Irrigation Engineering Principles

BIE 5010/6010
Irrigation Engineering Fundamentals

Lecture Notes
Gary P. Merkley
Biological & Irrigation Engineering Department

Utah State University
G.P. Merkley 2 BIE 5010/6010 Lectures - USU
Preface
These lecture notes were prepared by Gary P. Merkley of the Biological &
Irrigation Engineering Department at USU for use in the BIE 5010/6010 courses. The
material contained in these lecture notes is the intellectual property right of G.P.
Merkley. However, grateful acknowledgement is given to Richard G. Allen, Lyman S.
Willardson, Robert. W. Hill, George Hargreaves, G.V. Skogerboe and other faculty and
emeriti of the BIE Department for their contributions through reviews of sections of
these lecture notes and suggestions therein. In particular, some of the lectures
contained in these notes were adapted from BIE 603 lectures given by Richard G.
Allen in previous years at USU. In any case, G.P. Merkley is solely responsible for
any and all errors contained in these notes.
Copyright Notice
This material has been duplicated by special permission of the copyright holder.
It is not to be duplicated or used for purposes other than learning resource support for
Utah State University. Any violation of this agreement is punishable under existing
copyright laws.
Copyright 2000, 2002, 2003
BIE 5010/6010 Lectures - USU 3 G.P. Merkley

Contents
Page
1 Course Introduction .........................................................................................7

2 Irrigation Statistics & Specializations .............................................................15
3 Irrigation Methods ..........................................................................................21
4 Irrigation Development History.......................................................................33
5 Selecting an Irrigation Method .......................................................................41
6 Hydrologic Balance........................................................................................47
7 Electrical Rates, Pumping & Motors ..............................................................55
8 Basic Hydraulics ............................................................................................61
9 Simple Water Measurement Methods............................................................73
10 Agricultural Soils ............................................................................................81
11 Basic Soil Water Physics ...............................................................................89
12 Measuring Soil Water Content .......................................................................97
13 Water Infiltration in Soils ..............................................................................103
14 Crop Production Factors..............................................................................115
15 Evapotranspiration Fundamentals ...............................................................123
16 Evapotranspiration Measurements ..............................................................135
17 Evapotranspiration Equations ......................................................................141
18 Solar Radiation ............................................................................................147
19 Sample ETo Calculations .............................................................................159
20 Irrigation Scheduling ....................................................................................165
21 Irrigation Water Quality ................................................................................177
22 Water Use Efficiency ...................................................................................187
23 Surface Irrigation .........................................................................................199
24 Surface Irrigation Operation & Evaluation....................................................211
25 Sprinkle & Trickle Irrigation Operation & Evaluation ....................................225
26 Hydraulic Protection of Pipelines .................................................................235
27 Drainage of Agricultural Lands.....................................................................243
28 Water Law & Water Rights; Engineering Ethics...........................................253

Units, Constants and Conversions
28.35 g/oz
15.85 gpm/lps (= 60/3.785)
7.481 gallons/ft3
448.86 gpm/cfs (= 7.481*60)
3.7854 liter/gallon
6.89 kPa/psi
1 cbar = 1 kPa
10 mbar/kPa, or 100 kPa/bar
2.308 ft/psi, or 9.81 kPa/m (head of water)
14.7 psi = 101.3 kPa = 10.34 m (head of water) = 1,013 mbar = 1 atm
62.4 lbs/ft3, or 1,000 kg/m3 (max density of pure water at 4C)
0.1333 kPa/mmHg
1 ppm 1 mg/liter (usually)

1 mmho/cm = 1 dS/m = 550 to 800 mg/liter
0.7457 kW/HP
1 langley = 1 cal/cm2
0.0419 MJ/m2 per cal/cm2
0.3048 m/ft
1.609 km/mile
2.471 acre/ha
43,560 ft2/acre
1,233 m3/acre-ft
57.2958 degrees/radian
3.14159265358979323846
e 2.71828182845904523536
C = (F 32)/1.8
F = 1.8 C + 32
Mean soil particle density 2.65 g/cm3

Mean soil bulk density 1.25 to 1.45 g/cm3
Mean density of the earth: 5.522 g/cm3
Ratio of weight to mass at sea level and 45 latitude: 9.80665 m/s2
PVC = Polyvinyl chloride

PE = Polyethylene
ABS = Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene

Lecture 1
Course Introduction
I. Course Overview
Scope of the course

Review of lecture schedules
II. Textbook and Other Materials
No required textbook
Bound lecture notes are required
Some material will be taken from Irrigation
Fundamentals, by Hargreaves & Merkley, as well as
from several other books and sources
Some material will be on reserve in the USU
SciTech Library
III. Homework and Design Project
Work must be organized and neat; dont turn in sloppy work

There will be some computer programming and or spreadsheet exercises
Submitting work late (10% per day, starting after class)
IV. Tests
One mid-term exam

Non-comprehensive final exam
V. What is Agricultural Irrigation?
Irrigation has been practiced for more than 6,000 years on this planet and was
critical to the development of some early civilizations, as well as to the
sustainability and progress of modern civilization
Irrigation has been practiced in areas of the middle east and Egypt for
thousands of years, and for over one thousand years in parts of Europe and the
Americas
Many parts of Asia also have evidence of over
one thousand years of agricultural irrigation
Remains of a 6,000-year-old rice paddy with
vestiges of irrigation channels connecting it to a
well have been discovered in China
The first irrigation was by gravity diversion and from water lifters powered by
humans, animals, or by the flow of water

Modern irrigation practices include a variety of surface irrigation methods, sprinkle,
mist, and drip or trickle systems
The term irrigation is sometimes used with reference to both water supply to
crops and drainage
In some agricultural areas in the tropics the rainfall is usually more than adequate
to meet crop water requirements, and drainage systems are more important than
irrigation systems in these areas
The term irrigation system may refer to an on-farm system, or to an entire project
There are various definitions for irrigation, each depending on the perspective or
discipline from which it is derived
However, a common and general definition for irrigation is:
the application of water to the soil for the

purpose of supporting plant growth
More specifically, there are several objectives that are typically to be

accomplished by irrigation:
1. to add water to the plant root zone for plant growth (this is usually the
main objective);
2. to cool the soil and or air around the plants, creating a more favorable
micro-environment for plant growth;
3. to reduce or eliminate the detrimental effects of short-duration frost
(using sprinklers);
4. to maintain the relative humidity of the micro-climate around the plants;
5. to leach or dilute salts in the soil;
6. to soften hard pans and soil clods;
7. to delay bud formation through evaporative cooling;
8. to dispose of effluent from farms and ranches; and,
9. to apply fertilizers or soil amendments.
The above are not all of the objectives that can be cited for irrigation, and only a
few of those mentioned above would be applied in any given case, but
collectively they represent the major reasons for irrigating in agricultural areas
VI. Water Management
Irrigation management consists of determining when to irrigate, the amount to

apply at each irrigation and during each stage of plant growth, and the
operation and maintenance of the irrigation system, also taking into
consideration the availability of water and the overall water balance
The overall water balance involves inflows and outflows from an irrigated area,
generally including both surface and subsurface hydrologic interactions
More on the importance of hydrologic water balances in a later lecture

To manage any kind of resource, it is essential to measure actual usage and
distribution; in this sense, water management is practically nonexistent in the
absence of flow and/or volumetric measurements of that resource
Measurements include both information to determine resource requirements
and that pertaining to actual usage: how much is needed and how much is
really used/consumed?
V. Global Irrigation Statistics
There are roughly 270 million irrigated hectares in the world today; this comes to
about 22 people per irrigated hectare
This irrigated area is about percent of the surface area of the planet, or 2% of
the total land area (excluding Antarctica)
Land and permanent ice covers about 27% of the surface of the earth
The pie chart below shows approximate percentages of irrigated areas, by
continent
Continent Area Percent

(M km2) Land Area
Antarctica 13 9%
Europe 10 7%
Australia 7 5%
Asia 44 30%
Africa 30 21%
North America 22 16%
South America 17 12%
Totals: 143 100%
Since 1950, the global irrigated area has kept pace with global population, so the
irrigated area per capita has not changed much over the past 50 years (about 22
people per irrigated hectare)
There has been a more than 100% increase in total food production in the
developing world during the past 30 years, but per capita agricultural production

has only slightly increased, except for some areas of Asia where the increase has
been 40% or more
An estimated 17% of global cropland is irrigated and produces about 40% of the
worlds food
The remaining 83% of cropland is unirrigated, or rainfed
Large areas of irrigated lands depend on groundwater overdraft, or groundwater

mining
The percent of irrigation from groundwater overdraft is estimated at 10% in China,
33% in Iran, and 75% in the Arabian peninsula
The Yellow River in China now runs dry for nearly three months out of each year
Aquifers in north Africa, at least six of the western states of the USA, central
Mexico and other areas are being depleted
Groundwater has been used for irrigation in the USA for only about the last 50
years; previously it was all surface water
Worldwide, there is an estimated groundwater overdraft of 160 billion m3/year
(Postel 1999)
More than 95% of the irrigated area in the world is by surface methods, and more
than half of the irrigated area is found in five countries: India, China, USA,
Russia, and Pakistan
Thus, most of the irrigated lands in the world are in Asia, where some 90% of the
world rice production area is located and approximately half of the population is
employed in the agricultural sector
There are also large areas in the world with agricultural production under rainfed,
or nonirrigated, conditions
Many areas in southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent rely on rain for irrigation
water, but these regions also have hundreds of irrigation projects that supplement
rain and allow for dry season production
Even some of the rainiest regions of the world have periods of no rain and
occasional years of relative drought, and irrigation systems in these regions can
provide for much more consistent agricultural
production
Egypt is about 15th in terms of irrigated area, but
unlike the other countries with a relatively large
irrigated area, Egypt relies almost exclusively on
irrigation for agricultural production
Egypt is currently consuming nearly all of its legal share of the Nile River water, but
water development projects are being planned and implemented in upstream
countries, such as Sudan
Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world and is estimated to have about 8% of
the fresh water in the world, yet this country is not among the top ten in terms of
irrigated area

There is much potential for further irrigation development in Brazil and in other
areas of south America, but in many other regions of the world the prospects for
the development of new irrigated lands are relatively low
This is because the best and most fertile lands have already been developed, and
new lands would require relatively large investments with higher operational costs,
and possibly lower potential agricultural production levels
Of the total irrigated area in the world today, about 10% suffers from salinization
serious enough to limit crop yields; the salinization is currently increasing by about
two million hectares per year
Of course, not all food comes from irrigated agriculture:
1. Fisheries;
2. Rangeland; and,
3. Other non-irrigated lands.
VI. Global Irrigation Development
The 20th century has had dramatic expansion of the total irrigated area in the world
It is estimated that in the year 1900 about 40 million hectares were irrigated
around the world
Global Irrigated Area

300
???
Irrigated Area (millions of hectares
250
200
150
100
50
0
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
Year
Thus, during the 20th century there has been a six- or seven-fold increase in
irrigated area

The peak irrigation development period saw the addition of about 6 million
hectares per year of previously unirrigated land
Currently, the development rate is less than 4 million hectares per year
VII. World Population
The world population was fairly stable from 2000 B.C. to

about the year 1000 A.D.; since then it has been
increasing almost linearly, at a high rate
Demographers have projected a doubling of the world
population within the next 50 years to between 8 and 9
billion people
But the situation is not as grave as it was once thought
because many countries have reached, or are rapidly
reaching, a situation in which the population is approximately stable, and some
countries even have a negative population growth
Current trends indicate that the world population may come to 9 billion by 2050,
then level off to approximately 10 billion by the year 3000
Nevertheless, the population is currently growing at a high rate and investments in

irrigation and water resources management will become more important in the
coming years
Most of these investments will come in the form of improved water management
and productivity, not in the form of horizontal expansion with new land
developments
World Population Growth

10
9
Population (billions
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000
B.C. A.D.

References & Bibliography
Postel, S. 1999. Pillar of Sand. W. W. Norton & Company, New York, N.Y. 313 pp.

Lecture 2
Irrigation Statistics & Specializations
I. U.S. Irrigation Statistics
The USA has some 20 million irrigated hectares (50 million acres), of which about
65% is irrigated by gravity or surface methods (furrows, basins, borders, etc.), and
30% or so is sprinkler irrigated
The USA has some 240,000 irrigated farms
About 17% of the irrigated area in the USA is in California, with Nebraska and
Texas having the second and third largest irrigated areas in this country
The above three states contain nearly half of all the irrigated area in the USA
Almost 90% of the irrigated area in the United States is in the 17 western states
Nebraska has about three times more land under sprinkler irrigation than
California; much of this is irrigated by center pivot
The irrigated area in Utah is about 1,200,000 acres, 2.4% of the national total, and
seven times less than that of California
The greatest irrigation water withdrawal (surface and groundwater) rates, as a

fraction of available water, are in the western USA, especially in California and
Idaho
California, Idaho, Texas, Colorado, and Montana use half of the irrigation water in
the USA

Water withdrawal rates in the eastern USA are very much smaller than in the west
because there is more rain in most parts of the east
In 1995 the total volume of water withdrawn for irrigation in the USA was
approximately 150 million acre-ft, giving a total depth of about 3 ft (1 m) annually
In 1990 the total irrigation withdrawal was slightly higher and the irrigated acreage
was slightly less, indicating a more efficient application of irrigation water over that
5-year period
Some estimates from the 1980s put the value lower, at about 100 million acre-ft
per year for irrigation
The average annual discharge of the Amazon river is about 180,000 m3/s; this
works out to about 30 times the total annual irrigation water withdrawals in the
USA
Forty percent of the freshwater supply in the western USA is from groundwater,
and many former agricultural areas have been abandoned because the aquifers
were severely depleted, making it uneconomical to continue pumping
In the USA, where does the irrigation water come from, and where does it go?
See the figures below
Irrigated agriculture in the western USA typically uses 80% to 85% of all fresh
water diverted or pumped for agriculture, industry, municipalities, and other
purposes
But much of the surface water from rivers and lakes is not diverted, partly
because of environmental concerns much of the water eventually flows out to
the sea
Therefore, irrigated agriculture uses only about 20 - 25% of all surface runoff and
pumped groundwater

Return flows from irrigation (surface and subsurface) tend to decrease the benefits
of improved irrigation efficiency, except in terms of the cost of applying the water in
the first place, and in the usual water quality degradation
II. California Agriculture
The state of California has been the largest agricultural producer in the United
States for the past 50 years
Annual agricultural output is near $25 billion, with over 350 different crops and
commodities
California grows more than half the nations fruits, vegetables, and nuts
Agriculture accounts for nearly 10% of the jobs in the state
III. Irrigation Development Costs
Development costs range from about USD $2,000 to $15,000 per hectare, or more
The lowest development costs tend to be in Asia (India in particular) and the
highest costs (by far) are in sub-Saharan Africa
The table below gives data from nearly 200 recent World Bank projects:
USD/ha
Region (average)
South Asia 1,370
Latin America 3,900
East Asia 4,300
North Africa 4,900
Europe 4,750
Middle East 5,100
Sub-Saharan Africa 18,300
Kind of Project
Groundwater 3,800
Gravity 5,600
Average of All 4,800
Drainage systems costs are typically from about USD $1,000 to $2,000 per
hectare
From another source, the global average cost for irrigation and drainage
development is perhaps USD $5,000 to $6,000 per hectare
Poor drainage and flooding are the primary constraints to agricultural productivity
in many areas of the world, and production and development costs are closely
linked to petroleum prices (energy and fertilizers)
Irrigation projects are often designed around an average flow rate capacity of
about one lps per hectare (8.6 mm/day at 24 hrs per day of operation) more on
this in a later lecture

IV. The Freshwater Situation
Globally, 97.5% of all the water is salt water or saline water

If water contains more than 1,000 milligrams of dissolved mineral solids (salt) per
liter, it is considered saline
Of the 2.5% of freshwater in the world:
68.9% is in stored in glaciers and

permanent snow cover (most in
Antarctica)
29.9% is non-saline groundwater
0.3% is in freshwater lakes and in river storage
0.9% is in swamps, soil water, permafrost and others
In California, the towns of Santa Barbara and Avalon have begun using
desalinization methods to remove the salt from seawater and make it potable
The high cost of desalinization has kept it from being used more, as it costs
between $1,300-$2,200 per acre-ft to desalinate seawater, compared to about
$200 per acre-ft for water from normal freshwater supply sources
Reverse osmosis is the most common method of desalinization at this time
It is expected that more desalinization of sea water will be practiced in the future,
especially in areas such as California and the Middle East
Recently, there have been detailed proposals for floating desalinization plants
aboard modified tanker ships, with capacities of 50,000 m3/day per ship
It has been claimed that less than 1% of the water treated in municipal systems in
the USA is used for drinking and cooking (a lot goes to watering lawns and
gardens, flushing toilets, showers and baths in homes but even more of it is
used in industry, shops and restaurants)
V. What do Irrigation Engineers Do?
Common sub-discipline areas:
Crop water use

Remote sensing
On-farm water management
On-farm irrigation system design, construction & evaluation
Conveyance system design, operation & maintenance
Drainage system design & construction
Irrigation system management transfer
General employment areas:
Irrigation system design, construction, and installation

Consulting & technical advising

Teaching & training
Research
A partial list of possible job descriptions:
1. Design field and farm irrigation and drainage systems

2. Design project-level irrigation conveyance, distribution, and drainage
systems
3. Manage operation and maintenance of irrigation systems
4. Write guidelines, manuals and books on system operations, design and
evaluation
5. Evaluate and analyze the performance of irrigation systems and water
conveyance networks
6. Build irrigation and drainage systems
7. Design and build center pivots, linear moves and other types of pressurized
on-farm irrigation systems
8. On-farm irrigation system sales, especially pressurized irrigation systems
9. Develop and apply flow measurement methods and devices
10. Develop system automation techniques, devices, and systems
11. Develop and apply mathematical models to simulate and or optimize the
performance of various irrigation and drainage system components
12. Apply remote sensing technologies to irrigation engineering problems
13. Work in the transfer of the management of irrigation systems/districts to
farmers organizations
14. Train farmers, technicians, engineers and others in irrigation engineering
topics
15. Teach irrigation engineering courses
16. Perform research in irrigation engineering topics
17. Do agricultural extension work to help solve farmers irrigation engineering
problems
18. Provide guidance to environmental preservation efforts that require sharing
of water supplies
19. Manage fresh water resources in water-short areas
20. Help develop regional and national irrigation development policies
21. Work overseas on agricultural development projects
VI. Professional Licensing
Many irrigation engineers in the USA are registered

Professional Engineers (PE)
This kind of registration is state-specific, and depends on the
specialty
Professional registration must be periodically renewed, and
this sometimes requires re-certification or continuing
education

To get registered you must get an engineering degree, pass a Fundamentals of
Engineering (FE) exam, and have experience as a practicing engineer
All undergraduates in the BIE department are required to take and pass the FE
exam

Lecture 3
Irrigation Methods
I. Introduction
The term irrigation system has been applied by different people in various
ways
In one definition, an irrigation system includes the storage facilities that collect
runoff from a watershed, the conveyance and distribution system (canals and
pipelines), the on-farm application systems, and the drainage facilities in a large
irrigated area
In other definitions, one or more of these physical infrastructure components
are considered to be an irrigation system
To some, an irrigation system is considered to be the on-farm or field
application methodology and related equipment, such as pumps, pipes, and
sprinklers
The field application system is used to distribute water over (or under) the
ground surface where it can infiltrate
Irrigation water can be applied to the land in several different ways, and the
choice among alternative irrigation methods depends upon many factors,
including:
1. economics
2. crop type
3. soil type
4. water availability and quality
5. farming practices
6. legal considerations
7. and others
More on the selection of irrigation methods in a later lecture

One can go to the field and find seemingly endless variations on irrigation
methods and water application and management techniques, but the following
major categories of on-farm methods cover most of the variations:
1. Surface irrigation by flooding, furrows, borders, and basins

2. Sub-surface irrigation by maintaining a water table or zone of saturation
within reach of the plant roots
3. Sprinkler irrigation
4. Drip, trickle, or microsprayer (localized)
Of these on-farm irrigation methods, there are two main categories:
1. Surface irrigation (furrow, border, basin)

2. Pressurized irrigation (sprinkler, drip, microsprayer)

With surface irrigation, water is distributed over the field surface by gravity
In pressurized irrigation methods, water is distributed over the field through
pipes and or hoses which are flowing full and under pressure
II. Graded Border Irrigation
This is a surface irrigation

method in which water is
introduced at the upper (head)
ends of each of many strips of
land, each separated by a low
earthen dike, or border
The ground surface is sloping in
from the head end to the tail end
of the border strips
Some of the principal
requirements for the use of this
method include:
1. Relatively large irrigation streams

2. Gentle topography - slopes of three percent or less
3. Soils with sufficiently high intake rates
4. Careful land leveling or preparation
The land to be irrigated is divided into strips of usually 5 to 15 m width

separated by low dikes or border ridges
The dikes or ridges are
usually made with
machine-drawn
implements, and many of
these tools insert small
dams every few meters to
prevent advancing water
from running down the
furrows at each side of the
dikes
The borders are usually in
the direction of the slope
but may be on the contour, and the land between the borders should be leveled
(that is, zero cross-slope)
The land surface between borders is irrigated by allowing a sheet of water to
flow down the slope
When the lower end is reached, irrigation is started on the next border strip
This method may be used for hay, pasture, grain and orchard crops
It is less suitable for fine-textured soils that require several days to drain to the
soil field capacity

The surface soil remains saturated for a longer time restricting aeration and
resulting in loss of growth and in lower yields
III. Basin Irrigation
Basin irrigation or level border irrigation is used for the reclamation of saline
soils (leaching) and for a wide variety of soil textures and crops
This is also a surface irrigation method because water is distributed over the
field on the soil surface rather than though pipes
Water application efficiencies with this method can be very high (less than 10%
deep percolation losses) when the field surface is precisely leveled and the flow
rate is sufficient to cover the area quickly
In fact, the application efficiency in a level basin can easily be higher than that
obtainable in most sprinkler systems because there is no surface runoff unless
water is purposely transferred between adjacent basins through small openings
in the dikes
Basins may range in size from very small to quite large (several hectares).
Small basins used in the irrigation of orchards are often referred to as checks
In areas where significant rainfall occurs it is sometimes necessary to provide a
means of surface drainage, and in rice and sugar cane fields the water may be
passed from basin to basin by gravity flow through breaks or checks in the
dikes
For field and vegetable crops a system of ridges and furrows within the basins
provides what is essentially level furrow irrigation - the ridges provide aeration
for the plant roots while soil in the furrows is saturated

III. Contour Levees
Contour levees are a type of

basin irrigation and are
widely used for the
production of flooded rice,
sugar cane, and others
Contour dikes or levees may
be constructed at intervals so
that the difference of
elevation of the dikes will not
exceed 10 cm
On a three percent slope, this
would result in a 3-m spacing
of dikes
They may be used with large flows of water for the irrigation of some pasture
grasses
The land between dikes should be cross-leveled and good drainage facilities
should be provided
IV. Furrow Irrigation
This is one of the most common

surface irrigation methods
Furrows may be made by cultivating
between the plant rows, or beds may
be created from the soil which is
removed to make the furrows
Corrugations are shallow furrows
running down the slope to irrigate
close-growing crops such as hay or
grain
The distinction is that furrows normally
contain the surface water, while with corrugations the entire ground surface is
flooded during irrigation
Furrows may be level, on the contour with some slope, or down the slope
Furrow irrigation can be used with a large range of stream sizes by adjusting
the number of furrows irrigated at the same time
This type of irrigation is adaptable to a great variety in land slopes and soil
textures
However, care should be exercised to limit the flow in the furrows so as to
prevent erosion
Salts must be leached from the soil or be managed so that they accumulate in
zones away from germinating seeds and plant roots

This can be done by irrigating every furrow on double-row beds so that the salts
will accumulate in the middle of the bed top and not in the plant rows or seed
lines
Furrow irrigation is usually accomplished in sets of furrows because the supply
flow rate is seldom enough to provide water to all furrows simultaneously, and
even if it were, the management of so much water could be very difficult
Water is usually supplied to the head end of each furrow through aluminum or
plastic siphons taking water from an open ditch, or from gated aluminum pipe
with adjustable gates at the same spacing as the furrows
Multiple siphon tubes can be placed at the head of each furrow for rapid
advance of water to the end of
the furrows, then one or more
can be removed to continue
irrigation after the water has
advanced to the end
This results in manual cutback
irrigation, in which the inflow is
reduced to prevent excessive
surface runoff from the end of
the furrows
Another way cutback irrigation

can be achieved is by manually
reducing the openings in the gated pipe, or by applying a technology referred to
as cablegation, in which a plug is slowly pulled along the length of the sloping
gated pipe by a cable to automatically change sets and produce a cutback
effect

With cablegation, the gated pipe must be on a sufficiently steep slope so that
the water will run out of only a few openings just upstream of the plug
The cablegation system will automatically provide a continuous cutback at each
furrow, until the inflow is terminated completely; the initial flow rate entering a
furrow will be relatively high, then quickly diminish
There are a number of different cablegation configurations, but it has not been
adopted on a major scale; it has been used almost exclusively in the USA
The furrow length and initial stream should be regulated so that water will flow
through the furrow rapidly but without erosion and then the flow should be
reduced so that little runoff will occur during the remainder of the irrigation
In furrow irrigation, crops are frequently fertilized by what is called side-
banding
Irrigation in the furrows then moves plant nutrients into the root zone of the crop
as water moves laterally from the furrows
Furrow irrigation is generally used on land with a fairly uniform surface and
slopes of less than one or two percent
However, furrow irrigation has been used extensively in Andean countries on
mountain slopes in which the furrows wind back and forth in the down slope
direction
In these cases, the zigzag furrows are well-formed and deep, with constant
vigilance to prevent severe erosion from a break in the furrow during irrigation
This is just one of many exceptions to the more traditional applications of
irrigation technologies

V. Surge Flow
Surge flow is a technology

developed at Utah State
University for pulsing the advance
of water down furrows such that
both application efficiency and
uniformity are improved
Instead of providing a continuous
stream of water at the head of the
field, the flow rate is intermittently
applied through a repeating on-off
cycle
The on time may be anywhere
from a few seconds to hours, and may be different than the off time
By surging the inflow in this way, some degree of surface sealing occurs in the
soil, thereby allowing for faster
advance of subsequent surges, or
on cycles, over previously
wetted portions of the furrow
The water advances to the end of
the field in less time and with less
deep percolation
High frequency surging (rapid on-
off cycles) during the post-
advance phase of surface
irrigation helps reduce runoff
losses by effectively reducing the
inflow to the furrow, while still
maintaining water in the furrow for
extra infiltration
Surge flow is most applicable to heavier textured soils that exhibit surface
sealing characteristics
The surge flow technique has little benefit over
continuous flow regimes on very sandy soils
Various companies manufacture and market hardware
for applying surge flow, but with inexpensive labor the
technique can be applied manually
Some of the hardware is designed to control individual
valves at the head of each furrow, and others control
left and right banks of gated pipe to achieve the on-off
cycles in surge flow

VI. Sub-Irrigation
Sub-irrigation may provide the only water supply to a field, or be supplemental

to other water application methods
With sub-irrigation, water is supplied to crops by capillary movement
(unsaturated flow) of water above a water table of controlled elevation
The soils must permit lateral and downward movement of water and be capable
of moving water from the water table throughout the major portion of the root
zone
The fields should be smooth and the surface should be approximately parallel to
the water table
In many cases there will be a semi-impermeable layer below the crop root zone,
which helps to maintain the water table without excessive deep percolation
The water table may be controlled by laterals, most commonly as open
channels 2-3 m in depth, that serve both irrigation and drainage functions
The figure below shows a side view of a sub-irrigated field with open channels.
The distance between the open channels, or buried perforated pipes in some
cases, depends mainly on the crop root depth, soil texture and structure, and on
the permissible variation in water table elevation between the channels
With natural sub-irrigation, the water table may typically be high due to
geographical and or topographical conditions, and the open channels or buried
drain pipes are used not for supply purposes, but rather to control the phreatic
water level
The phreatic water level is the level under the soil at which the soil water
tension is zero, and this essentially coincides with the water table
This method is used principally with shallow-rooted crops on peat or muck soils
in river deltas, but is also used in medium-texture soils for supplementing direct
rainfall
Less than 2% of the irrigated area in the United States uses this irrigation
method, and much of this area is concentrated in a few large tracts of land that
depend mostly on sub-irrigation for controlling the soil water content of the crop
root zone

VII. Sprinkle Irrigation
Most crops can be successfully irrigated by

some type of sprinkler system
However, decisions relative to the desirability
of installing a sprinkler system and the type of
system to be installed should only be made by
those with considerable knowledge of the
costs, options, benefits, soil, crop, and
topographic conditions
The availability of electrical energy or fossil
fuel (e.g. gasoline and diesel) at reasonable
prices and the dependability of the energy
source are important considerations
Sprinkle irrigation on fine-textured soils of low permeability may result in
reduced aeration of the surface soil and consequently some reduction in crop
yields
Localized surface ponding and runoff may also be a problem, especially with
high application rates
Sprinkle irrigation installations may be of the following types:
1. Stationary or solid-set for orchards and perennial crops

2. Semi-portable or hand-moved with fixed main lines and movable
laterals
3. Portable for crop germination or for irrigation supplemental to rainfall
4. Low pressure under-tree sprinklers in orchards
5. High pressure for field crops or over-tree, such as big gun sprinklers
6. Side-roll and self-propelled (traveler sprinklers)
7. Center pivot and linear move

Center pivots have become
very popular in some areas
over the past two decades,
and can be found in many
countries around the world
The state of Nebraska in the
USA has more than 40,000
center pivots of various sizes
in many dense clusters, and
approximately half of all the
sprinkler-irrigated land in the
USA is with center pivots
One of the potential
difficulties in using center
pivots is that the application rate can be very high at the outer area of the
irrigated circle, which may cause surface ponding and or runoff
Sprinkler irrigation can be restricted to crops that can withstand complete foliar
wetting
Some crops such as tomatoes cannot tolerate wetting when the fruit matures
because it would cause molding and other damage
However, in some cases fungicides and other chemicals are injected into the
irrigation water to prevent quality degradation in the fruit
In orchards it is often necessary to use under tree sprinklers to avoid wetting
the leaves and fruit, but in crops such as bananas a gun sprinkler can be used
for above-canopy supplemental irrigation
Some systems have been provided with automatic hydraulic controls, and
automatic metering devices are frequently used
Sprinklers have been classified by two main groups, set and continuous-move
(Keller and Bliesner 1990)
Sprinkler irrigation is frequently desirable on steep, rocky, or uneven land areas
or where the soils are shallow or too pervious for efficient use of other forms of
irrigation.
Pressurized irrigation may not be desirable where electrical energy or an
alternative energy source may be undependable or expensive
VII. Drip or Trickle Irrigation
In drip irrigation, water is applied to the places where the

active plant roots are to be found
Perhaps a better term is localized, or micro irrigation
Crop yields are often higher and of better quality
Sometimes the timing of harvest can be improved

There are many types of drippers, emitters, bubblers, spitters, sprayers, and
misters that are capable of supplying water directly to the plant root area
Initially, perforated pipe or cracked bamboo was used in trickle irrigation
This has now been replaced by use of plastic twin-wall tubing and systems of
tubing and emitters
The soil water may be kept at a high level of availability at all times
The system may be located on or under the soil surface, or elevated above
ground along rows of trees or vines
Operating pressures are usually low (one half to one atmosphere or 7 to 15 psi)
The installation may be nonportable, semi-portable or portable
Water can typically be

applied more frequently
and efficiently than with
other methods, and
evapotranspiration is
not reduced by reducing
the soil water below
field capacity
In some cases surface
evaporation is reduced
but transpiration may be
somewhat increased
due to maintenance of
low water tension in the
crop root zone
Thus, the influence on evapotranspiration can be considered to be negligible
Deep percolation and surface runoff can be reduced to minimum values
Some water can be saved by not wetting the area between rows or between
plants
Treatment of the water is essential to minimize clogging of the emitters (water

outlets)
Crops can often be irrigated with significantly less water than by other common
irrigation methods
Labor costs for irrigating can be reduced since water applied by drip systems
can be regulated by labor-saving automatic timing devices
Field operations are easier because much of the soil surface remains dry
Weed growth is reduced, and uninterrupted orchard operations are possible
When crops are grown on beds, the furrows in which farm workers walk remain
relatively dry

Fertilizers can be injected into
the irrigation water to avoid
the labor for ground
application
Greater control over fertilizer
placement and timing may
lead to improved fertilizer
efficiencies
The possibility of
groundwater contamination
due to deep percolation can
be significantly reduced
Fertilizers are frequently applied in dissolved form through the irrigation water
Herbicides and soil sterilants can also be applied with the irrigation water
The large number of emitters required, problems with clogging of outlets,

maintenance of the system, and pressure variations due to topography require
a lot of know-how, experience, and careful operation of drip systems for optimal
results
Unless fertilizers are applied in the irrigation water, the system may leach
fertility from the root zone of the crop
If salinity is a problem, salts may accumulate in the interface between the
irrigated and non-irrigated zones in the soil
These salts, if not washed away, may damage the next season's crops

Lecture 4
Irrigation Development History
I. Introduction
Much of the information in this lecture was taken from Cadillac Desert, by
Marc Reisner (1986), Penguin Books (reprinted in 1993)
It is still available, and costs about $15.00 in paperback
There are many other sources of information on this subject, including books
written about specific projects and specific irrigation systems
There is also a lot of information from Internet sites on the history of the USBR
and other agencies, on irrigation districts and projects, and on regional
development of water resources in the western USA
Enormous amounts of money have been spent on developing water resources
in the western USA over the past 100 years, and there are many strong
opinions about how, where and why it was done
The roots of this development began in the mid-1800s, in something referred to
as Manifest Destiny, whereby the USA was somehow destined to extend the
national boundaries from the Atlantic to the Pacific
The development of irrigated agriculture in the western USA over the past 100
years or so was instrumental in stabilizing the western economy and allowing
the successful implementation of the expansionist concepts
II. The Corps of Engineers and the USBR
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has developed water resources west of the
Mississippi river for more than 200 years, having begun in 1775, and also had
some involvement in water engineering projects in the western USA
But the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) was the key player in the
development of irrigated agriculture in the western USA over the past century
It began in 1902 under Teddy Roosevelts administration as the Reclamation
Service after the Reclamation Act became federal law
In 1923 the name was changed to the USBR
When the USBR was created, the federal government had the express intention
of occupying the west and developing it
The USBR built several thousand dams in the western USA from about 1902
1990
In the 20th century, some 50,000 dams were built in the USA, about 2,000 of
which are considered large dams
In its heyday during the first half of the 20th century, the USBR attracted many
of the best engineering graduates from universities, and it was prestigious to
work there
The USBR was a very powerful federal agency in the western USA for many
years in the 1900s, but suffered a steady decline in funding and prestige
beginning about 1970

Washington North
Dakota
Montana
South
Oregon Dakota
Idaho
Wyoming
Nebraska
Nevada Utah
Nevada Kansas
California
Oklahoma
Arizona New Mexico
Texas
The USBRs current mission statement is quite different from what it was
originally, having shifted from an emphasis on design and construction of major
hydraulic works to operation & management, with a particular focus on
environmental concerns
III. Beginnings of Western USA Water Development
Most irrigation water withdrawals in the USA are made in the west
Irrigation in Midwest and in the east is only supplementary to rainfall, but this is
not the case in most parts of the west
Most areas in the western USA could not produce agricultural crops without
irrigation, except for some low-value crops like wheat
There was virtually no irrigation in the western USA until about 1850
At that time, many thought the west was basically a waste land with little or no
water
But in the mid-1800s, as westward expansion accelerated, there were some
years of relatively abundant rainfall just west of the Mississippi river, just after

some farming began there, and many believed that rain followed the plow (of
course, this was never true)
Many early irrigation canals were excavated by hand and by horse, including
many in Utah, and here in Cache Valley
But most of the existing irrigation projects were built using machinery in later
years
In the late 1800s, the federal government offered to cede up to a million acres
of land to any western state that promised to irrigate it, thereby promoting both
western migration, settlement and water resource development in itself
It is easier to make a serious claim to land and territory when a government can
say that its citizens populate the area this is a time-honored approach to
territorial acquisition/retention in the history of the world, and it continues in
many places today
IV. Development in Southern California
Beginning in 1904, Fred Eaton & William Mulholland of L.A. tricked many
Owens Valley farmers & ranchers into selling agricultural land, then took the
water some 250 miles to L.A. and the San Fernando Valley in aqueducts,
canals, tunnels & siphons
There was no pumping required for the inter-basin water transfer: it all flowed
by gravity from the Sierra Nevada mountains
The irrigated area in the San Fernando Valley increased from 3,000 acres in
1913 to 75,000 acres, while at the same time the irrigated area in the Owens
Valley decreased dramatically, as did the available water
Lake Tahoe
San Francisco Mono Lake
Owens Lake
Los Angeles
San Diego

Drought struck in southern California from 1919 to 1925
L.A. bought out most of the remaining water rights of the Owens Valley farmers
Later, they connected Mono Lake in the north to Owens Lake to get even more
water
Mono Lake became a highlighted case by national environmental groups a few
years ago, because it has been mostly drained due to over-exploitation
Around the turn of the century (1900) there used to be many free-flowing
artesian wells around L.A., but as some predicted, these dried up within a
decade as people moved into the L.A. area
A basic hydrological/demography problem is that 75% of the precipitation is in
the north of the state, while 75% of the population is in the south
This situation continues at the present time
75% of
precipitation
San Francisco
75% of
population
By the 1920s, Mulholland wanted to build an aqueduct from the Colorado River
to L.A. as he searched for more water
There were many frustrations in this quest; many obstacles
But by this time the value of the agricultural production in southern California
exceeded that of any other region in the USA
Southern California was producing many different kinds of crops, including high-
quality citrus fruit
Land values sometimes went from $10/acre to $500/acre after irrigation water
was made available: the value of agricultural land is still strongly influenced by
the availability of good quality water in sufficient quantity for irrigation
Some farmers sold their land at a great profit

In the 1920s some groups of farmers and ranchers from the Owens Valley had
decided that L.A. had swindled them and underhandedly taken their water,
and the aqueduct was dynamited several times, causing much damage and
costing a lot
Hundreds of people died in March of 1928 when the St. Francis Dam, near L.A.,
failed
In 1930, the entire population of the western USA totaled about 11 million
Arizona didnt even become a state until 1912, well after the USBR embarked
upon an ambitious water resources development campaign in several states
V. Development of the Colorado River
The Colorado river was USBR-transformed into the most legislated,

engineered, controlled, debated, and litigated river in the world during the 20th
century
The Colorado is not a large river in terms of flow rate, even among rivers in the
USA (not even in the top 25); but its flow rate has manifested large variations
over the last 200 years, sometimes reducing to a trickle, at other times flooding
large tracts of land
The Salton Sink became the Salton Sea in 1904, in southern California, when
the Colorado river overflowed its banks; it took years of effort to return it to its
previous bed
The current combined capacity of in-line reservoirs on the Colorado river is
about four times the average annual flow
Colorado river water produces much of the winter vegetables in the USA, as
well as most of the water for the cities of Phoenix, Tucson, L.A. and San Diego
At the present time, a growing portion of the winter vegetables consumed in the
USA are produced in Mexico and Central America
There was much arguing and fighting over Colorado river water from the
various riparian states in the first part of the 20th century
In 1922 the Colorado River Compact was signed by several states: it divided
the river into artificial (nonhydrologic) basins, upper and lower
The Compact divided up 7.5 million acre-ft of water for use in the USA, with 1.5
million acre-ft per year going to Mexico
The lower basin includes California, Arizona and Nevada
The upper basin includes Colorado, Utah, Wyoming and New Mexico
Some of the irrigation projects along the river are in Grand Junction, Colorado,
Welton-Mohawk, Arizona, and Imperial Valley & Coachella Valley in southern
California
Hoover Dam (near Las Vegas, Nevada) was built in a total of three years during
the Great Depression, in the 1920s; at the time it was by far the largest dam in
the world and was the first of the giant dams built by the USBR
There are entire books written about the history of this dam, which entailed a
monumental engineering and construction effort

The Grand Coulee Dam was also built during the depression and its electrical
generation capacity was instrumental in the projection of tens of thousands of
airplanes during World War II
The last big development project of the USBR was the Central Arizona Project,
recently completed, taking water from the lower Colorado river
The Colorado river water is nearly 100% allocated, meaning that it releases
almost no water to the sea
The Colorado river delta, in northwest Mexico, used to be a flourishing
agricultural area many years ago, but now it is mostly dry desert
VI. Private Development of Irrigation Systems
Some privately initiated and funded water projects in the western USA have
become wealthy; for example, the Turlock and Modesto irrigation districts in the
central valley of California
The 1999 annual report for Turlock Irrigation District (TID) shows a net income
of $169 million dollars, generating and selling electrical power and selling some
water to municipalities
TID serves some 5,800 growers on about 150,000 acres of farmland
Much of the rest were federally or state financed, at low or no interest on the
loans
Originally, the farmers on government-financed irrigation projects were
expected to repay the entire cost of the infrastructure, but later it was seen that
in many cases it could not be realistically expected, especially in the upper
basin of the Colorado river
Later, the government decided that most of the dams had a greater scope in
providing recreation facilities, flood control, municipal water supplies, etc.
The USBR and the federal government have a tight grip on the operation of
many irrigation projects today, even those that have been paid off by the water
users
VII. Future Development
The rate of water resource development in the western USA has decreased to a
small fraction of what it was in the first half of the 20th century
Partly this is due to the ever higher development costs and environmental
concerns, but also due to the development of a significant portion of the
available water resources and the completed exploitation of the most favorable
sites for dams, irrigation systems, and other infrastructure
Environmental concerns were much less prominent in the first half of the 20th
century than they are now
There has been talk for years about bringing water from the Northwest and or
Canada down to the southwestern USA, but this would be a huge political
controversy and very, very expensive

About 75% of the rainfall in California occurs north of 38 latitude, but some
75% of the population is south of San Francisco
Many water users in northern California consider that southern Californians
steal their water
However, there have been additional water transfer projects, from north to
south in California, on the drawing boards for years
The competition for good quality water in the western USA will increase in the
long run, and water management will become increasingly important
Reisner, M. 1986. Cadillac Desert. Penguin Books, New York, N.Y.582 pp.

Lecture 5
Selecting an Irrigation Method
I. Introduction
Various manuals and texts are available on the selection and design of the
different types of agricultural irrigation methods (see references below)
Such sources provide considerable detail but cannot substitute entirely for
experience
There are many factors to consider when deciding upon an irrigation method
Initial development costs and annual operational costs are usually among the
most important economic factors in the selection of an irrigation method
The farmer or land owner should have knowledge of the conditions of soils,
topography, size and shapes of fields, cropping systems, and labor availability
Social considerations and traditional practices have also generally had a large
impact on the appropriateness and feasibility of a particular method
Sometimes, the selection is made by looking over the
fence to see what the neighbor is doing
In some places, a dependable supply of electricity is
not available pressurized irrigation may not be
feasible unless another source of energy is available at
a reasonable cost (or sufficient head is available due to
elevation difference)
Remember that there are exceptions to most rules in
irrigation method selection; the ingenuity of farmers
and irrigation engineers around the world has allowed for many notable
adaptations of irrigation methods under difficult conditions
II. Seven Factors Proposed by Walker and Skogerboe (1986)
Below are seven factors for the selection of an irrigation method

The seven factors are somewhat, but not completely independent
1. Compatibility
Use of farm machinery and manual labor

Cultural, planting & harvesting needs
Ability or disposition to irrigate nights
Disposition to irrigate seven days per
week

2. Economic Considerations
Equipment purchase & installation costs, per

unit area irrigated
Labor costs
Energy costs
Water delivery costs
Operation & maintenance costs
Crop value
3. Topography
Field shape
Field slopes
Uniformity of field slopes
Depth to the water table
4. Soil Physical & Chemical Characteristics
Soil texture
Soil structure
Soil depth & layering
Ability to do land leveling
Soil salinity, acidity & sodicity
Soil spatial distribution
Water holding capacity
Water infiltration rate
Surface sealing characteristics
Tendency to form a crust
Tendency for cracking
5. Water Supply & Quality
Surface or groundwater
Reliability and flow rate of supply
Frequency and flexibility of delivery
Location and elevation of the water
supply
Salinity, and types of salts present
Level of pollution, contamination
Requirements for filtration
Specific toxicities

6. Crop Characteristics
Crop economic value

Crop water requirements
Tolerance to water deficit
Tolerance to foliage wetting
Tolerance to salinity in the root zone & on leaves
7. External Influences
Political considerations
Vendor propaganda
Local customs & tradition
III. Doneen and Westcots Guide
The table below (adapted from Doneen and Westcot 1984) is

a guide, and something to consider, but does not take into
account every situation nor allow for many of the practical
adaptations
The table is also somewhat vague in terms of methods and
applicability to different topographies and crops
However, it does give some specific recommendations, as
opposed to the seven factors previously mentioned, and the
six factors presented below
If you have no idea of what method to choose, the above table
is a good place to start

Method Topography Crops Remarks
Widely Land slopes capable Alfalfa and other An appropriate surface method for irrigating close-
spaced of being graded to deep rooted growing crops where the topography is favorable. An
borders less than 1% slope close-growing even grade in the direction of irrigation is required on flat
and preferably 0.2% crops, and land and is desirable on slopes of more than about 0.5%.
orchards There should be no cross-slope.
Closely Land slopes capable Pastures Especially adapted to shallow soils underlain by a clay
spaced of being graded to pan or soils that have a low intake rate. Sharp grade
borders 4% slope or less, changes and reverse grades should be smoothed out.
and preferably less Cross-slope is permissible when confined to differences
than 1% in elevation between borders of 6-9 cm. A greater total
cross slope is permissible.
Check back Land slopes capable Fruit This method is especially designed to obtain adequate
and cross of being graded to distribution and penetration of water in soils with low
furrows 0.2% slope or less water intake rates.
Corrugations Land slopes capable Alfalfa, pasture, Especially adapted to steep land and small irrigation
of being graded to and grain streams. An even grade in the direction of irrigation is
slopes between desirable but not essential. Sharp grade changes and
0.5% and 12% reverse grades should be smoothed out. Due to the
tendency of corrugations to clog and overflow and cause
serious erosion, cross slopes should be avoided.
Graded Variable land slopes Row crops and Especially adapted to row crops on steep land, though
contour of 2-25%, but fruit hazardous due to possible erosion from heavy rainfall.
furrows preferably less Actual grade in the direction of irrigation 0.5-1.5%. No
grading is required beyond filling gullies and removal of
abrupt ridges.
Contour Irregular slopes up Hay, pasture, Especially adapted to foothill conditions. Requires little
ditches to 12% and grain or no surface grading.
Rectangular Land slopes capable Orchards Especially adapted to soils that have either a relatively
checks of being graded so high or low water intake rate. May require considerable
(levees) single or multiple land grading.
tree basins will be
leveled within 6 cm
Contour Slightly irregular land Fruit, rice, grain Reduces the need to grade land. Frequently employed
levee slopes of less than and forage crops to avoid altogether the necessity of grading. Adapted
1% best to soils that have either a high or low intake rate.
Portable Irregular slopes up Hay, pasture, Especially adapted to foothill conditions. Requires little
pipes to 12% and grain or no surface grading.
Sub- Smooth and flat Shallow-rooted Requires a water table, very permeable subsoil
irrigation crops such as conditions and precise leveling. Very few areas are
potatoes or grass adapted to this method.
Sprinkler Undulating with up to All crops High operation and maintenance costs. Good on rough
irrigation 35% slope or more or very sandy lands. Good method where power costs
are low, or where the water supply is at a significantly
higher elevation than the field area. Good for high rainfall
areas where only small supplemental water supply is
needed.
Contour Sloping land, Any crop Considerable loss of productive land due to berms.
bench especially for slopes Requires expensive drop structures for water erosion
terraces under 3% control.
Sub- Flat to uniform Any crop; row Requires installation of perforated plastic pipe in root
irrigation slopes up to 1% crops or high zone at narrow spacings. Some difficulties in roots
(installed surface should be value crops plugging the perforations. Also a problem as to correct
pipes) smooth usually used spacing. Field trials on different soils are needed.
Micro Almost any Row crops or Water is applied to individual plants or trees. Has been
irrigation topography fruit, mostly successfully used with saline irrigation water where
irrigation frequency is high.

IV. Six Factors Proposed by Keller and Bliesner (1990)
Divisibility
This has to do with the flexibility of an irrigation method to fit specific field
shapes (geometries)
Maintain by
A factor to take into account the complexity of maintenance of the
irrigation method, whether by the farmer, trained technician, or other
Crop Risk
The crop risk factor is related to the ability to keep the system running,
especially during the peak-use period, and the equipment requirements
Management and O&M Skill
This takes into account the required level of skill of the irrigator and/or
manager in operating and maintaining the system
Management and O&M Effort
This considers the amount of time and effort that the irrigator and/or
manager must dedicate to operate and maintain the system
Ruggedness
A factor to account for the durability of the system, including equipment
and proneness to breakdowns (when irrigation is suspended)
V. Surface Irrigations Bad Publicity
One practical factor in irrigation system selection has often been the perceived
level of technology
Surface, or gravity, irrigation systems typically
have the least amount of hardware (pipes,
valves, pumps, filters, etc.) and have in some
cases been labeled as obsolete or inherently
inefficient
Because surface systems have less hardware,
there is less to sell to farmers
Many vendors of pressurized (sprinkle and
trickle) systems in various regions of the world
have produced brochures and convinced
farmers that they are not modern if they continue
to use surface irrigation methods
Surface irrigation systems can be and often are
more efficient than pressurized systems, and they are the most common types
of on-farm irrigation system even in many of the most developed countries

VI. Summary of Irrigation Method Selection
Engineering economics can be applied to irrigation method selection in terms of

initial hardware and installation costs with respect to useful life, anticipated
operating costs (labor & energy), financial interest rate, and crop production
value
No matter how an irrigation method is chosen, one criteria should be to go out
and visit the site to see what is currently being done in irrigated agriculture, if
anything
A site visit and quick observations alone may also effectively rule out some
methods due to energy, topography, soil or climate constraints/problems
For example, if the site is known to be windy most of the time (which is true for
some locations), sprinkle irrigation will not look so attractive
Farmers can usually give good insight into what might or might not be feasible
Irrigation equipment suppliers can also give recommendations, but remember
that they may have a strong bias towards selling available equipment
Burt, C.M., A.J. Clemmens, R. Bliesner, J.L. Merriam, and L. Hardy. 2000. Selection of irrigation
methods for agriculture. ASCE, On-farm irrigation committee of the Environmental and Water
Resources Institute (ISBN 0-7844-0462-3), 129 pp.
Keller, J., and R.D. Bliesner. 1990. Sprinkle and trickle irrigation. Chapman and Hall. (ISBN 0-412-
07951-1), pp. 605-625.
Walker, W.R., and G.V. Skogerboe. 1987. Surface irrigation theory and practice. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
(ISBN 0-13-877929-5), pp 3-6.
Doneen,.D., and D.W.Westcot. 1984. Irrigation Practice and Water Management. FAO, Irrigation and
Drainage Paper 1 (Rev.), Rome, 63 pp.

Lecture 6
Hydrologic Balance
I. A General Hydrologic Cycle
There is no significant creation or destruction of water in the hydrologic cycle

But there are phase changes: liquid, solid (ice), and vapor
For practical purposes, no water is lost to the hydrologic cycle (except for tiny
quantities destroyed by photosynthesis, and tiny quantities created by the
burning of fossil fuels and other processes)
This zero sum game means that if all inflows, outflows and storage amounts
are accounted for, no significant amount of water is ever gained or lost
Consider the figure below:
water vapor (clouds)
evaporation water vapor (clouds)
evaporation
precipitation
ET ET ET ET
precipitation
evaporation
ET
off
evaporation ru n a te r infiltration
runoff
d so il w evaporation
s to r e water
t a b le
grou
ndw
r a
wate flow ter lake
sea nd
grou flow
Note that various minor additions could be made to the above figure: what
might some of those be?
The concept of a complete hydrologic, volumetric balance is sometimes
referred to as a water budget
This is a simple concept, but many people become confused with the details
and draw incorrect conclusions about the hydrologic cycle
At small scales, it can seem that water is lost, but if you step back and look at
the bigger picture, the water is rediscovered
However, fresh water can be essentially lost in some ways

II. When is Freshwater Lost?
When it is contaminated to the point of being

unrecoverable
When it runs to an ocean or saltwater sea
When it joins a brackish or salty lake in an evaporation
basin
III. How is Freshwater Recovered?
Naturally
Evaporation from water bodies (especially from oceans)
Artificially
Reverse osmosis
Distillation
Water treatment plants (which may include some of the above)
Others
IV. A Water Balance for California
The data for this example are taken from Brickson et al. (1994)
Values in the figure are in millions of acre-feet of water per year
Of course, most of the flows are highly variable from year to year, due to
hydrological fluctuations, so the data shown are for what might be a typical year
For perspective, it is estimated that a family of five uses about one acre-ft of
water per year
Note that the inflows do not necessarily have to match outflows, because there
could be a change in the volume of water storage in the state
However, over a years time, the difference in inflow and outflow volumes over
such a large area should be very tiny
Note also that most of the inflow is from precipitation (rain and snow) within the
state, while most of the outflow is from evapotranspiration, which is not only
from agriculture
Finally, it is seen that the groundwater pumping is on the same order of
magnitude as the groundwater recharge, but the spatial distribution of the two
flows is not uniform; thus, there is overdraft of groundwater in some areas

r
ir ve
r
on
.6 te
g
16 dwa
e o
Precipitation O r 1. 4 rad .8
o
un
193 C ol 4
o
Gr
re
23 ltu
u
CA
ric
Evap
Ag
otran
L
sp
121 iration
IF
O
RN
IA
n
Ocea
30.2
l
e nta
m
v iron .5 a da
En 21 N ev
t o
off .5
R un 1
Grou
ndwa M&I
ter re 4
14.6 charge

The following table tabulates the water balance for the state
Millions of acre-feet
Inflows Outflows
Precipitation 193
Groundwater 16.6
Colorado river 4.8
Runoff from Oregon 1.4
Evapotranspiration 121
Runoff to Ocean 30.2
Agriculture 23
Environmental flows 21.5
Groundwater recharge 14.6
M&I consumption 4
Runoff to Nevada 1.5
Totals 215.8 215.8
Precipitation
Groundwater
Colorado river
Runoff from Oregon
Evapotranspiration
Runoff to Ocean
Agriculture
Environmental flows
Groundwater recharge
M&I consumption
Runoff to Nevada

V. A Water Balance on an Irrigation Canal System
The following figure shows inflows and outflows from a canal system
Over long time periods (weeks or months), the sum of the inflows will be equal
to the sum of the outflows, if all are taken into account
There is a maximum possible change in storage, but over time the volumes
from inflows and outflows accumulate indefinitely
Over short intervals (hours or days), the sum of the inflows may not equal the
sum of the outflows: this is because of changes in volumetric water storage
within the canals
seepage precipitation
inflow inflow at
headworks
runoff
inflow
unauthorized
l
na delivery
Ca
in
Ma
Latera
l Ca
seepage
outflow
na
overflow
l
authorized
delivery
rage
authorized
D is
evaporation delivery
n e sto
bu
tr i
tar
y
i n-li
spill
transpiration
(weeds, trees, ...)
spill
Net seepage from a reach of canal can be estimated by an inflow-outflow study

when the water levels in the reach are not changing
If the water levels are changing during the flow measurements, the change in
storage must be considered too
Also, if some of the inflows or outflows are overlooked, the net seepage
calculations will be in error
Volume balance studies on canals can also help identify unauthorized, or
unsanctioned, withdrawals of water

Managers, or operators, of irrigation water delivery systems (canals and or
pipelines) who do not have knowledge of the inflows and outflows cannot
perform technical evaluations of the water management, and in these cases it is
likely the system operation could be significantly improved
VI. A Water Balance on an Irrigated Field
Now consider a field water balance (or water budget) in the figure below
Again, the basic components of the balance are: (1) inflows; (2) outflows; and
(3) changes in water storage
Note that runoff can come onto the field from uphill, and can also leave the field;
the net runoff over a certain period of time can be positive, negative or zero
Some agricultural fields depend entirely on runoff inflow from upstream
irrigators because rainfall is negligible and there is no other source of irrigation
water
ET
evaporation
transpiration
precipitation
soil surface & plant

leaf water storage
irrigation
evaporation
runoff runoff
root zone soil

infiltration water storage
deep
percolation
water table
capillarity
Is the runoff a loss of water?

Is the deep percolation a loss of water?
The net vertical flow at the bottom of the crop root zone can be either positive or
negative
With subirrigation, the total water table contribution to the root zone (capillarity)
must exceed the deep percolation in magnitude

VII. An Example of a Field Water Balance
Given:
Suppose inflow and outflow measurements have been taken over a 48-hour
period on a 100 m2 field in an agricultural research station
Measurements with instruments indicate a net increase of 18 mm in soil water
storage over the 48 hours and the 100 m2
The crop ET was calculated to be a total of 14 mm, based on measured
weather data and precisely calibrated equations
The water application from irrigation, over the same period, was measured at
10,245 liters
There was no precipitation
The surface runoff was measured with a calibrated flume, giving a value of
1,350 liters over the 48 hours
No runoff came onto the field; it was all outgoing
The water table is located at a depth of 6 m
Question:
What is the estimated net deep percolation amount, in liters, for that particular
period of time?
Solution:
There was no rain and no incoming runoff, and the water table is deeper than
the crop root zone, so the total inflow to the field was from irrigation: 10,245
liters
Assuming the crop covered the entire 100 m2, all evaporation was taken into
account by the ET calculations
The volume of ET was 100 m2 x 0.014 m = 1.4 m3, or 1,400 liters
The volume of ET plus runoff was 1,400 + 1,350 = 2,750 liters
The increase in soil water storage was 100 m2 x 0.018 m = 1.8 m3, or 1,800
liters
Thus, the water balance is given as:
deep percolation 10,245-2,750-1,800 = 5,695 liters
More than half of the applied water was lost to the field in the form of deep
percolation during the 48 hours
What might the consequences of this be?

Brickson, B., J.K. Hartshorn, and S. McClurg. 1994. Laypersons guide to California
water. Water Education Foundation, Sacramento, CA. 20 pp.

Lecture 7
Electrical Rates, Pumping & Motors
I. Utah Power & Light Schedules
Electrical power for irrigation pumps is sometimes

billed according to complex rate schedules
Below is information about the rate schedules used
by Utah Power & Light, which are similar to those
used by other electrical power companies in the
western USA
Most of the below is specific to agricultural irrigation
& drainage consumers
Utah Power & Light (UPL) has special rates for what
they call Irrigation and Soil Drainage Pumping Power Services
The service for irrigation & drainage pumps is mostly for three-phase power,
although a small amount is single phase, mostly for very small pump motors
The irrigation season is defined as being from May 25 to September 15 each
year
Farmers must notify UPL of intent to use power each year
There is an annual customer service charge of $78.63 (per customer) for
Primary Service, and $24.57 for Secondary Service
Primary service is more expensive for UPL to deliver and involves more
sophisticated metering equipment, but most agricultural pumps are based on
secondary service
USU is a consumer receiving primary service, for example, because of the
amount of consumption and the delivery point USU extends the electrical
power lines significantly beyond the actual delivery point
There is also a monthly charge of $14.74 per service connection, which is
prorated on the first and last months of each irrigation season, according to the
actual days of power delivery service
In the following, remember that kilowatts (kW) are units of power, and kilowatt-
hours (kWh) are units of work, or energy
watt = joule per second

joule = Newton-meter
A watt can also be defined as: current of one ampere across a potential
difference of one volt

Minimum Charges
The annual customer service charge, plus the monthly charge (prorated) and
the monthly power charge (see below), determine the minimum that a customer
must pay, even if he or she doesnt actually use any electricity
The monthly customer service charge is $14.75
Customers not Participating in Time-of-Day Program
At the beginning of each season the customer must choose whether to

participate in the Time-of-Day (TOD) program after choosing, it cannot be
changed until the next season
Six-months notice must be given before changing from one to the other
With the TOD program, there is a monthly power charge of $8.10 per kW
UPL has meters at each point of delivery that measure the kW every 15
minutes; the monthly power charge is based on the highest recorded value in
a month
This fee is obviously higher for larger pumps and motors, because it tends to
cost more to deliver power at higher rates
This fee is not for the power itself, but just for the equipment, or infrastructure,
to be able to delivery a certain amount of power
The energy charge is $0.027737 per kWh (it used to be higher for the first
30,000 kWh consumption of the season; and after than threshold value, the
rate was lower)
Most consumers in Utah do not reach the 30,000 kWh threshold in a season,
but there are many farms with very large pumps/motors in southern Idaho that
do reach it
UPL gives a monthly voltage discount of $0.54 per kW when the customer
provides and maintains all transformers and other electrical equipment (takes
service directly from UPL lines of 2,300 volts or higher)
Most agricultural customers in Utah are not eligible for this discount because
UPL usually supplies the transformers and other equipment
Customers Who Do Participate in the Time-of-Day Program
The power charge is $8.10 per kW per month (double the year 2000 rate)
The voltage discount is $0.39 per kW
The energy charge is $0.067231 per kWh for On-Peak hours, and $0.020241
per kWh for Off-Peak hours
Obviously, if a farmer elects to go with the Time-of-Day program, he had
better minimize pumping during On-Peak hours; otherwise he will pay a
relatively high rate
Some farmers cannot choose the Time-of-Day program because they pump
from an irrigation district canal and they are unable to take water anytime they

want it it goes according to the irrigation district delivery rules and
agreements
Other farmers obtain water from deep wells, or they pump out of a river, and
can pump anytime, so these customers often choose the Time-of-Day option
However, even those that have flexibility in pumping hours may decide not to
choose the Time-of-Day program because they dont want to have to irrigate
at night
Time Periods
On-Peak is 7:00 am to 11:00 pm, Monday through

Friday, except holidays (it used to be 9:00 am to 8:00
pm)
Off-Peak is all other times
Holidays include only Memorial Day, Independence
Day (July 4), Pioneer Day, Labor Day, New Years
Day, Presidents Day, Christmas Day, and Thanksgiving Day
If a holiday falls on a weekend, all kWh used on the Friday before the holiday
(if on a Saturday) or the Monday following the holiday (if on a Sunday) will be
considered as Off-Peak
Power Factors
These are mostly used for customers with large power requirements (e.g.
factories, USU, municipalities, and others)
Most agricultural users wont qualify for power factors in their billings
UPL determines whether or not it is going to apply power factors in billings;
the basic issue is their cost of supplying the electrical transformers and
equipment to provide a potential for a certain level of consumption. UPL
doesnt want to invest a lot in providing a certain power capacity at a point of
delivery if the customer isnt really going to need that capacity.
Thus, when UPL thinks it is appropriate, they will use power factors and will
apply what they call a 90% lagging rule to billings: if the actual power
consumption in any given month is less than 90% of the agreed upon (or
requested) capacity, UPL will bill based on of 1% for every 1% below 90%
consumption
This means that the customer will be billed (albeit a lower amount) for
electricity that was not even consumed, if power factors are used in the billing
and if the actual power consumption was less than 90% of a certain potential
value
Post-Season Rates
These apply to dates from September 16 to May 24

The monthly customer service charge applies as stated above

The energy charge is $0.027267 per kWh
For Additional Information
Visit the web site: http://www.utahpower.net/

There is also a Utah Power office just north of Smithfield, where people can
answer questions about agricultural electrical power rates and policies
II. Electric Motor or Diesel Engine?
Most deep well (groundwater) pumps for irrigation in the Western USA are
operated by electric motors
But some remote agricultural locations may not have electrical power readily
available and diesel engines become an alternative to electric motors
Also, in the past two or three years the electricity rates have increased
dramatically, prompting many farmers to convert to diesel engines on surface
pumps and deep wells
The conversion usually requires the installation of a gear head to
accommodate the horizontal shaft from an engine (whereas the pump shaft is
vertical)
Many diesel engines used for pumping irrigation water in the USA are air-cooled
to reduce both risk of failure and maintenance costs
In the summer of 2000, Dr. Robert Hill and Bruce Godfrey (with help from Bill
Bullen & Sheridan Nicholas) estimated that the O&M costs per 1000 hrs of
operation for diesel engines is $611, whereby for electric motors it is only $40
(assume 50 HP capacity)
They estimated total annual costs as:
$655 for electric motors

$2,140 for diesel engines
Electric motors have many fewer moving parts than diesel engines, they last
longer, and require much less maintenance
However, the cost to extend Utah Power & Light lines is $20,000 per mile
If extensions are necessary, an effective annual cost increment of $2,200 per
mile should be added to the electric power costs
In these cases, it may be more attractive to use a diesel engine, at least in the
short run
Other possible fuels for engines are gasoline, propane, and natural gas
Currently in Utah, electricity costs less per volume of water pumped than any of
the fuel-engine alternatives, but this situation could change as electrical rates
continue to rise

III. About Electric Motors
Electric motors come in many different sizes and of many different types, and
they have many advantages over other motors and engines:
a. relatively efficient
b. economical
c. easy to automate
d. compact in size
e. run quietly
f. do not pollute significantly
g. require low maintenance
h. do not tend to vibrate
i. operate under a wide range of ambient temperatures
Electric motor operation is based on electromagnetism and inductance

Electrical generators such as in hydroelectric facilities, train engines and others,
are much like electric motors, but work in an essentially opposite way: they are
turned by an external power source and produce electrical current
Some motors work on direct current (DC) and others on alternating current
(AC), single phase or three phase
Some motors are designed to run at nearly a constant speed, over a range of
loads, and others have a variable speed, depending on the load and on the
power input
Variable-frequency drives (VFD) can be used to provide variable pump speeds,
and can be automated to provide a constant outlet pressure (within a limited
range of conditions)
The cost of VFDs is more than for a single-speed motor, and they can have
other problems such as increased vibration, but in some cases they can be
appropriate and justified
Types of electric motors include:
1. split phase
2. permanent-split capacitor
3. shaded pole
4. capacitor-start/induction-run
5. capacitor-start/capacitor run
6. series (universal)
7. repulsion-start/induction run
8. three-phase, and
9. others
Some motors are good at starting under light loads, and others start better
under heavy loads

Many smaller electric motors require special devices or circuits to start, and
these are often disengaged mechanically when the motor gets up to speed
Single phase power is 110V in the USA; one hot wire and one common wire
Single phase power is what we have in homes in the USA
Two-phase power is 220V in the USA (but also called single phase in USA);
two hot wires and one common wire
Three-phase power has 3 hot wires and 1 common
wire
Three-phase is more common for larger motors, such
as agricultural pumps
Three-phase motors are almost all designed to turn at

a constant speed of 1,750 rpm
They will try to run at this speed even under different
loads
So, you might need to gear up or down for a particular application
Many well pumps are also designed to operate at 1,750 rpm
If the load is too much, the motor cant run at speed, and you can burn up the
motor by overheating the windings
The speed is determined according to the three-phase internal motor wiring and
the frequency of the incoming power (50 to 60 Hz)
If the incoming power frequency changes very much, it can eventually burn up
the motor
Electric motors only pull the amount of electricity required, meaning that they
can be oversized and the operational consequences are small (relative to
internal combustion engines)
But if the motor and required load are not well matched, the motor may operate
at a lower efficiency
Electric motor efficiency is from about 90% to 98%, where newer and larger
motors tend to be in the higher end of range
Electric motors are rated (e.g. 100 HP, 200 HP, and so forth) by their output,
not their input
http://www.utahpower.net/

Lecture 8
Basic Hydraulics
I. Some Basic Fluid Properties
1. Fluids and Liquids
Fluids include both gases and liquids

Vapors are between the gas and liquid phases
Gases are usually considered to be compressible
Liquids are usually considered to be incompressible
Compressibility of water is considered in water hammer analysis
2. Modulus of Elasticity
A measure of compressibility
A function of pressure and temperature
High values of modulus of elasticity are characteristic of relatively
incompressible liquids (large change in pressure results in relatively small
change in volume)
dP P
Ev = V V (1)
dV V
Note the negative sign: if pressure increases, volume decreases

The modulus of elasticity of water is about 2.07 (10)9 N/m2 (300,000 psi)
Using typical values, water is about 80 times more compressible than steel,
and 13 times more compressible than mercury. Nitric acid is about 6 times
more compressible than water.
The range of Ev values for liquids is very large
3. Viscosity
A measure of the resistance of a fluid against a shearing force

Viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing temperature
Viscosity of gases increases with increasing temperature
For many liquids, there is a linear relationship between the magnitude of a
shearing force and the relative velocity of two parallel sliding plates
du
=
dy (2)
The above equation says that the shear force is equal to the dynamic viscosity
multiplied by the relative velocity between the two plates

Ideal fluids have no viscosity (but this is never the case in real flow)
Newtonian liquids have a constant value of viscosity
Non-Newtonian liquids have a non-constant value of viscosity (e.g. paint)
Ideal plastics have a viscosity that begins at a non-zero value because, being
a solid, there must be a minimum value of before movement begins
For liquids, even the smallest value of will result in movement
Units of are poise, equal to 0.1[(N)(s)/m2]
For pure water at 20C, the dynamic viscosity is 1 cP (centi-Poise)
Kinematic viscosity is dynamic viscosity divided by liquid density:

=
(3)
Kinematic viscosity is more convenient for some calculations

Kinematic viscosity units are stokes, equal to cm2/s, but often expressed in
units of m2/s or ft2/s
II. Classification of Flow
There are two distinct classes of flow for full pipes and open channels:
1. laminar flow
2. turbulent flow
For laminar flow, the velocity distribution at a pipe cross-section is parabolic in

shape
For ideal flow (no friction) the distribution is uniform and linear
In turbulent flow the distribution is between those of laminar & ideal flow
In laminar flow, streamlines do not cross each other
Significant mixing action occurs in turbulent flow
In many practical cases the flow is completely turbulent

ideal laminar turbulent
III. Conservation of Mass
In steady incompressible pipe flow, the equation of conservation of mass is:
Q = V1A1 = V2 A 2 (4)
IV. Bernoulli Equation
This equation represents the different components of energy in liquid flow, per unit
mass of liquid. It is valid for the following conditions:
steady flow
incompressible flow
ideal flow (no friction loss)
P V2
+z+ = constant
2g (5)
where P is absolute pressure (not gauge pressure); z is elevation above an

arbitrary datum; V is mean velocity; and = g.
The three terms in the equation represent:
1. work (through pressure), or internal energy

2. potential energy (elevation)
3. kinetic energy (velocity head)
Can deal with non-ideal flow if other terms are added

The equation can be derived from basic principles of physics
Sometimes a coefficient is used on the velocity head term to correct for the
use of mean velocity, Vm:
A 3
= 0
V dA
3A
Vm (6)

In fluid mechanics, a mass flux is often used instead of a mass when
computing kinetic energy; thus, the kinetic energy flux is proportional to the
velocity cubed (not squared)
In practice, the value of is always greater than 1.0; it equals 1.0 for ideal
flow only
For laminar flow, the velocity profile in the pipe cross-section is a paraboloid,
and for this condition it can be shown that = 2.0
In practice, the value of can often be taken as unity (1.0) because the
velocity head term is often small compared to z and or P/
V. Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to resistance forces

(viscosity)
It is a dimensionless number:
FI L2 V 2 LV LV
NR = = = =
Fv LV (7)
where Fl are inertial forces (N); Fv are resistance forces (N); is the density of
water ( 1,000 kg/m3, or 62.4 lbs/ft3); is dynamic viscosity (cP); is
kinematic viscosity (m2/s); and V is mean flow velocity (m/s)
For circular pipes, L is defined as the inside diameter

Most data on friction loss are based on circular pipes
NR < 2,000 for laminar flow (resistance forces dominate)

NR > 4,000 for turbulent flow (inertial forces dominate)
2,000 < NR < 4,000 for transitional flow
VI. Friction Loss in Full Pipes
Head (pressure) loss occurs in pipe flow due to:
1. Friction developed within the liquid

2. Friction developed between the liquid and the pipe walls
According to theoretical analyses, the head loss is a function of:
1. Inside pipe diameter

2. Square of flow velocity
3. Length of the pipe
4. A coefficient of friction

1. Darcy-Weisbach
L V2
hf = f
D 2g (8)
The coefficient f is a function of:
1. relative roughness, /D
2. Reynolds number, NR
Material Roughness Height, (mm)

plastic, copper 0.0015
steel, iron 0.046
aluminum (w/couplers) 0.12
iron with asphalt 0.12
concrete 0.3 - 3.0
The Moody diagram shows experimental results for the relationship between
f, NR, and /D
There are regression equations that fit all of the curves in the Moody
diagram very well (a set of equations)

For sprinkler pipes, the flow is usually in the fully turbulent zone (not a
function of NR)
2. Hazen-Williams
JL
hf =
100 (9)
1.852
Q
J = 1050 D4.87
C (10)
this equation is 100% empirical

hf has the same units as L
J is the friction loss gradient (ft/100 ft)
the coefficient is 1,050 for Q in gpm; and D in inches
the coefficient is 16.42(10)6 for Q in lps and D in cm
note that D is the inside diameter (not nominal diameter)
note that the C factor is a higher value for smoother pipes
some typical C factor values are:
Pipe Material C factor

Plastic 150
Epoxy-coated steel 145
Cement asbestos 140
Galvanized steel 135
Aluminum (w/ couplers @ 30 ft) 130
New steel (good condition) 130
Old steel or concrete 100
note also that the C factor is also a function of NR, even though this
is often ignored in practice
Darcy-Weisbach is often preferred over Hazen-Williams due to its
higher accuracy
VII. Localized (Minor) Losses
V2
hf = k
2g (11)
which is analogous to the Darcy-Weisbach equation with an equivalent length of

pipe:
L kD
k=f e or, Le = (12)
D f

where Le is an equivalent length of pipe (m)
VIII. Open-Channel Hydraulics
1. Specific Energy
Specific energy is based on Bernoullis equation and the values are used
comparatively among two or more locations in a channel
For example, the specific energy equation is used in the calibration of broad-
crested weirs, upstream and at the weir crest
The units are in terms of head (m or ft, usually), and give an estimate of the
relative energy at a channel location
V2
E =h+
2g (13)
where h is depth of water (m); V is the average flow velocity (m/s); and
P
+z
(14)
is the pipe-flow analogy of h
Under hydrostatic conditions, P/ + z is constant with depth below the water

surface
Hydrostatic conditions occur when vertical velocity components are negligible
P/
2. Uniform Flow
Uniform flow occurs when the slope of the water surface in the direction of flow
is constant and equal to the longitudinal bed slope of the channel

That is, the energy gain due to change in elevation is exactly offset by the loss
of energy due to friction loss
For most practical purposes, uniform flow is also steady flow, unless flow seeps
through the wetted perimeter (but then it wouldnt really be uniform)
The two most common equations for approximating steady, uniform flow
conditions are the Manning and Chezy equations
Manning Equation
The empirically-derived Manning equation is:
1
Q= AR2 / 3 So
n (15)
where Q is flow rate (m3/s); A is flow cross sectional area (m2); R is hydraulic
radius, A/Wp (m); Wp is the wetted perimeter (m); So is longitudinal bed slope
(m/m); and n is a roughness factor
For Q in cfs and all linear dimensions in feet, the right side of the equation must
be multiplied by approximately 1.49, where
1
1.49
(0.3048 m / ft)1/ 3 (16)
The equation can be solved for Q or for any other variable (for example, depth
of flow, h)
For symmetrical trapezoidal channel cross sections:
A = h(b + mh)
Wp = b + 2h m2 + 1
(17)
where b is the base width (m); and m is the inverse side slope (m = 0 for vertical
walls, i.e. a rectangular cross section)

Chezy Equation
The Chezy equation is:
Q = CA RSo
(18)
A graph exists (see below) for specifying the C value as a function of Reynolds
number and relative wall roughness, much as with the Darcy-Weisbach
equation and Moody diagram; this makes the Chezy equation technically
preferable to the Manning equation
The Manning and Chezy equations have been used extensively in the static
(steady-state, full capacity) design of irrigation canals all over the world
The Chezy C is actually a kind of smoothness coefficient (because larger
values mean greater discharge)

100
e/R
90 0.0001
0.0002
80 0.0004
0.001
70
0.002
60 0.004
0.01
50 0.02
0.03
Chezy C (V in m/s, R in m)
0.04
40 0.06
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
30 0.25
0.30
0.35
Turbulent Transition Fully Turbulent Flow
20
Laminar Flow
10
1.0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07
Reynold's Number (4RV/v)
3. Flow Regime
The specific energy equation can be differentiated with respect to flow depth, h,
(holding Q constant) and set equal to zero to define the minimum specific
energy conditions for a given flow rate
This produces the Froude number equation:
Q2 T
Fr2 =
gA 3 (19)
where T is the top width of flow (m); and Fr is the Froude number. For
symmetrical trapezoidal sections, T = b + 2mh.
The Froude number is used to define the flow regime:
Range Flow Regime

Fr2 < 1.0 subcritical
Fr2 = 1.0 critical
Fr2 > 1.0 supercritical

The minimum specific energy is associated with Fr = 1.0
Most irrigation canal flow is well within the subcritical range
Flow near the critical value tends to be unstable and more difficult to control
Somewhere downstream of a supercritical flow section, there will be either a
hydraulic jump or a free drop into the air
How can you know if the flow is subcritical or supercritical without making a
calculation?
Hydraulic jumps can be dealt with using the momentum function
4. Momentum Function
The momentum function is not precisely momentum as defined in physics, but

it is based on the same principles:
kg m kg m
s = (20)
s2 s
in words, force x time or mass x velocity, where kg/s is the mass flux
This function is used most often for the analysis of hydraulic jumps in open
channels, but also for other related purposes

A hydraulic jump is an abrupt change in regime, from supercritical to subcritical
in the downstream direction, and it often is associated with a significant
hydraulic energy loss
You can determine conjugate depths across a hydraulic jump by applying the
momentum function:
Q2
M= + Ah (21)
gA
where M is the momentum function value (m3); Q is the flow rate (m3/s); A is
the cross-sectional flow area (m2); and h-bar is the vertical distance from the
free water surface down to the centroid of the cross-sectional area (m).
Higher velocity Hydraulic Jump turbulence Slower velocity
Upstream Downstream
subcritical
critical depth
supercritical depth
depth
conjugate depths
You can determine the value of h-bar by simple geometric equations, and the
formulas are given for many different section shapes in open-channel hydraulics
books
After determining conjugate depths, you can apply the specific energy equation
upstream and downstream to estimate the hydraulic energy loss across the
jump

Lecture 9
Simple Water Measurement Methods
I. The Importance of Water Measurement
Flow measurement is a key element in:
1. Water Management. Without knowing flow rates it is usually difficult to quantify

deliveries to water users, and in this case the evaluation of water management
practices is only vague
2. Water Quality Analysis. This relates to concentrations, rate of movement,
direction of movement, and dispersion of contaminants, and other issues
3. Water Rights and Water Law. This includes volumetric delivery allotments,
groundwater pumping, and excess water (e.g. irrigation runoff), among others
Good quality, fresh water, is becoming more and more scarce as people exploit
water resources more aggressively, and as the world population increases
This increases the importance of water measurement
It is unlikely that the regional and global situations on water availability and
water quality will improve in the foreseeable future
II. Some Fundamental Concepts
Most flow measurement devices and techniques are based on the

measurement of head (depth or pressure) or velocity
Here, the term flow rate refers to volumetric rate, or volume per unit time
Thus, we apply mathematical relationships between head and discharge, or
take products of velocity and cross-sectional area
Strictly speaking, all open-channel and most pipe flow measurement techniques
cause head loss
However, some methods incur negligible losses (e.g. ultrasonic)
It is usually desirable to have only a small head loss because this loss typically
translates into an increased upstream flow depth in subcritical open-channel
flow
In open-channel flow measurement, devices can operate under free flow and
submerged flow regimes
In modular flow we are concerned with the upstream head because critical flow
occurs in the vicinity of the flow measurement device. As long as this is true,
changes in downstream depth will not affect discharge at that location. In non-
modular flow we are concerned with a head differential across the flow
measurement device.
In this class, the terms flow rate and discharge will be used interchangeably.

III. Water Measurement Accuracy
Perhaps the most accurate method for measuring flow rate is by timing the
filling of a container of known volume
However, this is often not practical for large flow rates
Typical flow measurement accuracies are from 2% to 20% of the true
discharge, but this range can be much higher
Measurements of head, velocity, and area are subject to errors for a variety of
reasons:
1. Approach Conditions
High approach velocity

Approach velocity not perpendicular to measurement device
2. Turbulence and Eddies
Rough water surface

Swirling flow near or at measurement location
3. Equipment Problems
Staff gauges, current meters, floats, etc., in disrepair

Shifting calibrations on pressure transducers and other meters
Poor installation (non-horizontal crest, wrong dimensions, etc.)
4. Measurement Location
Local Measurements
Stream Gauging Stations (need steady flow)
5. Human Errors
Misreading water levels, etc.

Misuse of equipment, or improper application of
equipment
IV. Simple Flow Measurement Methods (Open Channels)
The following methods are considered to be special methods, because they are
mostly simply and approximate, and because they are not usually the preferred
methods for flow measurement in open channels
Preferred methods are through the use of calibrated structures (weirs, flumes,
orifices, and others), and current metering

1. Measurement by Observation
In this method one must rely on experience to estimate

the discharge in an open channel, simply by observing the
flow in the channel and mentally comparing it to similar
channels from which the flow rate was measured and
known
This method is usually not very accurate, especially for
large flows, but some very experienced hydrographers can (with some luck)
arrive at a very close estimate
2. Measurement by Floats
The average flow velocity in an open channel can be estimated by

measuring the speed of a floating object on the surface of the water
This can be done by marking uniform distances along the channel and using
a watch to measure the elapsed time from a starting location to respective
downstream locations
It is a good idea to have more than one measurement point so that the
velocity can be averaged over a reach, and to lessen the chance of an error
Then, a graph can be made of float travel distance versus time, with the
slope equal to the surface velocity of the water
Select a location in which the channel is fairly straight, not much change in
cross-section, smooth water surface, and no abrupt changes in bed
elevation or longitudinal slope
Note that wind can affect the velocity of the float, changing the relationship
between surface velocity and average flow velocity
Care should be taken to obtain measurements with the float moving near the
center of the surface width of flow, not bumping into the channel sides, and
not sinking
The float speed will be higher than the average flow velocity in the channel
You can estimate the average velocity in the channel by reducing the float
speed by some fraction
The following table is from the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, but it is an
oversimplification of reality by making the coefficients a function of average
water depth alone, and often gives flow rate errors of 20% or more
It gives coefficients to multiply by the measured float velocity, as a function
of average depth, to obtain the approximate average flow velocity in the
channel

Average Depth USBR
(ft) (m) Coefficient
1 0.30 0.66
2 0.61 0.68
3 0.91 0.70
4 1.22 0.72
5 1.52 0.74
6 1.83 0.76
9 2.74 0.77
12 3.66 0.78
15 4.57 0.79
>20 >6.10 0.80
What happens to the above coefficient values when the average water
depth is below 1 ft or 0.3 m?
Some hydrographers have used partially submerged wooden sticks which

are designed to approximate the mean flow velocity, precluding the need for
coefficients as in the above table
One end of the stick is weighted so that is sinks further

The float method is not precise because the relationship between float
speed and true average flow velocity is not well known in general
Other methods should be used if an accurate measurement is desired
3. Dye Method
The dye method, or color-velocity method, can be used to

measure the flow velocity, similar to the float method
However, in this method a slug of dye is injected into the
stream, and the time for the slug of dye to reach a downstream location is
measured
This time can be taken as the average of the time for the first portion of the
dye to reach the downstream location, and the time for the last portion of the
dye to reach that location (the dye will disperse and elongate as it moves
downstream)
The test section should not be too long, otherwise the dye will have
dispersed too much and it is difficult to visually detect the color differential in
the water
Usually, it is appropriate to use a test section of approximately 3 m
Dyes used in this type of measurement should be nontoxic so as not to
pollute the water
Food coloring can be used, as can other colored chemicals, such as
fluorescein
4. Salt Dilution Method
In this method, an aqueous solution of known salt concentration, C1, is

poured into the stream at a constant rate, q
The completely mixed solution is measured at a downstream location,
providing the concentration C2
After measuring the existing salt concentration in the flow (without adding
the concentrated solution), C0, the stream discharge, Q, can be calculated
as,
t ( QC0 + qC1 ) = [(Q + q)C2 ] t

or,
C C2
Q = q 1
C 2 C0

This method is used, then, not to measure velocity, but total volumetric flow
rate
Concentrations are normally expressed as mmho/cm, or dS/m
5. Radioisotope Method
The radioisotope method is a variation of the salt

dilution method, and uses a radioactive material as a
tracer which can be detected at a downstream
location
The detecting device can be Geiger or scintillation
counters, which provide a count of gamma ray
emissions
The measurement of tracer concentration is made by
the continuous sample method, or by the integrated-
sample method
In the former, the concentration at a fixed downstream location is
continuously monitored, from which a time versus concentration curve can
be established
In the latter, samples are made periodically, beginning before injection of the
tracer and continuing after for some time, until most of the tracer has passed
the downstream measurement location
This method is not used much any more because of environmental and
safety concerns, because of the cost of the equipment for detecting the
tracer, and because many other measurement methods are available.
6. Uniform Flow Method
In this method the channel bed slope, average cross-section, and

average depth are measured
A roughness value is estimated (!!!), and the Manning or Chezy
equation is applied to calculate the discharge
This method is valid only for steady uniform flow, and is severely
limited by an inability to accurately estimate the roughness value
And because it is only valid for steady uniform flow, it cannot be
applied in general since these flow conditions are often not found
in open channels
Ideally, both bed slope and water surface slope are measured to
verify whether the flow is uniform or not
The discharge can be estimated by giving a range of probable flow rates for
maximum and a minimum roughness values (also estimated), based on the
channel appearance and size
The roughness can be estimated by experience, or by consulting hydraulics
handbooks which provide tables and figures, or photographs

7. Pitot Tube Method
A simple pitot tube can be positioned

into the flow to measure the velocity
head
One end of the tube is pointed into
the flow, and the other end is
pointed up vertically out of the water
both ends are open
The submerged end of the tube is positioned to be essentially parallel to the
flow, near the center of the cross section (or slightly above the center)
Solving for velocity in the equation for velocity head:
V = 2gh
This method is best applied for higher flow velocities because it is difficult to
read the head differential at low velocities, in which large errors in the
estimation of velocity can result
It is also best for flows with a smooth, stable water surface
V. Better Flow Measurement Methods
Following is a list of flow measurement methods for open channels that require
special calibrations and designs, or more expensive equipment than the simple
methods
These methods also generally require more expertise and technical knowledge
to apply successfully
1. weirs
2. flumes
3. ultrasonic
4. laser-doppler
5. underflow gates
6. current metering
It is difficult to measure flow in open channels with a consistent accuracy of less

than 5% discharge error, but some flumes can provide accuracy of a maximum
of 2% error (or deviation from the true flow rate)
For full pipe flow, there are many commercial flow meters that can give the
instantaneous discharge, total volume of flow, or both
Commercial flow meters may have accuracies of less than 1% error in
discharge


Lecture 10
Agricultural Soils
I. Introduction
The method of irrigation, the scheduling of

irrigations, management practices, and decisions
relevant to the feasibility of irrigation depend in a
large measure on soil and topographic conditions
Management decisions relative to irrigation are
influenced by water holding characteristics of
soils and infiltration rates, and water availability is
frequently a constraint to irrigation development
The total land area suitable for irrigated
agriculture may be in excess of the potential
water supply for irrigation
Therefore, the process of selecting the lands to
be irrigated should include a procedure or criteria for rating the lands and soils with
respect to their relative value or suitability for irrigation
Sources of useful information include soil surveys, soil classifications, land
classifications, topographic maps, geological or geomorphological maps, and
studies relative to soil water relationships
By any of the numerous classifications there is a tremendous diversity of soils

around the world
The etymology of the word soil leads to something meaning ground or floor
From an agricultural perspective, soils can be thought of as a medium for plant
growth and for storing water and nutrients within the plant root zone
Agricultural soils are composed primarily of:
1. minerals;
2. organic material;
3. water; and,
4. air
Here, minerals include all solids except for organic (plant & animal) matter
Typically, about half of the soil volume is pore space, which is interstitial space
occupied by water and air
There are usually many different chemical elements present in agricultural soils, as
soil formation is primarily a process of mineral weathering with the addition of
organic constituents
Most agricultural soils have only a small percentage of organic material, and the
predominately mineral solids usually have a fairly consistent particle density of
about 2.65 gm/cm3

II. Soil Texture and Structure
Soils are often described in terms of texture and structure

By convention, soil texture refers to the relative quantities of inorganic matter, and
this is related to soil structure, which is indicative of such macro properties as
infiltration rate and water holding capacity
Structure is affected by texture, chemical interactions, and mechanical actions
such as compaction from agricultural machinery
Soil structure results from the aggregation or flocculation of individual soil
particles into clumps or masses
Deflocculated soils are those that have lost their structure, have very low
porosity, and can support only minimal water movement - this can happen to some
clay soils and is always to be avoided in agricultural fields
The mechanisms involved in the degree of soil flocculation are extremely complex
The various soil textural classes are based upon a system developed several
decades ago in which the relative percentages (by weight) of sand, silt and clay
are used to determine the class
Sand: fine, noncohesive rock fragments or particles, often

consisting mostly of quartz, which is silicon dioxide (SiO2), with
sizes greater than about 0.10 mm
Silt: consists of relatively fine soil particles in the 0.05 to 0.002
mm size range
Clay: consists mostly of hydrated silicates of aluminum in
cohesive colloidal particles in the 10-6 to 5 x 10-4 mm size
range, with complex physical and chemical characteristics
The differences between sand, silt, and clay cannot be accounted for only by the
differences in size ranges, and the chemical composition of clays is usually quite
different than that of sands and silts
The figure below shows the soil texture triangle diagram that has been generally
accepted for use with agricultural soils, encompassing twelve different classes,
each with a descriptive name

100
90 10
80 20
70 Clay 30
y
60 40
Cla
Pe
r ce
nt
50 Silty 50
rce
nt
Sil
Pe
Sandy clay
t
40 clay 60
Silty clay
Clay loam loam
30 Sandy clay 70
loam
20 80
Loam
L Sandy loam Silt loam
10 oam 90
y sa Silt
Sand nd
100
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percent Sand
This particular classification system is based only on the relative quantities of

inorganic material, and it has been applied all over the world
Sands are the simplest soil textures in
terms of physical and chemical
properties - they are relatively
noncohesive and chemically inert
Sands have a relatively large volume
of noncapillary pore space (spaces
between soil particles that drain freely
by gravity) and tend to have good
natural drainage and aeration
However, sands have low water
holding capacity and low porosity
compared to other soil textures
Clay soils have much smaller particles than sands and tend to form complex
physical structures, with high porosity and an abundance of capillary spaces
Clay soils have relatively low water infiltration rates and are more difficult to drain,
and some clays exhibit swelling and shrinking characteristics with different water
contents

Loam soils contain roughly equal percentages of sand, silt and clay, and tend to
combine the favorable characteristics of sands and clays, which can be thought of
as textural extremes
Predominately clay soils are often referred to as heavy or fine soils, while sandy
soils may be said to be light or coarse
These subjective terms are mostly related to the workability (in terms of tillage)
and cohesion of the soils
Some soil classifications refer to four components: mineral matter, organic matter,
air and water
Organic material is present in varying amounts in all agricultural soils, and those
with relatively large amounts of organic matter are sometimes called peats or
mucks
Soils with 20 to 30% or more of organic matter by weight have physical properties
dominated by the organic fraction, and not by the mineral fraction
The presence of organic material can have
a profound influence on the structure and
physical characteristics of a soil, as well as
the porosity and workability of the soil
Some clay soils can be very difficult to till
except within a very narrow range of water
contents - in one instance the soil may be
too dry and hard, but with too much water it
is slippery and sticky
Organic material almost always improves
the physical characteristics of a soil, and
increases the porosity
III. Soil Classification and Evaluation
Agricultural soils are often compared and distinguished according to texture and
structure, which are two essentially independent classifications
Standard textural soil classifications include three inorganic constituents: clay, silt
and sand
The relative percentages of these three constituents determines the textural
classification, such as sandy loam, clay, and silty clay loam
The structure of a soil refers to the looseness or compactness (amount of pore
space), and the alignment of small colloidal particles
Both texture and structure are directly related to the permeability of a soil, or the
rate with which water can infiltrate downward into the soil from the surface
There are several methods for evaluating soils or classifying lands with respect to
their agricultural potential

The Storie Index (Univ. of California 1978) provides a simple but effective means
for rating the potential utilization and productive capacity of the soil
The rating is a percentage with a maximum of 100% calculated as the product of
four percentage ratings
The four factors are as follows:
A. profile: Soil profiles are divided into nine groups based on soil or
profile development, geologic position, and source of soil forming
material. Within each profile group the percentage rating varies
principally with soil depth and the degree of profile development.
B. surface texture: Fine sandy loams, loams, and silt loams are
rated 100% except when they are gravelly or stony, in which case the
maximum is 70 to 80%. Coarse textured soils and fine textured or
heavy textured soils are given lower ratings.
C. slope: Soils that are nearly level (0 to 2%) are rated 100%. Very
steep slopes (45% and higher) are rated 5 to 30%.
X. other conditions: This factor includes drainage, alkalinity, nutrient

level, acidity, erosion, and microrelief. An example application of the
Storie Soil Index rating is given in the table below. The subsequent
table shows how soils are grouped by ranges in index ratings.

Sample Storie index soil classification
Factor Rating
A. Recent alluvial soil with unconsolidated profile 100%
B. Highly calcarious silty clay 80%
C. Undulating (3 to 8%) 90%
X. Fair nutrient level 95%
Composite Storie Index (100% x 0.80 x 0.90 x 0.95) 68%
Subjective soil grades according to Storie index ranges
Grade Range in Storie Index

1 (excellent) 80 to 100%
2 (good) 60 to 79%
3 (fair) 40 to 59%
4 (poor) 20 to 39%
5 (very poor) 10 to 19%
6 (nonagricultural) less than 10%
IV. Bureau of Reclamation Land Classification
The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation developed a system for mapping or delineating

soils on the basis of a systematic appraisal of the soil, topographic, and drainage
conditions or characteristics of the land
The mapping or classification is based upon an evaluation of the capability of the
lands to repay irrigation development costs through crop production in the western
USA
Lands are divided into six classes as given in the table below
USBR land classifications
Class Description
1 Lands most suitable for development
2 Lands less desirable because of soil, topographic, or drainage characteristics
3 Lands which are considered least suitable and which have the lowest potential
repayment capacity
4 Lands with excessive deficiencies but considered capable of repaying costs upon
development
5 Lands not suitable for irrigation under present conditions but worth segregating for
further study
6 Lands considered to be permanently non-arable
In many land classification studies only classes 1, 2, 3, and 6 have been mapped
Definite specifications are established for each major project area prior to land
classification

These specifications set the limits for each land class with respect to soil texture,
depth, water holding capacity, permeability, salinity, and other characteristics of
the lands
Most characteristics are determined for both the surface soil and the various layers
or horizons of the subsoil
Topography, natural drainage, vegetative
cover, stoniness, and other
considerations that may influence
development costs or crop production are
mapped and or described
During the mapping surveys, any detail
that may influence planning of the
irrigation development should be noted
In many cases much valuable information

can be made available through a study of
various published soil surveys, soil conservation studies, geologic maps, and
geomorphology studies and reports
The map boundaries between geologic formations are often also the boundaries
between soil types or land classes
Calcarious formations and basic igneous rocks are frequently associated with the
more fertile soils having high base exchange capacities
Older geologic formations are often associated with soils of poor agricultural
potential
Soil conservation studies frequently contain information on infiltration rates and the
field capacities of the various soil types
V. Soil Age and Topography
Generally, geology and the type of parent material have more influence on the
characteristics of younger soils
Soil physical and chemical properties are determined largely by the nature of the
parent material, the soil age, and the amount of leaching and decomposition that
has taken place
Many of the better soils for irrigation development are fairly young alluvial deposits
from calcareous marine parent material or from basic igneous rocks
Topography and position frequently relate to soil texture
Where the flow of surface water slows, sands and coarse materials are deposited
first, while clays are usually deposited in locations where water movement has
become very slow or even stagnant
The medium-textured soils (e.g. loams and silt loams) are rated highest for
agricultural development

VI. Soil Chemistry
The quality of a soil for irrigation is influenced by acidity or alkalinity, salinity, base
exchange capacity, base saturation, nutrient (fertility) level, and by other conditions
or elements
The optimum range of soil pH for irrigated crops varies somewhat. A pH of 6.5 is
optimum for many crops, although the full range of suitable values varies by crop
The pH should not be less than 5.0 or more than 8.5 for the most agricultural crops
Alkaline soils are those with a pH of greater than 7
More rain falls in the eastern USA than in the west, and agricultural soils tend to be
much more acidic in the east
Lime is often applied to acidic soils to raise the pH, but this is almost never done
on soils in the western USA
VII. Definition of pH
The acidity or alkalinity of a soil water solution is commonly quantified by the base
10 logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter
The resulting value is called the pH of the solution
In equation form: pH = log (1/H+)
The pH scale runs from 0 to 14, where 0 is for a strong acid solution and 14
corresponds to a strong base
A pH of 7 is neutral

Lecture 11
Basic Soil Water Physics
I. Soil Water Content Equations
Several equations are given below to define the common terms related to soil
water content
These are important in irrigation system design, evaluation and operation
Porosity, , is simply the percent pore space (air and water) related to the total
soil volume
Porosity usually ranges from 0.3 to 0.6, or 30% to 60%
Porosity tends to be higher for fine-textured (clay) soils, but it is also a function
of the soil structure
Vair + Vliquid b
= = 1 (1)
Vtotal s
where the volume terms are defined in the following figure, with Vliquid being the
volume of water in the soil; b is the bulk density (defined below); and s is the soil
particle density
Soil particle density is approximately 2.65 gm/cm3 for most agricultural soils
The void ratio is defined as:
Vair + Vliquid
e= (2)
Vsolid

where Vsolid is the volume of solids in a soil sample
The aeration porosity is defined as Vair/Vtotal
Saturation occurs when the pore space of a soil is completely filled with water
Saturation means essentially no air, which is a problem for most crops if the
condition persists for more than a few hours
But, in reality, even if the soil is saturated the soil water will contain some air
Saturation, S, can be defined as a function of volumetric water content and
porosity:
Vliquid v
S= = (3)
Vair + Vliquid
where S is the saturation as a fraction; and v is the volumetric water content,

which is defined as:
Vliquid
v = = S (4)
Vtotal
The dry mass fraction water content is the ratio of the mass of water in a given
soil volume to the mass of solid particles:
w Vliquid
m = (5)
s Vsolid
where m is the dry mass fraction water content; and w is the density of water (1
g/cm3; 1 kg/liter; or 1,000 kg/m3)
Dry mass fraction is sometimes used, but for our purposes we are more
interested in v
The density of water depends on the chemicals dissolved in the water, but can
usually be taken to be slightly higher than 1.0 g/cm3
Bulk density can be defined as the ratio of the mass of solid soil particles (dry
mass) to the bulk soil volume:
s Vsolid
b = = s (1 ) (6)
Vtotal
The available water (AW) is difference in water content at field capacity and
wilting point (or permanent wilting point), multiplied by the crop root depth, Rz

Water held in the soil between saturation and field capacity is actually available
to plants, but it is generally ignored because most agricultural soils drain to field
capacity in one to three days
Field capacity (FC): 1 to 3 days after saturation (due to

irrigation and or significant rain), most of the water that will
drain downward due to gravity has already left the root zone,
leaving the matric potential at -33 kPa, or -0.10 to -0.33 bars.
FC is not a precisely defined value, but is often used in
irrigation engineering calculations.
Wilting point (WP): the soil has dried to the point at which the
only water remaining in the soil is held at a tension higher than
that which the plant roots can overcome, which is at about -
1,500 kPa, or -15 bars of matric potential. But if the soil water
salinity is significant, for example, wilting point can be reached
before that matric potential exists in the soil.
Ignoring the water between saturation and field capacity can be considered a
safety factor in design calculations for irrigation system capacity
In equation form, the available water is:
AW = ( FC WP ) R z (7)
AW is sometimes called TAW, or total available water

The management allowed deficit (MAD) is the fraction of the total available
water that is allowed to be depleted from the soil before irrigating
The value of MAD tends to be smaller for high value crops, unless it is
necessary to stress the plants for acceptable production
Usually, we will specify 0.2 < MAD < 0.5 for design purposes
The MAD is often used in preliminary irrigation system design calculations
The following figure shows two sample soil water content curves: one for the soil
water distribution in the root zone immediately following an irrigation, in which the
soil water content at the surface is at or near saturation, and the other for the
redistributed soil water after a few days

This represents the typical case for a uniform soil profile, and where the soil water
content reaches field capacity from 1 to 3 days after irrigation
The figure above is drawn with the assumption that the initial soil water content
(just before irrigation) is less than field capacity and that it is constant with depth
However, this is somewhat idealized because the initial soil water content would
not be uniform in general, and the presence of a high water table would shift the
lower parts of the curves to the right
The areas A1 and A2 would be equal if there were no evaporation from the soil
surface, and no transpiration from plants in that soil region, during the 1- to 3-day
period
The following figure shows a generalized curve of the soil water content above a
water table, some 1 to 3 days after an irrigation at the soil surface:

The above is just an example; the water content at the soil surface may very well
be less than field capacity after an irrigation
II. Soil Water Potential
This can be taken to be a form of energy, as in the Bernoulli

equation, which accounts for potential, internal, and kinetic energy
components
Potential is analogous to temperature, as soil water content is
analogous to heat content
Soil water potential is often expressed in units of cm of water
Soil water tension is negative pressure, and negative pressure is relative to
atmospheric pressure
Negative pressures occur in the soil vadose zone, which is essentially
everything from the ground surface down to the water table (rice crops may
have no vadose zone because they are often saturated throughout the root
zone)

The total soil water potential in a soil is usually equal to the gravitational, plus
solute, plus matric potentials:
t = z + p + s + m (8)
where t is the total potential; z is the gravitational potential; p is the pressure

potential (or internal energy); s is the solute (or osmotic) potential; and m is
the matric potential
The gravitational potential is referenced from an arbitrary datum and its

significance is purely for purposes of comparison at different elevations in a soil
profile
That is, gravitational potential is a relative term
The pressure potential is zero unless the soil is saturated
This term is zero above the free water surface, and increases
linearly below the water surface
Pressure potential can be measured using a piezometer, and
the units are usually cm of water
Solute potential is related to osmosis and semi-permeable membranes (as in
plant roots, for example) which leave many (but certainly not all) salts behind
when water is extracted from the soil matrix
Solute potential can often be estimated as 0.36 times the electrical conductivity
(EC) for soil extracts in the 3 to 30 dS/m range
s 0.36EC (9)
where s is in atmospheres and EC is in dS/m (or mmho/cm)
The solute potential increases as the soil water salinity increases, making it
more difficult for plant roots to extract water from the soil
Solute potential can be directly measured by:
1. Freezing-point depression
2. Vapor-pressure osmometers
3. Thermocouple psychrometers
III. Matric Potential
Matric potential is related to the adsorptive forces of the soil, and can be
measured using a tensiometer
Matric potential and volumetric water content are sometimes assumed to be
uniquely related for any given soil, but because of hysteresis this is not quite
true
Matric potential is nearly zero for saturated soil conditions

Matric potential is negative 0.1 to 0.3 bars (-100 to -300 cm of water head) at
field capacity
Matric potential is negative 15 bars (-15,000 cm) at wilting point
Bars are approximately equal to atmospheres, and one centibar (0.01 bars), cb,
is about 10 cm of water head, or 10 bars per kPa
Note that wilting point is described here in terms of potential, not volumetric
water content. This is logical because WP is a crop-related parameter, and it is
soil water tension that the crop roots work against when they withdraw water,
not water content.
The soil water content at 15 bars tension can vary greatly depending on soil
texture and soil structure
IV. Hysteresis
A phenomenon in which the equilibrium soil water content at a given tension is

greater in drying than in wetting
This means that there can be two different soil water contents for the same
matric potential in the same soil
Hysteresis is caused partly by the geometry of the pore spaces, whereby it is
more difficult to fill some pores with water than to drain them, and because air
can become trapped in pores during wetting, eventually dissolving into the
water
Hysteresis may also be affected by soil shrinking and swelling, especially with
some types of clay soils

Lecture 12
Measuring Soil Water Content
I. Introduction
Several methods can be used to determine soil water content, and new
methods are being developed
It is important to have measurements of soil water
content to determine when to schedule irrigations
II. Gravimetric Method
Perhaps the most accurate method is the gravimetric

method, in which soil samples are
taken to a laboratory and weighed,
dried in an oven for several hours,
then weighed again
The difference in weights
corresponds to the mass of water in
the soil
The gravimetric method has the disadvantage that it takes several hours to
collect and prepare soil samples, and requires
laboratory equipment
This method is sometimes used by researchers
and students in our department, and we have
some ovens in the River Lab facility
III. Porous Blocks
Porous blocks have been used for many years

to measure soil water content
Common block materials are gypsum, ceramic, nylon, and fiberglass
The cost per block is around $5 to $10
The blocks may last for more than one year, but
sometimes for only one season
Two common types are: electrical resistance and heat
dissipation
Electrical resistance blocks function by measuring resistance (Ohms) between
probes embedded in the block, which is a function of soil water content (and
salinity)
Thermal dissipation blocks are made of porous ceramic. They have an
embedded heater and temperature sensors. The thermal dissipation of the
block is related to the water content of the block itself, which is a function of
water tension in the surrounding soil.
Thermal dissipation blocks are more expensive than electrical resistance blocks

These are simple and inexpensive, but are not particularly accurate
The calibration of porous blocks tends to shift with time, and as mentioned
above, it also depends on soil water salinity
IV. Watermark Blocks
The Watermark block, or granular matrix sensor, is a new kind of electrical

resistance block
Electrodes are embedded in the block and a gypsum wafer is embedded in the
granular matrix near the electrodes
A synthetic porous membrane and a PVC casing with tiny holes drilled in it hold
the block together
The granular matrix material enhances the movement of water to and from the
surrounding soil, making the block more responsive to soil water tensions in the
0 to 100 cb range
Watermark blocks exhibit good sensitivity to soil water tension over a range
from 0 to 200 cb; this makes them more adaptable to a wider range of soil
textures and soil water contents than gypsum blocks and tensiometers (see
below)
These blocks also last longer than most other porous blocks
They cost about $30 each
V. Neutron Probe
The neutron probe has become very

common for taking measurements of
soil water content
The device is accurate and quick to
apply, but is also expensive at about
$3,000 or so
Measurements with the neutron probe
should start at about 9 inches below
the soil surface to avoid boundary errors, but this depends on the soil water
content (with more water, the sphere of influence of the probe decreases)
Vertical access tubes for inserting the probe are usually aluminum or PVC, but
the calibration is different for these two materials the probe reading is not
affected by aluminum, but PVC has some hydrogen, and
this does affect the reading
Neutron probes are radioactive and can be health
hazards if handled improperly. Users should have formal
training on the application and storage of these devices,
and should wear badges that can be checked for level of
exposure to radiation

VI. Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
In TDR, an electromagnetic signal is introduced along two or three wave guides

(stiff wires inserted into the soil)
The signal is in the form of a single pulse
The pulse travels the length of the guides (10 to 30 cm)
When it hits the end, it "reflects" back to the source
This is why we call it reflectometry
One measures the time that it takes for the wave to travel the length of the
guides and back to the source
This is why we call it "time domain"
The speed of the transmission is a large fraction of the speed of light

However, the more water in the soil, the higher the dielectric forces (required to
orient the very polar water molecules in line with the magnetic flux), and the
slower the speed of the transmission
The effect is a bit like capacitance, where the water molecules absorb some
energy as they are aligned
Because water is by far the most

abundant polar molecule in the soil,
you can measure water content
using TDR by correlating the
change in speed (or increase in
time) for the signal to travel to the
end of the guides and to reflect
back
The final measurement represents
the average volumetric water
content over the length of the wave
guides
The guides must be completely
inserted into the soil
With most TDR, an expensive
cable tester (a specialized
oscilloscope) is needed to take the
measurements
The presence of other dielectric molecules in the soil will bias the reading
Therefore, often TDR must be calibrated to a specific soil
Also, the presence of salinity in the soil will change the dielectric constant for
the soil-water solution
Therefore, a correction for salinity must be made
The dielectic constant is a weak function of temperature, so that a temperature
correction may be needed for high accuracy

A three-probe wave guide can also be used to determine soil salinity along with
water content
There is generally a limit of about 0.3 m for the lengths of wave guides
This is because the signal can become too weak on long guides
In addition, as the electromagnetic signal passes through changes in soil
texture or large changes in soil water content, these changes can cause false
reflections to occur, and it becomes impossible to determine the true reflection
Therefore, TDR is usually used only for the top 30 cm of soil
For deeper depths, you may need to dig a trench and then insert the TDR wave
guides horizontally
Care must be taken to not disrupt the soil or roots where these may impact
subsequent infiltration or water extraction
Some companies are making a long probe that is comprised of a series of TDR
wave guides
This probe is installed permanently into the soil profile, the depth of the effective
root zone, to assist in evapotranspiration (ET) studies
A more literal title for TDR that translates more readily into other languages is:
"Time-based measurement of electromagnetic reflection"
VII. FDR Sensor
A sensor similar to the TDR is the FDR sensor (Campbell Scientific)

This sensor uses frequency domain reflectometry
The physics of the method are similar to TDR, only with FDR, a high frequency
series of pulses is sent down the wave guides rather than a single pulse
The electronics for the system then measure the shift in frequency rather than
the change in time
The required electronics are built into each sensor, so an expensive "cable
tester" is not needed as it is with TDR
However, each water content reflectometer sensor is a bit more expensive
(about $200)
But each sensor can be read directly and automatically using a Campbell data
logger
Other sensors use techniques that are similar to TDR, however, instead of
relying on a reflection of a signal, they merely measure the time for a signal to
travel a certain distance along guides
These guides are in the form of wires, and should be about 10-m long to make
a loop back to the source
The benefit of these sensors is that they measure a long integrated path of soil
This is valuable where the crop root extraction or the infiltration of irrigation
water is highly variable
It may be possible to use these sensors to measure the average water content
of a full root zone

This would allow one to determine ET as a difference in water content over time
However, one would need to orient the cable so that it sampled an equal portion
of the root zone equally this would be difficult
VIII. Tensiometers
First of all, tensiometers are not used to measure soil

water content - they are for measuring matric potential
(soil water tension)
Tension is a measure of how tightly the water is bound to
the soil, and is an indication of the availability of the
water for uptake by plant roots, as well as for movement
within the soil profile
Soil water tension is directly related to water content
(ignoring hysteresis), given a particular soil type, and can
be used to give an indication of the amount of water in a
soil profile
A tensiometer has several components, including the
following:
1. porous ceramic cup at the bottom

2. water reservoir tube
3. dial gauge
4. end cap
The porous ceramic cup regulates the flow of water into and out of the
tensiometer, from the surrounding soil
After some time it will reach equilibrium with the tension in the soil
The reservoir tube holds a supply of water, which the tensiometer needs to
operate
The water should be de-aerated, if
possible (boil it first, then let it cool)
A hand-operated vacuum pump is
used to evacuate air from the
tensiometer after it is filled with
water
An end cap seals the unit and
allows negative pressures to be
maintained inside the tensiometer
The dial gauge provides a reading
of the soil water tension
Tensiometers function within a
certain range of negative
pressures, in the soil vadose zone: about zero to 100 cb (0 to 14.7 psi) under
ideal conditions, but only up to about 75 cb tension under many practical
conditions

A reading of zero corresponds to saturated soil conditions
IX. How Tensiometers Operate
Water is held in the soil interstices by attraction (adhesion) of the water

molecules to the soil particles
In other words, water is held in pore spaces between soil particles, and moves
through these interconnected spaces
When a soil is saturated, all of the pore spaces are filled with water and there is
essentially no air
As water drains downward, is removed by plant roots, and/or leaves by
evaporation processes near the soil surface, the water content of the pores
decreases and air enters the pore spaces
Water in the center of the pores, farthest away from the soil particles, is held
less tightly and moves more easily
As water is removed, the remaining water is bound (held) more tightly, and the
tension of the soil water increases
When a tensiometer is in the soil, with water in the porous cub at the bulb,
water will pass through the cup walls into the soil and create a negative
pressure in the instrument
A gauge on the top of the tensiometer indicates the magnitude of the tension,
which increases as the surrounding soil becomes drier
The porous cup at the tip must be in good contact with the soil, which may
require a soil water slurry to be packed around the cup
After installing a tensiometer, it will take anywhere from a few hours to more
than a day to come to equilibrium with the surrounding soil
If the tension gets too high, air will suddenly enter through the porous cup and
break suction, causing the gauge reading to go to zero
http://www.earthsystemssolutions.com/assets/TensiometerUsersGuide.html
http://www.sowacs.com/feature/deltat/swp-swt.html
http://inelext1.inel.gov/science/prestige.nsf/ineel/Tensiometer
http://home.t-online.de/home/unidata/5242eng.htm
http://weather.nmsu.edu/Teaching_Material/soil698/tensio.html
http://www.tensio.de/english/steck.html
http://www.irrometer.com

Lecture 13
Water Infiltration in Soils
I. Infiltration Rates
When the soil is dry, water is absorbed (infiltrates) quickly

After 20 to 30 minutes the rate decreases as the air spaces in the soil are filled
with water
After 1 or 2 hours (except for very sandy soils) infiltration usually occurs at a slow
steady rate - this rate is the basic infiltration rate
Basic infiltration rates for the various soil types are approximately as given in the
table below; however, some soils exhibit much different infiltration characteristics
even though their textures are very similar
Basic infiltration rates for various soil textures
Soil Type Basic Infiltration Rate

(mm/hr)
Clay 15
Clay loam 5 10
Silt loam 10 20
Sandy loam 20 30
Sand 30 or more
For example, the cerrado soils in central Brazil have relatively high infiltration rates
even though their texture is predominately clay
The following table indicates the approximate bulk density (dry weight density) and
porosity of three different soil types
Typical values of soil bulk density and porosity
Soil Type Bulk Density Porosity

(gm/cm3) (%)
Clay 1.1 - 1.3 53 - 61
Loam 1.3 - 1.4 47 - 53
Sand 1.4 - 1.8 30 - 47
A knowledge of the basic infiltration rate is needed when selecting a method of

irrigation
Surface irrigation is not desirable on soils with high infiltration rates because rapid
infiltration makes uniform water distribution difficult or impossible
Sprinkle and trickle irrigation are less desirable on soils with low infiltration rates
because surface ponding and runoff tends to occur, compromising the uniformity
of application of water
Wetting the entire soil surface for a significant period of time restricts soil aeration,
reducing plant respiration, and frequently resulting in lower crop yields

Infiltration rates are also useful for estimating the amount of effective rainfall
If rain falls faster than the infiltration rate, it will produce runoff unless some
provision is made to retain the excess water on the soil in order to increase the
opportunity time for the rain to enter the soil
However, crop or vegetation, cultivation, and management practices may have
large influence on the amount of runoff
Comparisons of areas or fields with the same or similar slope and soil textures
may result in a wide range of infiltration differences
Soil infiltration rates can be measured using cylinder ring infiltrometers, ponds,
inflow-outflow in furrows, blocked (ponded) furrows, and through the use of special
equipment such as recycling furrow infiltrometers
A cylinder ring infiltrometer, as shown below, is usually made of steel and can be
with single rings or concentric double rings
Double-ringed cylinders have the advantage that the infiltration measurement is

more accurate in terms of vertical infiltration into the soil due to the presence of an
outer buffer pond, which is supposed to be maintained at the same depth as the
water in the inner ring

Cylinder rings are most useful for irrigation with basins or borders in which the
infiltration is essentially vertical during an actual irrigation
However, for furrow irrigation it is preferable to take into account the two
dimensional (vertical and horizontal) infiltration by performing an inflow-outflow or
blocked furrow test
Inflow-outflow and blocked furrow tests also provide greater spatial integration,
whereas cylinder ring tests are essentially point measurements of infiltration, and
many samples are needed over a field area to determine representative infiltration
parameters
A recycling furrow infiltrometer is an instrumentation package that runs water

through a short section of furrow and measures the infiltration rate as a function of
time; it has the advantage of taking into account both the geometry of the furrows
and the movement of the water along the furrow, two factors that can significantly
affect the infiltration rate
In sprinkler irrigation the impact of the water drops on the soil surface can cause a
partial sealing and reduced infiltration rate
This is especially true with sprinklers that produce large drops on heavy textured
(clay) soils
The velocity of the drops as they arrive at the ground surface is also a factor in the
partial sealing phenomena, but most drops from sprinklers reach their terminal
velocity before hitting the ground (Keller and Bliesner 1990)

Thus, the infiltration rate measured from cylinder infiltrometers and other means
may be inaccurate under sprinkler irrigated conditions, especially with heavy
textured soils
II. Basic Soil-Water Relationships
The amount of water available in the soil that can be used for crop growth and
development depends upon several parameters
These variables include the crop effective root density and depth (how well the
root system explores the soil), as well as the ability of the soil to store available
water
The principal soil characteristics used to estimate the
amount of potentially available water storage include
the field capacity (FC), the permanent wilting point
(PWP), and the available water (AW)
Field capacity may be defined as the soil water
content just after rapid drainage due to gravity,
following an irrigation in which the soil was
temporarily saturated
Field capacity will typically be reached one to three
days after an irrigation in which the soil in the root
zone is completely refilled
The field capacity can be measured directly as a percentage by volume, which can
be expressed in terms of mm/m of soil depth
Field capacity can also be calculated from the bulk density and the fraction of the
weight of water in a soil sample
The bulk density may change with irrigation, passage of farm equipment, or tillage
practices
For agricultural soils, it can vary from 1.1 gm/cm3 for highly structured clays to 1.8
gm/cm3 for fairly compact coarse sand
For estimates in connection with irrigation scheduling, an average value of 1.4 or
1.5 is frequently assumed for medium soil textures
The field capacity (FC) is the amount or percentage of water by volume of soil that
can be held against drainage by gravity
This usually occurs between 1/10 atmosphere of tension for coarse soils and 1/3
atmosphere for heavy soils
A practical procedure for determining FC is to select an area with no plants on it,
flood the area to saturate the soil, cover with canvas or plastic to prevent
evaporation, and take soil samples after the soil has drained to the field capacity
The drainage time required is usually one day for sandy or coarse textured soils
and may be as much as four days for fine textured or heavy textured soils

The samples should be placed in cans to prevent further drying prior to weighing,
be weighed, oven dried, and the percentage of water per unit of volume or of unit
dry weight of soil calculated
The FC by volume is the percentage of water held in the soil after drainage by
gravity per unit dry weight multiplied by the bulk density of the soil
By measuring the volume of the sample taken, the need for calculating the bulk
density is eliminated
For some sands, the volumetric water content at FC may be less than 8%, while
for organic clays it may exceed 40%
On a volumetric basis, the water content at FC cannot exceed the porosity, , nor
can it equal the porosity (otherwise the water content at FC would equal
saturation)
However, the available water, AW, is less than FC because PWP is subtracted
Drainage of some soils is so slow that a quantitative determination of FC is difficult

The permanent wilting point (PWP) is the percentage of soil water (dry weight of
soil) at which plants wilt and do not recover unless water is added
It is approximately equal to the water held in the soil at -15 bars (about 15
atmospheres of tension)
The PWP may be estimated for most medium textured soils as being about half of
the field capacity
The available water (AW) is the FC PWP
AW is usually expressed as depth of available water per meter of soil depth
This is calculated by multiplying the AW as a dry weight percentage by the bulk
density (BD)
Typical water holding capacities of soils in mm/m of soil depth are given in the
table below
Available water for various soil textures
Available Water (AW)

Soil Texture (mm/m)
Coarse Sands 20 - 65
Fine Sands 60 - 85
Loamy Sands 65 - 110
Sandy Loams 90 - 130
Fine Sandy Loam 100 - 170
Silt Loams 150 - 230
Silty Clay Loam 130 - 160
Silty Clay 125 - 170
Clay 110 - 150
Peats and Mucks 160 - 240
Note: this table was compiled from several sources and
represents an approximate average of relationships found.
Soil texture is not a very good indication of AW the variation in water holding
characteristics within a given texture is too great

About half of the soil texture triangle is comprised of clays and clay loams
A soil with more than 55% clay may be mapped as clay but have very different
water holding characteristics than those of a soil with 90% clay
In one study, a linear regression was made for values of volumetric water content
from 8 to 41% at FC
The equation is:
AW = 2.3 + 0.37FC (1)
The coefficient of determination (r2) was 0.98 for the data used to calibrate the
equation
Allen (1994) developed an equation from the data given by Jensen, et al. (1990):
AW = 1.55 (FC )
0.66
(2)
Equation 2 gives somewhat higher values of AW than those from Eq. 1

There is significant variation in these relationships but the equations are
superior to estimating AW from soil texture alone
When plants are using water from the upper 50% of AW there is little stress
In the lower range, plants experience increasing water stress, and when the PWP
is reached, water use by the plant approaches zero
For irrigation scheduling, it is assumed that soil water should be replaced when
between 25 and 75% of available water is depleted
The actual recommended depletion fraction or percentage depends upon the crop
potential evapotranspiration and the crop type
III. Soil Water Infiltration Curves
Various equations for the approximation of soil water infiltration characteristics

exist
Such equations are used in irrigation system design & evaluation
Some of these are entirely empirical, based on observed data, and others have an
extensive theoretical basis
When cumulative soil water infiltration (or intake) is measured, the data typically
take the form shown below, for vertical (one-dimensional) intake
Note that more points are taken at small times, where the curvature is greatest

Infiltrated Depth vs. Time
0.025
Cumulative Infiltrated Depth

0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Intake Opportunity Time
The slope of the curve tends to reach a constant value after some time
The slope of the above curve can be plotted with respect to time, to obtain another
typical curve shape for infiltration in agricultural soils
Intake Rate vs. Time

0.0045
0.0040
0.0035
Infiltration Rate
0.0030
0.0025
0.0020
0.0015
0.0010
0.0005
0.0000
0 10 20 30 40 50
Intake Opportunity Time
The infiltration rate is very high during the first instants of water application to a soil
The nearly constant infiltration rate after some time is called the basic intake rate
If the soil is very wet already, the measurements may start at the basic intake rate,
which remains constant
Thus, to develop the full curves shown above, it is best to start with a fairly dry soil

The soil infiltration curves will tend to change from one irrigation to the next,
perhaps greatly, for the same soil and the same field
This variability complicates the design, evaluation, and operation of irrigation
systems, especially for surface irrigation methods
IV. Soil Water Infiltration Equations
Various equations have been developed for predicting soil water infiltration
properties
The most commonly-used equations for irrigation design, evaluation and
management purposes are presented below
1. Kostiakov Equation
The empirically-derived Kostiakov equation is:
Z = ka (3)
where Z is cumulative infiltrated depth (cm or inches, usually); is the intake

opportunity time (min, usually); and a & k are calibration parameters, based on
measured data or soil texture.
Intake opportunity time means the elapsed time since the water first arrived at the
surface of the soil
For most surface irrigation methods, the value of varies spatially due to the time it
takes for water to travel over the surface of the field to different locations
That is, intake opportunity time is something like elapsed irrigation time minus
advance time
The Kostiakov-Lewis equation has an extra term added, and better approximates
field measurements of infiltration:
Z = ka + fo (4)
where fo is the basic intake rate (cm/min, or inch/min).
Eq. 4 can be differentiated with respect to to arrive at the intake rate:
I = aka 1 + fo (5)
where I is the intake rate (cm/min, or inch/min).
Eqs. 4 and 5 are commonly used because of their simplicity and good ability to fit
most field data

However, more complex equations are available and can be used
2. Green-Ampt Equation
IMD
I = K 1 + S (6)
z
where, I= infiltration rate (mm/hr or inch/hr)

K= hydraulic conductivity (cm/s)
IMD = (s - i), or saturation minus initial soil water content
z= vertical dimension (mm or inch), positive downward
S= suction at the wetting front (energy/unit weight)
3. Richards Equation
This equation can be derived from one-dimensional conservation of mass and

Darcys law, thereby having a strong theoretical basis
v h
= K(v ) 1 S(z,t) (7)
t z t
where, v = volumetric water content (fraction)

K() = theta-dependent value of K (hydraulic conductivity)
h= soil water pressure, which is negative for non-saturated
conditions
Soil hydraulic conductivity usually depends on the direction of flow (e.g. vertical,
horizontal, or other direction) because of soil layering and structure
Hydraulic conductivity also depends greatly on the soil water content, being
highest for saturated conditions, and decreasing rapidly to zero for dry conditions
There are various methods for measuring K in soils, including the auger hole test
Saturated hydraulic conductivity ranges from a low of 0.25 cm/hr (clays) to a high
of 25 cm/hr (sands) in most agricultural soils [0.1 to 10 inches/hr]; for loam soils it
may be around 2 cm/hr
Permeability is a general term and hydraulic conductivity is specific to the
movement of water in soils, but they are often used synonymously
Darcys law states that the flow of water through a porous media (e.g. soil) is
proportional to the hydraulic gradient and to the hydraulic conductivity of the media
This is somewhat analogous to Ohms law in electricity
This can be expressed as:
Q = KiA (8)

where, Q= flow rate (m3/s)
i= hydraulic gradient (dimensionless), or the rate of change in
hydraulic potential in the direction of flow (H/L)
A= cross-sectional area, normal to the direction of flow (m2)
K= has units of m/s (in this case)
The negative sign in front of the right side of the above equation accounts for flow
direction water flows from higher to lower potential, or opposite to the potential
gradient
That is, the gradient decreases in the direction of flow
Note that for vertical flow of water in a soil, H = L, and i = 1.0
V. Calibrating the Kostiakov-Lewis Equation
Below is a table of cylinder ring infiltration data from Walker (1989, FAO #45)
Note that the readings are most frequent at the start of the test, and that this one
goes for about 24 hours (not all tests run so long)
Hour of Elapsed Time Gauge Value Cumulative Intake, Z

Day (min) (mm) (mm)
8:00 am 0 187 0
8:01 am 1 183 4
8:02 am 2 182 5
8:04 am 4 181 6
8:06 am 6 180 7
8:10 am 10 179 8
8:20 am 20 177 10
8:30 am 30 176 11
9:00 am 60 173 14
10:00 am 120 169 18
11:00 am 180 166 21
12:00 am 240 163 24
2:00 pm 360 158 29
4:00 pm 480 153 34
6:00 pm 600 149 38
0:00 am 960 137 50
3:00 am 1140 131 56
6:00 am 1320 126 61
8:40 am 1480 122 65
The elapsed time column represents intake opportunity time,

Below is plot of the data

70
Cumulative Intake (mm) 60
50
40
30
,
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Intake Opportunity Time (min)
In the last few data points, the fo term dominates the Z value
Solving for the basic intake rate, fo, we can perform linear regressions on the
data points taken toward the end of the test, where the rate is roughly linear
Following are the regression results for different numbers of data points,
starting from the last point and going back in time
Using the last six values gives a high correlation and what is likely to be a
representative value of the basic intake rate, and fo 0.031 mm/min
With seven or more values, the correlation steadily declines, as we move into
the curved region of the data
0.040 1.000
Basic Intake Rate (mm/min)
0.035 0.998
0.030 0.996
Correlation (R2)
0.025 0.994
fo (mm/min)
0.020 0.992
Correlation
0.015 0.990
0.010 0.988
0.005 0.986
0.000 0.984
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Number of Points
In the first few data points, the ka term dominates the Z value

To solve for the a & k values, we can perform a logarithmic transformation and
do a linear regression on the data points in the curved region of the Z versus
plot
log Z = logk + alog + log ( fo ) (9)
The first data point cannot be used because log(0) is undefined

Any logarithmic base could be used in these calculations, but natural logarithms
are used in the example below
In the curved region of the Z versus plot, the fo term can be neglected
Then, Eq. 9 becomes;
log Z logk + alog (10)
The logarithmic transformation of the and Z values is given below, up to =

180 min (where the curve seems to straighten)
ln() ln(Z)
0.000 1.386
0.693 1.609
1.386 1.792
1.792 1.946
2.303 2.079
2.996 2.303
3.401 2.398
4.094 2.639
4.787 2.890
5.193 3.045
A linear regression on the above data gives a = 0.31 and k = e1.37 = 3.94, with a
correlation of 0.998
Thus, the calibrated equation for these data, with in minutes and Z in mm, is:
Z = 3.940.31 + 0.031 (11)
This equation predicts the measurements fairly well, but an fo value of about
0.025 will give a better fit at high values
We could have just determined fo directly from the last two data points, and in
this case the results would have been better

Lecture 14
Crop Production Factors
I. Introduction
First, some definitions of crop development and production factors will be

introduced, then two crop yield models will be presented
Crop yield models become important prediction tools when you realize that the
ultimate objective for irrigation (in most cases) is to maximize crop production
Crop yield reduction due to soil water salinity will be discussed in a later lecture
II. Leaf Area Index
As plants grow and their leaves shade

higher percentages of the bare ground
surface, the potential evaporation from the
soil decreases
So, LAI can be used to help predict
evaporation
LAI is also used to estimate canopy
resistance, which is a factor in some ETo
equations
The LAI is the ratio of the total leaf area of the plants to the ground area in which
the plants are growing
Only one side of the leaves is measured in the determination of LAI
LAI generally increases as a crop matures
LAI is between 3 and 5 for most mature crops, usually indicating significant leaf
overlap, unless it is a tall plant such as many kinds of trees
Crop yield per unit area increases with increasing numbers of plants (i.e.
increasing plant density) until the plant population is sufficient for maximum
resource utilization
A general rule is that plant density neednt be higher than that which provides full
ground cover at maturity
Beyond an optimum plant density, crop yield will usually not increase, and may
even decrease
Various studies have been made of the optimum LAI or optimum pasture heights
for maximum growth of different forage grasses
The figure below is a typical comparison of the optimum LAI for variable rates of
incoming solar radiation at the surface, Rs, in cal/cm2/day
Given an Rs value, what is the LAI that gives the highest crop yield?
The maximum dry matter production was obtained when LAI was approximately
2.6 plus 0.007 Rs (LAI = 2.6 + 0.007 Rs)

10
8
Leaf Area Index (LAI)
100%
6
m LAI alue)
im u v
Opt given R s 75%
(for a
4
50%
25%
2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
2
Incident Solar Radiation (Rs) (cal/cm /day)
Relative Yield of Dry Crop Matter (%)
III. Growing Degree Days
Growing-Degree Days (GDD) are the basis for a type of

phenological clock, which is used to estimate the durations
of different growth stages for some crop types
This is also referred to as a heat unit clock
For a given crop or group of crops, experimental results
are used to determine maximum and minimum
temperatures, or cardinal temperatures
For corn/maize, these might be 10C and 30C (50F and
86F)
A GDD is calculated as the average air temperature minus
the specified minimum temperature
But for any given day it cannot be less than zero nor greater than the difference
between the cardinal temperatures
Daily values of GDD are accumulated (added up) and compared with established
values that signify the end of a particular crop growth stage
Thus, this accounts for the effect that warmer weather has (within limits) on
accelerating crop growth

Various other phenological clocks have been proposed and applied by
researchers
IV. Heating & Cooling Degree Days
The Utah Climate Center at USU publishes large

amounts of weather data on their website:
climate.usu.edu
The data published often include Heating Degree
Days (HDD), which are used to estimate the
amount of energy required to heat buildings
Dr. Jensen and others found that when the
average of max & min daily air temperatures is at
least 65F (18.3C), no heating of buildings is
needed
For this reason, they have chosen 65F as the
base temperature for HDD calculations
They also publish values for Cooling Degree Days (CDD), with the same base
of 65F
The difference in application is that for HDD, the mean daily temp is subtracted
from 65, while for CDD the value of 65 is subtracted from the mean daily temp
HDD and CDD are similar in concept to GDD, but only GDD is used for crop
phenological purposes
V. GDD40 and GDD50
The Utah Climate Center publishes two different GDD values

One is intended for crops native to temperate zones, with a base temperature of
40F (4.4C) and an upper limit of 77F (25C)
The other is for use with crops native to tropical regions, with a base
temperature of 50F (10C) and an upper limit of 86F (30C)
The first is called GDD40 and the second is GDD50
The equation for GDD40 is:
Temperate GDD40 = 0.5 ( Tmax + Tmin ) 40 (1)
And the equation for GDD50 is:
Tropical GDD50 = 0.5 ( Tmax + Tmin ) 50 (2)
For GDD40:
if Tmax in a day is less than 40, Tmax in Eq. 1 is set equal to 40

if Tmax in a day is greater than 77, Tmax in Eq. 1 is set equal to 77

Tmin is subject to the same constraints
Thus, the calculated daily average temperature will never be less than 40
nor greater than 77, and GDD40 will always be between zero and 77-40 =
37
The same rules are applied in the case of GDD50; it is just that the cardinal
values are different
Other definitions for GDD have been proposed and used, but they are similar to
the two described above
VI. Crop Development
Crop growth and development are influenced by air

temperature, solar radiation, the evaporative potential, the
daily temperature range, and other factors
The total number of growing degree days is usually used in
crop genetic coefficients for modeling (simulating) crop
growth and development
Within a range of temperatures, potential crop yields have frequently been shown
to be linearly related to the evaporative potential of water
The optimum plant density or optimum leaf area index can be demonstrated to be
a function of solar radiation
The optimum mean temperature range for a given plant species varies somewhat
with the different cultivars of the species and with the daily temperature range
VII. Crop Yield Models
Crop yield models have generally been developed for predicting dry matter
production in grain and forage crops and are available for a limited number of crop
types
Also, most of these models focus exclusively on the effects of water deficit in the
crop root zone, not on the many other factors
Some models, however, relate only to the effects of salinity in the root zone
Much research work continues today in this area of study
1. The Stewart Model
Doorenbos and Kassam (1979), in FAO Paper 33, proposed a procedure for
estimating the crop yield response to soil water availability
Reduction of crop yield below the maximum for prevailing conditions was assumed
to be proportional to the reduction in actual evapotranspiration (ETa) below the
maximum potential evapotranspiration (ETm)
ETm is the evapotranspiration under conditions where soil water availability does
not limit crop yield

The relationship known as the Stewart model (Stewart, et al. 1977) is written as
follows:
Ya ETa
1 = K y 1 (3)
Ym ETm
in which Ya is the actual harvested yield; Ym is the maximum potential harvested
yield; and Ky is a yield response factor for water adequacy
Values of Ky are given below

The flowering period is the most critical growth stage for most crops
For example, the value of Ky for maize for the flowering period is 1.5, indicating
that with ETa 10% less than ETm during this period the actual yield (Ya) for the
season will be 15% less than Ym
However, a 10% deficiency spread equally throughout the total growing period
would result in a 12.5% reduction in the seasonal yield
A deficiency in one period conditions the plant so that a deficiency in the next
period is less effective in reducing yields
Also, there are various interactions from other factors that influence yields
Thus, the table is recommended principally as a guide indicating the relative
importance of adequate water during different stages of crop growth
Yield response factor, Ky (after Doorenbos and Kassam 1979)
Vegetative Period Flowering Yield Ripening Total Growing
Crop Early Late Total Period Formation Period Period
Alfalfa 0.7- 0.7-1.1
1.1
Banana 1.2-1.35
Bean 0.2 1.1 0.75 0.2 1.15
Cabbage 0.2 0.45 0.6 0.95
Citrus 0.8-1.1
Cotton 0.2 0.5 0.85
Grape 0.25 0.85
Groundnut 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.2 0.7
Maize 0.4 1.5 0.5 0.2 1.25
Onion 0.45 0.8 0.3 1.1
Pea 0.2 0.9 0.7 0.2 1.15
Pepper 1.1
Potato 0.45 0.8 0.7 0.2 1.1
Safflower 0.3 0.55 0.6 0.8
Sorghum 0.2 0.55 0.45 0.2 0.9
Soybean 0.2 0.8 1.0 0.85
Sugar beet 0.6-1.1
Sugarcane 0.75 0.5 0.1 1.2
Sunflower 0.25 0.5 1.0 0.8 0.95
Tobacco 0.2 1.0 0.9
Tomato 0.4 1.1 0.8 0.4 1.05
Watermelon 0.45 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.3 1.1
Winter wheat 0.2 0.6 0.5 1.0

2. Transpiration-Based Yield Model
Other yield functions have been proposed by researchers

For example, it has been suggested that transpiration, T, be used instead of ET to
determine relative crop yield
Hill et al. (1987) developed a multiplicative crop yield function based on root zone
water deficit and growth stage:
n
Ta i
Yrel = 100 (4)
i=1 Tmax i
where, Yrel = relative crop yield (%)

Ta = actual transpiration rate (mm/day)
Tmax = maximum potential transpiration rate (mm/day)
= a fitted exponent (based on experimental data)
i= the crop growth stage
n= the number of crop growth stages
The coefficient 100 is to obtain values in percent

The function is for multiplication of the n values in parentheses
Note that if Ta = Tmax for all growth stages, percent yield is 100%
Ta and Tmax are cumulative values during each growth stage, and are reset to
zero at the beginning of each stage
Ta really depends on the soil water deficit, climatic factors, soil fertility, soil
salinity, presence of crop pests & diseases, and others; however, in this
function Ta is usually estimated solely on a soil water deficit criterion
Larger values of cause greater predicted yield reduction when Ta < Tmax
Note that if Ta/Tmax 1, should be greater than 1.0
The value of n is usually 4 or 5, sometimes 6

The FAO has used five growth stages in some of their publications:
1. Establishment
2. Vegetative
3. Flowering
4. Yield Formation
5. Ripening
3. Summary of Crop Yield Models
The above concepts have been incorporated into various crop yield or crop growth
models
Some models use estimated crop transpiration (T), others use crop ET, and some
estimate interactions of fertility and drainage on yields

Most crop yield models require the availability of daily climatic data
However, some models have been developed for generating daily values from
monthly means and their standard deviations
Most crop yield models require the computation of reference crop
evapotranspiration (ETo)
VIII. Crop Root Water Extraction
In crop production models, it is often assumed that roots extract water as

follows:
That is, 40% of the total water extraction occurs in the first quarter of the root
zone depth, 30% from the second quarter, etc.
These values are generalizations from experimental measurements for various
crops
The actual extraction pattern varies according to crop type and growing
conditions
Ashcroft, G.L., D.T. Jensen, and J.L. Brown. 1992. Utah Climate. Booklet published by the Climate
Center at Utah State University, Logan, Utah. 127 pages. (http://climate.usu.edu/)
Doorenbos, J. and Kassam, A.H., 1979. Yield Response to Water, Irrigation and Drainage Paper 33, FAO,
Rome, Italy.
Hill, R.W., R.J. Hanks, and J.L. Wright. 1987. Crop yield models adapted to irrigation scheduling
programs. Irrigation systems for the 21st century, ASCE conference proceedings, Portland, OR,
July 28-30, pp. 699-706
Stewart, et al. 1977. Optimizing crop production through control of water and salinity levels in the soil. Utah
Water Lab. PRWG 151-1, Logan, Utah, p. 191.

Lecture 15
Evapotranspiration Fundamentals
I. Definition of Evapotranspiration (ET)
Crop water requirements, or evapotranspiration (ET), are determined by the

climatic evaporative potential, plant characteristics, and all of the factors that
influence growth and development of the crop
ET is a process in which water undergoes a phase change from liquid to vapor
The phase change requires energy, involving both sensible and latent heat
Sensible heat involves temperature changes, but latent heat involves phase
changes at nearly constant temperature
It takes more energy per unit mass to convert water to vapor than to convert ice
to water
Almost all of the energy comes from solar radiation (directly & indirectly)
Vapor is a kind of intermediate phase between liquid and gas

A simple energy balance for the ET process can be made, involving four
principal components:
Energy balance equation:
Rn = ET + H + G (1)
where,
Rn = net solar radiation at the ground and plant surfaces
ET = latent head energy used in the evapotranspiration process
H= sensible heat transfer to the atmosphere
G= sensible heat transfer to (or from) the ground
Rn includes short-wave and long-wave radiation

Rn can be measured using a net radiometer, but this kind of instrument is
expensive (several hundred to more than a thousand dollars)
Net radiometers can also be difficult to calibrate and maintain
Thus, Rn often must be estimated from other more available data
Pyronometers are relatively inexpensive and can be calibrated based on clear-

sky solar radiation values, which are about 75% of extraterrestrial solar
radiation (see Lecture 18)
Most pyronometers have a white circular dot surrounded by a flat black region,
pointing upward toward the sky
The temperature differential between the white and black regions is calibrated
against the incoming short-wave radiation
If you measure Rn, H and G, you can solve the above equation for ET
You can measure G directly using soil heat flux plates, but these are expensive
and mostly used in research (G can be estimated based on air temperature)
Net radiation is basically the amount of incoming short wave radiation minus
outgoing long wave radiation
This involves weather conditions (e.g. cloudiness) and the determination of
surface reflectance, or albedo
Surface conditions and crop types are factors in the magnitude of the albedo, ,
which is typically between 0.23 and 0.30 (the fraction that gets reflected)
Incoming short wave radiation can be measured with a radiometer
Common units for radiation are MJ/m2/day, or langleys/day (this is power per
unit surface area; note that a J/s is a watt)
A langley is a calorie per cm2
0.0419 MJ/m2 = 1.0 cal/cm2
ET is commonly given units of equivalent water depth (mm or inches) per day,
week, month or year
For purposes of irrigation planning, design, and management, computations are
usually made to determine reference evapotranspiration (ETo)
ETo is multiplied by a crop coefficient (Kc) to determine the evapotranspiration of
a particular crop at a given growth stage
II. ET and Irrigation Requirements
Irrigation requirements tend to be significantly greater than crop water

requirements because of the need to allow for imperfect application uniformities
and efficiencies, and for maintaining a favorable salt balance in the crop root
zone (in arid regions)
Crop water requirements include transpiration of water by the plants and
evaporation from the soil and from the plants

These combined amounts result in evapotranspiration, the major component of
which is usually transpiration of water by the plants
The more often the soil surface is wetted, or the more frequent the water
applications, the higher the magnitude of the evaporation component
In general, it takes about 500 kg of water (about one-half cubic meter) to
produce one kg of dry plant material most of the water taken up through the
roots does not remain within the plant, but is transpired through the stoma in the
leaves to the atmosphere
It is empirically evident that many people do not appreciate the large volumes of
water required to produce crops
III. Equations for Estimating ET
Much has been written about crop water requirements and many different
equations have been developed and used for calculating ET
Many of the equations for ET are complicated and require several weather
measurements that may be unavailable or of questionable accuracy at a given
site
It is often desirable that methods selected for calculating crop water
requirements require a minimum of measured climatic variables, and be simple
and easily understood
Also, even though you may have the required climatic parameters for a more
complete ET equations, you have to make a judgment as to whether the
accuracy of the data justify the use of such and equation (sometimes the data
are complete, but incorrect)
We will look at some equations in the next lecture
IV. Why Would You Want to Estimate ET?
Some irrigators are interested in ET estimates because it

can help them schedule irrigations
That is, decide when to irrigate and how much water to
apply
Other irrigators may know (hmmm?) when to irrigate and
how much to apply without any particular knowledge of ET
values
Irrigation system designers are interested in peak ET
because it is a primary factor in determining the required system flow rate
capacity
Others are interested in ET estimates because they want to figure out how
much water farmers are wasting, so that more water might be available
elsewhere for other purposes in other words, they want to evaluate water
management
Knowledge of ET can also be valuable for making legal arguments about water
rights, and for the operation of irrigation delivery systems

You can look in library and find several hundred technical papers and books on
crop ET
Many researchers continue to develop new and improved ET equations,
checking calibration data from all over the world; accuracy keeps improving
However, the precision that is now available for determining ET far exceeds the
ability to measure actual water applications in the vast majority of irrigated
areas
If you can calculate ET precisely, but dont know how much water you apply to
the crops, what is the point?
It is like knowing that you should have 15 mg of calcium per day, but dont know
how much calcium is in the different food types and thus dont know how much
you actually consume
V. Daily ET Magnitudes
The peak ET rate, which typically occurs during the hottest period of the
growing season, for most mature, healthy agricultural crops is from about 5 to
10 mm/day (0.20 to 0.39 inch/day)
Peak ET 5 to 10 mm/day
Most agricultural crops have peak ET rates within the above range
For immature, diseased, pest-stricken or poisoned crops, the actual peak ET
will tend to be less than it could be
More frequent irrigations will tend to increase the evaporation component of ET
Crops with low LAI values (e.g. sparsely populated) tend to have lower ET rates
Some non-agricultural vegetation in wetlands can have an

ET rate on the order of 12 mm/day (0.5 inch/day), but this
is exceptionally high
Many irrigation projects in semi-arid areas around the

world were designed with a system capacity of
approximately 1 lps/ha, which is equivalent to an average
gross application depth of 8.64 mm/day
Accounting for inefficiencies in application, this may
amount to an average net application on the order of 6 mm/day (0.24 inch/day)
However, due to frequently encountered inequities in the distribution of water
within an irrigation system, there is a wide range of actual average application
depths on the individual farms or fields
In English units, 1 lps/ha is about 1 cfs per 70 acres, which is equivalent to an
average gross application depth of 0.34 inch/day

VI. Potential Evaporation
The evaporation of water requires energy

The latent heat (in calories) required for the vaporization of one cubic
centimeter (or one gram) of water is given by the equation:
= 595.9 0.55 T (2)
in which is the latent heat of vaporization in calories per cm2; and T is the air
temperature in C
Some versions of Eq. 2 have different constants (e.g. = 597.3 0.564 T)

At 20C, the energy required to evaporate a depth of one millimeter of water is
58.5 calories per cm2
If five percent of incoming radiation is reflected back into the atmosphere, 61.6
langleys/day (cal/cm2/day) correspond to an equivalent depth of water
evaporation of one millimeter per day at 20C
The latent heat of vaporization can also be estimated from the air temperature
for metric units as follows:
= 2.50 0.002361 T (3)
where is in MJ/kg; and T is the dry air temperature in C

The numerical value of for 15C is 2.47, and for 40C it is 2.41
A typical value of from Eq. 3 is about 2.45, corresponding to an air
temperature of 20C
Advection is heat transfer resulting principally from lateral (horizontal)

movement of air
Convection is similar, but more often associated with vertical air movement
The total energy available for water evaporation can be estimated by the sum of
net radiation plus advective energy
The evaporative potential may be determined by either of the above two
equations for lambda
Practical use: divide a value in MJ/m2/day by (Eq. 3) to get equivalent mm/day
of water evaporation
VII. Reference Evapotranspiration
The evapotranspiration of various species and varieties of grass or alfalfa has

been used as a reference for determining the water requirements of other crops
in general
Grass references are usually for grass that is maintained (by mowing) at a 12-
cm height

By convention, the term ETo is used when grass
is the reference crop, or ETp when alfalfa is the
reference
ETr is also sometimes used for alfalfa
ETp is always greater than ETo, and it can be
estimated as about 1.2 times ETo in semiarid and
moderately windy conditions
In humid, non-windy areas the ratio may be as
low as 1.05, and in arid, windy locations it can get
as high as 1.4
Some grasses are low water users and others
user relatively high amounts of water, so in many
cases it is important to know what type of grass
was used to calibrate a particular reference ET equation
Typical grass varieties used in research are alta fescue and perennial ryegrass
Reference ET is calculated based on a calibrated equation for a selected

reference crop using lysimeter measurements (see next lecture)
The equation form may be empirically developed, involving only a few external
environment variables, or it may be derived from the principles of physics, heat
transfer, and other scientific fields of study
Some of the more complex reference ET equations include many variables and
can be very precise
However, in practice the complexity of a reference ET equation must be justified
by the availability of climatological and other data if an equation is very
complete from a theoretical standpoint it may be preferred over an empirically
derived equation, but only if there is sufficient data to support its application
In general, reference ET equations can usually be categorized as:
o temperature-based methods
o radiation-based methods, and
o combination methods
Dozens of reference ET equations have been proposed and applied by

researchers over the past few decades, but only a few have remained in
general use
VIII. Crop Coefficients
Reference crop ET is multiplied by crop coefficients (Kc) to obtain

estimates of crop potential water use, or crop water requirements
(ETc)
Crop coefficients are dependent mostly upon crop type and stage of growth, not
climatic conditions

The idea is that crop coefficients remain essentially the same for the same crop
regardless of location and climate, so once the Kc values for a given crop and
variety are determined, they can be applied almost anywhere
If this transferability were not valid it would not make much sense to determine
ETc through such a product of terms - instead, it would be necessary to
calibrate ET equations for each site and each crop type individually
Thus, with crop coefficients it is only necessary to estimate ETo at a given site,
then multiply by the appropriate Kc value to arrive at the estimated
evapotranspiration rate of the crop
Crop coefficients generally include both transpiration from plant stomata and
evaporation from wet soil and foliar surfaces, with the assumption that the
availability of water is not a limiting factor to plant growth and development
Frequent (e.g. daily) irrigation usually causes higher ET rates than those
normally considered in the development of crop coefficient values because of
higher wet soil evaporation (especially with sprinkler and surface irrigation) and
possibly higher transpiration as well
Crop coefficients depend principally on crop type and stage of growth
A crop coefficient for grass based on a grass reference is often less than 1.0
because grass is usually kept shorter than a 12-cm height
IX. Other Types of Crop Coefficients
Other types of crop coefficients have been proposed and used

For example, basal crop coefficients (Kcb) account primarily for
the transpiration component of ET, and are generally used in
conjunction with separate wet soil evaporation functions to
determine ETc values
The word basal can be considered to mean base
That is, Kcb = Kc when the soil surface is dry, or
K cb K c
Basal crop coefficients are most useful when it is necessary to determine

accurate daily estimates of crop water use, such as in irrigation scheduling
applications, because this approach is better in taking into account the effects
of individual irrigations
Normal crop coefficients (Kc) are appropriate when applied to weekly, monthly,
or seasonal estimations of crop water use
The figure below shows a conceptual graph of Kc and Kcb values, where the Kc
spikes are due to increased evaporation during and after an irrigation (and or
significant rainfall event)
The increased evaporation decreases rapidly as the plant leaves and/or soil
surface dries

more bare soil less bare soil
1.0
daily Kc
daily Kc
daily Kc
daily Kc
Kcb
Crop Coefficient
Kcb
full cover
Kcb
0.0
Elapsed Time in Growing Season
The reason all the daily spikes peak at Kc = 1.0 is that for a reference crop
(usually grass or alfalfa) Kc equals unity by definition
The above Kcb curve increases as the crop matures and the LAI increases for
an annual crop
However, the curve generally takes the same shape for perennial crops
because of the significant effects of weather conditions on ET
X. Crop Coefficient Values
Kc values generally range from about 0.2 to 1.2 for a grass reference crop, and
the value for many agricultural crops never exceeds that of grass, even during
the peak use period
But because of the significant difference between grass and alfalfa ET, it is
important that Kc values be qualified as grass or alfalfa based
When this distinction is not explicitly made it is best to assume that the values
are based on a grass reference
The figure below gives generalized crop coefficients and the growth stage,
which is approximately correct for weekly or longer calculation periods, and for
basal crop coefficients

(Kc)2
Crop Coefficient, Kc
(Kc)3
(Kc)1
Initial Rapid Late
Growth Growth Mid-Season Season
A B C D E
Crop Growth Stage
KC Values Growth Stages Description

(KC)1 Initial (A-B) The average KC value from planting to about 10% ground
cover.
(KC)1 to (KC)2 Rapid growth(B-C) From 10% ground cover to 75% cover, or to peak water
use (whichever comes first), or from leaf out to full cover
for deciduous orchards and grapes.
(KC)2 Mid season (C-D) The average value from the end of the rapid growth stage
until water use begins to decline due to crop aging.
(KC)2 to (KC)3 Late season (D-E) From when KC begins to decline until harvest, or when
water use ceases or becomes minimum
(KC)3 Harvest (E) The average value at harvest or at the end of the water
use season.

Crop (Kc)1 (Kc)2 (Kc)3
Alfalfa 0.40-0.50 1.00-1.40 0.95-1.35
Artichokes 0.90-1.00 0.95-1.05 0.90-1.00
Asparagus 0.25-0.30 0.95 0.25
Banana 0.40-0.65 1.00-1.20 0.75-1.15
Barley 0.25-0.30 1.00-1.10 0.10-0.20
Beans (green) 0.30-0.40 0.95-1.05 0.85-0.95
Beans (dry) 0.30-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.25-0.30
Beets (table) 0.24-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.25-0.30
Cabbage, etc.1 0.30-0.50 0.95-1.10 0.80-0.95
Cantaloupe 0.15-0.40 1.00-1.10 0.30-0.90
Carrot 0.40-0.50 1.05 0.75
Celery 0.25-0.35 1.00-1.15 0.90-1.05
Citrus2 0.65 0.65-0.75 0.65
Corn (Maize grain) 0.20-0.50 1.05-1.20 0.35-0.60
Corn (sweet) 0.20-0.50 1.05-1.20 0.70-0.80
Cotton 0.20-0.50 1.05-1.30 0.30-0.60
Cucumber 0.20-0.40 0.90-1.00 0.70-0.80
Deciduous orchard 0.50 0.85-1.20 0.50-0.85
Deciduous orchard with cover crop 0.75-0.85 1.10-1.25 0.70-1.10
Egg plant 0.25-0.50 0.95-1.10 0.80-0.90
Flax 0.20-0.40 1.00-1.15 0.20-0.25
Grape 0.20-0.50 0.74-0.85 0.20-0.45
Groundnut 0.30-0.50 0.95-1.00 0.50-0.60
Kiwifruit 0.30 1.05 1.05
Lentil 0.20-0.30 1.05-1.20 0.25-0.30
Lettuce 0.20-0.30 0.85-1.05 0.45
Millet 0.20-0.40 1.00-1.15 0.25-0.30
Oats 0.20-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.20-0.25
Olives 0.60 0.80 0.80
Onions (dry) 0.40-0.60 0.95-1.10 0.75-0.85
Onions (green) 0.40-0.60 0.95-1.05 0.95-1.05
Peas (fresh) 0.40-0.50 1.05-1.20 0.95-1.10
Peppers (fresh) 0.30-0.40 0.95-1.10 0.80-0.90
Pistachios 0.10 1.10 0.35
Potatoes 0.40-0.55 1.10-1.20 0.40-0.75
Pulses 0.20-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.25-0.30
Rice 1.10-1.15 1.10-1.30 1.10
Safflower 0.30-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.20-0.25
Small grains 0.20-0.40 1.10-1.30 0.20-0.35
Sorghum (grain) 0.15-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.30-0.50
Soybeans 0.30-0.40 1.00-1.15 0.45-0.55
Spinach 0.20-0.30 0.95-1.05 0.90-1.00
Squash 0.20-0.40 0.90-1.00 0.70-0.80
Sugar beet 0.20-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.70-1.00
Sugarcane 0.40-0.50 1.00-1.30 0.50-0.60
Sunflower 0.30-0.40 1.05-1.20 0.35-0.45
Tobacco 0.30-0.40 1.00-1.20 0.75-0.85
Tomatoes 0.25-0.50 1.05-1.25 0.60-0.85
Watermelon 0.25-0.50 1.00-1.10 0.20-0.70
Wheat 0.20-0.40 1.05-1.25 0.20-0.30
1
Includes other crucifers (e.g. cauliflower, broccoli, brussel sprouts)
2
Add 0.20 to 0.25 when there is a cover crop
3
All values are for a grass reference crop

Rice has the greatest water requirements of any common agricultural crop, not
including deep percolation and runoff from paddies
Rice is also one of the major crops in Asia and in other regions of the world,
and it is probably the major water user of all
agricultural crops (because of the large total area
dedicated to its production)
Sugarcane and alfalfa can have comparable water
requirements, but the worldwide area planted in
sugarcane and alfalfa is much less than that which
is planted in rice

Lecture 16
Evapotranspiration Measurements
I. Direct Methods for Determining ET
Evapotranspiration can be measured directly by means of lysimeters

Lysimeters are tanks or containers of soil in which plants are grown under
conditions similar to the surrounding soil and vegetation
The top of a lysimeter coincides with the surrounding ground surface
Lysimeters come in a variety of sizes and designs
You can find several dozen papers about lysimeters in the technical journals
Lysimeters are used for research in crop water consumption and are found at
agricultural research stations in many countries, as well as in golf courses and
other areas
Very large lysimeters may have an access ladder to allow for inspection and
maintenance, but many lysimeters are too small for this kind of feature
It is often difficult to notice a lysimeter because most of it is underground, and
the vegetation on the surface hides the upper edges
Changing water content in the lysimeter is measured by weighing, by comparing
applied water with the amount of drainage, or by other suitable methods
The ET of various grasses grown in lysimeters has been used to develop and/or
calibrate numerous equations for estimating ETo
However, due to the wide variations in the ET of grasses and in the
management and design of lysimeters, there has been considerable variation in
the calibration of equations for computing ETo
The emphasis on the use of lysimeters has shifted more toward the
determination of crop coefficients than reference crop evapotranspiration
because equations (most notably, the Penman-Monteith equation) have been
shown to predict reference ET with excellent accuracy for most agricultural
locations around the world

II. Indirect Methods for Determining ET
The principal climatic factors used include incoming solar radiation, net
radiation, extraterrestrial radiation, air temperature, the temperature range,
relative humidity, vapor pressure, sunshine hours, and wind speed
Most of these methods require some degree of local calibration for general
application
There have been made of at least eight versions of the Penman combination
equation
This equation makes use of a wind run function, which is the average wind
speed over a specified period of time, multiplied by that elapsed time to obtain a
value in kilometers or miles, for example
If the time period is a day, it is called daily wind run
The required net radiation is usually estimated from global radiation (RS)
The quality of measured or estimated values of sunshine hours is frequently

less than fully adequate
The reliability of the Penman equations is also influenced by the method used
for measuring or estimating the vapor pressure deficit
A procedure developed by Hargreaves (1985), requiring maximum and

minimum temperature and latitude, provides satisfactory estimates of ETo for
continuous periods of five or more days
There is little or no indication of a need for local calibration for climatic
conditions typical of the growing season of irrigated crops

III. FAO Class A Evaporation Pan
Evaporation pans are used to indirectly measure ET

Evaporation pans can be used to measure
evaporation from a water surface, which is supposed
to take into account the influence of solar radiation,
wind, air temperature and humidity
One specification for such pans is called Class A,
commonly used in the USA and elsewhere (see
below; other specifications exist too)
A Class A evaporation pan set in a large irrigated pasture or other irrigated area
provides an index that has been widely used for estimating crop ET
The Class A pan is circular, 121 cm diameter and 25.5 cm deep,

made of galvanized iron (22 gauge) or monel metal (0.8 mm). It
should be set upon a level, open wood-frame platform with its bottom
surface about 15 cm above the ground surface. The water level in
the pan should be maintained between 5 and 7.5 cm below the top
rim.
As stated previously, the principal source of energy for evaporation is solar

radiation
Evaporation pans should be surrounded by

clipped grass and a fence to keep out animals I am rather thirsty!
(birds may use it as a bath) and people
Evaporation pans should have a minimum
amount of upwind fetch
The so-called fetch is descriptive of the area
surrounding the evaporation pan, which may be
green (vegetated) or dry
A green fetch would be found at a weather
station in an agricultural area, for example
A dry fetch might be found around a weather
station at an airport, for example
For ETo calculations, a green fetch is preferred because it tends to give much
more representative results
The fetch distance gives an indication of the extent of the surrounding area and
it affects the value of Kp, whereby:
ETo = K pEpan
(1)
where Epan is measured evaporation over some specified time period (usually in
mm or inches)

For a green fetch:
K p = 0.108 0.000331U2 + 0.0422lnF

(2)
+0.1434ln (Rh ) 0.000631( lnF ) ln (Rh )
2
For a dry fetch:
Kp = 0.61 + 0.00341Rh 0.00000187U2Rh

0.000000111U2F + 0.0000378U2 lnF
(3)
0.0000332U2 lnU2 0.0106lnU2 lnF
+0.00063 (lnF ) lnU2
2
where, Kp = pan evaporation coefficient

U2 = daily wind run (80 to 700 km/day)
F= upwind fetch distance of green or dry terrain (1 to 1,000 m)
Rh = average (mean) daily relative humidity (30 to 84%)
In Eqs. 2 & 3:
dont let U2 be less than 80 nor more than 700 km/day

dont let F be less than 1 nor more than 1,000 m
dont let Rh be less than 30 nor more than 84%
The wind speed at 2 m above the ground can be estimated from the wind
speed, Uz, at a height z above the ground:
2 0.67hc
ln
0.123hc
U2 = Uz (4)
z 0.67hc
ln
0.123hc
where U2 is the extrapolated wind speed at 2-m height; z is in m; and hc is the

height of the vegetation around the weather station in m (usually 0.05 to 0.50
m)
The mean Rh (in percent) can be estimated as follows:
(Rh )max + (Rh )min

(Rh )mean = (5)
2

The above is called the FAO Pan Evaporation Method

Lecture 17
Evapotranspiration Equations
I. How Many ET Equations Exist?
There are a lot of ET equations in the technical literature, and some have many
variations (see http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0490E/x0490e00.htm)
Following is a list of some of the more well known ET equations (in alphabetical
order):
a. Blaney-Criddle, FAO-24
b. Blaney-Criddle, SCS TR-21
c. Businger-van Bavel
d. Christiansen-Hargreaves Pan Evaporation
e. FAO-24 Pan Evaporation
f. Hargreaves
g. Jensen-Haise
h. Kimberly Penman
i. Penman
j. Penman FAO-24
k. Penman-Monteith
l. Priestly-Taylor
m. Radiation Method
n. Thornthwaite
o. Turc
Only a few of the above equations are in common use today

Of these, two of those that have thus far withstood the test of time and are in
common use are the Hargreaves and Penman-Monteith equations
II. Hargreaves Equation
Hargreaves, et al. (1985) and Hargreaves and Samani (1985) proposed the use
of an equation for estimating ETo from air temperature and latitude:
ETo = 0.0023Ra ( T + 17.8 ) TR (1)
in which ETo and Ra are in the same units of equivalent water evaporation
(often in mm), Ra is extraterrestrial solar radiation (see the next lecture)
T is the mean air temperature in C, or the average of mean maximum and

mean minimum daily temperatures, and TR is the average daily temperature
range for the period considered (mean daily maximum minus mean daily
minimum)

T is calculated based on Tmax & Tmin, instead of hourly (or even more frequent)
values, for standardization in calculations
The value of TR is influenced by solar radiation, humidity, local advective
energy transfer, and the frontal temperature differences associated with storms
and abrupt weather changes
Therefore, Eq. 1 will not be accurate for the days of major weather changes but
usually provides very satisfactory results when T and TR are averaged over
periods of five or more days
Eq. 1 is often applied to the calculation of weekly ETo
Dont obtain weather data from instruments located at

an airport or other non-agricultural area!
III. Penman-Monteith Equation
This equation is theoretically complete in terms of energy balance, but requires

a variety of accurate weather parameters
It is for a well-watered, hypothetical grass reference crop with crop height, hc, of
0.12 m, and = 0.23
It is for a hypothetical reference crop because the calculated ETo may not
exactly match lysimeter measurements in all locations
Thus, you need a nearby weather station in good condition to apply this
equation
The Irrigation and Drainage Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE), and the International Commission for Irrigation and Drainage (ICID)
have recommended the use of the Penman-Monteith equation to estimate
reference crop ET
This equation can be expressed as (FAO 1998):
900 U2 ( es ea )
0.408 (Rn G ) +
ETo = T + 273 (2)
+ (1 + 0.34U2 )
where ETo is in units of mm/day for a grass reference crop; is the slope of the
saturation vapor pressure function (kPa/C); is a psychrometric constant
(kPa/C); Rn is net solar radiation (MJ/m2/day); U2 is the wind speed (m/s) at 2.0
m height (above the ground surface); T is the mean daily air temperature (C);
es-ea represents the vapor pressure deficit (VPD) of air (kPa); and G is the soil
heat flux density (MJ/m2/day)
Vapor pressure is a partial pressure, contributing to

total atmospheric pressure. It can be used as a
measure of the water content of air.

VPD is an index for evaporative potential
es is the saturation vapor pressure, and ea is the actual vapor pressure (ea es)
Note that when ea = es, the vapor pressure deficit is zero, and a term drops out
of Eq. 2
So far, no one measures actual vapor pressure directly; it can be estimated
from dry and wet bulb air temperatures, and in other ways
Temperature in degrees Celsius (C) can be converted to degrees Kelvin (K)
by adding the constant 273.16
The slope of the saturation vapor pressure function, , can be calculated as:
d ( es ) 4,098 es
== (3)
dT (T + 237.3)2
where is in kPa/C; T is the air temperature (C); and es is the saturation

vapor pressure at temperature T (kPa)
If es is in units of mb, then will have units of mb/C
A single value of the saturation vapor pressure, es, can be estimated from air
temperature measurements as follows (FAO 1998):
17.27 T
es = 0.611 exp (4)
T + 237.3

where the vapor pressure is in units of kPa, and T is the air temperature (C)
The term exp() means e raised to the power of the term in parentheses
For 24-hour periods the saturation vapor pressure should be calculated as the
average of ea at Tmax and ea at Tmin for the day
Thus, Eq. 4 is applied once with Tmax, again with Tmin, in C, and the two
resulting vapor pressure values are added and divided by 2, as follows:
es ( Tmax ) + es ( Tmin )
es = (5)
2
The actual vapor pressure, ea, is estimated by multiplying the maximum relative
humidity by the vapor pressure at Tmin
The justification is that the minimum daily air temperature is usually associated
with the maximum daily relative humidity
Thus, ea at Tmin (Eq. 4), multiplied by RHmax is:
(Rh )max 17.27 Tmin

ea = 0.611 exp (6)
100 T + 237.3
min
alternatively, using dewpoint temperature (if available):
17.27 Tdew
ea = 0.611 exp (7)
Tdew + 237.3
where ea is in kPa; (Rh)max is in percent; and Tdew is the

dewpoint temperature
Then, when the maximum relative humidity is 100%, es

is equal to ea at Tmin
Note that there are 10 mb per kPa
Dewpoint temperature is the temperature to which the air

must be cooled to bring it to saturation. The actual vapor
pressure equals the saturation vapor pressure at the dewpoint
temperature. Thus, the drier the air, the larger the difference
between the air temperature and the dewpoint temperature.
When the air temperature drops below the dewpoint, water from the air
condenses on blades of grass and other surfaces
If dewpoint temperature is available, use Eq. 7 (preferred), otherwise use Eq. 6

Relative humidity is defined as:
e
Rh = 100 a (8)
es
The psychrometric constant, , is calculated as:
cp P
= (9)

where has units of kPa/C; cp is the specific heat of moist air at constant
pressure (equal to 0.00101 MJ/kg/C); P is atmospheric pressure (kPa); is the
ratio of molecular weights of air to water (equal to 0.622); and is the latent
heat of vaporization (about 2.45 MJ/kg)
Note that if P is in units of mb, then will have units of mb/C
Gamma is essentially equal to a constant coefficient multiplied by P, where

average P is a function of elevation
The value of Ra in equivalent units of evaporation can be estimated by taking
into account the latent heat of vaporization
Lambda is the conversion factor between MJ/m2 and equivalent millimeters of
water evaporation
Divide the Ra value in MJ/m2/day by the value of to obtain equivalent mm/day
of evaporation
For example, if Ra is 35 MJ/m2/day, the equivalent evaporation is about 35/2.45
= 14.3 mm/day
The mean atmospheric pressure, P, is a function of elevation above mean sea

level, and is approximately equal to:
5.26
293 0.0065 z
P = 101.3 101.0 0.0103 z (10)
293
where P is in kPa; and z is the elevation above mean sea level (m)
The daily value of soil heat flux density, G, in Eq. 2 can estimated as:
(
G = 0.38 Tday T3 ) (11)

where G is in units of MJ/m2/day; Tavg is the average air temperature on the day
of calculations (C); and T3 is the average of the average daily air temperatures
of the previous three days (C)
Other equations for estimating G can be found in FAO Irrig & Drain Paper 56
G is positive when the soil is warming, negative when the soil is cooling
That is, G is positive when the soil is adsorbing energy
The magnitude of G is almost always small compared to Rn, and can often be
considered negligible
IV. Discussion of the above ETo Equations
The Penman-Monteith and Hargreaves equations produce very similar values

for ETo when compared using standard conditions for periods of five or more
days and complete and reliable climatic data
Also, the Hargreaves equation requires much simpler climatic data and can be
successfully applied in more locations because many sites do not have
sufficient data for application of the Penman-Monteith equation
The standardized Penman-Monteith method for ETo is currently recommended
as the reference value by the FAO (in lieu of lysimeter data)
This equation can be used to calculate ETo on a daily, or even an hourly basis
Hourly calculations of ETo are seldom used except in research studies, and
usually not in irrigation scheduling, because the actual irrigation application
depths are not so precisely known
Note that wind speed may become irrelevant under conditions of high relative
humidity why is this so?

Lecture 18
Solar Radiation
I. Introduction
Direct and reflected solar radiation is referred to as

short wave radiation
Short wave radiation is higher energy radiation
Long wave radiation is emitted by bodies at lower temperatures
For example, the electromagnetic radiation emitted from the sun is much higher
frequency (and shorter wavelength) than that emitted from the surface of the
earth, or from the atmosphere itself
Long and short are merely relative distinctions
Different solar radiation values can be used in estimating crop ET
1. Net solar radiation (Rn)

2. Solar, or global, radiation (Rs)
3. Clear sky solar radiation (Rso)
4. Extraterrestrial solar radiation (Ra)
Radiation comes from other celestial sources, but most (by far) is from our sun
II. What is Radiation?
In general, the term radiation refers to any process which carries energy
through space
Some common types of radiation are:
1. Electromagnetic
2. Alpha and beta particles
3. Gravitational
Radiation as discussed with regard to the main energy source for crop
evapotranspiration is mostly of the electromagnetic variety
A glimpse of the electromagnetic spectrum:
Name Frequency Wavelength

(Hz) (cm)
Long-wave radio 104 3x106
Short-wave radio 106 3x104
(AM)
UHF, VHF, FM 108 300
Radar 1010 3
Microwave 1012 0.03
Infrared 1014 3x10-4

Ultraviolet visible 1016 3x10-6
X-rays 1018 3x10-8
Gamma rays 1020 3x10-10
Cosmic rays 1032 3x10-22
Visible light (for humans) is in the range from 0.4 to 0.7 m

Longer wavelengths mean lower energy (e.g. radio waves are electromagnetic
radiation of relatively low energy)
Direct and reflected solar radiation is called short-wave
Short-wave (10-3 to 10-5 cm) radiation has higher energy relative to long-wave
radiation
Long-wave radiation is mostly in the range from 0.1 to 0.001 cm
The electromagnetic radiation emitted from the sun is much higher frequency
(shorter wavelength) than that emitted from the earths surface or from the
atmosphere
Long and short are relative distinctions
III. Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation
Extraterrestrial solar radiation is that which arrives at the

outer surface of our atmosphere
As seen below, it is a lot easier to estimate than net solar
radiation at the ground surface because albedo and
atmospheric factors dont need to be accounted for
Then, Ra, can be calculated according to latitude and day of
year
The following equations are taken from Allen, et al. (1993),
Duffie and Beckman (1980) and London and Frohlich (1982):
Ra = 37.6 dr ( s sin sin + cos cos sin s ) (1)
where Ra is in units of MJ/m2/day; dr is the relative distance from the earth to

the sun; s is the sunset hour angle (rad); is the latitude (rad); and is the
declination of the sun (rad)
Southern latitudes are given negative values
The remaining values are defined as:
2 (284 + J)
= 0.4093 sin (2)
365
2J
dr = 1 + 0.033 cos (3)
365
s = cos1 ( tan tan ) (4)

where J is the calendar day from 1 to 365 or 366 (J equals 1 for January 1st,
etc.), depending on whether a given year is a leap year
On a leap year the constant 365 in the denominator of Eqs. 2 and 3 can be
replaced by 366, but the difference in the results may not be significant
The inverse cosine argument in Eq. 4 is valid for latitudes between 55 N and
55 S (0.95993 -0.95993)
For latitudes outside this range, the argument should be less than or equal to
2.0, during the winter
If less than zero during the summer, it should be evaluated as [tan tan - 2.0]
As noted above, the value of is positive for northern latitudes and negative for
southern latitudes
IV. Relationship of Ra to Day of Year and Latitude
The figure below is for northern latitudes

45
Equator
40
Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation (MJ/m2/day)
35
Equator
30
52N Latitude
25
20
15
10
autumnal equinox
summer solstice
vernal equinox
winter solstice
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Day of the Year (1 is Jan 1st)

This figure illustrates the relatively high annual variation in extraterrestrial solar
radiation at the higher latitudes
At the equator, the annual variation in solar radiation is minimal
Thus, the possibility for year-round cropping at low values of latitude,
particularly within the tropics (23.5 N and S)
The two tables below were developed using the same equations and gives
approximate mean monthly Ra values in equivalent millimeters per day of water
evaporation for both northern and southern latitudes
The equivalent mm/day values in the tables are based on an air temperature of
20C, which by Eq. 2 gives = 2.45
Average air temperatures of 10C or of 30C will result in values of Ra (mm/day)
that differ from those for 20C by less than 1.0%
Mean monthly northern Ra in equivalent mm of evaporation ( = 2.45)

Northern Month
Latitude Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0 14.8 15.3 15.4 15.0 14.2 13.7 13.9 14.6 15.2 15.2 14.8 14.6
2 14.5 15.1 15.4 15.1 14.5 14.0 14.1 14.7 15.2 15.1 14.5 14.2
4 14.1 14.8 15.3 15.2 14.7 14.3 14.4 14.9 15.2 14.9 14.2 13.9
6 13.8 14.6 15.2 15.3 14.9 14.6 14.7 15.1 15.2 14.7 13.9 13.5
8 13.4 14.3 15.1 15.4 15.1 14.8 14.9 15.2 15.1 14.5 13.6 13.1
10 13.1 14.1 15.0 15.5 15.3 15.1 15.1 15.3 15.1 14.3 13.2 12.7
12 12.7 13.8 14.9 15.5 15.5 15.3 15.4 15.4 15.0 14.0 12.9 12.3
14 12.3 13.5 14.7 15.5 15.7 15.6 15.5 15.5 14.9 13.8 12.5 11.9
16 11.9 13.1 14.6 15.5 15.8 15.8 15.7 15.5 14.8 13.5 12.1 11.4
18 11.4 12.8 14.4 15.5 15.9 16.0 15.9 15.6 14.7 13.2 11.7 11.0
20 11.0 12.4 14.2 15.5 16.0 16.1 16.0 15.6 14.6 12.9 11.3 10.5
22 10.6 12.1 13.9 15.4 16.1 16.3 16.2 15.6 14.4 12.6 10.9 10.0
24 10.1 11.7 13.7 15.3 16.2 16.4 16.3 15.6 14.2 12.3 10.4 9.6
26 9.6 11.3 13.4 15.2 16.2 16.6 16.4 15.6 14.0 11.9 10.0 9.1
28 9.2 10.9 13.2 15.1 16.3 16.7 16.4 15.5 13.8 11.6 9.6 8.6
30 8.7 10.5 12.9 15.0 16.3 16.8 16.5 15.5 13.6 11.2 9.1 8.1
32 8.2 10.1 12.6 14.9 16.3 16.9 16.6 15.4 13.3 10.8 8.6 7.6
34 7.7 9.6 12.2 14.7 16.3 16.9 16.6 15.3 13.1 10.4 8.1 7.1
36 7.2 9.2 11.9 14.5 16.3 17.0 16.6 15.2 12.8 10.0 7.7 6.6
38 6.7 8.7 11.6 14.3 16.2 17.0 16.6 15.0 12.5 9.6 7.2 6.1
40 6.2 8.3 11.2 14.1 16.2 17.0 16.6 14.9 12.2 9.1 6.7 5.6
42 5.7 7.8 10.8 13.9 16.1 17.0 16.6 14.7 11.9 8.7 6.2 5.1
44 5.2 7.3 10.4 13.7 16.0 17.0 16.5 14.5 11.5 8.3 5.7 4.6
46 4.7 6.8 10.0 13.4 15.9 17.0 16.5 14.3 11.2 7.8 5.2 4.1
48 4.2 6.4 9.6 13.1 15.8 17.0 16.4 14.1 10.8 7.3 4.7 3.6
50 3.7 5.9 9.2 12.9 15.7 16.9 16.3 13.9 10.4 6.9 4.2 3.1
52 3.2 5.4 8.7 12.6 15.5 16.9 16.2 13.7 10.1 6.4 3.7 2.7
54 2.8 4.9 8.3 12.2 15.4 16.9 16.1 13.4 9.6 5.9 3.2 2.2

Mean monthly southern Ra in equivalent mm of evaporation ( = 2.45)
Southern Month
Latitude Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0 14.8 15.3 15.4 15.0 14.2 13.7 13.9 14.6 15.2 15.2 14.8 14.6
2 15.1 15.5 15.5 14.9 13.9 13.4 13.6 14.4 15.1 15.4 15.1 14.9
4 15.4 15.6 15.5 14.7 13.6 13.0 13.2 14.2 15.1 15.5 15.4 15.2
6 15.6 15.8 15.5 14.5 13.3 12.7 12.9 13.9 15.0 15.6 15.6 15.5
8 15.9 15.9 15.4 14.3 13.0 12.3 12.6 13.7 14.9 15.7 15.8 15.8
10 16.1 16.0 15.4 14.1 12.7 11.9 12.2 13.4 14.8 15.7 16.0 16.1
12 16.3 16.1 15.3 13.9 12.4 11.5 11.9 13.1 14.7 15.8 16.2 16.3
14 16.6 16.2 15.2 13.6 12.0 11.1 11.5 12.9 14.5 15.8 16.4 16.6
16 16.7 16.3 15.1 13.4 11.6 10.7 11.1 12.5 14.4 15.8 16.5 16.8
18 16.9 16.3 15.0 13.1 11.3 10.3 10.7 12.2 14.2 15.8 16.7 17.0
20 17.1 16.3 14.9 12.8 10.9 9.9 10.3 11.9 14.0 15.8 16.8 17.2
22 17.2 16.4 14.7 12.5 10.5 9.5 9.9 11.5 13.8 15.7 16.9 17.4
24 17.3 16.3 14.5 12.1 10.1 9.0 9.4 11.2 13.5 15.6 17.0 17.5
26 17.4 16.3 14.3 11.8 9.6 8.6 9.0 10.8 13.3 15.6 17.0 17.6
28 17.5 16.3 14.1 11.5 9.2 8.1 8.6 10.4 13.0 15.4 17.1 17.8
30 17.5 16.2 13.9 11.1 8.8 7.6 8.1 10.0 12.7 15.3 17.1 17.9
32 17.6 16.1 13.7 10.7 8.3 7.2 7.6 9.6 12.4 15.2 17.1 18.0
34 17.6 16.0 13.4 10.3 7.9 6.7 7.2 9.2 12.1 15.0 17.1 18.0
36 17.6 15.9 13.1 9.9 7.4 6.2 6.7 8.8 11.8 14.9 17.1 18.1
38 17.6 15.7 12.8 9.5 6.9 5.8 6.2 8.4 11.5 14.7 17.1 18.1
40 17.6 15.6 12.5 9.1 6.5 5.3 5.8 7.9 11.1 14.5 17.0 18.1
42 17.6 15.4 12.2 8.7 6.0 4.8 5.3 7.5 10.7 14.2 16.9 18.2
44 17.5 15.2 11.9 8.2 5.5 4.3 4.8 7.0 10.4 14.0 16.9 18.2
46 17.5 15.0 11.5 7.8 5.1 3.9 4.4 6.5 10.0 13.7 16.8 18.1
48 17.4 14.8 11.1 7.3 4.6 3.4 3.9 6.1 9.6 13.5 16.6 18.1
50 17.3 14.6 10.8 6.9 4.1 3.0 3.4 5.6 9.1 13.2 16.5 18.1
52 17.2 14.3 10.4 6.4 3.6 2.5 3.0 5.1 8.7 12.9 16.4 18.0
54 17.1 14.1 10.0 5.9 3.2 2.1 2.5 4.7 8.3 12.6 16.2 18.0
An interesting point to note in the above table is that extraterrestrial solar

radiation is not equally distributed over the year between the northern and
southern hemispheres
For example, the maximum mean monthly value in the southern hemisphere is
about 18.2 mm/day (42-44S in December) as compared to about 17.0 mm/day
in the north (36-48N in June)
The primary explanation for this is that the Earth is at perihelion on January 3
each year (but Eq. 3 gives Dec 31 as perihelion), when it is summer in the
southern hemisphere and winter in the north

Aphelion, the most distant point of the earths orbit around the sun, occurs in
early July, when it is summer in the northern hemisphere
The earths orbit is only slightly eccentric (nearly circular), and the distance from
the earth to the sun varies from about 147.8 to 152.6 million km (the above
sketch has an exaggerated eccentricity)
The difference in sunlight intensity arriving at the earths outer atmosphere is
about 7%, from perihelion to aphelion
For northern latitudes, the minimum Ra values occur on about December 21,
and the maximum values are at about June 21
However, these do not generally correspond to the dates of minimum and
maximum air temperatures, because several factors other than extraterrestrial
radiation affect air temperature
The average global temperature is higher around aphelion than at perihelion
because:
1. Continents and oceans are distributed unevenly in the two hemispheres

(the north has more land and the south has more water, so the north
heats up quicker)
2. During aphelion, the earth moves slower in its orbit, so the summer lasts
a few days longer in the northern hemisphere
Note that the relative distance from the earth to the sun is given as:
1
d= (5)
dr
where d is the distance from the earth to the sun, and dr is a function of J
Multiply d (from Eq. 5) by 150 to get millions of km between earth and sun (see
the plot below)

160
Distance to Sun (millions of km)x 140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
Day of Year
An average daily Ra value for a month can be roughly estimated from an

equation for approximate values of J for the middle of each month
The equation is:
J = 15.2 + [30.4(M 1)] (6)
where M is the number of the month (beginning with 1 for January).
Of course, Eq. 6 represents a shortcut calculation and is mostly for use when
you are not using a computer
V. Solar Radiation (Rs)
Estimate Rs (also called global radiation) as follows:
n
Rs = Ra 0.25 + (7)
2N
where n is the actual hours of sunshine during a day (hrs); and N is the
potential number of hours of sunshine in a day (hrs)
Rs is the short-wave solar radiation arriving at the earths surface

You can get n from a crystal ball (called Gunn-Belani) that burns a paper (acts
like a magnifying glass) when the sun is shining
Such devices are found in some weather stations, but you have to change the
paper every day, and they must be manually read

You can get N from day of year and latitude by calculating s (Eq. 4) and
multiplying by 24/:
24 s
N= (8)

where N is in hours per day
The ratio n/N can vary from zero to unity
VI. Clear Sky Solar Radiation (Rso)
Rso is equal to Rs when n = N (Eq. 6)

On cloudless days, the value of Rs equals Rso
The ratio of Rs to Rso varies from about 0.33 to 1.0
The value of Rso can usually be approximated as:
Rso 0.75Ra (9)
The coefficient of 0.75 is based on measurements in many different locations,

but it tends to be a bit higher at high elevations, and lower near sea level
FAO Paper 56 (Annex 3) suggests the following modified version of Eq. 9:
Rso = ( 0.75 + 0.00002 z ) Ra (10)
where z is the elevation above mean sea level (m)
Eqs. 9 & 10 are versions of Eq. 7 whereby n/N = 1.0 (cloudless sky)
Note that the effect of elevation is small, compared to the 0.75 constant
The approximate minimum value of the term in parentheses in Eq. 7 is 0.25,
when there is heavy cloud cover all day long
In the figure below, the radiometer is probably out of calibration, because many
daily radiation values are significantly above the 0.75Ra curve

Measured Solar Radiation in Murry, Utah (41.2 deg N)
35.000
30.000 Upper Curve is Rso = 0.75Ra

Lower Curve is 0.25Ra
25.000
Solar Radiation (MJ/m2/day)
20.000
15.000
10.000
5.000
0.000
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Day of Year (Jan 11, 1999 to Jan 10, 2000)
In winter months, some of the daily values that fall below the 0.25Ra curve may
be due to snow cover on the pyronometer
In the summer, measured values below 0.25Ra may be due to dust
accumulation or bird droppings
VII. Net Solar Radiation
Rso is incoming solar radiation, so you have to

subtract the outgoing long-wave radiation to obtain
net radiation at the ground surface
Rn is normally positive during the daytime and
negative during the nighttime
But total daily Rn (24-hr period) is usually positive
Rn can be defined (in words) as the difference between incoming short-wave
radiation and net outgoing long wave radiation, relative to the ground level
You can buy expensive instruments and calibrate them to measure Rn, or you
can estimate it based on a messy semi-empirical equation (Wright 1982; Allen
1992; and others) calibrated in Kimberly, Idaho
Thus, the following is somewhat subject to local calibration
Estimate Rn as follows:
R
4
Rn = (1 )Rs Tmax

2 (
4
+ Tmin )(
a1 b1 es,dew a s + b
Rso
) (11)
Rns
Rnl

where, = albedo (surface reflectance)
= Stephan-Boltzman emissivity constant (equal to 4.903(10)-9
MJ/m2/day K4; or 11.71(10)-8 cal/cm2/day K4)
Tmax = maximum daily air temperature (K)
Tmin = minimum daily air temperature (K)
es,dew = saturated vapor pressure at dewpoint temperature
Rns = net incoming short-wave radiation
Rnl = net outgoing long-wave radiation
The albedo can be estimated as:
J + C
= 0.29 + 0.06 sin (12)
57.3
where C is 96 for northern latitudes, and 276 for southern latitudes
Estimate a1 as follows:
(
a1 = 0.26 + 0.1 exp [0.0154(J 180)]2 ) (13)
Use b1 = 0.044 for es, dew in mb, or b1 = 0.139 for es, dew in kPa
When Rs/Rso 0.7 (not too cloudy): a = 1.126; b = -0.07
When Rs/Rso < 0.7 (kind of cloudy): a = 1.107; b = -0.06
FAO Irrig & Drain Paper 56 (1998) suggests the following values for Eq. 11:
a1 = 0.34
b1 = 0.14
a = 1.35
b = -0.35
Eq. 11 is usually applied on a daily (24-hr) basis

Note that in Eq. 11, es,dew ea, because the air must be cooled to Tdew to
saturate it when Rh < 100%
Note also that K = C 273.16
Finally, if could be equal to 1.0 (total reflectance), Rn 0 (but this is never the
case in practice)
VIII. Another Way to Estimate Rn
Following is another way to estimate net daily solar radiation (Allen, et al. 1993):
Rn = Rns Rnl (14)

where Rns is the net short-wave solar radiation (MJ/m2/day); and Rnl is the
outgoing long-wave radiation (MJ/m2/day)
These two components of Rn can be estimated as:
n
Rns = 0.77 0.25 + Ra (15)
2N
or,
Rns = (1 )Rs (16)
and,
n
(
Rnl = 2.45(10)9 0.9 + 0.1 0.34 0.14 ea
N
) (Tkx4 + Tkn4 ) (17)
where, ea = actual vapor pressure (kPa)

Tkx = maximum daily air temperature (K)
Tkn = minimum daily air temperature (K)

Lecture 19
Sample ETo Calculations
I. Introduction
This example is adapted from R.G. Allens notes (1992)

The data are from a weather station in Kimberly, Idaho
There are also lysimeter data from the same site, with alfalfa planted in and
around the lysimeter
In addition, there are data from a Class A pan with 1,000 m of fetch
We will use these data to calculate ETo from some different equations and
compare the results to the lysimeter data
The measured data are for a 24-hour period
II. Measured Data
Date.....July 15
Latitude.....42.4N
Elevation (above sea level).....1,195 m
Anemometer height.....3.66 m
Alfalfa height around the station.....12 cm
Temperature sensor height.....1.35 m
Dewpoint sensor height.....1.35 m
Maximum air temperature.....30.0C
Minimum air temperature.....12.8C
Dewpoint temperature.....10.0C
Average wind speed (24 hrs).....205 km/day
Global solar radiation (Rs).....641 cal/cm2 per day
Mean pan evaporation.....8.4 mm/day
Lysimeter-measured ET.....7.92 mm/day
III. Preliminary Calculations
Recall that a langley is a cal/cm2

As noted in a previous lecture, we can generally convert from an alfalfa
reference to a grass reference by dividing by 1.2
Thus, the lysimeter-measured ET for a grass reference is about 7.92/1.2 = 6.60
mm/day
Mean daily air temperature (C):
0.5(30.0 + 12.8) = 21.4

Extraterrestrial solar radiation:
For July 15, J = 31+28+31+30+31+30+15 = 196

Angle is positive for northern latitudes, equal to (42.4)/180 = 0.740
radians
2 (284 + 196)
= 0.4093 sin = 0.3756
365
2 (196)
dr = 1 + 0.033 cos = 0.9679
365
s = cos1 [ tan(0.740) tan(0.3756)] = 1.939
1.939 sin(0.740)sin(0.3756)
Ra = 37.6(0.9679) = 40.78
+ cos(0.740)cos(0.3756)sin(1.939)
The above Ra value is 40.78 MJ/m2/day

Equivalently, Ra is about 973 cal/cm2 per day
Clear sky solar radiation:
Estimate Rso (clear sky radiation, no clouds) as:
Rso = 0.75Ra = 0.75(40.78) = 30.59
which is also in MJ/m2/day (or, 30.59/0.0419 = 730.1 langleys/day)
Average daily vapor pressure (grass reference):
Estimate ea as (using Tdew = 10.0C):
17.27(10.0)
ea = 0.611 exp = 1.228 kPa
10.0 + 237.3
where the value 10.0 is the dewpoint temperature
In this example, ea is equal to 12.28 mb (ten times the value in kPa)

As calculated above, the mean air temperature over the 24-hr period is
about 0.5(30.0 + 12.8) = 21.4C

Then estimate the saturation vapor pressure, es, as:
19.08(21.4) + 429.4
es = exp = 25.40 mb
21.4 + 237.3
or 2.54 kPa
For an alfalfa reference, the value would be a little higher
Net solar radiation, Rn:
196 + 96
= 0.29 + 0.06 sin = 0.234
57.3
a1 = 0.26 + 0.1 exp ( 0.0154(196 180) ) = 0.354

2

Rs/Rso = 641/730 = 0.88, which is greater than 0.7, so:
a = 1.126
b = -0.07
b1 = 0.044
Finally, determine Rn
Rn = (1 0.234)(641)
11.71(10)8

2
(
[30.0 + 273.16]4 + [12.8 + 273.16]4 )
(0.354 0.044 )
12.28 (1.126(0.88) 0.07 ) = 329 langley/day
or, 329 x 0.0419 = 13.8 MJ/m2/day (because there are 0.0419 MJ/m2 per
cal/cm2, and one langley is defined to be equal to a cal/cm2)
Soil heat flux, G:
This could be estimated based on the past three days air temperatures,
but in this case we will assume it to be negligible (which it often is)

Other parameters for Penman-Monteith:
= 595.3 0.55 ( 21.4 ) = 583.5 cal / cm3
which is equivalent to 583.5 cal/g (1 gram per cm3 of water)
5.26
293 0.0065(1195)
P = 101.3 = 87.95 kPa
293
or, P = 879.5 mb
4,098(25.40)
= = 1.555 mb/C
(21.4 + 237.3)2
(0.241)(879.5)
= = 0.584 mb/C
(0.622)(583.5)
Wind speed extrapolated to 2-m height (vegetation height of 12 cm

around the weather station):
2 0.67(0.12)
ln
0.123(0.12)
U2 = 205 = 181.7 km/day
z 0.67(0.12)
ln
0.123(0.12)
which is equal to(181.7)(1000)/24/3600 = 2.10 m/s (at 2 m height)
IV. Hargreaves Equation
Ra is 40.78 MJ/m2/day
= 2.50 0.002361 (21.4) = 2.449 MJ/kg
Then, in equivalent depth of water evaporation,
(40.78 MJ / m2 / day)(1,000 mm / m)
Ra = 3
= 16.65 mm / day
(2.449 MJ / kg)(1,000 kg / m )
ETo = 0.0023(16.65) ( 21.4 + 17.8 ) 30.0 12.8 = 6.23 mm / day

This compares to the lysimeter value of 6.60 mm/day (error = 5.8%).
The difference is very small considering that the Hargreaves equation is
not recommended for time periods of less than one week.
V. Penman-Monteith Equation
= 1.555 mb/C, or 0.1555 kPa/C

= 0.584 mb/C, or 0.0584 kPa/C
900(0.0584)(2.10) ( 2.54 1.228 )

0.408(0.1555) (13.8 0.0 ) +
(21.4 + 273)
ETo =
0.1555 + (0.0584) (1 + 0.34(2.10) )
= 5.33 mm / day
This compares to the same lysimeter value of 6.60 mm/day (error =

21.3%). The difference is rather large; however, there are special
versions of Penman-Monteith for alfalfa reference, and the lysimeter did
have alfalfa.
R.G. Allen applied a different form of the equation with slightly different
parameter values and units (but for the same data set) and got ETo =
6.42 mm/day, which of course is much closer to the lysimeter data.
If we put G as -5.11, we would get ETo = 6.60 mm/day (just right). But G
should not be on the same order of magnitude as Rn. Finally, we dont
know really know the true value of G in this case.
Note that there are so many parameters, conversions, and estimations
that go into Penman-Monteith, it is easy to get a non-representative
value for ETo. This equation needs to be applied by specialists who have
control over the input data and or have intimate knowledge of the input
data and weather station conditions.
VI. FAO Pan Evaporation Method
For Kp, use U2 = 181.7 km/day

The site is in an irrigated agricultural area, so use the maximum value of
1,000 m for fetch
Compute (Rh)mean
First, get saturation vapor pressures at Tmax and at Tmin:
19.08(12.8) + 429.4
( es )Tmin = exp = 14.78 mb
12.8 + 237.3

19.08(30.0) + 429.4
( es )Tmax = exp = 42.43 mb
30.0 + 237.3
Recall that ea was already calculated as 12.28 mb. Now, determine

(Rh)mean:
100 12.28 12.28

(Rh )mean = + = 56.0%
2 42.43 14.78
The pan evaporation coefficient is:
Kp = 0.108 0.000331(181.7) + 0.0422ln(1,000)
+0.1434ln ( 56.0 ) 0.000631(ln1,000 ) ln ( 56.0 )

2
= 0.795
The pan evaporation was given as 8.4 mm/day, then
ETo = K pEpan = 0.795(8.4) = 6.68 mm / day
This compares very well to the lysimeter value of 6.60

mm/day (error = -1.2%)
However, the FAO pan evaporation method will not usually be so
accurate
VII. Summary of Calculations

Lecture 20
Irrigation Scheduling
(adapted from R.G. Allens BIE 603 notes)
I. Definition
Irrigation scheduling usually means deciding

two things:
1. When to start an irrigation event

2. How much water to apply (inches or
mm)
In irrigation scheduling, it is implied that such

decisions are not made arbitrarily
Instead, they are made based on a
combination of field measurements and
calculated values
In a crop growing season there are usually multiple irrigations, so the above
decisions are repeated for each irrigation event, and the correct answers are
generally different for each event (irrigation frequency and depth to apply)
Irrigation scheduling involves water budgeting, or hydrologic balance, at the
field/farm level
Flexibility in irrigation scheduling is constrained by the method of water delivery
to the fields, and the ability to store water in farm reservoirs
II. Water Delivery Methods
Following are four principal methods for delivering irrigation water to users and
or groups of users
Several variations on these four methods exist
In fact, you can find site-specific peculiarities in almost any irrigation system,
district, or project
Here, we are talking about delivery from the conveyance and distribution
system, which may be canals and or pipelines
1. On-Demand
Self-delivery by farmers, as desired/needed

Most common in pressurized irrigation systems
Requires larger pipes and canals, and some degree of automation
May cause considerable complications for conveyance system operators
Results in potentially higher efficiencies and crop production on farms
because the irrigator has better control of the water
True demand corresponds to that of water delivery to homes in municipal
systems (duration and frequency are not limited, and in practice, flow rate is
also usually not restricted)

True demand delivery is very rare (maybe nonexistent) in irrigation systems
2. Modified Demand
Irrigators must order water in advance

Variable duration, rate and frequency
Common in the western USA
Conveyance system capacity requirements are less than for true demand
Simpler flow control in conveyance system (easier to hydraulically balance)
Potentially lower efficiencies and crop yields
3. Rotation
Irrigators receive water in operator-controlled rate, frequency & duration

Flow rate is usually fixed
Duration of flow is usually fixed
Irrigation frequency is usually fixed
Smaller main canal capacity, but larger submain capacity
Lower crop yields and application efficiencies
Simple to manage & design
Worldwide, the most common delivery method
Provides some level of equity among water users
4. Continuous Flow
Water flows from canal to farm at fixed flow rate continuously

Very low application efficiency because deliveries do not match ET
Difficult to use with surface systems which may require large flow rates
Relatively small conveyance system capacity and simple regulation
Most prevalent in areas of Pakistan and India
Generally applied with water delivery equity as a primary objective
When the primary source of irrigation water is from privately-owned deep wells,
the delivery method is essentially on-demand: the farmer can usually irrigate
whenever desired and for as long as necessary
Among western USA irrigation districts, the vast majority have operational
policies espousing variations of modified demand schedules
A user typically is required to order water 24 hours in advance, and that user
usually gets the water at the desired time and with the desired flow rate
However, in water-short years, deliveries may be prorated
In most of these districts, users are charged according to volumetric
consumption of water, in addition to some fixed annual fees
Very few of these districts use system-wide gate automation

III. Determining Root Zone Depth
Irrigation scheduling should take into account the

variation of root zone depth with time (for annual
crops)
Mature perennial crops are usually assumed to have
a fixed root zone depth
The initial root depth (Rz)init can be estimated from the
planting depth and hydraulic characteristics of the soil (water contribution from
below the root zone, due to capillarity)
(Rz )init dseed + 5 (1)
where dseed is the depth of seed placement below the soil surface (cm); and
(Rz)init is also in cm
The period for application of the initial Kc value ends at LAI 0.1, when roots
have grown down to about two times the seed placement depth
A rule of thumb on seed planting depth is that it should equal to 4 to 6 times the
seed diameter (however, this is not true for all crop types)
Maximum root depth is a function of crop type & variety, soil structure and
depth, soil layering, depth to water table, soil temperature, and water
management
The allowable depletion, dx, increases with Rz for annual crops, assuming MAD
& Wa remain the same:
dx = MAD Wa R z (2)
where Wa is soil water holding capacity (mm/m); and MAD is the management
allowed deficit
Of course, it could be argued that dx should be based on soil water tension, not
soil water content, v
Note that the equivalent Wa can change with Rz if the soil is layered, having
different textures
MAD can also change during the season, based on crop sensitivity to water
deficit (stress) in different plant phenological stages
The increase in Rz with time can be estimated by assuming that it increases

with the rate of foliage growth, which in turn can be estimated by the changes in
Kc

K c (J) (K c )init
R z (J) (R z )init + ( R z ) (R z )init
(K c )max (K c )init max
(3)
where J is the day of year; and Kc(J) is the crop coefficient on day J
Of course, the value calculated from Eq. 3 must be less than or equal to (Rz)max
At full cover (maximum LAI), or effective cover, Rz (Rz)max
Note that J is almost the same as that used to determine Ra (extraterrestrial

solar radiation), but if the growing season crosses over into another year, you
cant simply use J = 1 for January 1st
That means that you could just set J = 1 on the day of planting, then count
forward from there
Alternatively, you can estimate the change in Rz by linear interpolation, as

follows:
J Jplanting
R z (J) (R z )init + ( R z )
max ( z )init
R (4)
Jfullcov er Jplanting
A potentially attractive feature of Eq. 4 is that it allows for root growth

immediately after planting, rather than waiting for plant emergence from the soil
The parameter Jplanting can be set equal to some other value (greater than the
planting date), if root growth is delayed a few days, to account for germination
time
IV. Plant Root Extraction Pattern
When soil water from the root zone is extracted to the limit set by the MAD,
typical patterns of depletion are as shown below, where about 70% of water
extraction is from the upper one half of the root zone

Note that if depletion were to continue past the MAD limit, then the majority of
additional water would come from the lower half of the root zone
The shape of the distribution of moisture extraction is due to higher densities of
roots near the soil surface where plant nutrients are higher, and due to the
higher total hydraulic potentials in the upper areas (elevation potential is higher)
The above figure represents an idealization for crops in general, based on
experimental results, but should not be assumed to be correct in all cases
V. Determining Irrigation Frequency
When you plot ETc versus time, or In versus time, where In = ETc Pe, you
usually observe a large variability over time
In is the net applied irrigation depth, and Pe is effective precipitation
Thus, it seems difficult to determine an irrigation schedule that maintains soil
water above within the range of field capacity to allowable deficit, at the same
time minimizing the number of irrigations
Total costs of items such as labor, capital, and energy may increase with higher
numbers of irrigations per season
A simple method for planning purposes is to plot cumulative ETc Pe versus

time for a specified probability level
For example, you might choose a 50% level of nonexceedence for planning,
and perhaps an 80 to 90% level of nonexceedence for system design

After plotting the cumulative amount, horizontal lines can be marked off
(beginning at the bottom of the figure, at planting time)
The vertical distance between each set of horizontal lines represents the value
of (MAD Wa Rz) during that period of time
When projecting the intersection of these lines down to the abscissa, there is an
indication of an approximate irrigation frequency (number of days between
irrigations)
The frequency depends on climatic conditions, plant growth stage, soil fertility
and other factors
This indication of irrigation frequency is used to estimate the peak irrigation
water requirement:
ETc Pe
depth per day = (5)
f
Eq. 5 can be used to determine an average depth per day for calculating
irrigation system capacity, and also to determine the total number of irrigations
per season for estimation of water requirements, and labor and energy
consumption
This procedure assumes that the season begins with soil water at field capacity
in the initial root zone, but that no moisture is contributed by the soil below the
initial root zone as the roots deepen with time (this may be a poor assumption)
Therefore, this method will be used to estimate a seasonal irrigation water
requirement, which is larger than that required by an amount equivalent to
about:
MAD Wa (R z )max (R z )planting (6)

Minimum irrigation frequency (least amount of time between irrigations) may

occur early in the growing season if the initial root zone is shallow, ETc is high
(warm weather), and precipitation is low
This possibility needs to be considered in planning and design

Real-Time Irrigation Scheduling
I. Soil Root Zone Water Balance
With real time irrigation scheduling, you need to keep a daily budget of the soil
moisture depletion
Alternatively, you could use a weekly time step, but there would be a greater
risk of experiencing crop water stress due to potentially late irrigations
The soil water depletion balance is accomplished by keeping an account of
daily (or weekly) ETc, effective precipitation, root zone depth, and net irrigation
application values
The soil moisture balance can take the following form:
Di = Di1 + ETc (P SRO) Iinf + DP GW (1)
where all terms are in units of depth of water (mm or inches), and
Di = soil water depletion at end of day i (equivalent depth)

Di-1 = soil water depletion at end of day i-1
ETc = crop evapotranspiration requirement on day i (including wet
surface evaporation)
P SRO = infiltrated precipitation (less surface runoff, SRO) on day i
Iinf = irrigation water infiltrated on day i
DP = deep percolation on day i
GW = ground water contribution from water table on day i
The value of GW is often zero

When Di MAD Wa Rz (allowable depletion), it is time to begin an irrigation [MAD
is management allowable deficit; Wa is soil water holding capacity, or available water; and Rz is
the root zone depth]
In all cases, Di 0 (i.e. dont account for soil water above field capacity)
DP can be calculated as follows:
If Di < 0 then DP = -Di. Otherwise, DP = 0
If DP > 0, resolve the soil water balance equation again to find the new Di (it
should be equal to zero when a positive DP value has been calculated)
This is because if there is deep percolation, the root zone water content is at or
above field capacity
Our knowledge of the true value of Di-1 should be updated occasionally

(perhaps weekly) by making a field measurement with a neutron probe, TDR, or
gravimetrically
This is necessary because of uncertainties in the exact values of Iinf, ETc, DP
and GW in calculations

Di-1 is calculated from field measurements as follows:
Di1 = R z ( fc i1 ) (2)
where fc is average volumetric soil water content at field capacity in the root
zone; and i-1 is the average measured volumetric soil water content on day i-1,
in the root zone (both values as fractions)
Updating Di-1 via Eq. 2 also helps to correct for a deepening root zone
II. Spreadsheet Application
When making a soil water balance calculation in a spreadsheet program, three

columns for Di may be required
The first two columns are intermediate calculations of Di
The first Di column is:
Di = Di1 + ETc (P SRO) GW (3)
where Iinf and DP are assumed to be zero (see Eq. 1)
The second column is an "Irrigation" column, where: if Di > AD (allowable

depletion), then Iinf = Di (otherwise Iinf = 0)
The second Di column is then: Di = "first" Di - Iinf
This is followed by a "DP" column, where: if "second" Di < 0, then DP = - Di
(using the "second" Di column)
The "final" Di column is: Di = "second" Di + DP
This "final" Di value is used as the Di-1 in the "first" Di equation for the next day
(next row in the spreadsheet)
Part of the spreadsheet might look something like this:
1st 2nd final

Day of ETc P SRO GW Di Iinf Di DP Di
Year (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
22 4.5 0.0 0 0 4.5 0.0 4.5 0.0 4.5
23 5.2 10.2 0 0 -0.5 0.0 -0.5 0.5 0.0
24 5.1 0.0 0 0 5.1 0.0 5.1 0.0 5.1
25 6.9 0.0 0 0 12.0 0.0 12.0 0.0 12.0
26 7.2 0.0 0 0 19.2 0.0 19.2 0.0 19.2
27 6.2 0.0 0 0 25.4 25.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
28 5.4 6.5 0 0 -1.1 0.0 -1.1 1.1 0.0
(The above spreadsheet assumes that SRO and GW are zero, the initial Di-1 = 0 and AD = 20 mm)
Normally, AD would be computed each day as AD = MAD Wa Rz, where Rz

changes (increases) with time, at least for annual crops

ETc can be determined from calculated ETo and known Kc values
The length (days) of each crop growth stage can be taken from tables (e.g.
FAO 56) or calculated from growing degree days, GDD
III. Forecasting Irrigation Dates
Often, an irrigator is required to submit an order for water from a canal system
one or more days before it is delivered
Therefore, it is necessary to forecast the irrigation date ahead of time, by
calculating the projected ET, P and D (for i+1, i+2, i+3, etc.)
ET can be forecasted by examining ET for the past week, or for the same
period in past years (if such data are available)
As an alternative, one can forecast ET and precipitation by using forecasts of
the parameters used in ET equations, such as air temperature, relative
humidity, percent sunshine or cloudiness and wind speed
These parameters can be predicted fairly accurately up to 7 days in advance in
some areas by using satellite data and atmospheric models
IV. Requirements for Real-Time Irrigation Scheduling
1. Kc versus time
2. ETo from weather data
3. Rz versus time
4. Wa
5. MAD
6. Infiltrated precipitation
7. Net application of water (on low quarter of field)
8. Occasional soil moisture measurements to update depletion estimates
If you know the net depth of applied water on the low , you will also know it for
the whole irrigated area (the low will be discussed in a later lecture on
irrigation efficiency and evaluation of system performance)
With sprinklers, the net application of water can be estimated as qt (i.e. volume
of water) from nozzle discharge-pressure relationships
With surface irrigation, soil moisture measurements must be made, unless the
irrigation is long enough to ensure recharge of soil water to field capacity
Alternatively, you could use an inflow-outflow measurement for the entire field
V. Supplemental Irrigation
When scheduling irrigation in areas where precipitation is significant and

reliable (some tropical areas), the irrigation depth should be reduced to less
than the current depletion (Di) to maintain some capacity in the root zone for
precipitation

This is best accomplished with systems that can provide daily irrigations, when
necessary
VI. Scheduling Methods & Features
1. Computer Programs
ET is estimated from weather data

Weather data collection can be easily automated
2. Voice Synthesizers
Enables the computer to speak to irrigators
3. Published ETc Values
Irrigation projects may publish ETc in newspapers and farmers can maintain
their own water balance
4. Soil Moisture Monitoring
TDR
neutron probe
gravimetric
gypsum blocks (threshold readings to predict irrigation)
tensiometers (threshold values)
"feel" by hand
5. Fixed Schedule Each Year
This is common in many places around the world

From a farmers perspective, it is the easy way out (and undesirable)
This is the most rigid (inflexible) kind of irrigation scheduling
6. Infrared Thermometry
Use infrared gun sensor to monitor crop canopy temperature (Tc)

Simultaneously measure air temperature (Ta) and vapor pressure deficit
(VPD), (es - ea), with thermometer and humidity sensors
When Tc Ta deviates from the "baseline" of a Tc Ta versus VPD curve,
the crop is stressed and it is time to irrigate (Tc increases due to stress, and
Tc Ta becomes more positive and the point rises above the baseline)
This method requires one to be able to order water and irrigate either
immediately or within one day, because by the time the Tc Ta value
deviates from the baseline, the crop is already stressed and needs water
This type of scheduling is possible with very high value crops and with
automated irrigation systems

This method should always be used between 12:00 noon and 2:00 pm, and
on sunny days, for consistency in measurements

Lecture 21
Irrigation Water Quality
I. Introduction
Irrigation water quality can involve many chemical and biological factors,
including salinity, presence of pesticides, and others
This lecture focuses primarily on irrigation and soil water salinity
All irrigation water contains salts, which can accumulate to problematic levels in
the crop root zone if not managed through leaching and drainage
The presence of salts can have detrimental effects on plants in different ways
For example, some of the chemical constituents in salts can be toxic to certain
types of plants even when present in very small concentrations
Salts can also harm the soil structure and increase the osmotic potential,
thereby making it more difficult for plants to withdraw water from the soil
Following are three main reasons why soil water salinity can be harmful to
agricultural production:
1. Specific toxicity to plants

2. Detrimental to soil structure (permeability)
3. Increases the solute (osmotic) potential, decreasing available water
Specific ion toxicities can be from Na, Cl, B and others

However, when irrigation water salinity (expressed as electrical conductivity,
EC) is less than about 0.2 dS/m, the soil water infiltration rate will usually
decrease
Soil water infiltration rates usually increase with increasing salinity and
decrease with Na content, relative to the combined Mg and Ca content (see
SAR below)
The photograph below is from the salt flats in western Utah, where very little
vegetation can survive

II. Definition of Soil Water Salt
Most discussions of soil water salt refer in general to dissolved minerals in the
water, not just sodium chloride (table salt)
These commonly include compounds of calcium, magnesium,
potassium, sodium, chloride, sulfate, carbonates and bicarbonates,
and nitrates
All soil water has some dissolved minerals, though the chemical
composition varies greatly
High concentrations of salts are detrimental to crop growth &
production
There is a wide range of crop tolerance to salts; some crops are very tolerant to
high soil water salt concentrations, and others are very sensitive
Problems with soil water salinity are usually worse in arid and semiarid areas
III. Soil Water Leaching
Irrigation water is often a major source of salts to the soil

Depending on the salt content of the irrigation water, it may be necessary to
remove 10 to 20 tons of salt per hectare per year in order to prevent salt build-up
Salts can also move upward into the crop root zone from groundwater
In arid regions, groundwater may contain many times as much salt as the irrigation
water which is applied at the surface
Soil salinity is controlled by leaching, which requires the application of slightly more
water than that used by the crops, and presumes adequate drainage capability
Leaching means washing the soil, moving salts downward through the soil profile
and (hopefully) beyond the crop root zone
Leaching is typically performed by ponding over the field surface or sprinkle
irrigating, but not by furrow irrigation because this method would tend to leave
salts near the soil surface in between the furrows
For most crops and conditions, 5 to 10% of the applied water must pass down
through the soil to carry away excess salts
This can be accomplished by annual rains in many cases, eliminating the need for
the irrigation system to perform the leaching
FAO Irrig & Drain Paper 29 recommends the following equation for determining
the leaching requirement (LR), based on

ECw
LR = (1)
5ECe EC w
where ECw is the EC of the irrigation water (dS/m); and ECe is of the
soil water extract for a 10% yield reduction (dS/m)
The ECw value is measured from irrigation

water samples
The ECe value for a 10% yield reduction
(e.g. 90% of potential yield) depends on the
crop type, which ranges from about 1.3 dS/m
for salt sensitive crops to 10 dS/m for salt
tolerant crops
Note that ECe values for other than 10%
crop yield reduction could be used in Eq. 1 to
calculate the LR, but most commonly it is the
10% value that is applied
Eq. 1 is applied by dividing the net irrigation depth by (1 LR) to obtain the gross
irrigation depth
As an example, in the Logan river (Cache Valley), the EC is about 0.35 dS/m;
thus, for a very salt sensitive crop, the LR comes to about 0.06 (for a very tolerant
crop, LR 0.007)
One dS/m is equivalent to one mmho/cm, or about 640 ppm, or 10 meq/liter
EC at field capacity is often about twice the value of ECe
IV. Salt Effects on Crop Yield
The most common effect of salinity on crops is a stunting of plant growth

Crops grown on soils of low fertility (nutrient content) usually show an
apparently high tolerance to soil water salinity, but this is because their growth
and production are already limited by the lack of soil fertility
Salt concentration is measured as the electrical conductivity of the soil saturation
extract, or ECe, in mmho/cm (equivalent to decisiemens per meter, dS/m) at 25C
The table below gives an indication of the effect of soil water salinity on crop yield
Electrical Conductivity,
Effect on Crop Yield
ECe (dS/m)
0 1 Reduction in yield will usually be negligible
24 Yield of sensitive crops will be restricted
48 Yield of many crops will be restricted
8 16 Yield is satisfactory only for salt tolerant crops

The values in the above table are approximate because the tolerance to salinity
varies greatly among crop types
Adequate soil fertility can decrease the harmful effects of soil water salt
The figure below shows a generally accepted relationship between relative crop
yield, as percent of maximum potential yield, and soil water salinity in the crop
root zone
Crop yield is usually not significantly reduced by soil water salinity until a certain
crop-specific threshold value is reached
If the salinity is increased beyond the threshold value, crop yield tends to
decrease linearly (approximately) until at some point the crop yield goes to zero
The rate of yield decrease is only approximately linear, and both the threshold
value and rate of decrease vary according to crop type
100
80
Relative Crop Yield (%)
Threshold Salinity
60
40
20
0
0 Increasing Salinity
FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 gives crop-specific data on yield

reduction due to salinity
The FAO defines crop sensitivity classifications to salt as follows:
Classification Threshold (dS/m) Zero Crop Yield (dS/m)

ECw ECe ECw ECe
Sensitive 0.7 1.1 5.1 7.9
Moderately Sensitive 1.8 2.9 10.5 15.9
Moderately Tolerant 3.8 6.0 16.0 23.9
Tolerant 6.3 9.8 21.1 31.8
Note: ECw is for the irrigation water; and ECe is for the soil water extract
A graphical representation of these classification is:

100
Relative crop yield (%) xx
80
60
unacceptable
for crops
40
tolerant
moderately
20 tolerant
moderately
sensitive sensitive
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
ECe (dS/m)
Examples of salt tolerant crops:
Barley Date palm

Cotton Asparagus
Sugar beet Various grasses
Jojoba
Examples of salt sensitive crops:
Bean Apple
Carrot Pear
Strawberry Almond
Citrus Avocado
The following table (compiled from several sources) shows threshold and slope
values for several crop types
By the slope values in the third column, you can get an idea of how fast the
yield tends to decrease with increasing salinity
Crop Threshold ECe Percent yield decrease

per unit increase in ECe
Alfalfa 2.0 7.3
Almond 1.5 19
Apricot 1.6 24
Barley 6.0 7.1
Cabbage 1.8 9.7

Carrot 1.0 14
Corn (forage) 1.8 7.4
Corn (sweet) 1.7 12
Cotton 7.7 5.2
Date 4.0 3.6
Lettuce 1.3 13
Onion 1.2 16
Orange 1.7 16
Rice 3.0 12
Strawberry 1.0 33
Sugarcane 1.7 5.9
Tomato 2.5 9.9
Wheat 6.0 7.1
It is usually easier to remove salts from sandy soils than from silty clay soils, and it
should be recognized that leaching works well only with adequate drainage to
carry the salts away
Compacted zones and changes in soil texture reduce downward water movement
through the soil and result in less leaching
Salt must always be managed so it accumulates in zones away from germinating
seeds and plant roots
Drip and other low flow irrigation methods can be used to flush salts away from
seeds and or plant roots
These methods are also effective, particularly on sandy soils, in decreasing deep
percolation and in reducing the farm irrigation water requirements
When salts accumulate between the plant rows, they may be leached during
periods of sufficient rainfall or periodic irrigation to remove them from the depth of
soil usually explored by plant roots
Thus, irrigation system capacity does not necessarily have to include LR because
sufficient capacity may be available for leaching during non-peak crop
consumptive use periods
V. Other Measures of Soil Water Quality
Various parameters can be used to determine the suitability of

water for irrigation purposes
Electrical conductivity of the irrigation water is one such index,
as is the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), percent free sodium
ions, and boron concentration
Dissolved minerals in soil water react with soil particles as ions, not as
molecules
The following table gives rating indexes for six parameters, where an index of 1
is excellent, and an index of 6 is unsuitable for irrigation

In many cases, an index of 5 will be unacceptable for crop production, and in
specific cases rating indexes of even 3 or 4 may be unsuitable
Some of the ionic concentrations are expressed as milliequivalents per liter
(meq/l), and others as parts per million (ppm)
Rating EC Na+ Na2CO3 Cl- Boron

SAR
Index (dS/m) (%) (meq/l) (meq/l) (ppm)
1 0.5 40 3 0.5 3 0.5
2 1.0 60 6 1.0 6 1.0
3 2.0 70 9 2.0 10 2.0
4 3.0 80 12 3.0 15 3.0
5 4.0 90 15 4.0 20 4.0
6 > 4.0 > 90 > 15 > 4.0 > 20 > 4.0
The SAR is a common water quality parameter and is defined as a ratio of

sodium ions to magnesium and calcium ions:
Na+
SAR = (2)
(
0.5 Mg ++
+ Ca +
)
in units of meq/liter
Other, similar, definitions of SAR have been used

For example, the adjusted SAR accounts for bicarbonate and carbonate
presence:
Na +
SARadj = ( 9.4 pHc ) (3)
(
0.5 Mg ++
+ Ca +
)
where,
( )
pHc = pK '2 pK 'c + p ( Ca + Mg) + p ( Alkalinity ) (3)
An adjusted SAR value of less than 6 is usually acceptable, but a value greater
than 9 is usually unacceptable
The exchangeable sodium percentage, ESP, is another definition of sodium ion
content in a soil, and is approximately (through a statistical relationship) defined
as a function of SAR:

100 ( 0.0126 + 0.01475 SAR )
ESP = (4)
1 + ( 0.0126 + 0.01475 SAR )
where ESP is in percentage
Saline soils have relatively high levels of soil water salinity and can be
reclaimed by leaching
Alkaline soils are those that have a pH greater than 7 (they can be either sodic
or calcium carbonate-rich soils), usually with relatively high SAR values
Black alkali soils are formed when saline-alkali soils are irrigated and the salts
are leached out, leaving dissolved organic matter; they have a high pH and low
permeability, and the soil surface may be slick; ESP is greater than 15%
Sodic soils are those with SAR or exchangeable sodium percentage, ESP,
greater than 15, or in other words soils with sodium as the dominant cation
The reclamation of sodic soils may involve gypsum (calcium sulfate, CaSO4),
but if there is a source of calcium carbonate in the soil, sulfuric acid may be
used to dissolve calcium carbonate and exchange the sodium with calcium,
whereby the sodium could be leached downward and beyond the root zone
Boron is present in water from most sources, but the concentration varies from
trace amounts to several parts per million
Boron is a micronutrient, essential to plant growth, but become toxics at
concentrations only slightly above the optimum level
Many plants manifest significant yield reduction effects when the boron
concentration is 1.0 ppm or more
All of the above parameters can be determined in a water quality

laboratory, such as in the Utah Water Research Laboratory
Electrical conductivity can be measured with calibrated instruments
in the field, using standard solutions
VI. Types of Salt-Affected Soils
A salt-affected soil is a soil which has enough dissolved minerals that it cannot
support optimal crop growth
Many soils in arid and semi-arid regions are considered to be salt-affected, and
they require management to sustain agricultural productivity over the long term
The major types of soils with respect to salts are:
1. Normal
2. Saline
3. Sodic
4. Saline-Sodic

where normal means the soil is not adversely affected by the presence of salts
The types of salt-affected soils have been defined as follows (James et al. 1982):
Criteria Normal Saline Sodic Saline-Sodic

ECe (dS/m) <4 >4 <4 >4
SAR < 13 < 13 > 13 > 13
Saline soils are sometimes called white alkali because of the presence of a white
crust of salt on the soil surface, but not all saline soils have such a crust
The pH of a sodic soil can be as high as about 10, indicating a high level of
alkalinity
The presence of excess salt in saline-sodic soils helps maintain the permeability
of the soil, compared to that of a sodic soil
Thus, leaching of salts from a saline-sodic soil can (but not necessarily) cause the
soil to become sodic only
As you have probably surmised by now, the science and management of salt-
affected soils is a very deep and complex subject in which a person could dedicate
their entire professional career
James, D.W., R.J. Hanks, and J.J. Jurinak. 1982. Modern irrigated soils. John Wiley &
Sons, N.Y. 235 pp.

Lecture 22
Water Use Efficiency
I. Introduction
Irrigation efficiency terms are used to quantify the percent of "usefulness"

derived from a specific diversion of water
A general technical definition of efficiency is:
net output
efficiency , or (1)
gross input
Eq. 1 is in fraction, but values can be multiplied by 100 to give percent

When working in terms of energy, output must not be greater than (nor equal to)
input, unless some items have not been taken into account
Water use efficiency quantification is used in comparative field evaluations

among irrigated areas, irrigators, and irrigation methods
Estimated (assumed) efficiency values are also applied in irrigation system
design, to convert net water requirements to gross requirements
Efficiency is also used (sometimes misused) in legal proceedings (adjudication),
and in environmental protection studies
II. Irrigation Efficiency Terms
Below is a list of some typical irrigation efficiency terms, and their

nomenclature:
1. Conveyance Efficiency (Ec)

2. Application Efficiency (Ea)
3. Water Storage Efficiency (Es)
4. Project Efficiency (Ep)
5. Distribution Efficiency (Ed)
6. Application Efficiency of the Low Quarter (AELQ)
7. Application Efficiency of the Low Half (AELH)
Some of these are discussed in this lecture, others will be defined in the
subsequent lecture
Many other definitions have been proposed and applied

III. Conveyance Efficiency, Ec
Vd
Ec = 100 (2)
Vs
where Ec is in percent; Vd is the volume of water delivered to farms at turnouts
or lateral/distributary canal inlets; and Vs is the volume of water entering the
conveyance system from a source (river, lake, well, reservoir, other)
It can be said that the value of Ec is a function of:
1. flow rate
2. total reach length
3. conveyance system age
4. type and condition of lining material
5. adequacy of infrastructure maintenance
6. type of soil adjacent to the channels or pipes
7. hydraulic radius & wetted perimeter (open-channel flow)
Recalling the volumetric water balance presented in an earlier lecture, the

difference between Vd and Vs is potentially due to:
1. net seepage loss or gain

2. leakage and spills
3. administrative spills at branch ends
4. unauthorized diversions or deliveries
5. evaporation losses
6. runoff entering the conveyance system
7. direct rainfall over open canals
Nevertheless, conveyance efficiency is normally associated only with net

seepage loss, sometimes also taking leakage into account
Evaporative losses from open channels are usually small compared to other
flow rate or volumetric components
IV. Application Efficiency, Ea
Vz
Ea = 100 (3)
Vd
where Ec is in percent; Vd is the volume of water delivered to farms at turnouts
or lateral/distributary canal inlets; and Vz is the volume of water stored in the
crop root zone

The difference between Vd and Vz is potentially due to these losses:
1. surface runoff
2. deep percolation
3. evaporation and wind drift
The above are considered to be losses from a field perspective, and sometimes
from a farm perspective, but they are not all necessarily losses at larger scales
It can be said that the value of Ea is a function of:
1. irrigation method
2. irrigation timing and duration
3. irrigation system design & current condition
4. uniformity of water distribution at the surface
5. soil type and structure
6. soil infiltration rate
7. irrigator skill
It is not enough to evaluate irrigations based only on the above definition for Ea
because it can be misleading
For example, if you practice deficit irrigation (incomplete irrigation), most of the
applied water may be stored in the root zone, but the average depth was not
nearly enough to bring v to field capacity
On the other hand, the application uniformity might be perfect (same depth
applied all over the field), but the irrigator ran the system too long and applied
too much water, so the Ea looks bad, but it is not due to system design nor
maintenance
Other efficiency terms are necessary to more fully qualify the Ea value
V. Water Storage Efficiency, Es
Vz
Es = 100 (4)
V reqd
where Es is in percent; and Vreqd is the required volume, which is equal to the
net irrigated area multiplied by the soil water deficit:
V reqd = MAD Wa Rz A (5)
if irrigating exactly at a deficit of MAD, or
V reqd = ( FC v ) R z A (6)
where v is the soil water content just before beginning an irrigation; FC is the
water content at field capacity; and A is the net irrigated area

Es measures how much soil water deficit was erased by irrigating, using field
capacity as the upper limit
Es = 100% when the irrigation is complete, which almost always involves
some deep percolation
Es becomes interesting when less than 100% because it helps explain the value
of Ea
VI. Deep Percolation and Runoff
Deep percolation is the water that infiltrates into the soil from irrigation and
precipitation, passing downward through the crop root zone
Some of the deep percolation can later move upward, reentering the root zone,
but this is usually negligible
Almost all complete irrigations have some deep percolation, where a complete
irrigation is one in which the root zone is refilled to field capacity over 100% of
the field area
Runoff is the water that leaves the irrigated area in the form of surface
drainage, usually at the low end of the field, or the tail of the field
Runoff is sometimes referred to as tail water
Efficiency terms can be presented to quantify deep percolation and runoff
losses separately, relative to Vd, thereby helping to explain the magnitude of Ea
VII. Project Efficiency, Ep
Vz
Ep = 100 (7)
Vs
This is defined as the percentage of water diverted to an irrigation project (or
district) which is stored in the root zone and is usable to satisfy crop water
requirements
VIII. Distribution Efficiency, Ed
This is not really an efficiency term, rather a water application uniformity term
The following equation is the definition for Christiansens coefficient of
uniformity, CU:
n
zi z
Ed = 100 1 i=1 (8)
nz


where Ed is in percent; z is the mean depth of water infiltration; zi is an
individual water depth measurement in the irrigated area; and n is the number
of individual depth measurements
Perfect uniformity (100%) is obtained when all zi values equal z

Eq. 8 can be related to the efficiency terms by applying statistical distribution
functions and specifying percent area adequately irrigated
For example, if the depths of infiltrated water over a field surface are normally
distributed, and the average applied depth is equal to the soil water deficit
divided by Ed, then 75% of the field area will be irrigated to a depth equal to, or
greater than, the soil water deficit
The figure below shows curves from the normal distribution for different CU
values
2.5
65%
2.0
70%
75%
80%
85%
1.5
Relative depth
90%
95%
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent area

IX. Sample Schematics of Irrigation Efficiency
Consider three idealized cases where CU = 100% (Ed = 100%):
Example #1
head tail
no runoff
zreqd
no deep percolation deficit

Ea = 100% Es = 70% Ed = 100%
Example #2
head tail
no runoff
zreqd
no deficit
no deep percolation
Ea = 100% Es = 100% Ed = 100%
Example #3
head tail
no runoff
zreqd
no deficit
deep percolation
Ea = 70% Es = 100% Ed = 100%
The dashed horizontal lines in #1 and #3 are the depths of infiltrated water
Examples #2 and #3 represent complete irrigations (no deficit)
Take a look at three idealized surface irrigation cases:

Example #1
head tail
zreqd
deficit
Ea = 100% Es = 75% Ed = 80%
Example #2
head tail
runoff
zreqd
deficit
deep percolation
Ea = 80% Es = 95% Ed = 85%

Example #3
head tail
runoff
zreqd
no deficit
deep percolation
Ea = 70% Es = 100% Ed = 92%
Water enters the field on the surface at the head, and any runoff leaves at the
tail, to the right
The dashed curves represent infiltrated depths; they are curved because of the
effect of intake opportunity time
Note that for surface irrigation, uniformity tends to increase with increasing
depth, because as seen by the Kostiakov equation, the infiltration rate
decreases towards the basic rate, fo, with opportunity time
That is, the infiltration curve becomes more horizontal with infiltrated depth, and
Ed increases
Next, have a look at three idealized sprinkler irrigation cases:

Example #1
zreqd
no deep percolation deficit
Ea = 100% Es = 75% Ed = 80%
Example #2
zreqd
average depth = required
deep percolation deficit

Ea = 90% Es = 97% Ed = 80%
Example #3
zreqd
no deficit
deep percolation
Ea = 70% Es = 100% Ed = 80%
Uniformity, Ed, is constant for each of the three examples

The differences are all manifested in the set time, or time that the sprinklers are
allowed to operate
Set time is an operational/management function, independent of design (except
for automated systems)
However, the irrigation system designer should specify the recommended set
times, and the irrigator or farmer should have knowledge of what it should be
from one irrigation to the next
The magnitude of the waviness of the dashed lines is an indication of the
magnitude of CU (Ed), or uniformity
For CU = 100%, the waviness disappears, replaced by a straight horizontal line

X. Many Efficiency Definitions
You can search the technical literature and find dozens of articles related to
irrigation efficiency, uniformity and related topics
Willardson, Allen & Frederiksen (1994) wrote a paper entitled Elimination of
Irrigation Efficiencies, instead proposing fractions of water
That paper objected to some inappropriate applications of traditional efficiency
terms, whereby mostly nonexistent water savings were to be diverted
elsewhere
Andrew & Jack Keller presented a similar paper in 1994
Willardson previously published other papers on irrigation efficiency
Many others have also written papers on this topic
For example, PELQ and PELH
XI. Potential Application Efficiency of the Low Quarter, PELQ
Merriam & Keller (1978) define a PELQ term:
z
PELQ = 100 25% (9)
z
where z25% is the average depth of water stored in the crop root zone when the
average depth infiltrated in the lowest quarter of the field area is equal to the
soil water deficit, zreqd; and z is the mean gross application depth over the
whole field
According to the above definition, the irrigation is not complete, but about 75 +
(25) = 87.5% of the field area is over-irrigated (has some deep percolation)
One-eighth (12.5%) of the field area has some amount of deficit both before
and after the irrigation
Thus, PELQ is an efficiency term based on the uniformity of infiltration in the
low of the field
For sloping surface-irrigated fields, the low of the irrigated area is usually at
the tail end of the field
PELQ is a uniformity-based quantification because it uses the mean gross
application depth as the basis (Eq. 1), which explains the qualification that the
average depth infiltrated in the lowest of the field area is equal to zreqd

PELQ Definition Sketch
head tail
runoff
zreqd
low
deficit
deep percolation
75%
87.5%
XII. Potential Application Efficiency of the Low Half, PELH
Merriam & Keller (1978) also define a PELH term:
z
PELH = 100 50% (10)
z
where z50% is the average depth of water stored in the crop root zone when the
average depth infiltrated in the lowest half of the field area is equal to the soil
water deficit, zreqd
According to the above definition, the irrigation is not complete, but about 50 +
(50) = 75% of the field area is over-irrigated (has some deep percolation)
One-quarter (25%) of the field area has some amount of deficit both before and
after the irrigation
PELH is also an efficiency term based on the uniformity of infiltration
Both PELQ and PELH account for evaporation, wind drift (sprinklers), surface
runoff, nonuniformity, and irrigation adequacy
The greater the variability of irrigation depths within a field, the greater the
difference between the net depth of the lowest and the average gross depth
applied
Therefore, for any given evaluation conditions, the PELQ < PELH
But, PELQ requires that 87.5% of field area be adequately or over-irrigated,
essentially ensuring adequacy, even though the soil water content in about
12.5% of the area is somewhat less than field capacity

XIII. Application Efficiency of the Low Quarter, AELQ
If the average net application depth of the lowest of the area is different than
the soil water deficit, then the AELQ can be used
This is the application efficiency of the low quarter
AELQ is defined as:
z
AELQ = 100 25% (11)
z
where Z25% is the average depth stored in the root zone in the 25% of the area
with the least amount of infiltration from irrigation
AELQ is similar to DU
XIV. Typical PELQ Values
1. Sprinklers
Sprinkler PELQ (%)
Type Range Average
Hand-move 50 - 70 65
Side-roll 50 - 70 65
Solid Set 60 - 75 70
Center Pivot 70 - 85 75
Linear Move 65 - 85 75
Big Gun 55 - 65 60
Traveler 60 - 80 70
2. Trickle/Drip
70 - 95% depending on design, management, and maintenance
3. Surface: Borders
60 - 80% for well graded and well managed systems
30 - 60% for poorly graded and or poorly managed systems
4. Surface: Furrows
50 - 70% for well-graded and well-managed systems
30 - 50% for poorly-graded and or poorly-managed systems
60 - 90% for surge-flow irrigation with tail water recovery
5. Surface: Level Basins

75 - 95% depending mostly on basin size, soil type, inflow rate


Lecture 23
Surface Irrigation
I. Introduction
In a previous lecture, several surface irrigation methods were introduced

For example, furrows, borders, basins, corrugations, and flooding
With surface irrigation methods, the water is conveyed and distributed over the
ground surface within a field
With pressurized irrigation methods (sprinkle & trickle), water is conveyed and
distributed through pipes and or hoses, possibly with some aerial and
subsurface distribution as well
The fact that water is conveyed and distributed over the ground surface in
surface methods explains part of the relative complexity of designing and
managing a surface irrigation system
This added complexity is due to the spatial and temporal infiltration
characteristics of the soil, which varies among soils types and conditions
II. Advantages & Disadvantages
Surface Irrigation Advantages
Low labor cost

Low energy (pumping) inputs
Low capital inputs (pumps, pipes, valves, nozzles, etc.)
Low maintenance costs
Screens and filters are not required
Potentially high application efficiency (especially in basins)
Leaching is relatively expedient (it's feasible)
Appropriate for crops requiring submergence (rice)
Surface Irrigation Disadvantages
High labor cost

Application efficiency is often low
Usually requires land grading and small slopes
Relatively difficult to automate
Greater chance of water-logging and salinity
Chemigation and fertigation is more difficult
Other field operations must wait for irrigation to finish
Management changes with every irrigation (due to infiltration)

III. Water Delivery Techniques
Water is usually delivered to furrows, borders and basins through:
1. Open ditches
2. Buried pipelines, or
3. Gated pipe laid on the surface
Open ditches may be earthen or lined

Lined ditches are permanent, but earthen ditches are often closed after each
irrigation to allow entry by tractors and other farm machinery
Gated pipe is usually made of aluminum to facilitate manual handling (loading
and unloading from trailers)
Gate pipe usually comes in 8 and 10 diameters, with rubber gaskets at the
joints
A problem with gated pipe is that the velocity of the water streams from the
gates is often high enough to cause considerable soil erosion at the head of the
field
IV. Land Grading and Leveling
The performance (water management) of surface irrigation systems is greatly

enhanced by having favorable field topography
This means favorable field surface (roughness) and favorable field slopes
Adequate land surfacing
also tends to greatly reduce
labor requirements and
required irrigator skill
Land leveling and land

grading are not the same
thing
Land leveling usually
involves cutting, moving,
and filling, where the cut and
fill areas are separated by
some distance
Land grading means smoothing the field surface, removing small
topographical irregularities

Land leveling is seldom performed annually, rather every 5 to 10 years, or more
Land grading involves smoothing of the soil surface to correct localized, minor
surface irregularities
In rice culture, land grading is often performed under saturated conditions with
animal or machinery power
The benefits of land leveling and grading are:
1. Surface irrigation is accomplished with less labor and with greater

uniformity and efficiency (potentially better water management)
2. Soil erosion hazards are lessened because surface runoff is better
controlled during rain and irrigation (by any irrigation method)
3. After irrigation, the field surface dries quicker and more uniformly,
allowing more frequent irrigations between farming operations
4. Weed control is favorably affected because there is not a problem due to
wet spots in low areas of the field
5. Fertilizer application is more efficient and effective, because there is
potentially less deep percolation
The principal drawbacks to land leveling and grading are:
1. It is usually very expensive

2. Heavy cuts can reduce agricultural productivity for years
3. Some soils are not deep enough to permit leveling, or there are too many
stones and rocks for earthwork to be feasible
4. Leveling and grading equipment is sometimes misused and poorly
understood, causing problems rather than providing solutions
Land leveling calculations can be performed using conventional techniques or

through least-squares regression
Regression can be linear, row-by-row and column-by-column across the field, or
it can be multiple linear regression, which is preferred
Multiple regression can include a correlation coefficient for the entire field
surface, giving an indication of the "roughness" of the field surface
That is, the correlation indicates how well the best-fit plane actually fits the
existing field surface
The time required to complete a leveling job depends on two principal factors:
(1) volume of cut; and (2) distance between area centroids of cuts and fills,
respectively
The second factor gives an indication of how far the earth must be transported
across the field, on average, but the actual transportation distances depend on
how the equipment operators go about their work

The cut/fill volume ratio must usually be greater than unity in order to complete
the job without a lack of fill material
The needed ratio will vary according to soil texture, soil structure, soil moisture,
presence and type of organic material, and other factors
Usually one or two adjustments to the cut depth must be made before finishing
the job, otherwise there will be "extra" soil left over, or there will be unfilled
areas after all cuts have been made
It is usually advisable to apply additional fertilizer on cut areas after land

leveling, especially when deep cuts are made, exposing the subsoil
Some new application services can create a map of soil nutrient deficiencies,
then apply chemicals semi-automatically according to the map
But for deep soil cuts, it is recommended to cut deeper than necessary, then
backfill with top soil
Otherwise, crops may not grow well in the heavy cut areas for several years
Areas with deep fills may settle substantially after irrigation or rain, thus
requiring touch-up leveling in the following year
VI. Laser-Leveling Equipment and Practices
Laser leveling has been

used in agriculture for
more than 25 years
The word laser is an
acronym for Light
Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of
Radiation
The lasers used in
agricultural land leveling
and in construction are
usually of the helium-
neon type, producing a
red-colored light
Many farmers own and operate this equipment in the USA
Some of the advantages over conventional leveling are that operator skill in
creating a level field surface is essentially eliminated, and the final leveling job
can be more accurate
Conventional leveling is still used when very deep cuts and fills are required
Laser equipment has been used for more than 30 years in the construction
industry, and it is also used for laying pipelines, excavating ditches and canals,
and lining canals with concrete
Lasers are used for conventional surveying jobs, except that in many cases
only one person is required to complete the work

The laser equipment includes a laser with sensitive leveling instruments, a
sensor for distinguishing between normal light and a specific frequency of laser
light, and control circuitry for monitoring and operating the equipment
The laser equipment and automatic hydraulic valves may cost $30,000 or more
You can usually download survey data to a computer for calculation purposes
The laser is mounted vertically, and a mirror at a 90-degree angle rotates above
This essentially establishes a plane of light over the field surface, and when the
job is finished, the field surface is parallel to the plane of light
Problems will arise when two separate laser sources overlap in a field because
the sensor doesn't know which one to use
Most laser equipment is sensitive to movement (e.g. from gusty winds), and the
mirror will stop rotating if the laser unit is shaken slightly, resuming again after
automatically re-setting to the specified slopes
Equipment can work day and night, but heavy fog and thick dust can obstruct
the laser beam enough to prevent operations
These problems are worse when the sensor is far from the laser itself (in fields
of about 20 ha or more)
Hot and dry conditions can also cause problems when the sensor is far from the
laser and the air has strong currents, causing the beam to diverge and fluctuate
This in turn causes the sensor to feed fluctuating signals to the controller, giving
a "washboard" effect to the cut and fill areas
The equipment can be used for both surveying the existing field elevations, and
for doing the leveling work
The survey job is not as accurate as a conventional manual survey, but it is
quick and easy
Leveling calculations are slightly complicated by the fact that the survey is often
performed using a sloping reference plane
This is done because the telescoping mast upon which the sensor is mounted
has limited vertical travel, and some parts of the field could go out of its range
The operator must check the sensor position at the high and low corners before
beginning the surveying process
Three common modes of operation are:
1. Manual (laser signal is ignored)

2. Automatic (scraper blade follows the plane of light); and
3. Survey (laser sensor follows the plane of light on a telescoping mast and
the blade remains at fixed height above the ground surface)
With deep cuts, the operator may need to make a few initial passes in manual
mode, then make the final cuts in automatic mode "on-grade"
Otherwise, the scraper and tractor may be forced to bite off too much at a time

Also, with deep fills, the operator may be advised to make initial passes in
manual mode
The equipment is usually taken down and stored when not in use
Re-setting the equipment in the field before a job is completed can be a
problem for the following reasons:
1. It may be difficult to line up the main (in the direction of furrows or borders)
and side slopes to exactly the same directions as before;
2. The plane of laser light may be at the same slopes as before, but the height
above the field surface has changed, requiring a corresponding change in
the elevation difference between the sensor and the scraper blade
VII. Computing Diagonal Slopes
Farmers sometimes make furrows at diagonal

angles to the main and side slopes of a field
This is typically done to change the slope of the
furrows without re-leveling the field surface
The application of coordinate rotation equations
is required to determine slopes that lie on a
diagonal between the known main and side
slopes
Let x be the direction of the main slope
If the main and side slopes of a field are Sx and
Sy along the x and y directions, respectively,
then the effective main slope for a rotation of
degrees would be:
S x cos + S y sin (1)
Eq. 1 gives the ground slope in the x direction, as shown in the figure below
The slope in the y direction would be:
S y cos + S x sin (2)
Thus, for an angle of zero ( = 0) the x and x axes coincide, as do the y and y
axes, and from Eqs. 1 and 2 the slopes are simply Sx and Sy
For any other angle the slopes are different because the coordinate system is
rotated

VIII. Surface Irrigation Hydraulics
Surface irrigation hydraulics can be fairly complex, but an understanding of the

hydraulics is essential for evaluations, system design, and system operation
Hydraulics include both open-channel surface flow, subsurface flow, and soil
water infiltration properties
The scope of this lecture is limited because a complete treatment of the
hydraulics can take weeks to complete
IX. Advance & Recession Curves
Surface irrigation evaluations often include the measurement of advance and

recession of water
The operation of surface irrigation systems should also take these into account
The figure below shows an example of advance and recession curves, typical
for free-draining furrows and borders

Three phases of a surface irrigation event are shown to the right of the figure:
1. Advance
2. Wetting (or Ponding)
3. Recession
The cutoff time is the time at which the inflow is discontinued

Recession begins when areas of the soil surface no longer have ponded water,
due to a combination of infiltration and runoff, or surface redistribution
The recession phase may immediately follow cutoff, especially if the field slope
is large
In other cases, there will be some delay between cutoff and beginning of
recession (for example, with level basins)
Recession can occur simultaneously at the head and tail end of a field in some
cases
The figure below shows a case that is more typical of a blocked-end border, in
which the recession phase lasts much longer
This is in contrast to a free-draining border, where surface runoff would cause
the water to recede from the ground surface much faster
Other curve shapes and configurations can be obtained in practice; the two
figures shown here are idealized examples
For example, the inflow rate could be varied (cutback) to reduce runoff
Or, there could be cracks in the soil or obstructions, causing discontinuities in
the advance curve
Or, the advance curve could become vertical, indicating that total infiltration
matches inflow (advance stops)
Notice that the intake opportunity time, as used in the Kostiakov equation, is
equal to the vertical difference between the advance and recession curves, at
any given distance
The shapes of the advance and recession curves affect application uniformity
If the recession curve is fairly flat, better uniformity will be achieved by having a
quick advance
On the other hand, if the advance is too quick, soil erosion will occur
The time of cutoff also affects uniformity insofar as the infiltration rate various
with opportunity time
The time of cutoff also affects the average applied depth of water, as it does in
pressurized irrigation methods

X. Calibrating the Kostiakov Equation from Advance Data
The Kostiakov equation was defined in an earlier lecture:
Z = ka + fo (1)
The Kostiakov equation parameters can be determined from surface irrigation

advance data, giving more representative results than those obtained from a
cylinder ring test
The following procedure shows how to do this through a simple volumetric
balance of water
An approximation for the advance curve is defined as:
x = p tr (2)

where x is the advance distance; t is the elapsed irrigation time; and p and r are
empirically fitted parameters
This simple function approximates the advance curve very well in most cases
It can be calibrated by logarithmic transformation and regression, or by a two-
point method
It is possible to write a simple volume balance equation for the advance phase
in which all inflow goes to soil infiltration and surface storage
Evaporation losses are neglected and the inflow rate is assumed constant
Here is the equation:
N
( ) f t
Qo t = y A o x + z kt a x + o x
1 + r
(3)
inflow surface
water infiltrated
water
where the left side of the equation is the inflow volume; Qo is the inflow rate; t is
the elapsed time since the introduction of water into the furrow; y is a surface
shape factor; Ao is the cross-sectional flow area at the furrow inlet; x is the
advance distance; and z is a subsurface shape factor for the first term in the
Kostiakov equation
Note that the intake opportunity time, , is equal to the elapsed time, t, because
the infiltration terms are defined for the furrow inlet (where the advance time is
zero)
The surface storage term, yAox, is also defined for the furrow inlet
The term y is usually between 0.7 and 0.8, and is often taken to be 0.77
The subsurface shape factor z is defined from geometrical considerations as:
a + r(1 a) + 1
z = (4)
(1 + a)(1 + r)
The cross-sectional area of flow at the furrow inlet can be described by

assuming uniform flow and applying the Manning equation as follows:
1
Qo = AR2 / 3 So (5)
n
where R is the hydraulic radius (A/Wp); n is the hydraulic roughness; and So is
the longitudinal furrow slope
Rearranging Eq. 5,

Qo2n2
1A o2 = A o2Ro4 / 3 = (6)
So
where 1 and 2 are fitted parameters according to the furrow cross-sectional

geometry
The introduction of the term with 1 and 2 in equation 6 is to generalize and

simplify the relationship between Ao and other measurable parameters
The values of 1 and 2 can be determined by first measuring the furrow width
at the base, at the midpoint, and at the top, and the depth
Once 1 and 2 are determined, Ao is calculated as:
1/ 2
Q2n2
Ao = o (7)
1So

where the value of the roughness, n, is assumed based on the size and
condition of the furrows; Qo is in m3/s; So is in m/m; and Ao is in m2
Typical values of n are in the range: 0.03 to 0.3.

The basic intake rate is determined independently from inflow-outflow
measurements
The constant inflow is measured, and the outflow is measured when the surface
runoff at the end of the furrow becomes constant
Then, fo is found by:
Qin Qout
fo = (8)
L
Flow rates are generally measured using portable flumes which are installed at
the furrow inlet and outlet before beginning the test
It is important to wait until the outflow becomes constant before applying Eq. 8
Taking Eq. 3 and writing it once for x = L, then again for x = L/2, the following
are obtained:
( ) f t
Qo tL = y A oL + z k tLa L + o L L
1+ r
(9)
and,
L
2
( )
L f t L
Qo tL / 2 = y A o + z k tLa / 2 + o L / 2
2 1+ r 2
(10)

The only unknowns in Eqs. 9 and 10 are k and a. Thus, there are two
equations and two unknowns
Rearranging Eqs. 9 and 10:
VL =
Qo t L
L
f t
1+ r
( )
y A o o L = z k tLa (11)
and,
VL / 2 =
2Qo tL / 2
L
f t
(
y A o o L / 2 = z k tLa / 2
1+ r
) (12)
where the terms VL and VL/2 are calculated based on the known values between
the two equals signs
The unknowns in Eqs. 11 & 12, a and k, are at the far right side, after the
second equals sign
Combining Eqs. 11 & 12, the Kostiakov exponent a can be determined:
log VL log VL / 2
a= (13)
logtL logtL / 2
Then, z can be calculated from Eq. 4, and k can be found as follows:
VL
k= (14)
z tLa
Dont show more than 2 or 3 significant digits in your calculation results, but
dont round intermediate calculated values
XI. Sample Calibration of the Kostiakov Equation
W.R. Walker and G.V. Skogerboe (1986). Surface Irrigation Theory and Practice. Prentice-Hall.

Lecture 24
Surface Irrigation Operation & Evaluation
I. Free-Draining Furrows & Borders
The operation (management) of surface irrigation systems can involve many

considerations, not the least of which is the determination of the set time
The set time for surface irrigation can be called the time of cutoff
For free-draining furrows & borders (runoff allowed), the time of cutoff can be
determined from the advance time and the required intake opportunity time
Knowing the soil water deficit, Z can be determined

And, having calibration values for the Kostiakov equation, you can solve for the
required intake opportunity time, :
Z = ka + f o (1)
where Z is the cumulative infiltration (m); is the intake opportunity time (min); k
is an empirical coefficient; a is an empirical exponent; and fo is the basic intake
rate (m/min), as previously defined
For a complete irrigation, the least-watered area of the field must have the
required intake opportunity time
The least-water area of a surface-irrigated field is usually the tail end
Thus, the time of cutoff, tco, is equal to the time of advance to the tail end, plus the
required intake opportunity time
The time of advance can be determined from a calibrated advance equation:
L = p tra,L (2)
where L is the furrow or border length (m); ta,L is the time of advance to the end of
the field (min); and p and r are empirically fitted parameters
Knowing L, p and r, you can solve Eq. 2 for ta,L

Then, tco = ta,L + req
This assumes that the recession phase is of negligible duration

The best application efficiency for a complete irrigation in these cases will be
achieved when the combination of deep percolation plus runoff losses is
minimized
Note also that a high flow rate will tend to decrease advance time and increase
runoff, while a low flow rate will tend to increase advance time and increase deep
percolation

II. Level Basins
It is necessary to consider the time of recession when calculating the required

time of cutoff in level basin irrigation
This differs from furrow and border irrigation in which the time of recession is
often negligible
For basins it is incorrect to simply sum advance time and required intake
opportunity time to determine the time of cutoff
Instead, the time of cutoff can be determined based on volumes of water, and not
directly in terms of irrigation time
Following are two methods for calculating the time of cutoff in level basins
The input data for the examples are:
Area of the basin: 5,420 m2

Required application: 113 mm
Inflow rate: 78 lps
Advance parameters: p = 1.45 %/minr, and r=0.83
Infiltration parameters: a = 0.565; k=0.0029 m/mina; fo=0 m/min
where,
r
Ap = p ta (3)
where Ap is the percentage of the total basin area (%); ta is the advance time
(min); p is an empirical coefficient; and r is an empirical exponent
Note that Eq. 3 is calibrated in terms of surface area, not advance distance
III. First Method for Level Basins
Assume a subsurface shape factor, z, to approximate the average infiltrated

depth at the end of the advance phase
Assume that z = 0.65
(a) time of advance to cover 100% of the basin area
1/0.83
100
t a100% = = 164 min (4)
1.45
(b) infiltrated depth at the basin inlet when the advance finishes
0.565
Zo = 0.0029(164 min ) = 0.052 m (5)
(c) total infiltrated volume when the advance finishes

V inf = (0.65)(0.052 m)(5,420 m2) = 183 m3 (6)
(d) volume of water applied at the end of the advance phase
(78 lps)(164 min)(60 s/min)

V appl = 3
= 768 m3 (7)
(1,000 liter/m )
(e) volume ponded on the surface at the end of the advance phase
V surf = 768 - 183 = 585 m3 (8)
(f) volume needed to satisfy the required application
(113 mm)(5,420 m2)

V req = = 612 m3 (9)
1,000 mm/m
(g) required time according to the difference between Vreq y Vsurf
(612 - 585 m3)(1,000 liter/m3 )

t = = 6 min (10)
(60 s/min)(78 lps)
(h) time of cutoff
t c = 164 + 6 min = 170 min (11)
The value of tc is calculated assuming that the infiltrated volume of water during
the advance phase is negligible, thus assuring that the irrigation is "complete" (all
parts of the basin receive the required application, or more)
IV. Second Method for Level Basins
(a) Calculate the time of advance for each of 20 sub-areas. The time of advance
is determined from the values of p and r.
Number Percentage Time of Advance (min)

0 0 0
1 5 4
2 10 10
3 15 17
4 20 24
5 25 31
6 30 38
7 35 46

Number Percentage Time of Advance (min)
8 40 54
9 45 63
10 50 71
11 55 80
12 60 89
13 65 98
14 70 107
15 75 116
16 80 125
17 85 135
18 90 145
19 95 154
20 100 164
(b) Calculate the intake opportunity time and infiltrated depth for each sub-area.
The intake opportunity time at the end of the advance phase is equal to the time
of advance at 100% of the area minus the time of advance to each sub-area.
The infiltrated depth is calculated based on the respective opportunity times and
the values of a, k, and fo.
Number Intake Opportunity Depth Applied

Time (min) (m)
0 164-0=164 0.0517
1 164-4=160 0.0510
2 164-10=154 0.0499
3 164-17=147 0.0486
4 164-24=140 0.0473
5 164-31=133 0.0460
6 164-38=126 0.0446
7 164-46=118 0.0430
8 164-54=110 0.0413
9 164-63=101 0.0393
10 164-71=93 0.0375
11 164-80=84 0.0354
12 164-89=75 0.0333
13 164-98=66 0.0309
14 164-107=57 0.0285
15 164-116=48 0.0258
16 164-125=39 0.0230
17 164-135=29 0.0194
18 164-145=19 0.0153
19 164-154=10 0.0107
20 164-164=0 0.0000

(c) Calculate the average application depths for each sub-area
Number Average Application Totals

Depth (m)
1 (0.0517+0.0510)=0.0514 0.0514
2 (0.0510+0.0499)=0.0505 0.1019
3 (0.0499+0.0486)=0.0493 0.1512
4 (0.0486+0.0473)=0.0480 0.1992
5 (0.0473+0.0460)=0.0467 0.2459
6 (0.0460+0.0446)=0.0453 0.2912
7 (0.0446+0.0430)=0.0438 0.3350
8 (0.0430+0.0413)=0.0422 0.3772
9 (0.0413+0.0393)=0.0403 0.4175
10 (0.0393+0.0375)=0.0384 0.4559
11 (0.0375+0.0354)=0.0365 0.4924
12 (0.0354+0.0333)=0.0344 0.5268
13 (0.0333+0.0309)=0.0321 0.5589
14 (0.0309+0.0285)=0.0297 0.5886
15 (0.0285+0.0258)=0.0272 0.6158
16 (0.0258+0.0230)=0.0244 0.6402
17 (0.0230+0.0194)=0.0212 0.6614
18 (0.0194+0.0153)=0.0174 0.6788
19 (0.0153+0.0107)=0.0130 0.6918
20 (0.0107+0.0000)=0.0054 0.6972
(d) summation of average application depths multiplied by the individual sub-

areas, thus giving the infiltrated volume during the advance phase
2 3
V inf = (0.6972 m)(0.05)(5420 m ) = 189 m (12)
(e) volume of water applied during the advance phase
(78 lps)(164 min)(60 s/min)

V applied = 3
= 768 m3 (13)
(1,000 liter/m )
(f) volume of water ponded on the surface at the end of the advance phase
3
V surf = 768 - 189 = 579 m (14)
(g) required infiltrated volume to satisfy the demand
(113 mm)(5420 m2)

V req = = 612 m3 (15)
1,000 mm/m
(h) required irrigation time according to the difference between Vreq y Vsurf

(612 - 579 m3)(1,000 liter/m3 )
t = = 7 min (16)
(60 s / min)(78 lps)
(i) required time of cutoff
t c = 164 + 7 min = 171 min (17)
In the example, the respective cutoff times for methods 1 and 2 are nearly equal
In the first method a value of z = 0.65 was assumed, and this value can be
calculated for the second method as follows:
The average application was 0.6972 m/20 = 0.0349 m, and,
average depth 0.0349m

z = = 0.68 (18)
depth at inlet 0.0514m
Therefore, the value of 0.65 used for the first method was almost correct, and this
is why the results from the second method were very close to those of the first
Finally, suppose that instead of calculating the time of cutoff as shown in these
examples, the time of cutoff were computed as for furrows or borders
In this case, the time of cutoff would have been:
1/0.565
0.113m
req = = 654 min (19)
0.0029
and,
t c = 164 + 654 min = 818 min (20)
This is much greater than the required time of about 171 minutes
The time of cutoff could also be determined by dividing the required volume of
water by the inflow rate:
612 m3
tc = = 131 min (21)
(60 s / min)(0.078 m3 / s)
A time of cutoff of 131 minutes gives the correct volume, but does not take into
account the fact that there will be some deep percolation near the inlet location,
and some deficit at the far end of the basin

V. Practical Considerations
Most irrigators would not choose a time of cutoff of 818 minutes for the previous
example of a level basin; they would choose a time closer to 171 minutes, even if
they had not done any calculations
The runoff from free-draining borders and basins could be reused in lower areas,
or pumped back onto the same field; in these cases, it may be preferable to use
the maximum nonerosive stream size so that the time of advance is minimized
A good irrigator may be able to come very close to an optimum balance between
deep percolation and runoff losses, but most focus exclusively on runoff because
that is what you can see, and is often how others judge the irrigators ability
VI. Introduction to Surface Irrigation Evaluation
Irrigation system evaluation is done to determine the relative performance of the

system, with the ultimate objective to identify various possible improvements
that would improve performance
Performance can be defined in subjective terms in the most practical
applications, but often involves quantitative indicators such as efficiency
parameters and water application uniformity
Irrigation system evaluation is inherently relative because comparisons of
performance indicators with other irrigation systems are required to determine
whether water management in the system is adequate, or not
In some cases, a low level of performance is acceptable, and in others the
system should be very efficient, distribute water with a high degree of uniformity
All systems can be improved upon, but the level of improvement is contingent
upon the crop value, water cost, and other factors
An irrigation system that does not appear to be beautiful may in fact be very
appropriate and may function very well
VII. Three Components of Evaluation
A thorough irrigation system evaluation will involve three components: (1) field
observations, (2) field measurements and data analysis, and (3) an interview
with the farmer or irrigator
The third component can be a very important part of an evaluation because it
can provide indications as to why the system is maintained and operated the
way it is, and can uncover additional problems that may not have been
discovered during the field observations and measurements
The interviewer should ask the farmer what kinds of irrigation problems are
normally experienced, and what are his or her perceptions as to how the
performance of the irrigation system might be improved

VIII. Visual Field Inspection
There are various ways to evaluate irrigation systems

However, one of the most important is frequent visual inspection of how the
crops are developing
Some methods of soil water monitoring are described later in this book. Simple
field observations are essential to any irrigation system evaluation, and they
should precede measurements
However, an evaluator may look at a field or farm, yet not see the problems
in the irrigation system
Field observations can be made during an irrigation or between irrigations, and
many interesting things can often be found
The following are examples of what to look for when visiting an irrigated area:
Is the soil very dry or very wet (use soil augers or a shovel)? Is the
soil dry enough that an irrigation should begin, or so wet that irrigation
in progress should stop?
Are there any signs of soil erosion, especially at the head end and tail
end of the field? Are the flow rates too high or are the field slopes too
steep?
Are the headworks (ditches, structures, pipes, etc.) well maintained?
Are the furrow or basin inlets eroded? Is gated pipe discharging
directly into the furrow without any energy dissipation?
Are there low spots in the field (ponded water, wet and perhaps
weedy areas)? Does the field need to be graded or leveled?
Are there sandy areas in the field that tend to dry much quicker than
the rest of the field?
Are there heavy clay areas that dry much slower?
For borders and basins, are the dikes in good condition?
For furrows, are the furrows deep enough and without obstructions
(clods, straw, vines, etc.)?
Are there deep cracks in the furrows due to soil shrinkage?
For furrows, is the soil crusted on the beds (did the beds become
inundated during the irrigation)?
Does it appear that water jumped across furrows during the
irrigation?
For sprinklers, is the water being blown off the field by strong winds?
Are the sprinklers rotating evenly, and are there any visible leaks in
the pipes?
For sprinklers, is the water droplet size obviously very small (high
pressure, high evaporation, low uniformity) or very large (low
pressure, soil surface sealing, low uniformity)?
Are salts visibly accumulating on the soil surface?
Are there any barren areas that dont even support weed growth
(alkaline soils, sodic soils, lack of water, etc.)?
Does the crop growth appear to be uniform across the field?

Is there evidence of ponded water on the field surface (application
rate is too high)?
Does surface runoff drain adequately, or are the outlets clogged or
blocked?
IX. Field Measurements
Field measurements are also an important part of an evaluation, but care must
be taken to present the results in a comprehensible way such that the results
can be applied toward irrigation system improvements
General measurements may include soil infiltration rate using cylinder ring
infiltrometers or other devices, soil water, and water quality analysis
Merriam and Keller (1978) and Walker and Skogerboe (1986) describe detailed
technical procedures for performing irrigation system evaluations
Surface irrigation management parameters include inflow rate, irrigation

duration, field length, field topography, soil infiltration rate
These are the parameters that can often be adjusted to improve the
performance of an irrigation system
The inflow rate is often the easiest thing to change, and can result in a large
change in performance
The inflow rate affects the advance rate across the field, and although higher
rates tend to provide better application uniformity, they are also associated with
higher runoff at the tail end of the field
High flow rates can also cause soil erosion
The duration of an irrigation is also a simple parameter to change, and can
greatly affect irrigation system performance
In practice, durations are often longer than required, resulting in excessive
runoff and deep percolation losses
Field length can be modified, but the possibilities are usually very limited. For
example, the field length can be divided by two when the advance rate is too
slow, then later in the season it may be feasible to irrigate over the entire length
Field topography can be modified by land grading or leveling, which can
significantly affect the uniformity, labor requirements, weed control, and time to
dry between irrigations
Infiltration rates can be affected by mechanical or chemical means, or by using
surge flow
Farmers will sometimes run furrows with a tractor to crush clods and reduce
the infiltration rate, thereby allowing faster water advance and better uniformity
Or, it may be necessary to chisel the soil to provide increased infiltration and
aeration

X. Simple Surface Irrigation Evaluation
A program can be written to perform calculations for surface irrigation

evaluations based on basic volume balance equations and relationships
Some programmable calculators can use internal numerical integration routines
to calculate volumes of infiltrated water
Also, many calculators have solver routines that can be used to solve the
Kostiakov equation for intake opportunity time,
The equations are the following:
Approximate the advance of water over the field (x):
x = p tra (1)
where x is the advance distance (m); ta is the advance time (min); p is an

empirical coefficient; and r is an empirical exponent
Approximate cumulative infiltration (Z):
Z = ka + fo (2)
where Z is the cumulative infiltrated depth (m2); is the intake opportunity time
(min); k is an empirical coefficient; a is an empirical exponent; and fo is the basic
intake rate (m2/min)
Note that for furrows, Eq. 2 can be calibrated for Z in m2

For borders and basins, it is preferable to calibrate the equation in m

Application efficiency (Ea):
(1) Complete irrigation:
Zreq L
Ea = 100 (3)
Q tc
(2) Irrigation with deficit:
Zreq x d + Vzd
Ea = 100 (4)
Q tc
where, Ea is the application efficiency (%); Zreq is the required application (m2); L
is the length of the furrow or border (m); Q is the discharge per furrow or per
unit width (m3/min); tc is the time of cutoff (min); xd is the distance to the
beginning of the deficit (m); and Vzd is the volume infiltrated beyond xd (m3)
Deep percolation ratio (DPR):
(1) Complete irrigation:
Vz Zreq L
DPR = 100 (5)
Q tc
(2) Irrigation with deficit:
Vz Vzd Zreqx d
DPR = 100 (6)
Q tc

where DPR is the deep percolation ratio (%); and Vz is the total infiltrated
volume of water (m3)
Tail water ratio (TWR):
TWR = 100 Ea DPR (7)
where TWR is the tail water ratio (%)
Tail water can also be referred to as runoff

Note that calculating TWR as shown in Eq. 7 guarantees volume balance
It also assumes that the Ea and DPR calculations are correct
Water requirement efficiency (WRE):
Zreqx d + Vzd
WRE = 100 (8)
Z L
req
where WRE is the water requirement efficiency (%)
The values Vz and Vzd can be calculated by numerical integration using the
equations for advance and infiltration
The time of cutoff is the number of minutes since the beginning of the irrigation
until the inflow is discontinued at the head of the field
The value of WRE will be equal to 100% for a complete irrigation, and will be
less than 100% when the irrigation is incomplete
All units are in meters and minutes
A complete irrigation is one in which the required application is satisfied over

the entire length of the field
Since the advance cannot be instantaneous, there will always be some deep
percolation for complete irrigation
Also, a complete irrigation will always have some runoff since the inflow is
constant and the end of the field is not blocked
In an incomplete irrigation, the water may advance to the end of the field, but
the intake opportunity time at the end is not enough to satisfy the required
application
Or, in an incomplete irrigation it could be that the water never advances to the
end of the field
The value of TWR can be verified using the runoff hydrograph at the end of the
field
The hydrograph can be integrated to determine the volume of runoff water,
which can be divided by the product of inflow and time of cutoff to produce the
tail water ration (multiply by 100 to obtain a value in percent)

The two values of TWR should be approximately the same
It is assumed that the recession phase is nearly instantaneous, and that the
inflow rate, Q, is constant
Also, it is assumed that the soil is uniform with the same infiltration
characteristics everywhere, and that there are no obstructions (e.g. straw or
other organic matter) or large cracks in the soil
The Kostiakov equation can be calibrated from cylinder ring infiltrometer tests,
or from advance tests, as described previously
The p and r parameters for the advance function can be determined from
advance tests
The required input data for the above evaluation procedure are:
a: empirical exponent for the Kostiakov equation

k: empirical coefficient for the Kostiakov equation
fo: basic intake rate for the Kostiakov equation
p: empirical coefficient for the advance equation
r: empirical exponent for the advance equation
L: length of the furrow or border (m)
Zreq: required application (m2)
Tc: time of cutoff (min)
Q: discharge at the head of the field (m3/min)
Get a copy of Farm Irrigation System Evaluation: A Guide for Management (J.L. Merriam & J.
Keller, 1978)
Get the book Surface Irrigation Theory & Practice (W.R. Walker & G.V. Skogerboe, 1986)
Check out the ASAE standards

Lecture 25
Sprinkle & Trickle Irrigation Operation & Evaluation
I. Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages of Sprinklers
1. effective use of small, continuous streams of water

2. greater application uniformity on non-homogeneous
soils (provided there is no appreciable surface
runoff)
3. ability to adequately irrigate steep or undulating topographies w/o erosion
4. good for light and frequent irrigation where surface irrigation may be used
later in the growing season
5. labor is only needed for a short time each day (unless there are many fields)
6. labor can be relatively unskilled (pipe moving)
7. automation is readily available for many sprinkler systems
8. can be effective for weather (micro-climate) modification
Disadvantages of Sprinklers
1. initial cost can be high (compared to surface irrigation systems) at $500 to

$3500 per ha
2. operating cost (energy) can be high compared to non-pressurized systems,
unless sufficient head is available from a gravity-fed supply
3. water quality can be a problem with overhead sprinklers if water is saline,
and in terms of clogging and nozzle wear. Also, some types of water are
corrosive to sprinkler pipes and other hardware
4. some fruit crops cannot tolerate wet conditions during maturation (unless
fungicides, etc., are used)
5. fluctuating flow rates at the water source can be very problematic
6. irregular field shapes can be difficult to accommodate
7. very windy and very dry conditions can cause high losses
8. low intake rate soils (< 3 mm/hr) cannot be irrigated by sprinkler w/o runoff
Advantages of Trickle Systems
1. Significant water, fertilizer, and operating cost (labor and

power) savings are possible
2. Ease of field operations due to reduced weed problems and non-wetted soil
surface (e.g. strawberries)
3. Ability to apply saline water because of frequent (daily) irrigation; thus, soil
water salinity is nearly the same as the irrigation water salinity
4. Ability to operate on steep slopes and rough terrain

5. The ratio of crop yield to evapotranspiration can be higher under trickle
irrigation because of reduced soil surface evaporation, continuously high soil
water (near FC), and lower root zone salinity due to frequent application
6. Relatively easy to automate the system
7. Can be less labor intensive than some other irrigation systems
Disadvantages of Trickle Systems
1. Systems are expensive to purchase and install ($1,000 to $6,000 per ha)
2. Susceptibility to clogging of emitters, which usually have very small
openings so, it is important to spend time and money on maintaining the
system, applying chemicals, and keeping filters clean
3. Possibly low distribution uniformity due to low operating pressures and
possibly due to steep slopes, especially along laterals
4. Where laterals are on steep slopes, the water will drain out the downhill end
at every startup and shut-down.
5. Soils with very low intake rates will exhibit ponding and runoff
6. Salt tends to accumulate at the soil surface and around the wetted area --
when it rains, these accumulated salts may be driven into the root zone
7. These systems tend to require more capable and diligent management
because of the susceptibility to clogging, and because the systems are
usually designed to operate continuously during peak ET periods (cant
afford to let the system shut down during these periods). These systems do
not usually take full advantage of the soil storage (buffer) capacity.
II. Sprinkle Irrigation
Most crops can be successfully irrigated by some

type of sprinkler system
However, decisions relative to the desirability of
installing a sprinkler system and the type of system
to be installed should only be made by those with
considerable knowledge of the costs, options,
probable benefits, soil, crop, and topographic
conditions
The availability of electrical energy or fossil fuel (e.g.
gasoline and diesel) at reasonable prices and the
dependability of the energy source are important
considerations
Sprinkle irrigation on fine-textured soils of low
permeability may result in reduced aeration of the
surface soil and consequently some reduction in
crop yields
Localized surface ponding and runoff may also be a problem, especially with
high application rates
Sprinkle irrigation installations may be of the following types:

1. Stationary or solid-set for orchards and perennial crops
2. Semi-portable or hand-moved with fixed main lines and movable laterals
3. Portable for crop germination or for irrigation supplemental to rainfall
4. Low pressure under-tree sprinklers in orchards
5. High pressure for field crops or over-tree, such as big gun sprinklers
6. Side-roll and self-propelled (traveler sprinklers)
7. Center pivot and linear move
Center pivots have become very

popular in some areas over the
past two decades, and can be
found in many countries around
the world
The state of Nebraska in the
USA has more than 40,000
center pivots of various sizes in
many dense clusters, and
approximately half of all the
sprinkler-irrigated land in the
USA is with center pivots
One of the potential difficulties in
using center pivots is that the
application rate can be very high at the outer area of the irrigated circle, which
may cause surface ponding and or runoff
Sprinkler irrigation can be restricted to crops that can withstand complete foliar
wetting
Some crops such as tomatoes cannot tolerate wetting when the fruit matures
because it would cause molding and other damage
However, in some cases fungicides and other chemicals are injected into the
irrigation water to prevent quality degradation in the fruit
In orchards it is often necessary to use under tree sprinklers to avoid wetting
the leaves and fruit, but in crops such as bananas a big gun sprinkler can be
used for above canopy supplemental irrigation
Sprinkler (or drip) irrigation is frequently desirable on steep, rocky, or uneven

land areas or where the soils are shallow or too pervious for efficient use of
other forms of irrigation
Pressurized irrigation may not be desirable where electrical energy or an
alternative energy source may be undependable or expensive
Pressurized irrigation can and should be metered and the irrigation amounts
adjusted in accordance with the crop irrigation requirements
The output of water at various parts of the system can be measured by catching
the water and measuring the amounts

Uniformity should be periodically measured and adjustments made whenever
necessary
III. Micro-Irrigation: Drip or Trickle
Frequent irrigation with slow drip

rates can reduce capital costs due
to the reduction of main and lateral
line sizes when compared with
those required for sprinkler or
surface irrigation
The frequent irrigations reduce
fluctuations between wet and dry
conditions and provide good soil
aeration
Salts in the soil water are kept more
diluted making possible the use of more saline waters than with other irrigation
methods
Crops frequently mature earlier and produce higher yields
In many cases the improvements in yield, quality, and uniformity of product
have resulted in significantly increased profitability
Water is applied to the place where the active plant roots are to be found
There are many types of emitters and misters that are capable of supplying
water directly to the plant root area
The soil water may be maintained near field capacity at all times
The system may be located on or under the soil surface, or elevated above
ground along rows of trees or vines
Operating pressures are usually low (one half to one atmosphere or 7 to 15 psi)
The installation may be nonportable, semi-portable or portable
Water can typically be applied more frequently and efficiently than with other
methods, and evapotranspiration is not reduced by reducing the soil water
below field capacity
In some cases surface evaporation is reduced but transpiration may be
somewhat increased due to maintenance of low water tension in the root zone
Therefore, the influence on evapotranspiration can be considered to be
negligible
Deep percolation and surface runoff can be reduced
to minimum values
The low irrigation rate also makes the method
suitable for low-infiltration soils
Water can be saved by not wetting the area
between rows or between plants.

Treatment of the water is essential to minimize clogging of the emission devices
Labor costs for irrigating can be reduced since water applied by drip systems
can be regulated by labor-saving automatic timing devices
Field operations are easier because much of the soil surface remains dry
Weed growth is reduced, and uninterrupted orchard operations are possible
When crops are grown on beds the furrows in which farm workers walk remain
relatively dry
Fertilizers can be injected into the irrigation
water to avoid the labor for ground application
Greater control over fertilizer placement and
timing may lead to improved fertilizer
efficiencies
The possibility of groundwater contamination
due to deep percolation can be significantly
reduced
Fertilizers are usually applied in dissolved form through the irrigation water
Herbicides and soil sterilants can also be applied with the irrigation water
Crop yields are often higher and of better quality
Sometimes the timing of harvest can be improved
Localized irrigation is expensive, but in many cases increased quantity and
quality of yields together with improved timing of harvest has justified the
expense
The large number of emitters required, problems with clogging of outlets,

maintenance of the system, and pressure variations due to topography require
a lot of experience and careful operation for optimal results
Unless fertilizers are applied in the irrigation water, the system may leach
fertility from the root zone of the crop
If salinity is a problem, salts may accumulate in the interface between the
irrigated and non-irrigated zones in the soil
These salts, if not washed away, may damage the next season's crops
IV. LEPA
Low energy precision application (LEPA) is a concept developed in the mid to

late 1970s in the state of Texas to conserve water and energy in pressurized
irrigation systems
The principal objective of the technology was to make effective use of all
available water resources, including the use of rainfall and minimization of
evaporation losses, and by applying irrigation water near the soil surface

Such applications of irrigation water led to sprinkler system designs
emphasizing lower nozzle positions and lower operating pressures, thereby
helping prevent drift and evaporative losses and decreasing pumping costs
For example, many center pivot systems with above-lateral sprinklers have
been refitted to position sprinkler heads under the lateral, often with lower
pressure nozzle designs
The commercialization of the LEPA technology has led to many modifications
and extensions to the original concept
V. Sprinkle & Trickle Irrigation Evaluation
Sprinkler irrigation evaluations usually involve catch-can measurements for

analysis of application uniformity, pressure measurements in pipes or at
sprinklers at different locations, and other miscellaneous data and observations
Trickle irrigation system evaluations typically include sample discharge
measurements from emitters to estimate application uniformity
Both involve pressure measurements in the pipes and or at the
sprinklers/emitters
As with surface irrigation evaluations, a primary objective is to get some
measure of efficiency and or uniformity, quantifying the water management in
some way
Merriam & Keller (1978) give some detailed procedures and equations for
evaluating all kinds of irrigation systems

VI. Basic Procedure for Sprinkler Evaluation
1. Write notes for the test and include the names of the evaluators, the date, the
location, the sprinkler type and any available technical information about the
sprinkler, plus the wind direction and speed. Include any relevant comments
about the site conditions, and if possible, take photographs of the location.
2. Include a plan view sketch of the layout, showing the sprinkler location and the
can locations, and showing the cardinal directions.
3. Record the catch-can spacing and the number of cans to each side of the
sprinkler. The spacing is usually from 1 to 2 m.
4. Measure and record the riser height, hr, which is the height of the sprinkler
above the ground.
5. Turn on the pump (or open a valve) and either cover other sprinklers or prevent
them from rotating into the test area. In some cases the evaluation is for a
single sprinkler, and for others it is for a line of overlapping sprinklers. The
evaluation could also be for multiple lines (laterals) operating simultaneously.
6. Measure the sprinkler flow rate, possibly using a section of inner tube, a bucket
and a stopwatch. This can be done twice: once at the start of the test, and
again at the end of the test.
7. Measure and record the pressure at the sprinkler nozzle with a pitot tube
gauge, or with another type of gauge on the riser pipe.
8. Adjust the valve so the pressure is within the manufacturers recommended
range, or whatever pressure is desired. However, the idea is usually to do the
evaluation for representative field conditions, whatever they might be.

9. In an evaluation of a sprinkler-nozzle combination, the flow rate could be
measured repeatedly for different values of pressure, and an orifice rating
equation could be developed (calibrated).
10. Begin the test by allowing the sprinkler to operate normally over the test area,
recording the exact starting time so that the total duration can be determined.
11. You can estimate the volume of water caught during the test by summing the
individual values of depth x area, where area is the spacing of the cans,
squared (assuming a square sprinkler spacing). You can compare this to the
volume of water applied by multiplying q times the duration, in seconds. From
these, estimate the percent losses due to evaporation and wind drift.
12. Calculate the mean catch value (in mm) and the standard deviation. Rank the
catches from lowest to highest. Calculate the DU or CU.
13. If the evaluation was for a single sprinkler or a single line of sprinklers, you can
recalculate the CU for different sprinkler spacings (overlaps), thereby analyzing
the effect of sprinkler spacing on application uniformity.
14. To overlap the data, you can use Catch-3D (by R.G. Allen), a spreadsheet, or
another program.
15. Write observations about the sprinkler system in general: is the hardware in
good condition?; are there leaks in the pipes or fittings? do you notice the
effects of surface runoff? is the crop healthy and uniform? and others.
VII. Basic Procedure for Trickle System Evaluation
1. This is much the same as for sprinklers, except that a determination of emission
uniformity (EU) is done instead of a catch-can test.
2. Emitter performance can be evaluated separately by determining the
manufacturers coefficient of variation of flow rate (for a constant pressure).
3. Also, with drip irrigation, the percent wetted area can be measured to determine
the adequacy of the system in meeting crop water requirements.
4. Trickle systems always have filters, so a part of the evaluation is to check the
condition and adequacy of the filters and screens. For example, the filters may
be dirty and in need of maintenance, or there may be leaks. Alternatively, the
filters may be clean and in good condition, but the capacity is insufficient,
causing higher than normal pressure loss.
5. Another evaluation aspect is the chemical storage and injection equipment: are
they in good condition?; are there leaks? are chemicals stored safely and
according to state or local regulations?
VIII. Uniformity Calculations
The distribution uniformity, DU is:
avg depth of low quarter

DU = 100
avg depth (1)

The average of the low quarter is obtained by measuring application from a
catch-can test, mathematically overlapping the data (if necessary), ranking the
values by magnitude, and taking the average of the values from the low of all
values
For example, if there are 60 values, the low quarter would consist of the 15
values with the lowest catches
The Christiansen coefficient of uniformity, CU is:

n
j=1 (
abs z j m )
CU = 100 1.0

n
z
j=1 j

(2)
where z are the individual catch-can values (volumes); n is the number of

observations; and m is the average of all catch volumes
The CU will usually be higher than the DU because it corresponds roughly to

the average of the low of all values
When the CU is about 70% or higher, the catch data are usually approximated
by a normal distribution
In most cases, the CU for a sprinkler system should be at least 70%, otherwise
it is not considered to be performing well
The equation for CU for center pivots is (ASAE/ANSI S436):

n
n ( dr )
i=1 i i
r d i=1 i i

n
r
CU = 100 1.0 i=1 i (3)

i=1( dri i )
n

where CU is the coefficient of uniformity; di is the depth from an individual

container; ri is the radial distance from the pivot point; and n is the number of
containers
Eq. 3 is different than Eq. 2 because different sprinklers along a center pivot
lateral cover different areas of the field, and the catch-can data must be
weighted appropriately

ASAE Standards. (1997). American Soc. of Agric. Engineers, St. Joseph, Michigan.
Farm Irrigation System Evaluation: A Guide for Management. (1978). J.L. Merriam & J. Keller,
BIE Dept., USU, Logan, Utah.

Lecture 26
Hydraulic Protection of Pipelines
I. Introduction
Transient, or unsteady, flow in pipelines occurs when hydraulic conditions

change with time
Depending on the magnitude of pressure fluctuations, unsteady flow can be
classified as either surges or water hammer
The analysis of surges in pipelines is relatively simple because it can be
assumed that the pipe is inflexible and that the water is incompressible
Surges can occur due to the operation of pumps and valves, and intermittent
movement of air within the line
With water hammer, acoustic waves travel up and down the pipeline at high
speeds, with extreme pressure fluctuations occurring within thousandths of a
second after a valve closure
In this case, the elastic properties of the pipe material and the compressibility of
water must be considered
The phenomenon of water hammer can cause pipes to burst or collapse, and
can destroy valves and other hardware in the piping system
Water hammer can be demonstrated in hydraulic laboratories, and can be
simulated with mathematical models
Other things being equal, longer pipelines are in greater danger of water
hammer, and have higher minimum times for closing and opening valves
II. Valves for Hydraulic Protection
(1) Vacuum Relief - Air Release Valves
These valves, or vents, serve the double purpose of removing entrapped air
from the line upon filling, and introducing air upon the evacuation of water
(dewatering) when an upstream valve is closed or a pump is turned off.
It is recommendable to remove air from the line during filling because air can
accumulate at high points and bends, acting as a full or partial blockage of the
water flow
Trapped air can completely block the flow,
even while a pump is operating
An air release valve should close, or seal, at
a pressure of only 2 or 3 psi
Pockets of air can suddenly dislodge and
move downstream, causing pressure and discharge surges due to the relatively
high compressibility of air
Air can enter a pipeline in these ways:

1. Startup of a deep well pump. The pump impellers can push
a column of air up into the pipeline before water arrives at
the ground surface.
2. Cascading water effects in a deep well (usually due to over
pumping), which causes continuous entrainment of air into
the pumped water
3. The filling and emptying, in general, of a pipeline
4. Open pipelines have control/vent structures at various
locations; air can be entrained into the water at these
structures
5. Low pressure in the line. In some cases, the ground water
contains large quantities
of dissolved air. If the
pipeline pressure is less
than the pressure in the
aquifer, air can come out
of solution and form
bubbles.
6. Air can also enter the
pipeline through any
pump, chemical injector, air vent, or other device or
structure
It may be necessary to allow air to enter the pipeline under the following
conditions:
1. when stopping a pump

2. when a valve is closed
3. when water drains from a high point in the pipeline
Some valve designs are only for vacuum relief, not for air release
If air does not enter the pipeline to replace the exiting water, the pipe can
collapse (due to internal pressures below atmosphere pressure), or the
temporarily low pressures can cause water to reverse direction and slam into a
valve or pump, causing surges or water hammer
These kinds of problems occur in many pipelines, including pressurized
irrigation systems
Locations at which it is recommended to install combination vacuum relief - air
release valves:
1. upstream & downstream of in-line valves

2. at high points in the pipeline
3. just downstream of any elbow of 90 or
more
4. within 30 m of the end(s) of the pipeline
5. every 500 m along the pipeline

The size of the valve is governed by the ability to introduce air into the pipeline
during the evacuation of water (air can usually escape much faster than it can
enter the pipeline). The diameter of these valves should be 2 inches for 6-inch
or smaller pipes, 3 inches for 6- to 10-inch pipes, and 4 inches for larger pipes.
These valves should not be installed in a pipeline between two pumps, because
the downstream pump might cause air to continuously enter the valve during
operation.
The vacuum relief - air release valves only open when the system is below
normal operating pressure. However, many pipelines are under continuous
pressure, and only shut down when there is a problem (broken pipe, pump
failure, etc.).
(2) Continuous-Acting Air Vents
These vents can remove air from the

pipeline while the line is at operating
pressure
A float is located in a chamber near
the top of the valve, allowing air to
exit through a small opening
whenever air accumulates in the
chamber
The accumulation of air in the
chamber causes the float to drop
The recommended size for these vents depends on the flow rate in the pipeline,
and on the amount of air in the water
The knob at the top of the continuous-acting air vent above is an operational
indicator, and not meant for manual operation of the valve
Water in pipes typically contain about 2% air by volume

Continuous-acting air vents should be installed in the following locations:
1. Downstream of any point in which air can continuously

enter the pipeline during normal operation.
2. At the downstream end(s) of the pipeline. In these
locations, the vent diameter should not be greater than
0.01D, where D is the inside pipe diameter (this is to avoid
sudden air releases, which can cause surges or water
hammer).
3. Every 500 m along horizontal (non-sloping) pipelines.
Horizontal pipelines are notorious for retaining trapped air
that would otherwise tend to float to high spots.
4. Just downstream of any high spot in the pipeline.

These vents should be installed as near to vertical as possible
If they are significantly tilted off-vertical, they may not function properly
(3) Open Stand-Pipes
Stand pipes are vertical pipes connected to a buried pipeline, and open to the
atmosphere
These serve all of the purposes mentioned above, and also serve to limit
pressure in the line (they will overflow when the pressure head in the pipeline
exceeds the height of the stand pipe)
Stand pipes should have at least 0.3 m of free board so that they do not
overflow frequently
This means that the height should be at least 0.3 m above the normal operating
pressure head of the pipeline
However, the free board should not be so high as to allow the pipeline or pipe
joints to burst
Standpipes can be installed at the same locations as given above for

combination vacuum relief - air release valves
Stand pipes should have an inside diameter of at least one-half the pipe
diameter for at least one pipe diameter above the pipe (after that it can be
reduced if desired).
The principal disadvantages to stand pipes are:
1. The operating pressure of many pipelines is high enough to

preclude reasonable stand pipe heights (e.g. for 100 psi, a
minimum height of 231 ft would be needed).
2. Any structure open to the atmosphere can cause air
entrainment during normal operation
3. They can impede the movement of agricultural machinery

(4) Pressure Relief Valves
Pressure relief valves protect the pipeline and other hydraulic components from
excessively high pressures, which may result from surges, water hammer, or
improper pump and valve operations
The valves open automatically according to preset pressure values.
Two basic pressure relief valve designs are:
1. Spring-actuated
2. Diaphragm
Spring-actuated valves are less costly, but have the disadvantage that they do
not fully open until the pressure increases significantly above the initial opening
pressure
That is, they begin to open at a specified pressure, and incrementally increase
to full opening if the pressure continues to increase
But they are almost always adequate for pressurized irrigation lines
Some have outlets for diverting discharge away from the valve location
Some have manually-operated release levers
Diaphragm pressure relief valves open completely at the designated pressure,

thus can be used in cases where the pipeline is normally operated near the
pressure rating of the pipe and or valves (i.e. little room for error in operating
pressure)
These valves should be installed at the following locations:
1. at low points in the pipeline

2. at the end(s) of the pipeline
3. upstream of in-line valves
4. downstream of (some) check valves
The required valve size depends on the flow rate of the pipeline
It is important to not install pressure relief valves that are too large because
they can open and close rapidly, causing surges or water hammer in the line
This can occur when a large valve opens and suddenly lowers the local pipe
pressure, closes, then opens again when the pressure increases, etc.
High pressures can occur due to surges in the pipeline
In most cases, these surges result from:
1. starting or stopping a pump

2. sudden opening or closing of a valve
3. movement of trapped pockets of air in the line

The need for pressure relief valves can
be for reasons other than surges or
water hammer
For example, if a pump is operating and
all downstream outlets are closed, the
pressure at the pump outlet will reach the
shut-off head, which is usually the
highest head a centrifugal pump can
develop
This head may exceed the pressure
rating of plastic (PVC, PE, ABS, etc.) pipes, causing the pipe to burst
Another approach to controlling high pressures in a pipeline is to install

pressure-regulating valves
These valves tend to be very expensive, complex, and incur a significant head
loss even when fully open
The head loss in some of the pressure regulating valves can be several meters
of water head
Furthermore, it would usually take more than a single pressure regulating valve
to protect the entire pipe system
It is possible to use butterfly (or other) manually-operated in-line valves to
purposely dissipate excess energy, lowering the operating pressure to an
acceptable value
But if this is necessary under normal operating conditions, it may be better to
change the pump or to install more than one pump in parallel
Another option to control hydraulic transients is to use stronger pipe (lower SDR
or stronger material)
However, it should be noted that although steel pipe has relatively high burst
pressure, it can still collapse due to pressures below atmospheric unless steps
are taken to strengthen the pipe (e.g. used welded rings on the exterior)
Some industrial applications use rupture discs which break open at a certain
pre-set pressure
When a disc ruptures, it must be replaced with a new one
These are rarely, if ever, used in irrigation systems
III. Valves for Source Water Protection
Theses are valves designed to prevent water from flowing backwards

They should always be used upstream of chemical injection (e.g. fertilizers,
acids, chlorine) equipment to prevent contamination of the water supply
They are required by law for a growing number of installations

In some cases, valves in series (or in tandem) are required for a higher level
of protection, in case one of the valves develops a leak
Names and types of these valves include:
1. Check valves
2. Back-flow prevention valves
3. Vacuum-breaker valves
4. Air-gap separation
Many check valve designs have a single

flap gate
These may be spring-loaded so that they
close quickly, before the flow actually
reverses, thereby preventing surges or
water hammer on the downstream side
There may be a recess in the top of the
valve so that when fully open, the flap gate
does not restrict the flow of water
There may be a lever for manual opening to
allow backflow when priming a centrifugal
pump, especially in irrigation applications
A check valve may have a vacuum relief valve on the upstream side
There may also be an automatic drain (opens at 1 or 2 psi) upstream of the
valve
The head loss through a fully-open check valve for irrigation applications is
usually less than about 1 psi (unless the flow rate is too high)
Check valves may also be used to prevent a well
pump from spinning backwards in this case
they are called foot valves
Split-disc check valves have higher pressure

ratings, perhaps up to 150 psi or so, with two flap
gates
Vacuum-breaker valves are also used to

prevent backflow
They must be installed at an elevation
significantly above the highest outlet
They must be vented at all times, never subject to flooding, so they are often
found above ground at a high spot in the pipeline
When the pressure in the line reduces to atmospheric (or below), an air valve
opens and water drains down both sides of the high spot in the line, preventing
back-flow of water
When line is re-pressurized, the air valve closes

One way to look at it is that these valves do not allow siphoning
They are typically restricted to installations where a significant health hazard
would not be caused by back-flow
These valves may be used in combination with check valves
There are versions that fit onto faucets, such as in laboratories
There are various designs
Air-gap separation means there is free-flowing

discharge, into the air, falling into a non-
pressurized container (or vessel)
If the elevation of the free-flowing discharge pipe is
sufficiently above the top of the container, there
will be no backflow into the pipe
This kind of backflow mechanism is not practical
for all installations Air-gap separation
(for back-flow prevention)
IV. Operational Recommendations
When filling a pipeline, the water should enter slowly, at a flow rate much lower
than the normal operating discharge of the system
In-line and outlet pipe valves should be opened and closed
slowly (some gate valves are geared down to require many
turns of a wheel for opening and closing, and they cannot be
slammed shut)
To help avoid water hammer, the mean pipe velocity should usually not exceed
1.5 to 2.0 m/s (unless it is an open pipeline)
This is also an economic consideration, because pumping costs will increase
significantly at higher flow velocities, as the head loss due to friction is
proportional to the square of the velocity
The use of air chambers can help control intermittently high pressures
The use of stand pipes at the discharge side of a pump can protect the pipeline
from high pressures during operation and during filling of the line
The stand pipe should be of sufficient diameter that it can store water during
temporary pressure increases without quickly overflowing (this is only an option
for low pressure pipelines)
In some cases, air is continuously injected into a pipeline to dampen the effects
of water hammer, effectively reducing the wave speed and causing a high
pressure wave to more quickly decrease in amplitude

Lecture 27
Drainage of Agricultural Lands
I. Introduction
Drainage of agricultural land is necessary to remove excess water from the

ground surface and from the soil profile
Excess water may come from:
1. direct rainfall
2. runoff from uphill areas
3. overflowing streams & rivers
4. irrigation
5. intentional leaching
Partial over-irrigation is common, because of a lack of perfect application

uniformity and the tendency for farmers to provide complete irrigations
Agriculture is not sustainable over periods of many years without adequate
drainage
In some humid and semi-arid areas, irrigation is only supplementary to rainfall
In some areas, irrigation is not needed at all
Drainage is always needed:

1. In arid regions for root zone salinity control
2. In humid areas because of excess precipitation
Natural drainage can be adequate in some cases:
1. Topography permits rapid surface and subsurface drainage in hilly areas

2. Soils are deep and highly permeable, and precipitation is not enough to
require surface drainage facilities
In other cases, drainage systems must be built and maintained
II. Drainage Objectives
In general, drainage is meant to provide a favorable soil surface and root

environment for crops
A primary factor is the provision for adequate root zone soil aeration (for most
crops)
Water-logging is a term that describes saturated, poorly aerated, soil conditions
Other drainage-related factors include disease & weed control, and the ability to
bring machinery onto the fields
If the soil is too wet, machinery can cause almost irreversible soil compaction,
not to mention getting stuck and causing ruts
In some cases, drainage must be used to control the water table, because the
roots of most crops will not grow below the water table
If the water table is very high (close to the soil surface), the root zone may be
vertically restricted, resulting in lower than optimal crop yield
Rice is the major agricultural exception because it does not require an aerated
root zone, but rice production areas may still need surface drainage facilities
Many crops can be scalded when water is ponded on the ground surface for
only a few hours, under hot climatic conditions
The quality of many agricultural products will be adversely affected if the fruit
becomes wet from ponded water or from a saturated soil surface
A related objective of surface drainage is to control mosquito populations, and
the spread of malaria and other diseases transmitted my mosquitoes
III. Types of Drainage Systems
1. Surface drains
2. Subsurface drains
Surface drains generally consist of open channels and ditches to expediently

remove surface runoff
Surface drains may be deep enough to carry away water from subsurface
drains by gravity

In some cases (e.g. Welton-Mohawk, in Arizona, Imperial Valley in California),
water from subsurface drains is collected in sumps, and that water is pumped
up to open ditches for removal
Subsurface drains can be tile drains, concrete pipe, perforated plastic pipes,
mole drains, and others
Tile drains have gaps or openings between pipe segments to allow water to
enter from the surrounding soil

Plastic pipes have multiple perforations
Tile drains may be made out of clay or
concrete materials
Mole drains have been constructed in

heavier-textured soils with a mole plow,
whereby the soil itself forms the walls of
the subsurface drains
With subsurface drains, most of the water enters from the lower side of the
drain pipe, not the upper side
Subsurface drains often have porous envelopes to minimize sedimentation

Drain envelopes are somewhat like filters, allowing some fine particles to pass
through while stabilizing the surrounding soil matrix
Drain envelopes have been fabricated from natural and artificial materials, such
as coarse sand, fine gravel, plastic fabrics, recycled fibers, and organic
materials
IV. Design of Drainage Systems
The most important part of a drainage system

is the outlet (Prof. L.S. Willardson)
Open drains can be designed according to expected runoff, uniform flow

considerations, and topographic conditions
Expected runoff can be determined by rainfall probability analysis and
hydrological factors, if data are available
The channel design may involve the application of the Manning or Chezy
equations, which take into account bed slope, channel cross section, and
channel roughness
Subsurface drains are usually designed to operate under open-channel flow

conditions, as opposed to pressurized pipe flow

The spacing of parallel subsurface drains can be determined by application of
the Hooghoudt equation, which applies the Dupuit-Forcheimer assumptions and
uses horizontal soil hydraulic conductivity
The Hooghoudt equation is based on steady-state saturated flow conditions in the
soil
Steady-state flow is practically never encountered in agricultural subsurface
drainage, but the equation is applied to the calculation of drain spacing rather than
to the simulation of actual flows, and has been shown to provide good results
The USBR uses a transient-flow drain spacing procedure, which usually yields a
closer drain spacing, thus giving a more conservative (and more expensive)
design
The Hooghoudt equation is expressed as follows:
4KH
L2 = ( 2de + H) (1)
V
where L is the spacing between parallel drains; K is the saturated hydraulic
conductivity in the horizontal direction (mm/day); H is the vertical distance from the
shallowest depth to the water table to the drain depth; de is the equivalent depth to
the impermeable layer; and V is the drainage coefficient, or steady-state recharge
rate (same units as K), as defined below in Eq. 4
In Eq. 1, de and H should have the same units (e.g. m or ft)

The equivalent depth to the impermeable layer, de, is defined as:
d
de = (2)
8d 8d
1+ ln
L 3r
where r is the outside radius of the drain pipe, or outside radius of the drain
envelope (if present); and d is the depth from the drains to the impermeable layer
(all length dimensions should be the same, usually m or ft)
In Eq. 2, r, d, and L should have the same units (e.g. m or ft)

The equivalent depth term is designed to correct for errors due to the assumptions
made in Eq. 1, including the Dupuit-Forcheimer assumptions
Many of the terms in Eqs. 1 and 2 are defined in the figure below, which is an
idealization of the actual water table profile below a field surface

According to Dupuit-Forcheimer, the hydraulic gradient equals the slope of the
water table
This assumption is most valid when the water table is flat, or nearly flat
If the water table is flat, then there would be no horizontal flow because the
gradient would be zero
Theoretically, the minimum water table depth, WTD, occurs at the midpoint
between two drains, as shown above
The value of WTD should be at least as deep as the maximum potential crop root
depth, and is normally taken as 0.9 m (3.0 ft) by the U.S. Soil Conservation
Service, or as 1.2 m (4.0 ft) by the USBR
If the drains are spaced too far apart, the actual value of WTD will be too low, and
crop yield may be affected
On the other hand, if the drains are spaced very close together, the installation
may be much more expensive than need be
Note that the depth of the drains, Z, is defined as H + WTD

For given values of Z and WTD, the value of H is calculated as Z WTD
The value of Z is generally known as a standard value, or the maximum
excavation depth of the trenching machinery
Typical values of Z are from 1.2 to 1.8 m (4.0 to 6.0 ft).
The depth to the impermeable layer defines the value of d in Eq. 2, where an
impermeable layer can be taken as any soil layer whose hydraulic conductivity is
between one-fifth and one-tenth of the average hydraulic conductivity of the
overlying layer(s)
Thus, for the purposes of applying Eq. 1, the barrier is often a relatively
impermeable layer through which water does pass, but very slowly
To identify the barrier, and to obtain a representative value of hydraulic
conductivity, K, for all soil layers, use Eq. 3

K
(Kidi ) (3)
di
where i is a subscript indicating the layer; d is the vertical thickness of the layer;
and the resulting K value (as used in Eq. 1) is taken as a weighted average
The drainage coefficient, V, can be calculated as:
ETmax (1 + LF )
V= ETmax (4)
Eirrig
where LF (the leaching fraction required for salinity control) can be taken as 0.05,
unless rain during the year will refill the soil profile and cause leaching of salts, in
which case LF is zero; and ET is the rate of crop consumptive use, or
evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Note that LF is not the same as LR

The minus ET term in Eq. 4 simply takes into account the fact that there will be
evapotranspiration during an irrigation, and this can be subtracted from the amount
of water that needs to enter the soil
Of course, in rainy areas, the drainage coefficient can be defined in terms of the
precipitation that doesnt run off the soil surface, provided that this is a larger value
than that calculated by Eq. 4
Eirrig is the irrigation efficiency expressed as a fraction, which for these purposes
can be defined as:
deep percolation
Eirrig = 1 (5)
infiltration
Thus, if the deep percolation (infiltrated water passing downward through the root
zone) is zero, the efficiency is 1.0, or 100%
Eq. 5 does not account for surface runoff because the design is for subsurface
drainage
Note that this is only one of many definitions of irrigation efficiency, but it is useful
for determining the drainage coefficient
Both Eqs. 1 and 2 have the term L, which is the drain spacing
The two equations must be solved simultaneously (iteratively) to determine the
value of L for a given drain design, and this can be accomplished readily on a
programmable calculator, in a spreadsheet, or with a simple computer program
In summary, to apply Eq. 1 for the calculation of drain spacing the following seven
parameters must be known or estimated: K, H, d, ET, LF, r, and Eirrig

By convention, a conservative design of drain length assumes that the hydraulic
grade line (HGL) remains inside the drain pipe, meaning open-channel flow
If the HGL is above the pipe at any point, a larger pipe size should be used to
carry the drain water
Knowing the slope, drain length, pipe material, and inflow per unit length, the
Manning equation can be used to estimate the required drain diameter
The Manning equation is often applied to uniform flow, and can be written as:
1
Q= AR2 / 3 So (6)
n
where Q is the flow rate (m3/s); n is a roughness coefficient; A is the cross-
sectional area of flow (m2); R is the hydraulic radius (m); and So is the slope of the
pipe (m/m)
Apply Eq. 6 at the downstream end of drain lines (note that Q varies with distance
along the drain lines)
The Manning roughness value is usually between 0.016 and 0.020 for corrugated
plastic drain pipes
The hydraulic radius is equal to the cross-sectional area of flow, A, divided by the
wetted perimeter, Wp
For a circular cross section, the geometry parameters are related as follows:
D2
A= ( sin ) (7)
8
D
Wp = (8)
2
and,
D
h= 1 cos (9)
2 2
where the terms in Eqs. 7 - 9 are defined in the following figure

The wetted perimeter, Wp, is the portion of the circles circumference that is in
contact with water
The angle is defined as:
2h
= 2cos1 1 (10)
D
Note that when h D, the hydraulic condition changes from open-channel flow to
pressurized pipe flow
V. Example Drain Spacing Calculations
Some sample applications of the drain spacing equations are given below
These data can be used to verify a computer program that applies Eqs. 1 - 5
Suppose subsurface drains are to be installed at a depth, z, of 1.2 m from the
ground surface, with an outside drain radius of 0.1 m and a minimum water table
depth of 0.6 m
The depth, d, to a relatively impermeable boundary is 1.5 m, the maximum ET rate
is 5 mm/day, the leaching fraction is 0.05, the irrigation efficiency is 75%, and the
hydraulic conductivity of the soil is 10 mm/day
For these data, the steady-state drain spacing would be about 4.99 m
If the depth to the impermeable layer were increased from 1.5 to 5.0 m, the
spacing would decrease to 4.74 m, or if the drain depth were increased from 1.2 to
1.5 m, the spacing would increase to 6.85 m
If the hydraulic conductivity were 15 mm/day, the spacing would increase to 6.37
m


Lecture 28
Water Law & Water Rights
I. Introduction
In general, water laws govern the use of water resources by

individuals and by the public as a whole
Water laws can vary significantly from one region to another,
and historical records show that water law has often
changed over time as problems have arisen and needs have
changed, and as the public perception of water use rights
has shifted
Much of the early water law deals specifically with surface
water, but recently there has been increasing awareness of
the need for legislation that also governs the use of
groundwater resources
The earliest recorded irrigation water law is contained in part of the 285 articles
of the Code of King Hammurabi, written nearly 4,000 years ago in ancient
Babylon
With increasing water scarcity in many regions, more time and effort has been
given to the development of new water laws, or the modification of existing
laws, in the USA and in dozens of other countries
II. Riparian Rights
In the western USA there are two basic types of water rights that have been
established over the past 150 years, and these persist to the present time
The earlier of the two is known as a riparian right, which governs the private use
of water on riparian lands, which are properties adjacent to (bordering) a
natural stream or lake
ri-par-i-an (ri pr'ee uhn, rie-) adj.

1. of, situated, or dwelling on the bank of
a river or other body of water.
[1840-50; < L ripari (us) that frequents
riverbanks (rip (a) bank of a RIVER 1 + -arius -
ARY) + - AN 1]
Riparian water rights are usually considered to be attached to the land and the
land owner can use the water whenever desired
However, in some areas it is considered illegal for a riparian water user to store
water on the property for more than 30 days (typically), or to import water from
a hydrologic basin that does not border the property
Riparian rights cannot be transferred to other areas - they stay with the land

III. Appropriative Rights
The other basic type of water right is the appropriative right, which is acquired
either by prior appropriation (first use) of a water resource or by some type of
permit
Unlike riparian rights, appropriative rights can exist without any particular
relationship between the proximity of land and the water resource
Also, holders of appropriative rights are generally allowed to store water on their
property for an indefinite duration of time
In the case of a prior appropriation, the user makes a claim on the water with
the argument that it was not previously being used by anyone else
Prior appropriations were common in mining areas of the western USA during
the 1800s
Appropriation by permit is more common today because the available water
resources are becoming more fully exploited (some argue that they already are
fully exploited)
Washington North
Dakota
Montana
South
Oregon Dakota
Idaho
Wyoming
Nebraska
Appropriative Water Rights

Nevada Utah
Nevada Kansas
California
Oklahoma
Arizona New Mexico
Texas

IV. Riparian versus Appropriative Rights
Riparian rights are usually older and have precedence over appropriative rights,
but appropriative rights actually control a greater volume of water in the western
USA
Some holders of riparian water rights do not make use of the available water,
creating a dormant riparian right, but such dormancy does not necessarily
imply forfeiture of the right, even if many decades have passed
Those with appropriative rights on water with dormant riparian rights always run
the risk of the riparian rights being reasserted, and this has occurred in more
than one case
Riparian-type water laws are more predominant east of the Mississippi river,
and appropriative water rights are more common west of the Mississippi
Riparian and appropriative rights tend to be conflicting and countless legal
disputes have arisen between the holders or claimants of such rights
As a result, there have been many court cases and much adjudication of water
resources
Water law is now an area of specialization for many lawyers in the western
USA, and the number legal battles over water rights is not likely to diminish in
the foreseeable future
V. Reasonable & Beneficial Water Use
Water rights are generally interpreted as usufructuary, which means that people
can have rights to use water, but not to own it
u-su-fruct (yue'zoo frukt , -soo-, yuez'yoo-, yues'-) n.

1. the right to enjoy all the advantages of
another's property, provided that such
property is not destroyed or damaged.
[1620-30; < LL usufructus = L usu, abl. of usus
USE + fructus (see FRUIT)]
Furthermore, many legal definitions now require that all water use, regardless of
the type of right, must be reasonable and beneficial
This implies that water waste should be avoided and that water quality should
be conserved, but the actual legal definition of reasonable and beneficial is not
explicitly defined by current laws
Thus, this is one of a number of points that are subject to broad interpretation
by individuals and by judicial courts (some people believe that in water disputes,
it is not important who is right, rather, who has the best lawyer)
Some foresee an increasing emphasis on public water rights through the
doctrine of public trust, which asserts that specified resources (such as water)
are the property of the general public

The water laws, codes and doctrines in most other countries are similar to those
found in the USA, but there are specific differences in many of the details in
every particular instance
These days, water law is not developed from scratch, it is adapted from similar
laws found in other places and other countries
VI. References & Bibliography
There are many books and conference proceedings on water law

Many of these are basically case studies of adjudications over water disputes
Hundreds of state-specific and international references about water law and
water codes can now be found on the Internet; some of these are very
extensive and very detailed
There are hundreds of water litigation papers and summaries posted on internet
web sites

Engineering Ethics
I. Introduction
In general, an individual acting on his or her own cannot be

counted on to always act in a proper and or moral manner
Creeds, statutes, rules, and codes all attempt to provide
guidance to engineers in what has been referred to as the
correct thing (which is subject to opinion, of course)
For our purposes, ethics can be defined as follows:
Ethics: the rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular

class of human actions or governing a particular group
A creed is a statement or oath, often religious in nature, taken or assented to by

an individual in ceremonies
A code is a system of nonstatutory & nonmandatory canons of professional
conduct
A canon is a fundamental belief that usually encompasses several ethical
guidelines
For example, the code of ethics of the American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE) contains the following seven canons:
1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the
public in the performance of their professional duties
2. Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence
3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful
manner
4. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as
faithful agents or trustees and shall avoid conflicts of interest
5. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their
service and shall not compete unfairly with others
6. Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the
honor, integrity, and dignity of the engineering profession
7. Engineers shall continue their professional development (continuing
education) throughout their careers and shall provide opportunities for
the professional development of those engineers under their supervision
In the state of Utah, registered professional engineers must now have 24 hours
of continuing education per two-year period to retain their registration as a PE
A rule is a guide (principle, standard, or norm) for conduct and action in a

certain situation
A statutory rule is a law enacted by state or federal government

Some professional engineering registration boards have statutory rules of
professional conduct
II. Why are Codes of Ethics Necessary?
Many different codes of ethics have been produced by engineering societies,

professional registration boards, and other organizations
These ethical guidelines are to be applied to the conduct of engineers
In practice, most codes are merely informational, but they have been cited by
professional societies and regulatory agencies as the basis for disciplinary
actions when serious ethical breaches are identified
A fundamental principal of codes of ethics is the requirement that engineers
provide faithful, honest, professional service
In providing such service, engineers must represent the interests of their
employers or clients, also protecting the environment, public health, safety, and
welfare
There is an important distinction between what is legal and what is ethical
Of course, many legal actions can be violations of ethical codes for professional
behavior
All major professional engineering societies in the United States (ASCE, IEEE,
ASME, AIChE, NSPE, ASAE, and others) and world-wide have adopted codes
of ethics
Most U.S. societies have endorsed the Code of Ethics of Engineers developed
by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET)
Most of these are very similar in look and feel
III. Ethical Priorities
The ethical conduct of an engineer should be based on the protection & benefit
to the following groups and individuals, ranked below from highest to lowest
priority:
1. society
2. the law
3. the engineering profession in general
4. the engineers client
5. the engineers firm
6. other engineers
7. the engineer

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BIE 5010/6010

Irrigation Engineering Fundamentals

Biological & Irrigation Engineering Department

Copyright 2000, 2002, 2003

BIE 5010/6010 Lectures - USU 3 G.P. Merkley

1 Course Introduction .........................................................................................7

BIE 5010/6010 Lectures - USU 5 G.P. Merkley

1 ppm 1 mg/liter (usually)

Mean soil particle density 2.65 g/cm3

PVC = Polyvinyl chloride

G.P. Merkley 6 BIE 5010/6010 Lectures - USU

Scope of the course

II. Textbook and Other Materials

III. Homework and Design Project

Work must be organized and neat; dont turn in sloppy work

One mid-term exam

V. What is Agricultural Irrigation?

BIE 5010/6010 Lectures - USU 7 G.P. Merkley

the application of water to the soil for the

More specifically, there are several objectives that are typically to be

VI. Water Management

Irrigation management consists of determining when to irrigate, the amount to

G.P. Merkley 8 BIE 5010/6010 Lectures - USU

V. Global Irrigation Statistics

Continent Area Percent

BIE 5010/6010 Lectures - USU 9 G.P. Merkley

Large areas of irrigated lands depend on groundwater overdraft, or groundwater

G.P. Merkley 10 BIE 5010/6010 Lectures - USU

VI. Global Irrigation Development

Global Irrigated Area

BIE 5010/6010 Lectures - USU 11 G.P. Merkley

VII. World Population

The world population was fairly stable from 2000 B.C. to

Nevertheless, the population is currently growing at a high rate and investments in

World Population Growth

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I. U.S. Irrigation Statistics

The greatest irrigation water withdrawal (surface and groundwater) rates, as a

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II. California Agriculture

III. Irrigation Development Costs

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Globally, 97.5% of all the water is salt water or saline water

68.9% is in stored in glaciers and

V. What do Irrigation Engineers Do?

Common sub-discipline areas:

Crop water use

General employment areas:

Irrigation system design, construction, and installation

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A partial list of possible job descriptions:

1. Design field and farm irrigation and drainage systems

VI. Professional Licensing

Many irrigation engineers in the USA are registered