ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Assalamualaikum and greetings.

Thanks to God because giving us the strength and an effort to do and also

finishing this educational assignment of mathematics. We have been given a task which

consist all learning outcomes in our class. The outcome that we will have understanding

the differences between routine and non-routine problem, appreciate and apply Polya’s

problem solving model and apply various problem solving strategies selectively and

appropriately.

All of our teammates co-operates finding, distributing and analysis all the

question given by our lecture, Madame Khaw Ah Hong. Thanking her will be not enough

because almost everything we learn in class are also consist in this assignment. So she

helps us from the beginning of class.

I also want to thanks to all my friend that give a lots of help, comment, guide and

examples toward my teammates and myself during finishing this assignment.

Lastly, by doing this educational assignment we learned many things especially

about Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy. The step does help us to solve the problem

more easily and systematically. And also we learned more other way of solving

problems.

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INTRODUCTION

Mathematics becomes an important part in our education which teaches us o

think logically so as to solve problems , whether concrete or abstract , based on number

and kinds. In other word, mathematics is a way of thinking which can used to expand

our reasoning so that conclusions can be drawn from events happened on earth and in

the universe.

In addition, mathematics can be treated as a study of patterns. Many geometrical

theorems and number patterns are the results based from studies of different types of

shapes by using mathematical operations. Mathematics has become a very useful

instrument in our ordinary daily life. Actually, it is the need and necessity to solve daily

problems that brought mathematics into existence. We utilize mathematics for activities

in business, travels, food, education, planning, workings and so on. Almost every

human social activity cannot do away with mathematics.

Therefore, we from the PPISMP July 2009 KSBIBM group were given a task

regarding the topic of problem solving.

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Routine and non-routine problem solving

We can categorize problem solving into two basic types: routine and non-routine. The

purposes and the strategies used for solving problems are different for each type.

Routine problem solving

From the curricular point of view, routine problem solving involves using at least one of

the four arithmetic operations and/or ratio to solve problems that are practical in nature.

Routine problem solving concerns to a large degree the kind of problem solving that

serves a socially useful function that has immediate and future payoff. Children typically

do routine problem solving as early as age 5 or 6. They combine and separate things

such as toys in the course of their normal activities. Adults are regularly called upon to

do simple and complex routine problem solving. Here is an example.

A sales promotion in a store advertises a jacket regularly priced at $125.98 but

now selling for 20% off the regular price. The store also waives the tax. You have

$100 in your pocket (or $100 left in your charge account). Do you have enough

money to buy the jacket?

As adults, and as children, we normally want to solve certain kinds of problems (such as

the one above) in a way that reflects an ‘Aha, I know what is going on here and this is

what I need to do to figure out the answer.’ reaction to the problem. We do not want to

guess and check or think backwards or make use of similar strategies. Invariably,

solving such problems involves using at least one of the four arithmetic operations

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(and/or ratio). Being good at doing arithmetic (e. g. adding two numbers: mentally, by

pencil and paper, with manipulatives, by punching numbers in a calculator) does not

guarantee success at solving routine problems. The critical matter is knowing what

arithmetic to do in the first place. Actually doing the arithmetic is secondary to the

matter.

A mathematics researcher interviewed children about how they solve routine problems.

One boy reported his method as follows: If there were two numbers and they were both

big, he subtracted. If there was one large and one small number, he divided. If it did not

come out even, he multiplied. The other interesting aspect of all of this is that the child

had done quite well at solving routine problems throughout his school career. What

does this say about teaching practice? What does this say about assessing what

children understand?

Is the case of the boy an isolated incident or is it the norm? Unfortunately, research tells

us that it is likely the norm. Not enough students and adults are good at solving routine

problems. Research also tells us that in order for students to be good at routine problem

solving they need to learn the meanings of the arithmetic operations (and the concept of

ratio) well and in ways that are based on real and familiar experiences. While there are

only four arithmetic operations, there are more than four distinct meanings that can be

attached to the operations. For example, division has only one meaning: splitting up into

equal groups. Subtraction, on the other hand, has at least two meanings: taking away

something away from one set or comparing two sets (refer to The meanings of the

arithmetic operations.)

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Once students understand the meaning of an arithmetic operation they have a powerful

conceptual tool to apply to solving routine problems. The primary strategy becomes

deciding on what arithmetic operation to use. That decision cannot be made in the

manner done by the boy of the research anecdote. The decision should be made on the

basis of IDENTIFYING WHAT IS GOING ON IN THE PROBLEM. This approach

requires understanding the meanings of the arithmetic operations.

The research evidence suggests that good routine problem solvers have a repertoire of

automatic symbol-based and context-based responses to problem situations. They do

not rely on manipulating concrete materials, nor on using strategies such as 'guess and

check' or ‘think backwards’. Rather, they rely on representing what is going on in a

problem by selecting from a limited set of mathematical templates or models. Refer to

Using arithmetic operation meanings to solve routine problems for details.

Solving routine problems should at some point involve solving complex problems.

Complexity can be achieved through multi-step problems (making use of more than one

arithmetic operation) or through Fermi problems. It is advisable to do both.

Fermi problems are special problems that are characterized by the need to estimate

something and the need to obtain relevant data. They typically involve the application of

the meaning of at least one arithmetic operation and sometimes something else (e. g.

how to calculate the area of a triangle). Here is an example of a Fermi problem: About

how many cars are there in Manitoba? Solving this Fermi problem about the cars would

involve matters like obtaining/estimating data about the population of Manitoba that

might own a car and making use of the ‘groups of’ meaning of multiplication. It could

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involve more matters. That would depend on the degree of sophistication of insight into

the problem.

In general, solving Fermi problems involves estimating where the exact value is often

unknown, and perhaps it is even unknowable. While the estimate may be considerably

in error, the important matter is on describing how the estimate was obtained. That

requires students to justify their reasoning in terms of the meanings of arithmetic

operations and in terms of the relevance of the data they collected/estimated.

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Non-routine problem solving

Non-routine problem solving serves a different purpose than routine problem solving.

While routine problem solving concerns solving problems that are useful for daily living

(in the present or in the future), non-routine problem solving concerns that only

indirectly. Non-routine problem solving is mostly concerned with developing students’

mathematical reasoning power and fostering the understanding that mathematics is a

creative endeavour. From the point of view of students, non-routine problem solving can

be challenging and interesting. From the point of view of planning classroom instruction,

teachers can use non-routine problem solving to introduce ideas (EXPLORATORY

stage of teaching); to deepen and extend understandings of algorithms, skills, and

concepts (MAINTENANCE stage of teaching); and to motivate and challenge students

(EXPLORATORY and MAINTENANCE stages of teaching). There are other uses as

well. Having students do non-routine problem solving can encourage the move from

specific to general thinking; in other words, encourage the ability to think in more

abstract ways. From the point of view of students growing to adulthood, that ability is

becoming more important in today’s technological, complex, and demanding world.

Non-routine problem solving can be seen as evoking an ‘I tried this and I tried that, and

eureka, I finally figured it out.’ reaction. That involves a search for heuristics (strategies

seeking to discover). There is no convenient model or solution path that is readily

available to apply to solving a problem. That is in sharp contrast to routine problem

solving where there are readily identifiable models (the meanings of the arithmetic

operations and the associated templates) to apply to problem situations.

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The following is an example of a problem that concerns non-routine problem solving.

Consider what happens when 35 is multiplied by 41. The result is 1435. Notice

that all four digits of the two multipliers reappear in the product of 1435 (but they

are rearranged). One could call numbers such as 35 and 41 as pairs of stubborn

numbers because their digits reappear in the product when the two numbers are

multiplied together. Find as many pairs of 2-digit stubborn numbers as you can.

There are 6 pairs in all (not including 35 & 41).

Solving problems like the one above normally requires a search for a strategy that

seeks to discover a solution (a heuristic). There are many strategies that can be used

for solving unfamiliar or unusual problems. The strategies suggested below are

teachable to the extent that teachers can encourage and help students to identify, to

understand, and to use them. However, non-routine problem solving cannot be

approached in an automatized way as can routine problem solving. To say that another

way, we cannot find nice, tidy methods of solution for all problems. Inevitably, we will be

confronted with a situation that evokes the response; “I haven't got much of a clue how

to do this; let me see what I can try.”

The list below does not contain strategies like: ‘read the question carefully’, ‘draw a

diagram’, or ‘make a table’. Those kinds of strategies are not the essence of what it

takes to be successful at non-routine problem solving. They are only preliminary steps

that help in getting organized. The hard part still remains - to actually solve the problem

- and that takes more powerful strategies than drawing a diagram, reading the question

carefully, or making a table. The following list of strategies is appropriate for Early and

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Middle Years students in that the strategies involve ways of thinking that are likely to be

comfortable for these students.

• Look for a pattern

• Guess and check

• Make and solve a simpler problem.

• Work backwards.

• Act it out/make a model.

• Break up the problem into smaller ones and try to solve these first.

It is important that students share how they solved problems so that their classmates

are exposed to a variety of strategies as well as the idea that there may be more than

one way to reach a solution. It is unwise to force students to use one particular strategy

for two important reasons. First, often more than one strategy can be applied to solving

a problem. Second, the goal is for students to search for and apply useful strategies, not

to train students to make use of a particular strategy.

Finally, non-routine problem solving should not be reserved for special students such as

those who finish the regular work early. All students should participate in and be

encouraged to succeed at non-routine problem solving. All students can benefit from the

kinds of thinking that is involved in non-routine problem solving.

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5 Non-Routine Problems

PROBLEM 1

Place the numbers 1 to 9, one in each circle so that the sum of the four numbers along

any of the three sides of the triangle is 20. There are 9 circles and 9 numbers to place in

the circles. Each circle must have a different number in it.

PROBLEM 2

Warlin was a tired young pnome. He had been gone for a long time collecting

mushrooms. Warlin was the oldest child and that meant lots of chores for him. But he

didn’t mind that much. He was almost home now. All he had to do was to go over two

drawbridges that crossed two dangerous rivers.

Warlin came to the first river. The drawbridge was raised. Normally all he had to do was

to push a lever and the bridge came down. To Warlin’s surprise, the lever was

surrounded by an iron cage with a lock on it. He could not reach the lever unless he

opened the lock. It must be his pesky younger brother, Twerpin, playing one of his

practical jokes. Oh well, thought Warlin, I’ll just open the lock. It was a combination lock.

The first 5 rows of digits were already entered.

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PROBLEM 3

In the village of Bellymore, there lived a great baker. Samer Sweetooth was his name

and baking cakes was his fame. Pnomes came from far and wide to buy his delicious

cakes.

One day Marlow Rectangle came to Samer’s bakery to buy a cake and said, "I would

like a cherry cake with yellow icing for my birthday party. The cake has to be in the

shape of a rectangle. Scratch a 4 x 5 grid of squares on the icing so that I will have lines

to follow when I cut the cake."

Samer nodded his head and asked, "What kind of cookies do you want on the icing?"

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Marlow answered, "I want eight pecan cookies on the icing, four shaped like a star and

four shaped like a crinkled circle."

Marlow thought for a moment and continued, "Four guests are coming to my party. I

want them to share all of the cake equally. The four pieces of cake must be identical in

shape. Each piece of cake must have one star cookie and one crinkled circle cookie on

it."

"No problem", replied Samer, "Here is the cake you want. You should be able to cut four

identical pieces of cake so that each piece has one star cookie and one crinkled circle

cookie somewhere on it."

PROBLEM 4

Kim and Ben baked some brownies for a school party, they ate 6 of the brownies then

they left the reminding in the library as they played football outside.When they return,

half of the brownies is missing and only 12 of it is still there.How much does brownies

they baked in the first place?

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PROBLEM 5

Three men go to stay at a motel, and the man at the desk charges them $30.00 for a

room. They split the cost ten dollars each. Later the manager tells the desk man that he

overcharged the men, that the actual cost should have been $25.00. The manager

gives the bellboy $5.00 and tells him to give it to the men.

The bellboy, however, decides to cheat the men and pockets $2.00, giving each of the

men only one dollar.

Now each man has paid $9.00 to stay in the room and 3 x $9.00 = $27.00. The bellboy

has pocketed $2.00. $27.00 + $2.00 = $29.00 - so where is the missing $1.00?

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5 Routine

PROBLEM 1

Five friends get together to play 5 doubles matches, with a different group of 4 players

each time. The sums of the ages of the players for the different matches are 124, 128,

130, 136 and 142 years. What is the age of the youngest player ?

PROBLEM 2

If a cow is anchored by a chain to the perimeter of a circular field of grass with the other

end of the chain tied around its neck; given that the field has a diameter of 10 feet, how

long does the chain have to be for the cow to eat half the grass? Is there a ratio

between the radius and the length of chain? Please detail the explanation as much

as possible.

PROBLEM 3

A camel must travel 1000 miles across a desert to the nearest city. She has 3000

bananas but can only carry 1000 at a time. For every mile she walks, she needs to eat a

banana. What is the maximum number of bananas she can transport to the city?

PROBLEM 4

Justin is making snowballs to build a fort on the winter break. Justin can build 15

snowballs in an hour but 2 snowballs melt every 15 minutes. How long will it take him to

build 210 snowballs?

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PROBLEM 5

Kim and Ben baked some brownies for a school party, they ate 6 of the brownies then

they left the reminding in the library as they played football outside.When they return,

half of the brownies is missing and only 12 of it is still there.How much does brownies

they baked in the first place?

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Problem solving forms part of thinking. Considered the most complex of all intellectual

functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that

requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills (Goldstein &

Levin, 1987). It occurs if an organism or an artificial intelligence system does not know

how to proceed from a given state to a desired goal state. It is part of the larger problem

process that includes problem finding and problem shaping.

Some problem-solving techniques

1. divide and conquer: break down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable

problems.

2. Hill-climbing strategy, (also called gradient descent/ascent, difference reduction, greedy

algorithm) - attempting at every step to move closer to the goal situation. The problem

with this approach is that many challenges require that you temporarily move farther

away from the goal state. For example, traveling 1000 miles to the west might require

driving a few miles east to an airport. (see river crossing puzzle).

3. Means-end analysis, more effective than hill-climbing, requires the setting of subgoals

based on the process of getting from the initial state to the goal state when solving a

problem.

4. Trial-and-error (also called guess and check)

5. Brainstorming

6. Morphological analysis

7. Method of focal objects

8. Lateral thinking

9. George Pólya's techniques in How to Solve It

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10.Research: study what others have written about the problem (and related problems).

Maybe there's already a solution?

11. Assumption reversal (write down your assumptions about the problem, and then reverse

them all)

12.Analogy: has a similar problem (possibly in a different field) been solved before?

13.Hypothesis testing: assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove

the assumption.

14. Constraint examination: are you assuming a constraint which doesn't really exist?

15. Incubation: input the details of a problem into your mind, then stop focusing on it. The

subconscious mind will continue to work on the problem, and the solution might just "pop

up" while you are doing something else

16. Build (or write) one or more abstract models of the problem

17. Try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. Where the proof breaks down can be

your starting point for resolving it

18.Get help from friends or online problem solving community (e.g. 3form, InnoCentive)

19. delegation: delegating the problem to others.

20.Root Cause Analysis

21.Working Backwards (Halpern,2002)

22.Forward-Looking Strategy (Halpern, 2002)

23.Simplification (Halpern, 2002)

24.Generalization (Halpern, 2002)

25.Specialization (Halpern, 2002)

26.Random Search (Halpern, 2002)

27.Split-Half Method (Halpern,2002)

28.The GROW model

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 29.TRIZ 40 Principles: Segmentation, Extraction, Local Quality, Asymmetry, Consolidation,

Universality, Nesting, Counterbalance, Prior Conteraction, Prior Action, Cushion in

Advance, Equipoteniality, Do It in Reverse, Spheroidality, Dynamicity, Partial or

Excessive Action, Transition to a New Dimension, Mechanical Vibration, Periodic Action,

Continuity of Useful Action, Rushing Through, Convert Harm to Benefit, Feedback,

Mediator, Self Service, Copying, Disposable, Replacement ofMechanical system,

Pneumatic or Hydraulic construction, Flexible Membranes or Thin Films, Porous

Material, Changing the Color, Homogeneity, Rejecting and Regnerating Parts,

Transformation of Properties, Phase Transition, Thermal Expansion, Accelerated

Oxidation, Inert Environment, Composite Materials (Altshuller, 1973, 1984, 1994)

Although there’s lots of way or strategies, but I will emphasis on three examples and it is

much simpler to understand.

STRATEGY 1: DRAW A DIAGRAM

Drawing a diagram is the most common problem solving strategy. Very often, a

problem solver needs to draw a diagram just to understand the meaning of the

problem. The diagram represents the problem in a way we can “see” it, understand it,

and think about it while we look for the next step.

Tell your students that they will use the strategy of drawing a diagram again and again.

First they need some practice to learn how to interpret a problem and draw a useful

diagram. Give them an easy problem to solve, i.e. a problem for which it is easy to

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draw a diagram, and then, once the diagram is drawn, to see the next step. If the next

step is a calculation, your students should already know the formula or the algorithm

they will need to do the calculation.

STRATEGY 2: MAKE A LIST

There is a common saying, "Don't just stand there, do something!" When solving a problem,

don't just think, write something! Draw a diagram or make a list!

It is often obvious when you should draw a diagram. And it is often obvious when you should

make a list. Take a very simple example: putting things in order.

The letters ABCD, can be put into a different order: DCBA or BADC. How many different

combinations of the letters ABCD can you make? To answer this question, obviously, you have

to make a list.

Teach your students to make a SYSTEMATIC list. For example:

ABCD BACD CABD DABC

ABDC BADC CADB DACB

ACBD BCAD CBAD DBAC

ACDB BCDA CBDA DBCA

ADBC BDAC CDAB DCAB

ADCB BDCA CDBA DCBA

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By making a SYSTEMATIC list, students will see every possible combination.

(Later, perhaps, they will learn that the number of permutations of size 4 taken from a set of 4

can be represented by the formula 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 24).

STRATEGY 3: GUESS AND CHECK

Often when presented with a problem, you are encouraged to guess the answer. For example,

"What's the largest city in the world? Take a guess." You guess Istanbul. "No, it's Tokyo," you

are told. "How many people live in Tokyo? Take a guess." You say you don't know. "Go on, take

a guess," you're told again. You guess 15 million. "No, 34 million!"

Guessing often produces the wrong answer. But the strategy called "Guess and Check" often

produces the right answer. It should probably be called "Guess and Check and Guess Again,"

because the process of checking the accuracy of each guess and then making another, more

informed guess is an essential part of the strategy.

For example, here is a problem:

Busra went to her grandfather's farm. Her grandfather has chickens and goats on his farm. She

asked him how many chickens and how many goats. Because her grandfather likes

mathematical puzzles, he told her that his animals had 26 heads and 68 legs and from that

information she could calculate the number of chickens and the number of goats. If you were

Busra, how would you solve the problem?

To use the Guess and Check strategy, you think about the problem and start by making a

guess. You expect your first guess to be wrong, but it will give you some information to help you

make a better guess next time. You could start by guessing 13 chickens and 13 goats. It's a

good idea to keep a record of your guesses, like this:

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 Number ofNumber
Guess Chickens Goats
heads of legs

1 13 13 26 78

You see that the number of legs you guessed is too high, because Busra's grandfather said that

there are 68 legs. So you guess again-you have to add more chickens and subtract some goats.

Number ofNumber
Guess Chickens Goats
heads of legs

1 13 13 26 78
2 20 6 26 64

Now you have 64 legs and you need four more. But you can't add any more heads, since 26 is

the correct number of heads. So you take away two chickens (two heads and four legs) and add

two goats (two heads and eight legs).

Chickens Goats Number ofNumber

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 Guess
heads of legs

1 13 13 26 78
2 20 6 26 64
3 18 8 26 68

Now you have the correct answer: 18 chickens and 8 goats.

STRATEGY 4: DIVIDE AND CONQUER

There is a folk tale about a rich farmer who had seven sons. He was afraid that when he

died, his land and his animals and all his possessions would be divided among his

seven sons, and that they would quarrel with one another, and that their inheritance

would be splintered and lost. So he gathered them together and showed them seven

sticks that he had tied together and told them that any one who could break the bundle

would inherit everything. They all tried, but no one could break the bundle. Then the old

man untied the bundle and broke the sticks one by one. The brothers learned that they

should stay together and work together and succeed together.

The moral for problem solvers is different. If you can't solve the problem, divide it into

parts, and solve one part at a time.

An excellent application of this strategy is the magic squares problem. It is well known.

You have a square formed from three columns and three rows of smaller squares.

Part 1: Draw a Diagram

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Into these squares you will enter the numbers from 1-9 in such a way that the sum of

each column, each row, and each diagonal is 15. Since we know the way to solve

problems is to start, let's start by guessing and checking.

Part 2: Guess and Check

Begin by entering the numbers in order, just to see what happens:

1 2 3

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 4 5 6

7 8 9

The middle column and the middle row add up to 15 and the two diagonals add up to

15. It has become obvious that 5 is a good choice for the middle, but we have to adjust

the other squares.

Part 3: Make a List

It would be helpful now to identify all the combinations of three digits that add up to 15.

1 + 5 + 9 = 15

1 + 6 + 8 = 15

2 + 4 + 9 = 15

2 + 5 + 8 = 15

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 2 + 6 + 7 = 15

3 + 4 + 8 = 15

3 + 5 + 7 = 15

4 + 5 + 6 = 15

Part 4: Guess and Check Again

Now we can quickly see which combinations of numbers will solve the puzzle. There are

four combinations that have the number 5, and all four combinations are needed—with

number 5 in the middle.

4 3 8

5
25

2 7 6
When these four combinations are placed correctly, the other three combinations

needed to finish the puzzle are easy to find.

4 3 8

9 5 1

2 7 6

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Thus, by dividing the problem into 4 parts, it can be solved systematically.

Mixture Problems

Mixture problems often appear in mathematics text books. Here is an example of a

mixture problem.

A mixture is 25% red paint, 30% yellow paint, and 45% water. If 4 quarts of red paint are

added to 20 quarts of the mixture, what is the percentage of red paint in the new

mixture?

This problem is taken from the book Crossing the River with Dogs and Other

Mathematical Adventures , by Ken Johnson and Ted Herr, a book about problem

solving strategies: http://www.keypress.com .

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A student solving this problem has divided it into four parts:

Part 1: Find the amount of red paint in the original mixture:

Part 2: Find the total amount of red paint:

Part 3: Find the total amount of the whole mixture:

Part 4: Calculate the new percentage:

A problem which at first seems difficult becomes easier if you divide it into parts and

solve one part at a time.

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STRATEGY 5: LOOK FOR A PATTERN

One of the most famous patterns in mathematics is known as the Fibonacci series, named for a

mathematician who lived in Italy in the 13h Century. Fibonacci introduced this pattern by posing

a problem:

A pair of rabbits, one male and one female, are put into a pen. After two months they have two

offspring, one male and one female. They continue to have an additional two offspring every

month thereafter, always a pair, one male and one female. This pattern continues: after two

months, every pair of rabbits start to reproduce and every month thereafter they have a pair of

offspring. After one year, how many pairs will there be? The solution produces a series of

numbers now known as the Fibonacci series.

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 Month Pairs of

Rabbits
1 1 The original pair (A)
2 1 The original pair (A)
3 2 After two months the original pair produce a pair of offspring (B1)
4 3 The first pair of rabbits produce a second pair (B2)
5 5 The first pair of rabbits produce a third pair (B3). The first pair of

offspring (B1) produce a pair of offspring (C1)

6 8 And so on . . .
7 13 And so on. . . .

If you see the pattern that develops month by month, you can easily predict how many pairs

there will be after 12 months (144) and after 13 months (233). Each succeeding number in the

series is the sum of the previous two numbers.

When you see a pattern you can make a prediction, and that is the essence of the problem

solving strategy: see the pattern, make a prediction.

Here is an example of a pattern and a prediction:

The Problem

In their biology class, Ayse and Mehmet learned how to count a population of yeast cells. Using

a special counting microscope, they counted the cells every hour and entered their data in a

table.

Time Yeast Cells

9:00 9
10:00 17
11:00 37
12:00 75

Their teacher told them that the population would stop growing and remain stable at about 500

cells. At what time would Ayse and Mehmet discover that the population had stopped growing?

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The pattern

Ayse and Mehmet see a pattern in their data. The population doubles (approximately) every

hour.

The prediction

At 13:00 there will be (approximately)150 cells; at 14:00 there will be (approximately) 300 cell.

At 15:00 , if the teacher is correct, there will be (approximately) 500 cells. They will know the

population has stopped growing at 16:00 if there are still (approximately) 500 cells.

STRATEGY 6: START AT THE END

Sometimes in order to accomplish something you have to start at the end. Athletes see

themselves winning even before the competition begins. It is called visualizing

success. Engineers make drawings of finished products even before they know how to

build them. Stephen Covey in his famous book 7 Habits of Highly Effective People says

that highly effective people “start with the end in mind.” In Understanding by Design, a

book about teaching and learning, Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe describe a method

called “backwards design”: you start by asking what you will ask your students to do to

show that they understand . . . and then you plan to teach them how to do it. Very often,

the road to success starts at the end and not at the beginning.

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So it is with problem solving. To solve some problems, you start at the end and work

backwards. However, the directions for going backwards are not exactly the same as

the directions for going forwards. Imagine leaving the school to go to the Post Office

and then returning to the school.

FORWARDS to go to the Post Office: BACKWARDS to the school

• Turn left out of the school • Turn right out of the Post Office (Station

(Independence Avenue) Street)

• Take the 3rd right turn (National • Take the 3rd right on to National Avenue

Avenue) • Take the 2rd left turn on to

• Take the 2nd left turn (Station Street) Independence Avenue

• Cross two streets on Station Street • Cross two streets on Independence

Avenue
• Turn left into the Post Office

• Turn right into the school

Here is a well-known problem that can be solved by starting at the end.

THE MANGOES PROBLEM

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One night the King could not sleep. He went to the royal kitchen, where he found a

bowl full of mangoes. Being hungry, he took 1/6 of the mangoes in the bowl.

Later that same night, the Queen could not sleep, and she was hungry. She found the

mangoes and took 1/5 of what the King had left in the bowl.

Still later, the youngest Prince awoke, went to the kitchen, and ate 1/4 of the remaining

mangoes.

Even later, the second Prince ate 1/3 of what his younger brother had left.

Finally, the third Prince, the heir to the throne, ate 1/2 of what his younger brothers had

left, and then there were only three mangors left in the bowl.

How many mangoes were in the bowl when the King found them?

This problem and its solution can be found on the Illuminations website of the National

Council of Teachers of Mathematics http://illuminations.nctm.org/LessonDetail.aspx?

ID=L264

To solve the Mangoes Problem, start with the 3 mangoes left in the bowl after the King,

the Queen, and the three Princes have all eaten their share—and work BACKWARDS

from there.

The third Prince ate 1/2 of the mangoes he found in the bowl and left 3. So he must

have found 6 mangoes in the bowl.

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The second Prince ate 1/3 of the mangoes that he found in the bowl and left 6.

Therefore 6 = 2/3 of the mangoes he found, and 1/3 = 3. The second Prince must have

found 9 mangoes in the bowl.

The youngest Prince ate 1/4 of the mangoes he found in the bowl, leaving 3/4.

Therefore 3/4 = 9, and 1/4 = 3. The youngest Prince must have found 12 mangoes.

That means the Queen left 12. Since she ate 1/5, 4/5 = 12 and 1/5 = 3. Therefore the

Queen found 15 mangoes in the bowl.

Since the King left 15 mangoes after eating 1/6, 5/6 = 15 and 1/6 = 3. Therefore there

were 18 mangoes in the bowl when the King found them.

You started at the end and worked BACKWARDS to the beginning!

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Pólya's four principles

First principle: Understand the problem

This seems so obvious that it is often not even mentioned, yet students are often

stymied in their efforts to solve problems simply because they don't understand it fully,

or even in part. Pólya taught teachers to ask students questions such as:

• Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?

• What are you asked to find or show?

• Can you restate the problem in your own words?

• Can you think of a picture or a diagram that might help you understand the

problem?

• Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?

• Do you need to ask a question to get the answer?

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Second principle: Devise a plan

Pólya mentions (1957) that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The

skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You

will find choosing a strategy increasingly easy. A partial list of strategies is included:

• Guess and check

• Make an orderly list

• Eliminate possibilities

• Use symmetry

• Consider special cases

• Use direct reasoning

• Solve an equation

Also suggested:

• Look for a pattern

• Draw a picture

• Solve a simpler problem

• Use a model

36
 • Work backward

• Use a formula

• Be creative

• Use your head/noggen

Third principle: Carry out the plan

This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general (1957), all you need is care

and patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that you

have chosen. If it continues not to work discard it and choose another. Don't be misled,

this is how mathematics is done, even by professionals.

Fourth principle: Review/extend

Pólya mentions (1957) that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look

back at what you have done, what worked and what didn't. Doing this will enable you to

predict what strategy to use to solve future problems, if these relate to the original

problem.

37
Question 1:

Justin is making snowballs to build a fort on the winter break. Justin can build 15

snowballs in an hour but 2 snowballs melt every 15 minutes. How long will it take

him to build 210 snowballs?

STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE QUESTION

The question wants the time taken by Justin in making 210 snowballs

STEP 2: PLAN THE SOLVING METHOD

The information given:

~Justin can build 15 snowballs in an hour

~2 snowballs will melt every 15 minutes

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The information given show the constant cycle of Justin snowballs production, hence we

must find the pattern as it show constant movement.

The pattern is:

CONDITION 1 ~60 min=15 snowballs (snowballs added in reservation)

CONDITION 2 ~15 min= 2 snowballs (snowballs minus in reservation)

Derived from “CONDITION 2”:

CONDITION 3 ~60 min=8 snowballs (snowballs minus in reservation)

CONCLUSION: In one hour, Justin can build 15 snowballs but 8 of it will melt in that

time.This make the total net of Justin snowballs build is 7 snowballs every one hour.

STEP 3: SOLVING PROBLEM

The problem: the time taken by Justin in making 210 snowballs.

The pattern: 7 snowballs every one hour

1st hour:

15 snowballs added – 8 snowballs melted: 7 snowballs remains

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2nd hour:

15 snowballs added – 8 snowballs melted: 7 snowballs remain + 7 new snowballs

: 14 snowballs

3rd hour:

15 snowballs added – 8 snowballs melted: 14 snowballs remain + 7 new snowballs

: 21 snowballs

The first three hour were showen above, proving that the pattern actually exist and to

make the calculation become faster we will use division operation.

Hence, we will divide the amount of the snowballs that want to be achive with the rate of

snowballs that Justin create.

210 snowballs ÷ 7 snowballs per hour = 30 hours

Answer: Justin will take 30 hours to complete building the 210 snowballs.

STEP 4: LOOK BACK (CHECK)

30 hours × 7 hr snowballs: 210 snowballs

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Question 2:

Kim and Ben baked some brownies for a school party, they ate 6 of the brownies

then they left the reminding in the library as they played football outside.When

they return, half of the brownies is missing and only 12 of it is still there.How

much does brownies they baked in the first place?

STEP 1: UNDERSTANDING PROBLEM

How much does brownies they baked in the first place?

STEP 2: PLAN THE SOLVING METHOD

The information given is:

41
~They ate 6 of the brownies from the total amount

~Half of the reminder is missing and they left with only 12 brownies

The information comes in the form of event, thus the strategy of “looking backwards” is

the most appropriate of all

STEP 3: SOLVING THE PROBLEM

~they left with only 12 brownies which is half from what is missing.

Hence, the amount of the missing brownies is also 12 and the total reminder there is

actually 24

Before they go out playing football they have ate 6 brownies, hence we should added

back those 6 brownies sum up at 30 brownies.

The answer is, the total amount of the brownies bakes at the first place is 30.

42
PROBLEM 1

Place the numbers 1 to 9, one in each circle so that the sum of the four numbers along

any of the three sides of the triangle is 20. There are 9 circles and 9 numbers to place in

the circles. Each circle must have a different number in it.

Strategy 1: Diagram Method

The diagram method is usually used to display information or situation of the question in

the form of diagrams. In this way, it can easily help students to identify the relationship

among quantities illustrated in a simpler and clearer manner.

Step 1: Students try to read and understand the problem

Step 2: Students sketch diagrams to solve the problem

43
Step 3: Using the sketched diagrams, students write:

Each circle must have a different number between 1 to 9

The sum of each number in 4 circles = 20

Strategy 2: Guess and check

Guessing used in solving mathemathics problems involves rational thinking and

acquired experiences related to the problem to be solved. It does not involve wild

guesses or simply using trial and error to solve the problem. On the other hand, it

relies on certain forms of checking or testing to confirm the suggested solution.

In actual fact, many mathemathics formulae are derived by means of guessing and

testing. The strategies applied in guessing and checking are the trial and error

method, which consists of three types, namely:

1. Random trial and error

2. Systematic trial and error

3. Classificatory trial and error

In this question, random trial and error is the appropriate way to solve this question.

Step 1: understand and analyze the problem

Step 2: plan the solving strategy, i.e. take any 4 digits to arrange to obtain the sum

20.

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Step 3: implement the planned solving strategy in Step 2.

Strategy 3: Simplify the problem

Another way to solve a problem is to break up a complete problem into several

parts.

Step 1: choose any digits from 1 to 9 and sum it to obtain the sum 20.

Step 2: placing every digits in each circle and make sure there is no repetition.

BEST STRATEGY

The best strategy for Problem 1 is using the diagram method.

This is because, by doing so students are able to understand

and have a clear explanation through the question.

45
PROBLEM 2

Warlin was a tired young pnome. He had been gone for a long time collecting

mushrooms. Warlin was the oldest child and that meant lots of chores for him. But

he didn’t mind that much. He was almost home now. All he had to do was to go

over two drawbridges that crossed two dangerous rivers.

Warlin came to the first river. The drawbridge was raised. Normally all he had to do

was to push a lever and the bridge came down. To Warlin’s surprise, the lever was

surrounded by an iron cage with a lock on it. He could not reach the lever unless he

opened the lock. It must be his pesky younger brother, Twerpin, playing one of his

practical jokes. Oh well, thought Warlin, I’ll just open the lock. It was a combination

lock. The first 5 rows of digits were already entered.

46
Strategy 1: Look for a pattern

X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6

X1 and X6 = 0+1, 1+1, 1+2, 2+3

X1 and X2 is the same number and it is the sum of 2 and 3 which equal to 5.

X2, X3, X4 and X5 = the sum of X1 and X2 which is equal to 10.

By looking at the pattern of the arrangements of the number, we can solve the

problem. So, the six rows of digits are

5 10 10 10 10 5

Strategy 2: Guess and check

Guessing used in solving mathemathics problems involves rational thinking and

acquired experiences related to the problem to be solved. It does not involve wild

guesses or simply using trial and error to solve the problem. On the other hand, it

relies on certain forms of checking or testing to confirm the suggested solution.

In actual fact, many mathemathics formulae are derived by means of guessing and

47
testing.

Step 1: Try and error by placing any digits from 1 to 9 in the 6 rows, doing

arithmethic or define an equation and see what will happens next.

Step 2: Step 1 was repeated to find the approximate digits to unlock the lock.

Strategy 3: Simplify the problem

Simplify the problem refers to transformation of the word sentences into simpler

and and concise mathematical language. By expressing the question by means of

the above algebraic equation, the solution would be very much simpler and easier.

Equation 1:

1 + y = x, (y; 1, 2…)

Equation 2:

1 + y = x, (y; 2, 3…)

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Example:

1+y=x

1+y
=x
1+y=x

BEST STRATEGY

The most effective strategy in Problem 2 is ‘look for a pattern’

strategy. The skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is best

learned by solving many problems. Certain mathematics

49
problems contain specific patterns which need correct

identification and inference to solve them.

PROBLEM 3

In the village of Bellymore, there lived a great baker. Samer Sweetooth was his

name and baking cakes was his fame. Pnomes came from far and wide to buy his

delicious cakes.

One day Marlow Rectangle came to Samer’s bakery to buy a cake and said, "I

would like a cherry cake with yellow icing for my birthday party. The cake has to be

in the shape of a rectangle. Scratch a 4 x 5 grid of squares on the icing so that I will

have lines to follow when I cut the cake."

Samer nodded his head and asked, "What kind of cookies do you want on the

icing?"

Marlow answered, "I want eight pecan cookies on the icing, four shaped like a star

and four shaped like a crinkled circle."

Marlow thought for a moment and continued, "Four guests are coming to my party.

I want them to share all of the cake equally. The four pieces of cake must be

50
identical in shape. Each piece of cake must have one star cookie and one crinkled

circle cookie on it."

"No problem", replied Samer, "Here is the cake you want. You should be able to

cut four identical pieces of cake so that each piece has one star cookie and one

crinkled circle cookie somewhere on it."

Strategy 1: Diagram method

The diagram method is usually used to display information or situation of the

question in the form of diagrams. In this way, it can easily help students to identify

the relationship among quantities illustrated in a simpler and clearer manner.

Step 1: students try to read and understand the problem.

Step 2: students sketch diagrams to solve the problem.

Step 3: using the sketched diagram, students write:-

Scratch 4 x 5 grid of squares on the icing

4 pieces of cake must be identical in shape

Each piece of cake must have one star cookie and one crinckled circle

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Strategy 2: Carry out the plan

This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general (1957), all you need is

care and patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan

that you have chosen. If it continues not to work discard it and choose another.

Strategy 3: Understand the problem

Step 1: understand all the words used in stating the problem

Step 2: restate the problem in your own words

Step 3: sketched the picture or the diagram

Step 4: make sure there is enough information to enable you to find a solution

There are 2 ways to bake the cake, we can create it by these two models of cakes.

a) b)

52
BEST STRATEGY

Obviously, the first and most basic step in solving

mathematics problems is to represent the information (givens,

actions and goals) contain in the problems, in either symbolic

or diagrammatic form. To represent such information in a

symbolic form, we may use words, letters, numbers,

mathematical symbols, or symbolic, logical notation, etc. The

method of solving mathematics is, in fact, a kind of unique

activity, whereby each student would use his/her own way or

strategy to solve the problem. Based on the several questions

that we had state and solved, we conclude that the best

53
strategy for non-routine problem solving is to understand the

problem followed by several steps.

54
 There are lots of ways to solve a problem. So in this task, I choose three different
strategies n pick the best strategy. Based on the timetable below,

Best Choice
Question Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Strategy 3
strategy

Diagram Guess and Simplify the Diagram

1
Method Check Problem Method

Look for a Guess and Simplify the Look for

2
Pattern Check Problem Pattern

Diagram Carry Out the Understanding Understanding

3
Method Plan The Problem The Problem

55
REFERENCES

http://rhlschool.com

Rick Billstein, Shlomo Libeskind (2004), A Problem Solving Approach to

Mathematics, Pearson Education

McGraw-Hill (2002), Mathematics Level 9, McGraw-Hill School Division

McGraw-Hill (2002), Mathematics Level 5, McGraw-Hill School Division

Glosser, G. (2000-2009). Non-Routine Mean. Retrieved March 17, 2010, from Mr's
GlosserMathGoddies:
http://www.mathgoodies.com/lessons/vol8/advanced_mean.html

Sang, M. S. (2003). A Mathematics Course for Diploma of Education: Semester 2 & 3.

Subang Jaya: Kumpulan Budiman Sdn. Bhd.

Lee Chin Choy and Long Foo Sim. (2007). Basic Mathematics. Shah Alam: Oxford
Fajar Sdn. Bhd.

Glosser, G. (2000-2009). Non-Routine Mean. Retrieved March 17, 2010, from Mr's
GlosserMathGoddies:
http://www.mathgoodies.com/lessons/vol8/advanced_mean.html

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