh year of Hijra at the hands of the Bani Abd
al-Qays tribe which lived there before and early in the Islamic period. This mosque is believed to be the
first mosque built in Eastern Province and is where the second Friday congregation prayer in Islam was
offered, the first being held at the Prophets Mosque in Medina. When the Black Stone was stolen from
Mecca by those protesting against Mecca becoming the holy City of Islam, it was apparently kept in this
mosque for nearly 22 years.28 Most of the mosques original structure has been lost and it remains in dan-
ger of collapse. Only five small mud-brick arches remain. The visible ruins have been dated from the 9th
century CE.
28 Madelung, W., Karmati, Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol IV, Brill, 1997, page 662
21
Cheraman Juma Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
101310.77N 761137.94E

304.32 304.06 229.31 305.97
Misses by: 0.26 75.01 1.65
Summary: Petra is closer to the mosque Qibla than Mecca or Jerusalem
The Cheraman Juma Masjid is a mosque

in the Indian state of Kerala. Built in 629
CE, it is the first mosque in India. It was
built by Malik Deenar, an Arab propaga-
tor of Islam and a follower and contem-
porary of Islamic Prophet Muammad.
It is believed that this mosque was first
renovated and reconstructed in the 11th
century CE. but the original qibla ap-
pears to be the same.
22
Dan Gibson
Masjid Umar ibn al-Khattb
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
13 634 Dawmat al Jandal Saudi Arabia Umar ibn al-Khattb unknown - 1793
GPS Coordinates:
294843.30N 39523.83E
Dumat al-Jundal is an ancient city of ruins located in North Western Saudi Arabia in the Al Jawf Province.
The name Dumat al-Jandal means literally Dumah of the Stone, since this was the territory of Dumah,
one of the twelve sons of Ishmael. The citys ancient Akkadian name was Adummatu.
The Mosque of Umar Ibn al-Khattb is situated in the town of Dawmat al-Jandal, a major intersection of
ancient trade routes linking Mesopotamia, Syria and the Arabian Peninsula. The mosque itself was built in
634-644 CE. However, the actual building appears to have been built in a much later period, casting doubt
upon its attribution to Umar Ibn al-Khattb. Some scholars attribute it to the Umayyad Caliph Umar bin
Abdul Azz, and some believe that the mosque was named after BaniAmr, a tribe that settled in Dawmat
al-Jandal.
The north (qibla) wall of the mosque faces the al-Marid Castle across a street. On its other three sides, it
is surrounded by dense urban housing. Like the other old buildings in the town, the mosque is built in
23
stone. It is composed of a courtyard preceding the main prayer hall to the south and another space, also
used for prayer, to the north.
The mihrab is a narrow, highly pointed niche in the center of the qibla wall, and is defined by a similar
niche with three built-in stone steps to its right. The mihrab, the minbar, and the lower part of the qibla
wall are plastered white. Viewed from the exterior, one sees that the mihrab and minbar protrude slightly
out of the qibla wall. Also visible is an exposed stone staircase constructed along the qibla wall from the
street side that reaches the mud roof. The minaret shaft has a rectangular shape that tapers upward to end
in a pyramidal roof. The four internal floors of the shaft were accessed by a now-collapsed spiral staircase
entered from the mosque.
The Saud family is believed to have rebuilt the prayer hall in 1793. Later, in the mid-nineteenth century,
the Saud family restored the mosque. In 1975, buildings surrounding the minaret from the south and the
west were demolished, and the minaret and the mosque restored yet again.
24
Dan Gibson
Jmi Hama alKabr
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates: 35 83.87N 364455.63E

193.87 193.26 168.06 201.04
Misses by: 0.61 25.81 7.17
Located in Bab al-Qubli Quarter west of the citadel, Jmi al-Kabr, the Great Mosque, was build on the
site of a Roman Temple built about 250 CE. The temple was converted into a Byzantine Church approxi-
mately 100 years later, and then to a mosque in 636-637 CE/14-15 AH. In the illustration above you can
clearly see that the mosque is oriented towards Petra rather than Mecca.
The prayer hall has five domes in the shape of a cross, and originally had five entrances. Two are now
25
converted to windows. The courtyard is enclosed by a vaulted portico and contains an elevated treasury
like the one in the courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus (709-15/90-96 AH). There are two
minarets. A square minaret is adjacent to the prayer hall and dates back to the early decades of the twelfth
century, though sources vary on the exact date of construction. The other, near the north doorway, is
octagonal in shape and was built by ca. 1427 CE by the Mamlks. The western portico opens onto a mau-
soleum containing the tombs of 13th century Ayyubid Caliphs.
The mosque was destroyed in bombardments to suppress a 1982 uprising in Hama. The Syrian Antiquities
Department then rebuilt the mosque according to the original Umayyad design.
Below: the courtyard in 1940 before the modern reconstruction.
26
Dan Gibson
Mosque of the Prophet Yunus
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
16 637 Mosoul Iraq Jami al-Yunus unknown - 1393 CE
GPS Coordinates:
362034.45N 43 736.95E
A shrine was built on this spot in 16 AH or around 637 CE to commemorate the prophet Yunus (Jonah).
Centuries later in 1393 CE, Tamurlane tore down the shrine and built a mosque on the spot. The yellow
line comes from Mecca, demonstrating that this mosques qibla points to Mecca.
On July 24, 2014, the building was blown up by the Islamic State. A security source, who kept his iden-
tity anonymous, told the Iraq-based al-Sumaria News that ISIS militants seized control of the mosque
completely. The militants then closed all doors and prevented worshipers from entering to pray. They
then detonated explosives, destroying the mosque and damaging several nearby houses. They stated the
mosque had become a place for apostasy, not prayer.29
29 IraqiNews.com. 24 July 2014. Retrieved 24 July 2014
27
Masjid Kfa
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
16 638 Kfa Iraq Masjid Kfa unknown - 749 CE
GPS Coordinates:
320143N 442403E
The date of construction of the original mosque is unknown. It is assumed that it was built by Caliph Umar
when he established the city around 16 AH. However, in 686 CE or 67 AH during the second Islamic Civil
war, the city of Kfa sided with Ibn Zubayr against Damascus, choosing Ibn al-Zubayrs qibla of Mecca
in Saudi Arabia as their Qibla: When the armies of Kfa met Ibn al-Zubayr, Bujayr ibn Abdallah al Musli
spoke: Praise be to God who has tested us with shackles and has tested you by your forgiving us. Ibn Zubayr, we
are people who turn to the same Qibla as you.30
Some believe that the mosque plan was made by Ziyd ibn Abihi around 50 AH but some place its re-
construction later, after the end of the Second Civil War (131 AH); based on the lack of manpower and
political will due to the intense fighting and reoccurring famine. The new mosque (built in 749 CE ) faced
Mecca in Saudi Arabia and was surrounded by a trench and an arcade of marble columns that extended 20
meters in length. It measured approximately 100 square meters with the side of the qibla organized into
five aisles and the others arranged into two. According to early literary sources, the aisles were demar-
30 abar 21:107 [740]
28
Dan Gibson
cated by masonry block columns that rose to the height of the mosques flat roof, which was described as
being rather high. Creswell posits that the design was reminiscent of an apadana, an architectural struc-
ture similar to a Hall of Columns for Persian kings.
This mosque is revered for many reasons: It is claimed to be the place where Ali was fatally wounded by
a poison-coated sword while prostrating in the Fajr prayer. It also contains the tombs of Muslim ibn Aqil,
Hani ibn Urwa, and Mukhtar al-Thaqfi. There are markers within the mosque indicating the locations
for where the court of Ali used to preside, where he was claimed to perform miracles, and where Ali ibn
Husayn and Jafar as-Sadiq used to perform alt. Islamic traditions relate that it was the dwelling place of
Noah and that this was the place where he built the Ark. According to Shia belief, it was from this mosque
that the diluvium of Noah started submerging earth, as well as being the place from where the water was
re-absorbed - also marked within the mosque. Imam Jafar as-Sadiq said that up to twelve miles of land
in all directions from the mosque are blessed by its holiness. Jafar al-Sadiq was also recorded as remark-
ing that the mosque in Kfa is superior to that of Jerusalem and that performing two prostrations of
prayer here would be better for me than ten others at any mosque. There are also Shia traditions which
state that performing one prayer in this mosque is the same as having performed one thousand prayers
elsewhere, and performing one obligatory prayer here is equal to having performed an accepted Hajj. The
secretariat of Al-Kfa Mosque and its Shrines describes the mosque as being one of the sole four dignified
mosques to which Muslims must travel, and that it comes in third place after the Kaba and the mosque
of Prophet.
For more information visit: http://archnet.org/sites/3823
29
Amr ibn -Al-As Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
30038.74N 311354.09E
The Mosque of Amr ibn al-As was founded by the Muslim conqueror of Egypt in 641 CE near his house
in the town of Fusa, outside of Cairo. This mosque was rebuilt and enlarged in 673 CE during the reign
of Muawiya, who is said to have added a minaret to each of its four corners.
Today the mosque does not exist in its original form, having undergone numerous restorations so that the
original foundation is no longer evident.
However, a description of the original ground-plan of the mosque shows that the qibla pointed east and
had to be corrected towards Mecca later under the governorship of Qurra ibn Sharik.31
Interestingly this agrees with the later Islamic tradition compiled by Ahmad ibn al-Maqrizi that Amr ibn
al-As prayed facing east, and not more towards the south.32
31 Creswell 1969, pages 37,150

32 31 al-Maqrizi 1326 page 6; Crone-Cook 1977 pages 24,173
30
Dan Gibson
Hala Sultan Tekke
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
28 649 Larnaca Cyprus Hala Sultan Tekke unknown - 1323 CE
GPS Coordinates:
34536.56N 333638.53E
Most accounts establish a connection between this site and the death of Umm Haram during the first
Arab raids on Cyprus under the Caliph Muawiyah between 647 and 649 CE, which were later pursued
throughout the Umayyad and the Abbasid periods. According to these accounts, Umm Haram, being of
very old age, had fallen from her mule and had died during a siege of Larnaca. She was later buried where
she died. According to Shia belief, her grave lies within Jannatul Baqi cemetery in Madinah, Saudi Ara-
bia. The modern mosque was built by this tomb in 1232 AH in Ottoman style. No previous Qibla can be
determined.
31
Mosque of Sidi Ukba

City Country Name
67 686 Biskra Algeria Mosque of Sidi Ukba unknown - 416&1214AH
GPS coordinates
344457.81N 55350.99E
The original buildings date to 67 AH (686 CE).33 However, the Sidi Uqba mosque was built around Uqba
ibn Nafis tomb. The tomb has no qibla or mihrab in itself. There are a number of inscriptions in the
mosque. For instance while the construction of the tomb is given as 67/686 according to an inscription on
the tomb, there are some epitaphs dating a reconstruction to 416 AH (1025 CE).34 Another inscription on
a wooden plank on a wall carries an inscription with the a date of 1215 AH (1800); similarly the mosques
mihrab is dated to 1214 AH (1789). Since there have been two reconstructions, and one of them specifi-
cally dealing with the Qibla, we cannot use this mosque in our study. This mosque is an excellent example
of an early mosque that we can no longer be absolutely certain of where the original qibla pointed.
33 Ali Lafer Sidi Uqba (mosque, minaret and tomb) in Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers, 2016.
2016. http://www.discoverislamicart.org/database_item.php?id=monument;isl;dz;mon01;15;en
34 According to Captain H. Simon in his Notes sur le mausole de Sidi Okba (Revue Africaine, 1909, pl. III),
these dates refer to expansions.
32
Dan Gibson
Dome of the Rock
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
71 690 Jerusalem Israel Dome of the Rock unknown - never
GPS Coordinates:
31.7780N 35.2354E
Known as Al-Harm al-Sharf, this monument is part of an enormous open-air platform of artificial con-
struction that houses the congregational mosque of al-Aqa, numerous memorial buildings and fountains
and is surrounded by many madrasas. The platform was built during Herodian times (1st century CE) to
accommodate the new Jewish Temple (that was burned shortly after its completion). The Dome of the
Rock is built approximately in the center of the Haram on an additional platform, it is the most prominent
building in al-Haram al-Sharf both in terms of height and colors.
The Dome of the Rock was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik and completed in 691 CE. While
it is an early Islamic monument and one of the most admired, the original purposes for its creation have
been the subject of much debate from the late Middle Ages to this day.
From my study of early Islamic Qiblas, I have determined that the Dome was built during the second Is-
lamic civil war at the time when Ibn Zubayr destroyed the Qibla (I propose in Petra) and moved the Black
Stone to Mecca. I believe this may be the reason that the dome contains no qibla, as the qibla direction
was being contested at that very time.
For more information visit: http://archnet.org/sites/2814
33
Qar Humeima
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
295659.64N 352045.33E

20.64 13.31 153.66 357.06
Misses by: 7.33 133.02 23.58
J.P. Oleson of the University of Victoria (Canada) excavated this site in ancient Hawara or modern Hu-
meima in southern Jordan. The Abbasid Qar was identifi ed in 1993. It is a rectangular structure consist-
ing of a large courtyard surrounded by rooms fronting the court, which also acted as the prayer area until
later a small mosque was constructed outside the southwest corner. Ceramics and coins provide rich and
34
Dan Gibson
precise documentation of the date, and the remains of frescoes and carved ivory furniture indicate a taste
for luxury and wide commercial connections appropriate to this politically active family. The site was
abandoned around 750 A.D.
The Umayyad Palace Qar at Humeima was built during the early Islamic era by Ali, a grandson of Abbas,
a paternal uncle of the prophet Muammad. The Qar would have either included a small prayer room or
the central court would have been used for prayer, therefore the alignment of the entire building should
have been according to the qibla. The building is oriented northeast corresponding to a Petra qibla, only
27 miles to the north. Later a smaller outside mosque was built with a qibla pointing closer to Mecca.
Above: Beside the Umayyad Qar is the ancient city of Howara. Water was brought into the city by an aque-
duct, and stored in underground cisterns.
35
Amman Umayyad Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
315716.48N 35564.53E

183.10 194.44 160.82 253.61
Misses by: 11.34 22.28 70.51
The foundation of the old mosque on the Amman citadel (the square in the centre of the photo above) is
about 30 meters square. This building was built around 700 CE. So far, it has not been possible to abso-
36
Dan Gibson
lutely date the time of construction of these buildings, but they were built early during Umayyad rule.
However if you examine the photo you can clearly see that the first set of buildings (center) pointed south.
The later buildings (previous photo with the dome) were built around 740 CE and clearly demonstrate a
new focus and direction. The original buildings face Petra, but the newer buildings (built some 40 years
later) face Mecca. 35 During the period between these two constructions Abdallh ibn Zubayr completely
destroyed the Kaba and rebuilt it, possibly in a new location. This is addressed in detail in my book
Qurnic Geography (pgs 296-300, 331-332. 370-371) As you can see, the old qibla of the old mosque
pointed closer to Petra than to Mecca.
35 See page 69
37
an Grand Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
86 705 an Yemen Grand Mosque Petra never never
GPS Coordinates:
152111.28N 441254.80E

333.60 333.24 326.12 335.07
Misses by: 0.36 8.8 1.45
38
Dan Gibson
The Great Mosque of an is in the capital city of Yemen. According to early sources, the Prophet
Muammad commanded the construction of this mosque, including its location and dimensions, some-
time around 630 CE. While the validity of this claim lacks certainty, the mosque remains one of the early
architectural projects in Islam. Sometime between 705 and 715 CE, the Umayyad Caliph al-Wald I rebuilt
and enlarged the mosque. Like previous examples, this mosque points directly towards Petra, but since the
Mecca Qibla is close it could be argued that it also points in the general direction of Mecca. In 1972 and
2010, caches of early versions of the Qurn were discovered in this mosque.
Above: Inside the mosque congregational area. (c) Abdul-Halim Jabr 1987. Used with permission MIT.
39
Khirbat al Minya
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
325156.40N 353211.72E

182.67 181.87 160.53 193.25
Misses by: 0.8 22.14 10.58
Summary: Petra is closer to the mosque Qibla than Mecca or Jerusalem.
Qar Khirbat al Minya is in Israel.36 This is an Umayyad-built palace located in the eastern Galilee region
about 200 meters west of the northern end of Lake Tiberias.37 It was erected as an Umayyad palace com-
36 also known as Ayn Minyat Hishm

37 Sea of Galilee
40
Dan Gibson
plex with a palace, mosque and bath built by al Wald. (The date of construction is based on an inscription
set into a gateway)
The palace contained a room that was constructed for the purpose of being a mosque. It was the room
with pillars in the bottom right corner. Because it is almost directly north of Petra, the mosque and the
entire building points directly at Petra, not Mecca which is more southeast. The floor plan and photo on
the previous page show a line drawn from Petra back to this structure. Below and on the next page are
photos of this structure. The floor plan was obtained from www.archnet.org.
For more information please visit: http://archnet.org/sites/5574
41
42
Dan Gibson
Wsi Great Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
87 706 Wsi Iraq ajjj Mosque between .29 never
GPS Coordinates:
314651.15N 453042.49E

234.98 263.08 207.47 272.69
Misses by: 27.51 22.14 37.71
Summary: This mosque points directly between Petra and Mecca
Wsi was an Islamic city south of Kut in Iraq, built in the last quarter of the the 7th century CE by al-
ajjj bin Yousif Al-Thaqfi, as an administrative centre for Iraq. As an ancient city its circumference was
16 KM. It was abandoned in the tenth century after a change in the Tigris river bed. For many years its
remains stood sound and safe due to its distant site away from constructive and agricultural influence.
Most of its buildings are of bricks. Investigations took place there between 1936-1942, then in 1985. Its
large mosque and a building known as the minaret was cleared out, including a tomb and a school that
dates back to the seventh century AH. Preservations took place on some parts of the minaret due to walls
been worn out, but no real maintenance has been carried out.
The Wsi Mosque in Iraq has been the center of much discussion. Originally, Creswell and Fehervari
studied the ground plans of this mosque and claimed that this mosque pointed to Jerusalem.38 However,
further research has shown that this mosque does not point to Mecca or Jerusalem, but somewhere in
between. In their Internet article on the website Islamic Awareness, The Qibla of Early Mosques, Jeru-
salem or Makkah?:39 the authors clearly demonstrate that the qibla of the Wsi mosque points to neither
Jerusalem (too far north) or Mecca (too far south).
38 Creswell, 1969 pg 137 & 1989, pg 40; Fehervari, 1961, pg 89; Crone-Cook 1977, pgs 23 & 173
39 http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Dome_Of_The_Rock/qibla.html M S M Saifullah,
Muammad Ghoniem, Abd al Rahman, Robert Squires and Manur Ahmed
43
Instead they discovered that the qibla pointed between Jerusalem and Mecca. From my calculations I
demonstrate that this mosque points directly between the Petra and Mecca, within less than one degree
of accuracy.
Those familiar with the history of al-ajjj bin Yousif Al-Thaqfi will remember that it was he who led
the fight against Ibn Zubayr in the Holy City. This book demonstrates that this city was Petra in Jordan, so
when ajjj set out to build this mosque that would bear his name, he did not want it to point to that city.
Especially since the Black Stone had been moved into Saudi Arabia. However, ajjj also fought against
those who moved the stone, and naturally would have refused to point his mosque at this new usurper
city. So he did something totally different.
In a move that surprised everyone, he pointed his mosque directly between the two cities. On the other
hand, Jhiz includes the setting of the qibla of Wsi among the misdeeds of Walid I and family. (Note:
al-Hajjajs daughter wed Masrur, son of al Walid I.)40
This protest by al-ajjj against the change of Qibla to Mecca was echoed by others in the Abbasid empire,
and was followed by a series of mosques being pointed between Mecca and Petra. (See map below)
Left: The between Qiblas do

not point to any particular
place: not Medain Saleh, De-
dan, Tayma, Kaybar nor Jebal
Lawz or any other archeologi-
cal site. They simply point be-
tween Petra and Mecca from
their particular angle.
For more information see

page 172 When did the Qibla
change?
40 al-Sandubi, H. (ed.), Rasil-Jahiz, Cairo 1933, p. 296; and Crone, Hagarism, page 173
44
Dan Gibson
Masjid al-Tarik Khana
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
89 708 Damghan Iran Masjid al-Tarik Khana Petra 5.59 never
GPS Coordinates:
36 948.91N 542115.12E

249.56 255.15 224.59 260.06
Misses by: 5.59 22.39 13.08
The oldest extant mosque in Iran, the Tarik Khana, or House of God incorporates a simple Arab plan with
Sassanian construction techniques. An arcade lines the central courtyard, a single bay deep on all but the
qibla side where it increases to 3 bays. The central aisle on the qibla arcade is wider and taller than the
others, a form that indicates the Persian architecture. The arcades are formed of fi red brick arches, ellipti-
cal and sometimes slightly pointed, and massive circular brick piers. The illustration below shows lines
drawn from Petra and Mecca. Clearly this mosque faces Petra. More information about this mosque can
be found at: http://archnet.org/sites/1605
45
Mihrab Introduced
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
89 708 Mihrab Introduced
Immediately after Ibn al-Zubayrs rebellion and rebuilding of the Kaba, the mihrab mark or niche began
appearing in new mosques and added to old mosques. It seems a bit strange that up until this time there
was no question as to which direction the faithful should pray. The entire building faced the qibla, with
one wall designated as a qibla wall. Now, however, the mihrab was added to old mosques as well new
mosque construction, seeming to indicate that a new qibla direction had been introduced.
Above: Tarik Khana Mosque, Iran

Left: The Ibra Mosque Niche, Oman
From early Islamic literature it becomes clear that there were different theories of how the Mihrab niche
practice began. These include:
1. Uthmn constructed the first prayer-niche in the Prophets Mosque41
2. Marwn was the first to build the prayer-niche42
3. It was Umar ibn Abd al-Azz, during the Caliphate of al-Wald 43,44,45,46
41 Ibn Baa 1958, 170

42 abar Vol. 23, Year 88, page 141
43 Uthmn extended the building of the mosque, four years before he was killed p 115
44 Umar Bin Abdul-Azz is the one who also extended the Masjid but he did not change the Qibla and asked the
people of Medina to witness his renovation. p. 120
45 When Mohammad died there was no mihrab for mosques, nor during the time of the Caliphates. The first
who made a mihrab was Umar Bin Abdul-Azz. p 83 & 121 - 122 also referred by Samhoudi vol. 1 p. 370 and vol.
2 p. 525 and Al-Moraghy p. 51
46 When Uthmn died and there were still no mihrabs nor windows in the mosque. It was Umar Bin Abdul-Azz
who initiated the mihrab. pg 120
46
Dan Gibson
Al-Aqa Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
314632.63N 35148.27E

169.61 173.04 157.30 349.55
Misses by: 3.43 12.31 n/a
Summary: Petra is closer to the mosque Qibla than Mecca or Jerusalem.
Above: The Al-Aqa mosque is in dark grey. A yellow line has been drawn from Petra to this mosque to
demonstrate that the mosque faces Petra.
47
The al-Aqa mosque in Jerusalem has undergone multiple stages of construction and renovations over the
years. It is generally agreed that Abd al- Malik, (685-705) the Umayyad Caliph who was the patron of
the Dome of the Rock, started the construction of al-Aqa Mosque at the end of the 7th century.47 A major
building phase took place during the time of the caliphate of his son, al-Wald (709-715). The building suf-
fered from several major earthquakes and was renovated and reconstructed during the Abbasid period by
Caliph al-Mahd (775-785), and possibly by Caliph al-Manr (754-775). This mosque in Jerusalem does
not point to Mecca but rather points 169.23 which is towards Petra, only 160 miles away.
John Moschus was born in the mid-sixth century. He wrote Pratum spirituale or Spiritual Meadow which
contained 304 short stories on the feats and achievements of holy men, plus anecdotes about suffering,
temptation, evil and piety, as well as an appendix of thirty additional stories. Story 19 tells of the Mus-
lims who began to build a mosque on a place called the Capital in Jerusalem. If this account is true, then
construction of Al Aqsa on the Temple Mount began soon after its capture around 637 CE. (16 AH)48, 49
The Arabic accounts of Umars visit to Jerusalem are discussed by Bussee, Umar in Jerusalem. The
monk Anastasius of Sinai informs us that after an earthquake he witnessed clearing work being under-
taken on the Temple Mount around 660 CE.50
47 abar Vol. 12, translated by Yohanan Friedmann, page 193

48 Seeing Islam as Others Saw it, Robert Hoyland, 1997, pages 63-65
49 Caetani, Chron. 200-201 CE
50 Haldon (1992) and Blair, What is the date of the Dome of the Rock?
48
Dan Gibson
Jmi al-Umawi al-Kabr
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
333041.98 N 361824.85E
Actual Mosque Petra Mecca Between

177.21 193.25 164.67 178.96
Misses by: 20.25 8.33 1.75
Summary: This mosque points between Petra and Mecca
This mosque holds a shrine which is said to contain the head of John the Baptist. The head was supposedly
49
found during the excavations for the building of the mosque. There are also many important landmarks
within the mosque for Shia Muslims. Among them is the place where the head of Husain (the grandson of
Muammad) was kept on display by Yazid I. There is also the tomb of Saladin, (al al-Dn) which stands
in a small garden adjoining the north wall of the mosque.
The construction of this mosque was based on the design of the house of Muammad in Medina, having
many functions: it was a place for personal and collective prayer, religious education, political meetings,
administration of justice and relief for the ill and homeless. This mosque was the most impressive in the
Islamic world at the time. The interior walls were covered with fine mosaics considered to depict paradise,
which an interesting tradition holds, so impressed Muammad that he declined to enter it, preferring to
taste paradise in the afterlife. (Note: this mosque was built 77 years after Muammad died.) The Damascus
Mosque was considered one of the marvels of the world because it was one of the largest in its time.
This mosque was one of the first mosques (the other being al-Aqa Mosque in Jerusalem) to be shaped in
such a way so that visitors could easily see the mihrab and each other. The interior of the mosque is mainly
plain white, although it contains some fragmentary mosaics and other geometric patterns.
It is thought that the mosque used to have the largest golden mosaic in the world at over 4,000 m. The
mosque has been rebuilt several times due to fires in 1069, 1401, and 1893 CE, each time upon the same
foundation stones. Many of the early mosaics were lost, although some have been restored since. The
minaret in the southeast corner is called the Minaret of Jesus, as some Muslims believe that this is where
Jesus will appear at the end of the world. It is interesting to note that the current mosque does not face
Mecca but rather a point between Petra and Mecca. (See Wsi, page: 42)
50
Dan Gibson
Khirbat al-Mafjar
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
315258.97N 352735.81E

180.03 180.62 158.52 241.49
Misses by: 0.59 21.51 61.46
Summary: This mosque points directly at Petra
The Khirbat al Mafjar Mosque is located near Jericho in

the Jordan Valley. Due to the poor state of the ruins, and
the poor quality satellite photos, I have chosen to use a
drawing of the ruins from Archnet.org. Khirbat al-Mafjar
(see the plan right) remains one of the most highly sophis-
ticated Umayyad palaces known for its elaborate mosaics,
stucco carvings and overall sculptural magnificence.
Khirbat al- Mafjar was built during the reign of Hishm

Ibn Abd al-Mali, and was abandoned around 744 CE
when the Umayyad dynasty collapsed and the Abbasids
rose to power. The Abbasids never rebuilt the palace.
Once again this is a palace that contained a mosque. The

palace was located almost directly north of Petra, so the
mosque (bottom center room) faces south as shown in the
floor plan, rather than towards Mecca.
From the drawing we can see that the original mosque
51
(with no mihrab niche) faced toward Petra, but a later a mihrab niche was added which needed reinforc-
ing. That niche faced more towards Mecca.
See http://archnet.org/sites/4136 for more information.
Above: A beautiful mosaic floor, possibly depicting the Tree of Life in Khirbat al- Mafjar.
52
Dan Gibson
Anjar Palace Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
95 714 Anjar Lebanon Palace Mosque Petra 3.61 never
GPS Coordinates:
334355.23N 35561.79E

190.76 187.15 163.40 196.93
Misses by: 3.61 27.36 6.17
Summary: This mosque points almost directly at Petra.
53
In Islamic texts the palace at Anjar is often called Ayn al-Jarr. The Anjar palace and mosque are lo-
cated 58 kilometers from Beirut, just a short distance from the Litani River. Anjar is the only exclusively
Umayyad site in Lebanon. Its name originates from the term Ayn Gerrah which means the source of
Gerrah in Arabic, referring to an ancient fortress in the region. Commissioned by the Umayyad Caliph
al-Wald, son of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwn in the early 8th century, it prospered as a trading city, situated
strategically at the crossroad of the north-south and east-west trade routes. However, by the conclusion of
Umayyad political domination, no more than thirty years later, Anjar fell rapidly into disrepair and even-
tually was abandoned. Historically, it remains unique as the only inland commercial center in Lebanon.
As the illustration on the previous page indicates, the entire complex including the palace and mosque are
built with an orientation pointing towards Petra.
See http://archnet.org/sites/3711 for more information.
54
Dan Gibson
Jmial Umawi al Kabr
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
96 715 Aleppo Syria Umawi al Kabr unknown - 1260 CE
GPS Coordinates:
36.199492N 37.156911E
This mosque is purportedly home to the remains of Zechariah, the father of John the Baptist. It was built
in the beginning of the 8th century. However, the current building only dates back to the 12th century, so
we cannot determine its original qibla direction. The minaret was built in 1090 and was destroyed during
fighting in the Syrian civil war in April 2013. The modern mosque has a qibla towards Mecca.
You can learn more from: http://archnet.org/sites/1804
55
Masjid al Khamis

City Country Name Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
99 717 Manama Barain Masid al Khamis unknown - 449 AH
GPS Coordinates:
26.2082N 50.5483E
The Suq al-Khamis, or Thursday Market is situated in the southern suburb of Manama, four kilometers
away from Al Khamis town. The mosques construction date is highly debated. Some archaeologists sug-
gest that it was built in 717 CE, during the reign of the Umayyad Caliph Umar bin Abdul-Azz. However,
an inscription on the qibla wall attests that the current building was built in 1058 (near the end of Qa-
ramatian rule) upon the request of two dignitaries from Barain, Abdulla Bin Bahll and Abu Al Wald
Msallam. At that time they oriented the mosque towards Mecca.
You can learn more about this mosque at: http://archnet.org/sites/3788
56
Dan Gibson
Mosque of Bora
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
323116.95N 362858.70E

183.63 202.37 164.18 183.27
Misses by: 18.74 19.45 0.35
Summary: This mosque points between Petra and Mecca.
57
The Mosque of Umar is located in the ancient Nabataean city of Bora, about 140 km south of Damascus.
Although Bora is known for its famous, still-intact theatre, the city also displays strong Islamic (especially
Ayyubid) architectural influences. Some of its Islamic monuments include: Hammam Majak, Mosque of
al-Khider, Mabrak Mosque, Faima Mosque and the Mosque of Umar. Caliph Umar, who led the Muslim
conquest of Syria in 636, founded the mosque. It was completed in 720 CE by the Caliph Yazid II, and
renovated and expanded in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries by the Ayyubid dynasties who also forti-
fied the theatre and baths. As you can see from the illustration above the mosques orientation does not
point towards Mecca. You can read more about this mosque at: http://archnet.org/sites/10552
See Wsi Mosque to learn more about the between orientation, page 45.
58
Dan Gibson
Mosque of Rufa
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
105 724 Bghdad Iraq Mosque of Rufa unknown - unknown
GPS Coordinates:
near 331954N 442455E
The name Rufa is used for several places in the Islamic world from Cordova in the west to Nshpr in
the east.51 Today al-Rufa is the name of a quarter of the city of Bghdad which was founded soon after
the caliph al-Manr built his Round City. The quarter of al-Rufa (whose name refers to the paved, em-
banked causeway across the swampy ground enclosed by the bend of the Tigris within which the quarter
was laid out) was, according to the historical accounts was built by al-Manr on the eastern banks of the
river, opposite the palace of al-Khuld and the Round City.52 The building of al- Rufa took seven years,
and was not completed till 159/776, by which time al-Mahd had (in 159/775) succeeded to the throne.
The new quarter was connected to the western side of Bghdad by a bridge of boats whose obvious stra-
tegic importance was such that each end was guarded by a police post. The foundation of al- Rufa was
the starting-point for the expansion of Bghdads suburbs on the eastern bank. Along with the palace a
large congregational mosque was constructed in the Rufa district.53 There are several references also of
the Suwayqat Nasr which was adjacent to the Rufa Mosque and was home to several scholars as well as
being a place where traditions were exchanged.54 The original mosque is no longer in existence.
51 Yqt, Bulddn, ed. Beirut, iii, 46-50, (see Yaqut, Bulddn, 249, 251, tr. 31-2, 35-6). and also abar Vol. 3, p.
365-7
52 H. Kennedy, Al-Manr and al-Mahd, Albany 1990, p56-9.
53 Crisis and Continuity at the Abbasid Court By Maaike van Berkel, Nadia Maria El Cheikh, Hugh Kennedy,
Letizia Osti page 234
54 ibid page 231
59
Grand Hussein Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
106 725 Amman Jordan Grand Hussein Mosque unknown - unknown
GPS Coordinates:
315659.16N 35565.15E
This Ottoman style mosque was rebuilt using striking pink-and-white stone in 1924 by the late King
Abdullah I on the site of an ancient mosque built originally by Umar ibn Al-Khattb the 2nd Caliph of
Islam. It is probably also, the site of the cathedral of the old Roman town of Philadelphia. The modern
mosque faces Mecca.
60
Dan Gibson
Qar al Hayr al Gharbi
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
342039.77N 37353.67E

191.01 204.87 170.74 187.8
Misses by: 13.86 20.27 3.21
Qar al-Hayr al-Gharbi is 37 miles west of Palmyra. The mosque is in the lower left corner of this palace. It
61
played a very small part of the overall plan of the building, and was accessed through several other rooms.
Unfortunately, the building is in such a state of ruin that it is almost impossible to accurately determine
the direction of the qibla, but the whole complex seems to face somewhere between Petra and Mecca
You can learn more about this site at: http://archnet.org/sites/4138

Above: The complex is so badly ruined that it is difficult to determine the exact Qibla direction. The satellite
photo on the previous page provides a clue as to how the entire complex was oriented.
62
Dan Gibson
Banbhore Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
24458.64N 673121.11E

265.78 288.39 268.22 291.33
Misses by: 22.61 2.44 25.55
Summary: This mosque points towards Mecca.
This is the first mosque to point to Mecca where we can determine its original Qibla direction
The Mosque in Banbhore, Pakistan is in an area conquered by the Arab general Muammad ibn Qasim
in 711 CE. This mosque has a qibla wall, but no mihrab. The building is oriented east to west. Unearthed
63
during the excavations that began in 1958 in the ancient city of Banbhore, the Jmi Masjid of Banbhore
is one of the earliest known mosques in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. Its plan, deducted from archaeo-
logical remains, closely resembles the plans of congregational mosques in Kfa and Wsi. Inscriptions
found on the site date the mosque to 727 CE. This mosque faces Mecca not Petra. This mosque is notable
because it is the earliest surviving mosque that clearly faces Mecca in Saudi Arabia, and it dates to 109
AH or 727 C.E.
Above: The floor of the mosque remains almost fully intact.
64
Dan Gibson
Qar al- Hayr al Sharqi
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
35 425.52N 39 414.92E

192.61 213.78 177.02 195.4
Misses by: 27.72 12.04 2.8
Qar al-Hayr al-Sharqi in Syria is approximately 97 km northeast of Palmyra and 64 km to the south of
Syrian Rufa. It was originally constructed in 728-9 under Caliph Hishm to be used as a retreat for the
Umayyad caliphs. After Umayyad decline in regional authority, the site as absorbed and embellished by
the Abbasids under Caliph Hrn al-Rashd and remained functional until the 14th century. The buildings
and mosque dont seem to align to either Mecca or Petra but point almost directly between the two. (See
page 44 and 174 for more information on between mosques)
You can learn more about this building at: http://archnet.org/sites/4137
65
66
Dan Gibson
Amman Umayyad Palace
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
315716.48N 35564.53E

159.46 194.71 160.82 253.56
Misses by: 35.25 1.36 135.90
Summary: This mosque points almost towards Mecca
The second set of Umayyad buildings on the Amman Jordan citadel were built around 740 CE. The origi-
67
nal Umayyad palace and large mosque in the lower portion of the satellite image faced Petra55 but the
newer buildings (with the blue dome) faced Mecca. Clearly the qibla changed direction sometime between
the construction of the earlier mosque (facing Petra) and the Palace which faces Mecca. For more informa-
tion on the palace complex see: http://archnet.org/sites/3545
Above: The author outside of the Amman Umayyad Palace. (Taken from the film The Sacred City.)
55 See page 38
68
Dan Gibson
Jmi al-Zaytna
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
364750.73 N 101016.88E
Actual Mosque Petra Mecca Line - Petra to Mecca

154.12 99.73 112.64 155.11
(rebuilt: 147.02)
Misses by: 54.39 41.48 0.99
The Zaytna mosque, or olive tree mosque, was initially built in 732 CE on the ruins of an old Roman
69
basilica in the old city of Tunis, Tunisia. Though the original structure no longer exists, literary sources
attribute its construction to builder Hassan ibn Numan. A century after its construction, the mosque was
completely rebuilt by Aghlabid amir Abu Ibrahim Ahmed (reg. 856-863 CE) to emulate another of his
large building projects the Great Mosque at Qayrawn. The two mosques were reconstructed concurrently
between 856 and 863 CE. In 864 renovations were funded by the Abbasid caliph Al--Mustain. There are
further similarities between the plan of the Zaytna mosque and that of the Great Mosque at Crdoba
(784-786, 961-976, 987 CE), a testament to the persisting influence that the Crdoba building had upon
mosque design in Northern Africa.
On page 45, we noted that when al-ajjj started his protest against both the Petra and Mecca qiblas by
pointing between them, several other new mosque constructions followed this practice. The Muslims in
North Africa and Spain also seem to have used the qiblas on some of their new mosques as a protest. But
rather than pointing between Petra and Mecca, they did something different. The qibla of this mosque
points to the south, parallel to a line drawn between Petra and Mecca. This practice was followed by other
new mosques being constructed in North Africa and Spain. Some of the later mosques had very sloppy
qiblas indicating that exact qibla direction was probably not considered very important at the time. (See
Rib Fortress page 87)
70
Dan Gibson
Baalbeck Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
34 026.03N 361225.59E
Actual Mosque Petra Mecca Line - Petra to Mecca

176.86 190.22 164.84 177.53
Misses by: 13.36 12.02 0.67
The Great Mosque of Baalbek in Lebanon is an Umayyad mosque dating back to about 122 AH. (Some
claim it could be as much as 60 years later.) It has suffered from deterioration due to dampness, salt,
and structural degradation. The last renovation was conducted with special attention to archaeological
71
remains, as it is believed that the mosque may have been built upon several older structures dating back
to antiquity. Lime mortar and traditional materials were used to preserve the buildings character. As you
can see in the photo, the Baalbek Mosque (to the right of the main Baalbek ruins) has an orientation di-
rectly between Petra and Mecca.
72
Dan Gibson
First Mention of Mecca in Literature
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
122 741 First mention of Mecca in literature
The city of Mecca is described in the Qurn (6:92, 42:5) as Umm al-Qur, or the mother of all cit-
ies. From the life of Muammad we understand that camel caravans went out from this city, and that
Muammad himself traveled with a caravan to Syria and back. One would expect that a major city, in-
volved with trade across the Middle East, would be well known to the nations around it, especially if it
was a merchant city. However, the city of Mecca was not well known. Despite what Islamic literature tells
us, there is not a single piece of non-Muslim evidence that points to and corroborates this claim for such
prominence during the seventh century. In fact, the earliest substantiated reference to Mecca is in the
Continuatio Byzantia Arabica - a source from early in the reign of the Caliph Hishm who ruled between
724 and 743 - 100 years after the life of Muammad.
The Chronicle of 741 (or Continuatio Byzantia-Arabica or Continuatio Isidoriana) is a Latin-language history
in 43 sections or paragraphs, many of which are quite short, which was composed in about the years
741-743 CE, in Spain under Arab occupation. It is the earliest known Spanish work from the period of
Arab occupation. but it contains little Spanish history; the first 14 sections contain very brief mentions
of the Visigothic kings up to the reign of Suintila (621-631)56 The remainder of the content consists of
alternating sections dealing with the Byzantine Emperors and the parallel leaders of the Arabs beginning
with the Prophet Muammad.57 Some of these sections contain very brief mentions in passing, of the
Arab invasions of North Africa, Spain, France, and parts of the Middle East. Little if any of the content is
original; the value of the work lies in what it reveals of the author and his times, and the fact the Mecca
is mentioned one time.
When challenged with this absence of evidence, Muslims repeatedly point to the 2nd century Greco-Egyp-
tian geographer Ptolemy and his reference to a city called Makoraba is Arabia. I have dealt with this
topic separately in the paper: Suggested Solutions or Issues Concerning The Location of Mecca in Ptolemys
Geography.58
Others have suggested that there is a reference to the people of Maka between Carmania and Arabia.
56 Taken from the Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum of Isidore of Seville
57 These sections perhaps derive from the Chronicon Mundi of John of Niki and from Arabic or Syriac works
which have not survived.
Note: Traditionalists contend that the Prophet was born in the year of Abrahas expedition to Arabia. The year of
Abrahas expedition as provided on the Sabaic Inscription of Abraha translates into about 550 CE. This is 20 years
before the traditional 570 CE birth date of the Prophet. The dates we get from Jacob of Edessa are at least 12 years
prior to traditional accounts. Given this evidence, some people feel that that the Prophet lived at least 12-20 years
prior to when traditional Islamic history claims. This may indicate that the present so-called Islamic calendar is
based on an event that took place after the death of the prophet.
58 https://www.academia.edu/4735458/Suggested_Solutions_for_Issues_Concerning_The_Location_of_Mecca_in_
Ptolemys_Geography
73
in Stephen of Byzantium (c.528-535). 59 Scholars have been divided on this issues but Sean Anthony argues
quite sucesfully that Maka is not a reference to Mecca or Meccans. but that Stephanos copied the entry
from Ptolemy. The Arabic k is only very rarely transcribed as Greek Kappa, as the normal way is with
Chi. Also consonant elongation is also usually represented in transcriptions. This makes Maka very un-
likely rendition of makkah.60
This leaves us with the first clear reference to the city of Mecca to be in the Chronicle of 741. This is over
a hundred years after the Prophet Muammad. How could a major city, the mother of all cities which
undertook trade with all the nations around it, be missing from the chronicles of those surrounding na-
tions? Why do they mention Petra as being a major centre of trade and not Mecca?
59 Stephani Byzantii Ethnicorum quae supersunt, Meineke, Berlin, ed, 1849, p. 427
60 Sean Anthony, comments on Accademia.edu discussing this paper.

74
Dan Gibson
Huajuexiang Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
124 742 Xian China Huajuexiang Mosque unkown - 1392 CE
GPS Coordinates:
341547.88N 1085611.04E
This mosque is considered to be one of the oldest and

most renowned mosques in China, founded in 742 dur-
ing the Tang dynasty (618-907). However, the major-
ity of the existing Xian Great Mosque was constructed
during the later Ming dynasty and further expanded in
the Qing dynasty. This mosque is still used by Chinese
Muslims (mainly the Hui people) today as a place of
worship.
Unlike most mosques in Middle Eastern or Arab coun-

tries, the Great Mosque of Xian is completely Chinese
in its construction and architectural style, except for
some Arabic lettering and decorations, for the mosque
has neither domes nor traditional-style minarets.
Since the original mosque does not exist, there is no

way to determine its original qibla direction. For more
information see:
75
Mushatta Palace
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
314417.42N 36 035.95E

195.13 199.12 160.81 273.65
Misses by: 3.99 34.32 78.52
One of the largest and most impressive of the Umayyad palaces, Mushatta Palace is an unfinished, lime-
stone and brick complex with entrance hall, mosque, audience hall, and residential quarters, located ap-
proximately 32 kilometers south of Amman, Jordan, a short distance from the Queen Alia International
Airport.
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Dan Gibson
It is speculated by several scholars that the Umayyad Caliph al-Wald II built Mushatta during his brief
reign (743-44) in an effort to commemorate his authority.61 Construction ended in 744 CE when he was
assassinated. Byzantine and Sassanian influence is evident in the stone and brickwork, and its plan and
design.
I have visited this site several times. The illustration above demonstrates that the mosque, and the entire
palace face directly at Petra.
The most beautiful feature of Mushatta, however, remains in

the rich and intricately carved features on its southern exterior,
a significant section of which was given to Kaiser Wilhelm as a
gift from the Ottoman Sultan Abd al-Hamid just before World
War I and today is located in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.
For more information please see: http://archnet.org/sites/4135
61 Mshatta Palace, Jordan; 743-744 CE. MuslimHeritage.com. The Foundation for Science, Technology and
Civilisation (FSTC). Retrieved 26 December 2015.
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arrn Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
127 744 arrn Turkey Mosque and University between 0.32 never
GPS coordinates:
365157.99N 39151.24E

191.74 205.61 177.22 191.42
Misses by: 13.87 14.52 0.32
An ancient citadel stands in the southeast corner of the old walled city of Harran. This citadel dates back
to 2000 BCE when the Sabians built a temple to the god Sin. In 642 CE Harran was overrun by the Muslim
armies, and later, Caliph Marwn II made Harran his capital from 744 - 750 until it was conquered by the
Abbasids in 750 CE. Marwn II built a mosque in the center of the city and a royal palace on the site of
the temple of Sin.
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Dan Gibson
The citadel was rebuilt several times, once after 990 CE when Harran became the capital city of the Nu-
mayrids, a local northern Syria dynasty ruled by Waththab bin Sabiq al-Numayri. An inscription on the
gateway dates it construction to 1059 CE. Nur al Din rebuilt the citadel in 1149. In 1259 the city was
overrun by the Mongols and one of the two towers was destroyed. In 1271 the Mongols moved most of
the population away and the town was deserted and mostly destroyed. The current citadel structure dates
back to the 14th century.
The structure that is of interest to us is the mosque and university built in the centre of the city. During
the late 8th and 9th centuries Harran University was a centre for translating works of astronomy, philoso-
phy, natural sciences, and medicine from Greek to Syriac by Assyrians, and thence to Arabic, bringing
the knowledge of the classical world to the emerging Arabic-speaking civilization in the south. Bghdad
came to this work later than Harran. Many important scholars of natural science, astronomy, and medi-
cine originate from Harran; they were non-Arab and non-Islamic ethnic Assyrians, including possibly the
alchemist Jbir ibn Hayyn. Other philosophers and scientists include Al-Battanai who calculated the
distance from the Earth to the Moon and Thabit ibn Qurrah, who translated Greek classics and scientific
works into Arabic, and wrote on mathematics and astronomy.
The Sabians revered Hermes Trismegistus as their prophet and the Corpus Hermeticum as their holy book.
Hermes Trismegistus was believed to be an ancient great Egyptian sage, who as the founder of writing and
the author of many books on science, medicine, theology, ethics, astrology, alchemy and magic. In the
Hermeticum scriptures his teachings appear in the form of mystic visions. Hermeticum portrays Hermes
Trismegistusas a divinely inspired teacher, but others have portrayed him as the Greek god Hermes, and
the Egyptian god Thoth or Tehuti. Some have equated him with Enoch in the Bible, and Idris in the Koran.
Through the Hermeticums monotheistic teachings, the Harranians where able to claim themselves as one
of the People of the book though the term Sabian might have referred more to the Mandaeans of Iraq,
who are Gnostics and known as followers of John the Baptist.
Neither the university building nor the citadel seem to have any qibla direction. The University and
mosque in the centre of the city seem to point somewhere between Petra and Mecca
79
Fenghuang Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
uknown uknown Hangzhou China Fenghuang Mosque unknown - 1281 CE
GPS Coordinates:
301443.67N 1201014.50E
This mosque is the third oldest mosque in China, predated only by the Great Mosque of Guangzhou and
the Great Mosque at Quanzhou. It was probably first erected sometime in the seventh century under the
Tang Dynasty. Because it was destroyed in the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE) and rebuilt in 1281 (possibly
1314) and then again in 1451 and 1646 its original qibla direction cannot be determined. It was rebuilt
again between 1314 and 1320 by a Persian Muslim missionary named Aladin, during the Yuan Dynasty,
and rebuilt again during the second half of the fifteenth century under the Ming Dynasty. Located on
Zhongshan Road in the heart of Hangzhou, this mosque is illustrative of the changing attitudes towards
the synthesis of local Chinese and imported Islamic styles throughout the centuries.
The mosque consists of a prayer hall

joined to a monumental gateway via a
two-storied open pavilion, all clustered
within a dense urban complex. The oldest
remaining segment of the mosque is the
qibla of the prayer hall, which consists
of three bays with brick corbelled domes
that open into each other with double
archways. The central dome is the largest
and measures 8.8 meters in diameter. It
is flanked to the north and south by low-
er domes measuring 6.8 and 7.2 meters
across.
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Dan Gibson
Shibm Palace
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
135 753 Shibm Yemen Shibm Palace unknown - unknown
GPS Coordinates:
155535.62N 483731.83E
Above: Shibm, looking from the south
The Great Mosque of Shibm in Yemen is located at the heart of the old city of Shibm and surrounded
by towering mud brick houses. The Great Mosque of Shibm was originally built in 753 CE. Much of the
mosque as it is today is thought to have been built in the fourteenth century. The presence of red baked
bricks, typical of ninth century Abbasid construction, point to reconstruction efforts during the reign of
Caliph Hrn al-Rashd; this is the only site in Shibm where baked bricks are found. Little remains of
the original structure and so it is useless to our study other than to note that it was built during the time
of confusion.
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Mosque of Manr
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
145 762 Bghdad Iraq Mosque of Manr Mecca - demolished
GPS Coordinates: unknown, buried under old Bghdad.
All traces of this mosque have disappeared. However, descriptions of the mosque exist. In 754, al-Manr
became the Abbasid Caliph, succeeding his brother Sffa as ruler. By 762 he commissioned the construc-
tion of a new eastern capital, choosing Bghdad as his site.
The new circular city was designed with ash drawings on the
ground for al-Manr to view prior to construction, which be-
gan that same year. By its completion in 767 the Round City
measured 2000 meters in diameter. It featured four main gates
equally distant from each other: the southwest gate was the Kfa
Gate; the southeast was Bara; the Khurasan Gate extended to
the northeast and the Damascus Gate to the northwest.
The walls were constructed out of mud brick with reed supports,
while the domes and vaults were composed of baked brick. The
main mosque of the city was about 100 meters by 200 meters
with columns used to support the ceiling around the edges of
the mosque. There was no mihrab, so one wall was used as the qibla wall. This mosque clearly pointed to
Mecca as did all Abbasid mosques from now on.
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Dan Gibson
Qar Ukhaydir
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
146 764 Kfa Iraq Qar Ukhaydir Mecca 3.9 never
GPS Coordinates:
322625.91N 433613.39E

198.24 259.85 202.14 270.59
Misses by: 61.61 3.9 72
Approximately 120 miles south of Bghdad stand the remains of Ukhaider, a complex encompassing a
mosque, palace, and bathhouse enclosed in a rectangular limestone masonry wall measuring 2.6 meters
thick and 19 meters high.
Based on architectural evidence, researchers put the date of the construction of the palace at between
83
720 and 800 CE. This 80 year period provokes a serious historical problem, since within this period the
Umayyad dynasty gave way to the Abbasids, who gained power in year 750 CE. So is this palace Umayyad
or Abbasid? First, there are indications which suggest that the palace is Umayyad, built before 750 CE.
Features such as the presence of few semi-circular arches and the use of corner slabs to support the scal-
loped dome all point to the Umayyads whose architecture continued to use these elements. The Abbasids
introduced the pointed arch, dome squinches and other features. But who could have built Ukhaidir dur-
ing these troubled times when the Umayyad were waging wars against the Khriji and the Abbasids? Ad-
ditionally, most princes and wealthy Umayyads had known residences.
Similarly, early Abbasid rulers can be ruled out as Al-Sffa, the founder of the dynasty, for example, lived
in his palace beside the Persian city of Anbar (about 45 miles west of Bghdad) and died there in 754. His
successor Al-Manr at first lived in his palace between Kfa and the old Persian town of Hira, and later
settled in his capital Bghdad.
This leaves us with two remaining theories. Creswells theory proposes that the construction was due to
the nephew of Al-Manr, Isa ibn Msa (d. 783/4), who received large sums of money from the Caliph to
prevent him making a claim to the throne.62 Isa was somehow promised the Caliphate after Al-Manr who
later changed his mind in favor of his son Al-Mahd. Isa was then expelled from his governorship of Kfa in
778 and made to renounce his claim to the Caliphate. It is reported that on his expulsion he returned to his
estates and used to visit Kfa every Friday for the congregational prayer. However, some scholars raised
doubts about this thesis arguing that the two way journey of 200 km from Ukhaidir to Kfa through the
desert could not have
been an easy undertak-
ing for a man who is
known to have been a
permanent invalid.
For more information

visit: http://archnet.
org/sites/3827
62 Creswell K.A.C. (1958), A short account of early Muslim Architecture, Penguin Books, pp.201-3
84
Dan Gibson
Rib Fortress
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
153 770 Rib Tunisia Rib Fortress parallel - never
GPS Coordinates:
354939.45N 103819.42E

182.59 97.74 111.58 155.11
Misses by: 84.87 171.01 27.48
The Rib fortress in Ssa, Tunisia is at the top of the photo above. (The Susa Mosque is in the centre of
the photo, with a different Qibla that points parallel to a line draw between Petra and Mecca. (See page
105). The Rib forts foundations were allegedly laid in 770 CE, and its last stage of construction was in
822 CE. It is attributed to the Aghlabid Ziydat Allah, but the foundations may have been from an older
building. The fort consists of a fortified enclosure with one entrance, and attached towers in the corners
85
and in the middle of the walls. The courtyard is surrounded by vaulted porticoes on two levels with cells
behind. The southern side of the second floor has a small mosque with a mihrab in its center. This qibla
points south rather than towards Mecca or Petra.
The Qibla of this fortress is unique, as no other mosque or Islamic building has a qibla like it. Perhaps this
is due to its intended use as a fortress, and the room used for the mosque on the second floor may have
been an afterthought, resulting in a qibla pointing south at 176.8 degrees. While I have classified the Rib
fortress as being a parallel mosque (this is the closest to any standard Qibla practice) I must assume that
the builders of the fort had not considered its qibla when laying the foundations.
Above: The qibla pointing directly south belongs to the Rib fortress.
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Dan Gibson
Beer Ora Qiblatain
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
uknown uknown Beer Ora Israel Beer Ora Qiblatain unknown - never
GPS Coordinates:
294241.53N 345839.11E
Beer Ora is located in the Negev, in the southern Arava Valley, about twenty kilometers north of Eilat-
Aila. This rectangular prayer area consists of stones on the ground marking the boundaries of the prayer
area. The enclosure has in it two round niches, one facing south-east and the other north-east.63 Fur-
ther excavations at this site led to the conclusion that this is a unique form of an Early Islamic open-air
mosque64 in which the direction of the mihrab was converted from the eastern side to the southern side
of the structure, providing rare evidence for the changing of direction of prayer in early Islamic religious
practices.65
In the photo you can see the top niche (which points north
generally towards Petra) and the bottom niche which points
south generally towards Mecca. Since this is an old open-air
mosque, it is diffi
cult to date, and also to calculate the exact
qibla direction. What is unique about this site, is that it con-
tains two qibla niches.
63 Rothenberg 1972, pages 221-222

64 Sahron, Avner, and Nahlieli 1996
65 Sharon 1988:230-33; Sharon, Avner, and Nahlieli 1996:108-9
87
Sah Ramdah Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
233236.06N 582354.99E

292.79 293.37 266.60 297.03
Misses by: 0.58 26.19 4.24
Bowshar is an old village in Oman, inland from Muscat. The lo-

cals pride themselves in their history, reaching back to the time of
Muammad. It is interesting that their mosque, built on the founda-
tions of a still older mosque points exactly to Petra and not to Mecca
in Saudi Arabia.
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Dan Gibson
Sumail Omani Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
231842.14N 58 039.85E

295.67 294.12 267.13 297.79
Misses by: 1.55 28.54 2.12
For millennia, Wadi Sumail has wound its way between two mountain ranges providing a rich green
environment for many civilizations, as well as protection from the harsh desert environment. Throughout
this valley ancient and modern buildings exist side by side. So it is not surprising to fi nd a modern mosque
89
built on the foundations of a much older mosque. What is interesting about this mosque, is that its qibla
points directly to Petra. Unfortunately this mosque has not yet been studied or dated by archeologists.
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Dan Gibson
Raqqa Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
35577.39N 39 115.64E
Actual Mosque Petra Mecca Between Point

193.9 209.07 177.01 193.04
Misses by: 15.17 16.89 0.86
The Great Mosque in Raqqa in Syria

is located in the northern section of
the citys heart. Its plan is rectangu-
lar (108 meters x 92 meters) with
1.7 meter thick mud brick walls for-
tifi ed with semi-circular towers at
the corners. All that remains today
are the baked-brick minaret and the
prayer hall facade with eleven arch-
es that were added by Nur al-Din
al-Zanki during the 1165 CE renova-
tion of the mosque. The whole build-
ing and complex do not face Mecca
but points within one degree of ac-
curacy between Petra and Mecca.
For more information please visit:

91
Masjid al Jmi
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
155 772 Ishfan Iran Masjid al Jmi unknown - 419 AH
GPS Coordinates:
324010.96N 51416.80E
Today the modern mosque, built in 419 AH or 1028 CE faces Mecca in Saudi Arabia. No evidence remains
of the original mosque or its qilba. Reconstruction also took place in 480, 515 AH, 776 851, and 1077
AH. Located in Isfahan, 340 km south of Tehran, the current Friday mosque of Isfahan is a prominent ar-
chitectural expression of the Seljuk rule in Persia (1038-1118). In 1051, Isfahan became the capital of the
Seljuks, who arrived in Khwarazm and Transoxiana from central Asia in the eleventh century. Defenders
of Sunnism, they aimed at the restoration of the Abbasid Caliphate. The conquest of Isfahan by Tughril Beg
elevated the citys status, which was manifested in the rich architectural projects representing the Seljuks
powerful empire - the first of which was the Friday mosque.
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Dan Gibson
Jobs Tomb Shrine
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
uknown uknown allah Oman Jobs Tomb Shrine unknown - unknown
GPS Coordinates:
17 642.00N 535938.57E
The Tomb of Job near allah in Oman is one of several alleged burial sites of Job. This complex is located
in the hills overlooking the city of allah in Omans Dhofar region. Other Job tombs are in Israel, Syria,
Lebanon and Turkey. In 2010 I visited this site and examined the foundations of the old shrine. The cus-
todian claimed that the original building pointed to Jerusalem. However, since Petra and Jerusalem are
only 60 miles apart, and are 1470 miles or 2370 kilometers distant they are almost in the same direction
and a Petra Qibla could be easily mistaken for a Jerusalem one. The new mosque now points to Mecca.
The current shrine (tomb) is small. You can see it above the mosque as it has dome over the center. In-
side, beneath the dome, is a rectangular opening in the floor containing the tomb of the prophet Job. The
tomb is little more than a mound of dirt, normally draped in cloth. According to tradition, another body
is buried within the tomb next to Job. It is not known whose body it is, not even by tradition. All of the
current buildings seem to be oriented to Mecca with the exception of the houses against the wall where
one enters the compound. The custodian did not know when the current buildings were built, or re-built.
With so little information it can only be assumed that these buildings are relatively modern.
93
Bibi Samarkand
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
393938.39N 665849.57E

261.64 259.86 239.78 262.87
Misses by: 1.78 21.86 1.23
The Bibi Khanum Mosque is in Samarkand, Uzbekistan. This mosque was probably built on the location of
a much earlier mosque established by Arab traders traveling along the Silk Route.
Then in 1399, Timur (historically known as Tamerlane) decided to undertake the construction of a gigan-
tic mosque in his new capital, Samarkand. The mosque was built using wealth looted during his conquest
of India. When Timur had returned from his military campaign in 1404, the mosque was almost com-
pleted. However Timur was not happy with the progress of construction, therefore he had immediately
94
Dan Gibson
made various changes, espe-

cially concerning the main
cupola. From the beginning
of the construction, prob-
lems of statistical regular-
ity of the structure revealed
themselves. Various recon-
structions and reinforcements
were undertaken in order to
save the mosque. However,
after few years the first bricks
had begun to fall out of the
huge dome over the mihrab.
During the 15th century it

was one of the largest and
most magnificent mosques
in the Islamic world. But by
the mid-20th century only a
grandiose ruin of it still sur-
vived, but now major parts of
the mosque have been restored. Only four large fragments and a minaret survive from this large mosque.
Even though it is now in a ruinous state, I believe it is safe to say that the qibla did not face Mecca. The locals
acknowledge this anomaly and have a quaint legend stating that the Hanafi who used the mosque prayed
due west, and the Shafii who used the same mosque prayed due south. In the end they agreed on a qibla be-
tween the two. Since the mosques qibla points to Petra it is more plausible that the mosque was built on the
site of an earlier mosque
whose qibla already
faced Petra.
For more information

see: http://archnet.
org/authorities/3928/
sites/2464
95
Crdoba Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
375245.23N 44646.46W
Actual Mosque Petra Mecca Line: Petra to Mecca

157.12 90.62 100.29 155.11
Misses by: 66.5 56.86 2.01
The Great Mosque of Crdoba was considered a wonder of the medieval world by both Muslims and Chris-
tians. Built on a Visigothic site, which was probably the site of an earlier Roman temple, the Great Mosque
of Crdoba was begun between 784 and 786 CE during the reign of Abd al-Rahman I, who escaped from
Syria to the Iberian Peninsula after his family was massacred by a rival political dynasty.
The qibla of this mosque has puzzled researchers for many years as, like the Ssa mosque, it points to nei-
ther Mecca nor Petra. I suspect that since the Umayyad rulers were at odds with the Abbasid rulers, they
96
Dan Gibson
refused to use the same qibla (Mecca), and yet felt that they could not point to the original Holy City as
the Black Stone was no longer there. In the end, they pointed the mosque south (60 degrees south of east)
which was more towards South Africa, just as the Ssa mosque was oriented. The last major renovation of
this mosque was in 987 CE. For many years this mosque was the second largest in the world.
More information is available at: http://archnet.org/sites/2715
As you can see below, the qibla of this mosque points parallel to a line drawn between Petra and Mecca.
97
Shrine of Kmiyya
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
183 799 Bghdad Iraq Shrine of Kmiyya unknown - unknown
GPS Coordinates:
332247.20N 442017.08E
Before the foundation of Bghdad was drawn out, the place where the Kmiyya shrine now stands was
the location of the Shunayziyyah cemetery. (You can see the small tombs that surround the shrine above.)
After the establishment of Bghdad, al-Manr used this cemetery as the burial ground for the caliphs
family. In 799 CE Imam Msa, the seventh imam, died and was buried at the actual spot of the shrine. The
shrine then became a pilgrimage site for the Shiite community, a status later reinforced by the subsequent
burial in 835 of the ninth Imam who died in Bghdad.
Under the Buwaihid Shiite dynasty, several restoration and addition works were undertaken. Abd ud-
Dawlah first restored the sanctuary after the flood of 978 CE according to a contemporary description of
the structure, the two tombs were described as topped by wooden domes and surrounded by an enclosure.
In 1052, the building was described as having a large dome in the middle and minarets on the sides. Sev-
eral restorations followed in 1097, 1159 and 1154. At that time, the sanctuary was used as a madrasa and
an orphanage.
During the Abbasid caliphate of al-Zhir, the dome caught fire and was restored by al-Mustansir. From
that time on, the shrine was called al Maqbarah al Jadidah meaning the new tomb. It acquired greater sig-
nificance as it was considered one of Bghdads principal monuments from the thirteenth century onward.
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Dan Gibson
It is described as having a large dome, a library and an orphanage. The sanctuary was preceded by a wide
courtyard probably surrounded by rooms and a faade with a large diwan similar to other Seljuq monu-
ments of that same period. It was sufficiently damaged during the Mongol invasion. Its first reconstruction
dates back to Imad al-Din al-Qazwini. Ibn Baa describes it in the fourteenth century as having a large
enclosure and the tombs being of wood with a silver coating. In 1356, a second flood caused more dam-
age to the shrine. It was then restored according to the previous layout with two smaller domes that are
probably quite close in design to its current form.
In 1508 CE, when the afavid Shah Ismail entered the city, he ordered a total reconstruction of the shrine.
The rawdah was enlarged, marble was laid on the floor of the shrine, the sarcophagi were rebuilt of wood,
and a Qurnic inscription was carved on the outer walls. The minarets were increased to four in number
in a way to resemble mosques of that period.
This shrine does not appear to have any qibla direction. If it did, it appears that it faces the Grand Mosque
in Kfa.
You can learn more about this shrine at: http://archnet.org/sites/3848
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Jmi Uqba Ibn Nafi
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
354054.16N 10 613.75E

150.89 96.92 110.75 155.11
Misses by: 53.97 40.14 4.22
The Great Mosque of Kairoua is also known as the Uqba Ibn Nafi Mosque. This mosque was built by
the governor of Qayrawn, Ziydat Allah, between 817 and 838 CE and is sometimes referred to as the
Qayrawn Mosque or the Kairoua Mosque. He erected the building on the site of an older mosque, origi-
nally constructed by Uqba ibn Nafi at the time of the 670 CE Arab conquest of North Africa. Although the
current mosque retains virtually no trace of the original seventh-century building, it is still often referred
to as Mosque of Sidi Uqba, or Mosque of Uqba Ibn Nafi. Historically, it has been accorded great sig-
nificance as one of the first mosques built in a major town of Islam in the West.
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Dan Gibson
This mosque also points within 5 degrees of a line drawn between Petra and Mecca, like the other mosques
of north Africa.
You can learn more about this site by visiting: http://archnet.org/sites/3763
101
Great Mosque of Smarra
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
232 847 Smarra Iraq Great Mosque of Smarra Mecca 1.13 never
GPS Coordinates:
341225.29N 435251.57E

197.79 243.80 196.66 253.89
Misses by: 46.01 1.13 56.1
Al-Mutawakkil commissioned the construction of the Great Mosque of Smarra upon his succession to the
Abbasid caliphate in the mid-ninth century. While the outer wall still stands, little remains of the interior
of the mosque today. In its time, it was the worlds largest mosque. This mosque faces Mecca as does every
Abbasid Mosque from this time.
More information can be found at: http://archnet.org/sites/3828
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Dan Gibson
Great Mosque of Ssa
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
354936.76N 103823.07E

161.89 97.74 111.58 155.11
Misses by: 64.15 50.31 6.78
The Great Mosque of Ssa in Tunisia is near the Rib Fortress The qibla direction of this mosque points
south at a different angle that that of the fortress. (see page 86 for Rib fortress.) This qibla is 6.78 off
from being parallel to a line drawn from Petra to Mecca.
103
Above: The mosque of Susa.
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Dan Gibson
Abu Dulaf Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
245 859 Smarra Iraq Abu Dulaf Mosque Mecca 4.6 never
GPS Coordinates:
342139.60N 43489.00E

191.57 242.59 196.17 252.59
Misses by: 51.02 4.6 61.02
Between 859 and 861 CE, al-Mutawakkil relocated the Abbasid caliphate temporarily from Smarra to
a new settlement that he named Jafariya, a site just up the river to the north. The Mosque of Abu Dulaf
became the new main congregational mosque not unlike the Great Mosque in Smarra. The walls of the
mosque barely remain. While this mosque does not point directly at Mecca, its orientation is closer to
Mecca than any other.
105
Mosque of the Three Doors
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
252 866 Qrwn (Kairouan) Tunisia Mosque of the Three Doors parallel 3.54 never
GPS Coordinates:
354044.01N 10 613.66E

158.65 96.92 110.75 155.11
Misses by: 61.73 47.9 3.54
The Mosque of the Three Doors, previously known as the Mosque of ibn Khayrn, was colloquially named
after the three portals located along its west elevation. Its elaborate public entry is the oldest extant deco-
ratively carved facade in the Islamic world, rendering the otherwise modest structure significant to the
study of architecture. The mosque was constructed during the ninth century CE (third century AH). The
structure underwent a major renovation sponsored by the Hafsids during the fifteenth century CE (ninth
century AH). Like the other North African mosques, this mosque has a qibla that points south at 155.5
degrees.
For more information please see: http://archnet.org/sites/3766
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Dan Gibson
Shibm Aqyan
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
257 871 Shibm Aqyan Yemen Jmi al Kabr unknown - 12 century
GPS Coordinates: 153033.55N 435410.49E

341.13 333.81 327.44 335.63
Misses by: 7.32 13.69 5.5
This badly misplaced Qibla points towards Aabda in northern Lebanon
The Great Mosque of Shibm Aqyan (not to be confused with

the Shibm of the Wadi Hadramawt) near Kawkaban is approx-
imately 35 kilometers to the northwest of Sanaà in Yemen.
This mosque is built on the site of one of the oldest mosques in
Yemen, but the current mosque dates to the 12th century CE.
It is interesting that the qibla of this mosque is closer to Petra
than it is to Mecca. You can read more about this mosque at:
http://archnet.org/sites/3803/media_contents/212
107
Ibn ln Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
GPS Coordinates:
300144N 311458E

145.40 84.19 136.13 61.89
Misses by: 61.21 19.27 83.51
This mosque was built for Ahmad ibn ln, son of a Turkish slave of the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun. He
was sent to Egypt in 868 CE as governor of al-Fusa, but within two years he had been made governor
of the whole country. Shortly thereafter, by refusing to send the annual tribute to the Abbasid court, he
established himself as an independent ruler of the province. His family ruled in Egypt for 135 years, until
905 CE . I have included this mosque in my study to demonstrate that mosques now all pointed towards
Mecca. You can read more about this mosque at: http://archnet.org/sites/1522
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Dan Gibson
Ansaq Friday Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
uknown uknown Asnaq Iran Friday Mosque Mecca 4.15 -
GPS Coordinates:
38 342.97N 471120.90E

207.11 234.93 202.96 240.88
Misses by: 27.82 4.15 33.7
This old village mosque is oriented towards Mecca. Locals claim that it is very old, but it has never been
dated.
109
Masjid i Jmi Fahraj
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
uknown uknown Fahraj Iran Masjid i Jmi Fahraj Mecca 10.84 9 century
GPS Coordinates:
285711.47N 58534.55E

261.56 279.67 250.72 283.81
Misses by: 18.11 10.84 22.25
This is another old undated village mosque. The Masjid i-Jami of Fahraj is the congregational mosque of
the town of Fahraj thirty kilometers east of the city of Yazd in Iran, dated: 8th-10th c./2nd-4th AH. The
qibla line to Mecca is illustrated above.
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Dan Gibson
allah Al-Bald Mosque
Rebuilt
AH CE Qibla Error
Mecca
uknown uknown allah Oman Al-Bald Mosque Mecca 5.33 10th cen-
tury
GPS Coordinates:
17 021.45N 54 749.83E

285.05 311.39 290.38 314.27
Misses by: 26.34 5.33 29.82
Al Bald was an Omani city on the coast of the Indian Ocean. It is known as Salalah today. Evidence from
recent excavations has shown that this site was inhabited in the pre-Islamic period. Since its origins,
(about 1,000 BCE) in the Bronze Age and its continued rise in the late Iron Age, it was a key center which
dominated the East African, Indian and Chinese trade. Both Arab and European historical references in-
dicate that the city was rebuilt a number of times from the 4th century AH (10 Century CE) to its fi nal
111
demise at approximately 618 AH (1221 CE). Al Bald or ancient Zafar was a prosperous port and trading
centre. Arab travelers, including Ibn Majawir, (1232 CE) and Ibn Baa (1329-1363 CE) visited the city
and described its people and economy. Shifting economic ecological, and political conditions along the
North Indian Ocean led to its slow demise by the mid 16th century CE.
Al Balds layout is similar to other Southern Arabian ports, such as Sohar. A major lagoon or khor is situ-
ated immediately north of the city. This lagoon is created by a series of spring run-offs from the Dhofar
hills, thus providing al Bald with an abundance of fresh water. Concerning its prosperity from foreign
trade, smaller boats would enter the lagoon to a customs house off-loading the cargo from the ocean-
going dhows anchored offshore. A formidable city wall with perhaps four gates and associated bastions
as described by Ibn Majawir (1232 CE) is at least 2 km long and 4 meters high in places, protecting the
western sector of the city which covered 25 hectares. The large urban area dominated by formal buildings
such as mosques and houses can be seen along the western portion of the city. The large open spaces of
the eastern part of the city may have been a caravansari held camels, horse stables, sardine drying fields
and frankincense storage. The low lying hills of dressed stone rubble as well as numerous artifacts strewn
across the surface are indicative of buried buildings. I visited this city in 2010 and examined the mosque
ruins in person.
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Dan Gibson
Summary
In this chapter I have tried to bring together the information that I have gathered over the last two de-
cades concerning the early mosques of Islam. The core of this information is displayed in a master table
on pages 8 & 9. Out of the 60+ plus mosques I have listed, 17 of the early mosques appear to have had a
qibla directed towards Petra, while 8 point directly between Petra and Mecca and 6 African and Spanish
mosques have a qibla that is parallel to a line drawn between Petra and Mecca. When these are placed
on a timeline, we can clearly see that Petra was the original Qibla, before other Qiblas were introduced.
Today only the Mecca Qibla remains.
In the master table, I have listed all the mosques I could fi nd from the fi rst centuries of Islam, up until
Mecca became the sole surviving Qibla direction. I have noted which mosques have the original founda-
tions and which were rebuilt later thus obliterating their original qibla direction. This leaves us with a
clear overview of the Qiblas used in the fi rst three hundred years of Islam.
From this evidence, I have drawn several conclusions.
1. There are no existing mosques from the fi rst century AH that point to Mecca in Saudi Arabia. Every
surviving mosque with an original Qibla points to the ancient city of Petra in Jordan. The Mecca Qibla
was clearly a later development.
2. During the second century of Islam, there was a time of confusion. On page 43, I introduce ajjj
bin Yousif Al-Thaqfi , who was responsible for building the fi rst of 8 new mosques that pointed direct-
ly between Petra and Mecca. Starting on page 69, the Umayad Muslims in the west build new mosques
which have a Qibla that points parallel to a line drawn between Petra and Mecca. In summary, there
are no mosques pointed to Mecca during the fi rst century of Islam and only 4 new mosques pointing
to Mecca in the second century of Islam. It is not until the third century that Mecca Qiblas become
commonplace.
3. One of the surprising results of this survey, is that the early mosques seemed to be well plotted.
Many of the Qiblas are accurately plotted to less than 5 degrees, although some of the later mosques
seem to be less accurate. This seems to indicate that as time passed, the knowledge of setting an ac-
curate Qibla diminished, and accuracy was only revived at a later date.
There is much more that we can learn as we examine these Qiblas. For instance, we will discover that once
the earlier Qiblas vanished, later Muslims attributed the earlier mosques of having erratic Qiblas, and
believed that inaccurate folk methods were used to plot early Qiblas. However, the data clearly indicates
113
that there were four Qiblas. It is only when we record them in a master table, and then analyze the data
chronologically that it becomes clear that there were four distinct Qiblas: Petra, Mecca, Between, and
Parallel. I trust that the rest of this book will be useful in clearing up what people have believed about Qi-
blas for so many centuries. While I realize that the data I have uncovered may be shocking and disturbing
to some readers, there are reasonable explanations when the evolution of Islamic Qiblas is compared to
early Islamic history. Unfortunately, the changing of the Islamic Qibla also raises disturbing questions. If
the Qibla was originally towards Masjid al-arm, then that holy place must have been located in the city
of Petra. Since the Qurn directs all Muslims to face Masjid al-arm, and since the prophet Muammad
and the four rightly guided caliphs after him all lived during the time of the Petra Qibla, then surely true
prayer must made be towards Petra. What does this mean for Muslims who have directed their prayers to
a Black Stone in Saudi Arabia? What does this mean for Muslims who have taken pilgrimage to the city of
Mecca in Saudi Arabia? Does this mean that meat dedicated to Mecca is not all? If Petra is the original
Masjid al-arm, can the locations mentioned in the early Islamic accounts be found in and around Petra?
Are Islamic religious rites all canceled because prayer, pilgrimage and other rites are all performed in the
wrong direction? As some Muslims have asked me, Who had the power and authority to change the loca-
tion of Masjid al-arm to Saudi Arabia?
In the following pages, we will have to examine a number of questions that have arisen from my study
of these Qiblas. It all began with my book Qurnic Geography (Independent Scholars Press, 2011), which
is still available today. That book raised many questions, that this book attempts to address. While I am
not a Muslim theologian, I do wonder how these questions can be answered. Please understand that the
following pages do not address theological issues, although they were written to answer some of the ques-
tions that Muslims have asked about the accuracy and meaning of the data that I uncovered during the
last two decades.
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Dan Gibson
Accuracy of Google Earth
I have been fortunate to be able to live or visit in the Middle East for much of the last thirty years. During
this time, I have been able to visit a good number of the mosques listed in the first chapter. For some of
the mosques that I could not visit, I have been able to access measurements and GPS readings from other
scholars, and for a few I have had personal friends who have been able to visit and take GPS readings.
There are a few mosques however, that are located in areas where it has been unsafe to travel because of
wars and internal conflicts. For those mosques, which have no published archeological research, I have
had to resort to taking measurements using online tools like Google Earth and Earthdatas ASTER. Howev-
er, at the beginning, let me emphasize, that although I use Google Earth images to illustrate my research,
I only used online data for a small number of mosques, and only as a last resort.
When I first started using Google Earth, I wondered about the accuracy of using such a tool. First, there is
Google Earths own disclaimer about accuracy:
Google makes no claims as to the accuracy of the coordinates in Google Earth. These are provided for
entertainment only and should not be used for any navigational or other purpose requiring any accuracy
whatsoever. Our imagery varies from sub-meter resolution in major cities to 15 meter resolution for most of
the earths surface, with a global base resolution of 1KM. Since our database is constantly being updated, we
cannot state a specific resolution for any geographic region. Google acquires imagery from many different
sources with many different file formats, projections and spectral characteristics. All imagery sources are
fused into a single global database with a proprietary format that has been developed for the specific purpose
of streaming to our client software.
There are several things here that we should take note of. First, Google distances themselves from accu-
racy claims, obviously so that they do not end up in court battles. Imagine two land owners measuring
their property using Google Earth, each deciding where the boundary should be between them. Google
Earth must publish such disclaimers, so that they are not involved in such legal disputes. However, at the
same time, Google Earth does strive for accuracy, which they are constantly improving.
When considering the issue of accuracy, there are a number of issues that must be dealt with. First, Google
Earths ruler has several uses. It can be used to measure the distance between two points. However, since
Googles globe is made up of many square satellite photos mounted on a circular globe, they struggle with
a host of problems.
Lets start by considering how accurate a measurement on an image can be. If the resolution of a satellite
image pixel is 1 square meter on the ground, and if you are zoomed in far enough to see individual pixels
(original, not re-sampled for display purposes), you can measure to within +/- 1 meter. Now lets get that
into GIS, which requires both orthorectification and georeferencing. Both can introduce small errors. On
top of which, youre looking at errors introduced by (re)projection onto your computer screen.
Now you must put this one image into Google Earth and mix it thousands of other images, all of which
115
may vary in their original resolution and quality. Google then mashes them together to make what appears
to be a seamless interface. This is one reason why Google has a disclaimer about accuracy.
All of that is just for the accuracy of the imagery youre measuring from. Then add in the user interface:
- How far out are you zoomed when you do your measurements?
- Far enough in to see those individual original pixels, if theyre even available to you?
- Or out far enough to see the entire mosque? ... or the mosque and its surroundings?
- What display resolution is your computer running?
- How accurate/precise is your hand with the cursor as you mark Qiblas and their direction?
The distortions introduced by the projection(s) Google Earth uses may change depending on where you
are looking and how far out you are zoomed. The best you can do is find something of known distance
near your mosque and see what it measures at to estimate the error in that area. This is why visiting a
mosque and taking measurements is so important. You can later compare your on the ground measure-
ments with the satellite images.
To test this, one user measured the area of an individual farm using the Google Ruler and compared it to
the legally defined area of his property contained on the title deeds (2334.6Ha) at the highest resolution
possible on GEP (2299.7Ha). He discovered that the accuracy in this instance was 98.51%; ie ~1.5%
error. That is for measuring with straight lines.
Now comes a tricky part. When you are looking at Google Earth, you are not actually looking at a single
satellite photo. For instance, when I am zoomed out at 700 miles and look down on the city of Vancouver,
the image is dated from December 1969, and is labeled Data LDECO-Columbia, NSF-NOAA, Image Land-
sat, Data SIO NOAA, US Navy, NGA, GEBCO.
However, as I zoom in to about 50 miles, I am suddenly looking at an image dated December 2015. How-
ever, if I move a bit over and look down on Mount Baker, the image changes to 2013. So there are not just
multiple images, but also multiple images on different layers from different dates.
As I move over the globe at a given altitude, say 37 thousand feet, I can discover the edge of some of the
images, because the date changes. Since Google Earth has customers who pay for specific data, the images
over some cities are far more numerous and complex than the images over wilderness or desert.
Now, on top of this, I have noticed that some of the images I captured seven years ago have been removed
and replaced by more modern images. And to make it even more complex, in some of the images, the
angle of the satellite looking down from space is different. Consider the two images on the next page. The
B&W image is from Google Earth over the walled city of Shibam in Yemen in 2009. The second image
came from Google Earth in 2016. There are differences. As you check the photos, remember that many of
these mud buildings are 8 and 9 stories tall.
116
Dan Gibson
Note some of the changes. The image on the right (2016) is from a different perspective. The 2009 image
(B&W) was taken from almost directly above, But you can see the front sides of some of the buildings. In
the 2016 image, the satellite is positioned differently While the newer image has higher resolution, the
angles of the buildings are different so that the back sides of the buildings are visible. This is very impor-
tant when measuring mosque qibla angles.
While Google has not revealed how its images are placed and welded together, the issue of placing a
square image onto a convex surface also requires that the image be manipulated. Google is not saying
how this manipulation is being done, but it is obvious that it can affect accuracy at the edges of the image.
117
The image below is taken from Google Earth, showing the borders where different satellite photos are
brought together.
118
Dan Gibson
It is fascinating to see how images of different resolutions and different angles are brought together to
make the Google world appear to be seamless. However, the seams are sometimes blurred as Google tries
to bring similar objects together. Given the thousands of maps involved, I would imagine that this is done
by computers and complex algorithms.
In 2016, I approached Google and asked them about the issues being raised concerning the accuracy of
using Google earth to plotting Qiblas. They explained to me that Google Earth internally uses the WGS84
datum. That means its model of the planet is a spheroid. Thats better than just a sphere, but still only
an approximation of the actual shape of the planet. Complicating things further, there are variables like
continental drift adding effects that change over time.
On the question of accuracy, they said that in most places, the imagery in Google Earth is located to within
100 - 200 meters of what youd get with a GPS. In some remote places or places where theres not a good
tie-point (eg. islands) it can be worse, but generally the misplacement is under 20 meters. In Mecca, some
features have a displacement of ~15 meters between the imagery they had in 2004 and the imagery used
now in 2016.
When I asked them what model the ruler tool uses, and what it mean to face a direction on a spheroid
they replied: The ruler uses a geodesic line. That means a line that follows the great circle distance (shortest
path) between two points. On a sphere, this can be very counter-intuitive. For instance, the shortest-distance path
from San Francisco to Mecca is nearly due north (9 degrees), up and over the north pole (and thats 9 degrees
from the spheres center of rotation, not magnetic north, which also moves around and varies from location to
location).
They suggested that instead of trying to measure direction on a sphere, people instead should use di-
rection preserving projections.
See http://www.progonos.com/furuti/MapProj/Normal/CartProp/Rhumb/rhumb.html. But, they added,

as points get farther and farther apart, it becomes less and less clear what direction means.
Having said all this, several things seem apparent:
1. Google Earth provides us with an excellent overview of places and situations that is readily avail-
able to the public. In locations where Google Earth has done in-depth research, the accuracy is higher
as there are more higher resolution images available, and more good tie-points with actual GPS read-
ings. I have found this to be true. When measuring the distance from point A to point B in the Middle
East, Google Earth is very accurate. Even over very long distances, they can be accurate to within
~200 meters. My son, who at this writing is in the Middle East, made measurements with his GPS,
and communicated with me in my office in Canada. He would measure short distances and various
way-points on the ground, and we discovered that these favorably compared to the measurements
on Google Earth Professional.
2. When using Google Earths ruler, measuring the accuracy of the heading tool is more difficult.
So much depends on how the tool is used. For instance, when zoomed in close to a structure, the tool
provides a line that is one pixel wide. The accuracy of this pixel depends on the resolution of the
119
map. When one zooms out and then heads for another location, the width of the yellow line varies
according to the resolutions of the images it is passing through. So in short, the best way to measure
the axis of a mosque is to visit the site, and use a dedicated GPS unit rather than Google Earth.
3. Google Earth, however, is an excellent tool for making illustrations. In my research I have used
Google Earth images to illustrate the direction of Qiblas. When I first started collecting data, Google
Earth did not exist, but GPS units could be purchased. Before visiting a mosque I would do a careful
study of what was published about the mosques. Then when visiting the mosque I would taking GPS
readings. By the time Google Earth became available, I realized that the majority of the mosques
were facing Petra in Jordan. At that time I experimented and discovered that I could also include a
line from Mecca and Petra back to the mosque to see which one was more accurate So in the first
chapter Early Islamic Qiblas when illustrating mosques, I sometimes would include a line back to the
mosque under examination, to demonstrate the closest Qibla direction. Not surprisingly these Google
Earth images are very close to the data we found when examining mosques on the ground.
4. While Google Earth is an easy solution for making illustrations, better tools are available for
measuring. For online measuring I prefer to use Earthdatas ASTER. This is the Japanese Advanced
Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer, or ASTER. It is an instrument on board NASAs Terra
spacecraft. NASA launched the Earth Observing Systems flagship satellite Terra, named for Earth,
on December 18, 1999. Terra has been photographing the earth since then. Terra carries five state-of-
the-art sensors that have been studying the interactions among the Earths atmosphere, lands, oceans,
and radiant energy. The map it produces is called a global digital elevation model and the satellite
images the entire earth every 1 to 2 days.
Because ASTER uses images taken from a single high quality camera on one satellite, at one elevation, it
does not have the problem of multiple images at multiple elevations. Second, because ASTER takes long
seamless images around the earth, it has fewer issues with overlapping or connecting images. ASTER also
provides high-resolution images of planet Earth in 14 different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum,
ranging from visible to thermal infrared light. The resolution of images ranges between 15 and 90 meters.
An update to the ASTER data adds 260,000 images to the already-expansive map, and improves basically
every measurementspatial recognition, horizontal and vertical accuracy, and recognition of bodies of
water. The map covers 99 percent of Earths landmass, and its measurement points are just 98 feet apart.
The ASTER data has been validated by NASA, METI, Japans Earth Remote Sensing Data Analysis Center
(ERSDAC), and the U.S. Geological Survey, and the U.S. National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, but us-
ers are still warned that there will be a few anomalies and artifacts that limit its use for certain projects.
Therefore, for research purposes I applied for permission to use ASTER data, and only use Google Maps
for illustrations. But for the best measurements, nothing tops visiting the mosque and checking it with a
good GPS unit, before checking the same points on Google Maps.
120
Dan Gibson
Obtaining Qibla Calculations
After publishing the book Qurnic Geography66 in 2011, fellow historians and academics encouraged me
to publish my research data on early Qiblas more fully. Qurnic Geography focused on the geographical
references in the Qurn, with only minor attention given to the mosques of early Islam that pointed to the
city of Petra in Jordan.67 As a result, this book attempts to provide some of my research data more fully
and address a few resulting issues in greater detail.68
This chapter concerns the techniques I used to measure the qiblas of mosques, both through visiting the
mosque, and also through using online resources. The casual reader might imagine that one needs only to
briefly visit an old mosque to determine its original qibla direction, or they might imagine that one simply
has to zoom over it with Google Earth.
While these may be helpful activities, it actually entails more work. When undertaking this research, I
first needed to locate appropriate mosques. The Middle East is filled with mosques, and many of them
claim a long history. But few actually date back to the founding years of Islam. Additionally many of the
old mosques are hard to date.
My research spanned several decades of traveling and collecting data, which was later augmented by col-
leagues and interested friends who forwarded to me coordinates of mosques that they had discovered
and wondered if they would fit into my research. Because there are so many mosques, each with varied
histories, I began by researching papers written by historians and archeologists. Later, when I discovered
the online database at archnet.org I added more mosques that I had previously missed.
Before I visit a mosque, I preferred to first learn as much as I can about the mosque, such as when was it
built and when might it have been reconstructed. Most functioning older mosques have undergone exten-
sive rebuilding over the centuries. One might imagine that when visiting an early mosque it will look like
the beautiful structures that commonly amaze western tourists. Usually the opposite is true, as many of
the earliest mosques are just piles of stones with a bit of foundation, usually with nothing standing more
than a meter high. Whatever the case, I needed to work my way back through various levels of remodel-
ing and rebuilding to understand the earliest structure and what its qibla might have looked like.
When I learn of a mosque, I usually begin with an online visit to Archnet69 where I search for the mosque
in question. This website is a globally-accessible, intellectual resource focused on architecture, urbanism,
environmental, landscape design, visual culture, and conservation issues related to the Muslim world.
Archnets mission is to provide ready access to unique visual and textual material to facilitate teaching,
scholarship, and professional work of high quality. Officially launched in 2002, it began as a partnership
66 Qurnic Geography, by Dan Gibson, Independent Scholars Press, 2011, Vancouver, Canada
67 These are found in Qurnic Geography, starting in page 251, chapter eighteen, which is a mere 22 pages out
of total of 480 pages
68 Feel free to email me at: [email protected]
69 . http://archnet.org
121
between the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Archnet has
since evolved into the largest open, online architectural library with a focus on Muslim cultures. Its digi-
tal archives form a comprehensive resource on architecture, urban design, landscape, development, and
related issues. Archnet provides a bridge for interested persons to learn how to enhance the quality of the
built environment, to compensate for lack of resources for students and faculty in academic institutions,
and to highlight the culture and traditions of Islam.
Archnets ambition is to become the authority in the field of architecture in Muslim societies today by
providing an unparalleled resources featuring vetted and refereed articles, data, and research. Through
contributions from the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Har-
vard and MIT, and donated collections of historic archives and documentation on contemporary building
trends shaping the built environment today, Archnet continues to grow and is an excellent resource to
begin with.
The new version 2.0 of Archnet was launched in 2014 and is a partnership between the Aga Khan Trust
for Culture and the Aga Khan Documentation Center at MIT Libraries. Together, these two institutions,
established over three decades ago, share an integral education mission to generate and disseminate
knowledge and resources; provide a venue for debate and discussion; showcase best practices and lessons
learned; and, present Muslim visual and material culture with historic, cultural, and geographic specific-
ity. Despite all of this, Archnet does not provide us with any data on the qibla direction of the buildings
in their database.
As an example, lets assume that we want to examine the palace and mosque complex in Lebanon known
as Anjar. A search on Archnet will bring us to site number 3711.70 If we choose DATA from the menu,
we will discover that this Umayyad site was constructed in 714-715 CE or 96 AH. There are no dates
given for remodeling or rebuilding because this site was never rebuilt, although if you read the attached
article there is evidence of some Byzantine influence in the architecture. When reading the attached article
by Hafezk, K. Chehab titled On the identification of Anjar (Ayn al-Jarr) as an Umayyad Foundation, we are
alerted to some of the earlier archeological work that has been done on the site starting in 1953.71
From this website we learn that Anjar was a large palace complex, with a palace mosque occupying a spot
in the south east quadrant of the complex, but near the centre of the complex.
From a general internet search, we can also discover that Anjar is a UNESCO Heritage site.72 By con-
tacting UNESCO, we can get the address of the National Council of Tourism in Lebanon and a list of the
archeological excavations and perhaps even an email address of those who did the excavations. If we have
done our research right, we will visit Anjar with a ground plan of buildings. The most popular is one done
by Creswell that is available on the Internet.73
70 http://archnet.org/sites/3711
71 Hafezk, K. Chehab, On the identification of Anjar (Ayn al-Jarr) as an Umayyad Foundation
72 http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/293
73 http://www.mousaler.com/anjar/ruins/data/excava.html
122
Dan Gibson
When I first arrive at a site, I usually have to take a moment to ori-

ent myself. Most ancient sites are a maze of fallen stones and rubble
and it takes a few minutes to locate where you are in relation to
the plans you have downloaded. What we want to do is locate the
palace mosque before we get sidetracked in exploring more of this
amazing site.
Once we have identified the courtyard of the mosque which is sur-

rounded by a portico with two bays to the east and west, and one to
the north we can start to look for clues for the qibla direction. There
are various pieces of evidence. For instance, on the south side, the
prayer hall has two naves parallel to the qibla wall, like the Great
Mosque of Damascus. Walls mark the location of a maqra in front
of the mihrab. A small door next to the mihrab led to the great palace
adjoining the mosque, of which a high fragment of the faade still stands.
Once the mosque is clearly identified, it

is important to examine the foundation
around the mosque to see if there is any
evidence of an earlier mosque beneath it.
One indication of this might be the use of
different stones, masonry, or building ma-
terial that is obviously different in style or
weathering.
It is important to remember that one

should never move stones or unearth
anything. It is highly illegal in most coun-
tries to carry out an excavation without
permission from the government.
Once we are satisfied that this is the origi-

nal mosque, we can then go about deter-
mining the qibla direction.
I purchased my first dedicated GPS unit

back in 1999, and thankfully they have
improved over the years both in accuracy
as well as in ease of use.
Despite this, not all GPSs are same. Some

will give you a compass so you can determine direction and degrees on an angle while others will require
that you set way points. If you want to set way points, then in Anjar it is probably best to try several
things. First, set waypoints around the mosque. Fortunately the mosque roof has collapsed so we have
access to satellites from within the mosque itself.
123
Second, I suggest standing in the middle of the central passageway that divides Anjar in half, (see photo
above and map on the previous page) probably somewhere in the north. (Use of a long tape measure will
guarantee that the waypoint is in the middle of the road. This road runs directly parallel to the mosque,
and will provide us with an easy reference, which we can check later in the mosque itself.
Set the first way-point in the middle of the pathway and then walk down that pathway a good distance
and set a second way-point in the middle of the passageway. This could be repeated for the length of the
pathway. This will provide us with a line that moves in the same direction as the entire Anjar structure.
If you note the GPS coordinates of these way-points you can enter them in Google Earth to get a rough
estimate. It is better to use Earthdatas ASTER data. The ASTER data has been validated by the U.S. Geo-
logical Survey and the U.S. National Geo-spatial-Intelligence Agency. However, if you want to use ASTER,
you need to ask for permission first, and explain your purpose for wanting access to their data.
Here are some guidelines I have made for myself over the years. First, if the mihrab is not evident, or if the
mosque or building was constructed before the mihrab was first used, then I need to find the qibla wall.
Sometimes there is a mark on this wall to indicate that it is a qibla wall. Sometimes it is just evident from
the architecture that people lined up for prayer towards that wall. Remember that many early mosques
were wider than they were deep. This is to allow people to stand in a wide line facing the qibla wall, rather
than in short lines going towards the back, like you might find in an older church.
It is important not to measure the qibla direction using a side or back wall. There was no need for early
mosques to be square or rectangular. Some have very odd shapes. However, it is usually obvious where
people stood in a wide line facing a wall. Again, let me repeat, I strongly recommend NOT using side
walls or back walls, as most of the early mosques were far from square. In my calculations I projected 90
degrees from the Qibla wall ignoring all the other walls unless they were at a right angle to the qibla wall.
The mosque I demonstrate in the film74 was anything but square, so that is why the Qibla wall alone must
be used.
74 http://The Sacred City.ca
124
Dan Gibson
Second, as I have examined many mosques, I now recognize that there are only a few qibla choices. Most
mosques face Mecca in Saudi Arabia. They may be off a few degrees, but it is obvious that Mecca is their
qibla. However, after examining a number of early mosques it became obvious that they were not facing
Mecca but were facing southern Jordan. Only after correlating data from eight or nine such mosques was
it obvious that they faced the city of Petra. However, some mosques faced directly between Petra and
Mecca. The third choice were the mosques of North Africa and Spain that were more or less parallel to
a line drawn between Mecca and Petra. There are very few mosques that do not follow one of these four
patterns.
Another helpful action, is to speak to the custodians of the mosque or to the older men of the town or vil-
lage, if there is one close-by. While they may only know the local explanation and history of the mosque,
they may have some interesting insights. It is also advisable to spend some time in the neighborhood talk-
ing to people and getting the various names used for the mosque and asking about its history. Another
good lead is to visit local historians and old men who like history. Sometimes I have asked for those who
can recite poetry and genealogies. These men often have retained information that is not known to ev-
eryone. After returning home from the mosque, I would put all the information together, and then check
what I had found with online satellite photos.
One of the dangers I found in calculating the qibla direction, is to simply look down from space at a satel-
lite photo and try and imagine where this particular building points. One or two degrees variable in the
satellite photo can have the qibla pointing off several degrees, which will shift it considerably if the place
it is pointing at is several thousand kilometers away.
So, after researching over fifty mosques, I also found it helpful to also draw lines on a satellite photo from
Mecca to the mosque. If Mecca was obviously not the qibla, then I would choose Petra, or one of the other
common directions. It was usually very obvious which direction the mosque pointed.
The biggest challenge is to find mosques that have not been rebuilt over the centuries to face towards
Mecca. Once a mosque has been rebuilt, it is very hard to tell its original qibla direction.
Below in the data that I collected for the Anjar Mosque and placed in Early Islamic Qiblas.

190.76 187.15 163.40 196.93
Misses by: 3.61 27.36 6.17
Summary: This mosque points closer to Petra than any other Qibla direction, and is out by only 3.61.
125
When I first released my finding on early Islamic Qiblas in 2010, most readers assumed that I had simply
looked a satellite photos and jumped to conclusions. This was reinforced by the black and white photos
I used in Qurnic Geography, illustrating the Qibla direction of various mosques. As fellow academics
examined my writings, they asked for a full release of my data, as my findings seemed unbelievable and
utterly fantastic. It was assumed by everyone that the early Muslims were incapable of correctly establish-
ing accurate Qiblas.
In the next chapter I will examine how it was that we all came to believe that the early Muslims were
either incapable or very sloppy at calculating their qiblas.
126
Dan Gibson
The Qibla Misunderstanding
Much has been written over the last thousand years on the topic of how Muslims can correctly identify the
qibla direction when they pray. From about 900 until 1800 CEm thousands of Arabs wrote thousands of
books and articles on how this could be done using astronomy and geography.75 Despite this, there is still
disagreement on the technique used by the earliest Muslims.
In relation to finding the Qibla direction, King and Hawkings divide Islamic history into two parts.76 First,
they suggest that the earliest Muslims used folk astronomy to determine the Qibla, and King claims they
were wildly inaccurate. For the second section (9 - 16th century), King and Hawkings note that the tech-
niques of folk astronomy were employed by the legal scholars to demine the Qibla... but the era really
belongs to the mathematicians. It is on this second era that King, Kawkings, Hogendijk and others focus
most of their attention.77
In this short chapterr, we will focus on what King calls folk astronomy but we need to challenge the
mistaken idea that the early Muslims used inaccurate or inadequate methods. Ahmad Dallal, who wrote
Beyond the Hijaz (by the Red Sea), reflects: Syria and Iraq, which were near enough to Mecca so that pre-
mathematical methods of computing the direction of the qibla provided fairly accurate results, many of the
mosques built in the early period of Islamic expansion were misaligned. With increased knowledge of mathemati-
cal astronomy, this flaw was recognized and although some of the misaligned mosques retained their orientation,
others were rebuilt to face in the correct direction.78
I wish to present a different opinion, and in doing so realize that I am not only going against modern
scholars, but against the general opinion expressed by Muslim writers for the last thousand years. I trust
that in the next few pages I will be able to explain that the early qiblas were actually very accurate, why
the change took place to preferring mathematical solutions, and why there were misunderstandings about
how the early qiblas were determined.
In the first chapter I attempted to demonstrate that the early mosques in Islam were not misaligned be-
cause of poor tools or inadequate techniques, but rather because they were facing different qibla direc-
tions. For the first century of Islam, all qiblas pointed to Petra in Jordan. This was not a mistake as we
75 King, David, A, World maps for finding the direction and distance to Mecca, Brill 1999, Page 4 & 5 ...
the sources are some 10,000 odd scientific manuscripts in Arabic, Persian and Ottoman Turkish, and
several hundred scientific instruments; we know of over 1,000 Muslim scientists who worked between
the 8th and 18th centuries.
76 King, David A, World maps for finding the direction and distance to Mecca, Brill, 1999, 1.2 Folk astron-
omy, Page 2
77 After the 16th century, we enter into the modern era when chronometers and modern time keeping
methods became available, allowing for the adoption of a universal system of latitude and longitude.
78 Dallal, Ahmad, Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History, Tseng Information Systems, Inc, 2010
Page 2
127
will see later, but as the archeology clearly demonstrates, Petra was the first original holy city of Islam.
According to traditional Islamic history, in the year 61 AH (October 10, 680) Abdulla Ibn Zubayr declared
himself caliph in the Holy City, which the later chroniclers of Islam call Mecca, but after this we will call
Petra, as all of the Qiblas pointed there. Ibn Zubayrs actions started the second Islamic Civil War. ajjj
ibn Yusuf was sent with an army to retake Petra. In the process, Petra was destroyed, and as I explain in
the book Qurnic Geography the Black Stone was whisked away into the Arabian desert, eventually find-
ing its place in the location we call Mecca today. This location became the second Qibla.
Later, in 702 when al-ajjj founded the city of Wsi, situated midway between Basra and Kufa, he de-
cided to build a new mosque in his honor. But it seems he faced a problem. He refused to pray to the old
city of Petra which he helped destroy, and he refused to pray to the new qibla in Mecca.79 In his protest,
he chose to point his new mosque in Wsi directly between Petra and Mecca. This became the third qibla.
And for the next 68 years, seven large new mosques in Iraq and Syria adopted the same practice. In much
the same way, the Muslims of North Africa and Spain also refused to point their qiblas at Mecca and chose
rather to point their qiblas south, most of them parallel to a line drawn between Mecca and Petra, and this
became the fourth qibla.
While there is little written evidence for all of this, outside of charting the physical qiblas of ancient
mosques, and then interpreting Islamic history at the time of their construction, it does provide explana-
tion of why the Qiblas pointed where they did, and we suddenly realize that the early mosque Qiblas were
quite accurate.
Since Muslims writing in the second era, all the way up until modern times did not recognize Petra or any
of the other options as possible Qiblas, they assumed that Mecca was the only Qibla ever used, and thus
assumed that the early Muslims were very inaccurate at measuring their Qiblas.
But were they? In the first chapter of this book I demonstrated that many of the early qiblas were amaz-
ingly accurate, sometimes to less than one degree. Below are four tables each demonstrating the accuracy
of the mosques that pointed to the four different qiblas.
Mosques Pointing to Petra
Rebuilt
Y e a r Y e a r Original Degrees
AH CE Qibla of Error
Mecca

8 629 Methala, Kerala India Cheraman Juma Petra 0.26 unknown

79 See page 45-46

128
Dan Gibson
Rebuilt
Mecca
86 705 an Yemen Grand Mosque Petra or Jer 0.36 never

unknown unknown Bowhar Oman Sah Ramdah Mosque Petra 0.58 never
Sumail Omani
unknown unknown Sumail Oman Petra 1.55 never
Mosque
U z b e k i - Bibi Samarkand
unknown unknown Samarkand Petra & Jer. 1.78 never
stan
Note the pink column which shows how close the Qibla is to pointing towards Petra in Jordan. The aver-
age accuracy is within 2.9 (1.9 if we remove the two worst examples) This is amazingly accurate for
mosques that are as far away as China and India.
Mosques Pointing Between Petra and Mecca
Rebuilt
Year Year Original Degrees
Mecca
87 706 Wsi Iraq ajjj Mosque between 0.29 never

127 744 arrn Iraq Mosque and University between 0.32 never
Once again note the pink colmn. This is for mosques built under the control of al-ajjj ibn Ysuf. The
average accuracy is within 0.98.
129
Mosques Pointing Parallel to a line drawn between Petra and Mecca
Rebuilt
Mecca

Al-abwan al-thal-
252 866 Qayrawn Tunisia parallel 3.54 never
athah
Once again, the average accuracy of these mosques is an amazing 3.5
Mosques Pointing to Mecca
Rebuilt
Mecca

146 764 Kfa Iraq Qar Ukhaydir Mecca 3.9
232 847 Smarra Iraq Mosque of Smarra Mecca 1.13
45 859 Smarra Iraq Abu Dulaf Mosque Mecca 4.6
unknown unknown Asnaq Iran Friday Mosque Mecca 4.15 -
unknown unknown Fahraj Iran Masjid i Jmi Mecca 10.84 9th cent.
unknown unknown allah Oman Al Bald Mosque Mecca 5.33 10th cent.
The average accuracy of the Mecca oriented mosques, build during the 2nd and 3rd centures of Islam are
within 4.78
If we take the above average accuracies and compare them, it starts to become obvious that the average
Qibla accuracy was deteriorating, rather than improving over time.
Petra: 6-125 AH Average accuracy is within 2.9
Between: 87-155 AH Average accuracy is within 0.9
Parallel: 115-252 AH Average accuracy is within 3.5
Mecca: 109-262 AH Average accuracy is within 4.8
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Dan Gibson
This data seems to indicate that not only were the early Arabs accurate in determining their qibla direc-
tion, there seems to be a breakdown in technique as the accuracy of later mosques lags behind those of
earlier mosques.
This is exactly the opposite of what Muslim writers between the 9th and 17th centuries claimed. Obvi-
ously, as they did not have the tools or ability to visit mosques all over the world to determine their Qibla
direction, they were unaware of the four different qiblas. Therefore they concluded that the early methods
were wildly inaccurate. And so until now, scholars of Islamic history have assumed the same thing. Not
only is it difficult to accept that Petra was the object of the original qibla, we must also adjust our thinking
to accept that the earliest Muslims had some method of setting their Qiblas with great accuracy.
So instead of Kings proposed two categories (poor early techniques followed by more accurate mathemat-
ical techniques) I would like to suggest a slightly different scenario. From my reading of Islamic writings,
I have come to the conclusion that the art of determining the qibla direction came out of early naviga-
tion, not mathematics. In the ancient past the Arabs sought for methods to help them guide their camel
caravans across the trackless deserts of Arabia. They needed to know where cities lay over the horizon in
order to guarantee that their caravans arrived at the correct city, and not one of an enemy.
Therefore we need to go back to the time of the caravans to understand how this folk astronomy as it
has been called worked. The goals of folk astronomy were quite clear. The early Arabs were not interested
in mapping the world using latitude and longitude. Rather, they needed to plot their way across the track-
less desert,80 using the stars as their guide, being able to adjust their course with each nights viewing of
the stars. I believe that the Arabs developed unique ways of doing this, but they left little in the way of
written record of how they did it. So it is impossible to simply point to a book that explains how it was
done. We must accept that the early system was lost after the last person skilled in this folk astronomy
passed away, probably sometime in the late 8th century, as caravan trade shifted from the deserts into
lands using modern Roman roads with inscribed milestones.
From the 9th century until now researchers have turned to mathematicians to help solve this problem,
rather than to navigators. In the process, many different mathematical solutions have been proposed. At
the same time, religious teachers and scholars of Islam have tried to discover what the earlier folk sys-
tem was. They did this, because the Qurn praised the earlier system when it stated:
And He (Allah) has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it shift with you, and rivers and paths,
that you may be guided, as well as landmarks. And by the stars men are also guided.
Qurn, 16:15&16
80 Qurnic Geography, page 149 explains that Nabataean camel caravans often avoided regular trade
routes as these were taxed by local tribes. They preferred to travel across the desert where others could
not go, using hidden water cisterns.
131
From this verse we learn that Allah made river, paths and landmarks for mankind to find his way. And he
gave them the stars to guide them. So from a religious viewpoint, it appears that the introduction of new
mathematical formulae was a turning away from what God had provided. Therefore, from the 9th century
onwards, religious teachers seem to feel that mankind was drifting away from real Islam towards man-
made systems. The religious teachers wanted to explain how to find the Qibla using the stars, as this was
what the Qurn encouraged but by that time much had been forgotten. But that did not keep them from
proposing all sorts of solutions.
Below is a rough diagram of what I am proposing how Qibla-finding-knowledge may have developed.
So while we can learn many things by reading the proposals made from the 9th century to the 16th
century, we must look farther afield for the answers we are looking for. And we must look to early Arab
navigation to provide us the clues.
However, before trying to discover just how the Qibla was set in early times, it would be helpful to exam-
ine a couple of the solution that religious leaders proposed between the 9th century and the 16th century,
of how the early Muslims set the Qibla.
An example of one of these religious solutions is what is known as sacred geography. Since Muslims
around the world wanted to face the Qibla in Mecca, the Muslims of the 9th-16th centuries recognized that
there were different geographical regions stemming out from Mecca. Therefore someone looking for the
qibla in Turkey would have a different perspective from someone in India or in Africa.81 Some 20 different
schemes of sacred geography are known from some 30 different medieval sources.82 The concept of Sacred
81 King, The Sacred Geogrpahy of Islam, also EI2 under the heading Mecca (As centre of the world),
reprinted in King, studies, C_X.
82 King, David A, World maps for finding the direction and distance to Mecca, Brill, 1999, pg 51
132
Dan Gibson
Geography around the Qibla seems to stem from a Yemeni scholar named Ibn Suraaqa (fl. ca. 1000) who
first proposed various schemes with 8, 11, and 12 sectors around the Kaba 983
In short the Qibla direction was worked out for these various sectors. For example, if you had only four
sections, people would pray either North, South, East or West. With 8 sections they would be more ac-
curate. With 12 sections even more accurate as everyone would be within 30 degrees (360/12=30)
Everyone in that section would know the general direction they should pray towards Mecca. While this
might be useful to individuals in their homes or on journeys, it would not be helpful in setting an accurate
qibla for a mosque.
To the left you can see one of the oldest known

schemes of Islamic Sacred Geography, found in a
late 15th century copy of the geographical treatise
of the 10th century scholar al-Maqdis but certain-
ly not original to that work. The world is divided
into eight sectors about the Kaba but some of the
geographical information is missing for various
sectors. That which has been copied attests to the
early date of the scheme: even the areas of vari-
ous regions are given, a tradition found already in
the writings of the 8th century scholar al-Farzi
(m5:27).84
Many of the other early systems used observable

phenomena such as celestial sightings. This was
well known to them, as is attested by Ibn Abbas
and al-Hasan al-Basrl85 who implied that the major
axis of the rectangular base of the Kaba pointed towards the rising of Canopus, the brightest star in the
southern celestial hemisphere, and that the minor axis points towards summer sunrise in one direction
and winter sunset in the other.
Some medieval Islamic writers mention that the earlier system involved meteorological phenomena such
as the winds, and phenomena in the sky.86 They also note that folk astronomy from pre-Islamic times was
practiced by religious teachers at the same time that mathematical astronomy was developed.
There were five applications of traditional astronomical folklore: (1) navigation, (2) the regulation of the
lunar calendar; (3) the determination of the times of the five daily Muslim prayers, which are astronomi-
cally defined; (4) finding the Muslim Qibla and (5) the organization of agricultural activities in the solar
83 On Ibn Suraaqa see King, Yemeni Astronomy, p. 21 and the article Makka, as centrer of the world in
EI2.
84 From MS Berlin SB Ahwardt 6034, fol. 24r, courtesy of the Deutsche Staatsbibliothek
85 Heinen, Islamic cosmology, 157-8, King page 7
86 The Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd edition, King, Makka, As centre of the world
133
calendar.87 In the next chapter I will concentrate solely on how they determined the Qibla direction.
Historical evidence of clashes between the two traditions is rare. Al-Biruni made some disparaging re-
marks about those who sought to find the Qibla by means of the winds and the lunar mansions: When
[some people] were asked to determine the direction of the Qibla, they became perplexed because the
solution of the problem was beyond their scientific powers. You see that they have been discussing com-
pletely irrelevant phenomena such as the directions from which the winds blow and the risings of the
lunar mansions.88
But, as we will show in the following chapter, the rising and setting of lunar mansions, as well as the ris-
ing and setting of certain stars were an integral part of the early system of navigation. But it will be only
through gathering scraps of information from various sources that we will be able to piece together how
the earlier system worked.
87 See King, Medieval Islamic Shadow Schemes, and Astronomy in the Service of Islam, and D. M. Varisco,
Yemeni Almanac
88 Ali, Jamil, The determination of the coordinates of positions for the correction of distances between cities:
a translation from the Arabic of Kitb tadd nihyt al-amkin litah masft al-maskin, American Uni-
versity of Beirut, 1967
134
Dan Gibson
Could the Arabs of the 7th and 8th centuries accurately determine
Qibla direction?
From my survey of Early Islamic Qiblas, I discovered that during the first 100 years of Islamic history,
all Islamic Qiblas pointed to Petra. During the second hundred years (which I call the Time of Confusion)
some Qiblas pointed to Mecca, some pointed to between Mecca and Petra and some were parallel to a line
drawn between Petra and Mecca. They did this with surprising accuracy, which seems to indicate that the
early Muslims did indeed have accurate tools and techniques for establishing Qibla directions.
When confronted with the growing archeological evidence supporting a Petra Qibla, several people have
argued that the Arabs of 7th and 8th centuries would not have had the technology needed to accurately
determine a Qibla direction. This argument is often based on reasoning that goes like this: Today we
are much more advanced than those Arabs, and since I could never determine the direction of the Qibla
without a GPS, then I doubt that they could do it accurately. Another argument states: The Arabs of
the Arabian Peninsula were land-bound, using camel caravans. Using the stars as a method of finding
direction was something sailors did. So how could the Arabs of Arabia know with any accuracy how to
determine the Qibla? The goal of this chapter is to demonstrate that there were early Muslims that had
the tools and techniques to accurately determine a mosques Qibla direction.
Examining an account
Al -abar records a description of the founding of the Al Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem, and the setting of its
Qibla soon after the Arab armies occupied the city.89
He (Umar) then went on and entered the masjid (congregational) area. Then he went on towards the mirab
of David, while we were with him; he entered it, recited the prostration of David and prostrated himself and we
prostrated ourselves with him. . then he said Bring Kab to me. Kab was brought to him. Umar said Where
do you think we should establish the place of prayer? Kab said Towards the Rock. Umar said O Kab, you
are imitating the Jewish religion! I have seen you taking off your shoes. Kab said I only wanted to touch this
ground with my feet. Umar said I have seen you. No, we shall place the qibla in the front of it; the Messenger
of God likewise made the front part of our mosques the qibla. Take care of your own affairs, we were not com-
manded to venerate the Rock, but we were commanded to venerate the Kaba.
After this, Kab set the Qibla direction and the Al-Aqa mosque was constructed on the Temple Mount
facing Petra. The question arises, how did Kab determine the Qibla direction? Before answering this ques-
tion, we need to understand more of what tools would have been available to Kab and what techniques
were known to him. First, it will take us many pages to cover the tools and techniques that Kab would
have had access to, and then we will turn our attention to how he could have used those tools to accu-
rately establish the Qibla of the Al Aqsa mosque.
89 abar Vol. 12, translated by Yohanan Friedmann, page 193
135
From my studies, I have come to the conclusion that the knowledge of using the stars for navigation was
common among the early Nabataean Arab merchants who traveled the trackless deserts before the arrival
of the Roman armies. Once northern Arabia was absorbed into the Roman province of Syria, with its sys-
tem of roads and milestones, this knowledge was soon lost, perhaps within a generation.
Arab and Chinese astronomy
Lets begin with an age old question: Who developed stellar navigation first, the Chinese or the Arabs?
Joseph Needham argues in his three volume series Science and Civilisation in China90 that celestial navi-
gation was developed simultaneously by the Chinese and the Arabs. However, on reviewing Needhams
arguments, and what we have learned since 1959, I believe the Arabs had this knowledge first, and that it
was transferred to China around the first century CE.
The Chinese had very rudimentary calendars in 1st century CE as seen by Da Tai Liji. (Record of Rites of
The Great Dai).91 However Needham notes that in the 3rd century BCE, there is a story of a Chinese ruler
collecting a set of observations about the stars (of more than 200,000 characters) entitled Master Lus
Spring and Summer Annals (Lshi Chunqiu) containing observations pertaining to the heavens, earth and
the myriad objects in the universe. Needham then points out that the astronomical writings of the Chinese
begin about 3rd century BCE in the form of two books known as Tianwen (Astronomy of Shi Shen) and the
Tianwen Xingzhan. (Astronomical Star Prognostication)92 These books disappeared from the bibliographies
of the dynastic histories in the 6th century CE and were replaced by Gujin Tongzhan. (Compendium of As-
trology, New and Old) of Wu Mi. These were lost in the Mongol period, but portions are contained in later
writings.
The debate over who first started using the stars for navigation (as opposed to using the stars for fortune
telling) must take into account that there was contact between the Nabataean Arabs and the Chinese dur-
ing the first centuries BCE and CE. The chart below demonstrates multiple contacts between the Chinese
and the Middle Eastern empires. Note that the first known contact was around 100 BCE.93
Major Chinese Sources
Source Date Written Referring to events

Shiji or Shi Ji., ch. 123 90 BCE 100 BCE
Qian Han Shu, ch. 96a 100 BCE 100 BCE
Hou Han Shu, chs. 116,118 450 CE 97 CE
90 Needham, 1959
91 Needham, 1959, vol. 3, pg 194
92 Needham, 1959, page 196-197

93 This chart is adapted from material presented in Science and Civilisation in China by Joseph Needham, Vol. I,
Cambridge University Press, 1954, pages 192-193
136
Dan Gibson
Source Date Written Referring to events

Wei Lue in Sanguo Zhi, ch. 30 Before 429 CE 220 - 264 CE
Jin Shu, ch. 97 635 CE 265 - 419 CE
Sung Shu, ch. 97 500 CE 420 - 478 CE
Liang Shu, ch. 54 629 CE AD 502 - 556 CE
Wei Shu, ch. 102 and Bei Shi, ch. 97 572 CE 386 - 556 CE
Jiu Tang Shu, ch. 198 950 CE 618 - 906 CE
Xin Tang Shu, ch 221, a,b 1061 CE 618 - 906 CE
Nestorian Stone 781 CE 719 CE
Song Shi, ch. 490 1345 CE 960 - 1279 CE
Zhufan Zhi 1225 CE 1225 CE
Ming Shi, ch. 326 1739 CE 1368 - 1643 CE
The Chinese text that is of real importance to us is not mentioned by Needham. In order to understand the
contact between the Nabataeans and the Chinese we must turn to what is known as Xiyu chuan (Chapter
on the Western Regions) taken from Hou Han shu 88. The Hou Han shu, the official history of the Later (or
Eastern) Han Dynasty (25-221 CE), was compiled by Fan Ye who died in 445 CE. Fan Ye used a number
of earlier histories including the Shi ji by Sima Qian and the Han shu by Ban Gu, plus many others (in-
cluding some that were also entitled Hou Han shu) most of which have not survived intact. The particular
chapter of interest to us is the History of China which covers 25 - 55 CE. John Hill recently completed a
translation of this text and has made copies available to scholars.94
In the appendices of his book in section B titled The territories of Haixi, Haibei and Haidong, Hill tells us
that the Chinese envoys to Arabia brought back with them some Arab musicians and some skilful jugglers
who performed transformations, belched fire, changed the head of an ox to that of a horse, amputated
limbs, and then replaced them. They also know how to play with little balls and can keep as many as ten
in the air at a time. This passage demonstrates that not only were the Chinese exploring the western
world, but Arabs had traveled to China during the height of the Nabataean merchant empire. Since there
was communication between the Nabataean Arabs and the Chinese, the question of who first developed
astronomy and the science of celestial navigation will probably never be sorted out, but it will help us
understand why there are early mosques in China. And, as the Chinese were observers of Arab navigation,
some of their writings provide us with new evidence, as well as substantiating what later Arab writers
surmised of the early days of Arab navigation. We are also going to search the Greek and Roman classics
for more clues as well.
It would seem however, from the Chinese records, that astronomy and astrology were very much con-
nected in their minds, and that the Chinese study of astronomy was very much focused on astrological
94 Soon-to-be published annotated translation of the Weile by John E. Hill - personal communication
30 May, 2017
137
projections and calendrical science rather than navigation using the stars. The Arabs on the other had
good reason to develop celestial navigation.
Navigation by the stars likely developed on land, not on the seas
This may come as a surprise, as few people have researched the development of celestial navigation in
Arabia. Many of the early works on astronomy, be they Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian or Chinese, were
mainly works on astrology.95 Most people never wandered far from home or from well marked paths, and
therefore had little need for developing celestial navigation, as they could easily tell their location based
on the things they observed around them. The Nabataean merchants on the other hand had a need for
navigating the deserts by using the stars. In order to avoid taxes and confrontation with people who were
trying to take advantage of camel caravans passing through their territory, they deliberately took their
camel caravans into the vast deserts of Arabia. In chapter eleven of Qurnic Geography,96 I explain how
the Nabataeans developed rain-water collection systems to provide water for their camels. Additionally,
in order to find these hidden water systems they needed a system to guide them across the trackless desert
plains.
During the years I spent in the Arabian deserts, I noticed that the stars were much brighter than what I
had observed in Europe and North America. There are several reasons for this. First, I was outdoors much
more than I was in Europe or North America. The weather also had something to do with this. In Arabia
there are many months of the year when the skies are clear of clouds. Also, the air is much clearer in
the desert, where there is little humidity and little air pollution. Added to this, the Arabian deserts have
nearly twelve hours of darkness. Since people only sleep an average of eight hours, this means that once
the caravans stopped traveling during daylight hours, the Arab merchants had several hours of darkness
before they needed to sleep.
When camping in the desert, we would spend several hours around the campfire, as there was little we
could do in the darkness. For the Bedouins, this is their principle time of socializing, telling stories and
exchanging knowledge. I remember many evenings sitting around a smoldering fire. As the coals glowed,
the men would engage in story-telling, and the women would come from the womens side of the tent
and gather around, just outside of the glow, so we could not see them, but we could feel and hear their
presence.
One can easily imagine the caravan leaders taking the youth away from the fire and turning their focus to
the stars. Using parts of the body and simple mathematics, the old masters would teach the young men the
basics of nagivation. In this way, knowledge of navigation would be passed from generation to generation.
The ancient Arabs tell us that there were two types of navigation. The first was known as ishrt or the
knowledge of guides and aids, such as mountains, valleys, and rock formations.97 The second type of
navigation was known as majra, or taking celestial bearings from a specific point. Once the celestial di-
rection was established, the navigator would use ishrt along the way during daylight hours. Most Arab
95 Pines, 1964
96 Gibson, Qurnic Geography, page 149
97 Tibbetts, Arab Navigation, Royal Asiatic Society, 1981, Page 33 & 271
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Dan Gibson
navigation books are divided into two sections, one dealing with ishrt and the other dealing with majra.
After years of using this system of navigation across the desert, the Arabs adapted it for use aboard ships.
Thus it is no surprise to discover that it was the Arabs who took to the high seas first and not the Chinese.
It was Arab ships that plied the ports of India and China, and not the other way around. When Ferdinand
Magellan made his famous journey around the world, he relied on an Arab navigator and Arab charts to
guide him.
What Tools Were Available?
Today, most books on navigation deal with navigation on the water. Celestial navigation on land is seldom
addressed. In my research, I discovered that the Arabs used only a handful of tools, and some very simple
math. The secret to understanding this is to put aside what you may know of navigation and mathemat-
ics and try to understand from an early Arab perspective what they were doing. I discovered something
similar to this when studying the Arabic language in my early twenties. As long as I tried to understand
Arabic grammar through English grammar, I struggled. When I put English grammar aside and learned
the Arabic terms and meanings, I began to understand Arabic grammar structure.
In much the same way, we need to put aside our modern concepts of math and geometry and try to think
from early Arab perspectives. The first challenge is that they did not think in terms of latitude and longi-
tude. Using these will only bring confusion. The Arabs had no desire to map the world; they only wanted
to determine where locations were over the horizon. Second, the Arabs had 224 degrees98 in their circle
and not 360 degrees, which we seem to have adopted from the Babylonians, who used base 60.
Using qiys
Before the invention of the compass, watch and sextant, the Arabs main guide was determining how far
north or south he was. To obtain this, Nabataean Arab merchants measured the height of a known star
above the horizon. Most often this was the Pole Star or North Star, since this star was the one that did
not move in the sky. They simply had to identify this star, and then directly measure its height above the
horizon. This was the simplest method, and was known as the science of qiys (measurement).
You can read extensively about this in Amad ibn Mjid al-Najds book: Kitb al-Fawid fi uul al-bar
wal-qawid. (1421 CE) This book has been translated by G. R. Tibbetts and published under the title:
Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean before the coming of the Portuguese. (The Royal Asiatic Society of Great
Britain and Ireland, 1981). This book tells us how the early Arabs used both ishrt as well as majra to
navigate.99 Fortunately, ibn Majid gives us some clues as to how the Arabs navigated in previous ancient
times and how navigation developed up until his time.
The early science of qiys involved holding fingers out at arms length and using them to measure the
98 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 7, Extracts from Mohit, a Turkish work on navigation
in the Indian seas. Translated and communicated by Joseph Von Hammer, Baron Purgstall, Aulic Coun-
sellor and Prof. Orient. Lang. at Vienna, Translation of the Mohit, 1838, Page 770
99 ishrt are local guides and majra are celestial guides, see page 138
139
height of the Pole Star from the horizon. The Pole Star raises or drops in the night sky as one moves north
or south. Each finger was called an iba. The iba was further divided into 8 zm. Thus distances were
often measured in zms.100
To standardize the iba measurement Arabs considered the bright star al-Aiyq (Capella) to be 4 iba
(fingers) or one dhubbn away from the nearby star called Dhubbn (-Aurigae).
Over the years I have tried various experiments measuring zms by hand and Ive discovered that this
seems to work for the average human, no matter how tall nor how short. When holding the hand at arms
length, it is possible to measure the height of the North Star by simply placing one hand over the other,
and then deciding where on the final finger the Pole Star was located, thus measuring the iba (number
of fingers) and the zms (1/8th of a finger.) If a person had short hands, or very thick fingers, they could
always check the width of their finger by comparing it to the width between Capella and -Aurigae and
adjust accordingly.
Above: A map of the Red Sea measured in iba
100 Facey, 1991, page 99
140
Dan Gibson
141
As one moved north, the Pole Star would rise in the night sky, and thus more fingers were needed to mea-
sure. On the reverse page is a map of the Red Sea, with iba measurements. It is easy to see that the Arabs
could calculate their distance north or south simply by measuring the height of the North Star.
Some basic tools

A more accurate but still simple instrument was known as a kaml. This was a small parallelogram made
of horn or wood measuring about one by two inches, with a string inserted in the center. On the string
were nine knots at measured intervals. The end of the string was held in the teeth. The lower edge of the
horn was placed on the horizon, while the horn was moved along the string until the upper edge touched
the required star. The knot at which the horn covered the exact distance signified a certain number of iba
or altitude of the star. The altitude of the Pole Star could then be deduced. If the horizon was difficult to
determine, the Arabs would simply hold the kaml so that the bottom was level to their eyes.101
An alternative way of using a kaml was to move

the knots through the teeth until the piece of horn
or wood covered the required star altitude. Vasco
da Gamas pilot from Malindi used a kaml, and
the Portuguese adopted it and eventually modified
the spacing of the knots to measure degrees.102
Sometimes Arab and Indian seamen added extra

knots marking the latitudes of particular ports of
call, or they simply used a kaml on which all the
knots indicated particular cities in the desert or
ports of call on the ocean. This worked well on the
flat desert plains, and allowed the merchants to
accurately determine their latitude.103
Larger pieces of wood were used when measuring

higher stars. Traditionally there were three sizes
of kaml, 4, 8, and 12 iba. Many aspects of us-
ing the kaml were passed from sailing masters to
novices and never
written down, so
things like the exact use of lunar mansions in relation to individual star
heights is still not fully understood.
Right: a quadrant from the

8th century (named because it
is 1/4 of a full circle.)
101 See Stellar navigation by the Arabs by Hasan Salih Shibab in The Principles of Arab Navigation, by Constable and
Facy, pg 27
102 Parkin, David and Barnes, Ruth, Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, page
219
103 See: http://www.dielette.fr/2014/09/06/kamal-connaissez/ for more on the kaml.
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Dan Gibson
Right: Another method of calculating the star

height was to use a simple protractor, based on a
224 degree circle, or 112 degree protractor. This
was half of a full Arab Rose Compass.
A weight was attached to a string

and suspended from the center
point. The user simply had to point
the flat edge of the protractor to
the star, and the string would fall
onto the marker of iba or zm.
While these tool were useful in

measuring the height of the north
star, or any other star in the sky,
measuring distance east and west
was much more work.
The origins of western longitude
The western world thinks in terms of latitude and longitude. For us the prime meridian or 0 longitude
(along with the opposite meridian at 180 longitude) forms a great circle that divides the Earth into the
Eastern and Western Hemispheres. In western thought this line runs through Greenwich, England, the site
of the Royal Observatory, which is where the English people happened to be situated when they came up
with this concept.
The English, however, were thinking in terms of sea travel, and they used time as their constant measure-
ment. The Earth spins west to east at a very even pace, moving 15 each hour. Using the sun as a marker
and a clock to give a constant measure, they could use the earths rotation to calculate their position in
relation to their starting point at 0. The English set their chronometers to noon when the sun was at its
highest point. Later, when they were at 3:00 PM, it meant that three hours ago the sun was overhead at 0
longitude. In those three hours, the sun moved 15 each hour for a total of 45, so they were at 45 west
longitude.
143
This worked well after the clock had been invented. But without the clock, the western world struggled to
measure longitude. Accurate clocks only began to appear in the 16th century. It was not until 1760 that
an Englishman named John Harrison invented an exact chronometer, making possible the measurement of
longitude at sea. So how did the Arabs do it long before clocks and latitude and longitude were developed?
Distance, not time
The Arab secret was to use distance, not time when measuring longitude. Using the North Star, they could
accurately determine if they were traveling north or south and how far they had traveled. However, since
they could not measure time accurately, they turned to distance. In order to do this, they used nothing
more complicated that their own bodies. If iba (fingers) could be used to determine the height of the
North Star, then distance could be used to determine how far one must travel directly north to raise the
North Pole one zm ( of an iba or finger width). This distance was measured using the rhythm or beat
(arba) of one walking, which was measured in taf la. (feet or meters of verse).104
This method requires someone to count the number of steps as they traveled from their source. By using
the number of steps and the Arab compass they could accurately determine how far they had traveled east
or west. Now, contrary to popular opinion, the Arab merchants of antiquity did not usually ride camels
when traveling in the desert. Camel drivers walked and the camels carried heavy loads. Thus, distance
in the desert was measured by the steps of an average human being. Pliny the Elder, a Roman historian,
is probably the earliest record we have that observes that the Arabs measured with steps. The Arabs told
Pliny that the trip from Timna, the capital of Qataban in Yemen, to Gaza on the Mediterranean Sea was
2,437,500 steps, or 62 days by camel.105
This is very close as the distance is around 2,500 kilometers. Since there are around 1000 steps in a ki-
lometer, there were around 2.5 million steps between Yemen and Gaza. In order to travel this distance
in 62 days, the camel caravans would have had to travel around 40,000 steps, or 40 kilometers per day.
This meant that the camel caravan moved around 40 kilometers or 24 miles in 12 hours, or 2 miles an
hour. Pliny found it surprising that the Arab merchants knew the exact number of steps. However, when
calculating latitude and longitude, this measurement became extremely important, as it was the primary
accurate measurement they could use without accurate timekeeping.
The problem that you and I would have in doing this kind of measurement is not mixing up our numbers
while walking. Many times my sons and I would try counting our steps as we walked and thus measure the
distance we had traveled. The first several thousand steps usually went well, but after that keeping track
of our counting became a problem.
The importance of poetry
The Arabs developed a fascinating way of measuring their steps. Rather than count, they would recite
poetry. Each poem had rhythm of a known length. By walking in rhythm and chanting the poem out loud,
104 Moreh, 1976, page 208
105 Pliny 12, Chap. 13
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the Arabs could enjoy the trip and know the exact distance they had traveled down to the exact number
of steps without counting. Thus long poems and poetry became extremely important to the Arabs in pre-
Islamic times. People who could create and memorize long poems were highly valued.106
Albert Hourani, one of the great modern Arab scholars, has said that his people are more conscious of
their language and the place of poetry than any other people in the world.107 This consciousness was
obsessive. Language was everything to the Arab. It was a divine expression and stemmed from the pre-
Islamic era where Al-Kutbi was the god of writing, and those who could create and write epic poems were
highly esteemed.
Today, Qurnic Arabic is considered by many Muslims to be the pure language that God speaks, and those
who speak it well are more honored than those who do not. Language in the form of local dialects also
separates those who are near and far (blood lines). It separates the educated from the uneducated. Arabic
is an art form, and for centuries was the near sole medium of artistic expression in the Arabian deserts.
Every Arab tribe had its poets and their unwritten words flew across the desert faster than arrows. As
Hourani observes, poetry was not meant to be written; it was designed to be memorized and recited. In
the midst of outward strife and disintegration, these poems provided a unifying principle. Poetry gave
expression and contained the idea of Arabian virtue. Based on the tribal community of blood lines and
insisting that only ties of blood were sacred, poetry became an invisible bond between diverse clans, and
formed the basis of a larger sentiment.
It was poetry, the ultimate Arab art form, which bound Arabs together as a people rather than a collection
of warring tribes.
When it became apparent that a young person was gifted as a poet, neighboring clans would gather to-
gether to wish the family joy. There were feasts and music. Men and boys congratulated one another, for a
poet was a defense to the honor of the entire tribe and a weapon to ward off insult from their good name,
and a means of perpetuating their glorious deeds and of establishing their fame forever.108
It is interesting to note that traditionally Arabs only wish one another joy on three occasions: The birth of
a boy, the coming to light of a poet, and the foaling of a noble mare.109
The Arabic language is so powerful that Arabs will listen intently to someone speaking well, whether he
speaks the truth or not. I lift my voice to utter lies absurd, for when I speak the truth my hushed tones
scarce are heard.110
Anyone wanting to understand Arab culture must be a student of Arab poetry. Arab poetry is full of glory.
The poets glorified themselves, their brilliant feats, their courage and resolution, and their contempt for
106 Baerlein, Henry, The Singing Caravan, Some echoes of Arabian Poetry, London, 1910
107 Hourani, 1991, pages 12-14
108 Nicholson, 1993, page 71
109 McDonald, 1978
110 Ab Al Al-Maar, Syrian poet, 973-1057 CE, Nicholson, 1993, page 319
145
death. The Arab hero is defiant and boastful, and when there is little to lose he will ride off unashamed,
but he will fight to the death for his women.
An example of the ideal Arab hero is Shanfara of Azd. He was an outlaw, swift runner, and excellent poet.
As a child, Shanfara was captured by the Bani Salmn tribe and brought up among them. He did not learn
of his origin until he was a grown man. He then vowed vengeance against his captors and returned to his
own tribe. He swore that he would slay a hundred men of the Beni Salmn, and he had slain ninety-eight
when he was caught in an enemy ambush. In the struggle, one of his hands was hewn off by a sword
stroke, but taking the weapon in the other, he flung it in the face of a Salmn tribesman and killed him,
making his score ninety-nine. He was then overpowered and slain. Much later as his skull lay bleaching on
the ground, a man of his enemies passed by and kicked it. A splinter of bone entered his foot; the wound
festered and he died, thus completing Shanfaras hundred. All of this is told in wonderful poetic language,
skillfully blending the use of poetry with the honor of the hero.111
Anyone wishing to be a student of Arab history must realize the importance of poetry, not only in its mes-
sage, but also in its form, rhythm and measure. It is used today to give rhythm to all sorts of labor, from
building construction to baking bread. To the Arab merchants of long ago, poetry was the backbone of
their secret skill of navigation. It not only helped them pass the long hours as they walked through the
desert; it provided them with a tool to accurately measure the distance they traveled.
Arabic Poetry
Most of our knowledge of early Arabic poetry comes from Ab Abd al Ramn Khall ibn Amad al
Farhdi (More commonly known as Al Farhdi) (718 791 CE). Al Farhdi, as he is commonly known,
wrote Kitb al-Ayn, an early dictionary of the Arabic language (in 8 volumes). He also collected samples
of fifteen scales of poetry and compared them with the Qurn.
Because the day of desert caravans and navigation by the stars had long passed, Al Farhdi called the
meter of the poem the wazn (weight or scale) rather than the earlier term of taf la. He also called each
line the bayt or house (verse), which could be divided into sections called shar (halves) or hemistich (a
half-line).112
Al Farhdi classified poetry into fifteen types based on their wazn. The most common of these are: awl,
Kmil, Wfir, Rajaz, Hazaj, Bas, Khaff, and ri. These more modern forms overshadowed the impor-
tance of the ancient beat (arba measured in taf la) which was so important to the early navigators.113
Unfortunately for us, Al Farhdis treatise on poetry came 180 years after the revelation of the Qurn,
and by this time poetry was an art form and no longer a part of navigation. In Farhdis time, armies,
not camel caravans, marched across the world from city to city along well marked roads, many of them
designed to move Roman armies quickly to the edge of the empire. By this time, the armies of Rome were
111 Amad, 2004, pg 16, Islamic Education

112 Al Faruqi, 1975
113 Moreh, 1976, pg 208
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Dan Gibson
retreating from the Roman frontier to deep within their empire, and the enemy armies now used these
same roads.
The use of poetry and song for navigation is not unique to the Middle East. In 1987 Bruce Chatwin pub-
lished the book Songlines which described the Australian aboriginal method of using songs to track routes
in the desert. The Aborigines highly evolved method of mapping creates a labyrinth of invisible path-
ways which meander all over Australia and are known to Europeans as Dreaming-tracks or Songlines;
to Aboriginals as the Footprints of the Ancestors or the Way of the law.114
So once the caravan masters knew their north-south position (measured in iba) and the distance they
had traveled (measured in tafla), they could turn to another tool, the Arab Compass, to determine the
angle they were traveling on. Combined with knowledge of the terrain, these Arabs could navigate any-
where in the northern hemisphere. Is it any wonder that once Arabs had travelled overland to China, a
few years later Arab boats set out straight across the Indian Ocean for the other side? Is it any wonder that
years later when Marco Polo visited China the harbors were jammed full of Arab boats? Is it any wonder
that a mosque was built in Canton China (modern Guangzhou) while Muammad was still alive, with its
Qibla pointing directly at Petra? And lastly, is it any wonder that algebra and geometry were significantly
developed in the Muslim world?
The Arab Compass
Another tool the Arabs used was the

Arab Compass. For the Arab naviga-
tor, the horizon was divided into 32
akhnm or directions, rather than just
N, S, E, W. Thus young Arab navigators
had to memorize the names of the 32
locations. Today each of the 32 akhnm
are 11 degrees, making 360 in total
by todays measurement. As some early
Arabs used base 7 in their mathematics,
the Arab compass is naturally divided
into 224 degrees, with seven degrees
separating the main 32 points.
Right The 32 points of the compass and

the star names associated with them.
114 Chatwin, Bruse, The Songlines, (New York: Viking, 1987), Also check out ORourke, Walking and
Mapping: Artists as Cartographers and Dittrich, Sara, Wayfinding: Walking in Nomadic and Urban Culture,
2013
147
Above: The 32 star names on the horizon, and their corresponding directions
Before any math was done, the Arab navigator would know how far north or south he was by measuring
the height of the North Star each day in zms. He could tell in what direction he was traveling by using
the 32 points on the horizon and comparing his direction to the stars. Calculations were usually made in
the evening when the stars rose on the right and again in the morning when stars set on the left. Other
measurements were made during the night hours when the stars reached their zenith. Often directions
were given by using star names. This makes reading confusing to us as the Arabs would not mention 77
degrees, nor East of North, but would say something like: travel until the mountain is at al Nqa.
Star names were very useful. Merchants could determine what lay over the horizon by knowing the ishrt
(landmarks) from every major stopping place and trading centre. If a person stood in point A and looked
south, they could identify the location of landmarks such as distant mountains and ridges. These would be
associated with the star which rose or set near that spot on the horizon.
When standing miles away on the other side they could also note the same landmarks as identifi ed with
opposing star names as seen from that location. If a ridge or valley had the same opposing star name, (see
compass on the next page) or a small number of degrees to the right or the left of an opposing star name,
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Dan Gibson
then they knew that direction was the shortest route between the two. While not 100% accurate they
could be certain within a couple of degrees. In the diagram below, the men know they are facing the same
direction, as the man in the north would identify al imrn and the man in the south would identify the
opposing al Nqa. The other mountain peaks would not have corresponding names.
In addition to the star names on the hori-

zon, the Arab compass had other uses. If one
traveled 168 km directly north, the pole star
would raise one zm. If a person traveled
straight east or west the polestar would not
raise or fall at all. If one traveled towards any
one of the other points, the pole star would
raise or fall at a set rate. In the illustration to
the left the outer numbers indicate how far
you would have to travel to raise or lower the
Pole Star 8 zms or one iba. Note: Before
1000 CE these star names were a good guide,
but today they are off by a bit as the whole
star set has shifted.115
Note: The numbers illustrated above are tak-

en from Sulaimn al-Mahris Minhaj where he
also gives the figures used by the Gujeratis
and Cholas of India. Tibbetts pg 302
Note: This compass is addressed on pages 18, 20, 38, & 42
115 Constable 2013
149
Above: The Istanbul Observatory in 1577 (ehinename, Book of the King of Kings)
Al-Jh and bash values
The measurement of the height of the Pole Star was the basic measurement used by ancient navigators.
This star was known as Al Jh but it was not completely stationary in the sky. It would move around the
actual North Pole at a distance of three iba so that the lowest and highest points of its course were six
iba apart. As it was important to have a standard measure, this was taken when Al Jh was at its lowest
point. This was measured at the time the 12th lunar mansion,116 al-arfa (the star Leonis) was in its ze-
nith. If the North Star was measured at a different time, an experienced navigator would know how to add
or subtract the difference from its lowest point. This was called the bash. Those who were inexperienced
in getting an accurate North Star reading would call it a proxy height.
116 See page 155 for lunar mansions
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Dan Gibson
Knowledge of the bash values for all the lunar mansions was regarded as essential for a master naviga-
tor. In essence it was the measurement of how far the Pole Star was above its measurement at its lower
culmination and thus it became its basic measurement.117
Lunar Time
Understanding time was helpful in doing east-west calculations. During the day the sun provided an ac-
curate measuring tool but at night they needed to rely on the position of the stars as they crossed the sky,
or by the shadow that moved across the moon.
The moon was very important for the ancient Arabs, both in telling what day it was during the lunar
month and also by telling time.
When the moon is full, it can be used to tell time exactly the same way the sun is used during the day. Near
the equator, when the sun is coming up over the eastern horizon, it is sunrise, or 6AM. It then takes the
sun 6 hours to reach its zenith, at 12 noon. When the sun is halfway between its zenith and the western
horizon, the time is 3PM. And the sun sets in the west at 6PM. Now the sun and moon rise and set at differ-
ent times depending on latitude, the season, the time zone, and whether or not it is daylight savings. For
example, the moon is higher, has a longer arc, and is in the sky longer during winter. So, to be accurate,
time estimates change according to situations, which may mean, for example, that there will be more or
fewer hours from midnight to noon.
In order to tell time by the moon the Arabs first read the moon and then they looked at its position in
the sky. The most common difficulty we have is that we want to use the position of the moon as a clock
because that is what is done with the sun.
With the moon however, we need to notice the leading (right) edge of the moon, as it represents sundown
or the beginning of night. The left edge represents sunrise, the end of night. Everything in between is di-
vided into the different hours of the night.
Now lets look at the phases of the moon. There is a line on the moon where the light and dark areas meet.
If the moon is new, it is totally dark, and the moon cannot be used to tell time.
Left: 29 modern phases

of the moon.
117 Constable 2013 pg 29
151
118
Note: Other terms were also used for waxing and

waning: manzil al ijthimiyya for waxing, and
manzil al istiqbliyya for waning.
Lunar time cannot be told throughout the entire

night. As the moon moves through its phases,
the line that separates the light from the dark
side of the moon moves from the right towards
the left. Using this line, one can look at the face
of the moon to get an idea of the time. For in-
stance if there is a young moon, or a small cres-
cent, then you can calculate the time for about
30 minutes after 6PM by looking at the right
118 Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (2005). Phases of the Moon. Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical
Almanac. University Science Books. p. 478
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Dan Gibson
edge. That means the moons light will disappear at about 6:30PM and the moon will set in the west. As
the moon goes through its phases the line between light and dark moves across the moon, giving the ob-
server an idea of the time. There are multiple websites dedicated to explaining this. The illustration from
the previous page is from Tell-Time-Without-a-Clock119
Above: Al-Biruni on different phases of the moon, from Kitab al-Tafhim
Lunar Mansions
While the sun and moon functioned as a clock for the ancients, the moon was also a calendar. The Arabs
used a lunar calendar, as did much of the non-Christian world. Therefore the ancient Arabs were always
aware of the moon, for a new moon indicated a new month had arrived. So each lunar month had a name,
and observations of the moon were part of everyday conversations.
Lunar mansions (manazil al-qamar) are segments of the ecliptic path through which the moon moves in
its orbit around the earth. In general, though not always, phases of the moon were divided into 27 or 28
segments relative to fixed stars, one for each day of the lunar month, (which is 27.3 days long). Thus the
position of the moon is charted throughout the year with respect to those fixed segments. Since the posi-
tion of the moon at any given stage will vary according to the position of the earth in its own orbit, the
mansions of the moon are an effective system for keeping track of the passage of time over a complete
solar cycle.
119 http://www.wikihow.com/Tell-Time-Without-a-Clock
153
Afsir Ibn Kathr tells us the following: The Arabs also have a name for each set of three nights in a month,
according to the phases of the moon. They call the first three nights Ghurar; the next three nights Nu-
fal; the next three nights Tusa (nine) -- because the last of them is the ninth. The next three nights
are called Ushar (ten) -- because the first of them is the tenth. The next three nights are called Al-Bi
(white) - because of the light of the moon which shines brightly throughout these three nights. The next
three nights are called Dura, the plural of Darà, because on the first of them the night is dark from the
moon rising late. Darà refers to the black sheep, i.e., the one whose head is black; the next three nights
Zulam; then Hanadis, then Daadi, then Mihaq, because of the absence of moonlight at the begin-
ning of the month. 120
120 Tafsir Ibn Kathr, 10 volumes, A compilation of the Abridged Tafsir Ibn Kathr Volumes 1 - 10, In
The English Language with Arabic Verses, page 4206
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Dan Gibson
In the same way, stars had 28 distinct mansions, so when the mansion reached the meridian, then the in-
crease or decrease of a stars altitude enabled the navigator to track his progress across the latitudes. The
chart above of Arabic lunar mansions, predates Islamic times.121
It is interesting that the alphabetical order follows the sequence of the original abjad order of the Phoeni-
cian alphabet and is therefore similar to the order of the other Phoenician-derived alphabets.
121 A complete list of bashi values associated with each lunar mansion can be found on page 30 in the
book: The Principles of Arab Navigation, (edited by Anthony R. Constable and William Facey, Arabian
Publishing 2013) in the article Stellar Navigation of the Arabs, by Hasan Salih Shihb.
155
Arab Calendar
The Muslim calendar is set from the date of the emigration to Mecca. In 638 CE (17 AH), Abu Musa Ashri,
one of the officials of the Caliph Umar in Bara, complained about the absence of any years on the corre-
spondence he received from Umar, making it difficult for him to determine which instructions were most
recent. This report convinced Umar that he needed to introduce an era for Muslims. After debating the
issue with his counselors, he decided that the first year should include the date of Muammads arrival
at Medina. Uthman ibn Affan then suggested that the months begin with Muarram, in line with the es-
tablished custom of the Arabs at that time. The years of the Islamic calendar thus began with the month
of Muarram in the year of Muammads arrival at the city of Medina, even though the actual emigration
took place in afar and Rabi.122 The earliest known dated inscription comes from the inscription of Zu-
hayr, (24 AHCE 644645).123
Lunar Eclipses
Lunar eclipses played an important role in ancient religion. Priests and temple workers used eclipses to
awe people and associate their religious activities with observable phenomena in the heavens, especially
if they could predict it before hand.124
It is reported that Christopher Columbus used his knowledge of lunar eclipses in Jamaica. Columbus
wanted to be seen as god-like, so he stated that he would make the moon disappear during the night of
February 29, 1504. The Jamaicans were refusing to feed the Europeans, but when Columbus made the
moon disappear they begged him to return the moon to its previous form so Columbus returned the
moon. The next day, the inhabitants gave Columbus and his crew the food they desired.125
Starting as early as April 6, 647 BCE, a number of solar and lunar eclipses have been observed and record-
ed. Many of these can be found listed on the Internet. What is of primary interest are those lunar eclipses
which can be seen from anywhere on the night-side of the Earth.
Lunar eclipses last for a few hours, while total solar eclipses last for a few minutes at specific places and
are not seen all over the world. If we can establish a time when Arabs were both in China and in Arabia
during a total lunar eclipse, then we can assume that when they conferred later they would have been
able to calculate the distance from China to Arabia. On the next page is a table of Chinese and European
sources that mention eclipses.126
122 Watt, W. Montgomery. Hidjra. In P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P.
Heinrichs. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers.
123 Ghabban, A ibn I. Naqsh Zuhayr: aqdam naqsh islami, muarrakh bi-sanat 24 AH 6445 CE.
(Arabic) Arabia: Revue de Sabeologie 1 (2003): 339293
124 Littmann, Mark; Espenak, Fred; Willcox, Ken (2008). Chapter 4: Eclipses in Mythology. Totality
Eclipses of the Sun (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
125 Peterson, Ivars. The Eclipse That Saved Columbus. https://www.sciencenews.org. Science News.
Retrieved 2 October 2014. Also, Astronomie Populaire 1879, p231 fig. 86
126 http://hbar.phys.msu.su/gorm/atext/ginzele.htm, last retrieval date: December 10, 2016
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Dan Gibson
Chinese Source Referring to European Date European Source
Shiji or Shi Ji, ch. 123 100 BCE 103, Jul. 19 Obsequentis
Qian Han Shu, ch.96a 100 BCE 62, May 3 Cicero, De Divinatione
Hou Han Shu, chs. 97 CE 71, Mar. 20 Plutarch, The Face of the Moon, Pliny,
116,118 Natural History, Flavius Philostratus,
Sextus Aurelius Victor
Wei Lue in Sanguo Zhi 220-264 CE 218, Oct. 7 Dio Cassius
Jin Shu, ch. 97 265-419 CE 292, May 4 Consularia Constantinopolitana
Song Shu, ch. 97 420-478 CE 346, Jun. 6 Theophanes, Chronographia Cedrenus,

Eusebius/Jerome, Mellicenses, Herimanni
Aug., Sancti Trudberti, Ek Chron.
Liang Shu, ch. 54 502-556 CE 538, Feb.15 Bede, Chronicon Ethelwerdi, Annales S.
Maximini Trevirensis, Henrici Huntinon
An. Lundenses, An. Prioratus de Wigornia
The usefulness of eclipses in navigation was not lost on the early Arabs. A total lunar eclipse was an
event that happened at exactly the same time, all over the world. The difference however, is that while
an eclipse might be observed at noon in Arabia, it was observed by Arab merchants in China at six in the
evening. This time difference allowed the Arabs to calculate how far away major places were located on
an east-west meridian.
The Chinese were famous for recording their history. For instance, throughout Chinese history there were
920 solar eclipses recorded, plus many lunar eclipses.127 The dates that are of most interest to us are dur-
ing the Han Empire, from 206 BCE to 220 CE, as this corresponds to the height of the Nabataean merchant
empire. It was these merchants who discovered methods of taking their caravans across trackless deserts,
and who also traveled to China on various occasions.128 During this time period (about 400 years) the An-
nals of Han recorded 141 eclipses of the sun.127 These can be researched on the Internet.129
There is one incident that stands out. It happened during the reign of Emperor He of Han, in the Yongyuan
period (89-105). The emperor sent out envoys to travel outside of China to the western districts. These
envoys traveled as far as Rome, and returned to China with many items as well as skilled people and of-
ficials to visit the Chinese court.
As we mentioned before, in the appendices of his book The Peoples of the West, from the Weilue, by Yu
Huan, in section B titled The territories of Haixi, Haibei and Haidong, John Hill tells us that the Chinese
127 Tsu, W., A Statistical Survey of Solar Eclipses in Chinese History, The Journal of Popular Astronomy,
Vol 42 p136
128 See page 137
129 http://www2.iath.virginia.edu:8080/exist/cocoon/xwomen/texts/hanshu/tpage/tocc/bilingual
157
envoys who visited Arabia brought back with them to China learned men including some musicians and
some skilful jugglers who performed transformations, belched fire, changed the head of an ox to that of a horse,
amputated limbs, and then replaced them. They also knew how to play with little balls and could keep as many
as ten in the air at a time.130
What makes this interesting is that we can identify a period when we can confidently confirm that a group
of Arabs were in China and that an exchange of information took place. Since the knowledge of navigation
was commonly known among Nabataeans, they would understand the stars above them and the location
of China in relation to the Middle East. Imagine the exciting discussions when they returned. So it is con-
ceivable that there was a significant cross-pollination of ideas between the Arabs and the Chinese around
100 CE. Viewing eclipses would have been among the events they discussed and compared.
If the Arab navigators compared notes with each other, they would have been able to quickly establish the
different time of day that lunar eclipses took place, and could calculate the distance from their location
in China to their location in Arabia. This type of comparison was used during the Middle Ages to calcu-
late the distance between locations. In short, to calculate this they would need to be able to compare an
observation of a lunar eclipse in Chinese time, and a second observation in Arabian time. Distance would
have been calculated by the difference between the local Chinese sundial time and the Arabian sundial
time.
Another tool: The Astrolabe
The concept behind the astrolabe goes back to classical Greece. Hipparchus was born in Nicaea in Asia
Minor (now Iznik in Turkey) about 180 BCE, but studied and worked on the island of Rhodes. Hipparchus
wrote about the change in the orientation of the rotation of the axis of the equinoxes and was influential
in the development of trigonometry.
He redefined and formalized the projection as a method for solving complex problems of astronomy
without spherical trigonometry. Hipparchus did not invent the astrolabe, but he did refine the projection
theory.
The earliest evidence of use of stereographic projection in a machine is in the writing of the Roman author
and architect Vitruvius (26 BCE 88 CE), who in De Architectura describes an anaphoric clock (probably a
water clock) in Alexandria. The clock had a rotating field of stars behind a wire frame indicating the hours
of the day. The wire framework (the spider) and the star locations were constructed using stereographic
projection. Similar constructions dating from the first to third century have been found in Salzburg and
north-eastern France, so such mechanisms were apparently fairly widespread among Romans.
The earliest major writer whose writings on projection were persevered was Claudius Ptolemy. (CE 150)
He wrote extensively on this subject in his work known as The Planisphaerium. There are tantalizing hints
130 Soon-to-be published annotated translation of the Weile by John E. Hill - personal communication
30 May, 2017
158
Dan Gibson
in Ptolemys writing that he may have had an instrument that could justifiably be called an astrolabe. Ptol-
emy also refined the fundamental geometry of the Earth-Sun system that is used to design astrolabes.131*
No one knows exactly when the first astrolabe was constructed. Theon of Alexandria (390 CE) wrote
a treatise on the astrolabe that was the basis for much that was written on the subject in the Middle
Ages. Synesius of Cyrene (378-430 CE), Theons son-in-law, apparently had a constructed instrument
that was arguably a form of an astrolabe. The earliest descriptions of actual instruments were written by
John Philoponos of Alexandria (a.k.a. Joannes Grammaticus) in the sixth century, and a century later by
Severus Sebokht, Bishop of Kenneserin, Syria, although it is likely that Sebokhts work was a derivative of
Theons. It is certainly true that astrolabes existed by the seventh century.
The astrolabe in Islam
The astrolabe was introduced early on in the Islamic world. Some historians believe that this might have
been later in the eighth and ninth centuries when Arab treatises on the astrolabe were published. However
by the ninth century these writings indicate a long familiarity with the instrument. The oldest existing
instruments are Arabian from the tenth century, and there are nearly 40 instruments from the 11th and
12th centuries. The astrolabe gave Muslims the ability to determine the time of day, and therefore prayer
times as well as the Qibla direction.
Early astrolabes were based on the Arab compass that used the rising and setting of different stars. The
astrolabe below has both a front side and rear side, so that calculations can be made.
The astrolabe was also known as a Windrose. The surviving ones have some Persian names for stars. (eg.
131 Morrison, 1996
159
qutb al-jh, mutla al-silbr, khn). The older Arabic names were displaced by later Persian ones, i.e. the
Ursa Minor constellation (Ursa Minor and Major) was bant nash before it became qutb al-jh, but many
Arabic names and terms survive.
On the astrolabe, latitude was still determined by the height of the pole star using the iba and zm mea-
surements. Astrolabes were quite difficult to use at sea because of the rolling of the ships, which made it
hard to determine the vertical line accurately. However, they could be used on shore, and the latitude of
every port and headland was recorded in books of nautical instruction or rahmnis.
Sun location
Another navigation method that was used by many early dhow captains was simply the position of the sun
or North Star above their boat. By standing on various locations on the boat, they could place the sun or
North Star above, right, left or behind the dhow. As long as they kept the stars at a correct position above
the rigging, they were assured that they would arrive at their destination.
Nautical manuals
In addition to astronomical tables, charts and latitudes,

the rahmnis or nautical manuals contained information
about winds, coasts, reefs and everything that a captain
would need to know. Some of these manuals became
very popular, such as Kitb madin al-asrr fi ilm al-bir
(The Mine of Secrets in the Science of the Seas) by Shaikh
Nar bin Al al Hauri. This book contains latitude and
longitude tables as well as drawings of the position of the
sun above the dhow.
Above: A page from: Kitb madin al-asrr fi ilm al-
bir. This book was being hand-copied as late as the
Compass 1940s in Oman.
The magnetic needle was known in China from ancient times, but there is little mention of it being used
as a nautical instrument before the tenth century. It is likely that the compass was not considered very
important in the east, as the skies over the Indian Ocean were usually very clear, especially during the
times that the Arab sailors traveled with the monsoons. It was only under the clouds of the north that the
magnetic compass was eagerly made use of.
Mountain Peaks
Another important item in the Nabataean navigators toolbox was the use of mountain peaks. There are a
number of important peaks that were used on the routes from Yemen to Gaza or Damascus.
On the next page is a list of some of the mountains that Nabataea navigators could take a read from as
they passed from Yemen to Gaza or Damascus.
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Dan Gibson
Mountain Height GPS coordinates

Jebel an Nabi Shuayb 3666 m / 12,027 ft 151734.93N 435744.93E
Jabal Sawda 3,000 m / 9,843 ft 181602N 422205E
Jabal Warrab 2,948 m /9672 175542N 431556E
Jabal Werqaan 2,393m / 7851 235838N 391643E
Jabal Al-Lawz 2,549m / 8363 283916N 351818E
Mount Hermon 2814 m / 9232 ft 332452.20N 355126.38E
Pythagorean Theorem
Those not acquainted with the history of mathematics often imagine that basic geometry was a later in-
vention and are often surprised to discover that this theory was known 500 years before Christ. And so
the Pythagorean theorem must also be added to the list of tools that were available to the early Arabs.
Although it is often argued that knowledge of the theorem predates him, the theorem is named after the
ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras (c. 570 c. 495 BCE) as it is he who, by tradition, is credited
with its first recorded proof. This knowledge was spread by merchants to Mesopotamian, Indian and Chi-
nese until mathematicians everywhere had access to the theorem.
In mathematics, the Pythagorean theorem, also known as Pythagoras theorem, is a relation in Euclidean
geometry among the three sides of a right triangle. It states that the
square of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal
to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. The theorem can be
written as an equation relating the lengths of the sides a, b and c, of-
ten called the Pythagorean equation a2+b2=c2 where c represents
the length of the hypotenuse and a and b the lengths of the triangles
other two sides.132
A Chinese astronomical and mathematical treatise called Zhoubi Su-

anjing (The Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths
of Heaven, ca. 500-200 BCE) possibly predating Pythagoras, gives a
statement of and geometrical demonstration of the Pythagorean theo-
rem.133, 134
132 Posamentier, Alfred. The Pythagorean Theorem: The Story of Its Power and Beauty, p. 23 (Prometheus
Books 2010).
133 Joseph Needham with the collaboration of Wang Ling. Science and civilization in China. Vol. 3:
Mathematics and the Sciences. Cambridge Univ Press, New York, 1959
134 Yoshio Mikami. The Development of Mathematics in China and Japan, 2nd edition, Chelsea Publ.,
New York, 1974. (1st ed. Leipzig, 1913.)
161
Getting into a navigators mind
Most of us approach celestial navigation from a vacuum. We have little background information with
which to understand how navigation would have worked. The Arabs on the other hand came with cen-
turies of background information. First, they were intimately familiar with the names and places of the
Middle East. A good Arab navigator would not only know the names of the major towns and markets, he
would know which goods were produced or desired at different markets.
Second, along with the locations, he would know the iba measurements for each of these locations. It
may sound complex to us, but remember that the ancient Arabs did not have their minds cluttered with
city maps, road and highway numbers, subway routes and other things that clutter our modern minds.
In addition to the iba (north-south) measurement for each city, the caravan master would know the steps
needed to walk between the locations along the route. He would also know the general direction between
cities, using the 32 akhnm directions on the horizon.
From youth, a caravan master would have started traveling the routes, learning to measure the iba and
understanding the 32 akhnm. Before one could become a caravan master, he would have had to be able
to master both ishrt (local guides) and majra (celestial guides). And each of these routes would have
formed a mesh of triangles in his mind.
The map above is given simply as an illustration of how an ancient might have viewed his world, in
terms of triangles. This map does not include all of the places, or landmark locations such as mountains.
162
Dan Gibson
Using ishrt or local guides
Lets go back to Kab who is standing on the temple mount in Jerusalem. The fi rst thing he would do is
take a reading of the North Star, or the basic measurement. All other measurements follow this one. The
Arabs understood that when they traveled directly north, the pole star would rise at a steady rate, and
when they traveled south the North Star would drop at a steady rate. They also knew that if they traveled
at an angle, towards any of the 32 akhnm points, that the pole star would rise or drop at diff erent rates.
These rates were called rhumb, and they had names and measurements for each of the 32 akhnm. The
distance traveled on any rhumb that changed the Pole Star by 1iba was called a tirfa.
Right Jebal Haroun is the the

peak that overlooks Petra.
Remember, caravan masters were not trying to map the world. They did not care about longitude and
latitude. They had one objective: to fi nd their way across trackless deserts towards a city or watering point
that was over the horizon.
Once he knew where he was by measuring

iba and zms, he had a multitude of tools
available to him. For instance, by scanning
the horizon, he would look for any landmarks
that could be seen by someone in Jerusalem
as well as someone in Petra. For instance,
the left photo above demonstrates that from
Mount Nebo one can see many places in the
land of Israel. On a clear day, I have seen Je-
rusalem from this spot.
While Kab could not see Petra he could see

as far as the Judean mountains. And he could
map the southern horizon using the stars on
the Arab Rose compass, noting which stars
were nearest the peaks. From the ancient city
of Petra observers would have known the
163
main geographical features around them on the distant horizon. Kab, who was skilled in navigation,
would have known this from his observations while in the Holy City.
By comparing the two horizons, Kab would have pointed his Qibla at the mountain or valley that was
closest to what could be observed from the south. Another option would have been to take the reading
from other points within a known walking distance from Petra and then calculating the central point us-
ing the Pythagorean theorem.
Below we can see a mountain peak in the south Judean desert which can be viewed from very far away as
it overlooks the Dead Sea valley, and can be seen from the mountains of Moab as well as from Jerusalem
some 47 km away. If a person stands on top a mountain, he can survey a larger-than-usual patch of the
planet, and can perceive bright lights from a great distance. On a dark night, a person can see a fire flicker-
ing up to 48 kilometers away (30 miles).135 Back in the time of the Nabataean merchants, there was no light
pollution from cities, so a
bright light on a mountain
top could be seen over a
hundred miles away. The
Romans used lights on
mountain peaks as part of
the Cursus Publicus system
to send messages to and
from Rome.
This system consisted of a

series of forts and stations
that were spread out along
the major road systems con-
necting the regions of the
Roman world. These sta-
tions provided horses to dis-
135 Selig Hecht, Columbia University, 1941
164
Dan Gibson
patch riders, usually soldiers, and vehicles for magistrates or officers of the court. The vehicles were called
clabulae, but little is known of them. A written order issued by the emperor himself was necessary to use
the services supplied by the cursus publicus. Abuses of the system existed, for governors and minor appoin-
tees used the orders to give themselves and their families free transport. Forgeries and stolen orders were
also used. Pliny and Trajan write about the necessity of those who wish to send things via the imperial
post to keep up-to-date licenses.136
This system also incorporated beacon lights that could be used for important messages. These beacons
were used where traditional travel was slow. While most travel went along the Roman roads, the bea-
cons could also be used for emergency messages. Jerusalem was such a location, where beacons could be
viewed from Machaerus some 45 kilometers away (see photo below). The road required travel around
the Dead Sea, but a beacon from Herods mountain-top palace could be seen in Jerusalem. The angle of
direction from Jerusalem to Machaerus would have been known, as well as the iba distance between
them. While there is no record of a similar beacon being set up on Mount Haroun above Petra, it would be
surprising if there was no beacon, since the daughter of King Aretas of Petra was the wife of King Herod.
The beacon system allowed the kingdoms around the Dead Sea to communicate with the Roman rulers in
Jerusalem, as well as to access the Roman cursus publicus that took messages from Jerusalem to Rome.
Above: Herods palace known as Machaerusm across the Dead Sea from Jerusalem.
Sometimes we think that ancient locations in the Middle East were remote and distant to each other. How-
ever, these neighboring centers were all in communication withe each other and merchants could make
their way from one centre to another with little trouble.
Basic Information
In addition to using ishrt or local guides ancient navigators could also use the stars and a bit of math.
There are several ways this could be done. First, Arabs often used a right triangle. In the example below,
Kab would know the iba height of the north pole star at Petra, the central city of Islam. He would mea-
sure this in iba and zms.
136 E.g. Trajan to Pliny 10:46 Diplomata, quorum praeteritus est dies, non debent esse in usu. Ideo inter
prima iniungo mihi, ut per omnes provincias ante mittam nova diplomata, quam desiderari possint.
165
166
Dan Gibson
The Portolan Method
While there is some mystery around the origin of Portolan maps, I believe evidence supports the theory
that they originated from the Arabs and arrived in Europe, appearing fi rst in Pisa around 1290 CE. Por-
tolan maps rely heavily on the Arab compass and on rhumb lines. Using the Arab compass, Kab could
calculate the angle south from Jerusalem and the corresponding angle north from Petra. These opposite
corresponding rhumb lines are the foundation to understanding the Arab system of navigation. North-
South measurements were made both by measuring the height of the North Star, and also counting steps.
Measurements east-west relied strongly on counting steps or using time. However, if the navigator knew
he had followed a rhumb line according to one of the stars, he could easily calculate how far he had to
walk to reach his destination.
Above: The problem of finding the qibla angle

to Petra when in Jerusalem. Right: An Arabic
Rose compass placed over each location identi-
fies that the angles follow al Sulbr from Jeru-
salem and al Farqadn from Petra.
This method of calculation was the founda-

tion of the Portolan maps system. Arab navi-
gators were very familiar with the horizon and
the places where stars rose and set at each of
their destinations. Therefore they would think
in terms of the Arab Compass over each of the
locations they visited.
167
Pigeons
Another option that could have been used is that of homing pigeons. Below is a photo of what has been
called the columbarium at Petra. A columbarium is a place with niches for funeral urns to be stored. Sev-
eral websites infer that this was the use for this location. However, there is no record of Nabataeans ever
cremating the bodies of their dead. Rather, the evidence points to exposing the dead on platforms and then
burying the bones. These bones were placed in family tombs which were accompanied by dining rooms
where the extended family could gather at pilgrimage time to eat a meal in the presence of the ancient
ancestors.
Above right: The so-called columbarium in Petra. This type of rock carved formation is not unique to Petra. It
is found in many ancient locations, and is not associated with death or burial rites in other locations. Above
left: a similar rock located in Wadi Seir near the Iraq al-Amir castle. Both of these sites appear to be dove-
cotes for homing pigeons as do similar rock desgns in the caves at Bet Guvrin National Park and elsewhere.
As a method of communication, records go back to the ancient Persians from whom the art of training
birds probably originated. The Mughals also used them as their messengers, and the Romans used pigeon
messengers to aid their military. Frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his con-
quest of Gaul.137
The Arabs also kept pigeons and used them as messengers. There are records of pigeons being used in
Baghdad for mail service soon after the city was built.138
Flights as long as 1,800 km (1,100 miles) have been recorded by birds in competitive pigeon racing. This
would put all of Syria, Iraq and Iran within flying range of Petra. Their average flying speed over moderate
distances is around 140 km/h (86 miles per hour) but speeds of up to 160 km/h (99 miles per hour)have
been observed in top racers for short distances.139
The Forbidden Sanctuary at Petra had pigeons. We know this from the writings of al-abar: The horse
137 Levi, Wendell (1977). The Pigeon. Sumter, South Carolina: Levi Publishing Co, Inc.
138 Blechman, Andrew (2007). Pigeons-The fascinating saga of the worlds most revered and reviled bird. St
Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press
139 Walcott, Charles (1996). Pigeon Homing: Observations, Experiments and Confusions (Pdf article).
Journal of Experimental Biology. 199 (Pt 1): 2127. PMID 9317262. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
168
Dan Gibson
of one of them began to drop dung and the pigeons of the sanctuary (al-aram) area started to scavenge in the
droppings. Al-Husayn reigned back his horse from them and Ibn al-Zubayr said What is the matter with you?
He replied I am afraid lest my horse kill the pigeons of the sanctuary area. Ibn al-Zubayr said, You would
refrain from this sin, and yet you wish to kill Muslims? Al-Husayn answered I will not fight you, allow us to
perform the ritual circumambulation of the sanctuary (al-bayt) and then we will leave you. He did so, and they
departed.140
In personal correspondence with Dr. Richard Holland of the School of Biological Sciences at Bangor Uni-
versity in the UK, he stated that Some studies suggest they (pigeons) know where to go immediately after re-
lease. It is difficult to measure the accuracy of their compass mechanism but the dominant one during the day is
the sun compass and this is thought to be very accurate. More recent GPS tracking has shown that with repeated
releases from the same place, pigeons recapitulate the route very accurately. The challenge in relying on the re-
lease of a single pigeon is that other factors could influence its behaviour, and so only by releasing a number of
pigeons and assessing their mean heading do we see the pattern that they are oriented towards the home site. A
flock released together might be less distracted but I am not sure of any research directly testing this.
So it is possible that Qiblas were set without any science or math, just by transporting a number of homing
pigeons from Petra, and releasing them at the construction site a few at a time until an accurate direction
could be established.
Mathematical Solutions
Many people fail to appreciate how early in history the concepts of mathematics were developed. Math-
ematical solutions were sought after by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Babylonians, as well as by others.
For instance, the early study of triangles and basic trigonometry can be traced to the 2nd millennium BCE
in Egyptian mathematics in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and to Babylonian in clay tables such as
tablet YBC 7289.
Left: The Yale Babylonian Collections Tablet, YBC 7289 (c. 1800
1600 BCE), showing a Babylonian approximation to the square root of
2 (1 24 51 10 w: sexagesimal) in the context of Pythagoras Theorem
for an isosceles triangle. Courtesy of: Bill Casselman, http://www.
math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/ybc/ybc.html) and the Yale Babylonian
Collection.
Systematic study of trigonometric functions began in Hellenistic

mathematics, reaching India as part of Hellenistic astronomy. Indi-
an astronomy and the study of trigonometric functions flourished in
the Gupta period, especially in sixth century CE. During the Middle
Ages, the study of trigonometry continued in Islamic mathematics, hence it was adopted as a separate
subject in the Latin West beginning in the Renaissance with Regiomontanus. The development of modern
trigonometry shifted during the western Age of Enlightenment, beginning with 17th-century mathematics
(Isaac Newton and James Stirling) and reaching its modern form with Leonhard Euler (1748).
140 abar Vol. 20, 430, pg 2
169
The ancient Babylonians had known of theorems on the ratios of the sides of similar triangles for many
centuries, but they lacked the concept of an angle measure and consequently, studied the sides of tri-
angles instead.141 These Babylonian astronomers kept detailed records on the rising and setting of stars,
the motion of the planets, and the solar and lunar eclipses, all of which required familiarity with angular
distances measured on the celestial sphere.142
They also used a form of Fourier analysis to compute ephemeris (tables of astronomical positions), which
was discovered in the 1950s by Otto Neugebauer.143 To make calculations of the movements of celestial
bodies, the Babylonians used basic arithmetic and a coordinate system based on the ecliptic, the part of
the heavens that the sun and planets travel through.
Research published in 2016 by Mathieu Ossendrijver based on tablets found in the British Museum pro-
vides evidence that the Babylonians even went so far as to have a concept of objects in an abstract math-
ematical space. The tablets date from between 350 and 50 B.C.E., revealing that the Babylonians under-
stood and used geometry even earlier than previously thought. Ossendrijver showed that the Babylonians
used a method for estimating the area under a curve by drawing a trapezoid underneath, a technique
previously believed to have originated in 14th century Europe. This method of estimation allowed them
to, for example, find the distance Jupiter had traveled in a certain amount of time.144
Thus it comes as no surprise that six hundred years later, the Arabs of Muammads time had access to the
basic concepts of spherical trigonometry which deals with the relationships between trigonometric func-
tions of the sides and angles of the spherical polygons (especially spherical triangles) defined by a number
of intersecting great circles on the sphere. Spherical trigonometry is of great importance for calculations
in astronomy, geodesy and navigation.
The outside circle of numbers on the Arab compass demonstrate that the Arabs had access to spherical
trigonometry and used it regularly.
The Arabs of the ninth to fifteenth centuries would become the world leaders in algebra which simplified
trigonometry. However, as time passed, the earlier methods of establishing the Qibla direction were lost.
leaving us to wonder, exactly how the early Muslims could have calculated their qiblas so accurately.
Summary
From the materials presented in this chapter, I have attempted to demonstrate that during the time of the
founding of Islam, the Arabs would have had many tools and techniques available to them, so that they
could accurately determine the direction of the Qibla for their mosques. They could use two methods,
141 Boyer, Carl Benjamin, Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration, in A History of Mathematics, 1991,
pp. 158159
142 Maor, Eli, Trigonometric Delights. Princeton University Press, 1998, p. 20
143 Boyer PP 158 - 215

144 Emspak, Jesse. Babylonians Were Using Geometry Centuries Earlier Than Thought. Smithsonian.
Retrieved 2016-02-01.
170
Dan Gibson
that of ishrt or the knowledge of guides and aids, such as mountains, valleys, and rock formations as
well as majra, or taking celestial bearings and using mathematical solutions. They measured distance in
zms calculating distance both from measuring the stars as well as from physically walking and counting
steps. Along with this, they had the Arab Compass which provided them with a sense of angles, measured
against the stars, as well as corresponding stars at the other end of the same tangent. They also had an
understanding of basic formulas for spherical trigonometry.
With this knowledge, it comes as no surprise that the Qiblas of early mosques all over the ancient world
are accurate to within several degrees.
As we demonstrated in the first chapter, the first Qiblas all pointed to Petra. Then in 708 CE (75 years
after the death of Muammad) the mihrab mark was introduced so that people could pray towards the
Black Stone in Mecca rather than the Holy City of Petra. Finally, after the Abbsid rulers solidified their
control over the Muslim empire, all mosques and Qiblas pointed towards Mecca in Saudi Arabia.
171
When did the Qibla change take place?
From the archeological record of ancient Qiblas (presented in the fi rst chapter) we can deduce that the
fi rst Qiblas pointed to the city of Petra in Southern Jordan. In my book Qurnic Geography,145 I demon-
strate that many of the descriptions of ancient Mecca actually fi t the ancient city of Petra better. This is
highlighted in the fi lm The Sacred City where viewers are taken to the locations around Petra that cor-
relate with descriptions of the original holy city of Islam. All of this indicates that Islam began in the city
of Petra and it was the location of the original Kaba, the original focus of Islamic prayer and the focus of
the ancient pilgrimage. Then something major occurred that caused the Qibla to change. The archeologi-
cal record taken from the construction of mosques is not clear enough to pinpoint actual dates, but can
be used to indicate when events happened within a few years. As the chart below indicates four Qibla
directions emerge just before and after 100 AH (719 CE), with only the Mecca Qibla surviving until today.
While the archeological data is not suffi cient to determine when exactly the fi rst Qibla change took place,
the earliest mosque to make a Qibla change was around 87 AH (706 CE). When we examine the story
behind this rogue mosque, we fi nd that it was constructed by General al-ajjj. This provides clues as to
what might have taken place. As General al-ajjj is known to Islamic historians, we can delve into some
of the tensions of his day and try to understand why his Qibla was so radically diff erent from the original
Qibla of Petra.
When building his new mosque, ajjj pointed it directly between Petra and Mecca. This is a radical change
from previous mosque construction. From the archeological record we can see that several mosques fol-
lowed this pattern over the next 68 years. However, after 252 AH (866 CE) Mecca becomes the sole Qibla
used by the Abbasids and the other Qiblas fade from view. Eventually all mosques everywhere point to
Mecca in Saudi Arabia.
Above: the four Qiblas as revealed by original mosque construction
So what triggered al-ajjjs dislike of the Petra Qibla and why did he not point it to the newly emerging
Mecca Qibla? To understand this, we need to go back into early Islamic history to understand the issues
and tensions taking place.
On March 7th, 634 CE (12 AH) a small but signifi cant change took place in the Islamic Empire. Upon
the death of Caliph Ab Bakr, Umar bin al-Khab became the new caliph. The day after the burial of
145 Qurnic Geography pages 251-330
172
Dan Gibson
Ab Bakr, Umar climbed into the pulpit and declared, I am going to say words to which you must say
Amen.146 The likeness of the Arabs is only to a camel led by the nose following its leader; therefore let
its leader look where he leads. As for me, by the Lord of the Kaba, I will indeed bring them along on the
road.
This signaled a new style of leadership. The companions of the prophets were slowly pushed aside as
Caliph Umar began to forge a more military leadership rather than a religious one. His first step was to
conquer Damascus, and then to push against the Persians, finally expanding the empire in all directions.
This pattern was followed by Uthmn who was also a very strong, almost ruthless, leader.
The first civil war began when the Caliph Uthmn ibn Affn was assassinated by Egyptian rebels in 36 AH
(656 CE) and continued through the four-year reign of Uthmns successor Ali ibn Ab lib. It ended in
661 when Als heir Hasan ibn Al concluded a treaty acknowledging the rule to belong to the Umayyad
caliphate.
Caliph Yazids brother Muwiya assumed command of the Arab Muslim forces based in Damascus.
Muwiya succeeded Ali as caliph after a series of confrontations in 658661 CE and designated the city
of Damascus as the capital of the new Umayyad dynasty.
When Muwiya chose Damascus as his new capital city, he further alienated the religious leaders. They
would have preferred Medina or even Mecca (then located at Petra).147
In the Holy City (Petra) a man known as Ibn al-Zubayr was the governor. He was particularly incensed at
the deliberate snub, and so he formed a rebellion and declared himself as caliph.
The rulers in Damascus then dispatched an army to the Holy City to fight against Ibn Zubayr and his com-
panions. Then one day, Ibn Zubayr shouted to the Syrians that he had heard that the caliph in Damascus
had died. It seems that the armies were close enough to one another to shout to each other.148 With that,
the army decided they must return to Damascus until a new caliph had been appointed.149
The members of the Umayyad royal family said to them, Do not leave without taking us with you to Syr-
ia. So they did that and the army continued until it reached Syria. There Yazd ibn Muwiyah had willed
that the oath of allegiance be given to his son Muwiyah ibn Yazd, . According to Awanah, Yazd ibn
Muwiyah designated his son Muwiyah ibn Yazd as caliph, but the latter only survived forty days.150
Al-abar notes that later historians say the new caliph lived three months, not forty days, but then he
adds: Umar told me on the authority of Al ibn Muammad: When Muwiyah ibn Yazd had been des-
ignated caliph, gathered together the officials of his father and the oath of allegiance given to him in Da-
146 abar Vol. 11, page 157 - 158
147 Burns, Ross (2005). Damascus: A History. Routledge
148 abar Vol. 20 430, page 2
149 abar Vol. 20 progressing through several volumes
150 abar Vol. 20, page 5
173
mascus, he perished there after fourty days of his rule. He died when he was thirteen years and eighteen
days old.151
Al-abar tells us: According to Muammad ibn Umar al-Wqid - Ibrhm ibn Ms Ikrimah ibn Khlid: Ibn
al-Zubayr demolished the sanctuary (Kaba) until he had leveled it to the ground, and he dug out its foundation
. He placed the Black Cornerstone by it in an ark [tabut] in a strip of silk.152 With the Kaba destroyed, Ibn
Al Zubayr himself led the pilgrimage that year, and then for the the next three years there was no pilgrim-
age, as no one came to the Holy City.
When there was a lull in the war to choose a new caliph, Ibn Zubayr decided to rebuild the Kaba. The
Islamic records, written some two hundred years later, do not tell us where this construction took place.
It could have been in Petra, or it could have been in far away Mecca, in Saudi Arabia, in a valley where it
was safe from the Umayyad armies.
Above: Observation of construction near the Kaba failed to uncover any ancient large foundation stones.
151 abar, Vol. 20, page 5, section 432
152 abar Vol. 20, page 123, 64 AH
174
Dan Gibson
According to Isq ibn Abi Israeil Abd al-Azz ibn Khlid ibn Rustam al-Sanani Ab Muammad: Ziyd ibn
Jiyal told me he was in [the Holy City] on the day when Ibn al-Zubayr was overcome and heard him say, My
mother Asma bint Abi Bakr told me that the Messenger of God said to isha: If it were not that your people
had only recently been in a state of unbelief, I would restore the Kaba on the foundations of Abraham and
I would add to the Kaba part of the ijr (stone). Ibn al-Zubayr gave the order for it and it was excavated,
and they found rocks as big as a camel. They moved a boulder of them and a bright light flashed out. They re-
established it on its foundation and Ibn al Zubayr rebuilt it, giving it two doors, from one of which it was entered
and from the other vacated.153
At this point, al-ajjj entered the picture. The Syrians sent him to put down the rebellion and restore
law and order, and access to the religious sites in the Holy City. Al-ajjj was an extremely capable and
ruthless statesman, strict in character, but also a harsh and demanding master. He was widely feared by
his contemporaries and became a deeply controversial figure, and later an object of deep-seated enmity
as he did thing differently than the later Abbasid rulers desired. As we will try and demonstrate he was
involved in the very controversial changing of the Qibla.
Al-ajjj was born ca. 661 CE (41 AH) in the city of if.154 His ancestry was not particularly distin-
guished: he came of a poor family whose members had worked as stone carriers and builders. His mother,
al-Faria had married, and been divorced by al-Mughira ibn Shuba, appointed governor of Kufa by the
first Umayyad caliph, Muwiya (661680).155
As a boy, al-ajjj acquired the nickname Kulayb (little dog) with which he was later derisively referred
to. His early life is obscure, except for his having been a schoolmaster in his home townanother source
of derision to his enemies.
Soon after Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Aug 684 CE or 64 AH) assumed the throne, al-ajjj left his home
town and went to the capital, Damascus, where he entered the security force of the caliph. There he at-
tracted Abd al-Maliks attention by the rapidity and efficiency with which he restored discipline during
a mutiny of the troops appointed to accompany the caliph in his campaign against Musab ibn al-Zubayr
in Iraq.156
As a result, the caliph entrusted him with command of the armys rear-guard. He apparently achieved
further feats of valor, so that after the defeat of Musab, Abd al-Malik decided to entrust him with the
expedition to subdue Musabs brother, Abdallh ibn al-Zubayr, in the Holy City.
The caliph had charged him first to negotiate with Ibn al-Zubayr and to assure him of freedom from pun-
ishment if he capitulated, but, if the opposition continued, to starve him out by siege, but on no account to
let the affair result in bloodshed in the Holy City. Since the negotiations failed and al-ajjj lost patience,
153 abar Vol. 20, page 176, See also Azraqi, Akhbar Makkah, 143, and al-Azmi, V. 9157
154 if - see page 252
155 Dietrich, A. (1991). al-adjd

j dj b. Ysuf. The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume II:
CG. Leiden and New York: BRILL. pp. 3942
156 Dietrich 1991, p. 40.
175
he sent a courier to ask Abd al-Malik for reinforcements and also for permission to take Mecca by force.
He received both, and thereupon bombarded the Holy City with stones from a mountain.157
The war between Ibn al Zubayr and al-ajjj took place for six months and seventeen nights in the hollow
of Mecca. Here the word ban or stomach is used to describe the hollow. This term would justifiably mean
the center of the city or the center of the canyon.158
According to al-rith [ibn Muammad] Muammad ibn Sad Muammad ibn Umar [al-Wqid] Isq
ibn Yay Ysuf ibn Mahak, who said: I saw the manjaniq (trebuchet) with which [stones] were being hurled.
The sky was thundering and lightening and the sound of thunder and lightning rose above that of the stones, so
that it masked it.159
The Kaba was so damaged that it looked like the torn bosoms of mourning women.160 The siege lasted
for seven months and in the end 10,000 men, among them two of Ibn al-Zubayrs sons, had gone over to
al-ajjj. In the end Ibn al-Zubayr and his youngest son were killed in the fighting in a ruined building
near the Kaba.161
As a reward, al-ajjj was given the governorship of the Hijaz, Yemen, and al-Yamama. It was here that he
began to persecute the Companions of Muammad by making them wear a lead seal around their necks.162
During his lifetime, Al-ajjj killed four companions (aaba) of Muammad: Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr,
Jabir ibn Abd-Allah, Said ibn Jubayr and Kumayl ibn Ziyad. Despite these actions, in 75 AH Caliph Abd
al-Malik appointed al-ajjj as governor of Iraq. This placed ajjj in a very powerful position, governing
the entire eastern half of the caliphate. The following years were filled with bloody wars, putting down
rebellions and ruling with an iron fist.
What interests us the most is the construction of the city of Wsi in the year 83 AH and Wsi al-Qaab
in 95 AH. A number of interesting mosque constructions or renovations took place during this time. As
archeological evidence now shows us, the Qiblas of these mosques did not all agree.
The first striking evidence is that al-ajjjs mosque in Wsi faced a spot directly between Mecca and
Petra. This was followed by the principal mosque in Damascus in 91 AH (709 CE), the mosque of Bora
in 102 AH (721 CE), Hayr al-Gharbi mosque in 107 AH (726 CE), Hayr al-Sharqi in 110 AH (728 CE),
Baalbeck in 122 AH (740 CE), and arrn in 127 AH (744 CE), and finally Raqqa in 155 AH (772 CE).
157 Deitrich A.. E2 2, page 40 Jebal Abu Kubays, which is an unknown location today.
159 abar, Vol. 21, page 225
160 Gibb, Kaba, Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam, pg 193
161 Most likely what is known today as The Great Temple in Petra, located near to the Petra Kaba
location. It was fortified for war sometime during the early years of Islam. (dated from the roofing tiles
used in the fortifications. These tiles came down in the earthquake of 551 July 9th 551CE, 19 years
before Islamic records say Muammad was born.)
162 abar, Vol 22, page 2
176
Dan Gibson
These mosques, built over a 70 year period, demonstrate that there was a part of Islam that rejected the
Petra Qibla and also the new Mecca Qibla. (See maps pages 8 & 9)
Next, let us consider the character of the man who started this trend. He was the most powerful man in
the eastern half of the Islamic Empire. He was ruthless and arrogant enough to persecute the companions
(aaba) of Muammad, and he was involved with the destruction of the Kaba in Petra. Because of his
attack on Petra, the Black Stone was moved to Saudi Arabia sometime around 65 AH (685 CE). Such a
ruler would have distained pointing his principal mosque towards the now ruined city of Petra, which he
had helped to destroy. Additionally, the city of Petra was further destroyed in powerful earthquakes in 94
AH (713 CE)163 and again in 128 AH (746 CE)164.
At the same time, al-ajjj would not want to point his mosque to Mecca in Arabia, as it was an upstart
religious site, and only just beginning to grow in popularity. In fact, al-ajjj wrote to Caliph Wald: The
people of hypocrisy and schism have taken refuge in Mecca.165 To date the earliest Meccan mosque we
have uncovered dates to more than 20 years after al-ajjj built his rouge mosque in Wsi. And so it
comes as no surprise that al-ajjj took a middle path, rejecting both the old and the new Qiblas.
So when did Ibn al-Zubayr move the Black Stone to Mecca in Saudi Arabia? While we cannot pinpoint an
actual date, we can identify several things that will help us. Consider these things in chronological order:
64 AH (684 CE): Ibn al-Zubayr declares himself caliph in the Holy City. Palestine, Bara and Kufa
also rebel. The Syrians send an army against the Holy City and blockade them in. The caliph in
Damascus dies, the army returns to Damascus vowing the battle is not over. The army returns and
during the fighting, the Kaba burns.166 Ibn al-Zubayr then destroys the rest of the first Kaba and
places the Black Stone on a silk strip on a temporary stand.167
65 AH (684 CE): Followers of Hussein gather at his tomb and vow to remove Ibn al-Zubayr and
restore the authority to a member of Muammads family. A large battle follows. Ibn al-Zubayrs fol-
lowers are called the destroyers of the sacred sanctuary.168 Later, Ibn al-Zubayr rebuilds the Kaba,
this time on the foundation stones laid by Abraham. It would seem that this new Kaba was built
in Mecca in Saudi Arabia, out of reach of both the Umayyad armies and the followers of Ali. I will
address this later in this chapter. Abdallhh Ibn al-Zubayr himself leads the pilgrimage that year.
66 AH (685 CE): The fighting continues. During the dispute with Ibn al-anafiyyah, Ab Abdallh
164 Oleson, 1995
166 abar Vol. 20 page 114
167 abar Vol. 20 page 50, 123
177
al Jadal swears by the Lord of the Corner and the Station...169 but does not mention the Black
Stone which would have been in the corner. This strange utterance suggests to us that the Black
Stone was no longer in the Kaba wall.
67 AH (686 CE) Al-abar relates an account where the people of Kfa say to Ibn al-Zubayr that
they were people who turn to the same Qibla as you.170 This indicates that there were at least two
Qiblas at this time, and that the people of Kfa prayed towards the same Qibla as al-Zubayr (sug-
gesting Mecca not Petra.) abar also notes that there was no official pilgrimage that year, indicating
that there was some conflict over the pilgrimage.
68 AH (687 CE): Al-abar tells us that there were severe droughts in Syria, so they could not go
campaigning. That year there were four separate groups that went on pilgrimage, each under differ-
ent banners because the various factions fighting in the civil war.171
69 AH (688 CE): there was a revolt in Damascus itself, further diverting attention from the prob-
lems in the Holy City.
70 AH (689 CE): This is a missing year, with little information other than Muab Ibn al-Zubayr
bringing horses and camels to the Holy City, presumably to move people out of the city, possibly to
join others already in Mecca in Saudi Arabia.172
71-74 AH (690-693 CE): al-ajjj and the Syrian armies surrounded the Holy City of Petra and de-
stroyed the Kaba sanctuary using a trebuchet.173 It would seem strange that they would bombard the
Kaba if it contained the Black Stone. However, if the Black Stone was not there, they may have felt
freedom to use a trebuchet which they knew would destroy the Kaba building. Apparently the Black
Stone was not damaged during this time, which would indicate it was moved to safety in Mecca.
83 - 87 AH (702-706 CE): There are no recorded pilgrimages.
87 AH (706 CE): al-ajjj builds his rouge mosque in Wsi.
89 AH (708 CE): The Mihrab Niche is introduced in old and new mosques to point to Mecca. This
starts in Medina, an area not under the control of al-ajjj.174
94 AH (714 CE): An earthquake destroyed much of Petra and the city was abandoned. Mecca in
Arabia became the focal point of worship, it would seem approved by God, due to the divine action
seen in the earthquake.
169 abar Vol. 21, pg 61 & Vol. 23 pg 222
170 abar Vol 21, pg 107, 112
171 abar Vol. 21, pg 134, 151
172 abar Vol. 21, pg 169
173 abar Vol. 19: 22-224
174 abar Vol. 23, pg 141

178
Dan Gibson
98 AH (717 CE): It is during these years that the Christian Roman powers in Byzantium were
accusing the Muslims of many things. Leo III also tells us that Ab Turb and Salmn the Persian
composed the Qurn even though the rumor has got around among you that God sent it down from the
heavens.... As for your book, you have already given us examples of such falsifications and one knows
among others of a certain ajjj named by you as governor of Persia, who had men gather your ancient
books, which he replaced by others composed by himself according to his taste and which he disseminated
everywhere in your nation, because it was easier by far to undertake such a task among a people speaking
a single language. From this destruction, nevertheless, there escaped a few of the works of Ab Turb, for
Hajjaj could not make them disappear completely.175
A similar account is told by Abd al-Mas al Kind and Abraham of Tiberias, both writing dur-
ing the reign of Mamn (813-833 CE). Then there was the matter of ajjj ibn Ysuf, namely that
he gathered together every last copy and caused to be omitted from the text many things.... and a version
(naskhah) was written according to the composition (talf ) favored by ajjj in six copies (maif) and
one was sent to Egypt, another to Syria another to Medina, another to Mecca, another to Kfa and another
to Bara.176
From these accounts, it appears that more than the Qibla direction was at stake. Claims were
made that al-ajjj not only tampered with the text of the Qurn, but that he made major changes
in it, by deleting large portions of it. While this chapter is not the place to tackle this subject, it does
indicate that Islam was in turmoil at this time, and that al-abar writing some 160 years later does
not delve into it at all. Perhaps the Abbasid rulers who ruled in al-abars day (240 AH or 854 CE))
refused to acknowledge how tumultuous these early years really were.
109 AH (727 CE): The earliest Mecca mosque built in Banbhor Pakistan facing Saudi Arabia.
115 AH (733 CE): New mosques in Umayyad Spain now pointed their Qibla in a line parallel to a
line drawn between Petra and Mecca.
122 AH (740 CE): The Continuatio Byzantia Arabica mentions Mecca. This is the first instance of
the name Mecca appearing in ancient literature outside of Islamic sources.
128 AH (746 CE): Another earthquake destroyed buildings in Syria and Jordan. All hope of return-
ing the Black Stone to the Holy City is lost.
132 AH (749): The Abbsids now rule from Iraq. Since Kfa had adopted the Mecca Qibla very
early on, all mosques now faced Mecca in Saudi Arabia and all Qurns written in the Kfic script
contain verses in sra 2 referring to the change of the Qibla.
So using the above timeline, I would like to suggest that the Black Stone was moved somewhere between
years 65 and 66 AH (684-685 CE), a time when the Muslim world was reeling under wars, rebellions and
theological upheaval. The historical record coincides with the archeological records except for several
175 Hoyland, 1997, page 500, Leo III, (717-741 CE)
176 Hoyland, 1997, page 501
179
points. They fail to mention the moving of the Black Stone to Mecca in Saudi Arabia, and they refer to
both Petra and Mecca with the same name: that of Mecca. By the time of al-abars writing, these two
locations had merged into one in the minds of the Abbasid Muslims.
If the Black Stone was moved to Saudi Arabia around 65 AH (684 CE), then when was the Kaba struc-
ture and the rest of Masjid al-arm built around it? To answer this question we once again need to turn
to archeology. In the region of Huma al-Numr, north west of Tif (about 60 km from Mecca) over 60
early Islamic inscriptions have been found.177 These include verses of the Qurn, supplications asking for
forgiveness, mercy, martyrdom and paradise; trust and belief in the Prophet Muhammad and the sending
of prayers and blessings upon him. One inscription stands out as it contains the full shahdah and also
mention of the building of Masjid al-arm that year. The inscription is clearly dated as 78 AH (697 CE).
This inscription clearly uses the word ban or built. It also clearly claims that it was written in year 78,
the year that Masjid al-arm was constructed. There can be no doubt which location this is speaking of, as
it is only 60 km from Mecca and over a thousand kilometers from Petra.
Over in Petra, Caliph Abd al-Malik b. Marwn started the reconstruction of al-Masjid al-Harm in the year
75 AH (694 CE) after it sustained damage by the trebuchet of al-Hajjj during his siege of the Holy City.
So at this point two Masjid al-arms must have existed, one in the correct location, and the other with
the Black Stone in Saudi. How did this dilemma get solved? It appears that later earthquakes destroyed
the Kaba in Petra, and flooding washed away much of it, until only the foundation and a meter of stone
were left.
Addendum
Questions that readers and fellow students of history have raised with me
1. Was the Qibla towards a place or an object?
The Qurn only ever mentions the location of Masjid al-arm.178 No other place or object is attached to
the Qibla. The Qurn never mentions the Black Stone. In the film The Sacred City I suggest that Petra was
the location of Masjid al-arm as it was the focus of the original Qibla, and it fits all of the descriptions
of the original Masjid al-arm.
2. Was the Qibla from human origins or divine? Was it revealed by a prophet or a long held tradition?
The only specific mention of a Qibla is from the Qurn. While there is some mention of the practice of
177 Hoyland, The Content And Context Of Early Arabic Inscriptions, Jerusalem Studies In Arabic And
Islam, 1997, Volume 21, Number 3, pp. 77-102; idem., Seeing Islam As Others Saw It: A Survey And Evalu-
ation Of Christian, Jewish And Zoroastrian Writings On Early Islam, 1997, Studies in Late Antiquity and
Early Islam - 13, The Darwin Press, Inc.: Princeton (NJ), pp. 687-703; idem., New Documentary Texts
And The Early Islamic State, Bulletin Of The School Of Oriental And African Studies, 2006, Volume 69,
Number 3, pp. 395-416. Also see: http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Inscriptions/ha-
ram1.html Retrieved 9 Feb 2017
178 Quran 2:127
180
Dan Gibson
Jews praying towards Jerusalem,179 there are no recorded directives from God to pray in any specific di-
rection except in Islam. The Arab pilgrimage to Petra was established many centuries before the founding
of Islam. This is covered in Qurnic Geography.
3. What did the original Kaba in Petra look like?
On page 264 I investigate the possible Islamic Holy Places in the ancient city of Petra. For instance I be-
lieve you can see the foundation of the original Kaba in Petra at: 301947.34N 352624.91E. This
cube stands before the temple of Dushara but has been identified as a ruined altar in the past. Since altars
usually stood on a raised platform as part of the temple structure, this structure seems to be an anomaly.
From my research, I believe that after the earthquake of 519 CE, 19 years before Muammad was born
in Petra, all of the idols and relics were dug from the ruins of temples and churches and brought into the
wide open courtyard of the Dushara Temple to be preserved. These 360 items were scattered around the
large courtyard, and people could walk around the courtyard to pray in front of whatever holy idol or relic
they chose. In time, people walked in a circular motion to pass in front of all of the idols and relics. The
area in front of the temple of Dushara could have accommodated 360 items which would require a very
large space. The Islamic records tell us that during the rebuilding of the sacred area and the adding of a
roof structure of some sort (which later burned) that Muammad made his first appearance as someone
chosen of God to place the Black Stone into the new niche.180 Since that action began his prophet-hood,
he could never remove it, even when he destroyed the other 359 idols. When Abdallh ibn al-Zubayr
removed the Black Stone from the Kaba, some people may have sighed in relief that the idol was finally
removed from the sacred precincts. Later, the Qarmations reacted strongly to the Black Stone in Mecca,
seeing it as an idol.
5. Who has the authority to move the Qibla?
The Qibla was instituted by the prophet Muammad through a direct order given to him, as recorded in
the Qurn.181 Prayer must be made to Masjid al-arm, which the archeological evidence now reveals
was located in Petra. Accordingly, all of the mosques of the first one hundred years of Islamic history point
to Petra, so we can conclude that the prophet Muammad prayed to Masjid al-arm in Petra as did Abu
Bakr, Omar, Uthman and Ali. The Qiblas established by al-ajjj and Ibn al-Zubayr were in rebellion to
what the Qurn commands.
6. Why didnt anyone object to the moving of the Qibla to Mecca?
The fact is, they did! But the records come to us through the Abbsid rulers and their historians who had
adopted the Mecca Qibla, so we must try and read between the lines to understand what was happening.
By 277 AH (890 CE), dissatisfaction with the Abbsid rule grew in central Arabia, giving room for Sha
Ismli groups to propagate their teachings. They taught that the pilgrimage to Mecca was simply a su-
perstition, and so they desired to build a Muslim society based on reason and equality. The Muslim world
179 For example: Daniel 6:10
180 abar Vol 6., pages 56 - 59
181 Qurn 2:127
181
at that time was economically successful and wealthy, based largely on a huge slave-based economy.182
In 899 CE (286 AH), the Qarmatians took control of Barains capital Hajar, and also al-Hasa which be-
came the capital of their state. The Qarmatians tried to stop Muslims from going to Mecca for the pilgrim-
age. They so vehemently opposed pilgrimages to Mecca that in 906 CE (293 AH), they began ambushing
caravans and massacring pilgrims. Then in 927 CE (315 AH), they sacked Mecca, desecrated the Well of
Zamzam with corpses of ajj pilgrims, and then removed the Black Stone and took it to Al-Hasa. In 931 CE
(316 AH), the Qarmatians chose a new Mahd-Caliph who set about abolishing Shara law, and changing
the Qibla direction yet again.
Since the old Qibla was lost, they instituted a new Qibla that required the faithful to always pray towards
fire. When the new Mahd-Caliph began to curse Muammad and the other prophets, instituting a number
of strange new ceremonies as well as executing some of the nobles, the Qarmatians decided their new
Mahd-Caliph was an imposter and they killed him.
With the Black Stone in captivity and the pilgrimages halted, Islam was in crisis. In 952 CE (340 AH) the
Abbsids agreed to pay a huge sum for the return of the Black Stone. When they received it back, it had
been broken into several pieces. When it was returned, it was wrapped in a sack and thrown into the Fri-
day Mosque of Kfa accompanied by a note saying By command we took it, and by command we have
brought it back. Its abduction and removal caused further damage, breaking the stone into seven pieces.
183
After a defeat at the hands of the Abbsids in 976 CE (365 AH), the Qarmatians focused on internal issues
and slowly their status was reduced to that of a local power. According to the Arabist & historian Curtis
Larsen, this had important repercussions for the Qarmians ability to extract tribute from the region and
slowly their finances failed.184 Eventually the Qarmatians were expelled from Iraq by the Buyids (985 CE)
and they faded from history.185
182 Nakash, 2006
183 Glasse, 2001, page 245
184 Larsen, 1984, page 65
185 Busse, 1975 and Muir, 1915, pages 558-562
182
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Supporting Evidence that Petra was the Original Holy City of Mecca
The following two chapters contain arguments that the original Holy City of Islam was that of Petra. The
first chapter contained archeological evidence based on mosque Qiblas from the first two hundred years
of Islamic history. Now we turn to supporting evidence. By themselves, these arguments provide only
circumstantial evidence, but when considered along with the stronger evidence of bricks and mortar that
can be measured and dated, they provide what many have described as overwhelming proof that Petra is
indeed the original Holy City of Islam, the birthplace of Muammad, and the focus of the Islamic prayers
and pilgrimages for the first hundred years of Islam.
1. The original Holy City had clay and loam
Al-abar relates the story of how Abdallh, the father of Muammad visited a wife whom he had in ad-
dition to Aminah.186 He had been working in the field and traces of soil were still on him. When he invited
her to lie with him she made him wait because of this, so he went out, performed his ablutions, washed
off the clay and went to Aminahs quarters instead. In this way the prophet Muammad was conceived.
R.B. Serjeant, in his comments on Alfred Guillaumes translation of the same story in the Sirah,187 explains
that the Arabic word used here for soil means a cultivated plot or field, and puzzles that there is little
cultivatable land near Mecca.188
While there is only sand and rock at the current Mecca site with no evidence of ancient cultivation, the
city of Petra had fields and soil in the various places. There were private and public gardens, and running
water brought to the city through five aqueducts with an overall length of over 55,000 meters.189 Arche-
ologists have described fruit trees, grapes and gardens in ancient Petra. Even today there is cultivated land
between Petra and al-Baih or Little Petra which is 5 km away. Researchers have discovered that only
one hundred years ago the hills around Petra were covered with several indigenous tree species including
Kermes oak, Phoenician juniper, Mt. Atlas pistachio, and carob trees.190
In addition to this, beside al-Baih is a Neolithic village where archeologist Diana Kirkbride-Helbaek ex-
cavated from 1958 to 1967 and again in 1983.191 During her excavation Dr. Kirkbride- Helbaek discovered
old granaries and hypothesized that it was at al-Baih or nearby villages like this where grains were first
domesticated, demonstrating that plots of cultivation existed in the Petra area many centuries before the
time of Muammad. When reading the descriptions of trees, grasses, glens, fields and soil near the Holy
City, would Petra not be a better fit than the barren wadi bed of present day Mecca?
186 abar, Vol. 6, pg 6
187 Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 21, 1958, pages 1-14
188 See Guillaume, Isq, pg 69 for the parallel account, 2006

189 MENAFN, Jordan Times, 20 May 2017, Swiss archaeologist examines ancient Nabateans water technology
190 http://www.petranationaltrust.org/UI/ShowContent.aspx?ContentId=57
191 Byrd, 2007
183
Left: A pistachio tree in the center of Petra

beside the Nymphaeum is claimed to be over
450 years old.192
2. The Holy City is called Bacca in Qurn (3:96)
Behold, the first Sanctuary appointed for mankind was that at Bakka, a blessed place, a guidance to the
peoples.193
Muslims have long associated the word bacca (or Bakka) with the city of Mecca. Bacca is an ancient
Semitic word that means to weep or lament. If a location was assigned the title Bacca it would mean the
place of bacca. For example The Valley of Bacca means the Valley of Weeping or the Valley of Tears. This is
usually because some calamity happened there that caused people to weep.
By associating Mecca with Bacca, Islamic theologians tell us that the original location of the Holy City was
a place of calamity. Some Islamic writers explain this by claiming an old legend related to us by several
early writers: Any king who came to profane its sanctity died on the spot. It is said that is was called
Bakka because it used to break the necks of tyrants when they introduced innovations therein.194 Ibn
Hishm adds: Now in the time of paganism, Mecca did not tolerate injustice and wrong within its borders
and if anyone did wrong therein it expelled him; therefore it was called the Scorcher, (al-Nassa) and any
kind who came to profane its sanctity died on the spot. It is said that it was called Bakka because it used
to break (From the verb bakka , he broke) the necks of tyrants when they introduced innovations therein.195
However, there is no mention of Mecca or Becca by any of the surrounding nations histories in this part
of Arabia.196
In another casem the Islamic writers relate Bakka to the Arabic word tabakku or crowded. They tell us this
192 Petra Archeological Park, http://www.petrapark.com

193 Qurn 3:96
194 Guillaume, Isq, 2006, page 47
195 Ibn Hishm 24

196 See #18 in this chapter, the lack of evidence from north and south of Mecca
184
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story: Ibn Hishm adds to this: Ab Ubayda told me that Bakka is the name of the valley of Mecca because it
is thickly populated (tabakku) and quoted to me the verse: When great heat overtakes him who waters his camels
with yours, leave him alone until his camels are rounded up. The problem with this concept is that Mecca was
very scarcely populated until 800 CE.197
The Qurn itself hints at a more likely explanation, by associating Becca with Hagar weeping over Ish-
mael in Qurn 2:124-127; (see Genesis 21:14 for the Biblical story). By associating this story with Becca
(and ultimately Mecca), we can bring many different ideas coming together together to better understand
why the Becca valley was sacred from ancient times. Since the valley of Becca is synonymous with the
location of Masjid al-arm, we should be able to compile a list of descriptions and events that took place
in this valley and decide if they could fit the valley of Petra, which is known as Seir in the Bible.
1. This location was recognized as a named location from very early times.198
2. Abraham and his family (Lot, Hagar and Ishmael) lived near this valley.199 Behold, the first temple
(house) ever set up for mankind was indeed the one at Bakka: rich in blessing, and a source of guidance
unto all the world. Remember! We revealed the site of the Sacred House to Abraham ... 200 Note: Abrahams
nephew Lot moved to near Zoar, 80 km from Petra201. Abraham could see the Zoar valley from where
he lived.
3. Abraham and Ishmael built a temple in the Becca sanctuary area.202
4. The two mountains on either side of the valley have names: Marwa and afa. These mountains are
symbols set up by God and pilgrims should stride to and fro between them in worship.203
5. Pilgrims should also climb and descend from Arafat mountain and end up celebrating the praises
of God at Masjid al-arm.204 (Note: This makes three major mountains mentioned)
6. Abraham settled some of his people near the Sacred House.205
7. Hagar was sent to this valley when expelled from Abraham. There she wept, possibly giving the
valley its name.
197 Guillaume, Isq, 2006, page 47

198 Qurn 2:124; Qurn 3:96; Genesis 14:6, 32:3,14-16; 36:8-30
199 Qurn 2:124-127, Genesis 13:10-12
200 Qurn 3:96-97
201 Genesis 19:27
202 Qurn 2:125-127
203 Qurn 2:158
204 Qurn 2:197
205 Qurn 14:35-37
185
From the Bible:
And Abraham rose up early in the morning, and took bread, and a bottle of water, and gave it unto
Hagar, putting it on her shoulder, and the child, and sent her away: and she departed, and wandered in
the wilderness ... And the water was spent in the bottle, and she cast the child under one of the shrubs.
And she went, and sat her down over against him a good way off, as it were a bowshot: for she said, Let
me not see the death of the child. And she sat over against him, and lift up her voice, and wept. And God
heard the voice of the lad; and the angel of God called to Hagar out of heaven, and said unto her, What
aileth thee, Hagar? fear not; for God hath heard the voice of the lad where he is. Arise, lift up the lad,
and hold him in thine hand; for I will make him a great nation. And God opened her eyes, and she saw
a well of water; and she went, and filled the bottle with water, and gave the lad drink.206
From the Hadith:
When the water in the water-skin had all been used up, she (Hagar) became thirsty and her child also
became thirsty. She started looking at him (i.e. Ishmael) tossing in agony. She left him, for she could not
endure looking at him, and found that the mountain of afa was the nearest mountain to her on that land.
She stood on it and started looking at the valley keenly so that she might see somebody, but she could not
see anybody. Then she descended from afa and when she reached the valley, she tucked up her robe and
ran in the valley like a person in distress and trouble, till she crossed the valley and reached the Marwa
mountain where she stood and started looking, expecting to see somebody, but she could not see anybody.
She repeated that (running between afa and Marwa) seven times.207
7. afa and Marwa were tall mountains, that needed climbing.
Climbing afa and Marwah and making supplications for ones material and spiritual well being and welfare
is encouraged. During the supplications one should face the Kaba. It is well known that the Prophet (peace
be upon him) went through the afa Gate, and on approaching afa he recited the Qurnic verse 2.158.208
When the verse: And warn your tribe of near kindred.209 was revealed, Allhs Apostle went out, and
when he had ascended al-afa mountain, he shouted, O Sabahah! The people said, Who is that? Then
they gathered around him, whereupon he said, Do you see? If I inform you that cavalrymen are proceeding
up the side of this mountain, will you believe me? They said, We have never heard you telling a lie. Then
he said, I am a plain warner to you of a coming severe punishment. Ab Lahab said, May you perish!
You gathered us only for this reason? Then Ab Lahab went away. So the Srat: Perish the hands of Ab
Lahab! was revealed.210
206 Genesis 21:14-19
207 a al-Bukhr adth 4:583; 5:85
208 Fiqh us-Sannah 5:90
209 Qurn26.214
210 a al Bukhr adth 6:495
186
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afa and Marwah as they used to do in the days of Jahiliyya while two idols were set on top of afa
and Marwah.211
8. The trip between afa and Marwa was so strenuous that some people could not do the seven
crossings in one day:
The author of Al-Mughni observes: Amad says there is no harm in delaying the Sai after per-
forming awf until one is rested, or postponing it until evening. Aa and Al-asan also see no harm
in someone making awf early in the day and postponing the Sai between afa and Marwah until
evening. Al-Qsim and Sad bin Jubair followed this, because the continuity of Sai is, as such, not a
condition, much less the continuity of awf and Sai. Sad bin Manr reported that Saudah, the wife
of Urwah bin al-Zubair performed Sa in between afa and Marwah and because she was a big and
heavy woman, she completed it in three days. (Fiqh us-Sunnah 5:88a)
9. Idols were set up on the two mountains.
Amr set up an image on al-afa called Nahlik Mujawid al-Rih and one on al-Marwa called Mutim
al-Tayr.212
How does this compare to Mecca in Saudi Arabia today? afa and Marwah are two large rocks housed
right inside the mosque building in Mecca. There is no way to climb these rocks, so pilgrims no longer
climb them. There is no evidence of ancient gates and no evidence an idol was ever set up on them.
But today in Petra, the two mountains have evidence of idol platforms, gates, processional ways go-
ing up the side, and a road leading directly from one mountain to another for awf between the two
mountains. Plus there is a rainwater passage running beside this road which is described by Bukhr:
When the Prophet performed the awf of the Kaba, he did Ramal during the first three rounds and in the
last four rounds he used to walk,and while doing awf between afa and Marwa, he used to run in the midst
of the rain water passage.213
From all of this, I believe that the valley of Petra can favorably be compared to the Qurnic valley
of Bekka (also known as Mecca) where Hagar was weeping, as well as to the Biblical story Abraham,
Ishmael and Hagar. Since Abraham wandered throughout the mountains, from Israel down to Egypt,
it would not come as a surprise that Abraham and Ishmael may have stopped in the Petra Valley
and built some sort of altar or structure there to worship the Lord. It would not surprise us if this is
actually the valley that Hagar fled with young Ishmael. The Qurnic accounts fit the Petra valley far
better than the barren Mecca valley in Saudi Arabia.
211 Fiqh us-Sunnah 5:86
212 Isq 56, pg 30
213 a Al Bukhr adth 2:685

187
3. Earthquakes may give the valley its name
While there is no evidence for any substantial tragedies occurring at the Mecca site in Saudi Arabia be-
fore 800 CE, there are a number of tragic events that took place at Petra including the following major
earthquakes:
363 CE Recorded by Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem214

551 CE Darawcheh, Sbeinati, Margottini, & Paolini, 2000215
713 CE Recorded by Al-abar 23216
There is archeological evidence that these earthquakes caused a great deal of damage. The greatest dam-
age was probably inflicted in 713 CE when not only was Petra affected, but the entire Mediterranean
seacoast. Even the mosque in Jericho was destroyed, so much so that it was never rebuilt.217 It may have
been that in 713 CE, Petra was finally abandoned since no records of Petra exist after this date.
Since ancient cities were built of stacked rocks and timbers, earthquakes brought massive destruction and
the death of many people. This massive destruction over so many years would certainly have caused the
nick-name Valley of Weeping to have continued use over the centuries.
Left: Petra is littered with fallen columns.

Right: In 1962 archeologists began recon-
struction work in Petra, lifting columns
and walls back into place. In many cases,
they could easily tell how to do the re-
construction as the columns and walls lay
completely on their sides.218
4. The Well of Zamzam
Every Muslim accepts it as fact that the Well of Zamzam is located beside the Kaba, and that this well
is located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Many Muslims believe that this well is sacred, and many healing or
health improving properties are given to the water taken from this well. During my research, I was struck
214 Brock, 1977, A Letter attributed to Cyril of Jerusalem on the Rebuilding of the Temple
215 Russell, 1985, Earthquake Chronology of Palestine and Northwest Arabia from 2nd - 8th Cen. CE
216 abar Vol 23. page 204
217 Nur & Burgess, 2008, Apocalypse: Earthquakes, Archaeology, and the Wrath of God
218 The Illustrated London News, March 31, 1962, Page 502/503, Archeological Section no 2085,
Used by permission.
188
Dan Gibson
with the name z-m-z-m. I searched through my personal electronic database of ancient manuscripts and
writings and was surprised to have only one result. It was from the Bible in Deuteronomy 2:20. The Zam-
zummim were renowned in ancient times as giants (tall people) who lived in the land of Seir, Edom and
Ammon. The Edomites overthrew them, and dwelt in their stead. It would seem to me that if one was
looking for the well of Zamzam they would need to look in the land of Seir or Edom in the mountains of
Petra. Other than this, I found no other reference to z-m-z-m.
Al Wqid mentions that Umar ibn lih related to him on the authority of Nfi, mawl of the Ban Makhzm
that Khlid bin Abdallh said in a sermon that the original water of Zamzam was salty, and that water from
another well used to be transported and placed in leather containers beside Zamzam, as it was superior to the
water of Zamzam.219
It is interesting to note that the Arabic word for well and cistern are the same. So while most Muslims
believe Zamzam was a well, there is also a possibility that it was a cistern, with large doors across the en-
trance. Al-abar tells us that in 66 AH men broke the wooden bolts (awdd) of Zamzam, went inside.220
It seems that Zamaam was either in a building, or else it was a cistern with a doorway across the entrance.
Ab Daoud221 records how the Arabs swept out Zamzam and removed the snakes, which makes it sound
more like a cistern than a well. Interestingly enough, Petra is known as a city of cisterns.
The Zamzam well in Mecca today is also called the Well of Ishmael.222 It is 35 meters deep and is marked
by an elegant dome. The water is considered health-giving, and pilgrims collect it in bottles to bring back
home to their own countries. Sometimes a pilgrim tries to dip his or her future burial clothes in the wa-
ters of Zamzam. Muslim tradition holds that the well of Zamzam was opened by the angel Gabriel to save
Hagar and her son Ishmael from dying of thirst when they were out in the desert.
The story of Zamzam being associated with Hagar fits the Petra valley rather than Mecca in Saudi Arabia.
The Bible tells us that Abraham grazed his sheep on the hills overlooking Sodom and Gomorah.223 While
most Bible scholars imagine that this was on the western side of the Araba valley, there is no reason why
Abraham could not have also grazed his sheep on the eastern side. If this is the case, then the Petra valley
would have been a natural place for the sons of Ishmael to live along side of their cousins the Edomites.224
5. The Qurns attention on northern Arabia
I presented arguments in my book Qurnic Geography that the people of Ad, Thamud and Midian, were
all north Arabian civilizations. If you want to follow this argument in detail, please refer to Qurnic Ge-
ography.
219 abar Vol. 23 page 147-148 and Ibn al-Athr
221 Sunan Ab Daoud 2507
222 Ibn Hishm 24
223 Bible Genesis 21

224 Qurnic Geography, page 224, 229, 236, 308-311
189
But briefly, I argue that the people of Ad (Edomites) and the people of Thamud (Nabataeans) all dwelt
in northern Arabia in the Petra region. The tribes that descended from Ishmael also settled in northern
Arabia. Since all of the geographical references in the Qurn are from northern Arabia, it is natural to
conclude that the Qurn was written to people who had a north Arabian perspective. In other words,
when the prophet spoke to the Meccans about Ad, he simply had to point to the remains that they left
behind. In much the same way, the people Muammad was speaking to living in the shadow of the great
Thamudic monuments. These references were not incidental.
In the minds of Muammads audience, there had been three times in the past when Arabia was great. The
first time was when it was united under the tribal confederacy led by Edom and was known as Ad. (2nd
millennium BCE) Muammad speaks of Ad only when he addresses the people in the Holy City (Petra).
The second time Arabia rose to prominence was when the tribes of Arabia united under the leadership
of the Midianites who oppressed and raided the settled peoples to the north. (end of 12 century BCE)
Muammad only speaks of the land of Midian when he addresses the people in the city of Medina which
was in the heartland of Midian. The third and most significant time the Arabian Peninsula united was un-
der the leadership of the Thamudic people who established what we know today as the Nabataean empire.
(200 BCE - 200 CE) This empire controlled not only most of Arabia, but also lands all the way to Damascus
in the north, and the entire Negev to the west. It was not by chance that Muammad referred to these
people. They were significant people in the minds of his listeners. This leads us to believe that Muammad
was addressing an audience in North Arabia, the homeland of Ishmael, Ad, Thamud, and Midian.
6. The Holy Citys high and low side
The Hadith literature contains many references to the high and low side in Mecca. as if the city was
half way up a hill or incline. For instance: When the Prophet came to Mecca, he entered from its higher
side and left from its lower side.225 There are many more mentions of the high side and low side between
2:645 and 2:657.
We (isha speaking) set out with the Prophet with the intention of performing ajj only. The Prophet
reached Mecca and performed awf of the Kaba and between afa and Marwa and did not finish the
Irm, because he had the Hdi with him. His companions and his wives performed awf (of the Kaba and
between afa and Marwa), and those who had no Hdi with them finished their Irm. I got the menses
and performed all the ceremonies of ajj. So, when the Night of asba (night of departure) came, I said, O
Allhs Apostle! All your companions are returning with ajj and umra except me. He asked me, Didnt
you perform awf of the Kaba (umra) when you reached Mecca? I said, No. He said, Go to Tanim
with your brother Abdur-Ramn, and assume Irm for umra and I will wait for you at such and such a
place. So I went with Abdur- Ramn to Tanim and assumed Irm for umra. Then afiya bint Huyay
got menses. The Prophet said, Aqra alqa! You will detain us! Didnt you perform awf-al-ifda on the
day of nahr (slaughtering)? She said, Yes, I did. He said, Then there is no harm, depart. So I met the
Prophet when he was ascending the heights towards Mecca and I was descending, or vice-versa.226
225 ah Al-Bukhr adth 2:647
226 a Al-Bukhr adth 2:815
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When considering the topography around Mecca, the phrase ascending the heights towards Mecca does
not make sense. This term however could apply to the Petra region where the city has the Araba Val-
ley below it, and the Edomite hills above it. In essence Petra is half way up the escarpment, with a clear
higher and lower side to the city.
During the year of the conquest (of Mecca), the Prophet entered Mecca through its upper part through Kada.227
Then she said, O Allhs Apostle! Your companions are returning with the reward of both ajj and umra,
while I am returning with (the reward of) ajj only. He said to her, Go, and let Abdur-Ramn (i.e. your
brother) make you sit behind him (on the animal). So, he ordered Abdur-Ramn to let her perform umra
from Al-Tanim. Then the Prophet waited for her at the higher region of Mecca till she returned.228
Allhs apostle came to Mecca through its higher region on the day of the conquest (of Mecca) riding his she-
camel on which Usma was riding behind him.229
Now al-Khab had so harassed Zayd that he forced him to withdraw to the upper part of Mecca, and he
stopped in the mountain of ira facing the town.230 It is interesting to note that Mount ira was located
in the upper part of Mecca. However, today Mount ira (Nour) is located behind Jebal Marwn and
Khandima.
Today people sometimes call the area around Mecca a valley, but in actuality it is a large open area, with
low rocky mountains rising out of the sand. It is my belief that the early description of Mecca and its
mountains do not fit Mecca today, which is flat and surrounded by barren rocks rising from the desert
floor. The terms higher and lower part of the Holy City could easily be applied to Petra, which was split
apart by a colonnaded road in the middle. The higher part of the city was to the north and the lower part
of the city to the south. In the north is a large mountain with an impressive cave filled with baetyls that
could easily fit the description of ira.
7. The Holy City could be entered and exited by a crack in the rock or a narrow mountain path.
Allhs Apostle used to enter Mecca from the high thaniya and used to leave Mecca from the low thaniya.
The thaniya is a narrow mountain pass. The Prophet went on advancing till he reached the thaniya through
which one would go to them (i.e. people of Quraish).231
Ibn Umar used to spend the night at Dh-Tuwa in between the two thaniyas and then he would enter Mecca
through the thaniya which is at the higher region of Mecca, and whenever he came to Mecca for ajj or umra,
he never made his she-camel kneel down except near the gate of the Masjid (Sacred Mosque) and then he
would enter (it) and go to the Black (stone) Corner and start from there circumambulating the Kaba seven
230 Guillaume, Isq, G 148, pg 102
231 a al-Bukhr adth 3:891
191
times: hastening in the first three rounds (Ramal) and walking in the last four. On finishing, he would offer
two Rakat prayer and set out to perform awf between afa and Marwa before returning to his dwelling place.
On returning (to Medina) from ajj or umra, he used to make his camel kneel down at Al-Batha which is at
Dh-al- ulfa, the place where the Prophet used to make his camel kneel down.232
Left: The author made over 60 trips

into Petra between 1979 and 2009
examining all parts of the city and
much of surrounding area. Here he
admires the thaniya walls in Petra,
now called the Siq. Note the water
channel to the left of the path. The
mountain here towers above the
thaniya floor.
There are four ways into the Petra basin. Since Petra is in a valley, one could enter from either end of
the valley. One end is considerably higher than the other, hence the higher and lower side of Petra.
However, there are two thaniya entrances that could be used. One of these is the famous siq that tour-
ists pass through to enter the city. The other is on the far side of the colonnaded street and leads into
the maze of canyons that eventually empty out into Wadi Araba. (See the city map on the following
page)
232 a Al- Bukhr adth 2:820
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8. The Holy City had walls
Ibn Isq records233 they surrounded him as he was at the side of one of the walls of Mecca There is no
archeological evidence that the city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia ever had city walls. Yet here the Holy City
is described as having walls. The city of Petra had two walls which crossed the valley protecting the high
and low side of the city.
Above: The Petra valley showing walls and two thaniyas with a stream running across the valley from one
thaniya to the other. The north side of the Colonnade Street is higher than the south side of the street. Between
the thaniyas there is a stream bed.
9. The Holy City has a stream from one mountain to another mountain.
The adths tell us: When the Prophet performed the awf of the Kaba, he did Ramal during the first three
rounds and in the last four rounds he used to walk, and while doing awf between afa and Marwa, he used to
run in the midst of the rain water passage.234
As there is no natural water flow in Mecca today, this is a puzzling statement. afa and Marwa are de-
scribed as mountains but today they are large rocks, housed right inside of the mosque complex. The
description of running in a rain water passage between the two mountains of Marwa and afa do not fit
what we see in Mecca. But in Petra, a stream ran directly from the mountain on one side of the valley to
233 Guillaume, Isq, 823,Pg 554
234 a Al Bukhr adth 2:685

193
the mountain on the other, through the thaniyas.

Could these mountains have been afa and Mar-
wa with a stream bed running between them?
Left: One of the towers on the walls of Petra
10. The Zumurrud
Ab al-usayn Amad ibn Yay ibn Isq al-

Rawandi was born in Marwarrudh Iraq, about
the year 815 CE. As a young man, he joined the
Mutazila of Baghdad and gained prominence
among them. Around the age of forty, he became
estranged from this group and formed close alli-
ances with more traditional Muslims as well as
non-Muslims such as Manichaeans, Jews and also
Christians. He wrote against the Mutazila, and
they reciprocated in kind.
While most Muslim theologians described him as

an outspoken and dangerous heretic, some appear
to present him in a neutral or even positive light.
One of his more controversial books is known as
Kitb al-Zumurrud in which he mentions the mir-
acles of the prophets such as Abraham, Moses,
Jesus and Muammad. The text of the Zumurrud
has not survived to our times, but we can surmise
his arguments from the writings of various later scholars who quoted him and argued against him.
The Zumurrud contained arguments both for and against the existence of prophets. This is stated ex-
plicitly in the Majalis Muayyadiyya of the Ismli al-Muayyad fil-Din al-Shirazi (1077 CE). The Majalis
Muayyadiyya is the only source that contains relatively long citations of arguments against prophecy
which are identified explicitly as belonging to the Zumurrud.235 While this is not a place to argue Muslim
theology, it is important to notice that al-Rawandi argues that Muammads night journey to Jerusalem
was not a miracle because these two cities are close enough together so that a person could go from one
to the other and back in one night.236 Muslim scholars have rejected the authenticity of the Zumurrud be-
cause of statements like this. Since they believed he was obviously wrong on this point, all of the materials
in the Zumurrud are considered wrong. However, if the original Holy City of Islam was located at Petra,
this description would be absolutely correct. The distance from Petra to Jerusalem is only 100 miles. Later
historians would think he was speaking of Mecca in Saudi Arabia.
235 Kraus, 1994, Gesammelte Aufsatze, Das Kitb az-Zumurrud des Ibn al-Rawandi
236 Stroumsa, 1994, The blinding emerald: Ibn al-Rawandis Kitb al-Zumurrud
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While it would be a strenuous trip on a horse, one could indeed travel from one to the other and back in
one day. Thus al-Rawandis argument supports the idea that Islams Holy City was in Petra, not in Mecca
in Saudi Arabia. Years later, when Petra was forgotten, al-Rawandis arguments seemed totally absurd.
Everyone knew that Mecca was more than 760 miles from Jerusalem, and that the passage crossed some
of the most barren and challenging deserts in the world.
11.The Petra region contains mention of gods found in the Qurn, hadiths and histories
Around 200 years after the founding of Islam, Abu-al-Mundhir Hishm ibn-Muammad ibn-al-Saib ibn-
Bishr al-Kalbi, better known as ibn-al-Kalbi (d. 206 AH/821-822 CE) wrote the book Kitab al-Asnam, or
The Book of Idols. Al-Kalbi basically went through the literature available at his time, and made a list of
the early pagan idols and what was known of them. This list of idols and some basic information about
them is helpful in understanding the role that Petra played in early Islamic history.
Among the list of idols is Allat. It is interesting to note that a major temple to Allat is in Wadi Rum only
83 kilometers from Petra. A later Lion of Allat statue
was built in Palmyra, which was a Nabataean/Arab
trade city in Syria. Allat is mentioned in the Qurn
in Sura 53:1923. Allat was supposed to be worshiped
in Taif as well as among the Nabataeans in general.237
There is no other existing physical evidence of Allat
anywhere else in the Arabian Peninsula.238
Another god mentioned in early Islamic records is Dush-

ara. 239
There are two known temples to Dushara,
first in Madain Salih (al Hijr) in northern Saudi Arabia
(a Nabataean sister city to Petra) and a temple in Pe-
tra itself. This temple (below) is the largest freestanding
structure in Petra today.
Many gods in Petra were represented by a square cut

block. In the beytel to the right we can see three gods
within one larger god, corresponding to Sura 53:19-20
Have you thought upon al-Lat, and al-Uzza and al
Manat, the third, the other? This beytel is found along
the siq entrance to Petra.
237 Book of Idols, translated from Arabic version by Hishm Ibn al-Kalbi by Nabih Amin Faris, 1952
238 Wadi Rum Photo: Berthold Werner, GNU Free Documentation License
239 Ibn Hishm 78

195
Left: Three God blocks in a niche. Below Left: Al

Uzzas temple is also found at Petra.240
The presence of one or two temples does

not prove much, but when we take into
consideration the qibla direction of all of
the early mosques of Islam, it is striking
that all of them point to the Petra region,
the home of these gods.
12. Petra was the cen-

tre of a twice yearly pil-
grimage
In order to understand the

Arab pilgrimage to Petra,
we need to understand
something of the early
Nabataean burial practic-
es. Tourists often wonder
if the majestically carved
Nabataean facades in Pe-
tra were really tombs, or
if they had some other
function. The presence of
numerous dining halls among these monuments seems to point to something else.
One Nabataean inscription found at Egra on a tomb clearly states: This is the tomb made by Wshuh daughter
of Bagrat, and by Qayamu and Mashkuya her daughters, of Teima, for each of them, and for Amirat and Usra-
nat, and Elanat their sisters, daughters of Wshuh and for their clients.
Bagrat and Teima were located quite some distance from Egra. From this, it appears that the dead were
transported to these central burial places and not buried in their home villages.
There are over one thousand burial monuments in Petra and hundreds of others in the other smaller Naba-
taean burial cities. If these were for family and tribal units as is commonly thought, then the tombs in total
could have contained tens of thousands of people.
240 Sura 53:19, and in the hadiths. eg. Bukhri 4:276, 6:383, 8:314 and Ibn Hishm 17, 41.
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Left The Obelisk

tomb in Petra has a
dining room directly
under the tomb.
The city of Petra

functioned as a re-
ligious center for
twice-yearly fes-
tivals, and it also
functioned as a buri-
al city. It was com-
plete with numerous
temples, a festival
theater, a nympha-
eum, bathhouse,
several sacred ways,
monumental gates,
many pools, wells
and cisterns, as well
as several other pub-
lic buildings.
From ancient records, we can deduce that the Nabataean merchants traveled widely. So what would have
happened to them if they died while they were in a distant county or somewhere in the deserts of Arabia?
This is a key question in understanding the glue that held this merchant empire together. Some historians
and archeologists believe that the Nabataeans practiced bone collection and buried the bones of their
dead rather than complete bodies.241
This system of burial was used by the Persians and also by some Jewish groups during the Second Temple
period.242 Bodies were placed on a high location on a rack so that once the flesh and organs had been
stripped away by vultures or decomposed, the bones would fall through the rack into the carved-out space
below. After the bones had dried, they would be collected and placed in a tomb.
Around the city of Petra, there are a number of high platforms that seem to be exposure platforms. If a
Nabataean died while on a caravan journey, his body would have been exposed to the elements, the bones
dried, and then transported back to one of the sacred burial sites. Those who died near the burial cities
would have been exposed to the elements right in the city itself. There are a number of things that sup-
port this theory.
All around Petra are steps to the tops of hills with very little on top for markings except a rectangular hole
241 Negev, Avraham, Nabatean Archaeology Today, New York University Press 1986, pg 69
242 Patrich, Joseph, 1997, The Formation of Nabataean Art, Brill

197
cut in the rocks. Some of these are 1.5-2 meters long and .5 meters wide. A good example of one of these
exposure platforms can be found across from the Obelisk Tomb on the way into Petra. Every person going
into Petra walks past a large square rock which has steps cut into it on two sides leading to the top. On
the top of the rock, a rectangular hole has been cut, and around the edges of the hole is a groove where
the rack would have been placed. As the vultures stripped off the flesh, the bones would have fallen into
the hole underneath, and would have been retrieved later
for burial in one of the nearby tombs.
Why did the Nabataeans use this form of burial? First, the
use of communal graves for families and tribes makes socio-
logical sense, as the Nabataean culture was structured on a
tribal basis.
As larger families would have established their own par-

ticular tomb, members of that family would have wanted
their bodies buried in their family tomb, even if they died
hundreds or thousands of miles away. The practice of trans-
porting bones rather than bodies would have been a practi-
cal way to deal with people who died while on journeys to distant
places.243 This would explain the tombs that are present at Egra,
Petra and Medain li in Saudi Arabia. Each of these centers
was a stopping place along the caravan routes, and the bones of
the dead could be buried there in style. This explains why inscrip-
tions in Egra indicates that people living in Teyma were buried in
Egra. It also explains why there are so many tombs in the Petra
valley compared to the amount of space for the living.
The practice of bone collection would explain why the Nabatae-

ans made pilgrimages to Petra. People would gather in the burial
city to worship in the temples, participate in burial ceremonies,
and to eat memorial feasts for the dead at the family tomb. The
presence of scores of dining halls among the tombs indicates that
eating in the presence of the dead ancestors was part of the ear-
ly pilgrimage. However, with the coming of Christianity in the
fourth century, the custom of bone collection and meals celebrat-
ing the dead declined.
The discovery of a zodiac dated to the second century CE leads

us to believe that there were two Nabataean pilgrimages to Petra.
Zodiacs were well known throughout the ancient world. They ex-
pressed a belief in the cyclical passage of time and the power of
the stars and planets to affect earthly events.
243 Genesis 50:25 & Exodus 13:19

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The Nabataean zodiac has many images similar to Roman zodiacs of the time. However, one of the sym-
bols portrays Allat, the female goddess of fertility, with a lance or sword which can faintly be seen above
her left shoulder. This may have symbolized an ancient festival which was celebrated by the Nabataeans
and their nomadic neighbors when the birthing of lambs marked the spring season. It was a time when
grazing was good and the earth was green from the spring rains. The Nabataean equivalent of Sagittarius
is rendered as the bust of a jovial youth, possibly al-Qutbi, the god of learning and commerce. Capricorn
is shown in the Nabataean panel as the damaged bust of a human figure rather than the traditional Ro-
man fish/goat that was common throughout the Roman Empire. The remaining symbols of the Nabataean
zodiac conform to their Roman counterparts, but they are enlivened with original touches of artistic cre-
ativity. However, by far the most significant difference in the Nabataean zodiac is the arrangement of the
order of the houses within the zodiacal circle.
Al-abar notes that during the days before Islam, there were two
pilgrimages.244 The lesser was known as umrah. He notes that Abd
al-Muttalib (Muammads grandfather) performed umrah on one
occasion. This was at a time when the forbidden sanctuary held
many pagan idols, among them Hubal245 and Isaf and Nailah.246 The
Qurn tells us that these pre-Islamic pagan pilgrimages were known
respectively as ajj247 and umrah, commonly called the greater and
lesser pilgrimage.
From ancient times, the Arabian pilgrimage was always to the reli-
gious center of Arabia, the forbidden sanctuary, the holy burial city
of Petra. It was in this city that the Nabataean dead were buried,
and it was in this city that the living gathered to eat a ritual meal
with their extended family in the presence of the long departed
ancestors. This custom was part of the cultural and ethnic make-
up of the Nabataeans, and was the glue that held them, a nomadic
merchant people, together as a society.
There are no other records of a major pilgrimage in the Arabian

Peninsula.
13. Petra is missing in all early Islamic literature.
For centuries, Petra was the center of the traderoute and the focus
of the twice-yearly pilgrimage in Arabia. While the earthquakes of
363 CE and 551 CE damaged the city, life continued on there for
several more decades.

247 Qurn 2:158, 196
199
Until recently, it was believed that Petra was largely destroyed by the earthquake in 551 CE. However,
since the discovery of the Petra scrolls, the existence of Byzantine Petra has come to light. In 1993, Ham-
oudi al-Bedoul, a local Bedouin, discovered the first remains of carbonized papyrus scrolls while excavat-
ing at a Byzantine Church in Petra.
The 152 Petra Scrolls represent the largest collection of ancient texts yet discovered in Jordan. They
contained a variety of personal records including sermons, wills and contracts from the 5th and 6th centu-
ries. It would seem logical to believe that the scrolls were preserved by the 551 earthquake; however, the
scrolls contain documents from 528, and others from the reign of Tiberius Mauricius 582-602 CE, mean-
ing that some are dated more than fifty years after the earthquake. None of the documents that have been
deciphered refer to damages or lost property that could be attributed to an earthquake. In fact, according
to leading papyrologist Ludwig Koenen, who is in charge of deciphering half of the Petra Scrolls, indica-
tions create the overwhelming picture of Petra as a viable city with a functioning hinterland throughout
the sixth century.248
If this is the case, then why is there no mention of Petra in any

of the early Islamic literature? There are Islamic records of
people passing through the region and even armies marching
through this area, but Petra is never mentioned. At the very
same time, non-Islamic literature mentions Petra, but never
Mecca. There is no mention of Mecca in any literature until
740 CE when it first appears in the Continuatio Byzantia Ara-
bica.249
If Petra was the first Islamic Holy City before the Black Stone
was moved to Mecca, then would it not make sense that later
writers would eliminate every mention of Petra? Is it possi-
ble that the descriptions of Petra were transferred in peoples
minds to Mecca in Arabia, and thus every mention of Petra
was removed from future Islamic literature?
Above: A mosaic floor from a Byzantine

church in Petra.
14. The sacred area was marked out by large stones
Early Islamic records250 tell us about killings and revenge killings between the Khazaa and the Hadrami
tribes near Masjid al-arm. The sons of a prominent sheik were attacked beside Mount Arafa at the
248 Koenen 530, Petra Romana Byzantia et Islamica
249 Crone-Cook 1977, page 22,171
250 Srat Rasl Allh by Ibn Isq, Guillaume, 2006, pg 540; Ibn Hishm 164 (page 390) Who
marched from the sacred stones; Ibn Hishm 185 (page 390) killed them in Arafa at the boundary stones
of the sacred area; Ibn Hishm 185 (page 185) They had wronged us and behaved as enemies And were the
first to shed blood at the sacred boundary.
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boundary stones of the sacred area. This story is repeated in several places, as it was very important, since
the killings seemed to take place inside the boundary that marked out the sacred area.
These statements show us two things. First, the sacred area was quite large, extending all the way to
Arafat mountain. From todays Mecca, the distance between the Kaba and the base of Mount Arafat is
around 18 kilometers. Second, it speaks of boundary stones that mark the boundary of the sacred area.
In the minds of many readers, this might mean small stones laid out to show the boundary. Small stones
however, could be moved, and they would be lost or buried in the desert that surround Mecca and Mn.
Much larger stones would have been more appropriate, but
alas, there are no large boundary stones around Mecca to
show travelers where the sacred precinct began and ended.
All around the city of Petra, however, there are large stone
blocks carved out of the mountain. Each stone is about 20
feet tall. The stone shown on the right is one of several
that tourists pass as they enter Petra via the siq path. All
togetherm there are over 25 of these giant square blocks
surrounding the greater city area.251 Is it possible that these
stones mark out the sacred precinct of the Holy City?
15 Games of chance
In the adths, it is recorded that games of chance and the use of azlams were common in the original Holy
City. Azlams refer to any method of obtaining a result by chance. In some instances, they were arrows,
sometimes they were dice, or they could simply be sticks thrown down as used by Bedouin today. In the
account where Muammad removed the idols from the Holy Sanctuary, Bukhr records the following:
When Allhs Apostle came to Mecca, he refused to enter the Kaba with idols in it. He ordered (idols to be
taken out). So they were taken out. The people took out the pictures of Abraham and Ishmael holding azlams
in their hands. Allhs Apostle said, May Allh curse these people. By Allh, both Abraham and Ishmael
never did the game of chance with azlams. Then he entered the Kaba and said Takbir at its corners but did
not offer the prayer in it.252
In the city of Petra, there are many ancient game boards carved in the rocks all around the city. At the
Second Conference on Nabataean Studies held in Petra, Jordan, October 2002, Dr. Bill Khrsat and all
Akasheh presented a paper called Gaming Boards from the Nabataean Capital City of Petra: Documentation
and Study.253 It was at this conference that I first took interest in these ancient gaming boards, and soon
afterwards a group of us tried to catalogue our own findings at the Nabataea.net website: http://nabataea.
net/games1.html
251 Browning, 1994, Petra, page 110
252 a al-Bukhr adth 2.671
253 https://www.auac.ch/bns/research/conferences.html
201
Regarding azlams, these were often ar-

rows used by the Arabs. Dice were used
by Persians and Romans.254 A recent
study suggests that these games were b
and sija, games255
Left The remains of a game board in Petra,

one of dozens of games of chance found
around the city of Petra.
16. Battle for Medina (The Battle of the Trench)
In year 5 CE the Quraysh assembled several tribes to attack the new Muslim sect in Medina.256 Muammad
heard they were coming, so he laid out a trench to protect Medina.
It is noteworthy that the Quraysh tribe attacked Medina from the north. This is very peculiar because
Mecca, where the Quraysh lived, was south of Medina. However, as the map on th enext page illustrates,
the battles against the Quraysh were always on the north side of Medina.
In this case, the two armies faced each other for twenty two days and nights. It seems strange that the
Quraysh wouldnt also have attacked from the south if they were marching up from Mecca, which was in
the south. However, the record says that they approached Medina coming from the Holy City from the
north. This wasnt some chance thing. The prophet Muammad made plans well before they arrived, so
that they had a trench already prepared when they arrived.
254 Abdul-Ramn, Muammad Saed, (2007) The Meaning and Explanation of the Glorious Qurn, Vol-
ume 2, MSA Publication Ltd., page 362 (Also see Sra 5:90-92)
255 Alex de Voogt, Ahmad B. A. Hassanat, and Mahmoud B. Alhasanat, (2017) The History and Distri-
bution of b: A Survey of Petras Gaming Boards, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 76, no. 1 (April 2017):
93-101.
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Dan Gibson
Above: This map has been styled after a similar map in the Atlas of the Qurn by Dr. Shauqi Abu Khalil,
(Darussalam, 2003).
If the Quraysh were coming from Petra, then they would have definitely come along the road from the
north. While different Islamic commentators have tried to explain this anomaly away, once we accept that
Petra was the first Mecca, this anomaly disappears.
17. Battle with the Banu Lihyan
The following year, in 6 AH (627 CE) the Muslims marched out of Medina to attack the Banu Lihyan. The
Lihyanites had traditionally occupied an area quite far north of Medina, up to and including the areas
south of Petra in what is today Wadi Rum. Lihyanite inscriptions can be found all through this part of the
desert, but never south of Medina. Al-abar records the journey and battle.257 He notes how the armies
257 abar Vol. 8 pg 126
203
marched north out of Medina, and traveled past Makhid to the region of al Batra. Then they took the left
road and went to the Holy City of Petra (Mecca in the text) where the Benu Lihyan lived.
These people had been alerted and were fortified in secure positions on the mountain tops, so Muammads
plans were thwarted. This paragraph would make perfect sense if they were attacking Petra, but al-abar
claims they were attacking Mecca. He writes, To take the enemy by surprise, he pretended to be taking
out for the north.258 With this insertion, al-abar tries to make sense of the geography that otherwise
didnt make sense to him, since by his day Mecca was considered south of Medina.
However, for those who believe that Petra was the Holy City, the paragraph makes perfect sense without
the insertion. They went north from Medina into the region south of Maan and east of Ras al Naqab to the
area known to the Bedouin as Al Batra even to this day, and then veered left to Petra. The Benu Lihyan
had fortified themselves in the mountains, so the Muslims returned home.
18 Al-ajjj and the city of Khaybar
In 7 AH the Muslim armies from Medina marched north again. Their first target was Khaybar, a city 150
kilometers north of Medina that had often opposed the Muslims. After the Muslim army defeated Khaybar,
al-ajjj (who was not yet a military leader) decided to go on to the Holy City because he had a wife, son
and property there.
Al-abar describes his arrival in the Holy City.259 I departed and arrived in Mecca [Petra]. On the mountain
trail at al-Bay, I met some men from Quraysh who were eager to hear news and were asking about what hap-
pened to the Messenger of God. They had heard that he had gone to Khaybar and knew that it was the leading
town in the ijaz in fertility, defenses and men, so they were seeking news.
There are two striking things about this paragraph. First, al-ajjj arrived on the mountain trail by al-
Bay. On page 243, we will see that al-Bay is a town close to Petra (5 km) on the northern route into
the city. Im sure al-ajjj approached from the east, so he could travel towards the south into Petra. That
way it wouldnt appear he was coming directly from Khaybar, for the Quraysh were at war with the proph-
et. There is no al-Bay near Mecca, so Yqt, writing 600 years later260 tells us that al-Bay is another
name for Tanim, which would have been outside the sacred territory encircling Mecca. The geographer
Yqt gives no sources or reasons for his conclusion.
The second striking thing about this paragraph is that the Quraysh are so concerned. If the Holy City was
indeed south of Medina, they should not have been too concerned. After all, they were the leading city,
the mother-of-all-cities in the south. Khaybar lay far to the north of Medina. However, if the Holy City
was Petra, then the fall of Khaybar would have been of great concern to them, as it was the only major
center between Medina and Petra. The men insist on hearing news, so al-ajjj then tells them lies. He
says that Khaybar defeated the Muslim army and that Muammad was made a prisoner and was being sent
258 abar Vol. 8, page 42-43

259 abar Vol. 8 pg 126
260 Mujam al-Buldan, II, 335
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to Mecca. The Quraysh rejoice and are happy, so al-ajjj goes about his business collecting his property.
This is indeed an interesting story, for if the people of Khaybar had captured Muammad, the last place
they would have taken him was Mecca, for it would mean a journey through Medina!
They might have tried to slip around the coast, or across the vast deserts to the east, but however they
might have wanted to try it, a trip from Khaybar to Mecca without passing Medina would have been dif-
ficult, especially with such a prisoner as Muammad! However, if the Holy City was north of Khaybar,
then the people of Khaybar could easily have taken Muammad north to the Holy City (Petra) so he could
stand trial there. al-ajjj makes good his escape from the Holy City before the news reaches them that
Khaybar was actually defeated and Muammad is on his way at the head of the army to fight them.
19. The order of the Battle for Mecca (The Victory of Islam)
After defeating Khaybar, the Muslims raided a number of locations in northern Arabia, and then they
prepared to march further north to meet the Roman (Byzantine) armies.261
They encamped at Mutan (Maan) in the land of Syria. The men learned that Heraclius had encamped
with 100,000 Byzantines at Maab.262,263 The men journeyed on. When they were within the boundaries of
al-Balqa, they were met by Heraclius armies of Romans and Arabs at a village of al-Balqa called Masharif
the Muslims withdrew to a village called Muta.264
The battle of Muta was a stalemate and the Muslim army was in a bad state as many were killed or
wounded. It is important to note here that the Anr fought in this battle.265 The two armies retired from
each other for a time. What happens next is puzzling, especially if you accept the traditional geography
of the Holy City being Mecca in southern Arabia. After a short campaign into Syria, Muammad decided
to attack Mecca next.266 This is a very strange occurrence. The armies of Muammad, the Emigrants and
the Anr apparently all march to Mecca in Saudi Arabia.267
Consider these two options. First, we know the Muslim armies marched all the way from Medina north to
fight at Muta in southern Jordan. Did they then then return over 1000 kilometers back across the burning
Nafud Desert to take Mecca? Wouldnt it make more sense if the Holy City was in Petra instead of being
south of Medina?
261 abar Vol. 8, page 152 and onward
262 Rabbah Moab, 10 kilometers north of Kerak
263 abar Vol. 8 Page 152
264 abar Volume 8 page 156
205
Consider the distances the armies had to march. Medina to Muta is about 900 kilometers, taking the most
direct route. Muta to Mecca is another 1,200 kilometers. Then travel from Mecca back to northern Arabia
to continue campaigning is another 1000 kilometers. In total this would be 3,100 kilometers across some
of the most difficult terrain in the world: rugged mountains, burning deserts, and waterless plains.
Above: This map shows the traditional journey: Above: If Petra is Mecca then they leave Medina and
leave Medina and march north to Khaybar, march north to Khaybar, then to Maan, and the
then to Maan, and the battle of Muta. Then battle of Muta. Then Muammad decides to take
Muammad decides to take Mecca, and marches Mecca, only a few miles away.
all the way back south
The answer that Muslim writers 300 years after the fact give us, is that despite the Anr warriors being
mentioned as present in all locations, they claim there were three Muslim armies. Otherwise, the treks
back and forth in Arabia would have been impossible.
20. The back way into the Holy City
The descriptions that al-abar gives of the Mecca district are puzzling.268 When approaching Mn: he met
Ikrimah in a canyon and routed him so that he drove Ikrimah back into the walled gardens of Mecca.
There are numerous references to the Holy City being surrounded by canyons and rough terrain. While
Mecca in Saudi Arabia is surrounded by low rocky mountains, this description is not true of the Mecca
region today, which can be approached from various different angles.
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For instance, when Muammad led his army from Medina back to Mecca to conquer it, the prophet asks:
Who is a man who will lead us forth on a way other than the one on which they are? According to Ibn
umayd Salamah- Ibn Isq-Abdallh ibn Ab Bakr: A man from Aslam said I will, Messenger of God. He
took them on a rough and rugged path among canyons. When they emerged from it, it was exhausting for the
Muslims they reached level ground at the end of the valley, the Messenger of God said to the people:269
It is interesting to note that Muammad, who was born and raised in the Holy City, and who roamed
the mountains in his youth, needed a guide. Apparently the area was so contorted that even Muammad
could not find his way. Historians have not been able to trace this route into Mecca in Saudi Arabia as
the description of mazes of canyons ending in a level valley does not fit any landscape around Mecca.
The story continues: Turn right amid the salt-bushes on a path that will bring [the army] out over al-Murar Pass
to the descent of al-Hudaybiyah below Mecca. The Murar Pass with a descent of al-Hudaybiyah has never
been identified and historians are unsure what is meant by below Mecca. The Messenger of God set out,
but when he entered al-Murar Pass, his camel kneeled down.270
The Thaniyyat al-Murar (Bitter Bush Pass) has also never been identified in Mecca, although Yqt men-
tions it.271 It appears to be a narrow path that leads down from Mecca to a lower area.
If this description was applied to Petra, then the army would have approached from the south. And ...there
is a mountain pass that goes through a maze of canyons south
of Petra. It is unused today except by the local Bedouin. In
2002, a group of adventurous enthusiasts and myself traveled
this route into Petra. The undertaking was difficult and de-
spite our GPSs we ended up requiring help from the Bedouin.
The pass opened up in a flat area just south of the city. The
journey was arduous, but it proved that it was possible to
travel through the maze of canyons into the very south end
of the city, just as al-abar describes the armies coming into
the Holy City. These photos are from that expedition.
The narrow thaniya pictured left opens into a maze of can-

yons, some of them wider, like the one on the next page, and
many smaller, narrower ones. Without a guide, we quickly
became lost, despite our GPS units and maps.
271 Yqt, Mujam al-buldan, Vol. 8, 3
207
Left: Bedouin live near the end of what

is possibly Thaniyyat al-Murar just
before it opens into the south end of
Petra.
21. The current location of the

Quraysh tribe
As Islam spread, the Quraysh tribe

spread with them. Today it is pos-
sible to find people who claim to be
descended from the Quraysh tribe all
across the Middle East. Almost all of
the Muslim Quraysh are Sunni, but
there are also some who are Chris-
tians, belonging to the Orthodox
Church (Antioch), the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Ancient Church of the East, as well as a few in the
Amadiyya community. This wide dispersion of people from a Quraysh background would be expected,
as the Quraysh were among the leaders of Islam as it spread west to Spain and east to Afghanistan. An
internet search of Quraysh or Qureshi will produce an interesting list of people with this last name.
When living in southern Jordan doing survey work of ancient Nabataean sites, I became aware of many
Quraysh tribesmen living around (especially south and west) of the city of Maan. I asked a local clinic if
I could survey the names in their registry and found an amazing number of Quraysh names. Maan is only
30 kilometers east of Petra. These tribesmen living in the Maan vicinity claimed they were descendants
of the original Quraysh tribe.
But what about in antiquity? The city of umeima was a Nabataean town on the incense route, some 40
kilometers south of Petra. It flourished during the Nabataean Empire (100 BCE 300 CE) and was not
abandoned until 746 CE when a large earthquake destroyed much of umeima and also Petra.272 The
umeima site has five Byzantine churches, two Umayyad-Abbsid farmhouses, a large early Abbsid forti-
fied house and a mosque that served as the residence of the famous Abbsid family.273
272 Oleson, 1995, Preliminary Report of the Hymayma Excavation Project, 1993
273 Oleson, 2005, Introduction to the Humayma Excavation Project
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Dan Gibson
The Abbsid families left umeima for Kfa in Iraq in 132 AH/749 CE where they would later become rul-
ers. Among them were two of the first Abbsid caliphs: Ab al-Abbs al-Saffh and Ab Jafar al-Manr,
both of whom were born and grew up at umeima. Excavations have uncovered three buildings associ-
ated with the Abbsid family including the qar (fortified house) and the small mosque.
Right: A photo of the foundations of

the Abbsid Qar or fortified house in
umeima.
Why is umeima important? When the Muslims of Baghdad wished to find a member of Muammads
family to support their revolt against the Umayyad rulers in Damascus, they went to the region of Petra.
It is interesting that they did not find members of Muammads family at Mecca in southern Arabia, but
rather looked to northern Arabia, to a town only 27 miles south of Petra.
22. The lack of evidence from north and south of Mecca

Muslims commonly believe that ancient Mecca in Saudi Arabia was a major city on the caravan routes
between the kingdoms of Arabia. However, history does not prove this to be so. One would think that
kingdoms like Yemen, which are immediately south of present day Mecca, and those north of Mecca
would substantiate Meccas existence, but this is not the case. The ancient kingdoms of Yemen utilized
the skill of writing since the 10th century BCE,274 and yet, with the thousands of inscriptions, graffiti and
other writings that have survived to this day, there is not a single mention of the city of Mecca. Looking
north from Mecca to the cities of Dedan, Teyma and Khaybar, again thousands of inscriptions, graffiti and
other writings have survived to this day, and once again we have not a single mention of the city of Mecca
in any literature prior to 900 CE.
Farther north are the Nabataean cities of Medain li, Petra and the Nabataean cities in the Negev. In
the inscriptions, graffiti and other records, once again, there is not a single mention of the city of Mecca.
If Mecca was indeed a major center that had existed since the days of Abraham, it should have appeared
somewhere in the ancient and classical records.
In contrast, many of the small kingdoms that existed in Yemen are well documented. The Kingdom of Ha-
ram was founded 600 BCE by King Yaharil275 and ended with King Maadikarib Raydan. (190-175 BCE).276
274 Kitchen, 1994, page 135
275 Kitchen, 1994, page 239
276 Kitchen, page 181, 239, Documentation For Ancient Arabia
209
There was also the Kingdom of Inabba, whose most prominent ruler was King Waqahil Yafush. (550-530
BCE)277 Another kingdom, Kaminahu, was founded by King Ammiyitha (585-570 BCE)278 and ruled by a
number of kings until Ilisami II Nabat, 495475 BCE. Then there was the kingdom of Nashan, whose first
documented ruler was King Abamar Saqid. He reigned in 760 BCE.279 Later a king named Yadiab mir
ruled from 500-480 BCE.280 If historians and archeologists can date so many small kingdoms north and
south of Mecca, why can they not find any reference to the city of Mecca supposedly existed in this region
for thousands of years?
Dr. Michael Macdonald at the Faculty of Oriental Studies in Oxford University has been working on da-
tabases of inscriptions found in Arabia. He and his colleagues have recorded thousands of inscriptions.281
To date, not a single reference to the city of Mecca has been discovered, despite thousands of pieces of
graffiti written by people going on the pilgrimage.
While there is much evidence of people going on pilgrimages to Petra, one wonders why Mecca is never
mentioned. It is as if it never existed.
23. Khlids pilgrimage
In the massive collection of writing produced by Abbsid authors between 750 - 950 CE (132 - 340 AH)
the Muslim writers seldom mention the city of Mecca and never once mention the city of Petra. Sometimes
when early Abbsid writers do mention Mecca, they go out of their way to demonstrate just where Mecca
was located. This is illustrated in al-abars comments in the following story.282
Khalid and a group of young men were together with the army of Ab Bakr as it marched along the Eu-
phrates River in Iraq. It was a slow moving army, following the long bends of the river. The young men
were bored, when one of them got an idea. They should make a quick dash across the desert and perform
the pilgrimage in the Holy City and then dash back. Could they make it in time before the army arrived at
its destination? They raced off, performed the pilgrimage and raced back to al-rarah arriving just when
the rear of the army entered the city. It was a brilliant feat, but soon word got out and Ab Bakr sent the
young men back to Syria as punishment.
Al-abar tells the story and then notes some items. These items have no isnd or line of succession to give
indication of where this information came from. We can only assume that al-abar himself inserts this
information on his own behalf. Ab Jafar relates the story: Khlid set out as a pilgrim from al-Fird (Iraq)
on 25 Dh al-Qadah (31 January 634) but kept his pilgrimage a secret. He had with him a number of his
277 Kitchen, page 181, 239
278 Kitchen, page 182
281 You can read about the database at http://www.orinst.ox.ac.uk/staff/iw/mmacdonald. html.
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Dan Gibson
companions. He traveled through the land until he arrived at Mecca by dead reckoning. That came to him eas-
ily, in a way that it would not come to either guide or rbl. He traveled on one of the roads of the people of
al-Jazrah, no stranger way nor one more appropriate than it despite its difficulty has been seen. Therefore his
absence from his troops was short, so that the last of them had not arrived in al-rarah before he came to them
in the company of the commander of the rear who he had appointed, and the two of them arrived together. Khlid
and his companions had shaven their heads. His pilgrimage was unknown except to those in the rear whom he
had told about that. Ab Bakr did not learn of that until later, when he reproached him for it. His punishment
was that he was sent to Syria.
(Here starts al-abar comments.) Khlids journey from al-Fird crossed the width of the land randomly by his
own reckoning. The road from al-Fird passed through Maal-Ambari, then Mithqab, then ended at Dhat alIrq.
The road then headed east from there, bringing him from Arafat to al-Fird. That road is named al-Sudd.
There are several things that one can note from this passage. First is that Khlid calculated he could make
a quick pilgrimage to Mecca while his troops marched from al-Fird to ra. The troops would travel a
distance of 475 kms on a direct route, or around 700 kms if they followed the meandering river.
The overland trip to Mecca in Saudi Arabia however was over 1500 kms in one direction, and the return
journey would make the total distance well over 3000 kilometers. Second, after the account is finished,
al-abar seems to insert the short section to describe Khlids route to Mecca, in case anyone objects to
this rather long and tedious journey being made in such a short time.
The paragraph: Khlids journey from al-Fard crossed the width of the land by his own reckoning. The road
from al-Fird passed through Maal-Ambari, then Mithqab, then ended at Dhat alIrq. The road then headed east
from there, bringing him from Arafat to al-Fird. That road is named al-Sudd.. reads more as an intrusion
into the text than a part that flows from it. Al-abar gives no source other than himself for this section.
The question then faces us: Which is more probable, a quick trip to Petra, or a quick trip to Mecca in
southern Arabia? If one assumed that Khlids pilgrimage was to the religious center of Petra, the journey
would have been much shorter. (475 kms to Petra versus 1500 kms to Mecca in the south) On a journey
to Petra, dead reckoning would have been necessary to find the ancient water cistern that connected Wadi
Sirn to Jafr. This cistern was used by ancient camel caravans enabling camels to cross directly west
from Wadi Sirn to Jafr and then on to Maan and finally to Petra. This route was first suggested to me
by John Hill, when he was preparing his translation of the Xiyu juan or Chapter on the Western Regions
from the Hou Han shu as the Chinese described traveling to Petra arriving directly from the east. At the
time, Hill required some help tracing out the Chinese routes, and I was in the Middle East, living in the
desert between Petra and Wadi Rum.
As John Hill translated the Chinese text283 he became convinced that a trade route used to exist between
Petra and Wadi Sirn to the east. Such a trade route would cross the desert to link Petra directly with
Jawf, and subsequently to the trade routes that ran east from there to Gerrha and the ports at the head
283 Hill, John, nos. 2.21 and 12.24, also Through the Jade Gate, China to Rome, Vol. 1, page 318
211
of the Persian Gulf. This proposed trade route would have provided a direct link between Gerrha and the
more northern ports such as Charax Spasinu on the Persian Gulf, and Gaza and Rhinocorura (modern al-
Arish) on the Mediterranean Sea.
This route would have been known as the Mesopotamia Route or Northwest Route to Petra. It is inter-
esting to note that the term al-abar gives it means exactly that: al-Jazrah.284
The Chinese text that John Hill was referring to is one known as the Wei lue (or Short Account of the Wei
Dynasty) composed by Yu Huan between 239 and 265 CE.285 It provides much additional material on
Parthia and DaQin or the Roman Empire than was included in the earlier account of these regions in the
Hou Han shu, which were based on the reports of the Chinese envoy Gan Ying who reached the Persian
Gulf in 97 CE, and presented in an address to the Chinese Emperor circa 125 CE. The new material in the
Wei lue appears to date from the late 2nd or early 3rd century CE and seems to be based on accounts from
Arab sources.
According to John Hill, the ancient Chinese text claims that from Qielan (Wadi Sirn) one can travel due
west 600 li (250 km) to the kingdom of Sifu (Mount Sier or Petra).286
The basic units of measurement employed in the Hou Han shu (the li and the chi) have varied considerably
through the ages and at times, from district to district. Fortunately, however, they remained stable over
the Qin and Han periods and a bronze standard measure, dated 9 CE, has been preserved at the Imperial
Palace in Beijing. This has allowed accurate conversions to modern measurements, and the li is calculated
to be 415.8 meters in length. Other ancient measurements were the Greek stadium (201.5 meters), the
Roman stadium (185 meters), and the Roman mile (1,482 meters).287 There were several problems with
the trade route that John Hill suggested.
First, this route does not appear on any modern maps of ancient trade routes of the Arabian Desert. Such a
route would cross a wide desert expanse between Jafr in Jordan and Wadi Sirn in Saudi Arabia. Second,
the Chinese text suggested that there was a wang or king of Wadi Sirn, and as far as we know, Wadi
Sirn never was a kingdom, although it appears to have been a major part of the Midianite kingdom as I
demonstrate in chapter nine of Qurnic Geography.
Wadi Sirn is the name of a wadi (valley) that runs southeast from the ancient site of Al-Azrak in eastern
Jordan, eventually crosses the border into Saudi Arabia and ends at the wells of Maybu. It is about 140
kilometers (87 miles) in length, and 5-18 kilometers (3-11 miles) wide. Musil called it: a sandy, marshy
lowland, surrounded by low hillocks.
As far as I could tell, any reference to a king of this area by the Chinese explorer must have referred to a
284 Also see note 658, Al Jazrah, page 180 abar Vol. 12, page 180
285 See the list of Chinese explorers in chapter 5
286 & 287 Soon-to-be published annotated translation of the Weile by John E. Hill - personal commu-
nication 30 May, 2017
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Dan Gibson
local sheik. Hill explains it this way: The Chinese word, wang, usually translated as king, is employed
for everyone ranging from tribal chiefs to emperors - so there is no difficulty assuming it is used here for
sheik.
Now, trade routes can be funny things. Most Westerners think in terms of major nations trading with other
major nations through established and well known routes. The Arab mindset was different. The Bedouin
think in terms of being middlemen without the two centers having contact with each other. This is signifi-
cantly different. Camel caravans were making profit by bringing goods from one center to another, but
they were not the official representatives of either center, and endeavored to limit direct communication
between the two.
The governments of these centers made money by taxing the caravans. The caravan owners made better
profits by avoiding taxes. So trade routes were in constant flux. There were, and are, many ways to cross
the desert. Each route has its positive and negative points.
So any caravan passing through a settled area would have to pay something to the sheik who controlled
that area. Settled areas, however, were usually located around water spots, and caravans needed water. As
I mentioned in chapter eleven of Qurnic Geography, the Nabataeans grew in wealth and power because
they developed secret water collection systems in the desert, enabling their caravans to pass through areas
that others could not travel, thus avoiding some of these taxation centers. Thus a cat and mouse game de-
veloped between caravan owners and those with the power to tax caravans passing through their region.
This constant flux makes it difficult for historians to accurately plot ancient trade routes. While major
routes did occur, other routes that bypassed certain centers were used whenever it was profitable.
As mentioned before, based on Chinese records, John Hill suggested that a trade route existed between
Petra in the west and Gerrha in the east. The part of the route that ran east from Petra to Ail, then to Maan
and finally to Jafr is quite acceptable, and follows a natural course of travel between these centers. There
is also enough water along this route for major camel caravans to pass.
The problem with Hills suggested route was getting a caravan from Jafr to a spot with water in Wadi
Sirn. Since camels require about 80 - 100 liters of water each, a small caravan of 100 camels would
require 8000 - 10,000 liters of water. Thus there had to be a major watering point between Jafr and Wadi
Sirn with a minimum of 10,000 liters and, preferably, much more.
A well would not usually provide this kind of water, unless it was located in an area with close surface wa-
ter. Such an area would have been an oasis, such as is found in Maan. If there was no oasis or active well,
then a rain-water collection system that fed into a large cistern was required. If camel caravans used this
route, then there must have been a major source of water about half way between Jafr and Wadi Sirn.
I began my search in the Jordanian village of Ab Lissan where the Darawsha tribe of Bedouin live. They
originally herded camels south and east of the Jafr area, before being settled by the Jordanian govern-
ment around the well at Ab Lissan. After much discussion regarding the area and possible routes, the old
men of the village told me of a large, ancient water cistern located in the desert east of Jafr. However, as
it is very hard to gain government permission to visit this area, we couldnt just drive on out to look for
213
it. Then a few days later, while digging around in the basement of ACOR (American Center for Oriental
Research) in Amman, I came across an old map that actually showed the location of this large cistern.
Is it possible that Khlids men remembered the ancient Nabataean trade route and tried a daring quick
trip to the Holy City while their army marched back to ra? Rather than taking the longer trip around the
top of Syria, they made a dash through the desert and approached Petra directly from the east.
While their army marched along the winding river bank on foot for nearly 700 kms, their camels raced
across the desert covering 800 to 900 kilometers, depending on which desert track they took. The men
quickly performed the pilgrimage and then rushed back to their troops before the rear guard made it to
ra. It is just the kind of dashing bravery that young Bedouin men often demonstrate or aspire to. It must
have been a shock to them when Ab Bakr disciplined them for their act of devotion to Islam.
The rain-water collection system and

storage cistern is located almost exact-
ly half way between Jafr and Al Isawi-
yah at a place where Wadi Hadrai and
Wadi el Abya meet, collecting water
from both wadis. This would enable
caravans to water at a spot directly
between Petra from Wadi Sirn and
would have provided a way for Khlid
to perform the pilgrimage to Petra and
quickly return to al-Fird or al- ra on
the Euphrates River.
A journey to Mecca in Saudi Arabia,

a thousand kilometers south of Petra
would have been impossible for Khlid
to undertake in the same time period.
Therefore, this story better illustrates
that Khlid and his men actually trav-
eled to Petra and not Mecca.
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Dan Gibson
24. Trebuchet Stones
During the civil war with Ibn al-Zubayr288 the Syrian army attacked the Holy City, and during the month
of October destroyed the Kaba in the center of the city with a trebuchet which hurled large stones into
the Kaba area.289
In the city of Mecca, there is no evidence of trebuchet stones ever being used against the city, or even city
walls over which a trebuchet would have thrown stones. In Petra, archeologists from Brown University
have uncovered hundreds of trebuchet stones which were hurled into the area in front of the temple of
Dushara, the bathhouse and in front of the Great Temple area. Using the fallen roof tiles from the Great
Temple, it is possible to date the fortified area and stones to sometime after the earthquake of 551 CE.
The area was then covered in rubble from the later earthquake of 713 CE. Is it not an amazing coincidence
that a manjanik (early tebuchet) was used against Petra at exactly the same time as one was supposed to
have been used against Mecca?
Right: Manjanik stones found by Brown

University in their excavations of the cen-
ter of Petra.
25. The cave of ir
Muammad received his revelation in the cave of ir.290 In his book Srat Rasl Allh, Ibn Isq tells us
where the mountain of ir is located:
Now al-Khab had so harassed Zayd that he forced him to withdraw to the upper part of Mecca, and he stopped
in the mountain of ir, facing the town.291
Today, the cave of ir has been identified as being located on Jebal Nour near Mecca. The cave on
Mount Nour is more or less a slab of rock that has fallen over, creating a small hollow space underneath it
about 4 meters in length and 1.7 meters wide. The Islamic record give us several descriptions of the cave
and what the prophet would do there:
288 64 AH, 683 CE
289 Cosman, 2008, pg 305 and abar 19: 223-224
290 a al Bukhr adth 1.3
291 Guillaume , Isq 148, page 102
215
The apostle would pray in seclusion on ir every year for a month to practice taannuth, as was the custom of
Quraysh in heathen days. Taannuth is religious devotion.292 (This practice is not described to us, but is as-
sumed to be understood by the readers, so it was common knowledge in its day.)
He used to go in seclusion in the cave of ir where he used to worship continuously for many days before his
desire to see his family. He used to take with him the journey food for the stay and then come back to Khadija
to take his food likewise again till suddenly the Truth descended upon him while he was in the cave of ir.293
I was in the company of the

Prophet in the cave, and on
seeing the carvings of the pa-
gans, I said, O Allahs Apos-
tle! If one of them (pagans)
should life up his foot, he will
see us. He said, What do
you think of two (gods),the
third of whom is Allah?294
Note that there were pagan

images on the walls of the
Above: The cave of ira is under some fallen slabs of rock about half ir cave. Today there is
way to the top ira Mountain. (Jebal Nour) no evidence that there ever
where any pagan images
there. On the next page you can see these carvings on the walls of the cave of ir in Petra.
So what does taannuth mean? It literally means to break ones oath or commit a sin, but when it is used
in the 5th form it becomes taannath or the reflexive of anath. It would seem that people went to the
cave of ir to avoid committing sins similar to monks of that period seeking asceticism. Wagtendonk and
others suggest it includes feeding people passing by.295
The cave near Mecca is very narrow, less than 2 meters wide at its widest, while most of the flooring is
about meters wide. The cave is situated at a height of 270 m (890 ft) taking about 1,200 steps to reach
from the foot of the mountain. It is hardly likely there would be people passing by. The mountain itself is
640 meters tall, so the cave is about half way in an area of loose rocks.
There are a couple of issues that should be considered. Both Ibn Hishm and Ibn Isq clearly call Mount
292 Ibn Hishm 51, page 92
293 Bukhri 1:3
294 Bukhri 6:186. Note Bukhri 6:187 gives an alternative account of the cave story, in which the
Angel Gabriel does not appear to Muammad. He only hears a voice calling him. (See 6:444)
295 Wagtendonk, K., Fasting in the Koran, Brill, 1968, pg 35
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Dan Gibson
ir a mountain located in the upper region of Mecca. The area around Mecca is basically flat with a
series of large rocks rising from the ground. The term upper part of Mecca doesnt really fit.
Both Ibn Hishm and Ibn Isq tell us that after receiving the revelation, Muammad decided he was go-
ing crazy, so he started to climb the mountain above the cave to throw himself off.296 Midway up Jebal
ir the angel confronted him again. Even though the messengers of Khadja were searching for him
below (all through the high ground of Mecca, they did not see him. The story then continues: ...when
I was midway on the mountain, I heard a voice from heaven... If the cave is half way up the mountain,
what does the term midway on the mountain mean? If the cave was lower down, then this would make
more sense. There is nothing in the narratives to give us any indication that the cave was high up the
mountain side. If it was, as you can see in the photo, then Muammad could have thrown himself off
without climbing any higher.
Now lets turn to Petra. If all of the early Qiblas pointed to this city, then there should be a cave outside
of the city that fits all of these descriptions. While it is difficult to imagine this scenario being played out
in Meccas geography, there are a number of caves in Petra facing the valley that fit this description. I
believe there is one cave that fits very well.
During my years of exploring the area around Petra, there was one place that particularly impressed me.
North of the famous siq crack through the rock is a smaller siq that is an active watercourse for part of
the year. At one place the water used to swirl around a bend, and here it carved out a small cave. Down
through the years people visited this cave and carved many god blocks, niches and even a crescent onto
the cave walls. In this place there is a raised stone bed where a person could sleep. The cave opening is
only a dozen or so feet away, and an ancient walking path went past the entrance of the cave. It would be
an excellent place for a person to practice asceticism as well as being located in a place where they could
feed pilgrims passing by.
Above: Inside the Petra cave there is indication that the area was long venerated. The two gods of Bukhri
6:186 can clearly be identified in the niche in the center of the photo on the right.
296 Ibn Hishm 51, Ibn Isq 1150 page 106

217
Above left: One of the oldest known crescent sym- Above right: The entrance of the cave is down this
bols is promenent in this cave. narrow canyon, which is still an active watercourse.
Tourists are advised to stay away, especially in rainy
season. Rain can fall miles away, and rush down this
canyon onto the unsuspecting.
In the ancient records, there were multiple caves around ancient Mecca, such as Abu Bakrs cave on Jebal
Thaur, a mountain below Mecca, which cannot be identified today.297
Conclusion
The twenty five arguments presented in this chapter are intended to support the proposal that the city of
Petra was the original Holy City of Islam. These arguments are intended to supplement the archeological
evidence given in the first chapter, rather than stand alone. When taken together with the archeological
evidence of early mosque qiblas, there seems to be no question that the original Qibla faced towards Pe-
tra, and that Petra is indeed the place where the original Masjid al-arm was located, the original Holy
City of Islam where the prophet Muammad was born, and where the first four rightly guided caliphs
worshiped.
297 See Bukhri 5:245
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Dan Gibson
More Supporting Evidence
26. The Mother of All Cities
This is a term which brings to mind either a large and impressive city or a city of great antiquity. The
Qurn clearly refers to Mecca as the Mother of All Cities:
And this is a book which we have revealed bringing blessings and confirming (the revelations) which came
before it: that thou mayest warn the Mother of Cities (Mecca) and all around her. Those who believe in the
hereafter believe in this (book) and they are constant in guarding their prayers.298
The term mother of all cities (Umm al-Qura) is still used for Mecca today299 and Muslim scholars try to point
out that it is worthy of this description:
Additionally, some modern scientists say that the city of Makkah is the center of earth in terms of gravity.
Makkah also falls at the ratio of phi (the mathematical golden ratio) between the north and south poles. The
above are scientific theories that are not mentioned in the Islamic scripts. However, what is mentioned is that
Makkah is the mother of all cities.300
In 2002, I had the opportunity to visit the Second Conference on Nabataean Studies held in Petra, Jor-
dan, and organized by the Al Hussein Bin Talal University. During the conference I had occasion to speak
with several leading Jordanian and Saudi archeologists. I asked them specifically about the archeological
record in and around Mecca. While not wishing to be quoted or named publicly, they admitted that the
archeological record at Mecca was basically non-existent before 900 CE. I had expected them to defend
the opinion that ancient Mecca was a walled city
with houses, gardens, public buildings and tem-
ples. They shook their heads and said, There was
nothing like that there.
When construction began on the Abraj Al-Bait

complex of seven skyscrapers in Mecca in 2004,
there was a stir of interest in the archeological
community, wondering what the construction
might reveal about the ruins under Mecca. In the
end, the only ruins that were disturbed was that
of the 18th-century Ottoman Ajyad Fortress. Truly
there was no great city under Mecca.
298 Sra 6:92 (Ysuf Al)
299 Serageldin, I. Shluger, E. and Martin-Brown, J., 2001, pg 8
300 http://www.readingislam.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=12569097077 56&pagename=IslamOnline-

English-AAbout_Islam%2FAskAboutIslamE% 2FAskAboutIslamE - Retrieved September, 2011
219
27. Described as the center of the trade route
There are numerous occasions where caravans are mentioned as originating from the Holy City, and in-
deed Muammads uncle Ab lib was a merchant who regularly sent caravans on trading missions.301
Later, Muammad married Khadja, who also managed caravans of camels.302 Still later when living in
Medina, Muammad would raid Meccan caravans, some which consisted of as many as three thousand
men.303 While Muslims are adamant that Mecca was the center of the trade route, modern historians give
us a different picture. Dr. Patricia Crone tells us:
Mecca was a barren place, and barren places do not make natural halts, and least of all when they are
found at a short distance from famously green environments. Why should caravans have made a steep de-
scent to the barren lands of Mecca when they could have stopped at Tif? Mecca did, of course, have both
a well and a sanctuary, but so did Tif, which had food supplies, too.304
Furthermore, Dr. Crone asks,
What commodity was available in Arabia that could be transported such a distance, through such an inhos-
pitable environment, and still be sold at a profit large enough to support the growth of a city in a peripheral
site bereft of natural resources?305
Many people have imagined that the caravans carried incense, spices, and other exotic goods, but accord-
ing to research by Kister and Sprenger, the age of frankincense was over and the Arabs now engaged in
a trade of leather and clothing - hardly items which could have founded a commercial empire of interna-
tional dimensions.306
There was one major trade route traveling north-south along the mountains of Arabia. This trade route
connected the incense growing areas with the Mediterranean civilizations. While this route was important
for thousands of years, but the time of Muammad, maritime routes had the upper hand. At the same time,
the use of incense had fallen to an all time low. However, even when considering the north-south trade
route at its height, the center of the trade route does not describe Mecca as it was not even a stopping
place on the caravan route. See the map on the next page.
301 Isq, page 79
302 Isq 119, page 82
304 Crone, 1987 page 6-7; Crone-Cook, 1977, page 22
305 Crone, 1987, Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, page 7
306 Kister 1965, page 116; Sprenger, 1869, page 94 addressing abar 7:19
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Dan Gibson
Left: The city of Mecca

is south of the city of
Medina, and was never
part of the major trade
networks in Arabia. On
the other hand, the city
of Petra was known for
its major role in conduct-
ing trade throughout
Arabia.
Below: A worn camel

caravan carving in the
siq at Petra.
28. Mecca missing on early maps
One would expect that a major merchant city in Arabia would be mentioned on early maps. Such maps
never claimed to show every village and settlement, but certainly sought to place significant and famous
cities. Surprising as it may seem, not one map before 900 CE even mentions Mecca. This is 300 years after
Muammads death.
Over the years I have gathered copies of many ancient maps of Arabia and have diligently translated
and transcribed them, but never once did I find Mecca mentioned on an early map. Muslims often quote
Ptolomys map of Arabia claiming that Macoraba is actually Mecca. However, their only supporting argu-
ments are that the name starts with M and that it is located in central Arabia. In 2013, I carefully plot-
ted Ptolomys map using his four river coordinates and known city locations, and then compared these
with modern maps of Arabia. Macoraba became Al-Mahabishah in northern Yemen, and was not close to
Mecca. You can find this paper freely available on the Internet at various locations.307
It is clear that Mecca is never shown on a map, and indeed the mention of Mecca does not appear in any
literature prior to 740 CE (approximately 122 years after the Hijra) when it first appears in the Continu-
atio Byzantia Arabica.
307 Gibson, Suggested Solutions for Issues Concerning The Location of Mecca in Ptolemys Geography, avail-
able at http://stpt.ca/islam.html
221
29. The Holy City produced large armies
Apparently Mecca had no trouble in raising large numbers of men to work large caravans and march in
their armies. The following chart is information gleaned from al-abars History:
Source Year AH Event Size of Meccan Army

Al-abar 7I, pg 13 Year 1 Expedition to al-Abwa 300 Meccan horsemen
Al-abar 7, pg 15 Year 2 Raid on Meccan caravan 100 Meccan men, 2,500 camels in caravan
Al-abar 7, pg 90 Year 2 Expedition of al-Sawiq 200 Meccan soldiers
Al-abar 7, pg 98 Year 3 Expedition to al-Qaradah 20,000 dirham captured from caravan
Al-abar, 7 pg 110 Year 3 Expedition to Uud 3000 Meccan soldiers, 200 cavalry
Al-abar 8, pg 13 Year 5 Battle of the Trench 10,000 Quraysh soldiers
When one considers the number of soldiers and camels that the Meccans could raise despite their losses
in battles year after year, one would expect Mecca to be a very large city. However, archeological evi-
dence points to Mecca being a small place in a harsh environment. How then could it have produced such
armies?
30. There is scarce rainfall in Mecca
Mecca averages 4.3 inches of rain per year (11 cm). With its high desert temperatures and barren condi-
tions, this is scarcely enough to grow any vegetation at all, let alone grow enough food to support a large
population.308 It is hard to imagine a large city, able to produce ten thousand soldiers surviving in this
harsh environment, without leaving behind some evidence of large scale waterworks, aqueducts and ir-
rigation. Petra on the other hand has adequate rainfall for crops, as well as evidence of large scale water-
works, aqueducts and irrigation.309
31. The original Holy City had grapes growing in it
By Allh, I never saw a prisoner better than Khubaib. By Allh, one day I saw him eating of a bunch of
grapes in his hand while he was chained in irons, and this was not the time of fruit in Mecca.310
Here we have reference to ancient Mecca having a time of fruit harvest, as well as grapes growing in and
around it. Once again, it is hard to imagine this happening where Mecca is located today. Based on the
average rainfall in the Mecca area, and paleoclimate records, there was insufficient moisture for grapes to
grow in the Mecca area even during the time of Muammad.
308 http://jrcc.sa/reports_files/1985_2010Reports/Jeddah.RTF Climate Data for Saudi Arabia, Jeddah

Regional Climate Center. Retrieved October 29, 2015.
309 Ortloff, C.R. (2005) The Water Supply and Distribution System of the Nabataean City of Petra
(Jordan), 300 BCE AS 300, Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 15(1), pp. 93109
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Dan Gibson
32. The original Holy City had trees
Once when I was with the Prophet in Mecca and we went out into one of its districts in the neighbourhood,
not a mountain or tree which confronted him failed to say, Peace be upon you, Messenger of Allh. Tir-
midhi and Darimi transmitted it.311
This is an interesting reference to both districts of Mecca and trees. The ancient village of Mecca left
a very small archeological footprint and didnt have much for districts, let alone trees. This is reinforced
by Ibn Hishm: When they came to Mecca they saw a town blessed with water and trees and delighted with it,
they settled there.312
Ibn Isq mentions trees again a little later when he tells us that the people of Mecca were reluctant to cut
down trees in the sacred area.313 The presence of trees and plants in ancient times can be easily tested by
the presence of spores and pollens in undisturbed ancient soil.314
33. Grass grew in the original Holy City valley
(Muammad) would go forth for his affairs and journey far afield until he reached the glens of Mecca
and the beds of its valleys where no house was in sight.315
One night, the Prophet was unable to sleep and said, Would that a righteous man from my companions
guarded me tonight. Suddenly we heard the clatter of arms, whereupon the Prophet said, Who is it? It
was said, I am Sad, O Allhs Apostle! I have come to guard you. The Prophet then slept so soundly that
we heard him snoring. According to Ab Abdullh: isha said that Bilal said, Would that I but stayed
overnight in a valley with Idhkhir and Jalil (two kinds of grass) around me (i.e., in Mecca). Then I told
that to the Prophet.316
It is hard to believe that this was written about the Mecca we know today, as the area around Mecca is
completely desert sand where no grass grows naturally, nor is there any evidence that the area was ever
irrigated and able to support grass and fields in the past.
34. The origins of the Black Stone
The physical properties of the Black Stone were described in the 19th and early 20th centuries by Euro-
311 a al-Tirmidhi adth 1535
312 Guillaume, 2006, pg 46 and 72, Ibn Hishm 23
313 Guillaume, 2006, pg 53
314 Abdel Khalik, Kadry Species richness of the catchment area of Al-Baha region, Saudi Arabia, Bo-
thalia Journal, May 2015, plus various studies by Dr. Kadry of the Umm Al-Qura University, Mecca
315 Isq 151, pg 105, and Ibn Hishm 51
223
pean travelers in Arabia who visited the Kaba in the guise of pilgrims. The Swiss traveler Johann Ludwig
Burckhardt, who visited Mecca around 1815 disguised as a pilgrim, provided a detailed description in his
1829 book Travels in Arabia.317
It is an irregular oval, about seven inches in diameter, with an undulating surface, composed of about a
dozen smaller stones of different sizes and shapes, well joined together with a small quantity of cement, and
perfectly well smoothed; it looks as if the whole had been broken into as many pieces by a violent blow, and
then united again. It is very difficult to determine accurately the quality of this stone which has been worn
to its present surface by the millions of touches and kisses it has received. It appeared to me like a lava,
containing several small extraneous particles of a whitish and of a yellow substance. Its colour is now a deep
reddish brown approaching to black. It is surrounded on all sides by a border composed of a substance which
I took to be a close cement of pitch and gravel of a similar, but not quite the same, brownish colour. This
border serves to support its detached pieces; it is two or three inches in breadth, and rises a little above the
surface of the stone. Both the border and the stone itself are encircled by a silver band, broader below than
above, and on the two sides, with a considerable swelling below, as if a part of the stone were hidden under
it. The lower part of the border is studded with silver nails.
The Black Stone has also been described as an agate, a piece of natural glass or most popularly, as a stony
meteorite. It is evidently a hard rock, having survived so much handling over the years. A significant clue
to its nature is provided by an account of the stones recovery from the Qarmatians.318
In 930 CE, the Qarmatians attacked Mecca during the pilgrimage season insisting that it was not the cor-
rect Qibla. They killed many residents and pilgrims, and removed the Black Stone. It is believed that the
stone was taken to Bahrain. Over 20 years later, it was eventually returned to Mecca, this time broken
into several pieces. A test was performed to prove that it was not a clever forgery. The stone floated in
water, which many Muslims took to be a miracle, however this is very common for black pumice stone.319
It has been suggested that the Black Stone may be a glass frag-
ment from the impact of a fragmented meteorite some 6,000
years ago at Wabar crater in the Rub al Khali Desert (Empty
Quarter) some 1,000 km east of Mecca. The craters there are
Left and below: During its history the black stone was broken into
eight parts. Today pilgrims may touch or kiss the pieces, which are
held together in mortar surrounded by a sliver casing.
317 Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia, page 137
318 al-Nadm, Fehrest, pp. 186f. See also page 272
319 http://www.irfi.org/articles4/articles_5001_6000/Al-hajr%20aswad.htm
224
Dan Gibson
noted for their blocks of silica glass, fused by the heat of the impact and
impregnated by beads of nickel-iron alloy from the meteorite (most of
which was destroyed in the impact). Some of the glass blocks consist
of shiny black glass with light colored interiors and gas-filled hollows,
which allows them to float on water. However, recent dating of meteor-
ite remains from the Wabar crater date the event at less than 260 years
ago.320
Is it possible to connect the Black Stone with the Nabataeans of Pe-

tra? From ancient time, the Nabataeans have venerated special rocks.
It is thought that the worship of rocks has to do with Dushara the god
of mountains, or specifically the Edomite mountains around Petra.
Throughout these mountains it is possible to view god-rocks. Usually
they are in the form of a square block, although there are also triangles.
As the Nabataeans and Edomites were both descendants of Abraham

they had a monotheistic background and were reluctant to put human
characteristics onto gods, although in later years they did add faces
to some of their god-blocks. (left) Usually the god-rocks were simply
large square blocks of stone or square block shapes carved in a niche.
It is possible to see many of these around the city of Petra.
Maximus of Tyre in his book Philosophoumena in the 2nd century CE

recorded: The Arabs serve I know not whom, but I saw this statue
which was a square stone.321
The Suda Lexicon, which was compiled at the end of the tenth century,
refers to older sources which have since been lost. It states: Namely the
god [theos] Ares, is in Petra in Arabia. The god Ares is revered amongst
them; for this one they especially honor. The statue is a black stone, square
in shape, unchiseled, four feet tall, two wide: it is mounted on a plinth of beaten gold. To this [deity] they pour
forth the blood of the sacrificial animals on this; and this is their libation. And the whole house is rich in gold,
and [contains] many votive offerings.322
Was this the same black stone? The stone in Mecca today was smashed to pieces during the Qarmatian
rebellion, so perhaps only pieces of it were returned to Mecca. While we will never know for sure, this
does confirm that the early Arabs in Petra worshiped black stones, recognizing that deities should be rep-
resented by a geographical shape and not human or animal form.
320 Prescott, page 109, Dating of the Wabar meteorite craters, Saudi Arabia
321 Trapp, M. (1997) Maximus of Tyre
322 Oleson, 1995
225
35. Cartographic evidence
The science of mapmaking goes far back into history, farther back than the time of Muammad. Thus, by
550 CE maps of the Middle East and the Mediterranean Sea had become more and more useful. To the
modern reader, however, some of these maps are diffi
cult to make out. First, many maps were not oriented
with the top of the map being north. Many early Christian maps were oriented towards the east, where
Christ would return. Thus the English word orientation came from eastern oriented maps, or towards
the orient.323 The Nuzi map from the age of Sargon of Akkad (2300 BCE) in northern Iraq uses the north,
south, east and west winds as coordinates, with east at the top and north on the left.
Ptolemys map
As mentioned earlier, Ptolemys description of Arabia contains no reference to Mecca. It is as if it never

existed. Indeed, in his day, it probably didnt exist. If you examine the map below, Mecca does not exist,
but Arabia Petraea is clearly written across the top of Arabia.
323 Wilford, 1982, The MapMakers, page 9
226
Dan Gibson
The Madaba map
Another early map is the famous Madaba map found under the fl oor of the early Byzantine church of Saint
George in the city of Madaba, Jordan. Only 25 square meters of the original map are preserved.
The map contains a total of 156 locations or memoirs, and is comparable with the well known treatise
on biblical places written in Greek about 395 CE by Eusebius of Caesarea, and translated into Latin by
Jerome around 490 CE.
The Madaba Map on the next page is dated between 542 and 570 CE (by dating the buildings depicted in
Jerusalem). Under Umayyad ruler Yazd II, Muslim zealots removed many of the pictures in the church
and damaged the map. The church was abandoned in 746 CE (128 AH) when an earthquake brought
down the building, preserving the remains of the map under rubble.
The map was rediscovered in 1894, during the construction of a new

church on the site. The preservation of this map under rubble since
128 AH provides us with a clue about which parts of the map the
zealots destroyed. The map faces east, so imagine you are in the
middle of the Mediterranean Sea looking east as in the satellite photo
to the right.
Notice that Lots cave in Zoar is present and the mountains up to

Kerak are present, but the area where Petra would have been, right
227
above Kerak is demolished. Damascus is removed, which would have been on the far left. The Negev,
homeland to the Nabataeans, is also erased. Was this just random vandalism or were the Muslims offended
or trying to obliterate something when they removed parts of the map?
Yazd II made an edict against images324 around 740 CE, during the time of confusion when mosques
pointed to both Petra and Mecca. It may be that angry Muslims entered churches and demanded the an-
cient mosaics be either covered over or removed. Many churches chose to overlay their floors with new
patterned mosaics rather than destroy the beautiful images of people and animals.
This action preserved the original floors of many churches for us today. Some of these floor mosaics are
on display in the ancient town of Madaba. However, it appears that the Madaba map was destined for
destruction, particularly the area that showed the location of Petra.
36. The Abbasid Writers
After the Hijra, Muammad and his followers began to use Medina as their capital city. In many ways,
Islam did not exist until it came into being in Medina. Before that, Islam was simply a series of revelations
given to Muammad.
In Medina, Islam became a reality as the new Islamic customs and laws were implemented. Islam is
more than a personal faith; it is a way of life for a Muslim community. This is why Muslims around the
world rightly refer to the year of the Hijra as Year One of the Islamic calendar. For western people this
is sometimes hard to comprehend, for they consider faith to be an individual thing, while Muslims see
faith as a community.325 Medina then became the center of the Muslim empire until the Umayyad caliphs
established their rule from Damascus. This rule continued until the Abbsids wrestled control from the
Umayyad caliphs, and the center of power was transferred to Iraq. As a result, early Muslim historians
frequently mention the cities of Medina and Damascus, while the city of Mecca is hardly mentioned at all.
Once the Abbsids were firmly entrenched and their rule secure, they set about unifying their empire by
solidifying the various conflicting political, military and religious elements, bringing them all firmly under
their control. Since almost all Islamic history is written after this time of Abbsid solidification, one has
to read carefully to understand what took place earlier, and why it happened. There is no argument that
under Abbsid rule massive religious, scientific and academic projects were undertaken. The Abbsid rul-
ers encouraged scholarly development that would not only present the early years of Islam in a good light,
but would also confirm their own right to ruling the empire.
It is during this period of time that the great Islamic historians wrote their treatises on Islamic history.
Today we can categorize these writers into various groups including those that gathered adths, those
that wrote histories, those that compiled works of literature and others who wrote scientific treatises. It
is interesting that 200 years after the Hijra, Islamic scholars were classified into two groups; the Tra-
324 Hoyland, 1977, page 414 footnote 88 and page 596, footnote 14
325 Sura 3:110
228
Dan Gibson
ditionalists (muaddithn) and the reformers or Jurists. (fuqah). Ibn Hishm, who was a very active
early reformer, refers to traditionists twenty four times in his notes attached to Ibn Isqs biography of
Muammad, Srat Rasl Allh.
Unfortunately we do not have Ibn Isqs original book, as Ibn Hishm unabashedly edited and corrected
what he called grievous errors in the earlier book. It is also interesting to note that when editing the
first 130 pages of Srat Rasl Allh which cover the events before Muammads life, Ibn Hishm never
mentions the traditionalists. It is only when dealing with the actual life of Muammad that Ibn Hishm
begins to refer to the views of the traditionalists.
Sixty-five years after Ibn Hishm, Ab anfa presented a more modern understanding of Traditionalists
(muaddithn) and the Jurists (fuqah) in his book Al-Fiqh al-Akbar around 896 CE (283 AH).326 This was
a very tumultuous time as the Qarmatian rebellion was at its height.327 This revolt happened when the
people of the central Arabian Peninsula rose up and protested that Mecca was not the correct Holy City,
forcibly keeping pilgrims from worshiping at Mecca. In modern times, the term traditionalist most often
describes orthodox Sunni Islam as distinguished from Salafism and Islamism.
After Ibn Hishm, the rest of the great Islamic historians present us with an Islamic history that was tai-
lored to suit the political and religious worldview of the Abbsid rulers of their day. While Ibn Hishm
used the authority of Ibn Isq for his writings, later writers relied on a list of people who passed on
the knowledge to others, who passed it on to others. This chain of narrators became known as the isnd
(supporters). Thus, isnd consisted of a chronological list of the narrators, each mentioning the one from
whom they heard the adth, until mentioning the originator of the report along with the report (matn)
itself. All of the reports and sayings of early Islam were then judged by their isnd and classified as be-
ing strong or weak, depending on the completeness of the chain of narrators and the presence of Islamic
authorities among the chain.
Some of these historians gathered many traditions or reports. ai-Bukhr is said to have collected over
300,000 adth, but then he eliminated all but 2,602 which he claimed were the only true and trustworthy
ones. It is unfortunate that these historians, including al-Bukhr, collected their reports 250 years after
the fact, and much of their choosing was based on the religious teachings of their day. Because so many
of the earlier reports were then destroyed, we have no way of studying the earlier ones for ourselves.
Today, this would be similar to trying to write the history of the American War of Independence (1775-
1783) based solely on the hearsay of people alive today, who heard something from their father or grand-
father, who heard it from their father or grandfather and so on, back to the actual event. Imagine writing
a history with few early references, and using as your major authority the stories that have been passed
down from one generation to the other.
At least Ibn Hishm admits that there were traditionalists who viewed things differently than the popular
opinions of the day. However, I doubt that we will ever be able to understand all of the conflicting opin-
ions that existed in Ibn Hishms day.
326 Maghnisawi, 2007, Imm Ab anfas Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar Explained
327 See Qarmatian rebellion page 272

229
37. Literary vacuum
It is my belief that there was also a literary vacuum in the early Muslim empire created by zealous Muslims
who destroyed books and manuscripts, erased inscriptions, burned libraries and destroyed all literature
except Islamic writings, most of which were bits and pieces of what people remembered of the revelations
that Muammad gave. The destruction of written materials by the Islamic forces has been well document-
ed over the last two centuries, but western historians have been reluctant to attribute the Muslim armies
with such actions. Edward Gibbon comments in his book The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire that
if indeed the Muslim caliphs ordered the burning of libraries the fact indeed is marvelous.328 Gibbons
source was the Specimen Historiae Arubum of Gregory Abulpharagius, a thirteenth-century Jewish doctor
known as Bar Hebraeus, translated in a seventeenth-century Latin book (1649) by Edward Pococke. Gib-
bon protested that the solitary report of a stranger who wrote at the end of six hundred years on the confines
of Media is overbalanced by the silence of two annalists of a more early date, both Christians, both natives of
Egypt, and the more ancient of whome, the patriarch Eutychius [AD 876-940] has amply described the conquest
of Alexandria.329
Gibbons comments concerned an alleged letter from Caliph Umar to Amrou, the leader of the Muslim
armies in Alexandria, who had asked the caliph what to do with the thousands of manuscripts that he
found in warehouses in Egypt. Here is the caliphs reply:
As for the books you mention, here is my reply. If their content is in accordance with the book of Allh,
we may do without them, for in that case the book of Allh more than suffices. If, on the other hand, they
contain matter not in accordance with the book of Allh, there can be no need to preserve them. Proceed
then and destroy them.
However Muslim writers also refer to this event. The Muslim writer Ibn al-Qifti (1172-1248) tells us that
the books were distributed to the public baths of Alexandria where they were used to feed the stoves
which kept the baths comfortably warm. Ibn al-Qifti writes that the number of baths was well known but
I have forgotten it. They say, that it took six months to burn all that mass of material.330 Eutychius tells
us that there were four thousand baths that received books from the Alexandrian library.331
Another record of the exchange between the Muslim General Amrou and the Egyptian patriarch can be
found in Patrologia Orientalis.332
328 Gibbon,1838, page 452, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
329 Gibbon, 1838
330 Trkh al-ukam (Chronicle of Wise Men) Al ibn Yusaf al-Qifti, Ikhbar al-Ulama bi Akhbar al
ukam, Edited by Julius Lippert, Leipzig, 1903) (Mones & Parsons, pages 389-392
331 Alter, 1658, Arabic/Latin, and Pococke & Selden, 1654, page 316
332 Volume I, 1903, pages 494 498) A further Syriac manuscript (Add. MS 17193) also attests to this,
and was published with commentary in the Journal Asiatique, March- April 1915. (Series 11, Volume 5,
pages 225-279)
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Dan Gibson
An excellent compilation on the destruction of the books in Alexandria can be found in Luciano Canforas
book The Vanished Library, A Wonder of the Ancient World.333
This burning of books, however, did not start in Egypt, but was begun in Persia. Caliph Umars armies met
with the Persian armies in the battle of Qadisiyyah in 14 AH. When the battle was finished, thousands lay
dead on each side. The Muslims however, leapt upon the riches that had been left behind.
Al-abar334 tells us, The spoils and the wealth were gathered; a quantity such as this had never been
gathered, neither before al-Qadisiyyah nor after it.
From Qadisiyyah the Muslim armies, numbering 15,000 and led by Saad, marched against the city of Cte-
siphon, the capital of the Sassanian Empire. In early January 637 CE, the Muslim advance guard reached
the outskirts of Ctesiphon and laid siege to the city for two months. Eventually the city fell, and the Mus-
lims occupied it. During the fighting, the palaces and the Zoroastrian library at Ctesiphon were burned.335
Another example of book burning can be seen when the Muslim invaders reached India some years later.
The library of Nland was the most renowned repository of Buddhist knowledge in the world at the
time. Its collection was said to comprise hundreds of thousands of volumes, so extensive that it burned for
months when set aflame by Muslim invaders. The library had three main buildings as high as nine stories
tall. The story of this destruction (1198 CE) was told in 1243 by an eye-witness to the Persian historian
Minhaz. In his book Tabaquat-I-Niri, he reported that most of the inhabitants of the place were Brah-
mans with shaven heads. They were put to death. Large numbers of books were found there, and when
the Muslims saw them, they called for some person to explain the contents. But all of the learned men
had been killed. When it was discovered that the whole fort and city was a place for study (Nland Uni-
versity) the remaining monks were burned alive or beheaded, and the burning of the library of Nland
continued for several months.336
Even Christian churches were to suffer damage. The Edict of Yazd, issued by the Umayyad caliph Yazd
II in 722-723 CE ordered the destruction of crosses and Christian images within the territory of the ca-
liphate. In present-day Jordan there is ample archaeological evidence that images from the mosaic floors
of some, although not all, of the churches that stood at this time were removed.337 One can only surmise
that the city of Petra is today bereft of all inscriptions because of the actions of zealous Muslims during
Yazds reign.
In the end, the only book to survive in Arabia was the Qurn. However, even here historians have
struggled. It seems that most of the Qurn was retained in oral fashion rather than written form. While
333 Canfora, L. (1990). The Vanished Library, A wonder of the ancient world (2nd ed.). Berkley: University
of California Press
335 Kroger, 1993, Ctesiphon
336 Dutt, 1996, Part V, 3, Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India
337 Grabar, 1984, page 155-156, Liconoclasme byzantin: le dossier archologique
231
the Arabs were great memorizers and had the ability to retain the entirety of the Qurn, the retention
of materials in an oral tradition suffers from two difficulties. First, the accuracy of the memories of the
individuals involved must be perfect. In the case of the Qurn, arguments arose over various verses, how
they should be rendered, and if they should or should not be included in the whole.
Second, the problem of transferring knowledge from the learned to the novice is often a difficult step. In
the case of the Qurn, most of the men who had memorized the sayings of Muammad were also warriors.
As is often the case, warriors die in battle, and their knowledge of the Qurn perished with them. This is
amply illustrated in the Battle of Yamama when an estimated 450 men who had memorized the Qurn
were killed.338
Al-Bukhr tells us:339

Hudhaifa bin Al-Yaman came to Uthmn at the time when the people of Sham and the people of Iraq were
waging war to conquer Arminya and Adharbijan. Hudhaifa was afraid of their (the people of Sham and
Iraq) differences in the recitation of the Qurn, so he said to Uthmn, O chief of the believers! Save this
nation before they differ about the book (Qurn) as Jews and the Christians did before. So Uthmn sent a
message to afa saying, Send us the manuscripts of the Qurn so that we may compile the Qurnic ma-
terials in perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you. afa sent it to Uthmn. Uthmn then ordered
Zaid bin Thbit, Abdullh bin Az-Zubair, Sad bin al- and Abdu-r-Ramn bin rith bin ishm to
rewrite the manuscripts in perfect copies. Uthmn said to the three Quraishi men, In case you disagree with
Zaid bin Thbit on any point in the Qurn, then write it in the dialect of Quraish, the Qurn was revealed
in their tongue. They did so, and when they had written many copies, Uthmn returned the original manu-
scripts to afa. Uthmn sent to every Muslim province one copy of what they had copied, and ordered
that all the other Qurnic materials, whether written in fragmentary manuscripts or whole copies, be burnt.
Sad bin Thbit added, A verse from Srat Ahzab was missed by me when we copied the Qurn and I used
to hear Allhs apostle reciting it. So we searched for it and found it with Khuzaima bin Thbit Al-Anar.
(That verse was): Among the believers are men who have been true in their covenant with Allh.
Eventually a more or less complete copy of the Qurn was assembled. But there were some who felt that
more verses should have been included.
Al-Bukhr reports to us that these few copies were not duplicated, but remained with the caliphs.
The manuscript on which the Qurn was collected, remained with Ab Bakr till Allh took him unto him,
and then with Umar till Allh took him unto him, and finally it remained with afa, Umars daughter.340
This means that during the life of Caliph Umar, only five or six copies of the complete Qurn existed in
all of Arabia.
The problem that resulted was a dearth of copies of the Qurn in the Umayyad period. On the next page
is a chart that illustrates the number of known copies of the early Qurn that survived to this date. These
338 a Al-Bukhr adth 6.201 & 9.301
339 Bukhr s Volume 6, Book 61, Number 510, 33.23
340 a Al-Bukhr, Volume 6, Book 60, Number 201
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are then compared with the early surviving copies of the New Testament, simply so we can compare the
number of copies of other early religious writings that were in existence over a period of time.
The transmission of the New Testament can be compared with the transmission of the Qurn. The ample
evidence of early Biblical manuscripts and the low degree of error between them is significant, but miss-
ing in regards to the Qurn. While the Qurn is a truly ancient manuscript, the question has to be asked,
is it what Muslim clerics claim: an unadulterated copy of the original given to Muammad? Or was it
changed or molded in some way by the political forces that followed Muammad?
As this chart demonstrates, there was a literary vacuum in Arabia during the first 200 years of Islam. Very
few copies of the Qurn were in existence, in fact Crone and Cook state, There is no hard evidence for
the existence of the Koran in any form before the last decade of the seventh century, ...341 Furthermore
they suggest that in the 2nd century of Hijra the textual state of the Qurn, may have differed con-
siderably in content from the Koran we now know. This is also the view of Wansbrough who thought the
canonization of the Qurn was not completed until the 2nd or 3rd century AH at the earliest.342
The Abbsid writers had few if any documents to oppose them. Most of the Quraysh tribe who were
knowledgeable about the early days had long since died, or now lived on the fringes of the empire. Any
old Qurns in existence could be fully accepted, and the owners convinced that what they had was only
a partial Qurn. The Abbsids could publish full versions of the Qurn that contained all of the verses,
including the ones about the change of qibla. In this way, older versions of the Qurn would still be re-
vered, but the newer versions would have the added verses, such as Sra 2.143-145 which tells us that
the qibla was changed.
Comparison Era Islamic period The Qurn New Testament

First 70 years Four Rightly Guided Five or six reported copies (Ab A handful of fragments
Caliphs Bakrs) which did not survive, survive the first 70 years.
plus some scattered fragments
survive.
70 150 years The Umayyads Approximately 30 manuscripts More than 630 copies af-
survive, none of them complete. ter 150 years.
150 300 years The first Abbsid Many fragments and some manu- More than 5,600 copies
rulers scripts including some from the after 300 years.
an manuscripts, none of them
complete.
300 -- 500 years The Abbsid writers. Dozens of copies, a few of them More than 13,000 copies
complete. after 500 years.
See: http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Text/Mss/hijazi.html, which provides detailed information

about which verses appear in which Qurns. None of the early Qurns were complete like present day copies.
341 Crone, 1977, page 3
342 Wansbrough, 2004, page 49-52, Quranic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation.
233
I did not place the above chart in this chapter to belittle any documents, but to simply demonstrate that
compared to the Qurn, there were far more copies of the Gospels in circulation during the first one
hundred and fifty years of Islam. I say this to demonstrate that there was indeed a literary vacuum at this
time. Many of the warriors had died in battle, and the mass production of Qurns under the Abbsids had
not yet begun. It was during this time that Ibn al-Zubayr managed to move Masjid al-arm into Saudi
Arabia, while the rest of the Islamic world was completely distracted by external wars as well as civil wars
and uprisings.
38. The Abbsid historians
In the book Qurnic Geography, Appendix A includes some of the major Islamic historians and their dates,
demonstrating how many years lay between them and the early events that they wrote about. While it is
difficult to tell who the creative writers of history were, I have selected four Islamic writers who I believe
typify the progression of Islamic thought from 200 CE onward. They were chosen because they are respon-
sible for the bulk of Islamic history that has come down to us today.
1. Ibn Hishm begins the practice of editing past writings
Hishm ibn Abd al Malik was born in Bara, Iraq and died in Fus, Egypt, either in 218 AH or some time
later. Known as Ibn Hishm, he became an Arabic philologist combining linguistics and literary skills in
his work. Unfortunately for us, it appears that he meddled with previously written Arabian histories, edit-
ing them so that they fit into the political and religious views of his time. Since all copies of the earlier
works have been destroyed, we now only have Ibn Hishms edited version of the earlier work. This is
unfortunate, as it means that the very earliest Islamic writings now date nearly 200 years after the death
of Muammad and are known to be edited by a later writer. This is documented by his list of notes at the
end of Srat Rasl Allh in which he lists some of the changes that he made to the original document.
2. Al-Bukhr choosing accounts appropriate to current worldview
Muammad ibn Isml al-Bukhr (810 - 870 CE) is the author of the best known of the six canonical
adth collections of Islam (Sunni). These traditions, or adth, were called a al-Bukhr and most
Sunni Muslims view this as their most trusted collection of adth, and it is considered the most authentic
book after the Qurn.
Early on in Bukhrs life, his teacher, Isq ibn Ibrhm al-Hanthal, better known as Ibn Rahoyah, said to
him: If only you would compile a book of only authentic narrations of the prophet. This suggestion re-
mained in his heart, so he began compiling the a. Al-Bukhr also said, I saw the prophet in a dream
and it was as if I was standing in front of him. In my hand was a fan with which I was protecting him. I
asked some dream interpreters, who said to me, You will protect him from lies. This is what compelled
me to produce the a.
Al-Bukhr then traveled widely throughout the Abbsid Empire for sixteen years, collecting those tradi-
tions he thought were trustworthy. It is said that al-Bukhr collected over 300,000 adth but included
only 2,602 traditions in his book. At the time, al-Bukhr classified the traditions as a (trustworthy),
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asan (good), and af (weak).343 The weak traditions were then discarded. Bukhr was not alone in do-
ing this. Around the same time, other Muslim scholars also recognized the complete literary vacuum sur-
rounding the beginnings of Islam, and they also gathered and vetted what people said about Muammad.
Thus, much of our record of early Islam was edited by al-Bukhr and the others who gathered adths
after him.
3. Al-abar history seen 300 years later
Al-abar was a Muslim scholar who lived from 839 to 923 CE. Al-abars history book is officially titled
Trkh al-Rusl wa al Mulk, which means the history of prophets and kings. These 38 volumes provide
us with the Islamic view of the history of the world from Adam and Eve up to 915 CE. The first four vol-
umes parallel many things that are found in the Bible. Al-abar was his nickname, since he came from
abarstan, which is in Iran south of Tehran.
Al-abar knew the Qurn by heart when he was 7 years old. While some Hanbalite Sunni Muslims have
accused him of having Shiite tendencies, there is no basis for this except that he was Iranian. Al-abar
was a Sunni Muslim, even though he was from Iran. Al-abar was first a Shafiite, and then later he
founded his own school.344 There was discord between different schools345 and the Hanbalites would use
violence to intimidate Muslims belonging to other schools.346
4. Yqt geography now unquestioned
Yqt ibn Abdullh al-Rumi al-Hamaw (Yqt) (1179-1229 CE) was a Syrian biographer and geogra-
pher. Al-Rm (from Rm) refers to his Greek (Byzantine) descent, al-Hamaw means that he is
from Hama, Syria, and his fathers name was Abdullh. The word yqt means ruby. He was known for
his encyclopedic writings of the Muslim world. Yqt was sold as a slave to someone who later moved
to Baghdad. Upon recognizing his abilities, Yqts purchaser provided him with a good education. He
was later freed, and traveled a great deal. Yqt also earned a living copying and selling manuscripts.
His book Mujam Al-Buldn is an encyclopedic geography that he started in 1224 CE and finished around
1228 CE, one year before he died. Since his geography was constructed six hundred years after the death
of Muammad, it is not very helpful in determining early locations. His book is available today in Arabic
in several volumes, and is referred to several times in this study. However, anyone wanting to use Yqt
to defend Islamic geography must admit that he is a very late writer and not an authority on early and
pre-Islamic geography. It is important however, to know that Yqt wrote his book because he realized
that a complete geography of Islam was necessary, as there was confusion over the location of various
places, as we will see when we examine the locations of if, Al-Aqa, and Aqaba, along with locations
within the holy city itself.
343 Fadel, 1995, pg 161-197, Ibn Hajars Hady al-sr
344 abar Vol.1 pg 62
345 abar Vol.1 pg 66
346 abar Vol.1 page 71
235
From these four representative writers (many more are mentioned in Qurnic Geography) we can see that
these historians wrote many years after the events they described. As we mentioned, they used a system
of a chain of narrators known as the isnd (supporters) as their authority. This system of isnd consisted
of a chronological list of the narrators, each mentioning the one from whom they heard the adth, until
mentioning the originator of the report along with the report itself. All of the reports and sayings of early
Islam were then judged by the isnd and classified as being strong or weak, depending on the complete-
ness of the chain of narrators and the presence of Islamic authorities among the chain.
There were problems with isnd, as often conflicting stories were told, and even related by the same
narrators. An example of this can be found in al-abars recounting of the story of Isaac and Ishmael. Al-
abar gives us a list of over ten reports, complete with their supporting isnd, that claim Abraham went
to sacrifice Ishmael on the mountain. Then al-abar immediately gives us another list of over ten reports,
complete with all their supporting isnd, that claim Abraham took Isaac up the mountain to sacrifice him,
not Ishmael.347
Clearly both cannot be true, but since al-abar cannot prove either one, he provides us with both sides
of the argument, and even shows us that some isnd are the same ones on both sides. Obviously people
relating these stories to al-abar, claiming they heard it from someone who heard it from someone who
heard it from Muammad, could not clarify whether Muammad revealed that it was Isaac or Ishmael that
became Abrahams child for sacrifice.
In the end al-abar concludes: The earliest sages of our prophets nation disagree about which of Abrahams
two sons it was that he was commanded to sacrifice. Some say it was Isaac, while others say it was Ishmael. Both
views are supported by statements related on the authority of the Messenger of God.348
If isnd could not be authoritative in this case, how can it be claimed as authoritative in others? One
would assume that the writers of history and the collectors of adths would reject any adths that re-
ferred to Petra. Kamali provides us with seven criteria that were used for rejecting adths.349
1. The language of the adth must be eloquent, not rude or crude.
2. The adth should not contain corruption of previously established knowledge. For example, one
rejected adth reported that Muammad stated that Noahs ark circled the Kaba seven times before
it landed.
3. adths must not oppose the Qurn.
4. If a adth fails to pass the test of historicity it must be rejected. For example, one rejected adth
reported that Muammad spoke while in a Roman bath, but it is known that there were no baths in
Mecca or Medina so it was rejected. Petra however, had a Roman bath right beside the Kaba.
5. If the adth smacks of scholastic fanaticism it must be rejected. For example, someone claiming
347 abar, Volume II, page 89

348 abar Volume II, page 82
349 Kamali, 2009, pg 76, The Textbook of adth Studies
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to have known Muammad and to have followed him but later became a Shiite, was rejected by the
Sunni writers.
6. When a adth would have affected large numbers of people, but only one person reported it,
then it was rejected. For example, the teaching that no one can touch his sexual organs and then im-
mediately pray was only reported by one writer, but if it was true, then many would have known it,
practiced it and reported it.
7. When adths reported extraordinary large numbers or obviously exaggerated blessings or curses,
it was rejected.
Therefore I believe that by the time of the Abbsid writers, any adths that mentioned Petra would have
been excluded, and only those that remembered the Holy City as Mecca would have been included,
simply because, by then it was universally accepted that the Holy City had always been at Mecca.
In the end, the writers of the Abbsid period put together a history and picture of Islam that was in ac-
cordance with the thinking of their day. Muslims all over the world, then as now, turned to them for their
authority on how Islam came into being. However today with modern technology, researchers and arche-
ologists are beginning to put the pieces together, and unravel the Abbsid version of history to discover
what actually happened in the first years of Islam.
39. The Petra origins of Arabic Language
Over the last one hundred years, scholars such as Anton Baumstark, Gnter Lling, Anton Schall and Al-
phonse Mingana, Claude Gilliot, Pierre Larcher, John Wansbrough, Christoph Luxenberg350 and a host of
others have suggested that the Arabic language found in the Qurn is a mixture of earlier Aramaic and
the emerging Arabic language. They have suggested that the many expressions of Near-East Aramaic are
found throughout the Qurn, leading them to suspect that the Qurn originated much farther north than
Mecca or Medina.
What is interesting is that all of these scholars of language and linguistics look farther north for the origins
of Islam. In the same book mentioned above, there is an article by Robert M. Kerr351 that delves into the
languages of the Arabian Peninsula in more detail.
Kerr points out that the Arabian peninsula was divided into three geographical regions, Arabia Felix, Ara-
bia Deserta and Arabia Petraea. These terms go back to the Roman imperial era, and thee three regions
also had three distinct linguistic differences. The languages used in Arabia Felix were distinct South Ara-
bian Semitic languages, and included such languages as Sabaean, Minaean, aramitic, Qatabnian, and
Haramitic. Altogether, over 10,000 inscriptions have been found that used these languages, and they are
very distinct from Arabic.
The region known as Arabia Deserta extended from north of Yemen up into the southern tip of Jordan.
350 Ibn Warraq, Christmas in the Koran, Prometheus Books, 2014, Page 21
351 Kerr, Robert M., Aramaisms in the Qurn and Their Significance, Christmas in the Qurn, page 145
237
The languages in this area are known as the Ancient North Arabian languages, such as Dadanitic, Du-
maitic, Hasaitic, Mismaic, afaitic, Taymanitic, and Thamudic, of which together there are some 40,000
inscriptions. These languages are interrelated Semitic dialects using variants of the South Arabian script,
so they cannot be the direct ancestors of Classical Arabic.
Further north was the geographical region known as Arabia Petraea where Aramaic, Greek, and Latin
were used. This region had been exposed to Greco-Roman culture for close to a millennium. While the
major written languages were Greek, there were also various Aramaic dialects, the most important of
which was Syriac. Kerr points out on page 148 that the 6/7th fragment of Psalm 78 found in the Umayyad
Mosque at Damascus demonstrates (using areal linguistics) that the Qurn is written in the Arabic of Da-
mascus and its environs, i.e. the Heimat of pre-classical Arabic. Kerr believes that the evidence shows that
the language of the Qurn must be based on a Syro-Palestinian Arabo-Semitic dialect and that the script
employed was not that used in Mecca and
Medina of the period, but the one used in
Arabia Petraea.352
Kerr points out that Arabic required dia-

critical dots to be added to the Aramaic al-
phabet, as the Arabic had more characters.
Kerr then goes on to look at the Arabic loan
words that appear in the Qurn among
many other topics.
In 2012, Robert Kerr brought his research

and conclusions to the attention of Gerd
Puin, who then introduced him to my own
research. Kerr had come to a similar conclusion about Islam originating in the greater Petra area by using
the linguistic map of early Arabia while I used the Qibla directions of early Islamic mosques.
40. What about Jerusalem and Al-Aqa Mosque?
In recent years, some debate has risen over the location of the place known as Masjid al-Aqa. It is com-
monly thought by Muslims to be located in Jerusalem, and indeed the mosque there bears this name. But
is this mosque really the al-Aqa mentioned in the Qurn?
The Qurn names al-Aqa in Sra 17:1: Glory to Allh who did take his servant for a journey by night from
the Masjid al-arm to the farthest (al-Aqa) whose precincts we did bless in order that we might show him some
of our signs: for he is the one who heareth and seeth (all things).353
Al-Bukhr adds: Narrated Ab Huraira: The Prophet said, Do not set out on a journey except for three
mosques: 1) al-Masjid-al-arm, 2) the Mosque of Allhs Apostle, and 3) al-Aqa.354 Note in the above had-
352 Page 148-9
353 Sra 17:1 (Yusif Al)

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ith that Muammad is speaking of a place called al-Aqa almost a century before it was built. So during
Muammads time there must have been another place also called al-Aqa.
Al-Bukhr also tells us that Ab Dhar narrated. I said, O Allhs Apostle! Which mosque was first built on the
surface of the earth? He said, Al- Masjid al-arm. I said, Which was built next? He replied The mosque
of al-Aqa. I said, What was the period of construction between the two? He said, Forty years. He added,
Wherever (you may be, and) the prayer time becomes due, perform the prayer there, for the best thing is to do
so (i.e. to offer the prayers in time).355 There are several strange things about this hadith. Abraham was
supposed to have laid the foundations stones for al-Masjid al-arm, so how was al-Aqa built 40 years
later? Remember that during Abrahams time there was no mosque in Jerusalem, and indeed no city
where Jerusalem is today. The Jerusalem al-Aqa mosque was built 90 years after the hijra.
Fiqh us Sunnah356 tells us: Ibn Taimiyyah said, There is no other sanctuary in the whole world besides these
two, not even Al-Aqa, nor any other, even though some ignorant people call them arm al-Maqdis and arm
al-Khalil. By consensus arm Makkah is the only arm (sanctuary). About Madinah there is no such consen-
sus. A majority of scholars, however, hold that Madinah is also a sanctuary, as mentioned in adth on this sub-
ject. Muslim scholars disagree about a third sanctuary, namely, Wuja, the valley of Al-Tif. Ash-Shafii regards
it a sanctuary. Ash-Shawkani agrees with him, but the majority of the scholars disagree and do not consider it a
sanctuary. The majority of scholars believes Makkah has preference over Madinah. In this account, the sacred
location in if is also considered. (We will examine this next.) It is interesting that some ignorant people
call them arm al-Maqdis and arm al-Khalil. The name arm al-Maqdis (Holy Forbidden Gathering
Place) would probably refer to Jerusalem, since it is known as AlQuds in Arabic, or the Holy Place.
A few years ago, on an Arabic television program, Zakaria Boutros presented evidence from Islamic
sources which he claims support a theory that the al-Aqa Mosque referred to in Sra 17 and in the adths
was a literal mosque located not in Jerusalem, but a few miles outside of the Holy City. His argument is
as follows:
In Kitb al-Trkh wa al-Maghazi357 early Muslim historian and biographer al-Wqid described
Muammads stay in the village of Jiranah a few miles outside Mecca. He wrote, The Prophet arrived in
Jiranah on Thursday, and remained 13 nights. He then departed Jiranah after praying at the al-Aqa Mosque
located on the bank of the riverbed. The Prophet used to pray there whenever he came to Jiranah.
Another historian, Azraq, described in a discussion between two men named Muammad ibn Tariq and
Mujahid. Muammad said, Mujahid and I agreed on Jiranah, because he informed me the Prophet used to
pray at the al-Aqa Mosque located on the bank of the river bed. The other nearby mosque, the al-Adna Mosque,
was built by a man from the Quraysh tribe.358
Al-Aqa in Arabic means the farthest point, and al-Adna means the nearest point or perhaps more
356 Fiqh us Sunnah 5:65, Sayyid Sabiq
357 al-Wqid al-Trkh wa al-Maghazi, 69 The Islamic Conquest of Syria
358 Azraq, Wuestenfeld, Ferdinand (1964) al-Azraqi, in Chroniken der Stadt Mekka
239
correctly the lowest point. The two mosques were simply named according to their location. The lower
mosque was the al-Adna Mosque, and the farther one was al-Aqa.
Another early Mecca historian, Ibn Isq al-Fakihi, noted that Muslims who wanted to perform the umrah
(Minor Pilgrimage) would first purify themselves at the neighboring villages of Tanim and Jiranah.359 The
al-Adna Mosque in Tanim was significant because Muammads wife isha had purified herself there,
and the Prophet himself had prayed in the al-Aqa Mosque in Jiranah. This leads us to expect that Jiranah
had a good source of water.
adth historian Ab Al recorded360 that Umm Salmah heard Muammad say, Whoever prepares for the
umrah by purifying himself in the al-Aqa Mosque before he goes to the arm area in Mecca will have his sins
forgiven before he even commits them. This leads us to expect that Jiranah was just outside of the forbidden
area, where one could wash themselves.
The above sources all indicate that the Al-Aqa Mosque referred to by Muammad in Qurn 17:1 was the
mosque in Jiranah, a village just outside of Masjid-al- arm. The famous mosque known today by the
same name in Jerusalem was built ninety years after Islam began and cannot be the the al-Aqa mosque
referred to by these historians.
I would like to suggest a place that fits all the descriptions. Today it is covered over by
buildings, but in ancient times, this place was 8 km from the heart of Petra. Pilgrims
wanting to enter the forbidden sanctuary would have stopped here first to cleanse them-
selves. Indeed, almost everyone entering the area of Wadi Musa, outside of Petra, drives
past an artesian well located at the edge of the wadi, just as it was described. This well
is known as the Moses Spring and today, tour guides gleefully connect it with the story
of Moses hitting the rock so that water came out. If this is al-Aqa, then al-Adna or the Above: Moses
lower would be at a lower area farther down the wadi before entering the sacred area. Spring in 1979
So how did the name Al-Aqa get connected with the mosque in Jerusalem? First, it is not uncommon for
places to have the same name, especially a common name such as the far gathering place.
Those building the gathering place (mosque) in Jerusalem in 90 AH would have faced an issue when nam-
ing the new structure. The Holy City was known as al-arm or The Forbidden. The city of Jerusalem was
called al-Quds or The Holy. A name such as The Holy Mosque might overshadow the name for their sacred
city. Calling it The Far Mosque was a safe description, and at the time, it was indeed the far mosque.
Many years later, after Petra was forgotten, and the original location of al-Aqa in Jiranah was forgot-
ten, the Abbasid writers would tell the story of Muammad traveling to al-Aqa. To them it seemed like a
miracle, and the story probably grew.
While we may never prove that al-Aqa is the spring in Wadi Musa, there is no question that the original
al-Aqa is described as being a place of washing, located on the edge of a wadi outside of the sacred area,
while al-Aqa Mosque in Jerusalem is on a bald hard rock at the top of a mountain.
359 Azraq , Mecca and its Antiquities

360 Ali bin Hasamuddin , Alauddin, Masnad Imam Abu Abdullah (Arabic)
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Dan Gibson
41. Location of al-Bay
Al-abar tells us an interesting story about al-ajjj going to Mecca.361 He comes to a place called al-
Bayh, on a mountain trail, and meets some men there. As a student of geography, I immediately want to
ask: Where is al-Bay? The greatest authority on Islamic geography is a man known as Yqt, the author
of Mujam al-Buldn, a multi-volume series of books on the geography of Islam, written some 600 years
after Muammad. In volume 2,362 he tells us that he had identified al-Bay as another name for Tanm,
just outside of the arm territory encircling Mecca in Saudi Arabia. He gives no reason to back up his
thinking. Perhaps this was the closest place to Mecca that he could find that was on a mountain trail.
Now that Petra has been identified as the original Mecca, can we find al-Bay? Just ask any local, look
at a map, or check the road signs. Al-Bay is a very well known ancient spot, that is locally called Little
Petra. It is about 8 km from Petra, along a mountain path.
Little Petra is a Nabataean burial centre complete with tombs, accompanying dining halls and other lo-
cations. Right beside it is a pre-pottery Neolithic settlement, and several fields that were cultivated in
ancient times.
Left A tomb near the entrance to

Al-Bay.
Right: A triclinium in Al-Bay
42. Location of al-Aqaba
The location of al-Aqaba in early Islamic literature is an important factor in this study as there are several
places in the Middle East known by this name. Al-Aqaba appears several times in the story of Muammad
while he was living in Mecca during the early part of his prophethood. We will go through these occur-
rences to try and determine what we can learn about the location of al-Aqaba and its relation to Mecca
and Medina. (The al in front of al-Aqaba simply denotes the definite case and could be translated the.)
Al-abar363 tells us that during the days of the pagan pilgrimage, Muammad met some of the tribe of
362 Yqt, Mujam al-Buldn, Vol 2, page 335
363 abar, Volume 6 page 124, see also Guillaume, 2006, page 198
241
Anr (Quraysh from Medina) as they traveled to Mecca and preached to them. This took place in al-
Aqaba, which must be between Medina and Mecca.
The following year, twelve of the Anr came on the pilgrimage to Mecca. During their trip, they met
Muammad at al-Aqaba and took an oath of allegiance to him.364 After the pilgrimage, they returned to
Medina and spread the teachings of Islam.
The year following this, some of the Anr went on the pagan pilgrimage to Mecca and they again agreed
to meet Muammad in al-Aqaba in the middle of the days of al-tashrq. These are three days (11-13th) of
the month of Dh al-ijja, following after the day of sacrifice on the tenth day,365 when the time of fasting
has ended. During this time, the pagan Quraysh in Aqaba argued whether Muammad prayed towards
Syria or towards the Kaba. It was unclear to them. So Muammad agreed to meet with these Anr at al-
Aqaba, and their meeting was held in secret, at night in a ravine. In the middle of the night366 as they were
returning to the Holy City, there was a shout from the top of al-Aqaba, in a most piercing voice, People
of the stations of Mn, do you want a blameworthy person and the apostates with him who have gathered
together to wage war on you?
Muammad replied to his followers What does the enemy of God say? This is the Azabb (devil) of al-Aqaba,
the son of the devil Azyab. Listen, enemy of God, by Allh, I shall deal with you! They continued to hold back,
but one of them wanted to fall on the people of Mn with their swords in the morning. Muammad told them to
go back to their tents, as they had not been commanded to do this.
After the emigration to Medina, al-Aqaba is not mentioned until year 9 AH.367 The prophet Muammad
was passing through the ancient town of al-ijr, near Madain li368 when the people complained of hav-
ing very little rain. Muammad prayed, and there was some rain. Then they moved on369 and met Umarah
ibn Hazm, who was one of those present at the pledge of al-Aqaba.
Ismail K. Poonawala, the translator of al-abar Volume nine,370 informs us that al-Aqaba was a mountain
pass between Mn and Mecca. Today Mn is a wide open plain around 5 kilometers from present day
Mecca in Saudi Arabia (70 kilometers inland from the Red Sea) and is part of the pilgrimage tradition.
The area around Mecca and Mn is very flat, with a few mountains rising from the desert floor. Along
the way from Mecca to Mn, there is a side ravine between the mountain ranges that is known today as
Aqaba. Muslim scholars tell us that this is the Aqaba where Muammads first followers made the famous
Aqaba pledge.
364 abar, Vol. 6 page 126
365 abar, Vol. 6, page 130, footnote 208
366 abar, Vol. 6 page 135
370 See footnote 380
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Dan Gibson
If we accept the proposed theory that the original holy city is Petra rather than Mecca in Saudi Arabia,
then Muammad would not have met with his first followers over a thousand kilometers south of Petra,
especially if they were of the Anr, which lived in Medina. In this case we should look for an Aqaba
closer to Petra, and then look at arguments for and against each location.
Today most people identify Aqaba not with Mecca, but with the modern city of Aqaba at the north end
of the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea. This is a port city, and the beginning of the road that goes up into
the highlands of ancient Edom. In ancient times, however, this city was known by other names such as
Aila, the name the Romans gave the city. I believe that the Nabataeans used another name, Leuce Come,
which we will examine a bit later on.
The Islamic literature of the Abbsid period clearly calls the city of Aqaba by its Roman name: Aila. For
example, Aqaba is called Aila in al-abar Vol. 9, page 58. When Muammad travels north to Tabk, the
governor of Aylah (Aila) comes to him and makes a treaty with him. Here Aila is identified as the seaport
at the northern end of the Gulf of Aqaba.371
Aila is mentioned again by al-abar372 when Ab Bakr travels from Medina to Syria. He takes the road of
al-muriqah or sweating. This refers to the very humid conditions on the road along the Red Sea coast.373
It is obvious from Islamic literature that the Aqaba referred to by Ibn Isq in his book Srat Rasl Allh is
the one beside Mecca, and not the city of Aila.374 However, when considering our proposed change of loca-
tions, I would suggest that the Pledge of Aqaba was indeed taken near the modern city of Aqaba known
to the Romans as Aila. It is my belief that the later Abbsid writers used the older Roman name of Aila for
Aqaba, and then found a new location for Aqaba near the city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia.
There are several problems with identifying Aqaba in its current location near Mecca. First, lets con-
sider the meaning of the word Aqaba. Hughs Dictionary of Islam375 tells us: Aqabah is a sheltered glen
near Mn, celebrated as the scene of the two pledges, the first and second pledge of al-Aqabah. The
first pledge was made by ten men of the tribe of Khazraj and ten of Aus when they pledged their faith to
Muammad thus: -- We will not worship, any but one God; we will not steal; nor commit adultery; nor
kill our children; nor will we slander our neighbors; and we will obey the Prophet of God.
The date assigned to this pledge by Sir W. Muir is April 21, CE. 621. The second pledge was a few months
afterwards when seventy three men and two women came forward, one by one, and took an oath of fealty
to the Prophet. Muammad named twelve of the chief of these men, and said: Moses chose from amongst
his people twelve leaders. Ye shall be sureties for the rest, even as were the Apostles of Jesus; and I am
surety for my people. And the people answered, Amn, So be it.376
371 El2, V.S. Aila
372 abar, Vol. 11, 2079, page 73
373 Y. Blankenship cross-references this with Caetani, Annali, II, 1121 n 3; and Donner, Conquests, 115
374 Cobb, 1995, Scholars and Society at Early Islamic Ayla
375 Haughes A Dictionary of Islam
376 Muirs Life of Mahomet, Vol. 2., pages 216, 232
243
Left: the commemorative mosque

in the Aqaba ravine near Mecca,
in a ravine above Mn. The
ravine does not lead anywhere,
but is simply a place where water
runs off of Jebal Quways.
Hans Wehrs dictionary tells us that the Arabic meaning for Aqaba is somewhat vague, and can have sev-
eral meanings. Most Arabs would understand the word aqab to mean a steep road or track, or a difficult
pass up through the mountains.377 However, it also could mean a heel or the way up from the foot to the
body. In all cases the meaning contains the idea of moving upward.
Yqt tells us that there are several ways of using Aqaba. It can be used in construct state with other
words such as: Aqaba of the riders, or the mounting of the riders.378
Early travelers in Arabia also noted that the term Aqaba was used by Bedouin to refer to moving upward
in different locations. For example, James T. Bent notes in his book Having left these villages behind us,
we climbed rapidly higher and higher, until at an elevation of over 4,000 feet we found ourselves at last on a
broad, level tableland, stretching as far as the eye could reach in every direction. This is no doubt the Maratha
Mountains of Ptolemy, the Mons Excelsus of Pliny, which shuts off the Hadhramout, where once flourished the
frankincense and the myrrh. Words cannot express the desolate aspect of this vast table-land, Akaba or the going
up as the Arabs call it.379,380
So it is clear that the Aqaba leads upward to something. The problem with the present location of Aqaba
near Mecca is that it is a crevice in the side of a mountain but it goes upward to nowhere. There is nothing
377 Wehr, page 733, entry Aqaba
378 Yqt, Mujam al-Buldn, Vol. 4, page 134, Aqaba
379 Bent, Southern Arabia 1900, page 88
380 Pliny, 12:14, 52 : In medio Arabiae fere sunt Adramitae pagus Saboraeum in monte excelso.
244
Dan Gibson
at the top of Jebal Quways, and there was no road or path to the top. In actuality. it is a place where rain
water runs downward. The name Aqaba does not seem a very good fit for this location.
Second, al-abar and Ibn Isq both make it plain that Aqaba was the location of a major market381 and
people came from great distances to the market. This market was held at least annually, for Muammad
met his followers at this market each year. It must have been a major market for members of the Anr
tribe to travel there each year all the way from Medina. The present location of Aqaba in Saudi is only
three miles from the Kaba in Mecca, and is not on a path from anywhere to anywhere. It would be very
strange for a main market to be there, tucked away in a small crevice in a mountain, let alone a large mar-
ket when it is so close to the main markets in Mecca. So how did this location become known as Aqaba?
The present city of Aqaba in Jordan has had several names during its long history. While it is currently
called Aqaba, the Romans called it Ayla and I believe the Nabataeans called it Leuce Come. Before that it
was known in the Bible as as Elath and Egeb Gezer.382
Gerd-R Puin in his article in The Hidden Origins of Islam383 suggests that Leuce Come can be found in the
Qurn. He notes that Wetzein was the first to connect AlAykah/Laykah with Leuke Come, and that Musil
recalls the Greek Leuke meaning white.
Puin points out that the phrase Laykah appears four times in the Cairo edition of the Qurn, and seems
to be a place name.384 There are variant readings of this name in early copies of the Qurn. Puin comes
to the conclusion385 that this phrase must refer to Leuke Come. He then presents several of the traditional
arguments concerning placing Leuke Come on the eastern shores of the Red Sea, and suggests that Leuke
Come = al-Hawra. But as we will show, the directions to Leuce Come in the The Periplus Maris Eruthraei
locate Leuke Come where Aqaba is today. This provides us with a strong possibility that Aqaba (Leuce
Come) is mentioned four times in the early copies of the Qurn, once again pointing to a northern setting
for the Qurn.
For many years historians and archaeologists have wondered about the location of the Nabataean port city
of Leuce Come (meaning white village). This village is mentioned in several ancient writings, such as the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea386 and Strabos Geography.387 The most serious guess at the location of Leuce
381 abar, Vol 6, page 130-136,and Guillaume, 2006, Srat Rasl Allh, page 198-199
382 Genesis 14:1-6 Eben Gezer is also mentioned in Numbers 33:35 and Deuteronomy 2:8. I Kings
9:26 mentions ships in Ezion-Gebher, which is beside Eloth (Elath) on the shore of the Red Sea in the
Land of Edom. 2 Chronicles 8:17 also mentions these two locations and I Kings 9:27-28 describes a
navel expedition sent out from this location.
383 Puin, The Hidden Origins of Islam, 2010, pg 339, See Fedeli, Alba
384 Sra 15:78, 50:14, 26:176, 38:13
385 Puin page 342
386 Casson, 1989, pages 61 - 62, The Periplus Maris Erythraei
387 Stabo, Geography 16.4.23
245
Come comes from the famous naval historian Lionel Casson who calculated the location of Leuce Come
by using the port of Myos Hormos. He assumed that the Myos Harbor (Mussel Harbor) was located at Ab
Shar on the western side of the Red Sea.
He defends this opinion on page 96 of his translation of the Periplus Maris Erythraei. From this location on
the west shore of the Gulf of Suez, he follows the writers description and comes to the conclusion that
Leuce Come was located in the vicinity of Aynunah on the shores of Saudi Arabia.388 Casson goes on to
mention some of the other educated guesses that have been made concerning the location of Leuce Come,
such as Haura and Yanbu further south on the Saudi Arabian coast.
These educated guesses were all based on scholarly study and opinion. However, since their writings
several important archaeological discoveries have been made. The location of Myos Hormos, the starting
place of this description, has now been positively fixed at Quseir al-Qadm far to the south of Cassons
guess of Ab Shar. The ruins at Quseir al-Qadm were the subject of exploratory excavations between
1978 and 1982389 when it was thought to be the relatively minor Roman port of Leucos Limen, a view
(apparently confirmed by a somewhat obscure piece of pottery)390 that was held by Casson. Some scholars
even voiced the opinion that Leucos Limen might have been Leuce Come.
Then in 1994, ostraca from the French excavations at Zerqa on the road between Quseir and Qift showed
that, beyond doubt, the port at the end of the road was indeed called Myos Hormos.391Archaeological work
done in 1999 demonstrated that the road ended at Quseir al-Qadm (rather than Quseir) and amongst the
few pieces of pottery the archaeologists recovered was one bearing the name Myos Hormos.
Suddenly historians realized that Quseir al-Qadm was not a minor trading station, but was rather Myos
Hormos, the renowned ancient port that traded with India and beyond.392
The positive identification of Myos Hormos then changed all of the previous suggestions for the location of
Leuce Come. Myos Hormos was not located in the Gulf of Suez, but on the Red Sea itself. This new location
shed a very interesting light on how we now view the words in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Using
the new location of Myos Hormos, I endeavored to discover where Leuce Come was located.
I started my search for Leuce Come using the description of its location as found in the Periplus of the
Eruthraean Sea: (19):
Now to the left of Berenice, sailing for two or three days from Mussel Harbor eastward across the adjacent
gulf (is this across the Red Sea or is it a gulf on the Egypt side?), there is another harbor and fortified place,
which is called White Village (Leuce Come), from which there is a road to Petra, which is subject to Ma-
lichas, King of the Nabataeans. It holds the position of a market town for the small vessels sent there
388 Casson, 1989, page 143
389 Whitcomb and Johnson 1979; 1982
390 Bagnall, 1986, Papyri and Ostraka from Quseir al-Qadim
391 Cuvigny, 2003 and Sidebotham, 2005
392 Peacock, 2008, Quseir alQadim Project
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Dan Gibson
from (South) Arabia; and so a centurion is stationed there as a collector of one-fourth of the merchandise
imported, with an armed force, as a garrison.
To locate this missing city we must determine if the White Village was south or north of Berenice, and
if it was on the Egyptian or Arabian side of the Red Sea.
From the quote above, the presence of a road linking the White Village with Petra is undeniable. It would
make little sense to describe a port south of Berenice on the Egypt side that had a road linking to Petra
(which is far to the north of Berenice). So it would seem that the White Village must have been located
across the Red Sea. The problem is that there are no ports that fit this description, nor or there any roads
that fit the description.
The other important term is the use of the word to the left. This term can be understood from the open-
ing sentence of the Periplus: first comes Egypts port of Myos Hormos, and beyond it, after a sail of 1800
stades to the right, Berenice. The ports of both are bays on the Red Sea on the edge of Egypt.
So the writer is imagining himself standing on the shores of Egypt (he was writing from Alexandria). He
locates Myos Hormos and Berenice for us, and tells us that Berenice is to the right of Myos Hormos. This
would indicate that right means southeast. A few paragraphs later he tells us that the White Village is
to the left of Berenice. He does not give the distance in stades, but rather in runs.
At this point his directions seem a little confused, but I would like to point out that they are quite clear
if you know what he is talking about. First of all, we are talking north of Berenice. Then he adds the sen-
tence: after a voyage of two or three runs eastward from Myos Hormos past the gulf lying alongside.
Look at the map on page 248. He points us north of Berenice, the main port on the Red Sea. He then takes
us to the smaller port of Myos Hormos. So our journey starts in the south and moves north. The writer
then tells us to travel eastward from Myos Hormos for two or three runs, past the gulf that lies alongside of
Myos Hormos. Given the now positive location of Myos Hormos and the northward course of the writers
directions, there is only one conclusion that can be reached.
North of Myos Hormos, the Red Sea splits into two branches. The writer tells us to take the east branch
and go north for two or three runs. He doesnt tell us where to find the port, because we will run into it at
the end of the bay. Today this place is known as Aqaba, or in ancient times Aila.
It would make no sense for the writer to start us in Berenice, take us north to Myos Hormos, and then
south to some port on the Saudi side of the Red Sea. Rather the writer starts us in Berenice, takes us north
to Myos Hormos, and then expects us to continue traveling north (in the eastern gulf or bay) until we
reach Leuce Come (Aila).
Alia was a place built of white sand structures. Excavations are currently taking place, but the Nabataean
port has been mostly destroyed. It did, however, contain many mud buildings. The Periplus informs us
that the White Village had a road attaching it to Petra. This fits very well. The Romans built the Via
Traiana overtop of the then existing road that was known in ancient times as The Kings Highway. This
road linked Aila with Petra, and north to Damascus. It fits the description of the Periplus perfectly. There
was a fort in Aila, and the city was definitely under the control of Malichus, the king of the Nabataeans.
247
The Periplus tells us that this port was used by small craft (there is no deep harbour at Alia proper) and
that it was loaded with freight from south Arabia. It is also interesting to note that the Periplus, which was
written to describe Trade on the Red Sea does not mention Aila at all. This seeming oversight can now
be understood by identifying the White Village with the known port of Aila.
The Periplus then tells us that after this harbour, (White Village) which extended far down the Red Sea,
there are a variety tribes, with some huts along the coast, and they are pirates. It tells us that to set a
course along the coast of Arabia is altogether risky, since the region with its lack of harbours offers poor
anchorage, is foul with rocky stretches, and cannot be approached because of cliffs. This is why it is impor-
tant for sailors to sail to the Burnt Island before approaching the coast. Several historians have suggested
that the burnt island is Jabal al-Tair, which has a nearly dead volcano.393 Then sailing down this coast,
the port of Muza is on the left hand shore.394 This sounds like a perfect description of the Saudi coast, look-
ing south from Aila. That is why we cannot find Leuce-Come along that barren coast. It was never there.
There are two other considerations that must be taken into our calculations. Strabo relates the account of
the attempted Roman invasion of Arabia. The Romans built boats on the Egyptian side, and sailed them
to Leuce-Come.
After enduring great hardships and

distress, he arrived on the fifteenth day
at Leuce-Come, a large mart in the ter-
ritory of the Nabataeans, with the loss
of many of his vessels, some with all
their crews, in consequence of the dif-
ficulty of the navigation, but by no op-
position from an enemy. These misfor-
tunes were occasioned by the perfidy
of Syllaeus, who insisted that there was
no road for an army by land to Leuce-
Come, to which and from which place
the camel traders travel with ease and
in safety from Sela, and back to Sela,
with so large a body of men and cam-
els as to differ in no respect from an
army.395
Notice that they endured great hard-

ships and distress in a fifteen day
journey to Leuce Come. They lost
393 Casson, Muller, Schoff
394 paraphrased from The Periplus Maris Eruthraei 20 - 21
395 The Periplus Maris Eruthraei 20 - 21, 16.4.24
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Dan Gibson
many vessels along the way because of the difficulty of navigation. This has always puzzled me. To sail
across the Red Sea is quite easy. To sail north to Aila however, would have been a very tricky job for Ro-
man boats with square lug sails. Most of the year, the north-eastern arm of the Red Sea (Gulf of Aqaba)
is plagued with winds from the northwest, making the journey up the sea almost impossible.
By locating Leuce Come as Aila, this passage of Strabo now becomes more understandable. The Romans
would have had to sail through the rocky entrance to the Gulf of Aqaba, and northward along the rocky
coasts where the Roman boats could easily have fouled.
Is Aila the Aqaba of Islam? The descriptions of Aqaba in al-abar and Ibn Isq could be applied to both
locations, although the location in Saudi Arabia has several problems:
1. It is south of Mecca, and therefore not between Mecca and Medina.
2. It is out of the way and not on a road to anywhere, and therefore a very unlikely place for a large
market.
3. Since it is not on a path to anywhere, the term Aqaba or going up is an awkward fit.
In contrast, consider the support for Aila being the Aqaba of Islam:
1. Strabo vol 16.24 tells us that in his time there was a large market at Aila.
2. The road going up into the mountains behind Aila was known as the Aqaba of Aila. Eventually the
name Aqaba of Aila was reduced to only Aqaba which is the name used today.
3. The Aqaba of Aila is less than 50 kilometers from Petra, and located between Mecca and Medina.
Therefore, based on this research, I would propose that the location known as Aqaba today (Aila, Leuce
Come, Ezon Geber, and Elath) are all referring to the same location, and are synonymous with the Aqaba
in the Qurn. It is my suggestion that Yqt, writing six hundred years after the death of Muammad,
was forced to find a location near Mecca in Saudi Arabia that fit the description of Aqaba. His choice of
the ravine near Mecca was a natural one, as it was a place of going up. Yqt never imagined that the
real Aqaba was hundreds of kilometers away.
43. Location of if and nearby locations
Several readers of my earlier book Qurnic Geography (2011) have written to enquire about the location
of ancient city of if. They concluded that if the city of Petra in Jordan is really ancient Mecca, then
the ancient city of if must be between Petra and Medina in Saudi Arabia. The currently location of
if is south of Medina, on the road to the Najran and Yemen. After several requests, I decided to present
my opinions on the ancient location of if, although it may take extensive archeological excavations to
prove this one way or the other.
249
The name if comes from the ancient Arabic root -W-F which means: encircled. The word -W-F is
used to describe the circling of the Kaba. So in this chapter, we will think of the location of if as the
encircled location. As far as I have been able to determine, outside of Islamic sources, there are no early
mention of a location known as if in other literature. So it was not a well known location.
If we are to search for ancient if in northern Arabia, we first need to discover how it was described
in early Islamic literature. This will give us some guidelines in our search for the location of the original
place. And I believe may provide some surprising results.
From the Book of Idols396 we learn that the goddess Allat was worshiped there
They then adopted Allat as their goddess. Allat stood in al-if ..... She was a cubic rock beside ..... The
Quraysh, as well as all the Arabs, were wont to venerate Allat. They also used to name their children after
her, calling them Zayd-Allat and Taym-Allat. She stood in the place of the left-hand side minaret of the
present-day mosque of al-if. She is the idol which God mentioned when He said, Have you seen Allat
and al-Uzza?
From this we learn that if had a temple to Allat, and was the home of the Thaqif tribe. From al-abar397
we learn that it was one of the Two Towns. This is a reference to the original Mecca (Petra) and the city
of if. Both of them had a temple sacred to the Arab gods.
We wrote down in Zafar the ancient writings of glory, so that the chiefs of the two towns might read them. ...398
Fiqh us Sunnah399 tells us: Ibn Taimiyyah said, There is no other sanctuary in the whole world besides
these two, ... by consensus arm Makkah is the only arm (sanctuary). About Madinah there is no such
consensus. A majority of scholars, however, hold that Madinah is also a sanctuary, as mentioned in adth
on this subject. Muslim scholars disagree about a third sanctuary, namely, Wuja, the valley of Al-Tif.
From this we hear again about the sanctuary in Tif, although we are told that it is in the valley of Wuja.
We learn more about if from the account of the prophets armies when they attacked it.
He (the prophet) then followed a road called al-aygah (the narrow way). As he was passing through it
he inquired about its name. When he was told that it was al-aygah, he said, No, rather it is al-Yusr
(the easy). Then he went by Nakhb400 and halted under a lote tree called al-dirah near the property of a
man of Thaqf. The Messenger of God sent word to him either to come out or else his walled garden would
be destroyed. He refused to come out, so the Messenger of God ordered the walled garden to be destroyed.
Then the Messenger of God went on until he halted near al-if and pitched his camp there. Some of his
396 Hisham Ibn al-Kalbi, Book of Idols, under Allat
397 abar Vol. 5:161
398 abar Vol. 5 Page 187
399 Sabiq, As-Sayyid, Fiqh us Sunnah 5:65
400 Known as Ras al Naqb today
250
Dan Gibson
companions were killed by arrows, because the camp had been placed very close to the walls of al-if and
the arrows were reaching them. The Muslims were unable to get through its wall, for it had shut the gate
against them. When his comrades were killed by arrows, the Prophet moved to higher ground and pitched
his camp near where his mosque stands today. He besieged them for some twenty days.401
In the previous descriptions of if, we are not told that it is a great city. Rather, it was a centre for the
Thaqif Bedouin tribe. It contained a temple to Allat, had a water supply, room for Bedouin tents, a city
wall and it is enclosed or encircled.
So where can we fi nd the encircled location two or three days travel from Petra on the way to Medina?
There is only one place that comes to mind, and believe it or not it also had a temple to Allat!
As you can see from the satel-

lite photo of this location, it
is indeed encircled by a huge
mountain with vast sheer
cliff s. The only area where it
needed defenses was across
the mouth that opens to the
desert. In the satellite photo
on the next page, you can
see that the town of Wadi
Rum has been built in front
of this entrance. The city wall
is most likely now under the
roadway, as the engineers
used the local rocks to create
a roadbed.
Left: Satellite photo with mod-

ern buildings removed.
While this area is all desert today, long ago it was an agricultural area. Petroglyphs, inscriptions and ar-
chaeological remains around this site testify to 12,000 years of human occupation and interaction with
the natural environment. The combination of 25,000 rock carvings with 20,000 inscriptions trace the
evolution of human thought and the early development of the alphabet. The site illustrates the evolution
of pastoral, agricultural and urban activity in the region.
401 abar Vol 8 page 22
251
Above: Satellite photo of Rum mountain on the left. The modern town and paved road lie over the original
stacked-stone walls of the city.
A small urban area to the northwest of the temple was founded by the Nabataeans, including a bath
complex. Thamudic and Lihyanite inscriptions at the foot of the cliffs on both sides of the main Wadi can
be found in ancient stone constructions as well as in the surrounding mountains. The inscriptions on the
temple confirm the pre-Islamic involvement of the Arabian tribes in the construction of the sanctuary. The
temple was taken over by Thamudic tribes and Thamudic graffiti covers earlier Nabataean inscriptions,
walls and columns.
The temple was discovered in Wadi Rum by Savignac in 1932. Savignac and Horsfield undertook the first
excavations in 1933 and recorded Nabataean, Greek and Thamudic inscriptions and graffiti at the tem-
ple.402 Dr. Saba Fares continues to study the area today.
402 The Wadi Ramm Recovery Project: Preliminary Report of the 1996 Season Dennine Dudley and
Barbara Reeves MOUSEION : ECHOS DU MONDE CLASSIQUE Volume XLI - N.S. 16 - 1991 (Pages 81-
106)
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Dan Gibson
Just past the Nabataean temple on the right is a small path leading up into a little valley that is cut into
Jebel Rum. The path leads into a cool, shady area with a hidden spring that wells up from natural reser-
voirs in the rock called Ain Shallaal in Arabic and is known more popularly as Lawrences Spring, largely
because of the way Lawrence of Arabia described it during the Great Arab Revolt of 1917-1918, when he
reached it exhausted from his battles with the Ottoman Turks and his desert journeys.
44. Nakhlah and other locations
Now, if Wadi Rum fits the descriptions of ancient if, then what about the other locations mentioned in
the Islamic records? Lets examine some of them briefly, although they should be written up as separate
papers, perhaps by future researchers.
So far I have suggested that Petra in Jordan was the original Mecca now in Saudi Arabia. I have also sug-
gested that Aqaba in Saudi was Aqaba in Jordan, al-Bayh in Saudi was al-Bayh in Jordan, al-Aqa
in Jerusalem was Ain al Musa in Jordna, and finally if in Saudi Arabia was originally in Wadi Rum in
Jordan. I would like to suggest that the Islamic Naqab403 is the area around Ras al Naqab today. Uk,404
the location of the annual fair held between Nakhlah and if, would probably be at the ancient town of
Humaima.
Nakhlah405 was the farthest border for the Meccan herds. It was located halfway between if and Mec-
ca406 and was a stopping place on the main route for travelers to spend the night. Since it was a stopping
place, and since Nakhlah refers to palm trees, it would seem it was a green environment. There were also
several idols located there. These were al-Uzza,407 Amm-Anas,408 and a sacred tree known as the great tree
at Hunayn called dhat anwdt.409
From Medina, the army traveled through the ijz until they were at a mine above al-Fur called
Burn. When they arrived at Nakhlah, a caravan of Quraysh went past him carrying raisins, leather, and
other goods in which Quraysh traded.410 From there, it was one days travel to the Harm area of the Holy
city. Other references to Nakhlah can be found in: al-abar 8:188 and 9:16.
406 abar Vol 7 page 18, and abar Vol 6 page 117
407 abar Vol. 8:187, and Hisham Ibn al-Kalbi, Book of Idols under Uzza as a she-devil which used to
frequent three trees in Nakhlah.
408 al-Kalbi, Book of Idols, under the topic of Amm-Anas
409 A tree on which date baskets, etc., are hung, Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the
Semites. First Series. The Fundamental Institutions, J. Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums 2, 36,
104-105
410 abar Vol. 7:18-19
253
To travel from if (Rum) to Mecca (Petra), one would have to climb an escarpment to the top. This es-
carpment has long been a border between civilizations. There are a variety of unexcavated ruins above
this escarpment which could have been Nakhlah.
Mushallal411 is a mountain or cliff top overlooking the Qudayd towards the coast. The word comes from
the Arabic root of Sh-L-L and means a seeping of water. The Book of Idols tells us that the Arab idol Ma-
nah412 was there, erected facing towards the sea (south). Mushallal was above Qudayd between Medina
and Mecca.
This fits a location beside the modern highway that drops from the highlands down to the low desert near
Naqb (Ras al-Naqb).
Today there is a farm oc-

cupying this spot, as it has
a permanent seep of water.
This water was collected
during earlier Nabataean
times and sent by a small
aqueduct to the city of Hu-
meima. Some years ago, I
attempted to visit this spot,
but the local Bedouin told
me not to visit there.
The owner of the property and others had been negatively affected by jinn or they had suffered from bad
dreams when they attempted to dig in the ruins. During the three years I spent surveying that area, I never
managed to visit this farm where the water seeps from the ground.413
I trust I have demonstrated that there are many locations in southern Jordan that fit the ancient descrip-
tions of places in early Islamic history. Hopefully, further archeological digs and discoveries can uncover
more evidence.
45. Public Baths
There are a number of hadiths that deal with Roman bathhouses. While most hadiths are against Muslims
using these bathhouses, there is one report that Muammad was in a bathhouse.
Anas b. Mlik has stated that I entered the public bath and saw the Messenger of God wearing a wrapper
and said: O Anas, I have forbidden entry to a public bath without a wrapper.414
411 abar Vol. 8:141

412 al-Kalbi, Book of Idols under Manah
413 GPS coordinates: 30 113.74N 352748.27E
414 Kamali, Mohammad Hashim, A Textbook of Hadith Studies, The Islamic Foundation, Page 196
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Dan Gibson
Most Muslim scholars object to this hadith, and claim it is not authentic since neither Mecca or Medina
had a Roman bathhouse. One might puzzle why there would even be hadiths about bathhouses, and why
a hadith would even place Muammad in one?
It is quite evident that there never was a Roman bathhouse in Mecca. No Roman ruins have ever been
found in Mecca. So was there a Roman bathhouse in Petra? The answer is yes, there were probably several
Roman bathhouses. But there is one in particular that is of interest. It is a Roman bathhouse located right
between the original Kaba area and the fortified Great Temple area where Ibn al-Zubayr most likely forti-
fied himself during the attack by the Syrian army. Trebuchet stones are found around this area.
When one considers the close proximity that the bathhouse had to the Kaba, it is no wonder that it was
the subject of theological consideration by Muammad as he sets out the rules and regulations of his new
religion.
Above: Gibson walks through the ruins of the Roman Bathhouse in Petra. Taken from the film: The Sacred
City. (Used with permission)
46 Arafah and Mn
There are a number of important locations around the Holy City that we have not yet located. Among
them are Mount Arafah, the plains of Arafah, Mn, the Uk Market and the camping area known as Dhu
al-Hulaifa. Muslims performed special rites at several places on their pilgrimage in order to gain merit
from Allah. During these rites, they were to visit these sacred spots, such as the Kaba, the two mountains
255
known as afa and Marwa as well as a place called Mn and a trek up Arafah mountain.415 They were
then to return to Mn, where they would throw stones at several pillars representing temptation and then
be dismissed from there.416
These special rites came from pre-Islamic times. The prophet Muammad performed these rites while still
a pagan, before he received his first visit from the angel Gabriel.417 The pilgrimage journeys and rites were
physically stressful, so people wanted to eat and drink along the way. Abu Dawood418 tells us:
Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas, Ibn Abbas recited this verse: It is no sin for you that you seek the bounty of
your Lord, and said: The people would not trade in Mn (during the hajj), so they were commanded to
trade when they poured off of Mount Arafat. And so a market was begun at the foot of Mount Arafat. It
became known as Dhu Al-Majz.419 unayn is a valley next to Dh al-Majz.
This market place was obviously inside of the harm area:
Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas, The people used to trade, in the beginning, at Mn, Arafat, the market place
of Dhul-Majaz, and during the season of hajj. But (later on) they became afraid of trading while they were
putting on ihram. So Allah, glory be to Him,
sent down this verse: It is no sin for you that
you seek the bounty of your Lord during the
seasons of hajj.420
Today, Mount Arafah (see right) is a low moun-

tain in Mecca, but I would like to suggest that
in Petra it was originally a very high mountain,
and the main object of the Hajj pilgrimage. After-
wards they would rush from the mountain down
to Mn.421
415 Bukhri 2:271: Narrated Muammad bin Abu Bakr Al Thaqafi, I asked Anas bin Malik while we were
proceeding from Mn to Arafat, What did you use to do on this day when you were with Allahs Apostle?
Anas said, Some of us used to recite Talbiya and nobody objected to that, and others used to recite Takbir and
nobody objected to that.
416 Stoning the jimr took place at Mn. Food was also given out at Mn, abar Vol. 6:23
417 The rites at Mn in pre-Islamic times: abar Vol. 6 pages: 12, 20, especially 22; 26, 119-120
418 Abu Dawood 700:
419 abar Vol. 9:2
420 Sunan Abu Dawood, 703
421 The pilgrims gathered in Mecca, went out to the mawqif (standing on Arafat) completed the pil-
grimage and went to Mn. abar Vol. 6:22
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Dan Gibson
Going to Arafah is referred to as mawqif, or a place of standing. Pilgrims would use the morning to climb
up Arafah and then stand between midday and sunset contemplating on the Day of Resurection, and then
rush422 to make their way back to Mn before it became totally dark and they were left on the mountain.423
During the descent from the mountain, many people lit torches to help light their way as they moved
slowly down the mountain.424 Fires were also lit along the Muzdalifah so that pilgrims could see where
they were to end up for the night.425 The word Muzdalifah means a slippery ramp, chute, or place of slid-
ing. This is an apt description of the ascent
going up and down Arafah mountain.
Today the principle focus is on the so called

plains of Arafah but this term was not
common in ancient literature, where the
name Arafah is usually used without any
descriptors. Instead, the Qurn refers to
the pilgrims pouring down from Arafah
through a narrow chute.426
The early records also mention that

Above: The Sacred Mountain in Petra, known today as Mount
Haroun was most likely the location of the original Mount
Arafah and the focus of the first pilgrimage
422 Fiqh us Sunnah - 5.100A Allah says in the Qurn (2.198): Then when you pour down from mount
Arafah, celebrate the praises of Allah at the Sacred Monument and celebrate His praises as He has directed
you, even though, before this, you went astray. Then pass on at a quick pace from the place whence it is usual
for the multitude to do so, and ask for Allahs forgiveness. And Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
423 This was followed by the ifadah or dispersal (with a suggestion of haste) to Mn. abar uses
nafr for dispersal instead of the more usual ifadah, and also has the singular Arafah instead of the
plural.
424 Bukhri 5:577 Narrated Hishams father. When Allahs Apostle set out (towards Mecca) during the
year of the Conquest (of Mecca) and this news reached (the infidels of Quraish), Abu Sufyan, Hakim bin
Hizam and Budail bin Warqa came out to gather information about Allahs Apostle. They proceeded on their
way till they reached a place called Marr-az-Zahran (which is near Mecca). Behold! There they saw many fires
as if they were the fires of Arafat. Abu Sufyan said, What is this? It looked like the fires of Arafat. Budail
bin Warqa said, Banu Amr are less in number than that.
425 abar Vol. 6:31 Al-Harith-Muammad b. Sad-Muammad b. Umar: Qusayy instituted the lighting of
the fire at al-Muzdalifah when the wuquf (standing) took place there,` so that those being driven away from
Arafah could see it. This fire continued to be lit in this place throughout the jahiliyyah. Al-Harith-Muammad
b. Sad-Muammad b. Umar and Kathir b. Abdallah al-Muzan1-Nafi (Abdallah) Ibn Umar: This fire was lit
in the time of the Messenger of God, and of Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman. Muammad b. Umar (al-Wagidi):
It is lit to this day.
426 Qurn (2.198) Afadtum is 4th form fa or fi.
257
Muammad preached on
Arafat.427 The assumption
is that he was on a plain
below the mountain when
he preached, but this is
not inferred in the original
texts. Jebal Haroun in Pe-
tra has a unique feature.
Just below the mountain
peak there is a large area
about 250 meters square,
(800 X 800 feet) with
outlying areas around it.
This would be an area
suffi
cient for thousands of
people who are standing
all afternoon, watching
the sun descend over the horizon. Remember that when Muammad described the pilgrimage, Muslims
were still a minority in Mecca. Those on the yearly pilgrimage would easily have fi t into this spot. There
is also a Byzantine church complex situated on this spot, (see the ruins on the left of the photo above)
presumably built in the 5th century.417 This competition for religious space might be one of the reasons
why there was confl ict between Muammad and Christians.
It is also interesting to note that boundary stones are associated with Arafah mountain.428 On the following
maps, you will see that Jebal Haroun is near the outer boundary of the sacred area in Petra.
At the top of Jebal Haroun is a Muslim shrine. This is what one would expect if this location is indeed
Arafah. Below the mountain is a location I believe is Mn. This was a place associated with camping,
slaughtering sacrifi ce, and throwing stones a pillars. I believe that this place was also located in Petra,
near the center of the valley close to Jebal Haroun (Arafah), which is south of the city.
427 Fiqh us Sunnah 5.94A Ibn Al-Mubarak reported from Sufyan Al-Thauri, he from Az-Zubair bin Ali,
and he from Anas bin Malik that he said: The Prophet (peace be upon him) spent the day at Arafah until
almost sunset. Then he said, O Bilal! Ask the people to be quiet and listen to me. Bilal stood up and asked
the people to be quiet and listen to the Prophet (peace be upon him). When the people were quiet, the Prophet
(peace be upon him) said: O People! A little while ago Gabriel (peace be upon him) came to me. Gave me
salutations from Allah, and informed me that Allah has forgiven those who spend the Day at Arafah, and those
who stop at Mashar al-Haram, and that He has guaranteed their debts.
428 Just before Islam, the Khuzaah in turn assaulted Salmi, Kulthdm, and Dhuayb, the sons of al-Aswad
b. Razn al-Dill-they were the leading men and dignitaries of the Band Bakr-and killed them at Arafah, by the
border markers of the sacred territory. abar Vol. 8 page 160-161
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Dan Gibson
The complex that I believe is Mn is an ancient large open place with several small buildings and a small
pillar(s) in the centre on a raised platform. It was known to Glueck, Horsfi eld, Conway, and others, but
little work has been done on this area. This complex was more recently surveyed by Kouki and Lavento.429
In 2015, it was surveyed by Sarah Parcak and Christopher A. Tuttle.430
Tuttle made four trips to this area after studying satellite photos to get an idea of the size and shape of the
monument. During these trips, they found an area that had been cleared and leveled, (similar to a football
fi eld). It was 56 meters by 49 meters. (184 feet x 160 feet). Considerable eff ort went into making this area
level, and paving it with large fl agstones. The area seems to have had several uses down through history,
as it was constructed in pre-Islamic times, and seemed to have been used for religious purposes, camping,
and even more recently as a threshing fl oor. These are

all characteristics of ancient Mn, which was a stopping
place for the pilgrims to throw stones at the Jamrat. It was
also a place where pilgrims erected tents and stayed the
night. There was also a market associated with this area
The small raised platform in the centre included at least
one column, as a remnant of a single drum was visible
buried one the west side. This drum is smaller than those
found in situ on the east side of the smaller platform.
(see right)
429 Kouki, P., and Lavento, M. 2013 Petra, the Mountain of Aaron: The Finnish Archaeo-logical Project in
Jordan, Vol. 3: The Archaeological Survey. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica
430 Hiding in Plain Sight: The Discovery of a New Monumental Structure at Petra, Jordan,Using World-
View-1 and WorldView-2 Satellite Imagery Author(s): Sarah Parcak and Christopher A. Tuttle Source: Bul-
letin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 375 (May 2016), pp. 35-51 Published by: The
American Schools of Oriental Research
259
47. The Markets
Early Islamic records such as Ibn Hisham, al-abar and others mention a number of markets that took
place in the wider regions of Mecca. I have counted eight of these markets, but there might have been
more. Some of these were annual markets, some weekly, and some were well established. Below I list the
markets and venture a guess as to where these might have been in the wider regions of Petra.
Uk
The Uk market was the most famous and important of all the annual fairs of the Arabs in pre-Islamic
times. (See EI,Vol 10 Page 789) It was situated between Nakhla and al-f in the territory of the Hawzin
tribe. References to Uk are scattered in the various sources.431
Along with two other fairs, Majanna and Dhu al-Majz, they were in the proximity of Mecca and were
held during the Sacred Months, presumably where there were pilgrims traveling to and from Mecca. Uk
market was the most important of the three, and was held in the month of Dhu al-Qada, just before the
start of the pilgrimage to Arafh and Mecca. The tribe of Tamm controlled some of Uks important
functions.
The word Ukz means a shepherds staff, so this may have begun as a large sheep and goat market,
serving the needs of pilgrims and worshippers. Although it was principally a fair for buying, selling and
the exchange of various commodities, Uk became a place where poets gathered and where Arabic lit-
erature received some development, where literary and other contests were held, and where covenants
and contracts were struck.
The sq (market) with its environs was the scene of some important historical events, such as the Fidjr
Dispute involving Quraysh and Hawzin. It also witnessed some historic visits such as the preaching of the
Prophet Muammad and the Christian Quss b. Sida said to have been the bishop of Nadjrn.
Badr
Badr was the location of one of the pre-Islamic Arab festivals. Every year an eight-day market was held.432
Camels were slaughtered and food and wine were plentiful. Singing girls performed there.433
Badr is described as a nights journey from the coast and at the junction of the main road from Medina and
the caravan route from Mecca to Syria. This was where the first great battle of Islam was fought during
the month of Ramadan (2 March 624).
According to this description, the Badr Market would have been at the junction of the road up from Aqaba
431 Such as: Ibn abb, K. al-Muabbar, ed. Ilse Lichtenstadter, aydarbd 1942, 263-8, and al-
Marzki, K. al-Azymina wa l-amkina, aydarbd, 1332/1914, i, 165-70; the best modern work is Said
al-Afghani, Aswak al-Arab, Damascus 1960, 277-343
260
Dan Gibson
where it joins the road through Wadi Rum, and makes its way up north: Approximately 294757.14N
351831.00E.
Dhu Al-Majz
We have already mentioned this market. It was inside of the harm area, as Sunan Abu Dawood434 tells
us that it was developed for people who were in the ihram state, and was held only during the season of
hajj. Because of its closeness to Mount Arafat, I have suggested that it took place near the farm at the foot
of Jebal Arafah (Jebal Haroun) near Petra. 30190.09N 352547.55E
Majannah
Little is known of Majannah. Al-abar435 tells us that Majannah is near Marr al-Zahran. Yaqut says: It was
one of the marketplaces in pre-Islamic Arabia near a mountain, called al-Asghar.436
ubshah Souk
Khadijah hired only the Messenger of God and another man from Quraysh to go to the market of Hubshah
in Tihmah (sea coast).437
434 Sunan Abu Dawood 703
435 abar Vol. 9: 38
436 Yaqut 283
437 abar Vol. 6:49
261
Nabataean Market
Al-abar makes only one mention of this market. Presumably it was close to the Holy City. The connec-
tion between the Holy City and a Nabataean market is striking, as Petra was the original capital city of
the Nabataeans.
Al-Hirith-Ibn Sad-Muammad b.Umar-Abd al-Salim b. Jubayr-his father: The Messenger of God had 7
milch camels which were kept at Dhu al-jadr and al-Jammi and their milk was brought to him. [One of
the] milch camels was called Muhrah. It was given by Sad b. Ubidah from the herd of the Banu Ugayl
and was abundant in milk. Al-Rayyd and al-Shagra were bought from the Banu Amir in the Nabatean
(al-Nabl) market. Al-Burdah, al-Samra, al-Axis, al-Yasirah, and al-Hanna were milked every night and
their milk was brought to him. The Prophets slave named Yasir [who looked after those camels] was killed
[during the Bedouins raid].438
48 Camping Spots
These are known as the five miqat or the Stations of Ihrm. The prophet Muammad assigned these loca-
tions, so that visiting pilgrims would know where to put up their tents. Once the pilgrims did their ritual
washing they would enter the state of Ihrm, wearing a pilgrims robe consisting of two seamless sheets
of cloth. This signified that they had entered into the sacred state or Ihrm (from the word harm or forbid-
den). The five stations or camping places were known as:
1. Dhu al-Hulaifa: This is the miqat for the residents of Medina and for those who approach the holy
city via the south.
2. Juhfah: This is the miqat for the people who come from Syria or from the north.
3. Qarn al-Manazil: This was a hilly place the east of the Holy City and is the miqat for the people
coming from that side.
4. Zat Irq: This is the miqat for the people of Iran, Iraq and for those coming from that direction.
5. Yalamlam: This is the miqat for the people of Yaman and others coming from that direction includ-
ing India, and the far east.
Since these assigned locations we designated for people living in tents, no archeological record remains.
The major concern of these areas would be that of access to water. Insufficient archeological survey and
excavation have taken place at Petra to accurately determine where these locations might have been, but
there are ample places that may have been used. For instance, Qarn al-Manazil would have been in the
hills above Wadi Musa. As we have seen, Dhu al-Hulaifa would have been at the base of Arafah Mountain,
for those coming up from Wasi Arab via that route. Juhfah was probably where the Bedul settlement is,
north of Petra. Hopefully further excavations will uncover where these locations may have been.
262
Dan Gibson
49. Islamic Petra
In this section I would like to point out locations around the city of Petra that I feel fit the Islamic descrip-
tions of ancient Mecca. While much of this is guesswork, I believe that this will demonstrate that many
of the geographical locations mentioned in early Islamic writings could be found in and around Petra. In
the list I provide the name of the location, GPS coordinates, and a number which is placed on a map of
Petra following this list. Then, following this, I provide a map of where the possible original pilgrimage
route might have been.
1. Kaba (301947.42N 352624.90E) A rectangular structure with the cube containing the Black
Stone. This was surrounded by a large courtyard which contained 360 idols around the outside. It was
most likely constructed after the earthquake of 519 which destroyed many of the churches and pagan
temples in Petra. The holy relics were brought into the centre of the city, to a place where nothing
could fall on them.
2. Roman Bathhouse (301945.71N 352626.10E) which caused Muammad problems, resulting in

his banning Muslims from using bathhouses.
3. Mn (301913.63N 352620.77E) The place of stoning. This is an open paved area with a single
pillar in the centre.
4. Marwa Mountian (301943.12N 352720.79E) This mountain has a processional path going up the
side, and a place where idols stood at the top.
5. afa Mountain (30205.97N 35267.44E) This mountain has a processional path going up the side,
and a place where idols stood at the top.
6. Road between Marwa and afa, used in the pilgrimage rites. (301944.83N 352635.56E) Today,
much of this is known as the Colonnaded Street.
7. Thaniya (1) (301921.93N 352720.58E) This crack in the rock is where pilgrims entered the city.
The processional way would have begun at the Al-Aqa gathering area in Jiranah (or Ain al Musa to-
day) and then followed the main road down into the valley passed Al-Adna and into the modern siq,
much as tourists walk today.
8. Thaniya (2) (301951.86N 35264.05E) This narrow canyon goes from Jebal abs down to the
Araba.
9. Thaniya (3) (301729.58N 35262.93E) al-Murar (Bitter Bush Pass) entering Petra from the south.
10. Mount Arafah the focal point of the early pilgrimage. (Mount Haroun today).
11. Mount ira (30204.72N 352740.96E) the area where the cave was located.
12. The cave (302011.37N 352732.87E) where Muammad received his vision.
13. Sacred Marker Stones - over 20 large stones located all around the holy precinct.
263
14. Well of Zamzam - located near the Kaba, now lost. This is a possible location, but the real location
may be covered up with rubble.
15. Lower Mecca (301935.48N 352627.71E) physically the lowest side of the city.
16. Upper Mecca (301951.27N 352636.92E) physically the highest side of the city.
17. Temple of al Uzza (301949.34N 352632.97E) known today as the Temple of the Winged Lions.
18. Temple of Dushara (301945.98N 352624.43E) known as Qasr al-Bint by locals.
19. Al-Hajun (30207.81N 352712.96E) the highest point in Mecca.
20. Slope of Kada (302044.62N 352735.60E) a mountain north of Mecca. (abar 8:163, 176)
21. Fields where Abdulla the father of Muammad, possibly tilled. (302125.43N 352636.31E)
22. Southern city walls. (301932.01N 352623.95E)
23. Northern city walls. (30203.44N 352655.22E)
24. Trebuchet stones found. (between 301946.42N 352626.26E and 301944.56N 352631.08E)
25. Where trebuchet could have attacked from. (301950.41N 352625.89E)
26. Rainwater passage where Muammad ran between Marwa and afa. (301945.62N 352635.11E)
27. Churches (301950.91N 352639.53E) where Muammad would have met Christians.
28. Dhu al-Majz Market.
29. Dhu al-Hulaifa camping spot.
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265
266
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267
268
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269
50. Qarmatian rebellion
Sometimes Muslims have argued with me that there would have been a massive backlash against mov-
ing the Qibla. However, as the most zealous men would have been in armies, slowly being reduced in
numbers and replaced by younger converts from new lands, there was not a strong cohesive group in the
first century of Islam. As time passed, many revolts arose against Abbsid rule, especially the eighth and
ninth centuries. By 890 CE (277 AH) dissatisfaction with the Abbsid changes to Islam grew in central
Arabia, giving room for Sha Ismli groups to propagate their teachings. They taught that the pilgrimage
to Mecca in Saudi Arabia was simply a superstition, and so they desired to build a Muslim society based
on reason and equality.
The Muslim world at this time was economically successful and wealthy, based largely on a huge slave-
based economy.439 In 899 CE, the Qarmatians took control of Barains capital Hajar, and also the city of
al-Hasa which became the capital of their state. The Qarmatians tried to convince fellow Muslims from
going to Mecca. Sometimes they physically tried to stop them from going to Mecca for the pilgrimage.
They so vehemently opposed pilgrimages to Mecca that in 906 CE they began ambushing caravans and
massacring pilgrims. Then in 927 CE they sacked Mecca, desecrated the Well of Zamzam with corpses
of ajj pilgrims, and then removed the Black Stone and took it to Al-Hasa. That finally put an end to the
pilgrimage to Saudi Arabia. In 931 CE, the Qarmatian chose a new Mahd-Caliph who set about abolishing
Shara law, and changing the qibla direction yet again.
Since the original ancient qibla was lost, the Qarmatians instituted a new qibla that required the faithful to
always pray towards fire. When the new Mahd-Caliph began to curse Muammad and the other prophets,
instituting a number of strange new ceremonies as well as executing some of the nobles, the Qarmatians
decided their new Mahd-Caliph was an imposter and they killed him.
With the Black Stone in captivity the pilgrimages halted. Islam was in crisis. In 952 CE the Abbsids agreed
to pay a huge sum for the return of the stone. When they received it back, it had been broken into several
pieces.440 When it was returned, it was wrapped in a sack and thrown into the Friday Mosque of Kfa ac-
companied by a note saying By command we took it, and by command we have brought it back.441
After a defeat at the hands of the Abbsids in 976 CE the Qarmatians focused on internal issues and slowly
their status was reduced to that of a local power.
According to the Arabist & historian Curtis Larsen, this had important repercussions for the Qarmians
ability to extract tribute from the region and slowly their finances failed.442
Eventually the Qarmatians were expelled from Iraq by the Buyids (985 CE) and they faded from history.443
439 Nakash, 2006, Reaching for Power: The Shia in the Modern Arab World
440 Encyclopedia Britannica, 2007, Meccas History
441 Glasse, 2001, page 245,
442 Larsen, 1984, page 65, Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands
443 Busse, 1975, Iran under the Buyids and Muir, 1915, pages 558-562
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Dan Gibson
Conclusion
When I first arrived in the Middle East in January

1979, I had no idea that I would become consumed
with a study of the geography of early Islam. I origi-
nally focused on Arabic language studies and im-
mersed myself in the various cultures and peoples of
the Arabian Peninsula. But early on in my first year
in Arabia, Dr. George E. Kelsey, an archeologist and
mentor asked me to take some visiting historians to
the ancient city of Petra. That trip opened my eyes to
the richness of the history around me and the mystery
and intrigue that surrounded the ancient city of Petra.
In the following years, I made over 60 visits to Petra
taking people of all types including medical doctors,
all sorts of engineers, and even a plumber. He was very
interesting as he pointed out things I had not noticed
Above: Author in 1979
about the waterworks around Petra. In the following
years, I traveled extensively through Syria, Yemen, Oman, the Gulf countries, Saudi, and even into the
Empty Quarter, eventually returning to Jordan with a contract to work with the Ministries of Tourism and
Antiquity, producing materials that would bridge the gap between academics and tourists.
But it wasnt until Muslim friends began to challenge me to read the Qurn in Arabic that I began to have
questions about geography. As I read, I could see the scenes unfolding, but so much of the story seemed
to be centered on northern Arabia. After years of considering this, and taking down notes and comments,
I wrote my initial thoughts in the book: Qurnic Geography, published in 2010.
In 2013, I began writing a script for a documentary film that would address the question: Where was the
original Masjid al-arm? When that film came out (The Sacred City), people started to ask additional
questions, so in 2016, I began to write a series of papers to address these issues. As I wrote, many fellow
academics provided information and advice. I am deeply indebted to each of them, and have tried to list
them in the Dedication and Acknowledgements at the beginning of this book.
I sincerely trust that this book have answered many of your questions. At the same time, I am sure that
more questions are being raised. This is what academia thrives on. Many people looking at the same thing
from different angles.
In closing, I would like to draw your attention to an old Muslim man, centuries ago, sitting in Damascus
wailing about the changes that were being introduced into Islam. While most of the men who started out
with Muammad had long since died in battle, he remembered back to the days when a different Islam
was practiced in Arabia. Two Bukhri hadiths are below from Al-Bukhri : Volume 1:507
Narrated by Ghailan: Anas said, I do not find things as they were at the time of the Prophet. Somebody said
The prayer is as it was. Anas said, Have you not also done to the prayer what you have done?
271
Narrated by Az-Zuhri when he visited Anas bin Malik at Damascus and found him weeping and asked him why
he was weeping. He replied, I do not know anything which I used to know during the lifetime of Allahs Apostle
except this prayer which is being lost (ie. not offered as it should be).
I feel sorrow for those Muslims who want to go back to the Islam that the prophet brought to them. As
Anas bin Balik reveals to us, everything had changed. Up until now, most Muslims never imagined what
fantastic things might have changed. Today we realize that this even included the location of Masjid al-
arm! How does this change impact the validity of Muslim prayers, their pilgrimage, or even if their
food is Hall? As one Muslim man asked me, The Qurn commands us to face Masjid al-arm. Who had
the authority to change it to Saudi Arabia? This indeed is a troubling question. If the rebel Ibn al-Zubayr
changed it without the permission of the ruling caliphs, then how can it be valid today? Does this not in-
validate everything in Islam that deals with the Qibla? This is a difficult time for Islam.
What does all of this mean? I have no idea; I was simply asked by friends to read the Qurn and give my
thoughts. Now I realize that Muslims will have to choose. Do they still follow the current teachings of
Islam and face the Black Stone in Mecca? Or should they choose a different path? The question now is:
How will individual Muslims respond? I trust that Muslims everywhere will be free to search for their own
understanding of Islamic history, and be free to follow their convictions.
272
Dan Gibson
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http://mousaler.com/anjar/ruins/data/excava.html
http://nabataea.net/games1.html
http://petranationaltrust.org/UI/ShowContent.aspx?ContentId=57
http://petrapark.com
http://TheSacredCity.ca
http://www.stoa.org/sol/
http://stpt.ca/islam.html
http://whc.unesco.org
http:/wikihow.com/Tell-Time-Without-a-Clock
http://www2.iath.virginia.edu:8080/exist/cocoon/xwomen/texts/hanshu/tpage/tocc/bilingual
286
Dan Gibson
Film
The Sacred City
http://thesacredcity.ca
In 2016 Glasshouse Media (UK) produced an 85 minute documentary film on Dan Gibsons theory.
Beautifully filmed in the Middle East, The Sacred City is a detective story that investigates the dawn of
Islam, uncovering evidence that is shaking the Muslim world. Using satellite imaging and the latest tech-
nologies Canadian historian Dan Gibson has uncovered compelling evidence that challenges traditional
accounts of how Islam began.
Gibson suggests the Islamic holy city of Mecca came later in history, and that the worlds 1.6 billion
Muslims are praying in the wrong direction. The Qurn commands them to pray towards the forbidden
gathering place. Gibson provides archeological and historic evidence that this place is not in Mecca in
Saudi Arabia.
In this startling and original documentary, writer and historian Dan Gibson demonstrates that descrip-
tions of Mohammeds original holy city as detailed in the Qurn and Islamic histories, do not match that
of the Mecca we know today. Then using the Qibla direction of the first ancient mosques, Gibson discovers
the location of the original forbidden gathering place.
This film sets out evidence from within Islamic sources while also using modern technologies - to track
down the biggest secret of the last fifteen hundred years. Gibson not only finds the location of the original
Mecca but also provides a convincing argument as to how such a great misunderstanding in Islamic his-
tory came about.
While clearly controversial, The Sacred City is respectful of Islam but shows how a deliberate attempt was
made to hide secrets that impact every Muslim today. The evidence is compelling and fascinating. In a
time when the worlds agenda is being set by Islam, it is important for the origins and history of this world
religion to be examined afresh. This is a ground breaking documentary film with world-wide appeal for
both religious and secular audiences.
The Sacred City is available for sale on the Internet and through a number of internet film providers. It
has been translated into numerous languages. These can be found on YouTube, and listed on the Sacred
City website.
287
Symbols Algeria 32
Al-ajjj bin Yousif Al-Thaqfi 32, 43, 44, 70, 128
224 degrees 139 Al-Hajun 264
360 idols 181, 263 Al-Harm al-Sharf, 33
al-Hasa 182, 270
al-Hasan al-Basrl 133
A al Hijr 195
Abbas 35 Ali ibn Ab lib 173, 181
Abbsid 237, 243 Al-Jh 150
Abbsid farmhouses 208 al Jazrah 212
Abbsid rulers 181 Allat 195, 250, 251
Abbasids 51, 84, 179, 228 al-Mahd 59, 84
Abbasid writers 228 Al-Manr 84
Abdallh ibn Zubayr 37, 96, 128, 181 al-Marid Castle 23
Abdallh, the father of Muammad 183 al-Murar 263
Abd al- Malik 48, 54, 175 al-Mutawakkil 105
Abd al-Mas al Kind 179 Al-Sffa 84
Abd al-Rahman I, 96 al-Umawi al-Kabr 129
Abraham 185 al-Uzza 195, 196, 253
Abraham of Tiberias 179 al-Wald 46, 48
Ab al-Abbs al-Saffh 209 al-Wqid 239
Abu Bakr 181, 210, 243 Aminah 183
Abu Dawood 256 Amm-Anas 253
Abu Dulaf Mosque 105, 130 Amman 60, 128
Ab anfa 229 Amman Airport 76, 129
Ab Jafar al-Manr 209 Amman citadel 36, 67, 130
Ab Lissan 213 Amman Umayyad Mosque 36, 67
Ab lib 220 Amm-Anas 253
Abu Waqqas, 19 Ammon 189
accuracy of Google Earth 115, 130 Amr ibn -Al-As 30
Ad 189, 190 Anbar 84
Afsir Ibn Kathr 154 Anjar 53, 122, 129
Aga Khan Trust for Culture 122 Anjar Palace Mosque 53, 129
Aghlabid amir Abu Ibrahim Ahmed 70 Ansaq Friday Mosque 109
Amad ibn Mjid al-Najd 139 Anr 205, 206, 241, 242, 243, 245
Ahmad ibn ln 108 Aqaba 242, 241-244, 249
Aila 243, 248, 249 Aqaba market 245
Ain Shallaal 253 Araba Valley 191
Al-abwan al-thalathah 130 Arab Calendar 156
Al-Adna Mosque 239 - 240 Arab compass 147-9, 167, 171
Al-Aqa 3, 33, 47-48, 50, 129, 135, 238-240 Arabia Deserta 237
Al-Azrak 212 Arabia Felix 237
al-Bayh 183, 204, 241, 253 Arabia Petraea 237
al-Baih Neolithic village 183 Arabic 238
Al Bald Mosque 130 Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean 139
Al-Bald Mosque 111 Arafah mountain 185, 255-256
al-Balqa 205 Arafah, plains of 257
Al-Battanai 79 Aramaic 237, 238
Al-Blruni 134 Arava Valley 87
Aleppo 55 archnet.org 2, 17, 18, 20, 24, 26, 27, 30, 33, 39, 41,
Alexandrian library 230 45, 48, 51, 52, 54, 56, 58, 62, 64, 65, 68, 70, 72,
Al Farhdi 146 75, 77, 80, 81, 82, 84, 91, 92, 95, 97, 99, 101,
al-Fusa 108 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 121
Asnaq 109, 130
288
Dan Gibson
ASTER 120, 124 C

astrolabe 158-9, 160
Ayn al-Jarr 54, 122 Caetani 48
Ayyubid 58 Cairo 108, 130
azlams 202 Caliph Abd al-Malik 33
Azraq, 239 Caliph Ab Bakr 172
Caliph al-Mahd 48
B caliph al-Mamun 108
Caliph al-Manr 82
Baalbeck 71, 129, 176 Caliph al-Wald 15, 54
Babylonians 170 Caliph al-Wald I 39
Bacca (Becca) 184-5 Caliph al-Wald II 77
Badr 260 caliphate of al-Zhir 98
Bghdad 59, 79, 82, 84, 98 Caliph Hrn al-Rashd 65
Barain 56, 182, 270 Caliph Hrn al-Rashd 81
Banbhore Mosque 63, 130, 179 Caliph Hishm 65, 73
Bannister, Andrew G 9 Caliph Marwn II 78
Banu Lihyan 203 Caliph Umar 173, 231
Bar Hebraeus 230 Caliph Umar bin Abdul-Azz 23, 28, 56
bash values 150 Caliph Umar letter 230
Bara 82, 177 Caliph Uthmn ibn Affn 12, 173
Baths 254 Caliph Wald 177
Batra 204 Caliph Yazid 173
Battle for Mecca 205 Caliph Yazid II 58
Battle of the Trench 202, 222 Caliph Yazd II 227, 231
Battle of Yamama 232 Caliph Abd al-Malik b. Marwn 180
Battle with Banu Lihyan 203 camels 213
beacon 165 camping Spots 262
Beer Ora Qiblatain 87 Canopus 133
Beirut 54 cartographic evidence 226
Belmonte, Juan Antonio 9 Casson, Lionel 245-6
Benu Lihyan 204 cave of ira 215, 263
Berenice 246, 247 celestial bearings 171
between 9, 44, 49, 57, 58, 61, 65, 71, 78, 79, 91, 113, center of the trade route 220
128-9, 176 Cheraman Juma 22, 128
Bibi Khanum Mosque 94 Chhien Hans Shu 136, 157
Bibi Samarkand 94, 129 China 19, 75, 80, 128, 156
Biskra 32 Chinese envoys to Arabia 137
Bitter Bush Pass 207, 263 Chinese script 2
Black Rock 177-9, 180 Chin Shu 137, 157
Black Rock moved 179 Chou Pei Suan Ching 161
Black Stone 21, 179, 200, 223 chronometers 143
Black Stone broken 182, 270 Chu Fan Chih 137
bone collection and burial 197-8 Cicero 157
Book of Idols 250, 253 civil war 178
Bora 57, 58, 129 clay 183
Bowhar 88, 129 Colonnaded Street 263
British Museum 170 columbarium 168
Brown University 215 Columbus, Christopher 156
Bukhr 14, 186, 190, 191, 192, 193, 196, 201, 215-6, compass 11, 160
222, 223, 229, 232, 234, 238, 239 257, 271 Continuatio Byzantia Arabica 73, 179, 221, 225
Buwaihid Shiite dynasty 98 Crdoba 96, 130
Buyids 182, 270 Cordova 59
Byzantine army 205 Corpus Hermeticum 79
Byzantine Church 25 crescent symbol 218
Byzantine church complex 258 Creswell 30, 43, 84
Byzantine Church in Petra 200 Crone-Cook 30, 43
289
Crone, Patricia 44, 220 Fiqh us Sunnah 186, 187, 239, 250, 257, 258
Ctesiphon 231 Flavius Philostratus 157
cursus publicus 164-5 folk astronomy 127
Cyprus 31 Fourier analysis 170
Friday Mosque of Isfahan 92
D Friday Mosque of Kfa 182
Dadanitic 237 Fusa 30
Dallal, Ahmad 127 G
Damascus 13, 28, 49, 50, 58, 82, 129, 173, 176, 177,
178, 228 Gabriel 256
Damghan 45, 129 Galilee region 40
DaQin 212 game boards 201
arba 144 Garnier, Sbastien 9
Dawmat al Jandal 23 Gaza 144
Dead Sea 164 General Amrou 230
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 230 Gerrha 211
Dhofar 93, 112 Gibbon, Edward 230
Dhu al-Hulaifa 255, 262, 264 god Ares 225
Dhu Al-Majz market 260-1, 264 god-blocks. 196, 225
Dio Cassius 157 god Hermes 79
districts of Mecca 223 god Thoth or Tehuti 79
Dome of the Rock 33 Google Earth 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 124
droughts in Syria 178 Gospels 234
Dushara 195 graffiti 209
Grand Hussein Mosque 60, 129
E grapes 222
Earthdatas ASTER 115, 120 Great Mosque at Crdoba 70
earthquake 177-9, 180, 188, 215 Great Mosque at Qayrawn 70
eclipses of the su 157 Great Mosque at Quanzhou 80
Edict of Yazd 231 Great Mosque in Raqqa 91
Edom 189, 243 Great Mosque in Smarra 105
Edomite mountains 225 Great Mosque of Crdoba 96
Edomites 190 Great Mosque of Damascus 123
Egeb Gezer 245 Great Mosque of Guangzhou 80
Egra 198 Great Mosque of Kairoua 100
Egypt 108, 247 Great Mosque of Smarra 102
Egypt, warehouses 230 Great Mosque of Shibm 81
Egyptian patriarch 230 Great Mosque of Shibm Aqyan 107
Elacqua, Joseph P. 9 Great Mosque of Ssa 103, 130
Elath 245, 249 Great Mosque of Xian 75
Emigrants 205 Great Temple 215
Encyclopedia of Islam 1 great tree at Hunayn 253
Enoch in the Bible 79 Greek 238
Expedition of al-Sawiq 222 Greenwich 143
Expedition to Al Abwa 222 Guangzhou 19, 128
Expedition to al-Qaradah 222 Guillaume 183 , 200, 215
Expedition to Uud 222 Gulf of Aqaba 249
Ezon Geber 249 H
F adth 236, 237
Fahraj 110, 130 Haramitic 237
family tombs 198 Hafezk, K. Chehab 122
Fars, Saba 9 Hagar 185, 189
Faima Mosque 58 Hajar 182, 270
Fenghuang Mosque 80 ajj 190
ajjj 44, 113, 128, 172, 175, 176, 177, 178, 181,
290
Dan Gibson
204, 205 Iran 45, 92, 109, 110, 129

ajjj edited Quran 179 Iraq 27, 43, 59, 82, 83, 98, 102, 105
ajjj Mosque 43, 129 iba 140, 143, 144, 147, 149, 162, 163
ajjjs Qurans 179 Isq 191, 193, 220
ajj and umra, 191 ishrt 138, 139, 148, 162, 163, 165, 171
Hala Sultan Tekke 31 Ishfan 92
Hama 25, 128 Ishmael 185, 189, 190
Hammam Majak 58 Islamic Petra 27, 263
Hanafi 95 Ismli 181
Han Empire 157 isnd 236
Hangzhou 80 Israel 33, 40, 47, 51, 87, 129
Han shu 137
aramitic 237 J
Harran 78 Jabal Al-Lawz 161
arrn 78, 79, 129, 176 Jabal Sawda 161
Hasan ibn Al 173 Jabal Warrab 161
Hayr al Gharbi 61, 129, 176 Jabal Werqaan 161
Hayr al Sharqi 65, 129, 176 Jbir ibn Hayyn 79
Hermes Trismegistus 79 Jafr 211, 212
high and low side 190 Jahiliyya 187
ijz 253 Jamaica 156
Hill, John 137, 158, 211, 212 Jami al-Bwab al-Thalathah 106
Hipparchus 158 Jmi al Kabr 107
ira 84, 191, 216 Jmi al-Umawi al-Kabr 49
ira, pagan images 216 Jmial Umawi al Kabr 55
Hishm Ibn Abd al-Mali 51, 217 Jami al-Yunus 27
Holland, Richard 169 Jmi al-Zaytuna 69, 130
Hou Han Shu 136, 137, 211, 157, 212 Jmi Hama alKabr 25, 128
Hourani, Albert 145 Jmi Masjid of Banbhore 64
Howara 35 Jmi Uqba Ibn Nafi 100, 130
Hoyland, Robert 48 Jamrat 259
Huaisheng Mosque, Light Tower 19 Janad Mosque 18
Huajuexiang Mosque 75 Jawf 211
ubshah market (Souk) 261 Jebal Haroun 163, 258
Hughs Dictionary of Islam 243 Jebal Marwn 191
Hui people 75 Jebal Quways 245
Huma al-Numr 180 Jebel an Nabi Shuayb 161
Humeima 34, 128, 208, 253 Jebel Rum 253
Hussein 50, 177 Jericho 51, 129
I Jerusalem 11, 33, 43, 44, 47, 48, 129, 135, 164, 165,
195, 240
Iberian Peninsula 96 Jiranah 239, 240
Ibn Abbas 133 Joannes Grammaticus 159
ibn-al-Kalbi 195 Jobs Tomb Shrine 93
Ibn al-Qifti 230 John of Niki 73
Ibn al-Zubayr 28, 46, 128, 173, 174, 175-178, 272 John Philoponos of Alexandria 159
Ibn Baa 46 John the Baptist 49, 55, 79
Ibn Hishm 189, 195, 200, 216, 229, 234 Jordan 60, 67, 76, 128, 129, 130
Ibn Isq 215, 223, 229, 243, 245, 249 Jordanian Ministry of Antiquities 5
Ibn Suraaqa 133 Jordan Valley 51
Ibn ln Mosque 108, 130 Jowatha Mosque 21
Ibra Mosque Niche, Oman 46 jugglers 137
Idris in the Koran 79 Juhfah 262
India 22, 94, 128
Indian Ocean 111 K
Internet Sites 286 Kab 135, 164
291
Kaba 13, 14, 174, 176, 190, 201, 224, 236, 245, 255, Leuce Come 243, 245, 246-9
263, 264 Leucos Limen 246
Kaba burns 177 Liange Shu 137, 157
Kaba destroyed 174, 177 Light Tower Mosque 19
Kaba foundation 175 Litani River 54
Kaaba rebuilt 174 Literary vacuum 230
Kaba in Petra 180 Little Petra 241
Kaba rebuilt 177 longitude 143
Kairoua Mosque. 100 Longjohn, Gerald 9
kaml 142 Lord of the Corner and the Station 178
Kaminahu 210 Lot 185
Kawkaban 107 Lots cave 228
Kmiyya 98 Lower Mecca 264
Kelsey, George E. 9, 271 lunar calendar 133
Kerak 205 lunar eclipse 157
Kerr, Robert M. 237 Lunar eclipses 156
Khlids pilgrimage 210, 211, 214 lunar mansion 150, 153
Khriji 84 Lunar time 151-2
Khaybar 204, 205
Khelifa, Ahmed Amine 10
Khirbat al-Mafjar 51, 129 M
Khirbat al Minya 40, 129 Maan 204, 208, 211
Khirbit al Minya 129 Mabrak Mosque 58
Khwarazm 92 Macdonald, Michael 210
Kilabiyah 21 Machaerusm 165
King Abamar Saqid. 210 Macoraba 73, 221
King Abdullah I 60 Madaba map 227
King Ammiyitha 210 Madain Salih 195
King and Hawking 127 Majanna fair/market 260-1
King Aretas of Petra 165 Mahd-Caliph 182, 270
King, David 127, 131 majra 138, 139, 162, 171
Kingdom of Haram 209 Makoraba 73. 221
Kingdom of Inabba 210 Malichus 247
kingdom of Nashan 210 Malik Deenar 22
King Herod 165 Mamlks 26
King Maadikarib Raydan. 209 Manah 254
Kings Highway 247 Manama 56
King Waqahil Yafush 210 Manat 195
King Yaharil 209 Mandaians of Iraq 79
Kirkbride-Helbaek, Diana 183 manjanik 176, 215
Kitb al-Fawid fi uul al-bar wal-qawid. 139 marker stones 200
Kitb al-Trkh wa al-Maghazi 239 Markets 260
Kotyk, Jeffrey 9 Marwa 185, 186-7, 256, 263
Kufa 177 Marwa and afa 185, 263
Kfa 28, 64, 82, 83, 178, 179, 209 Marwn 46
Kut 43 Marwn II 78
L Masjid al arm 3, 5, 114, 181, 185, 200, 271, 272
Masjid al arm built 180
Lake Tiberias 40 Masjid al Jmi 92
large armies of Mecca 222 Masjid al Khamis 56
Larnaca 31 Masjid al-Qiblatain 17
Larsen, Curtis 182 Masjid i Jmi Fahraj 110
Latin 238 Masjid i Tarik Khana 45, 129
latitude 143 Masjid Kfa 28
Lebanon 53, 71, 129 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 2, 122
Leo III 179 mathematical solutions 169, 171
292
Dan Gibson
mathematics 169 Mount Hermon 161

Mathieu Ossendrijver 170 Mount ira 191, 217, 263
Maximus of Tyre 225 Mount Nebo 163
Mecca 63, 67, 102, 105, 108, 109, 130, 172, 173, 176, moving of the Qibla 16
179, 182, 191, 210, 236, 242, 243, 250, 270 Muawiya 30, 173
Mecca blessed with water 223 Muwiyah ibn Yazd 173
Mecca, conquest 191 Muammad 50, 73, 170, 177, 181, 183, 190, 204, 215,
Mecca, first mention 6, 73 228, 232, 240, 241, 256, 258, 263, 271
Mecca glens, grass 223 Muammad ibn Qasim 63
Mecca, highest point 264 Muammads family 177, 209
Mecca missing 221 Mujam al-Buldan 204
Mecca Ottoman Ajyad Fortress 219 Murar Pass 207
Mecca Qibla 177, 179, 181 Musab ibn al-Zubayr 175, 178
Mecca, trees 223 Muscat 88
Mecca valley 187 Mushallal 254
Medain li 198, 209 Mushatta Palace 76, 129
Medina 3, 15, 50, 173, 178, 202, 204, 205, 228, 236, Muta 206
249 Mutan 205
Methala, Kerala 22, 128 Mutim al-Tayr 187
Midian 189 Muza 248
Midianites 190 Muzdalifah 257
mihrab 24, 46, 52, 178 Myos Hormo 246-7
Mihrab Introduced 6, 46
Mn 206, 242, 244, 255, 256, 258, 259, 263 N
Minaean 237 Nabataean Market 262
Ming Dynasty 80 Nabataean merchant 138, 157
Ming Shih, 137 Nabataean pilgrimage 198
miqat 262 Nabataeans 190, 195, 213, 225, 228, 252
missing year 178 Nafud Desert 205
Mongols 79 Nahlik Mujawid al-Rih 187
Moschus, John 48 Najran 249
Mosoul 27 Nakhb (Naqb) 250, 253
Mosque of Abu Dulaf 105 Nakhlah 253, 254
Mosque of al-Khider 58 Nalanda University 231
Mosque of Bora 57, 129, 176 nautical manuals 160
Mosque of ibn Khayrn 106 navigation 133
Mosque of Manr 82 navigators mind 162
Mosque of Rufa 59 Needham, Joseph 136
Mosque of Smarra 130 Negev 87, 209
Mosque of Sidi Uqba 100 Negev, Avraham 197
Mosque of the Prophet 15 Neolithic settlement, 241
Mosque of the Prophet Yunus 27 Nestorian Stone 137
Mosque of the Three Doors 106 Neumann, Andreas 10
Mosque of Umar 58 New Testament 233
Mosque of Umar. Caliph Umar 58 Newton, Issac 169
Mosque of Umar Ibn al-Khattb 23 Night of asba 190
Mosque of Uqba Ibn Nafi 100 Nshpr 59
Mosques that point between 9 North African mosques 106
Mosques that point parallel 9 North Arabia 190
Mosques that point to Mecca 9 northern Arabia 189
mosques that point to Petra 8 North Pole 150
Mother of All Cities 219 North Star 144, 148, 163, 167
Mountain Peaks 160 Numayrid 79
mountains 171 Nur al Din 79
mountains of Moab 164 Nur al-Din 91
Mount Arafah 200, 201, 256, 263 Nuzi map 226
Mount Haroun 165, 263
293
O Qarmatian 56, 224, 229, 270, 181, 182

Qarn al-Manazil 262
Oakes, Richard 10 Qasr al Bint 264
Obelisk Tomb 198 Qar al Hayr al Gharbi 61
Obsequentis 157 Qar al- Hayr al Sharqi 65, 129
Oleson, J.P. 34 Qar Humeima 34, 128
Oman 88, 89, 93, 111, 129, 130 Qar Ukhaydir 83
Omar 181 Qataban 144
Qatabnian, 237
P Qayrawn 100, 106, 130
Pakistan 63, 130 Qayrawn Mosque 100
Palestine 177 Qibla 8, 16, 131, 135, 175
Palmyra 61, 65, 195 Qibla change 172
parallel 9, 70, 85, 100, 103, 113, 130 Qibla data 7
Parker, Jerome 10 Qibla Misunderstanding 127
Pei Shih 137 Qiblas that pointed to Petra 10
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 246 Qibla survey 1
Petra 5, 53, 128, 163, 173, 183, 190, 198, 204, 207, Qibla, erratic 113
208, 209, 249, 250, 258, 260 Qiblatain Mosque 17
Petra churches 264 Qing dynasty 75
Petra city walls 264 Qub mosque 3, 12-4
Petra missing 199 Qurn 73, 190, 231
Petra monuments 196 Qurn assembled 232
Petra Nymphaeum 184 Qurnic Geography 1, 37, 114, 121, 131, 138, 172,
Petra pilgrimage 181, 189, 212-3, 234, 236, 249, 271
Petra Qibla 172, 177 Quraysh tribe 208, 233
Petra scrolls 200 Quseir 246
Petra valley 187 Quseir al-Qadm 246
petroglyphs 251
phases of the moon 151 R
Philadelphia 60 Rabbah Moab 205
Philosophoumena 225 rahmnis 160
Phoenician alphabet 155 rainfall 222
pigeons 168 rain-water collection system 138, 213, 214
pilgrimage 182, 196, 258 rain water passage 193, 264
pilgrimages halted 182 Raqqa Mosque 91, 129, 176
pistachio tree 184 Ras al Naqab 204, 253-4
Pledge of Aqaba 243 rebuilt facing Mecca 8
Pliny 157 Red Sea 141, 142, 246, 247, 249
Pliny the Elder 144 reformers 229
Plutarch 157 Regiomontanus 169
poetry 144, 145, 146, 147 Rhind Mathematical Papyrus 169
Pole Star 142, 150, 151, 163 rhumb line 167
Portolan Method 167 rhythm 144
Prophets Mosque 46 Rib 85
protractor 143 Rib Fortress 70, 85, 103
Ptolemy 73 Rippin, Andrew 9
Ptolemy, Claudius 158 Roman army 205
Ptolemys Geography 221 Roman bath 236, 255, 263
Ptolemys map 226 Roman Empire 237
Pythagoras 161 Roman province of Syria 136
Pythagorean theorem 164 Rufa 59, 65
Pythagorean Theorem 161
S
Q
Sabaean 237
Qadisiyyah 231 Sabian 78, 79
294
Dan Gibson
sacred area 200 star names 148

sacred geography 132-3 Stations of Ihrm 262
Sacred House 185 stereographic projection 158
sacred Mmrker stones 263 Stirling, James 169
sacred tree 253 Strabos Geography 245, 249
afa 185-6, 187, 256, 263 strip of silk 174
afa and Marwa 190, 193, 256 Suda Lexicon 73, 179, 221, 225
afaitic 238 Suintila 73
aaba 177 Sulaimn al-Mahri 149
a al-Tirmidhi 223 Sumail Omani Mosque 89, 129
Sah Ramdah Mosque 88, 129 Sunan Ab Dawood 189, 256, 261
Saladin 50 Sung Shih 137
al al-Dn 50 Sung Shu 137, 157
allah 93, 111, 130 Suq al-Khamis 56
allah Al Bald Mosque 111 Susa Mosque 85, 96, 103, 130
Salmn the Persian composed the Qurn 179 Synesius of Cyrene 159
Samarkand, Uzbekistan 94, 129 Syria 25, 49, 55, 57, 61, 65, 73, 91, 128, 129
Smarra 102, 105, 130 Syriac 238
same Qibla as you 178 Syrian armies 178
an 38, 107, 129
an Grand Mosque 38 T
Sassanian construction 45 abar 15, 46, 48, 135, 168, 173, 175, 176, 178, 179,
Saudi Arabia 21, 23 189, 199, 203, 205, 207, 210, 220, 222, 231,
science of qiys 139 235, 236, 241, 243, 245, 249, 253, 256, 257,
Second Temple period. 197 260, 261
Seeing Islam as Others Saw It 48 taf la 144
Seir 189 if 175, 235, 249-1, 253, 254
Seljuk 92, 99 Taiz 18
Severus Sebokht 159 Tamerlane 94
Shafii 95 Tamurlane 27
Shaikh Nar bin Al al Hauri 160 Tang dynasty 75
Sham 14 Trkh al-ukam 230
Shanfara of Azd 146 Tarik Khana 45
Sharon 87 temple of al Uzza 264
Sheikh Shakhbut bin Sultan Al Nahyan 9 temple of Dushara 181, 264
Shibm 81 temple of Sin 78
Shibm Aqyan 107 temple of the Winged Lions 264
Shibam in Yemen 116 Teyma 198
Shibm Palace 81 Thamud 189, 190, 252
Shih Chi 136, 157 Thamudic 238
Shiite 98 Thang Shu 137
Shrine of Kmiyya 98 Thang Shu, Hsin 137
Shunayziyyah cemetery 98 thaniya 191, 192, 273
Sidi Ukba 32 Thaniyyat al-Murar 207
Sidi Uqba mosque 32 Thaqif bedouin 251
Silk Route 94 The Book of Idols 195, 254
silk strip 177 The Encyclopedia of Islam 175
slope of Kada 264 The Great Temple in Petra 176
Sodom and Ghomorah 189 Theon of Alexandria 159
Sohar 112 the people of Maka 73
solar eclipse 156, 157 the Peoples of the West, from the Weilue 157
Song dynasty 80 The Periplus Maris Eruthraei 245, 248
Songlines 147 The Planisphaerium 158
Spain 96, 130 The Sacred City 5, 68, 172, 180, 271, 287
Specimen Historiae Arubum of Gregory Abulpharagius the Scorcher (al-Nassa) 184
230 Tibbetts, G. R. 139
spherical trigonometry 158, 170
295
Tigris 59 walled gardens of Mecca 206

Time of Confusion 135 walls of Mecca 193
Timna, 144 walls of Petra 194
Timur 94 Wsi 43, 50, 64, 128, 129, 176, 178
tirfa 163 Wei lue 212
tombs 196 Wei Lueh in San Kuo Chih 137, 157
Traditionalists 228 Wei Shu 137
Transoxiana 92 well of Zamzam 188, 264, 270
trebuchet 178, 180, 215, 264 wells of Maybu 212
trigonometric functions 169 White Village 247
Tughril Beg 92 Windrose 159
Tunis 69, 130
Tunisia 69, 70, 85, 100, 103, 106, 130 X
Turkey 78 Xian 75
Tuttle, Christopher A. 259
two pilgrimages 199 Y
Two Towns 250
Yqt 249
U Yalamlam 262
Yale Babylonian Collections Tablet 169
Uk 253, 260 Yqt 204, 207, 235, 241, 261
Uk market 255, 260 Yathrib 15
Ukbekistan 94 Yazd 110
Ukhaider 83 Yemen 18, 38, 39, 81, 107, 129, 209, 249
Umar bin al-Khab 23, 60, 172 Yuan Dynasty 80
Umar ibn Abd al-Azz 46
Umayyad dynasty 84, 173 Z
Umayyad Mosque 128
Umayyad Mosque in Damascus 26 Zafar 250
Umayyad palace 76 Zakaria Boutros 239
Umayyad Palace Qar at Humeima 35 zm 140, 143, 144, 148, 149, 163
Umayyad Spain 179 Zamzam 189
University of Victoria (Canada) 34 Zamzam snakes 189
upper part of Mecca 215, 264, 191, 217 Zamzam, wooden bolts (awdd) 189
Uqba ibn Nafis tomb 32, 100 Zat Irq 262
Uthman 181 Zaytna mosque 69
Uthmn 46 Zechariah 55
Uzbekistan 129 Zoar 185, 228
zodiac 198, 199
V Zumurrud 194
valley of Wuja 250
Vasco da Gama 142
Via Traiana 247
Visigothic kings 73
Vitrano-Wilson, Seth 10
Vitruvius 158
volkswagen 18
W
Wadi Araba 192
Wadi Musa 240
Wadi Rum 252, 253, 254
Wadi Sirn 211, 212, 213, 214
Wadi Sumail 89
Wald 41
Wald I 44
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Early Islamic Qiblas

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Early Islamic Qiblas

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Dan Gibson

EARLY ISLAMIC QIBLAS

A survey of mosques built between

With maps, charts and photographs

Early Islamic Qiblas

Published by ISP (Independent Scholars Press is an imprint of CanBooks, Vancouver, Canada.)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Other books by the same author:

The author can be reached at: [email protected]

The Accuracy of Google Earth  115

The well of Zamzam  188

What about Jerusalem and Al-Aqa Mosque?  238

Dedication and Acknowledgements

Dr. Andrew G Bannister, Melbourne School of Theology

Prof. Juan Antonio Belmonte, Instituto de Astrofsica de Canarias

Joseph P. Elacqua, Ph.D candidate at Leiden University

Prof. Dr. Saba Fars, Toulouse University - Jean Jaurs

Sbastien Garnier (EHESS-Paris)

Alain Jean-Mairet, Switzerland

Dr. Jeffrey Kotyk, Leiden University

Dr. Ahmed Amine Khelifa, Indpendent Researcher, France

Duane Alexander Miller, PhD; Lecturer and Researcher in Muslim-Christian Rela

Dr. Andreas Neumann, author of Rechtsgeschichte, Rechtsfindung und Rechtsfortbil

W. Richard Oakes, Jr., PhD from the University of Edinburgh

Abdurrahim Ozer, Instructor, History Department, Bilkent University, Turkey

Jerome Parker, Paris I Pantheon-Sorbonne History Dep. Alumnus, Independant

Year Year Original Degrees of Rebuilt fac-

90 709 Jerusalem Israel Al-Aqa Mosque Petra 3.43 never

Year Year Original Degrees of Rebuilt fac-

All mosques after this chart have a Mecca Qibla

The Short List and Maps

Year Year Original Degrees of Rebuilt fac-

Above: Mosques that point between Mecca and Petra 87 -155 AH

Actual Mosque Petra Mecca Jerusalem

More information can be obtained from:

Actual Mosque Petra Mecca Jerusalem

16 Ibn a;-Zubla, Akhbr Al-Madna, (Arabic), pg. 115

23 Sahih al-Bukhri 6:21

Mosque of the Prophet

The modern mosque on this site was

26 abar Vol. 23, Year 88, page 141

27 abar Volume 23, Year 88, page 141

Qiblatain Mosque, Medina

For more information see:

For more information see: http://archnet.org/sites/3811

Guangzhou Grand Mosque

Actual Mosque Petra Mecca Jerusalem

Left: The author at the door

For more information see: http://archnet.org/sites/3970

Cheraman Juma Mosque

Actual Mosque Petra Mecca Jerusalem

Misses by: 0.26 75.01 1.65

Summary: Petra is closer to the mosque Qibla than Mecca or Jerusalem

The Cheraman Juma Masjid is a mosque

Masjid Umar ibn al-Khattb

For more information see: http://archnet.org/sites/3796

Jmi Hama alKabr

GPS Coordinates: 35 83.87N 364455.63E

Actual Mosque Petra Mecca Jerusalem

Misses by: 0.61 25.81 7.17

The Accuracy of Google Earth 115

The well of Zamzam 188

What about Jerusalem and Al-Aqa Mosque? 238