Sample Chapter Steam Turbine

2
Steam Turbines and Condensers
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Steam turbine is a type of turbomachine which is an assembly of nozzles and blades. It converts
a part of the energy of high temperature and high pressure steam into mechanical energy (or shaft
work). The operation of steam turbine completely depends on the dynamic action of the steam
expanding in nozzles. The steam turbines are used for the generation of electricity in steam power
plants varying from 1 MW to 1500 MW capacity. These are also used for marine propulsion. The
steam turbines operate at very high speed (up to about 40,000 rpm) and are able to give efficiency
about 40% which is higher than the other power producing devices.
The steam expands in a turbine from high pressure to low pressure (below the atmospheric
pressure). Steam cannot be exhausted to atmosphere at a pressure lower than the atmospheric
pressure. This is made possible by using an additional unit called condenser. A steam condenser is
a closed vessel in which vacuum is maintained and the exhausted steam is condensed by extraction
of heat. About 50% to 60% of the heat energy associated with steam is lost in a steam condenser.
Cooling water supplied to the condenser for the condensation of steam becomes hot. The cooling
towers and the cooling ponds are used to cool this hot water coming out of the condenser so that
the cooled water can be reutilized in the condenser again.
2.2 STEAM NOZZLE AND ITS GENERAL FLOW ANALYSIS

A nozzle is a duct of smoothly varying cross section by means of which pressure energy of
steadily flowing fluid is converted into kinetic energy. The fluid enters the nozzle with a relatively
small velocity and high pressure. As it flows through the nozzle, its pressure falls and a part of
the enthalpy of steam gets converted into kinetic energy. The amount of energy which converts
into kinetic energy depends on the pressure ratio and the type of expansion. Generally, nozzles
are designed to obtain isentropic expansion which imparts maximum conversion. The velocity
increases from entrance to the exit of the nozzle.
The applications of nozzles are: (i) In steam and gas turbines for power generation, (ii) In
aviation purposes such as propulsion of jet engines and rocket, (iii) In injectors and ejectors, and
(v) For flow measurements, etc.
118 Elements of Mechanical Engineering
1 2
Entry Exit Entry Exit Entry Exit
1 2 Throat
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.1 Types of Nozzles
The nozzles are of three types:

(i) Convergent Nozzle If the cross section of the nozzle decreases continuously from the
entrance to the exit, it is called convergent nozzle shown in Figure 2.1 (a).
(ii) Divergent Nozzle If the cross section of the nozzle increases continuously from the
entrance to the exit, it is called divergent nozzle shown in Figure 2.1 (b).
(iii) Convergent-divergent Nozzle If the cross section of the nozzle first decreases and then
increases, it is called convergent-divergent nozzle shown in Figure 2.1 (c).
In nozzles the flow is considered adiabatic (i.e., q = 0) and no work is done on or by the fluid
(i.e., w = 0). Consider a nozzle (Figure 2.1a) in which section 1-1 is the entrance of the nozzle and
section 2-2 is the exit of the nozzle. Let the flow of fluid be initially at pressure p1, velocity V1,
and enthalpy h1 expands through the nozzle. Applying steady flow energy equation, we have,
V12 V22
h1 + ___ = h2 + ___ ( q = 0 and w = 0)
2 2
The entering velocity of steam V1 is small as compared with velocity V2. Thus, neglecting V1,
we have,
V22
h1 = h2 + ___
2
___________
V2 = 2 (h1 h2)
Generally, enthalpy is expressed in kJ/kg, then the exit velocity in m/s is given by,
_________________
V2 = 2 1000 (h1 h2)
_______
= 44.72 (h1 h2) m/s (2.1)
When the nozzle efficiency (hnozzle) is also considered, then the exit velocity is given by,
______________
V2 = 44.72 hnozzle (h1 h2) m/s (2.2)
The general thermodynamic relation for flow of gas through a duct is given by,
dA ___
___ dV
= (M2 1) (2.3)
A V
Nozzle
Fixed nozzle
Disc Steam
V1
Nozzle
u
Blade V2
Bearing Steam from Blade
Blade Disc
boiler
Blade
Fig. 2.2 Principle of Impulse Turbine
u=0 u = V1/2
V1 V1
Nozzle
F F
V2 V2 = 0
Blade locked
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.3 Jet Action on Blade
About 2000 years ago, the first steam turbine was Spherical container
Moving
made by Hero of Alexandria which worked on pure nozzle
reaction principle. There was no provision for driving
any device by it, but it was a type of toy (Figure 2.4).
It consisted of a hollow ball mounted on between two
Hollow Moving
pivots. The ball was provided with two converging tubes turnnion nozzle
(nozzles). The steam generated in a cauldron placed
below the ball was supplied to the ball through one
pivot. The steam was expanded through the nozzles to
atmospheric pressure which results in a reactive force Boiler
on the ball and made it to rotate between the pivots.
2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF
STEAM TURBINES
On the basis of the principles of operation (i.e., mode Fig. 2.4 Heros Turbine (Principle of
of steam action) the steam turbines can be divided into Reaction Turbine)
two types: (i) Impulse turbine, and (ii) Reaction turbine
(or impulse-reaction turbine).
Steam Turbines and Condensers 121
(i) Impulse Turbine In impulse turbines the steam expands only Constant passage area of flow
in the nozzles. It means the pressure drop (enthalpy drop) takes
place only in nozzles and not in moving blades. The moving blades
only deflect the steam through an angle. An impulse turbine works
on the principle of impulse, means the kinetic energy of steam is u
used to exert a force on the moving blades. This is achieved by
having the symmetrical blades, means the cross sectional area of
blades is constant as shown in Figure 2.5. Thus, steam pressure
remains constant while it flows through the moving blades. Fig. 2.5 Impulse Blade
A simple impulse turbine consists of a nozzle or a set of
nozzles, a rotor (or runner) mounted on a shaft, one set of moving blades fixed to the runner, and
a casing. A set (or row) of nozzles and moving blades makes a stage. The schematic view and
the flow of steam through a simple impulse turbine are shown in Figure 2.6 in which the pressure
and velocity variation have also been illustrated. It can be seen from the figure that the pressure
drop takes place only in nozzles. So, the complete expansion of steam from the steam chest
pressure to the condenser pressure takes place only in one set of nozzles and it leaves with a high
Blade Clearance Casing

Nozzle
Steam entering Exhaust steam
Labyrinth packing
Rotor Bearing
Shaft
Blade motion
direction
Velocity
Entering
Steam pressure
velocity
of steam
Lost velocity
Pressure
Condenser
pressure
Fig. 2.6 Schematic View of Simple Impulse Turbine

Casing
Fixed
blade Moving blade
Shaft
F: Fixed blade
M: Moving blade
F M F M F M
Initial
pressure Leaving velocity
Back pressure
Entering velocity
Fig. 2.8 Schematic View of a Reaction Turbine
the total initial available kinetic energy. The example of an impulse reaction turbine is Parsons
reaction turbine.
The steam turbine can also be classified on the following basis:
1. On the basis of direction of flow: (i) Radial flow turbine, and (ii) Axial flow turbine.
2. On the basis of method of compounding: (i) Velocity compounded turbine, (ii) Pressure
compounded turbine, and (iii) Pressure-velocity compounded turbine.
3. On the basis of number of stages: (i) Single-stage turbine, and (ii) Multistage turbine.
4. On the basis of position of shaft: (i) Horizontal shaft turbine, and (ii) Vertical shaft
turbine.
5. On the basis of pressure of steam at the inlet: (i) Low pressure steam turbine, and (ii) High
pressure steam turbine.
6. On the basis of exhaust condition of steam: (i) Condensing turbine, and (ii) Non-condensing
turbine.
7. On the basis of their use or service.
Guide Casing
Moving blade
blade
Nozzle
Exhaust Exhaust
entering steam
Rotor
Shaft
Bearing
N: Nozzle
M: Moving blade
G: Guide blade
N M G M G M
Lost velocity
pressure
Steam
Condenser
Entering steam velocity pressure
Fig. 2.9 Velocity Compounding (The Curtis Turbine)
gets converted into kinetic energy. There is no pressure drop either in moving blades or the guide
blades, means it remains constant as in the case of simple impulse turbine.
The high velocity steam from the nozzles enters the first row of moving blades where its
velocity reduces slightly by giving up its kinetic energy to the rotor. It then enters the first row of
guide blades which direct it to the second row of moving blades. A slight drop in velocity occurs
in the guide blades due to friction. When the steam passes through the second row of moving
blades again there will be slight drop in its velocity due to giving up some more kinetic energy to
the rotor. Then it is again directed by the second row of guide blades to the third row of moving
blades where further velocity drop takes place, and finally, it leaves the rotor axially with a reduced
velocity. The pressure and velocity variation is shown in Figure 2.9.
Therefore, the kinetic energy of the steam gained in the nozzles is successively absorbed in
stages by the rows of moving blades and gets converted into mechanical energy. Finally, the steam
is exhausted from the last row of the moving blades. The example of velocity compounded impulse
turbine is the Curtis turbine named after its designer. The velocity compounded turbines are used
as drives for centrifugal compressors, centrifugal pumps, small generators, and for driving feed
pumps in large power plants.
Advantages of Velocity Compounded Turbines Due to relatively fewer numbers of stages (2 to 3
only) its initial cost is low. It is easy to start, requires less space, and is reliable. The turbine and its
casing are not subjected to high pressure as all the expansion of steam takes place in the nozzles,
so these need not be manufactured of high strength. Due to low pressure inside the turbine the
leakage losses are less.
Disadvantages of Velocity Compounded Turbines Due to very high steam initial velocity the
frictional losses are more which causes low efficiency. The ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity
is not optimum for all the wheels which also results in low efficiency of the turbine. Therefore, the
efficiency of the turbine decreases with the increase in the number of stages. The power developed
in each successive blade row decreases with the increase in the number of rows and all the rows
require same space, material, and initial cost. So, all stages are not used with equal economy.
2.7.2 Pressure Compounding (The Rateau Turbine)

In this type of turbine the whole pressure drop from the steam chest pressure to the condenser
pressure divides into a series of smaller pressure drops across many stages of impulse turbine,
thus it is called pressure compounded impulse turbine.
It has a number of simple impulse turbines in a series on the same shaft. Each of the simple
impulse turbines consists of one row of nozzles and one row of moving blades which is termed a
stage of the turbine. The rows of moving blades are mounted on the rotor or wheel which is keyed
to the turbine shaft in series. The rows of fixed blades (nozzles) are fitted into the diaphragm which
separates the two stages and is fixed to the turbine casing. The pressure drop is divided up equally
between all the nozzles rows. The pressure and velocity variations are shown in Figure 2.10.
The steam from the boiler enters the first row of nozzles where its pressure reduces partially
and its velocity increases. Then it passes over the first row of moving blades where nearly all its
velocity is absorbed and its pressure remains constant. The exhaust steam from the first row of
moving blades enters the next nozzles row. The steam again partially expands and its velocity
again increases which gets absorbed in the second row of moving blades, and so on.
This turbine was invented by Professor Rateau, so it is known as Rateau turbine. In this turbine,
the ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity remains constant, so this is the most efficient type
of impulse turbine. But it is very costly as it has large number of stages. As the steam pressure
decreases from one stage to the next stage, the specific volume of the steam increases, therefore,
the blade height increases towards the low pressure side of the turbine.
2.7.3 Pressure-Velocity Compounding

It is a combination of pressure and velocity compounding. The total drop in steam pressure is
carried out in two stages and the velocity obtained in each stage is also compounded. This type
of arrangement for two rotors is shown in Figure 2.11.
Cylinder (casing)
Clearance
Steam Exhaust
entering steam
Wheel
Shaft
N: Nozzle
Bearing
M: Moving blade
N M N M
N M N M N M
Steam pressure
Lost velocity
Condenser
pressure
Entering velocity of steam
Fig. 2.10 Pressure Compounding (The Rateau Turbine)
In the first row of nozzles, there is a drop in pressure of the steam but its velocity increases.
The pressure remains constant in the two rows of moving blades of the first rotor and in the first
row of guide blades (fixed blades). But there is a velocity drop in the moving blades row. In the
second set of nozzles the remaining pressure drop occurs and velocity increases. The pressure
remains constant in the two rows of moving blades of the second rotor and in the second row of
guide blades. But the velocity drops in the moving blades of the second rotor.
So, in each rotor, velocity drop is achieved by the many rows of moving blades and hence its
velocity is compounded. And the total pressure drop occurs into two small pressure drops in two
nozzles rows, hence, it is pressure compounded. This method of compounding is used in Moore
and the Curtis turbines. This arrangement results in a more compact turbine than a pressure
compounded turbine, but its efficiency is relatively lower. The specific volume of steam is higher
in the second stage, so, the blade height is greater than the first stage.
2.8 VELOCITY DIAGRAMS FOR IMPULSE TURBINE

To evaluate the force on the blades and the power developed by a turbine, it is necessary to
determine the rate of change of momentum of steam across the moving blades. The steam should
Nozzle
Fixed blade
Moving blades (guide blade)
Nozzle
Steam entering Exhaust steam
Fixed blade
(guide blade) Moving blades
Shaft
Bearing
N: Nozzle
M: Moving blade
G: Guide blade
N M G M N M
G M
Velocity
Pressure
Steam pressure
Lost velocity
Condenser pressure
Entering velocity of steam
Fig. 2.11 Pressure-Velocity Compounding
enter and leave the blade without any shock for which the inlet and outlet angles of the moving
blades should be evaluated. In order to fulfil these objectives, it is essential to draw the vector
diagrams at the inlet and outlet of the moving blades showing the variations of velocity of steam
during its flow through the blade passage.
The following notations are used for the velocity diagrams:
Suffixes 1 and 2 denote the inlet and outlet conditions respectively, for moving blades as shown
in Figure 2.12 and Figure 2.13.
u = Tangential or circumferential velocity of blades which remains constant at inlet
and outlet of moving blades because of small blades height, i.e., u1 = u2 = u
V1 and V2 = Absolute velocity of steam at the inlet and outlet respectively
Vw1 and Vw2 = Velocity of whirl at the inlet and outlet respectively, (i.e., tangential component
of V1)
Vf1 and Vf2 = Velocity of flow at the inlet and outlet respectively, (i.e., axial component of V1
and V2 respectively)
Vw 1 Vw 2
B u A
E 1 F
1 2 2
Vf 1 V2 Vf 2
Vr 1 Vr 2
V1
C D
Fig. 2.13 Combined Velocity Diagram for Impulse Turbine
The value of K varies from 0.85 to 0.9 and for smooth blades K = 1, means Vr1 = Vr2.
The procedure for drawing the combined velocity diagram is given below:
1. Draw horizontal line AB equal to blade velocity u to some suitable scale.
2. Draw a line AC at an angle a1 with AB. Cut AC = V1.
3. Join B and C which represents the relative velocity Vr1 at inlet. The blade inlet angle b1 is
measured and its value is evaluated.
4. From point C draw a perpendicular CE on AB produced. CE represents flow velocity (axial
velocity) at inlet and AE represents whirl velocity (tangential velocity) at inlet.
5. From point B draw a line BD at an angle b2 (blade outlet angle).
Cut BD = Vr2 = KVr1. Join A and D which represents the absolute velocity (V2) at outlet.
The angle a2 is measured.
6. From point D draw a perpendicular DF on BA produced. DF represents flow velocity (axial
velocity) at outlet and AF represents whirl velocity (tangential velocity) at outlet.
Thus, velocity triangles get completed.
2.8.1 Force and Work Done on Turbine Blades and Efficiency

1. Force in the tangential direction (Ft).
Ft = mass acceleration in tangential direction
= mass per second change in velocity in tangential direction
Ft = m (Vw1 Vw2) N
(when Vw1 and Vw2 are in opposite direction)
Ft = m (Vw1 + Vw2) N
(when Vw1 and Vw2 are in same direction)
Thus general expression for tangential force becomes,
Ft = m (Vw1 Vw2) N (2.6)
2.9.1 Degree of Reaction (R)
The degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of enthalpy drop in the moving blades to the sum
of the enthalpy drops in the fixed and the moving blades, i.e., in a stage. Figure 2.16 shows the
mounting of fixed and moving blades with h s diagram in which points 1, 2, and 3 indicate the
actual conditions of steam.
h 1 Pressure
Velocity
2
3
3
Casing
F. B. FB: Fixed blade

M. B. MB: Moving blade
F.B
M.B Rotor
Fig. 2.16 Isentropic Expansion with Pressure-Velocity Distribution in a Reaction Turbine Stage
The degree of reaction can be given by,

(Dh)moving blades
R = _________________________
(Dh)fixed blades + (Dh)moving blades
(Dh)m h2 h3
= ___________ = ______ (2.19)
(Dh)f + (Dh)m h1 h3
In pure impulse turbine, degree of reaction is zero and in pure reaction turbine it is one.
The enthalpy drop in moving blades is given by,
V2r2 V2r1
Dhm = ________ (2.20)
2
And enthalpy drop in fixed blades is given by,
V12 V22
Dhf = ________ (2.21)
2
The total enthalpy drop in a stage = work done by the steam in the stage, i.e.,
Dhm + Dhf = u(Vw1 + Vw2) (2.22)
V2r2 V2r1
R= ____________ (2.23)
2u(Vw1 + Vw2)
From Figure 2.15, we have,

Vr2 = Vf2 cosec b2,
Vr1 = Vf1 cosec b1,
and (Vw1 + Vw2) = Vf1 cot b1 + Vf2 cot b2
The velocity of flow remains constant, i.e.,
Vf1 = Vf2 = Vf
So, degree of reaction can be given by,
(Vf2 cosec b2)2 (Vf1 cosec b1)2
R = __________________________
2uVf (cot b1 + cot b2)
Vf (cosec b2 cosec b1)2
R = ____________________
2u(cot b1 + cot b2)
[
Vf (cot2b2 + 1) (cot2b1 + 1)
R = ___ _____________________
2u (cot b1 + cot b2) ]
R= ___
[
Vf (cot2b2 cot2b1)
______________
2u (cot b1 + cot b2) ]
Vf
\ R = ___ (cot b1 + cot b2) (2.24)
2u
If the reaction turbine is designed for 50% reaction then Eq. (2.24) can be written as,
Vf
1 ___
__ = (cot b1 + cot b2)
2 2u
u = Vf (cot b1 + cot b2)
The blade velocity u can also be given by,
u = Vf (cot a1 + cot b1) = Vf (cot b2 + cot a2)
Therefore, b1 = a2, and b2 = a1
It means that the moving blades and fixed blades must have the same shape if the degree of
reaction is 50%. This condition gives symmetrical velocity diagrams. This type of turbine is known
as Parsons reaction turbine.
2.9.2 Blade or Diagram Efficiency of a Reaction Turbine

For determining the efficiency the following assumptions are made:
(i) The degree of reaction is 50%,
(ii) The fixed and moving blades are of the same shape, and
Substituting the values of W and Dh in blade efficiency expression, we have,

W
hb = ___
Dh
V12 (2r cos a1 r2)
= ______________________
(V12/2) (1 + 2rcos a1 r2)
2r (2 cos a1 r)
hb = _______________2
1 + 2r cos a1 r
(4r cos a1 2r2)
= _________________2 (2.28)
(1 + 2r cos a1 r )
For maximum efficiency,
dhb
____ = 0,
dr
i.e., ___
[
(4r cos a1 2r2)
d _________________
dr (1 + 2r cos a1 r2)
=0
]
+ 2r cos a1 r2) (4 cos a1 4r) (4r cos a1 2r2) . (2 cos a1 2r)
(1 ___________________________________________________________
=0
(1 + 2r cos a1 r2)
4 (cos a1 r) (1 + 2r cos a1 r2) 4r (cos a1 r) (2 cos a1 r) = 0
4 (cos a1 r) [(1 + 2r cos a1 r2) r (2 cos a1 r)] = 0
4 (cos a1 r) [1 + 2r cos a1 r2 2r cos a1 + r] = 0
4 (cos a1 r) . [1] = 0
\ r = cos a1 (2.29)
Substituting the value of r from equation (2.29) in equation (2.28), the value of maximum
efficiency is given by,
(4 cos2a1 2 cos2a1)
(hb)max = ___________________
(1 + 2 cos2a1 cos2a1)
2 cos2a1
\ (hb)max = __________ (2.30)
(1 + cos2a1)
2.10 LOSSES IN STEAM TURBINES

The steam turbine losses tend to decrease the efficiency and work output of a turbine. The various
losses in steam turbines are given below.
Residual Velocity Loss The steam leaves the turbine with certain absolute velocity (V1). The
energy loss due to absolute exit velocity of steam is equivalent to (V12/2). In a single-stage impulse
turbine, the residual velocity loss may be about 10% to 12% which can be reduced by using
multistage turbine.
Loss Due to Friction and Turbulence Friction loss occurs in nozzles, turbine blades, and between
steam and rotating disc. The friction loss in the nozzle is taken into account by nozzle efficiency.
The loss due to friction and turbulence is about 10%.
Losses Due to Leakage Some amount of steam leaks from the chamber without doing useful
work. The total leakage loss is about 1% to 2%. The steam leakage occurs: (i) between the turbine
shaft and the bearings, (ii) at the clearance between the diaphragm and the stationary disc in the
case of impulse turbines, (iii) at the blade tips in the case of reaction turbines, and (iv) leakage
of steam through the labyrinth glands.
Loss Due to Mechanical Friction and Bearing This loss occurs due to friction between shaft and
bearing which can be reduced by a proper lubricating system.
Losses in Regulating Valves The steam enters the turbine through the stop and regulating
(governor) valves. In these valves, the steam gets throttled and the pressure of steam at the entry
to the turbine is less than the boiler pressure. Although throttling is a constant enthalpy process,
the enthalpy drop available for work in the turbine is reduced. The magnitude of this loss may be
of the order of 5% to 10%.
Losses Due to Wetness of Steam The condition of steam after last stage of the turbine is wet.
The velocity of water particles is less than that of steam. Therefore, the water particles have to be
dragged along with the steam which results in loss of the kinetic energy of steam.
Radiation Loss Turbines are heavily insulated to avoid any heat loss to the surroundings, so this
loss is negligible.
2.11. EFFICIENCIES AND REHEAT FACTOR

1-2s: Isentropic expansion
Due to various internal losses in the stage of steam turbine the h (Ideal expansion)
1-2: Actual expansion
work available is less than that due to isentropic expansion.
This is schematically presented on the h s diagram as 1
shown in Figure 2.17. The process 1 2s shows the isentropic
expansion in the nozzle and 1-2 shows the actual path of the
process which is due to friction loss.
2
Stage Efficiency It is defined as the ratio of actual heat drop 2s
to the isentropic heat drop. It is given by, s
Actual heat drop Fig. 2.17 Expansion of Steam in
hs = _________________
Isentropic heat drop Single Stage on h s Diagram
h1 h2 Dh1 2
= _______ = ______ (2.31)
h1 h2s Dh1 2s
Figure 2.18 shows the expansion of steam through a four-stage turbine.
p1
h
Constant p2
pressure
lines
Isentropic
expansion 1
Condition p3
line
Saturation line
2
2s p4
st
1 Stage
3
nd
2 Stage 3s
4
rd p5
3 Stage 4s
5
th 5s
4 Stage
6s
Fig. 2.18 Expansion of Steam in Multistage Turbine on h s Diagram
The isentropic heat drops are shown by points 1 2s, 2 3s, 3 4s and 4 5s, whereas actual
heat drops are shown by points 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, and 4-5. The curve joining the points 1, 2, 3, 4, and
5 is called the condition line. The heat drops Dh1 2, Dh2 3, Dh3 4, Dh4 5, are the actual heat
drops which get converted into useful work. The heat drops Dh1 2s, Dh2 3s, Dh3 4s and Dh4 5s
are the isentropic heat drops. The sum of the isentropic heat drops is called cumulative heat drop
which is denoted by Dhc. The heat drop Dh1 6s is called direct isentropic heat drop (or Rankine
heat drop) which is denoted by Dhise. The constant pressure lines on the h s diagram diverges
as we move from left to right, so the cumulative heat drop is always greater than Rankine heat
drop.
Reheat Factor (RF) It is defined as the ratio of the cumulative heat drop to the direct isentropic
heat drop (or Rankine heat drop). It can be given by,
Cumulative isentropic heat drop
RF = __________________________ (2.32)
Rankine heat drop
Referring to Figure 2.18,
Dh1 2s + Dh2 3s + Dh3 4s + Dh4 5s
RF = _____________________________
Dh1 6s
Dhc
= ____ (2.33)
Dhise
As the cumulative heat drop is always greater than Rankine heat drop, so the value of reheat
factor is always greater than unity. The reheat factor depends on turbine efficiency, initial pressure,
superheat, exit pressure, and number of stages in a given pressure range. The reheat factor is
greater if the number of stages are more for a given pressure range and lower the stage efficiency.
The lower value of reheat factor is always desirable. The value of reheat factor generally lies in
the range of 1.02 to 1.06.
Internal Efficiency It is defined as the ratio of the internal work done (actual work done) in the
turbine to the direct Rankine work done. It is given by,
Dh1 2 + Dh2 3 + Dh3 4 + Dh4 5
hi = ___________________________
Dh1 6s
Dhi
= ____ (2.34)
Dhise
If the stage efficiency remains same for all the stages then we have,
Dh1 2 Dh2 3 Dh3 4 Dh4 5
hs = ______ = ______ = ______ = ______
Dh1 2s Dh2 3s Dh3 4s Dh4 5s
Dh1 2 + Dh2 3 + Dh3 4 + Dh4 5
hs = _____________________________
Dh1 2s + Dh2 3s + Dh3 4s + Dh4 5s
Dhi
= ____ (2.35)
Dhc
or Dhi = hs . Dhc (2.36)
But Dhc = RF Dhise (From Eq. 2.33)
\ Dhi = hs . (RF Dhise) (2.37)
Substituting equation (2.37) in equation (2.34), we have,
Dhi hs . (RF Dhise)
hi = ____ = ______________
Dhise Dhise
= hs RF (2.38)
2.12 GOVERNING OF STEAM TURBINES

The purpose of governing is to maintain the speed of the turbine fairly constant irrespective of
load on the turbine. The methods of governing which are used in steam turbines are: (1) Throttle
governing, (2) Nozzle control governing, (3) By-pass governing, (4) Combination of throttle and
nozzle governing, and (5) Combination of throttle and bypass governing.
2.12.1 Throttle Governing

The main parts of a simple throttle governing system are shown schematically in Figure 2.19. The
turbine stop valve A is used to start and stop the turbine by its opening or closing with the help
2.12.2 Nozzle Control Governing
In the nozzle control governing, the steam supply from the main valve is divided into two, three,
or more lines. Each line feeds a set of nozzles controlled by valves. The steam supply to one or
more of the nozzle sets is cut-off by the valves operated by the governor when the load on the
turbine decreases.
N2
N3
N1
V2 V3
V1
Steam inlet
V4 V3 V2
V1
N3 N2
N4 N1
Steam inlet
Fig. 2.20 Schematic View of Nozzle Control Governing
Figure 2.20 shows arrangements for nozzle control governing, where nozzles are divided into
three sets N1, N2, and N3 each controlled by valves V1, V2, and V3 respectively and four sets N1,
N2, N3, and N4 each controlled by valves V1, V2, V3, and V4 respectively. This method is suitable
for medium and large steam turbines. It is generally employed at the first stage of turbine and is
not practical for multistage impulse turbines.
2.12.3 Bypass Governing

In this method of governing, the extra quantity of steam from the first stage nozzle box of the
turbine is bypassed into the latter stages as shown in Figure 2.21.
The main valve and the bypass valve are under the control of speed governor. The total amount
of steam entering the turbine passes through the main valve. For all loads greater than the economic
load, the bypass valve gets opened which allows the steam to pass from the first stage nozzle box
into the steam belt and thus into the nozzles of the downstream stages. When the load reduces
the bypass valve closes.
Bypass steam Bypass steam

Bypass to latter end of
valve turbine
Steam belt
Nozzle box or
steam chest
Shaft
Throttle Wheel
valve
Steam
inlet
Main valve Steam belt

Nozzle box or
Rotor discs
steam chest Nozzle diaphragm
Fig. 2.21 Schematic View of Bypass Governing
Example 2.1 Steam flows from the nozzles of a single row impulse turbine with a velocity
of 500 m/s in a direction which is inclined at an angle of 15 to the peripheral velocity. Steam
comes out of the moving blades with an absolute velocity of 100 m/s and the direction at 120
with the direction of blade motion. The blades are equiangular and steam flow rate is 7.5 kg/s.
Calculate (i) the power developed, (ii) power loss due to friction, and (iii) blade efficiency. Solve
the problem analytically.
Solution Refer Figure 2.22.
CB = Vf1 = V1 sin a1
= 500 sin 15 = 129.41 m/s
CD = V1 cos a1 u
= 500 cos 15 u = (482.96 u) m/s
Vw = V w 1 + V w 2
2 15 120
C D u A E
1 2
Vr 1 Vf 2
V2
Vf 1 Vr 2
F
V1 = 500 m/s
B
Fig. 2.22
Example 2.2 In a De-Laval turbine the steam enters the wheel through a nozzle with a
velocity of 550 m/s and at an angle of 20 to the direction of motion of the blade. The blade
speed is 250 m/s and the exit angle is 24. By following the graphical method, find (i) the inlet
angle of moving blade, (ii) exit velocity of steam and its direction, (iii) power developed per kg
of steam, and (iv) the diagram efficiency.
Solution Following are the steps to draw the velocity diagram:
1. Choosing scale, 1 cm = 50 m/s
\ u = (200/50) = 4 cm
and V1 = (500/50) = 10 cm
2. Draw AB = u = 4 cm. Draw line AC at 20 ( a1 = 20), cut this line V1 = 10 cm.
3. Join BC which represents Vr1. Measure BC and multiply it by scale to get Vr1.
4. Draw line at B at 24 ( b2 = 24). With B as centre and radius BC swing an arc meeting
line through B at D. Join BD which represents Vr2.
5. Join AD which represents V2.
6. From points C and D draw perpendiculars meeting line AB produced at E and F respectively.
CE represents Vf1, and DF represents Vf2. AE represents Vw1, and AF represents Vw2.
This completes the velocity diagram as shown in Figure 2.23.
Vw1 Vw2
u = 200 m/s
B A F
E 2
1 24 20
V2 Vf 2
Vf 1
Vr 2
Vr 1
D
V1 = 500 m/s
Fig. 2.23 (Not to scale)
(i) Inlet angle of the moving blade (b1): By measurement from the velocity triangle,
we found, EBC = b1 = 32
(ii) Exit velocity of steam (V2) and its direction (a2): By measurement from the velocity
triangle,
we get, AD = 3.2 cm
1 200 (420 + 25)

= _________________ = 89 kW
1000
(iv) Diagram efficiency: By measurement from the velocity triangle,
Vw = (Vw1 + Vw2)
= (420 + 25) = 445 m/s
2 u Vw
Diagram efficiency, hb = _________
V12
2 200 445
= ____________ = 0.8790 or 87.90%
4502
(v) Axial thrust per kg of steam (Fa): By measurement from the velocity triangle, we get,
EC = 3.1 cm
\ Vf1 = 3.1 50 = 155 m/s
and FD = 2 cm
\ Vf2 = 2 50 = 100 m/s
Fa = m (Vf1 Vf2)
= 1 (155 100) = 50 V
Example 2.4 In a stage of an impulse turbine provided with a single row wheel, the mean
diameter of blade ring is 0.80 m and the speed of rotation is 3000 rpm. The steam issues from
the nozzle with a velocity of 300 m/s and the nozzle angle is 20. The blades are equiangular and
blade coefficient is 0.85. Determine the power developed in the blades when the axial thrust on
the blade is 150 N. Also determine the diagram efficiency.
u = p d (N/60)
= p 0.80 (3000/60) = 125.66 m/s
Vw1 = V1 cos a1
= 300 cos 20 = 281.91 m/s
BE = Vw1 u = 281.91 152.66
= 156.25 m/s
________
CE = Vf1 = V12 V2w1
_______________
= (300)2 (281.91)2 = 102.59 m/s
CE 102.59
tan b1 = ___ = ______ = 0.6554
BE 156.52
Vw
u
B A
E 1 F
1 2 2
Vf 2
Vf 1 V2
Vr 1
Vr 2
V1
C D
Fig. 2.25
b1 = 33.20
\ b1 = b2 = 33.20
________
__________________
Vr1 = V2f1 + BE2
= (102.59)2 + (165.25)2 = 186.92 m/s
Vr2
But K = 0.85 = ___,
Vr1
\ Vr2 = 0.85 186.92 = 158.88 m/s
\ Vw2 = Vr2 cos b2 u
= 158.88 cos (33.20) 125.66 = 7.29 m/s
Vf2 = Vr2 sin b2
= 158.88 sin (33.20) = 86.99 m/s
Fa = m (Vf1 Vf2)
Fa
\ m = _________
(Vf1 Vf2)
150
= ______________ = 2.16 kg/s
(156.52 86.99)
m u (Vw1 + Vw2)
Blade power = _________________
1000
2.16 125.66 (281.91 + 7.29)
= __________________________
1000
= 78.49 kW
2 u Vw
hb = _________
V12
2 125.66 (281.91 + 7.29)
= ________________________
3002
= 0.8076 or 80.76%
Example 2.5 Steam at 350 m/s is supplied to the single stage impulse turbine through a
nozzle. The nozzle angle is 25. The mean diameter of the blade rotor is 1.0 m and it has a speed
of 2000 rpm. Find the blade angles if there is no axial thrust. If the steam flow rate is 5 kg/s
and the blade coefficient is 0.85 then determine the power developed. Also determine the blade
efficiency and energy lost in the blade friction.
u = p d (N/60)
= p 1.0 (2000/60) = 104.72 m/s
Vw1 = V1 cos a1 = 350 cos 25
= 317.21 m/s
BE = Vw1 u = 317.21 104.72
= 212.49 m/s
________
CE = Vf1 = Vf2 = V12 V2w1
_______________
= (350)2 (317.21)2 = 147.91 m/s
________
__________________
Vr1 = V2f1 + BE2
= (147.91)2 + (212.49)2 = 258.90 m/s
CE 147.91
tan b1 = ___ = ______
BE 212.49
= 0.6961
\ b1 = 34.84
Vr2
K = 0.85 = ___
Vr1
\ Vr2 = 0.85 258.90 = 220.06 m/s
Vf2 157.91
sin b2 = ___ = ______ = 0.6721
Vr2 220.06
\ b2 = 42.23
\ Vw2 = Vr2 cos b2 u
= 220.06 cos (42.23) 104.72 = 58.22 m/s

m u (Vw1 + Vw2)
Power developed = _________________
1000
5 104.72 (317.21 + 58.22)
= _________________________ = 196.58 kW
1000
2 u Vw
Blade efficiency, hb = _________
V12
2 104.72 (317.21 + 58.22)
= _________________________
3502
= 0.6419 or 64.19%
Power loss due to friction
m ( V2r1 V2r2 )
= _____________
2 1000
5 (258.902 220.062)
= ____________________
2 1000
= 46.51 kW
Example 2.6 In a stage of Parsons reaction turbine the mean diameter of the blade ring is
80 cm and its speed is 1500 rpm. The steam velocity at the inlet of moving blades is 165 m/s and
the outlet blade angle is 20. The mass flow rate of steam is 6.5 kg/s and the stage efficiency is
85%. Determine (i) blade inlet angle, (ii) power developed, and (iii) available isentropic enthalpy
drop.
u = p d (N/60)
= p 0.80 (1500/60) = 62.83 m/s
In Parsons reaction turbine,
Vf1 = Vf2 = Vf,
b1 = a2 and b2 = a2
Vw1 = V1 cos a1
= 165 cos 20 = 155.05 m/s
Vf1 = Vf2 = Vf = V1 sin a1
= 165 sin 20 = 56.43 m/s
BE = Vw1 u
= 155.05 62.83 = 92.22 m/s
Vw 1 Vw 2
u
B A
E 1 F
1 2 2
Vf 1 V2 Vf 2
Vr 1
Vr 2
V1
C D
Fig. 2.26
CE 56.43
tan b1 = ___ = _____ = 0.6119
BE 92.22
b1 = a2 = 31.46
Vf2
tan a2 = ____
Vw2
Vf2 56.43
or Vw2 = ______ = _________ = 92.23 m/s
tan a2 tan (31.46)
m u (Vw1 + Vw2)
P = _________________
1000
6.5 62.83 (155.05 + 92.23)
= _________________________
1000
= 100.99 kW
Work done by turbine
hs = _____________________
Isentropic enthalpic drop
P
= _____
Dhisn
P 100.99
\ Dhisn = __ = ______
hs 0.85
= 118.81 kW
Example 2.7 In a stage of impulse turbine the blade angles are equal and the nozzle angle is
20o. The velocity coefficient of the blade is 0.85. Find the maximum blade efficiency. If the actual
blade efficiency is 90 per cent of maximum blade efficiency, determine the blade speed ratio.
Solution b1 = b2, a1 = 20, and K = 0.85
1. Condenser It is a closed vessel heat exchanger in which exhaust steam from the turbine is
condensed. During the condensation process the steam gives up heat to circulating cooling
water.
2. Condensate Extraction Pump It is a pump required to extract the condensate from the
condenser to the hot well.
3. Air Extraction Pump It is a pump to remove air and non-condensable gases. Sometimes
a single pump known as wet air pump is used to remove both air and the condensate.
4. Hot Well It is a sump provided between the condenser and the boiler. In a hot well the
condensate pumped by the condensate extraction pump is collected.
5. Boiler Feed Pump It is a pump used to force the condensate from hot well into the boiler.
This is done by increasing the pressure of the condensate above the boiler pressure.
6. Condenser Cooling Water Pump It is a pump used to maintain the circulation of cooling
water through the condenser.
7. Make Up Water Pump It is a pump used to compensate the water lost due to evaporation
during cooling of hot water in the cooling tower. It circulates the required amount of cooling
water into the condenser from the river or some other water source.
8. Cooling Tower or Spray Pond A cooling tower is used to re-cool the hot water coming
out of the condenser. The hot water is cooled by evaporative cooling in which heat is rejected
to the atmospheric air. The use of cooling tower becomes essential when there is shortage
of cooling water, and it has to be used over and over again in the condenser.
9. Relief Valve It is used to relieve the steam from the condenser when the condenser does
not work properly by which the plant becomes non-condensing.
2.15 TYPES OF STEAM CONDENSERS

The steam condensers are broadly classified into two types, namely, jet condenser (or mixing type
condenser), and surface condenser (or non-mixing type condenser).
1. Jet Condensers or Mixing Type Condensers In jet condensers there is direct contact between the
exhaust steam and cooling water. The temperature of the condensate is same as that of the cooling
water leaving the condenser. Heat exchange occurs by direct conduction between the steam and
water. If the cooling water is not pure and free from harmful impurities then the condensate cannot
be reused as feed water to the boilers. Due to loss of condensate and high power requirement by
the pump these condensers are rarely used in modern steam power plants.
Jet condensers are of the following types:
(i) Low-level jet condensers: These are of the following two types
(a) Parallel flow type: The steam and cooling water flow in the same direction.
(b) Counter flow type: The steam and cooling water flow in the opposite directions.
(ii) High-level jet condensers, and
(iii) Ejector jet condensers.
2. Surface Condensers or Non-mixing Type Condensers In surface condensers, there is no direct

contact between the exhaust steam and the cooling water. The steam surrounds the tubes fitted in
the condenser shell and the cooling water circulates through these tubes. The steam gets condensed
due to the heat transfer to cooling water by conduction and convection. The condensate collected
from these condensers is reused as feed water in the boiler. Thus, these condensers are most
suitable for modern steam power plants and chemical industries. These are generally used where
a large quantity of inferior water is available and better quality of feed water is to be supplied to
the boiler. So, these condensers are universally used in marine engines where seawater is used for
cooling purposes. The only drawback of these condensers is its high initial cost but is recovered
by the saving in running cost.
The surface condensers may be classified according to:
(i) Direction of condensate flow and tube arrangement:
(a) Down flow type,
(b) Central flow type, and
(c) Inverted flow type.
(ii) The number of water passes: single pass, double pass, or multi pass, and
(iii) Evaporative type.
2.15.1 Low-level Jet Condensers

Low-level jet condenser is placed at low levels such that vacuum inside the condenser draws the
cooling water into it from the cooling water source. Parallel flow and counterflow low-level jet
condensers are shown in Figure 2.30.
In counterflow jet condenser the water and steam flows in opposite directions but in parallel
flow both flow in the same direction. In both the cases the cooling water enters at the top of the
condenser and passes through the perforated trays so that it breaks into sprays and increases the
heat transfer rate by providing more contact surface area.
When the steam comes into contact with cooling water it gets condensed. The extraction of air
is done from the top of the condensers. The vacuum created in the condenser is sufficient to draw
the cold water from the cooling pond. The pressure causing the water flow from the cooling pond
(or cold tank) to the condenser top is given by (pa pc), where pa is the atmospheric pressure and
pc is the condenser pressure. The condensate is extracted by the extraction pump and is discharged
to the hot well. The excess amount of condensate from hot well flows into the cooling pond by an
overflow pipe and the remaining water is pumped to the boiler as feed water. These condensers
have the disadvantage of flooding the turbine if water extraction pump fails due to any reason.
2.15.2 High-level Jet Condensers

A high-level jet condenser is also called barometric condenser because the condenser shell is
placed above the hot well by more than barometric height of water column of 10.363 m. A long
tailpipe, more than 10.363 m in length is attached between the bottom of the condenser and the
Fig. 2.30 Low-level Jet Condensers
Air extracted by pump
Condenser shell
Water
Baffle plate
Exhaust steam Cold water

from turbine Steam
Injection pump
Tailpipe (cold water pump)
10.363 m water
Overflow
Minimum
Barometric
height
Condensate
Hot well
Cooling pond
Fig. 2.31 High-level Jet Condenser

hot well. The pressure at the bottom of the pipe is equal to atmospheric pressure, whereas at its
top in the condenser shell vacuum pressure is maintained. It avoids the rise of water in the tail
pipe and water extraction pump is also not required. The condensate and water from the condenser
go down to the hot well under the gravity and maintain a water leg in the tail pipe depending
upon the vacuum in the condenser. As the height of the shell is large so, an injection pump is
required to pump water to the top of the shell. A schematic view of high jet condenser is shown
in Figure 2.31.
The working and other details of this condenser are similar to low-level counter flow jet
condenser. Its drawbacks are high costs and loss of vacuum between the turbine and the condenser.
It is used where sufficient head required for tailpipe is available.
2.15.3 Ejector Condenser

Cooling water from tank or pump
A schematic view of an ejector condenser
is shown in Figure 2.32. It is suitable for
moderate vacuum only. Non-return
valve
The cooling water under the head of
about 5 m to 6 m enters the condenser from Converging
cones
Exhaust steam
its top. It is discharged through a series of from turbine
convergent nozzles in which the potential

energy get converted into the kinetic energy Diverging
and thus partial vacuum is created. The cone
exhaust steam enters the condenser through
a non-return valve. It condenses through the
mixing with cooling water and thus vacuum
further increases. The condensate after
Condensate and water to hot well
passing through the series of convergent
nozzles passes through the divergent nozzle. Fig. 2.32 Ejector Condenser
When it passes through the divergent nozzle
the kinetic energy of condensate reconverts into potential energy and thus a higher pressure than
the atmospheric pressure is obtained which forces out the condensate to the hot well. Thus, in this
condenser no air extraction pump is required. A non-return valve is fitted at the exhaust steam
pipe to the condenser to prevent any rush of water from the hot well to the turbine in the case of
cooling water failure.
2.15.4 Surface Condenser

A schematic view of the surface condenser is shown in Figure 2.33.
It consists of an airtight cylindrical shell closed at each end. A number of parallel brass water
tubes are fitted in the tube plates which are fixed between each cover head and the shell. The
space between the tube plates and the cover head is known as water box. A baffle plate partitions
the water box into two sections. The cooling water enters the shell at the lower half section and
flows in one direction. Then it returns in the opposite direction through the upper half section of
Exhaust steam from turbine
Cooling Tube Water box

plate Shell Tubes
water outlet (undivided)
Baffle plate
Water box To air pump

(divided)
Cooling Cover
water inlet head
Cover Tube
head plate
Condensate to extraction pump
Fig. 2.33 Surface Condenser
the condenser and finally, it leaves through the outlet. In this type of condenser the water traverses
two times, so it is called the two-pass condenser. The exhaust steam from the turbine enters at
the top of the condenser and surrounds the tubes through which cooling water flows under force.
The steam condenses when it comes in contact with the cold surface of the tubes. The water
gets warmed in the condenser is discharged into the cooling tower, river, or cooling pond. The
condensate is taken out from the condenser by a condensate extraction pump. The air is removed
by an air extraction pump.
Down Flow Surface Condenser Figure 2.34 (a) shows a sectional view of a down flow surface
condenser which is also known as dry vacuum type condenser. The steam enters at the top and
flow downwards over the tubes carrying cooling water. A section of tubes near the air pump
suction is screen off by providing a baffle plate. This screen is also called air cooler which helps
in extracting air at a lower temperature than the condensate. The low temperature of air reduces
its volume and hence the size of the pump gets reduced by as much as 50 per cent.
Central Flow Surface Condenser Figure 2.34 (b) shows a sectional view of a central flow surface
condenser in which the air extraction pump is provided at the centre and the air is extracted from
the centre. The exhaust steam and air enter from the top and flow radially towards the centre
by passing over the entire periphery of the tubes. The condensate is extracted at the bottom by
condensate extraction pump. This condenser is an improvement over the down flow type as steam
has an access to the whole periphery of the cooling tubes.
Inverted Flow Surface Condenser In the inverted flow type surface condenser the air suction
pump is provided at the top. So, the steam entering from the bottom of the condenser flows
upwards. The condensed steam collects in the bottom section from where it is extracted with the
help of a condensate extraction pump.
Steam and air Steam and air
Tubes Tubes
Baffle plate
To air Air
extraction
To air
pump
extraction
Air cooler pump
Air cooler
Condensate to Condensate to
condensate condensate
extraction pump extraction pump
Fig. 2.34 (a) Down Flow Surface Condenser (b) Central Flow Surface Condenser
2.15.5 Evaporative Condenser

A schematic arrangement of the evaporative Air and water vapor to atmosphere
condenser is shown in Figure 2.35.
Induced
These are used where there is scarcity of draft fan
water. The exhaust steam from the turbine
enters a coiled finned pipe. The water from the Eliminators
cooling pond is pumped by means of a pump
to a horizontal header which is provided with
spray nozzles. The sprayed water forms thin Header
film over the pipe surface and gets evaporated Nozzle

in passing over the pipe under a small partial Exhaust
steam in Cooling
pressure and thus cools the steam inside the water
Finned tubes
pipes. The air is drawn over the surface of
finned pipe with the help of induced draft fan to Condensate Pump
outlet
increase the evaporation of cooling water which
Air in
further increases the condensation of steam in Air in
pipes. Eliminators are provided to prevent the
exit of water vapors with the leaving heated air.
The cooling water gets collected into the cooling Cooling
pond
pond. In the cooling pond the water lost due to
evaporation is replenished by the addition of Fig. 2.35 Evaporative Condenser
required amount of cold make up water.
The arrangement of this type of condenser is simple, cheap, and requires small quantity of
cooling water thus capacity of water circulating pump is small. The vacuum maintained in this
type of condenser is not as high as in the case of surface condensers. These condensers are used
in small power plants and are extensively used in refrigeration plant units.
2.16 REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD SURFACE CONDENSER

The following are the requirements of a good surface condenser:
1. The steam should enter the condenser with least possible resistance for its easy flow.
2. For effective condensation the steam should be well distributed in the vessel and there should
be minimum pressure drop.
3. The circulating cooling water should flow through the tubes with least friction. The rise
in temperature of cooling water should be limited to 10C for obtaining better thermal
efficiency.
4. There should be no undercooling of the condensate, so the steam should lose only its latent
heat to the circulating water. This is made possible by regulating the quantity of circulating
water in such a way that its exit temperature is same as the saturation temperature of
steam.
5. To obtain maximum heat transfer rate the tubes should be made of high thermal conductivity
material. The water should flow through tubes and steam outside so that the outer surface of
the tubes does not get deposited with sediments. If the cooling water is dirty then sediments
will get deposited inside the tubes. These sediments can be cleaned by motor driven brushes
after removing the end cover plates.
6. There should be no leakage of air from the condenser.
7. Minimum energy should be spent to extract the air from the condenser. This is achieved
by fitting a baffle plate at the coolest section where air pump is fitted. This arrangement
reduces the specific volume of air and thus reduces the size of the pump.
2.17 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONDENSERS

2.17.1 Jet Condensers
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of jet condensers.
Advantages
1. Due to more intimate mixing of steam and cooling water it requires less quantity of
circulating water for the condensation of steam.
2. Due to direct mixing it requires less building space.
3. The arrangement of jet condenser is simple in construction and low in cost. Its maintenance
cost is also low.
4. Low-level jet condenser does not require cooling water pump. In barometric and ejector
condensers there is no need of condensate extraction pump.
Disadvantages
1. There is wastage of condensate.
2. If the condensate is to be used as feed water then the cooling water should be pure and free
from any harmful impurities.
3. In the barometric condenser use of long pipe increase the cost of the condenser.
4. In the low-level jet condenser if the condensate extraction pump fails then there is greater
possibility of flooding of the engine.
5. In the case of barometric condenser a vacuum loss of about 1 to 1.5 cm of Hg occurs due
to leakage in the long exhaust pipe line.
6. Vacuum more than 66 cm of Hg cannot be achieved. This is because the dissolved air in
the cooling water gets liberated at low pressures.
7. The air extraction pump needs high power which may be about double the power required
by a surface condenser.
2.17.2 Surface Condensers

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of surface condensers.
Advantages
1. A high vacuum can be achieved (as much as 73.5 cm of Hg) and thus gives greater plant
efficiency.
2. Since the cooling water and steam do not mix, the condensate is recovered and can be used
as feed water to the boiler. Due to this advantage, these condensers are used in all steam
power plants.
3. Since the cooling water and steam do not mix, any kind of cooling water can be used. This
results in considerable reduction in the cost of water softening plant.
4. The chances of vacuum loss are minimized.
5. It requires much less power to run the air extraction pump and for water pumping.
6. It ideally suits high capacity plants.
7. It requires less quantity of make up water (about 4% to 5%).
Disadvantages
1. The system is bulky and requires large floor area.
2. It requires high capital cost and maintenance cost.
3. It requires more cooling water.
2.18 COMPARISON OF JET AND SURFACE CONDENSERS
Jet Condenser Surface Condenser

1. Cooling water and steam mix together. 1. Cooling water and steam do not mix together.
2. Condensate contains impurity, so it cannot be 2. Condensate is pure and free from any harmful
reused as feed water. impurities, so it can be reused as feed water.
3. It requires less quantity of cooling water for 3. It requires more quantity of cooling water for
condensation of steam due to direct mixing of condensation of steam since there is no mixing.
water with steam.
4. The cooling water should be free from impurities. 4. The cooling water of any quality can be used.
5. Vacuum efficiency is low. Thus, not suitable for 5. Vacuum efficiency is high. Thus, more suitable for
high capacity plants. high capacity plants.
6. The system design is simple, compact, and 6. The system design is complicated, bulky, and
economical. costly.
7. It requires small floor area. 7. It requires large floor area.
8. Maintenance is simple and less costly. 8. Maintenance is costly and requires skilled
worker.
9. It requires more power for air pump. 9. It requires less power for air pump.
10. It requires more power for water pumping. 10. It requires less power for water pumping.
11. It does not require condensate extraction pump. 11. It requires condensate extraction pump.
12. Vacuum more than 66 cm of Hg cannot be 12. A high vacuum as much as 73.5 cm of Hg can be
achieved. achieved.
2.19 CONDENSER VACUUM AND ITS MEASUREMENT

The pressure inside the condenser is below the atmospheric pressure and is called vacuum pressure.
The vacuum in the condenser is the difference between the barometric pressure and the absolute
pressure in the condenser. The difference between the barometer reading and the vacuum gauge
reading gives the absolute pressure in the condenser as shown in Figure 2.36.
Vacuum gauge
Condenser
Hb H v
Hb
Hv
Mercury tank
Fig. 2.36 Vacuum Measurement
Let the vacuum in the condenser be equivalent to Hv cm of mercury which is measured by

vacuum gauge and the barometric pressure is equivalent to Hb cm of mercury.
Therefore, absolute pressure = (Hb Hv) cm of Hg
We know that 76 cm of Hg = 1.01325 bar

Therefore, pressure equivalent to 1 cm of Hg = (1.01325/76) = 0.0133322 bar
If it is desired to know the absolute pressure in the condenser then the barometric reading and
gauge reading must be known. If barometric reading is 76 cm of Hg and gauge reading is 68 cm
of Hg then the absolute pressure in the condenser will be
= (76 68) = 8 cm of Hg
= 8 0.0133322 = 0.10666 bar.
The barometric head Hb varies according to atmospheric conditions, and hence the absolute
pressure in the condenser is a function of the barometric pressure.
If the barometric reading (atmospheric pressure) is 76 cm of Hg at sea-level then the corrected
vacuum in the condenser is given by,
= 76 absolute pressure in the condenser in cm of Hg
= 76 (Hb Hv) (2.39)
2.20 SOURCES OF AIR IN THE CONDENSER, ITS EFFECTS

AND REMOVAL
Sources of Air Leakage into the Condenser Following are the sources of air leakage into the
condenser:
1. As the pressure inside the condenser is below atmospheric, so the air tends to leak
into it through the joints, through the vents from the atmospheric relief valve and other
accessories.
2. The air dissolved in exhaust steam is liberated at low pressure.
3. The dissolved air in the water is also carried with the cooling water in jet condensers which
gets liberated at low pressure. The quantity of air carried with cooling water is about 0.005%
of the cooling water.
In a properly maintained surface condenser for a steam turbine plant the amount of air leakage
is about 5 kg per 10,000 kg of steam condensed, whereas for steam engine plants the air leakage
is about 15 kg per 10,000 kg of steam.
Effects of Air on the Performance of Condenser The presence of air in the condenser affects its
performance in the following ways:
1. It increases the condenser pressure or back pressure of the turbine (or engine) and reduces
the work output.
2. Due to lower thermal conductivity of air the rate of heat transfer also lowers, thus the surface
area of the condenser tubes is to be increased for a condenser duty.
3. The presence of air decreases the partial pressure of steam, so at low pressure the steam has
more latent heat. To remove this increased amount of heat more amount of cooling water
is to be supplied.
4. The air presence causes reduction in the rate of condensation of steam because the extraction
of heat by circulating water is partly from steam and partly from air.
5. An air extraction pump is required to maintain vacuum in the condenser. In spite of shielding
some quantity of steam escapes with the air which reduces the amount of the condensate.
Moreover, the condensate gets under-cooled, so more heat is to be supplied to the feed water
in the boiler.
6. Air present in the condenser increases the corrosive action.
Procedure to Check Air Leakage Run the plant till the pressure and temperature in the condenser
become steady. Then isolate the condenser from the rest of the plant by shutting off the steam
supply and stopping the air extraction and condensate pumps. If the condenser has any leakage
then the readings of vacuum gauge and thermometer will fall.
Methods to Check Air Leakage The point of air leakage can be located by any one of the following
methods:
(i) Soap Bubble Method The condenser is filled with air at pressure and then its effect on
soap water is noted at the locations where infiltration is likely to occur. At the point of air
leakage bubbles can be seen.
(ii) Candle Flame Method When the condenser is under vacuum then the large leakages can
be detected by passing a candle flame over suspected locations.
(iii) Peppermint Oil Method Peppermint oil is applied over suspected locations when the
condenser is working. If any leakage is there then oil fumes will enter into the condenser
and there will be oil odour in the discharge from the condenser.
2.21 DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES

The law states that the total pressure exerted by a non-reactive mixture of gases or a mixture of
gas and vapor is equal to the sum of partial pressure of the individual constituents of the mixture
at the same temperature (T).
The partial pressure of each constituent of the mixture is the pressure exerted by the constituent
taken separately in the same volume (V) of the vessel as that of mixture and at the same temperature.
This is explained by taking the following example as shown in Figure 2.37.
pt ps pa
Steam and air at Steam alone at Air alone at

temperature T temperature T temperature T
V V V
Fig. 2.37 Daltons Law of Partial Pressure

The total pressure (pt) in the condenser or vessel is the sum of the partial pressures of steam
(ps) and air (pa).
According to Daltons law of partial pressure,
pt = ps + pa
or pa = pt ps
The vacuum gauge reads the total pressure in the condenser, i.e., pt. The steam pressure ps can
be known from the steam table corresponding to condenser temperature. As pt and ps are known
thus pa can be determined.
2.22 VACUUM EFFICIENCY

The vacuum efficiency is a measure of the degree of perfection of maintaining a desired vacuum in
the condenser. The ideal vacuum means the vacuum due to steam alone when air is absent. Under
such a condition total pressure in the condenser will reach to the pressure of steam corresponding
to the saturation temperature of the steam.
Let
ps = Saturation pressure of steam in bar corresponding to the temperature of water entering
the condenser,
pt = Total pressure of air and steam
= ps + pa, and
pb = Barometric pressure or atmospheric pressure
Ideal vacuum = pb ps (2.40)
Actual vacuum = pb pt
= pb (pa + ps) (2.41)
The vacuum efficiency (hvacuum) is defined as the ratio of actual vacuum recorded by the vacuum
gauge to the ideal vacuum.
Actual vacuum recorded by gauge
hvacuum = ____________________________
Ideal vacuum
pb (pa + ps) p______
b pt
= ___________
pb ps = p p `(2.42)
b s
If there is no air leakage into the condenser then pa = 0 and hence the vacuum efficiency
becomes 100%. The vacuum efficiency depends upon the effectiveness of the air cooling and the
rate at which the air is removed by the air pump. Generally, the vacuum efficiency is about 98%
to 99%.
2.23 CONDENSER EFFICIENCY

In an ideal condenser the steam should give only its latent heat to the circulating water so that
temperature of the condensate becomes equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to
the condenser pressure. It means there should be no undercooling of the condensate. Maximum
temperature to which the cooling water can be raised is the condensate temperature. The condenser
efficiency (hcondenser) is then defined as the ratio of actual rise in the temperature of the cooling
water to the maximum possible rise, i.e.,
T 2 T1
hcondenser = ______ (2.43)
Ts T1
where T2 = Outlet temperature of cooling water, T1 = Inlet temperature of cooling water, and
Ts = Saturation temperature corresponding to condenser temperature.
Example 2.9 The following readings are recorded during a test on a steam condenser:
vacuum in condenser = 71.5 cm of Hg, barometer reading = 76.5 cm of Hg, mean temperature of
condenser = 33C, hot well temperature = 29C, inlet temperature of cooling water = 9C, outlet
temperature of cooling water = 26.5C. Calculate (i) corrected vacuum to standard barometer, (ii)
vacuum efficiency, (iii) under-cooling of the condensate, and (iv) condenser efficiency.
Solution
(i) Corrected vacuum = 76 (Hb Hg)
= 76 (76.5 71.5) = 71 cm of Hg
(ii) The absolute pressure of steam corresponding to condenser temperature of 33C (from steam
table)
= 0.05029 bar
= (0.05029/0.0133322) = 3.772
\ hvacuum = ____________________________
Ideal vacuum
71.5
= ___________ = 0.9831 or 98.31%
76.5 3.772
(iii) Under cooling of condensate = (condenser temperature hot well temperature)
Therefore, under-cooling of the condensate = (33 29) = 4C
(iv) Absolute condenser pressure = (barometric reading vacuum reading)
= (76 71.5) = 4.5 cm of Hg
= 4.5 0.0133322 = 0.05999 bar
Saturation temperature corresponding to 0.05999 bar = 35.85C (from steam table)
Therefore, the maximum temperature to which cooling water can be raised is 35.85C.
T 2 T1 26.5 9
\ hcondenser = ______ = ________
Ts T1 35.85 9
= 0.6518 or 65.18%
Example 2.10 In a condenser, vacuum gauge reads 71.5 cm of Hg while barometer reads
75.5 cm of Hg. The temperature of condenser is 25C. Determine (i) the pressure of steam
and air, (ii) mass of air per kg of steam, and (iii) corrected vacuum to standard barometer, and
(iv) vacuum efficiency.
Solution
(i) Total absolute pressure (pt) in the condenser
= (Hb Hv) = (75.5 71.5) = 4 cm of Hg
= 4 0.0133322 = 0.05332 bar
(ii) Partial pressure of steam (ps) at condensate temperature of 25C
ps = 0.03166 bar (From steam table)
Partial pressure of air,
pa = pt ps = 0.05332 0.03166
= 0.02166 bar
Specific volume of steam = 43.402 m3/kg. Air will also occupy the same volume.
Applying ideal gas equation,
pa va = ma Ra Ta
5
(0.02166 10 ) 61.02 = ma 287 (25 + 273)
\ ma = 1.094 kg/kg of steam
(iii) Corrected vacuum = 76 (Hb Hg) = 76 (75.5 71.5)
= 72 cm of Hg
(iv) From steam table, the absolute pressure of steam corresponding to condenser temperature
of 25C
= 0.03166 bar = (0.03166/0.0133322)
= 2.375
\ hvacuum = ____________________________
Ideal vacuum
71.5
= __________
75.5 2.37
= 0.9777 or 97.77%
Example 2.11 A condenser deals with 900 kg of steam per hour with a dryness fraction of
0.9. The temperature of condenser is 40C. The air associated with the steam in the condenser is
200 kg/hour. Determine the vacuum reading while barometer reads 75.5 cm of Hg. Correct this
vacuum to a standard barometer reading of 76 cm of Hg.
Solution From steam table, partial pressure of steam at 40C,
ps = 0.07375 bar, and
Volume of one kg of steam at 40C,
vs = 19.55 m3
\ Total volume of steam = m (x vs) = 900 (0.9 19.55)
= 15835.5 m3.
Air will also occupy the same volume.
pa va = ma Ra Ta
pa 15835.5 = 200 287 (40 + 273)
\ pa = 1134.55 N/m2 = 0.011345 bar
Total condenser pressure = 0.07375 + 0.011345 = 0.085095 bar
or = (0.085095/0.0133322) = 6.38 cm of Hg
\ Vacuum reading = 75.5 6.38 = 69.12 cm of Hg
Corrected vacuum = 76 (75.5 69.12) = 69.62 cm of Hg
Example 2.12 The following data are recorded during a test on a steam condenser: vacuum
in condenser = 71 cm of Hg, barometer reading = 76.5 cm of Hg, mean temperature of condenser =
35C, hot well temperature = 28C, inlet temperature of cooling water = 8.5C, outlet temperature
of cooling water = 25.6C, condensate collected = 1900 kg/hour, and cooling water quantity =
59,500 kg/hour. Calculate (i) corrected vacuum to standard barometer, (ii) vacuum efficiency,
(iii) under-cooling of condensate, (iv) condenser efficiency, (v) quality of steam entering the
condenser, and (iv) mass of air present per m3 of the condenser volume and per kg of uncondensed
steam.
Solution
(i) Corrected vacuum = 76 (Hb Hv)
= 76 (76.5 71) = 70.5 cm of Hg
(ii) The absolute pressure of steam corresponding to the condenser temperature of 35C (from
steam table)
= 0.05622 bar = (0.05622/0.0133322)
= 4.22 cm of Hg

\ hvacuum = ____________________________
Ideal vacuum
71
= __________ = 0.9823 or 98.23%
76.5 4.22
(iii) Under cooling of condensate = (condenser temperature hot well temperature)
= (35 28) = 7C
(iv) Absolute condenser pressure = (barometric reading vacuum reading)
= (76.5 71) = 5.5 cm of Hg
= 5.5 0.0133322 = 0.07333 bar
Saturation temperature corresponding to 0.05999 bar = 39.11C (from steam table)
Therefore, the maximum temperature to which cooling water can be raised is 35.85C
T 2 T1 25.6 8.5
\ hcondenser = ______ = __________
Ts T1 39.11 8.5
= 0.5586 or 55.86%
(v) Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by water (neglecting heat received by air)
\ ms (h1 + x1 hfg1 hc) = mw cpw (T2 T1) (hc is hf value of condensate at 28C)
1900 (166.89 + x1 2407.21 117.3) = 59500 4.2 (25.6 8.5)
\ x1 = 0.914
(vi) pa = pt ps = 0.07333 0.05622
= 0.01711 bar
To determine the mass of air per m3 of the condenser at 0.01711 bar pressure and at 35C
applying ideal gas equation,
pa va = ma Ra Ta
5
0.01711 10 1 = ma 287 (35 + 273)
\ ma = 0.01936 kg/m3
The volume of one kg mass of uncondensed steam is given by vs which is the specific volume
of saturated steam at 35C
So, volume of one kg of uncondensed steam = 25.25 m3/kg (from steam table)
The mass of air in one kg of uncondensed steam is calculated by applying ideal gas
equation,
0.01911 105 25.25 = ma 287 (35 + 273)
\ ma = 0.489 kg
2.24 MASS OF COOLING WATER REQUIRED IN A CONDENSER

In a jet condenser the exhaust steam and the cold water mix directly, so the resulting temperature of
the condensed steam and water is the same at its outlet. But in a surface condenser the temperature
of the condensate and the circulating water may differ.
Let m = Quantity of circulating water in kg/h, ms = Quantity of steam condensed in kg/h,
T = Temperature of the wet exhaust steam in C, Tc = Temperature of the condensate in C, hf =
Sensible heat or enthalpy of water at T C, hfg = Latent heat or enthalpy of evaporation of steam
at T C, x = Dryness fraction of exhaust steam, T1 = Inlet temperature of cooling water in C, T2
= Outlet temperature of cooling water in C, hc = Sensible heat or enthalpy of condensate, cw =
Specific heat of cooling water.
Now for a condenser,
Heat given up by steam = Heat absorbed by cooling water
For a surface condenser,
ms (hf + xhfg hc) = cpw m (T2 T1)
ms (hf + xhfg hc)
\ m = ________________ (2.44)
cpw (T2 T1)
For a jet condenser,
T 2 = Tc
ms (hf + xhfg hc)
\ m = ________________ (2.45)
cpw (Tc T1)
Example 2.13 A 175 kW steam engine consumes 9 kg of steam per kWh. The back pressure
of the engine and the condenser pressure are equal to 0.15 bar. The temperature of the cooling
water at the inlet and outlet are 15C and 28C respectively. The temperature of the condensate
is 29C. Determine the quantity of cooling water required per hour if the steam exhausted to the
condenser is dry saturated.
Solution From steam table (Table A-1.2) at 0.15 bar,
hf = 225.91 kJ/kg, hg = 2599.1 kJ/kg,
hfg = (2599.1 225.91) = 2373.19 kJ/kg
Cooling water/kg of steam,
(hf + xhfg hc)
m = ____________
cpw (T2 T1)
(225.91 + 1 2373.19 4.186 28)
\ m = ______________________________
4.186 (28 15)
= 45.61 kg/h/kg of steam
Total steam used per hour
= 175 9 = 1575 kg
\ Total circulating water used per hour

= 45.61 1575 = 71835.75 kg
2.25 AIR PUMP

Air pump maintains the required vacuum in the condenser by removing air or air and the condensate
both. Commonly, dry air pumps and wet air pumps are used for this purpose. Dry air pump
removes air only, whereas the wet air pump removes the mixture of condensate, water, and other
gases. These pumps may be reciprocating type or rotary type. Here Edwards air pump which is
of reciprocating type is discussed.
Edwards Air Pump Edwards air pump consists of a piston which reciprocates in the pump barrel.
The piston is flat on its upper surface and conical at the bottom. The barrel has a ring of ports
near its lower end through which it communicates with the condenser. The top of the barrel has
cover in which head or delivery valves are provided as shown in Figure 2.38.
Cover Piston rod

Condensate
to hot well
Weir
Pump barrel Head or

delivery valve
Ribs
Condensate & air Relief valve

from condenser Port
Piston
Fig. 2.38 Edwards Air Pump
When the piston moves in the downward direction a partial vacuum is produced in the barrel
above the piston due to which the delivery valve closes. The air and water vapors from the
condenser rush into the space above the piston through the ports. Further, motion of the piston
causes its conical end to displace the condensate rapidly through the ports. Thus, water vapors,
air, and the condensate fills the space above the piston.
When the piston moves in the upward direction the charge of water vapors, air, and the
condensate get compressed to a pressure slightly above the atmospheric pressure. This opens the
head valves through which the charge flows over the weir to the hot well. The weir maintains a
sufficient head of water over head valves and thus seals them against any air leakage.
A relief valve is provided at the base of the barrel to release the charge if the pressure exceeds
the atmospheric pressure due to any reason.
These pumps are generally used for low vacuum requirements. Its main advantage over other
pumps is that it does not have any inaccessible valves.
2.26 COOLING TOWERS AND COOLING PONDS

Cooling water is supplied to the condenser for the condensation of steam. In this process the
cooling water becomes hot. To cool this hot water coming out of the condenser the cooling
towers and the cooling ponds are used so that the cooled water can be reutilized in the condenser
again.
2.26.1 Cooling Towers

The cooling towers are very useful when there is scarcity of both the water and the land. It is an
artificial device by which the hot water coming out of the condenser is cooled effectively. By using
cooling towers the cooling water requirement is reduced and only makeup water is to be supplied.
The principle of cooling the water is similar to that of the evaporative condenser. Some water
about 1% goes into air in the form of water vapor by absorbing its latent heat of vaporization from
the remaining water and thus causes the reduction in the water temperature. The cooling towers
reduce the cooling water demand about 75 times but it is achieved at the expense of large capital,
land, and operational costs. The types of cooling towers on the basis of the draught (method of
air circulation) are:
(i) Natural draught cooling towers
(ii) Mechanical draught cooling towers: (a) Forced draught cooling towers, and (b) Induced
draught cooling towers.
(i) Natural Draught Cooling Towers The schematic view of natural cooling tower is shown in
Figure 2.39. The hot water from the condenser is pumped to a height of about 8 m to 12 m which
enters the tower and then sprayed over the woodwork and trays. The water in the form of sprays
meets the air entering from the bottom of the tower which is open to the atmosphere. Hot water
gives up its heat to the air and gets cooled. The hot air along with some water vapor leaves the
tower at top and the cooled water falls down in the form of rain and gets collected in the pond
at the bottom of the tower. The cooled water from the pond is again supplied to the condenser.
No fan is used in natural draught cooling towers. The bottom of the tower is kept open through
which air enters into the tower. The airflow is maintained due to pressure difference caused by
the difference in density between the hot air inside the tower and the outside atmospheric air. The
water vapors leaving the tower along with the air is prevented by using water eliminators. Still
some loss of water will be there which will be compensated by adding fresh water called make
up water. The reduction in temperature of the water is called range. The disadvantage of this type
of tower is that to produce large natural draught the tower will be very high.
Air + Water vapor
Hot water from

condenser
Air inlet
Cold water
to condenser
Fig. 2.39 Schematics of Natural Draught Cooling Tower
(ii) Mechanical Draught Cooling Towers In the mechanical draught cooling towers the air is
circulated with the help of a mechanical device like a fan or a blower. Depending on the position
of the fan or blower these are classified as forced draught or induced draught cooling towers.
When the fan is installed at the bottom of the tower it is known as forced draught cooling tower
as shown in Figure 2.40 (a). When the fan is installed at the top of the tower it is called induced
draught cooling tower as shown in Figure 2.40 (b).
Hot water coming from the condenser enters the tower from its top and is sprayed through the
nozzles. The sprayed water meets with the air going upwards. Eliminators are provided at the
Hot air out
Water
eliminator
Hot air out Induced draught fan
Water eliminator Spray nozzle

Hot Hot water
Spray nozzle
water
Air in
Air in Air in
Cooling
water out Cooling
water out
(a) Forced draught cooling tower (b) Induced draught cooling tower
Fig. 2.40 Schematics of Mechanical Draught Cooling Tower

top to prevent the escaping of water droplets with air leaving from the top. Cooling towers are
generally hyperbolic in shape and are made of steel, concrete, or timber. The induced draught
cooling towers are generally used in large capacity power plants. In the case of forced draught
tower power requirement is high and maintenance cost of the fan is high. The induced draught
tower occupies less space as the fan drives are installed at the top of the tower. In the induced
draught tower the air is drawn by the fan from all the sides of the tower through the openings at
low velocity and thus the cooling effect is obtained across the entire cross section of the tower.
Also it handles warm air, so there will be no freezing problems during winter season as in the
case of forced draught cooling towers.
2.26.2 Cooling Ponds

It is the simplest method of removing heat from the hot water by discharging it through a pipeline
into a large open pond exposed to the atmosphere. The water is cooled by blowing air over the
surface of the pond and mixing with cold water of the pond. The heat from the hot water will be
transferred to the air by evaporation and convection processes. The loss of water by evaporation
and wind blowing over the cooling pond is about 2% to 3%. To reduce the area of pond the water
is sprayed into the air over the pond surface by water spray nozzles. For effective cooling these
nozzles are fitted at a height of about 1 m to 2.5 m above the surface of water. Even after the use
of spray nozzles the area required for cooling is large due to the evaporative cooling process. The
factors which affect the dissipation of heat from the cooling pond are: area and depth of pond,
temperature of water entering the pond, relative humidity, air velocity, atmospheric temperature
and pressure, and solar radiation.
The cooling ponds are classified into two categories, namely, non-directed flow type and
directed flow type. The non-directed flow type cooling pond is shown in Figure 2.41 (a) and
directed flow type is shown in Figure 2.41 (b).
Hot water discharge Baffle plate

Hot water discharge Draught
Cold water for reuse Cold water for reuse

Power house Power house
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.41 Cooling Ponds
In the case of non-directed flow type ponds, the hot water is discharged into the open pond.
But in the case of directed flow type cooling ponds, the pond is divided into a number of channels
by providing baffle plates which direct the flow of hot water. The cooling effect in directed flow
cooling ponds will be more due to thorough mixing of hot and cold water streams.
On the basis of spray nozzles arrangement, the cooling ponds may also be classified as single
deck or double deck ponds. In a single deck cooling pond, the spray nozzles are arranged at the
same elevation, whereas in double deck system the nozzles are arranged at different elevations.
The double deck cooling ponds are more efficient than single deck system.
The disadvantages of cooling ponds are: (i) Large area is required for cooling, for example,
the surface area required in a cooling pond is about 30 times the size of cooling tower for the
same duty, (ii) The loss of water due to air blow is large and it is unprotected against dust, and
(iii) There is no control over the temperature of cooled water, and its cooling efficiency is low.
The cooling ponds are suitable only for small capacity steam plants where land is easily and
cheaply available.
EXERCISE
(i) Objective Type Questions

1. Nozzle is designed for:
(a) maximum pressure and maximum discharge
(b) maximum pressure at outlet
(c) maximum discharge
(d) none of the above
2. For supersonic flow, the nozzle should be:
(a) convergent (b) convergent-divergent
(c) constant area duct (d) divergent
3. For subsonic flow, the nozzle should be:
(a) divergent (b) convergent-divergent
(c) convergent (d) constant area duct
4. Velocity of steam at the exit of nozzle is given by:
_____________ _____________
(a) 44.72 hnozzle (h1 h2) (b) 4.472 hnozzle (h1 h2)
_____________ _____________
(c) 4472 hnozzle (h1 h2) (d) 0.4472 hnozzle (h1 h2)
5. In the case of nozzle, the whole of friction loss is assumed:
(a) between inlet and throat (b) between throat and exit
(c) between inlet and outlet (d) none of the above
6. Moore and Curtis turbine is:
(a) velocity compounded turbine (b) pressure compounded turbine
(c) reaction turbine (d) pressure-velocity compounded turbine
7. Parsons turbine is:
(a) impulse turbine (b) impulse-reaction turbine
(c) velocity compounded turbine (d) pressure compounded turbine
8. Curtis turbine is:
(a) velocity compounded turbine
(b) pressure compounded turbine
(c) pressure-velocity compounded turbine
(d) reaction turbine
9. Rateau turbine is:
(a) velocity compounded turbine
(b) pressure compounded turbine
(c) pressure-velocity compounded turbine
(d) reaction turbine
10. De-Laval turbine is:
(a) simple impulse turbine (b) reaction turbine
(c) pressure compounded turbine (d) velocity compounded turbine
11. The pressure on the two sides of the moving blades of a reaction turbine is:
(a) same (b) higher at inlet (c) lower at inlet (d) none of the above
12. In case of impulse turbine:
(a) enthalpy drops only in moving blades
(b) enthalpy drops only in fixed blades
(c) enthalpy drops in moving and fixed blades
13. The steam consumption in reciprocating steam engine in comparison to steam turbine is:
(a) equal (b) less (c) more (d) none of the above
14. Stage efficiency is also called:
(a) gross efficiency (b) blade efficiency
(c) diagram efficiency (d) mechanical efficiency
15. Stage efficiency of steam turbine is:
(a) hnozzle hblade (b) hnozzle/hblade (c) hblade/hnozzle (d) none of the above
16. In case of reaction turbine, the enthalpy drops in:
(a) moving blades only (b) fixed blades only
(c) both fixed and moving blades (d) none of the above
17. Degree of reaction is the ratio of:
(a) enthalpy drop in moving blade to the sum of enthalpy drop in moving and fixed
blades
(b) sum of enthalpy drop in moving and fixed blades to enthalpy drop in moving blade
(c) enthalpy drop in fixed blade to sum of enthalpy drop in moving and fixed blades
18. Degree of reaction for Parsons turbine is:
(a) 50% (b) 60% (c) 70% (d) 80%
19. Reheat factor is defined as:
(a) ratio of isentropic enthalpy drop to cumulative enthalpy drop
(b) ratio of cumulative isentropic heat drop to Rankine heat drop
(c) ratio of Rankine heat drop to cumulative isentropic heat drop
20. The value of reheat factor generally varies from:
(a) 0.6 to 1.06 (b) 0.02 to 0.06 (c) 0.8 to 1.08 (d) 1.02 to 1.06
21. The value of reheat factor increases if the number of stages are:
(a) less (b) more (c) same (d) none of the above
22. Internal efficiency is the ratio of:
(a) useful heat drop to heat supplied
(b) adiabatic heat drop to heat supplied
(c) total useful heat drop to adiabatic heat drop
(d) none
23. The number of stages in pressure compounded steam turbine in comparison to velocity
compounded is:
(a) more (b) less (c) equal (d) none of the above
24. The efficiency of pressure compounded steam turbine in comparison to velocity compounded
is:
(a) more (b) less (c) equal (d) none of the above
25. If hs is constant for all stages then reheat factor is given by:
(a) RF = hs/hi (b) RF = hi/hs (c) RF = hs hi (d) none of the above
26. Maximum blade or diagram efficiency of an impulse turbine is:
(a) [1 + C] cos a (b) [1 + KC] cos a (c) cos a (d) [1 + KC] (cos a)/2
27. The maximum rate of work done for a single stage impulse turbine is:
(a) u2 (b) 2u (c) 3u2 (d) 2u2
28. For maximum blade efficiency of a single stage impulse turbine:
(a) r = cos a1/2 (b) r = cos2a1/2 (c) r = cos a1 (d) r = cos2a1
29. The ratio of actual vacuum to the ideal vacuum is termed:
(a) condenser efficiency (b) boiler efficiency
(c) nozzle efficiency (d) vacuum efficiency
30. The ratio of actual temperature rise to the maximum possible rise is termed:
(a) condenser efficiency (b) boiler efficiency
(c) nozzle efficiency (d) vacuum efficiency
31. The cooling system used for big power plants:
(a) spray pond (b) hyperbolic cooling tower
(c) mechanical draught cooling tower (d) natural draught cooling
32. The ratio of sensible and evaporation cooling in wet cooling tower is:
(a) 20:80 (b) 40:60 (c) 40:80 (d) 60:80
33. The total absolute pressure in a condenser is equal to the:
(a) atmospheric pressure gauge pressure
(b) atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
(c) barometric pressure vacuum pressure
(d) barometric pressure + vacuum pressure
34. Actual vacuum in a condenser is equal to the:
(a) barometric pressure actual pressure
(b) barometric pressure + actual pressure
(c) atmospheric pressure gauge pressure
(d) atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
35. Pure cooling water is used in:
(a) surface condenser (b) jet condenser
(c) in both jet and surface condensers (d) none of the above
36. The rotor speed in steam turbines can be reduced by:
(a) velocity compounding (b) pressure compounding
(c) velocity-pressure compounding (d) all of the above
37. The vacuum efficiency of a condenser is about:
(a) 60% (b) 70% (c) 80% (d) 90%
38. Cooling water requirement in a surface condenser is:
(a) about 50 times of steam condensed (b) about 40 times of steam condensed
(c) about 30 times of steam condensed (d) about 20 times of steam condensed
39. Thermal efficiency of steam power plant increases by the employment of surface condenser
because:
(a) average temperature of heat addition is increased
(b) average temperature of heat addition is reduced
(c) average temperature of heat rejection is reduced
40. Edwards air pump:

(a) removes air, vapor, and the condensed water
(b) removes air only
(c) removes air and vapor
(d) removes vapor only
41. For Parsons reaction turbine, the maximum efficiency is given by:
cos2a1
_________ 2 cos2a1
_________ 2 + cos2a1
1_________
(a) (b) (c) cos a1 (d)
1 + cos2a1 1 + cos2a1 cos2a1
42. For maximum blade efficiency for Parsons reaction steam turbine the speed ratio is equal
to:
(a) cos2a (b) cos2a/2 (c) 2 cos2a (d) cos a
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18 (a) 19. (b) 20. (d)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (a)
31. (b) 32. (a) 33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (d) 37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (a)
41. (b) 42. (d)
(ii) Review Questions

1. Describe with neat sketches the compounding of steam turbine. Why compounding of steam
turbine is necessary?
2. What is degree of reaction? Prove that for a turbine with 50% degree of reaction the guide
blades and moving blades are identical.
3. Explain the various losses that occur in a steam turbine.
4. Discuss the advantages of steam turbine over steam engine.
5. Define the terms related to steam turbine: (i) Speed ratio, (ii) Blade velocity coefficient,
(iii) Diagram efficiency, (iv) Stage efficiency, and (v) Internal efficiency.
6. How are the steam turbines classified?
7. Explain the term reheat factor as applied to steam turbine.
8. Derive the condition for maximum efficiency of an impulse turbine and show that the
maximum efficiency is cos2a where a is the angle at which the steam enters the blades.
9. Give the comparisons between impulse and reaction turbines.
10. Explain the working principles of impulse and reaction turbines with neat sketches.
11. Derive an expression for maximum diagram efficiency of a reaction turbine.
12. Derive an expression for maximum efficiency of an impulse turbine.
13. Describe the various types of cooling towers with neat sketches.
14. Define (i) Vacuum efficiency, and (ii) Condenser efficiency.
15. Give the requirements of a modern surface condenser.
16. What do you mean by a steam condenser? Explain its functions.
17. Write short notes on
(i) Cooling ponds, (ii) Cooling towers, (ii) Edwards air pump.
18. What are the main types of condensers? State the advantages of a surface condenser over
a jet condenser.
19. Differentiate clearly between the jet and surface condensers.
20. Explain the governing methods of steam turbines with neat sketches.
21. Explain the sources of air in the condenser, its effects, and removal in detail.
(iii) Numerical Problems

1. The rotor of an impulse turbine is 0.26 m diameter and runs at 20,500 rpm. The nozzle angle
is 20 and issues a steam jet with a velocity of 910 m/s. The steam mass flow rate through
the turbine nozzles is 2.0 kg/s. Draw the velocity diagram and determine (i) tangential force
on blades, (ii) axial force on blades, (iii) power developed by the turbine, and (iv) blade
efficiency.
[Ans. Ft = 2228 N, Fa = 0, Power developed = 621.6 kW,
and blade efficiency = 75%]
2. Steam issues from the nozzles of a De-Laval turbine with a velocity of 1200 m/s. The nozzle
angle is 20, the mean blade velocity is 400 m/s, and the inlet and outlet angles of blade
are equal. The rate of mass flow through the turbine is 900 kg/hr. Determine (i) the blade
angles, (ii) the relative velocity of steam entering the blade, (iii) the tangential force on the
blade, (iv) the axial force on the blade, (v) the power developed, (vi) the blade efficiency,
and (vii) energy lost due to friction in blade per kg of steam. Take velocity of coefficient
as 0.8.
[Ans. (i) 29.4, (ii) 840 m/s, (iii) 328 N, (iv) 20 N, (v) 131.2 kW,
(vi) 73%, and (vii) 127 kJ/ kg.]
3. A single row impulse turbine develops 135 kW at a blade speed of 175 m/s using steam
mass flow rate of 2 kg/s. Steam leaves the nozzle at 400 m/s. Steam leaves the turbine blade
axially. Determine the nozzle angle, blade angle at entry and at exit, assuming no shock
and velocity coefficient of the blade is 0.9. [Ans. 15.35, 26.67, 34.55]
4. In a simple impulse turbine the nozzles are inclined at 20 to the direction of motion of
the moving blades. The steam leaves the nozzles at 375 m/s. The blade speed is 165 m/s.
Find suitable inlet and outlet angles for the blades in order that the axial thrust is zero. The
relative velocity of steam as it flows over the blade is reduced by 15% by friction. Also
determine the power developed for a flow rate of 10 kg/s. [Ans. 34.4, 41.6, 532 kW]
5. Steam enters the blade row of an impulse turbine with a velocity of 600 m/s at an angle
of 25 to the plane of rotation of the blades. The mean blade speed is 255 m/s. The blade
angle on the exit side is 30. The blade friction coefficient is 10%. Determine (i) the angle
of the blade on the entry side, (ii) the diagram efficiency, (iii) the power developed per kg
of steam, and (iv) axial thrust per of steam per second.
[Ans. 41.5, 83.65, 150.45 kW, 90 N/kg/s]
6. In a stage reaction turbine the mean diameter of the rotor is 1.4 m. The speed ratio is 0.7.
Determine the blade inlet angle if the blade outlet angle is 20. The rotor speed is 50 rps.
Also find the diagram efficiency. Find the percentage increase in diagram efficiency and
rotor speed if the rotor is designed to run at the best theoretical speed, the exit angle is
20. [Ans. 20, 90.5%, 3.65%, 67.08 rps]
7. The vacuum reading of a condenser is 70.5 cm of Hg when the barometer reads 76 cm of
Hg and the condensate temperature is 31C. Calculate vacuum efficiency. [Ans. 97.06%]
8. The vacuum in a surface condenser is found to be 70.5 cm of Hg when the barometer
reads 76 cm of Hg. The cooling water enters the condenser at 20C and leaves at 36.5C.
Determine the condenser efficiency. [Ans. 87%]
9. A 180 kW steam engine consumes 9.5 kg of steam per kWh. The back pressure of the engine
and the condenser pressure are equal to 0.15 bar. The temperature of the cooling water at
the inlet and outlet are 18C and 34C respectively. The temperature of the condensate is
35C. Determine the quantity of cooling water required per hour if the steam exhausted to
the condenser is dry saturated. [Ans. 62568 kg]
10. In a condenser the following data were recorded: vacuum = 70 cm of Hg, barometer = 76
cm of Hg, mean temperature of the condenser = 35C, hot well temperature = 29C, mass
of cooling water = 45500 kg/hour, inlet temperature = 16.5C, outlet temperature = 31C.
Determine (i) the mass of air present per unit condenser volume, (ii) dryness fraction of
steam entering the condenser, (iii) vacuum efficiency, (iv) the condensate undercooling, and
(v) condenser efficiency. [Ans. 0.02686 kg/m3, 94%, 97.51%, 6C, 78.37%]
5. Steam enters the blade row of an impulse turbine with a velocity of 600 m/s at an angle
of 25 to the plane of rotation of the blades. The mean blade speed is 255 m/s. The blade
angle on the exit side is 30. The blade friction coefficient is 10%. Determine (i) the angle
of the blade on the entry side, (ii) the diagram efficiency, (iii) the power developed per kg
of steam, and (iv) axial thrust per of steam per second.
[Ans. 41.5, 83.65, 150.45 kW, 90 N/kg/s]
6. In a stage reaction turbine the mean diameter of the rotor is 1.4 m. The speed ratio is 0.7.
Determine the blade inlet angle if the blade outlet angle is 20. The rotor speed is 50 rps.
Also find the diagram efficiency. Find the percentage increase in diagram efficiency and
rotor speed if the rotor is designed to run at the best theoretical speed, the exit angle is
20. [Ans. 20, 90.5%, 3.65%, 67.08 rps]
7. The vacuum reading of a condenser is 70.5 cm of Hg when the barometer reads 76 cm of
Hg and the condensate temperature is 31C. Calculate vacuum efficiency. [Ans. 97.06%]
8. The vacuum in a surface condenser is found to be 70.5 cm of Hg when the barometer
reads 76 cm of Hg. The cooling water enters the condenser at 20C and leaves at 36.5C.
Determine the condenser efficiency. [Ans. 87%]
9. A 180 kW steam engine consumes 9.5 kg of steam per kWh. The back pressure of the engine
and the condenser pressure are equal to 0.15 bar. The temperature of the cooling water at
the inlet and outlet are 18C and 34C respectively. The temperature of the condensate is
35C. Determine the quantity of cooling water required per hour if the steam exhausted to
the condenser is dry saturated. [Ans. 62568 kg]
10. In a condenser the following data were recorded: vacuum = 70 cm of Hg, barometer = 76
cm of Hg, mean temperature of the condenser = 35C, hot well temperature = 29C, mass
of cooling water = 45500 kg/hour, inlet temperature = 16.5C, outlet temperature = 31C.
Determine (i) the mass of air present per unit condenser volume, (ii) dryness fraction of
steam entering the condenser, (iii) vacuum efficiency, (iv) the condensate undercooling, and
(v) condenser efficiency. [Ans. 0.02686 kg/m3, 94%, 97.51%, 6C, 78.37%]

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What are the different types of nozzles and their characteristics?

What are the different types of nozzles and their characteristics?

How does steam flow through a nozzle and what factors affect the exit velocity?

How does steam flow through a nozzle and what factors affect the exit velocity?

2

Steam Turbines and Condensers

2.2 STEAM NOZZLE AND ITS GENERAL FLOW ANALYSIS

Entry Exit Entry Exit Entry Exit

Fig. 2.1 Types of Nozzles

The nozzles are of three types:

Fig. 2.2 Principle of Impulse Turbine

Fig. 2.3 Jet Action on Blade

on the ball and made it to rotate between the pivots.

Blade Clearance Casing

Steam entering Exhaust steam

Fig. 2.6 Schematic View of Simple Impulse Turbine

Fig. 2.8 Schematic View of a Reaction Turbine

Fig. 2.9 Velocity Compounding (The Curtis Turbine)

2.7.2 Pressure Compounding (The Rateau Turbine)

2.7.3 Pressure-Velocity Compounding

Entering velocity of steam

Fig. 2.10 Pressure Compounding (The Rateau Turbine)

2.8 VELOCITY DIAGRAMS FOR IMPULSE TURBINE

Steam entering Exhaust steam

Entering velocity of steam

Fig. 2.11 Pressure-Velocity Compounding

Fig. 2.13 Combined Velocity Diagram for Impulse Turbine

2.8.1 Force and Work Done on Turbine Blades and Efficiency

F. B. FB: Fixed blade

The degree of reaction can be given by,

From Figure 2.15, we have,

2.9.2 Blade or Diagram Efficiency of a Reaction Turbine

Substituting the values of W and Dh in blade efficiency expression, we have,

2.10 LOSSES IN STEAM TURBINES

2.11. EFFICIENCIES AND REHEAT FACTOR

Fig. 2.18 Expansion of Steam in Multistage Turbine on h s Diagram

2.12 GOVERNING OF STEAM TURBINES

2.12.1 Throttle Governing

Fig. 2.20 Schematic View of Nozzle Control Governing

2.12.3 Bypass Governing

Bypass steam Bypass steam

Main valve Steam belt

Fig. 2.21 Schematic View of Bypass Governing

Fig. 2.23 (Not to scale)

1 200 (420 + 25)

= 220.06 cos (42.23) 104.72 = 58.22 m/s

2.15 TYPES OF STEAM CONDENSERS

2. Surface Condensers or Non-mixing Type Condensers In surface condensers, there is no direct

2.15.1 Low-level Jet Condensers

2.15.2 High-level Jet Condensers

Fig. 2.30 Low-level Jet Condensers

Air extracted by pump

Exhaust steam Cold water

Fig. 2.31 High-level Jet Condenser

2.15.3 Ejector Condenser

convergent nozzles in which the potential

2.15.4 Surface Condenser

Cooling Tube Water box

Water box To air pump