Basic

English Grammar Module: Unit 1B. Independent Learning Resources

Learning Centre University of Sydney. This Unit may be copied for individual student use.

Basic English Grammar Module

Unit 1B: The Noun Group
Objectives of the Basic English Grammar module

As a student at any level of University study, when you write your assignments or your
thesis, your writing needs to be grammatically well-structured and accurate in order to
be clear. If you are unable to write sentences that are appropriately structured and clear
in meaning, the reader may have difficulty understanding the meanings that you want to
convey. Here are some typical and frequent comments made by markers or supervisors
on students written work. Such comments may also appear on marking sheets which
use assessment criteria focussing on your grammar.

Be careful of your written expression.
At times it is difficult to follow what you are saying.
You must be clearer when making statements.
Sentence structure and expression poor.
This is not a sentence.
At times your sentences do not make sense.

In this module we are concerned with helping you to develop a knowledge of those
aspects of the grammar of English that will help you deal with the types of grammatical
errors that are frequently made in writing.

Who is this module for?

All students at university who need to improve their knowledge of English grammar in
order to write more clearly and accurately.

What does this module cover?

Unit 1A Grammatical Units: the structure and constituents of the
clause/sentence
Unit 1B The Noun Group: the structure and constituents of the noun group
Unit 2A The Verb Group: Finites and non-Finites
Unit 2B The Verb Group: Tenses
Unit 3A Logical Relationships between Clauses
Unit 3B Interdependency Relationships between Clauses
Unit 4 Grammar and Punctuation

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References

Collins Cobuild English Grammar (1990) London.

Freeborn, D.A. (1987) A Course Book in English Grammar. London: Palgrave Macmillan

Garner, M. (1983) Grammar: warts and all. River Seine Publications. Melbourne.

Halliday & Matthiessen, (2004) An Introduction to Functional Grammar, 3rd edn.
London: Hodder.

Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (1975) A Communicative Grammar of English. Longman
Group Ltd: Essex.

Murphy, R. (1991) English Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press:
Cambridge.

Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech & J. Svartvik. (1972) A Grammar of
Contemporary English. Longman Group UK Ltd: Essex.

Thompson, R.A. (1991) Sense and System in English Sentences. CR Press,
Newtown.

Thompson, A.J. & A.V. Martinet. (1979) A Practical English Grammar. 2nd Edition. Oxford
University Press: Oxford.

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Objectives of Unit 1B

One of the grammatical units introduced in Unit 1A of the Basic English Grammar
module was the noun group, which is arguably the most important grammatical unit in
academic writing. In this unit we will learn about
the internal structure of the noun group
how to produce information packed noun groups that are typical of academic
writing

Exercises

These are marked with the icon and you should try to complete them before
checking your work in the Answer Key, marked .

Answer Key to all Exercises

This can be found at the end of the Unit.

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1.0 Noun Group Structure

The noun group contains a Head noun and any other words (Modifiers) that give us
information about this noun. Modifiers may come before the Head, in which case they
are Pre-modifiers; or they may come after the Head, in which case they are Post-
modifiers, e.g.

This paper reports on the three new types of rechargeable batteries produced in Australia.

the three new types of rechargeble batteries produced in Australia
Premodifiers Head Postmodifier

Although knowing whether modifying word(s) are positioned before or after the Head
noun is useful to some extent, it does not tell us much about how these words function
in the group: i.e. what role they play in the group. The most common functions of words
in noun groups are illustrated below:

the three new types of rechargeble batteries produced in Australia

Premodifiers Head Postmodifier
Pointer Numerative Describer Facet Classifier Thing Qualifier

These parts of the group (i.e. Pointer, Numerative, etc) tend to be ordered as shown
above, with the Pointer found on the far left of the noun group and the Qualifier on the
far right.

Texts 1 and 2 illustrate the typical structure of noun groups in both empirical and non-
empirical types of academic writing (noun groups in each sentence are underlined).

Text 1: Science (empirical)
1. This project describes the stress corrosion cracking of phosphorus deoxidised copper and 65/35
lead free brass in both sodium nitrate and commercial inhibitor solutions
2. and attempts to characterize the cracking in relation to the various mechanisms proposed.
3. The theories of cracking applicable to the copper/nitrate and brass/nitrate systems include the
anodic dissolution, the film-rupture, the stress sorption cracking and the embrittlement
theories,
4. which are described in the literature review.
5. The possibility of stress corosion due to the formation of ammonia via the reduction of sodium
nitrate is also reviewed. (student thesis)

Text 2: Arts (non-empirical)
1. Urbanization is a process whereby an increasing proportion of the population becomes
concentrated into large cities.
2. This phenomenon associated with modern man is increasing in practically all regions of the
world (Table 31-3).
3. The causes of urbanization are many and complex and differ from one region to another.
4. Urbanization of the Western countries began with the industrial revolution and proceeded as
the nations moved from an agrarian to an industrial society.
5. Initially, there was a migration of the population from rural areas to centers of manufacturing
and trade.
6. While this was a major factor in the initial increase in the population of cities
7. it is no longer an important factor. (Becker, J.F. 1972 Life Science)

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1.1 Thing

The core part of the noun group is called the Thing. The Thing may be a concrete
entity such as an object (e.g. batteries) or a person (e.g. engineer). On the other hand,
the Thing may be an abstract concept (e.g. science) or an action expressed in a noun
(e.g. representation, experiment).

The noun group may contain a Thing only:

batteries (Thing)

or it may be modified by any number of other words:

the three new kinds of rechargeable batteries (Thing) produced in Australia.

If the Thing is the only word in the group it may be either a noun (e.g. batteries) or a
pronoun, which stands for a noun (e.g. they referring to batteries).

1.2 Pointer

The Thing is often pre-modified by a word with a pointing or identifying function. The
Pointer, as it will be called here, suggests whether the Thing in question can be
identified by the reader or not.

For instance, the article the (e.g. the activities) demonstrative adjectives (e.g. these
activities) and possessive adjectives (e.g. their activities), suggest that the Thing can be
identified specifically and tells us which one (or ones) is/are being talked about.

the nucleus these activities their activities
Pointer Thing Pointer Thing Pointer Thing
specific noun demonstrative noun possessive noun
article adjective adjective

On the other hand, non-specific articles suggest that the Thing cannot be specifically
identified.

a cell
Pointer Thing
non-specific article noun

(See Cohesive Writing Module, Unit 4: Cohesion through Reference for further
discussion of words with a pointing function).

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Exercise 1

Identify noun groups in the following text which contain the four types of Pointers just
described. Identify:
(i) one noun group with a specific article
(ii) one with a demonstrative adjective
(iii) one with a possessive adjective
(iv) one with a non-specific article.

Handwashing is an important practice in the prevention of the spread of infection (Garner
and Favaro, 1985:105). Basic principles of asepsis techniques emphasise careful
handwashing before and after all patient care even if gloves are worn. Health care personnel
should also wash their hands when they become soiled with potentially infectious materials
(ie. the secretions or excretions of patients) during patient care activities and after leaving the
patient. This procedure needs to be constantly emphasised to health care personnel. It is a
simple yet fundamental practice to the caring of patients by nurses.

You can now check the answers in the Answer Key at the back of the unit.

1.3 Numerative

The next element in the noun group (working from left to right) is the Numerative. It
indicates a numerical aspect of the Thing, either specifying quantity or order in a series.
There are two main types of Numerative:

Quantitative:
indicates exactly how many of the Thing are being referred to, e.g. one,
two, three or an inexact quantity or how much of the Thing, e.g. many,
lots of

Ordinative:
indicates where the Thing is positioned in a series, e.g. first, second,
third.

three reasons the second reason
Numerative: Thing Pointer Numerative: Thing
quantitative ordinative

Like Pointers, Numeratives may be either definite or indefinite. Some of the most
common Numeratives are shown in the table below.

Definite Indefinite
Quantitative one, two, three, several, many, a few

a couple, a quarter little, much, a lot of
fewer, less, more
Ordinative first, second preceding
next, last, finally subsequent

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For example:

After the fifth century, however, few writers, except writers on scientific subjects, had any
belief in the idea of progress in the future.

1.4 Describer

The next element in the noun group has a describing function. Describers typically
belong to the word class adjective and assign some quality to the Thing, i.e. they
answer the question 'what is the Thing like?'. The quality may be either more inherent
to the thing itself, e.g. colour, size, etc. or more a matter of the writers opinion, e.g.
useful.

The following excerpt from a book review in an academic journal illustrates both these
types (underlined):

Yalden states that the nature of second language teaching is being re-examined, possibly
with a view to complete redefinition. She puts forward contemporary views of second
language acquisition in a clear and succinct way. ... These explanations, together with a
comprehensive reference section, give direction to inexperienced teachers. ... In summary, a
well written book with a good blend of theory and practice and useful guidelines on course
design. (Jill Dempster, Review in Australian Journal of Reading, Vol 11, No 2, June 88).

Which of these Describers do you think are more a matter of personal opinion?

1.5 Classifier

Classifiers answer the question what type of thing is it? or what group does the thing
belong to?. They can be either nouns or adjectives.

Noun Classifiers:
Mayer suggests that teenagers make long telephone calls.
Classification systems are made up by biologists.

Adjective Classifiers:
In some disciplines, such as social sciences, female postgraduates equal or even
outnumber their male colleagues.

Like Describers, there may be more than one Classifier in the noun group, e.g.
Their spores were first observed on stream surface scum by Ingold (1942).

This example has two noun classifiers, in the end, both classifying the Thing, scum. Using
two classifiers in this way makes the noun group very condensed (and possibly more
technical). If we expand the noun group in a less condensed way it would become: the
scum that can be found on the surface of a stream.

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Exercise 2

Circle the Classifiers in the noun groups in Text 1 on p. 2. Remember that some groups
may have more than one Classifier.

You can now check the answers in the Answer Key at the back of the unit.

Exercise 3

Identify the Describers and Classifiers in the following text.

The top speed of a red kangaroo has been estimated at 45 kilometres an hour and red
kangaroos have been known to clear high fences. Farmers have waged an unrelenting
war against kangaroos since European settlement of this vast country began. The animals
have been shot in large numbers because they compete with sheep for scarce forage.

Describers Classifiers

You can now check the answers in the Answer Key at the back of the unit.

1.6 Facet, Measure, Type

The final pre-modifying components in the noun group are the Facet, Measure or Type.
These elements are very common in noun groups in academic writing and can specify a
particular aspect, type or measure of the Thing:

the side of, the top of (Facet)
a number of (Measure)
an example of, a type of (Type)

If we look at the structure of any cell, we can see a nucleus.
Each type of organism has a particular cluster of chromosomes in each of its nuclei.

A noun group which contains a Facet, Measure or Type element has a more complex
structure than the noun groups we have looked at so far. This structure is shown below.

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the structure of any cell

Pre-modifiers Head
Facet Pointer Thing
Pre-modifier Head
Pointer Thing

Because the Facet word is itself a Head, it can be modified, e.g.

If we look at the internal structure of any cell, we can see a nucleus.

Each different type of leaf has particular layers of cells.

Typical problem with Facets

The head of the noun group, i.e. the Thing not the Facet, must agree with the verb

Two types of risk factor has been found for the disease.

Corrected version:

Two types of risk factor have been found for the disease.

Exercise 4

Read the following text and then put your analysis of the underlined noun groups in the
table below.
Handwashing (1) is an important practice in the prevention of the spread of infection (Garner
and Favaro, 1985:105). Basic principles of asepsis techniques (2) emphasise careful
handwashing (3) before and after all patient care (4) even if gloves are worn. Health care
personnel (5) should also wash their hands when they become soiled with potentially
infectious materials (6) (i.e. the secretions or excretions of patients) during patient care
activities (7) and after leaving the patient. This procedure needs to be constantly emphasised
to health care personnel. It is a simple yet fundamental practice to the caring of patients by
nurses.

Pointer Numerative Facet, Describer Classifier Thing

Measure, Type

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You can now check the answers in the Answer Key at the back of the unit.

1.7 Qualifier

So far we have looked at the function of different types of Pre-modifiers in the noun
group. We can also put extra information about the Thing in the post-modifying
element Qualifier. A Qualifier is usually a prepositional phrase, a defining relative
clause or a non-finite clause (see Basic English Grammar Module 2A).

cells with special characteristics
Thing Qualifier
noun prepositional phrase

offspring which are produced through sexual reproduction,

Thing Qualifier
noun defining relative clause

their ability to survive

Pointer Thing Qualifier
demonstrative noun non-finite clause
adjective

Defining relative clauses are usually introduced by a relative pronoun, e.g. which,
that, who ..., but not always. In reduced relative clauses, the relative pronoun and part
of the verb group are missing, e.g.

offspring ... produced through sexual reproduction,
Thing
... main verb and rest of clause

A noun group may contain more than one Qualifier, as in the following example (the
arrowheads show which word that each Qualifier modifies: characteristics and ability.

plants with special characteristics which enhance their ability to survive

Thing Qualifier
Describer Thing Qualifier
Pointer Thing Qualifier

We can use square brackets as a simpler way of showing Qualifiers and what they
modify:
plants [with special characteristics [which enhance their ability [to survive]]]

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Exercise 5
Put square brackets around the Qualifiers in the following noun groups. Also circle or
use arrows, as above, to show clearly which word each Qualifier modifies.

1. An important practice in the prevention of the spread of infection is
2. The premium income received by all voluntary health insurance organizations in the United
States is
3. A simple yet fundamental practice in the caring of patients by nurses is
4. The secretions or excretions of patients are
5. The evidence in this particular case which suggests that the individual is guilty is

You can now check the answers in the Answer Key at the back of the unit.

Exercise 6

Read the following text and analyse the underlined noun groups in the table below on
the next page.

Since the introduction of modern computers (1), an important part of each computer system (2)
is their file system. The file system is responsible for managing permanent data (3) on some
stable storage system, like a disk (4). Besides the file system, there is the memory management
process (5), which is responsible for managing short-term data (6) and coding in volatile memory
(7). In spite of a large body of investigation which has been done to improve the efficiency of
these two parts (8), an important question (9) remains. Why are there two different
mechanisms for managing data in computer systems (10)?

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Pointer Numerative Facet Describer Classifier Thing Qualifier

Measure
Type

10

You can now check the answers in the Answer Key at the back of the unit.

2.0 Distribution of Information in the Noun Group

The different parts of the noun group introduced in this unit allow you to produce noun
groups that are packed with information. However, a common problem with students
writing is that their noun groups may be either top-heavy, that is, all the information
appears in Pre-modifiers such as Classifiers and Describers, e.g.

Commonly-used hospital patient care activities are now obsolete.
noun group
Describer Classifier Classifier Classifier Thing

or bottom-heavy, where all the information is placed in Post-modifiers, e.g.

Activities [which involve care of the [which are commonly used in are now obsolete.
patients] hospitals]
noun group
Thing Qualifier Qualifier

In such cases, information can be redistributed in the noun group, e.g.

Patient care activities [commonly used in hospitals] are now obsolete.
noun
group
Classifier Classifier Thing Qualifier

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Exercise 7

The following sentences could be improved by redistributing the information in the
noun groups.
1. Circle the Thing in the noun groups shown in bold below.
2. Try redistributing information in these noun groups. Note: you may wish to
delete or add information.

1. Lithium ion technology is more suitable for applications requiring high temperature
operation which might well be crucial in our future technology.
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. Until now, nickel cadmium has been the rechargeable battery which has been used most
widely.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Overall, lithium ion is the most promising for the future of the battery technology in this
market.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. Another thing more promising that lithium batteries have is their capability in producing
higher cycles.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

You can now check the answers in the Answer Key at the back of the unit.

We have now looked at the different functions of words in the noun group and have seen
how these groups can be quite complicated in academic writing. In fact, one of the skills
you will need to learn for the purposes of writing in an academic style is how to convey
more information in less space. One way of doing this is to use a strategy referred to as
grammatical metaphor.

2.1 Grammatical Metaphor

Many of the noun groups we have met so far represent concrete things (e.g. plants and
batteries). However, a large number of the noun groups in academic texts are things
that we cannot see or feel, such as abstract concepts (e.g. Confucianism) or processes
(e.g. reproduction). These abstract types of nouns are often created through a process
called nominalisation.

Certain aspects of our world (as represented in English) are usually labelled by certain
word classes, e.g. objects, people and more abstract entities are commonly labelled by

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nouns; processes and events in the world are usually labelled by verbs; qualities are
usually labelled by adjectives. However, when we label a process by a noun, e.g.
reproduction, this represents a kind of mismatch between meaning and grammar,
because embedded in the noun is a process, reproduce.

Grammatical metaphor processes such as nominalisation therefore, allow us to change a
word from one word class, e.g. a verb or adjective, into another, e.g. a noun. This can be
done by adding suffixes, using the processes of derivational morphology (see Basic
English Grammar Module, Unit 1). For instance:

verb noun
evolve evolution
reproduce reproduction

adjective noun
successful success
insane insanity

The process works the other way as well: nouns can be turned into other word classes,
e.g. adjectives.

noun adjective
friend friendly

The following table shows the most common morphemes used for deriving nouns:

Class Class
Morpheme verb noun
-ant inhabit inhabitant
-(a)tion explore exploration
evolve evolution
concentrate concentration
-al refuse refusal
-age drain drainage

adjective noun
-ness kind kindness
-ity fatal fatality
-dom free freedom
-ence different difference

(Adapted from Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973:pp. 436-441)

Concrete nouns can also be turned into more abstract nouns:

concrete noun abstract noun
-ness friend friendliness
-hood parent parenthood
-ship friend friendship
-ery slave slavery
-ism Confucius Confucianism

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Exercise 8
State which word class the following words belong to and turn them into a
corresponding noun. Underline any morphemes you have added, e.g. parent (word
class: noun) > parenthood.

word class noun form word class noun form

happy violent
possibly survive
realise criticise
certainly regularly
similar inherit
likely vary

You can now check the answers in the Answer Key at the back of the unit.
Packing a lot of information into noun groups enables you to reduce the number of
clauses in your sentences. This is another feature of written academic English (see also
Cohesive Writing Module, Unit 2). If you tend to write in a more spoken style, with
many clauses per sentence, you can follow the procedure below to reduce the number of
clauses in your sentences.

2.1.1 Procedure to reduce clause numbers:

Step
1 Decide which word in the sentence you will turn into a noun. In the following sample sentence, the
most likely candidate is the verb observed.

People observed side effects, such as nausea and headaches and this led to an investigation.

2 Turn this word into a noun using the processes of derivational morphology,
e.g. observe (verb) > observation (noun)

3 Add any extra information to this noun: this may take the form of Pre-modifiers (e.g. Describers,
Classifiers, etc) or Post-modifiers (Qualifiers).

Observation [of side effects [such as nausea and headaches] ]...

4 Finally, add what is necessary from the second clause to complete the sentence:

Observation of side effects such as nausea and headaches led to an investigation.

Exercise 9
Now try this procedure on the following sentences.

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1) Decide which word or words you will change into the Head noun of the new noun
group (verb, adverb, conjunction, adjective).
2) Make any other changes that need to be made, e.g. add Classifiers, Describers,
Qualifiers, etc.
3) Fill out the rest of the sentence.

1. The Department advertised that there were vacant positions. However, this did not produce
any outstanding applications.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

2. Many laboratory monkeys have died while being experimented on and so the Animal Welfare
Lobby has protested vigorously.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

3. The spots reappear regularly and are quite alarming.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

4. Possibly there is an error, which may account for the unexpected outcome.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

5. The outcome of the doctor's visit is uncertain and has led to much speculation.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

6. The children achieved very poorly on the tests and this had three main causes.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

7. The units of analysis differ and this necessarily entails differing theoretical positions and
methodologies.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

You can now check the answers in the Answer Key at the back of the unit.

You should now understand what a noun group is and what its different parts are. You
should also have a clearer understanding of why academic writing appears to be so
dense and information packed. You should also now be able to produce sentences
containing these complicated noun groups yourself.

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Unit 1B: Answer Key to Exercises

Exercise 1: Answer

Key: All Pointers are indicated in bold.

Handwashing is an important practice (NON-SPECIFIC) in the prevention (SPECIFIC) of the

spread of infection (SPECIFIC) (Garner and Favaro, 1985:105). Basic principles of asepsis
techniques emphasise careful handwashing before and after all patient care even if gloves
are worn. Health care personnel should also wash their hands (SPECIFIC: POSSESSIVE) when
they become soiled with potentially infectious materials (ie. the secretions or excretions of
patients (SPECIFIC)) during patient care activities and after leaving the patient (SPECIFIC).
This procedure (SPECIFIC: DEMONSTRATIVE) needs to be constantly emphasised to health
care personnel. It is a simple yet fundamental practice (NON-SPECIFIC) to the caring of
patients (SPECIFIC) by nurses.

Exercise 2: Answer

Key: Relevant parts of noun groups underlined (i.e. Classifiers plus Thing); the
Classifiers are in bold.

1. This project describes the stress corrosion cracking of phosphorus deoxidised copper and
65/35 lead free brass in both sodium nitrate and commercial inhibitor solutions
2. and attempts to characterize the cracking in relation to the various mechanisms proposed.
3. The theories of cracking applicable to the copper/nitrate and brass/nitrate systems include
the anodic dissolution, the film-rupture, the stress sorption cracking and the embrittlement
theories,
4. which are described in the literature review.
5. The possibility of stress corosion due to the formation of ammonia via the reduction of sodium
nitrate is also reviewed. (student thesis)

Exercise 3: Answer

Describers Classifiers
top red
high red
unrelenting European
large
scarce

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Exercise 4: Answer

Pointer Counter Facet, Measure, Describer Classifier Thing

Type
1 Handwashing
2 Basic principles of (Basic)
asepsis techniques
3 careful handwashing
4 all patient care
5 health personnel
care
6 potentially materials
infectious
7 patient activities
care

Exercise 5: Answer

Key: square brackets indicate Qualifiers. In each Qualifier, the noun or Thing being
qualified is shown in bold.

1. An important practice [in the prevention [of the spread [of infection ] is
2. The premium income [received by all voluntary health insurance organizations [in the
United States] ] is
3. A simple yet fundamental practice [in the caring [of patients] [by nurses] is
4. The secretions or excretions [of patients] are
5. The evidence [in this particular case] [which suggests that the individual is guilty] is

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Exercise 6: Answer

Pointer Counter Facet etc Describer Classifier Thing Qualifier
1 the introduction of modern
computers
2 an part of (important)
each computer sytem
3 permanent data
4 some stable storage system like a disk
5 the memory process
management
6 short-term data
7 volatile memory
8 a body of (large) investigation which has been
done to improve
the efficiency of
these two parts
9 an important question
10 two different mechanisms for managing
data in computer
systems

Exercise 7: Answer

1. Lithium ion technology is more suitable for potentially crucial (Describer) future (Classifier)
applications (Thing) [requiring high temperature operation] (Qualifier).
2. Until now, nickel cadmium has been the (Pointer) most widely used (Describer) rechargeable
(Classifier) battery (Thing).
3. Overall, lithium ion is the (Pointer) most promising (Describer) battery (Classifier) technology
(Thing) [in this market] (Qualifier).
4. Another (Pointer) promising (Describer) feature (Thing) [of lithium batteries] (Qualifier) is
their (Pointer) higher (Describer) cycle (Classifier) capability (Thing).

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Exercise 8: Answer

Example Word Class > Noun Example Word Class > Noun
happy adjective happiness violent adjective violence
possibly adverb possibility survive verb survival
realise verb realisation criticise verb criticism
certainly adverb certainty regularly adverb regularity
similar adjective similarity inherit verb inheritance,
inheritor
probably adverb probability vary verb variance,
variability

Exercise 9: Answer

1. The departmental advertisement [for the vacant positions] did not produce any outstanding
applications.

2. The death [of many laboratory monkeys] [during experimentation] has led to vigorous
protests by the Animal Welfare Lobby.

3. The regular reappearance [of the spots] is quite alarming.

4. The possibility [of error] may account for the unexpected outcome.

5. The uncertain outcome [of the doctors visit] has led to much speculation.

6. The childrens poor achievement [on the tests] had three main causes.
or
The childrens poor test results had three main causes.

7. The differing units [of analysis] necessarily entail differing theoretical positions and
methodologies.

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