D6432 16937

This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles
for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.
Designation: D6432 11
Standard Guide for

Using the Surface Ground Penetrating Radar Method for
Subsurface Investigation1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D6432; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon () indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope* roads and railroad trackbed studies (Ulriksen (3)), and highway
1.1 Purpose and Application: bridge scour studies (Placzek and Haeni (11)). Additional
1.1.1 This guide covers the equipment, field procedures, and applications and case studies can be found in the various
interpretation methods for the assessment of subsurface mate- Proceedings of the International Conferences on Ground
rials using the impulse Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Penetrating Radar (Lucius et al (12); Hannien and Autio, (13),
Method. GPR is most often employed as a technique that uses Redman, (14); Sato, (15); Plumb (16)), various Proceedings of
high-frequency electromagnetic (EM) waves (from 10 to 3000 the Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineer-
MHz) to acquire subsurface information. GPR detects changes ing and Environmental Problems (Environmental and Engi-
in EM properties (dielectric permittivity, conductivity, and neering Geophysical Society, 19881998), and The Ground
magnetic permeability), that in a geologic setting, are a Penetrating Radar Workshop (Pilon (17)), EPA (18), Daniels
function of soil and rock material, water content, and bulk (19), and Jol (20) provide overviews of the GPR method.
density. Data are normally acquired using antennas placed on 1.1.3 The geotechnical industry uses English or SI units.
the ground surface or in boreholes. The transmitting antenna 1.2 Limitations:
radiates EM waves that propagate in the subsurface and reflect 1.2.1 This guide provides an overview of the impulse GPR
from boundaries at which there are EM property contrasts. The method. It does not address details of the theory, field
receiving GPR antenna records the reflected waves over a procedures, or interpretation of the data. References are in-
selectable time range. The depths to the reflecting interfaces are cluded for that purpose and are considered an essential part of
calculated from the arrival times in the GPR data if the EM this guide. It is recommended that the user of the GPR method
propagation velocity in the subsurface can be estimated or be familiar with the relevant material within this guide and the
measured. references cited in the text and with Guides D420, D5730,
1.1.2 GPR measurements as described in this guide are used D5753, D6429, and D6235.
in geologic, engineering, hydrologic, and environmental appli- 1.2.2 This guide is limited to the commonly used approach
cations. The GPR method is used to map geologic conditions to GPR measurements from the ground surface. The method
that include depth to bedrock, depth to the water table (Wright can be adapted for a number of special uses on ice (Haeni et al
et al (1)2), depth and thickness of soil strata on land and under (21); Wright et al (22)), within or between boreholes (Lane et
fresh water bodies (Beres and Haeni (2)), and the location of al (23); Lane et al (24)), on water (Haeni (25)), and airborne
subsurface cavities and fractures in bedrock (Ulriksen (3) and (Arcone et al (25)) applications. A discussion of these other
Imse and Levine (4)). Other applications include the location adaptations of GPR measurements is not included in this guide.
of objects such as pipes, drums, tanks, cables, and boulders,
1.2.3 The approaches suggested in this guide for using GPR
mapping landfill and trench boundaries (Benson et al (5)),
are the most commonly used, widely accepted, and proven;
mapping contaminants (Cosgrave et al (6); Brewster and
however, other approaches or modifications to using GPR that
Annan (7); Daniels et al (8)), conducting archaeological
are technically sound may be substituted if technically justified
(Vaughan (9)) and forensic investigations (Davenport et al
and documented.
(10)), inspection of brick, masonry, and concrete structures,
1.2.4 This guide offers an organized collection of informa-
tion or a series of options and does not recommend a specific
1
course of action. This document cannot replace education or
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM CommitteeD18 on Soil and Rock
and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D18.01 on Surface and Subsurface experience and should be used in conjunction with professional
Characterization. judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all
Current edition approved May 1, 2011. Published June 2011. Originally circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to repre-
approved in 1999. Last previous edition approved in 2005 as D6432 99 (2005).
sent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of
DOI: 10.1520/D6432-11.
2
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this
this standard. document be applied without consideration of a projects many
*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard

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D6432 11
unique aspects. The word Standard in the title of this () and the dielectric relaxation (also referred to as polarization
document means only that the document has been approved loss) associated with the imaginary component of the permit-
through the ASTM consensus process. tivity ("), and magnetic relaxation associated with the imagi-
1.3 Precautions: nary component of magnetic permeability.
1.3.1 It is the responsibility of the user of this guide to (2) The term attenuation is also sometimes used to refer to
follow any precautions in the equipment manufacturers rec- the loss in EM wave energy from all possible sources,
ommendations and to establish appropriate health and safety including conduction currents, dielectric relaxation, scattering,
practices. and geometrical spreading.
1.3.2 If this guide method is used at sites with hazardous 3.2.3 bandwidth, nThe operating frequency range of an
materials, operations, or equipment, it is the responsibility of antenna that conforms to a specified standard (Balanis (28)).
the user of this guide to establish appropriate safety and health For GPR antennas, typically the bandwidth is defined by the
practices and to determine the applicability of any regulations upper and lower frequencies radiated from a transmitting GPR
prior to use. antenna that possess power that is 3 dB below the peak power
1.3.3 This guide does not purport to address all of the safety radiated from the antenna at its resonant frequency. Sometimes
concerns that may be associated with the use of the GPR the ratio of the upper and lower 3-dB frequencies is used to
method. It is the responsibility of the user of this guide to describe an antennas bandwidth. For example, if the upper and
establish appropriate safety and health practices and to lower 3-dB frequencies of an antenna are 600 and 200 MHz,
determine the applicability of regulations prior to use. respectively, the bandwidth of the antenna is said to be 3:1. In
GPR system design, the ratio of the difference between the
2. Referenced Documents upper frequency minus the lower frequency to the center
2.1 ASTM Standards:3 frequency is commonly used. In the preceding case, one would
D420 Guide to Site Characterization for Engineering Design have a ratio of 400:400 or 1:1.
and Construction Purposes (Withdrawn 2011)4 3.2.4 bistatic, adjthe survey method that uses two anten-
D653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained nas. One antenna radiates the EM waves and the other antenna
Fluids receives the reflected waves.
D3740 Practice for Minimum Requirements for Agencies 3.2.5 conductivity, n electrical, the ability of a material to
Engaged in Testing and/or Inspection of Soil and Rock as support an electrical current (material property that describes
Used in Engineering Design and Construction the movement of electrons or ions) due to an applied electrical
D5730 Guide for Site Characterization for Environmental field. The units of conductivity are Siemens/metre (S/m).
Purposes With Emphasis on Soil, Rock, the Vadose Zone
3.2.6 control unit (C/U), nAn electronic instrument that
and Groundwater (Withdrawn 2013)4
controls GPR data collection. The control unit may also
D5753 Guide for Planning and Conducting Borehole Geo-
process, display, and store the GPR data.
physical Logging
D6235 Practice for Expedited Site Characterization of Va- 3.2.7 coupling, nthe coupling of a ground penetrating
dose Zone and Groundwater Contamination at Hazardous radar antenna to the ground describes the ability of the antenna
Waste Contaminated Sites to get electromagnetic energy into the ground. A poorly
D6429 Guide for Selecting Surface Geophysical Methods coupled antenna is described as being mismatched. A well-
coupled antenna has an impedance equal to the impedance of
3. Terminology the ground.
3.1 Definitions: 3.2.8 depth of penetration, nthe maximum depth range a
3.1.1 Definitions shall be in accordance with the terms and radar signal can penetrate in a given medium, be scattered by
symbols given in Terminology D653. an electrical inhomogeneity, propagate back to the surface, be
3.1.2 The majority of the technical terms used in this guide recorded by a receiver GPR antenna, and yield a voltage
are defined in Sheriff (27). greater than the noise levels of the GPR unit.
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: (1) In a conductive material (seawater, metallic materials, or
3.2.1 antenna, n a transmitting GPR antenna converts an mineralogic clay soils), attenuation can be great, and the wave
excitation in the form of a voltage pulse or wave train into EM may penetrate only a short distance (less than 1 m). In a
waves. A receiving GPR antenna converts energy contained in resistive material (fresh water, granite, ice, or quartz sand), the
EM waves into voltages, which are regarded as GPR data. depth of penetration can be tens to thousands of metres.
3.2.2 attenuation, n wave, (1) the loss of EM wave energy 3.2.9 dielectric permittivity, ndielectric permittivity is the
due to conduction currents associated with finite conductivity property that describes the ability of a material to store electric
energy by separating opposite polarity charges in space. It
relates ability of a material to be polarized in the electric
3
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or displacement, D, in response to the application of an electric
contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM field, E, through D= E. The units of dielectric permittivity, ,
Standards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page on
are farads/metre (F/m). Relative dielectric permittivity (previ-
the ASTM website.
4
The last approved version of this historical standard is referenced on ously called the dielectric constant) is the ratio of the permit-
www.astm.org. tivity of a material to that of free space, 8.854 1012 F/m.
2
D6432 11
Whenever the dielectric permittivity is greater than that of free permeability is greater than that of free space, it must be
space, it must be complex and lossy, with frequency depen- complex and lossy, with frequency dependence typically de-
dence typically described by the Cole-Cole (Cole and Cole scribed by the Cole-Cole (Cole and Cole (26)) relaxation
(26)) relaxation distribution model. Nearly all dielectric relax- model. Nearly all magnetic properties are the result of the
ation processes are the result of the presence of water or clay presence of iron in a variety of mineralogical forms (Olhoeft
minerals (Olhoeft (27)). (27)). In some of the literature, magnetic susceptibility is used
3.2.10 dielectric relaxation, ngenerally used to describe with a variety of units and normalizations (Hunt et al (30)).
EM wave attenuation due to " (the imaginary part of the 3.2.16 megahertz (MHz), na unit of frequency. One mega-
complex permittivity). The term is derived from the empirical hertz equals 106 Hz.
relationship developed by describing the frequency-dependent 3.2.17 monostatic, adj(1) a survey method that utilizes a
behavior of dielectrics. The classical Debye formulation con- single antenna acting as both the transmitter and receiver of
tains a term referred to as the relaxation time. EM waves. (2) Two antennas, one transmitting and one
3.2.11 diffusion, nthe process by which the application of receiving, that are separated by a small distance relative to the
an external force (stimulus) results in a flux or movement of depth of interest are sometimes referred to as operating in
something (response). In electromagnetics, diffusion describes monostatic mode.
the movement of charges in response to an applied electric field 3.2.18 nanosecond (Ns), na unit of time. One nanosecond
or in response to an applied time-varying magnetic field. equals 109 s; one billionth of a second.
Diffusion is the low-frequency, high-loss, limiting behavior of
electromagnetic wave propagation and is descriptive of behav- 3.2.19 polarization, n(1) the storage of electrical or mag-
ior that decays rapidly (exponentially) with distance and time, netic energy by the application of electric or magnetic fields to
generally to 1/ e of the initial amplitude in 12 of a matter. (2) The orientation of the direction of the vector
wavelength. electromagnetic field is described by the polarization vector.
Most GPR antennas are linearly polarized, though some are
3.2.12 dipole antennaa linear polarization antenna con- circularly polarized (Balanis (28)).
sisting of two wires fed at the middle by a balanced source
(Balanis (28)). 3.2.20 propagation, nwhen sufficient energy storage is
available compared to energy dissipation (loss) processes in a
3.2.13 Fresnel zone, nthe area of a targets surface that material, electromagnetic waves may propagate instead of
contains the portion of the incident wave that arrives at the exponential rapid decay (diffusion). Propagation is character-
receive antenna less than 12 of a cycle out-of-phase from ized by a decay in amplitude from the source to 1/e in several
earliest arriving reflected energy from the target. There are wavelengths, a distance called the skin depth or attenuation
multiple Fresnel zones that form annular rings around the first length.
Fresnel zone (Sheriff (29)).
3.2.21 receiver, nthe electronics that are connected to the
3.2.14 loss tangent, nThere are three loss tangents: antenna that is excited by EM waves and converts the EM
electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic. Each loss tangent is energy into voltages.
the ratio of the imaginary to the real parts or the lossy to the
storage parts of the response to the stimulus in the force-flux 3.2.22 relative permittivity , n(relative dielectric permit-
stimulus-response equations. The electrical loss tangent is the tivity; sometimes called Dielectric constant), property of an
ratio of the imaginary to the real part of the dielectric electrical insulating material equal to the ratio of the capaci-
permittivity plus the electrical conductivity divided by radian tance of a capacitor filled with a given material to the
frequency times the real part of the permittivity. It represents capacitance of the identical capacitor filled with air. Earth
the cotangent of the phase between E and J (electric and materials are classified generally as conductors,
current density). The magnetic loss tangent is the ratio of the semiconductors, and insulators (dielectrics). The relative per-
imaginary to the real part of the complex magnetic permeabil- mittivity is the ratio of the dielectric permittivity of a material
ity. It represents the cotangent of the phase angle between H to the permittivity of free space (or vacuum). The permittivity
and B (magnetic field and magnetic induction). The electro- of free space is 8.85 1012 F/m but the relative permittivity
magnetic loss tangent is the ratio of the real to the imaginary of free space is 1 (dimensionless ratio).
parts of the complex propagation constant, and it represents the 3.2.23 scan, nthe recording of EM energy over a selected
cotangent of the phase angle between E and H. time range for a fixed antenna position. Also referred to as a
3.2.15 magnetic permeability (), nthe property that de- trace.
scribes the ability of a material to store magnetic energy by 3.2.24 scattering, nEM, the general term that describes
realignment of electron spin and motion. It relates ability of a the change in direction of electromagnetic wave propagation
material to be magnetized (magnetic polarization) in the that occurs at a change in material properties over a short
magnetic induction, B, in response to the application of a distance compared to a wavelength for an interval comparable
magnetic field H, through B=H. The units of magnetic to or greater than a wavelength. Scattering includes reflection
permeability, , are Henry/metre. Relative magnetic permeabil- (reverse change in direction), refraction (forward change in
ity is the ratio of the permeability of a material to that of free direction), and diffraction (caused by rapid changes that are
space, 4 107 H/m. It is commonly assumed that magnetic small compared to a wavelength in both occurrence and
properties are those of free space. Whenever the magnetic interval).
3
D6432 11
3.2.25 time gain, nalso known as range gain control or a series of scans is collected and positioned side by side to form
time varying gain. It is the amplification applied to a trace as a a profile of the subsurface (Fig. 2).
function of time. 4.1.3 Because the in situ properties of soil, rock, and water
3.2.26 transmit pulse, nthe voltage impulse that excites vary greatly, and the radar penetration depth is dependent upon
the transmitting antenna. these properties, the depth of penetration can range from less
3.2.27 transmitter electronicsthe electronics that, after than 1 m to greater than 30 m. In certain conditions such as in
receiving a trigger pulse from the control unit, send the thick polar ice or salt deposits, penetration depth can be as
transmit signal to the transmitting antenna. great as 500 m.
3.2.28 travel time, nthe time required for the radar signal 4.2 Complementary DataGeologic data obtained from
to travel from the transmitting antenna to a target or receiving other complementary surface geophysical methods (Guide
antenna. D6429), borehole geophysical methods (Guide D5753), and
3.2.29 two-way travel time, nthe time required for the non-geophysical methods may be necessary to help interpret
radar signal to travel from the transmitting antenna to a and assess subsurface conditions. The most important comple-
scatterer and return to the receiving antenna. mentary data are the location of the antenna and its orientation.
The single largest error in any kind of geophysical
4. Summary of Guide interpretation, especially radar, is not knowing where the
antenna was when the data were taken (for example, location
4.1 Summary of the MethodThe GPR equipment utilized
surveying data).
for the measurement of subsurface conditions normally con-
sists of a transmitter and receiver antenna, a radar control unit,
5. Significance and Use
and suitable data storage and display devices (Fig. 1).
4.1.1 A circuit within the radar control unit generates a train 5.1 ConceptsThis guide summarizes the equipment, field
of trigger pulses that are sent to the transmitter and receiver procedures, and data processing methods used to interpret
electronics. The transmitter electronics produce output pulses geologic conditions, and to identify and provide locations of
that are radiated into the ground from the transmitting antenna. geologic anomalies and man-made objects with the GPR
4.1.2 The receiving antenna detects the EM waves that are method. The GPR uses high-frequency-pulsed EM waves
reflected from interfaces at which the EM properties of the (from 10 to 3000 MHz) to acquire subsurface information.
material(s) change. These signals are sent to the control unit for Energy is propagated downward into the ground from a
amplification. As the antenna(s) are moved along a survey line, transmitting antenna and is reflected back to a receiving
FIG. 1 Schematic Diagram of a Ground-Penetrating Radar System
4
D6432 11
FIG. 2 Schematic Diagram Showing a Typical GPR Trace, and a Series of GPR Traces Collected at Specific Distances to Form a GPR
Profile Line or Cross Section
antenna from subsurface boundaries between media possessing 5.2.1.1 Table 1 lists the relative permittivities (r) and radar
different EM properties. The reflected signals are recorded to propagation velocities for various materials. Relative permit-
produce a scan or trace of radar data. Typically, scans obtained tivity values range from 1 for air to 81 for fresh water. For
as the antenna(s) are moved over the ground surface are placed unsaturated earth materials, r ranges from 3 to 15. Note that a
side by side to produce a radar profile. small change in the water content of earth materials results in
5.1.1 The vertical scale of the radar profile is in units of a significant change in the relative permittivity. For water-
two-way travel time, the time it takes for an EM wave to travel saturated earth material, r can range from 8 to 30. These
down to a reflector and back to the surface. The travel time may
be converted to depth by relating it to on-site measurements or
assumptions about the velocity of the radar waves in the TABLE 1 Approximate Electromagnetic Properties of Various
subsurface materials. Materials
5.1.2 Vertical variations in propagation velocity due to NOTE 1
changing EM properties of the subsurface can make it difficult d = function of density,
to apply a linear time scale to the radar profile (Ulriksen (31)). w = function of porosity and water content,
f = function of frequency,
5.2 Parameter Being Measured and Representative Values: t = function of temperature
5.2.1 Two-Way Travel Time and VelocityA GPR trace is s = function of salinity, and
the record of the amplitude of EM energy that has been p = function of pressure.
reflected from interfaces between materials possessing differ- Material
Relative Pulse Velocities, Conductivity,
ent EM properties and recorded as a function of two-way travel Permittivity, K m/Ns mS/m
Air 1 0.3 0
time. To convert two-way times to depths, it is necessary to Fresh water (f,t) 81 0.033 0.10 - 30
estimate or determine the propagation velocity of the EM Sea water (f,t,s) 70 0.033 400
pulses. The relative permittivity of the material (r) through Sand (dry) (d) 4-6 0.15-0.12 0.0001 - 1
Sand (saturated) (d,w,f) 25 0.055 0.1 - 1
which the EM pulse propagates mostly determines the propa- Silt (saturated) (d,w,f) 10 0.095 1 - 10
gation velocity of the EM wave. The propagation velocity Clay (saturated) (d,w,f) 8-12 0.106-0.087 100 - 1000
through the material is approximated using the following Dry sandy coastal land (d) 10 0.095 2
Fresh water ice (f,t) 4 0.15 0.1 - 10
relationship (see full formula in Balanis (32)): Permafrost (f,t,p) 4-8 0.15-0.106 0.01 - 10
Granite (dry) 5 0.134 0.00001
V m 5 c/ = r (1) Limestone (dry) 7-9 0.113-0.1 0.000001
Dolomite 6-8 0.122-0.106
where: Quartz 4 0.15
c = propagation velocity in free space (3 108m/s), Coal (d,w,f, ash content)
Concrete (w,f, age)
4-5
5-10
0.15-0.134
0.134-0.095
Vm = propagation velocity through the material, and Asphalt 3-5 0.173-0.134
r = relative permittivity. Sea ice (s,f,t) 4-12 0.15-0.087
PVC, epoxy, polyesters 3 0.173
It is assumed that the magnetic permeability is that of free vinyls, rubber (f,t)
space and the loss tangent is much less than 1.
5
D6432 11
values are representative, but may vary considerably with vertical-axis is two-way travel time (or depth). Data are
temperature, frequency, density, water content, salinity, and commonly presented in wiggle trace display, where the inten-
other conditions. sity of the received wave at an instant in time is proportional to
5.2.1.2 If the relative permittivity is unknown, as is nor- the amplitude of the trace (see Fig. 2), or as a gray scale of
mally the case, it may be necessary to estimate velocity or use color scale display, where the intensity of the received wave at
a reflector of known depth to calculate the velocity. The an instant in time is proportional to either the intensity of gray
propagation velocity, Vm, is calculated from the relationship as scale (that is, black is high intensity, and white is low intensity;
follows: see Fig. 3) or to some color assignment defined according to a
V m 5 ~ 2D ! /t (2) specified color-signal amplitude relationship.
5.3.4 Antennas and Control CablesThe antennas used to
where: transmit and receive radar signals are generally electric di-
D = measured depth to reflecting interface, and poles. A single-dipole antenna can be used to both transmit and
t = two-way travel time of an EM pulse. receive signals in the monostatic mode. The bi-static mode
5.2.1.3 Methods for measuring velocity in the field are uses separate antennas for transmitting and receiving. These
found in 6.7.3. Note that measured velocities may only be valid antennas can be housed in a single enclosure where the
at the location where they are measured under specific soil distance between the two antennas are fixed, or in separate
conditions. If there is lateral variability in soil and rock enclosures where the distance between the two antennas can be
composition and moisture content, velocity may need to be varied. The ability to vary the distance between the two
determined at several locations. antennas is helpful in optimizing the survey design for specific
5.2.2 AttenuationThe depth of penetration is determined types of target detection.
primarily by the attenuation of the radar signal due to the 5.3.4.1 Electromagnetic waves are three-dimensional vector
conversion of EM energy to thermal energy through electrical fields where the orientation of the fields is described by the
conduction, dielectric relaxation, or magnetic relaxation losses. vector direction or polarization of the electrical and magnetic
Conductivity is primarily governed by the water content of the fields. Changing the polarization of a linearly polarized electric
material and the concentration of free ions in solution (salin- dipole antenna can cause maximum or minimum coupling to a
ity). Attenuation also occurs due to scattering of the EM energy scattering object. For example, alignment of the electric field
in unwanted directions by inhomogeneities in the subsurface. If axis (the long length of a dipole antenna) parallel to a pipe or
the scale of inhomogeneity is comparable to the wavelength of wire will maximize the response of the pipe as a reflector
EM energy, scattering may be significant (Olhoeft (33)). Other scatterer, while a perpendicular alignment will minimize the
factors that affect attenuation include soil type, temperature pipe response. Typically, two antenna systems use the same
(Morey (34)), and clay mineralogy (Doolittle (35)). Environ- orientation and polarization for both antennas, but sometimes
ments not conducive to using the radar method include high the receive antenna will be oriented with its electric field
conductivity soils, sediments saturated with salt water or perpendicular (orthogonal) to the transmit antenna, resulting in
highly conductive fluids, and metal. insensitivity to reflection from horizontal layers and linear
features (like pipes) that are aligned to either antenna, but high
5.3 EquipmentThe GPR equipment utilized for the mea- sensitivity to off-alignment pipes.
surement of subsurface conditions normally consists of a
5.3.4.2 Antennas are manufactured both with and without
transmitter and receiver antenna, a radar control unit, and
shielding (metal or high radar absorption material). Shielding
suitable data storage and display devices.
reduces energy radiation from the sides and top of the antenna,
5.3.1 Radar Control UnitThe radar control unit synchro- which in turn reduces reflections from surface and above-
nizes signals to the transmitting and receiving electronics in the ground targets. Low-frequency antennas (less than 100 MHz)
antennas. The synchronizing signals control the transmitter and are rarely shielded, whereas most high-frequency antennas are
sampling receiver electronics located in the antenna(s) in order shielded.
to generate a sampled waveform of the reflected radar pulses.
5.3.4.3 The center frequency of commercially available
These waveforms may be filtered and amplified and are
antennas ranges from 10 to 3000 MHz. These antennas
transmitted along with timing signals to the display and
generate pulses which typically have 2 to 3 octaves of
recording devices.
bandwidth. In general, lower-frequency antennas provide an
5.3.2 Real-time signal processing for improvement of
increase in depth of penetration but have less resolution than
signal-to-noise ratio is available in most GPR systems. When
higher-frequency antennas.
working in areas with cultural noise and in materials causing
5.3.4.4 The selection of antenna frequency depends on the
signal attenuation, time varying gain is necessary to adjust
depth of penetration, spatial resolution, and system portability
signal amplitudes for display on monitors or plotting devices.
required for the study.
Filters may be used in real time to improve signal quality. The
summing of radar signals (stacking) is used to increase 5.4 Limitations and Interferences :
effective depth of exploration by improving the signal-to-noise 5.4.1 General Limitations Inherent to Geophysical Meth-
ratio. ods:
5.3.3 Data DisplayThe GPR data are displayed as a 5.4.1.1 A fundamental limitation of all geophysical methods
continuous profile of individual radar traces (Fig. 2). The lies in the fact that a given set of data cannot always be
horizontal-axis represents horizontal traverse distance and the associated with a unique set of subsurface conditions. In most
6
D6432 11
FIG. 3 Generalized Diagram of a Pipe Signature: GPR Record (300 MHz) Showing a Hyperbola from a Buried Pipe, and Computation of
Depth and Velocity from that Target (see 6.7.2.3(2b))
situations, surface geophysical measurements alone cannot be a highly effective, accurate, and cost-effective method of
resolve all ambiguities, and some additional information is obtaining subsurface information.
required. Because of this inherent limitation in the geophysical 5.4.1.2 In addition, all surface geophysical methods are
methods, a GPR survey alone can not be considered a complete inherently limited by decreasing resolution with depth.
assessment of subsurface conditions. Properly integrated with
5.4.2 Limitations Specific to the GPR Method:
other sources of knowledge or geophysical methods, GPR can
7
D6432 11
5.4.2.1 The GPR method is site specific in its performance rebar to get the thickness of concrete. Similar arrangement may
(depth of penetration and resolution), depending upon surface be made for overhead wires and nearby fences. Cross-polarized
and subsurface conditions. Radar penetration of more than 30 antennas (perpendicular to each other) minimize the response
m has been reported in geologic settings of water saturated from horizontal layers.
sands (Morey (34); Beres and Haeni (2), Smith and Jol (36), 5.4.3 Interferences Caused by Ambient, Geologic, and Cul-
Wright et al (1)), 300 m in granite, 2000 m in dry salt tural Conditions:
(Unterberger (37)), and 5400 m in ice (Wright et al (22)). More 5.4.3.1 Measurements obtained by the GPR method may
commonly, penetration is on the order of 1 to 10 m. Limitations contain unwanted signals (noise) caused by geologic and
are discussed in the following section. cultural factors.
5.4.2.2 Material Properties ContrastReflection coeffi-
5.4.3.2 Ambient and Geologic Sources of NoiseBoulders,
cients quantify the amplitude of reflected and transmitted
animal burrows, tree roots, or other inhomogeneities can cause
signals at boundaries between materials. Reflection coefficients
unwanted reflections or scattering of the radar waves. Lateral
depend on the angle of incidence, the polarization of the
and vertical variations in EM properties can also be a source of
incident field, and the EM property contrast. In addition to
noise.
having sufficient velocity contrast, the boundary between the
two materials needs to be sharp. For instance, it is more 5.4.3.3 Cultural Sources of NoiseAboveground cultural
difficult to see a water table in fine-grained materials than in sources of noise include reflections from nearby vehicles,
coarse-grained materials because of the different relative thick- buildings, fences, power lines, lampposts, and trees. In cases
nesses of the capillary fringe for the same contrast. where this kind of interference is present in the data, a shielded
5.4.2.3 AttenuationRadar signal attenuation is caused by antenna may be used to reduce the noise.
the effect of electrical conductivity, dielectric and magnetic (1) Scrap metal at or near the surface can cause interfer-
relaxation, scattering, and geometric spreading losses (Olhoeft ence or ringing in the radar data. The presence of buried
(33)). structures such as foundations, reinforcement bars (rebar),
(1) Electrical Conductivity LossesElectrically conduc- cables, pipes, tanks, drums, and tunnels under or near the
tive materials such as many mineralogic clays and free ions in survey line may also cause unwanted reflections (clutter).
solution attenuate the radar signal by converting EM energy to (2) In some cases, EM transmissions from nearby cellular
thermal energy (Olhoeft 33)). telephones, two-way radios, television, and radio and micro-
(2) Dielectric Relaxation LossesRadar signals can also wave transmitters may induce noise on the radar record.
be attenuated by dielectric relaxation losses due to the rota- (3) Other Sources of NoiseOther sources of noise can be
tional polarization of the liquid water molecule and chemical caused by the EM coupling of the antenna with the earth and
charge transfer processes on the surface of clay minerals. decoupling of the antenna to the ground due to rough terrain,
Attenuation due to dielectric relaxation losses arises from the heavy vegetation, water on the ground surface, or other
conversion of EM energy to thermal energy (Olhoeft (33)). changes in surface conditions.
(3) Geometric Scattering LossesScattering may be a 5.4.3.4 SummaryAll possible sources of noise present
dominant factor in signal attenuation when inhomogeneities in during a survey should be noted so that their effects can be
materials with grain sizes in the order of a radar wavelength considered when processing and interpreting the data.
(Table 2) are present (Olhoeft (33)). 5.4.4 Alternate MethodsThe limitations previously dis-
5.4.2.4 PolarizationThe type and alignment of polariza- cussed may prohibit the effective use of the GPR method, and
tion of the vector electromagnetic fields may be important in other methods or non-geophysical methods may be required to
receiving responses from various scatterers. Two linear, paral- resolve the problem (see Guide D6429).
lel polarized, electric field antennas can maximize the response
NOTE 1The quality of the result produced by applying this standard is
from linear scatters like pipes when the electric field (typically dependent on the competence of the personnel performing the work, and
long axis of the dipole antenna) is aligned parallel with the pipe the suitability of the equipment and facilities used. Agencies that meet the
and towed perpendicular across the pipe. Similarly, alignment criteria of Practice D3740 are generally considered capable of competent
with the rebar in concrete will maximize the ability to map the and objective testing/sampling/inspection/etc. Users of this standard are
rebar, but alignment perpendicular to the rebar will minimize cautioned that compliance with Practice D3740 does not in itself assure
reliable results. Reliable results depend on many factors; Practice D3740
scattering reflections from the rebar to see through or past the provides a means of evaluating some of those factors.
TABLE 2 Radar Wavelengths (metres) for Various Antenna 6. Procedure

Frequencies (f) and Relative Permittivities (r)
6.1 Qualification of Personnel The success of a radar
r 1 5 10 15 25 80
f survey, as with most geophysical techniques, is dependent
25 MHz 12.0 5.36 3.8 3.08 2.4 1.36 upon many factors. One of the most important is the compe-
50 MHz 6.0 2.68 1.88 1.56 1.2 0.68 tency of the person(s) responsible for planning, carrying out
80 MHz 3.76 1.68 1.20 0.96 0.76 0.40
100 MHz 3.0 1.36 0.96 0.76 0.6 0.32 the survey, and interpreting the data. An understanding of the
200 MHz 1.52 0.68 0.48 0.40 0.32 0.16 theory, field procedures, and methods for interpretation of GPR
300 MHz 1.0 0.44 0.32 0.24 0.20 0.12 data along with an understanding of the site geology are
500 MHz 0.6 0.28 0.20 0.16 0.12 0.08
900 MHz 0.32 0.16 0.12 0.08 0.08 0.04 necessary to successfully complete a GPR survey. Personnel
not having specialized training and experience should be
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cautious about using this technique and solicit assistance from spreading losses as well as the dynamic range of the radar
qualified practitioners. system (Olhoeft (33)), and sources of noise. Electrical conduc-
6.2 Planning the SurveySuccessful use of subsurface GPR tivity is controlled by the water content, the concentration of
measurements depends to a great extent on proper planning. ions in solution, and the mineralogic (that is, montmorillonite)
Without careful and detailed planning, the GPR method may clay present. An engineering size fraction clay (rock flour) is
not yield data significant to interpret. not a problem for GPR since it does not produce relaxation
6.2.1 Objectives of the GPR Survey: losses, as do mineralogical clays.
6.2.1.1 Planning and design of a GPR survey should be 6.2.3 Assess EM Property Contrast:
done with due consideration to the objectives of the survey and 6.2.3.1 One of the most critical elements in planning a GPR
the characteristics of the site, because they will determine the survey is the determination of whether or not there is an
equipment to be used, level of interpretation, and the level of adequate property contrast between geologic units or buried
effort and budget necessary to achieve the desired results. objects of interest. Assuming that no previous GPR surveys
Factors that need to be considered include geology, depth of have been made in the area, one is forced to rely on knowledge
investigation, geometry of the target, EM properties of the of the geology, published and unpublished references contain-
target and of the host material, topography, and access to the ing radar velocities, relative permittivities, and magnetic per-
site. The presence of sources of noise (natural or cultural) as mittivities of earth materials and reports of GPR studies done
well as operational constraints must also be considered. It is in similar hydrogeologic settings (see Table 1).
good practice to obtain as much of the relevant information as 6.2.3.2 A simple model of the subsurface EM properties at
possible about the site (soil type, electrical conductivity, and the site may be useful. By using this geoelectric model and
depth to water table) prior to mobilization to the field, forward modeling methods (Powers et al (38)), the applicabil-
including data from any previous GPR or electrical resistivity ity of the GPR method may be assessed.
work, boring logs, geophysical logs in the study area, and a site 6.2.3.3 One method of estimating whether there is a suffi-
map or aerial photo. cient contrast in electrical properties is to use the expression for
6.2.1.2 The purpose of the radar survey may be for recon- power reflectivity :
naissance of subsurface conditions or detailed subsurface Pr 5 ~~ = ! ~ =
Host 2 = r Target / Host 1 = r Target !! 2
(3)
r r
investigations. In reconnaissance surveys, the spacing between
radar lines is large, few transects are used, and elevations are where r = relative permittivity.
obtained from topographic maps or by hand-held readings from 6.2.4 Two conservative estimates for predicting whether a
the field. In a detailed survey where the targets are small, the target can be detected are as follows:
spacing between radar transects are small and elevations and 6.2.4.1 First, the electrical properties of the target should be
locations of points along the radar lines are accurately deter- such that the power reflectivity be at least 0.01. (Note that a
mined. metal target is equivalent to r Target in the above
6.2.2 Assess Depth of Penetration : equation)
6.2.2.1 Another critical element in planning a GPR survey is 6.2.4.2 Second, the ratio of the target depth to smallest
the determination of whether or not the target is within the lateral target dimension should not exceed 10:1.
anticipated penetration depth irrespective of any unusual target 6.3 Selection of the Approach:
characteristics. 6.3.1 The objective of the study determines the specific
6.2.2.2 The penetration depth of a radar signal is determined mode of operation for the radar study. Two modes of operation
primarily by attenuation caused by the sum of electrical are normally used in conducting radar surveys, and both are
conductivity, dielectric relaxation, scattering, and geometric referred to as the reflection profiling method (Fig. 4).
FIG. 4 Schematic Diagram of the Reflection Profiling Method
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6.3.1.1 In the first mode, data are acquired as the antenna(s) maintain these settings throughout a given line or area depend-
are towed along the survey line. ing upon site conditions and survey objectives. However,
6.3.1.2 In the other mode, the radar data are collected at sometimes one set of control settings is inadequate, such as at
specific points along the survey line both with fixed a survey site partially covered by two different materials (that
transmitter/receiver separation. is, bare soil and asphalt) where antenna coupling might change
6.3.1.3 A third less commonly used method is to collect enough to require two different settings (and two different
common midpoint (CMP) data at points along the profile surveys). If site conditions change, additional duplicate surveys
(varying transmitter-receiver separation). A three-dimensional may need to be run with different radar system control settings.
perspective view can be constructed by obtaining data on a 6.5.2 Survey LinesWhen laying out survey lines, the
grid. The choice of operational mode depends upon the following should be considered:
characteristics of the target, the field conditions, and purpose of 6.5.2.1 Lay out the survey lines in a straight line if possible.
the study. 6.5.2.2 Place station marks at equal intervals along the
6.4 Survey Design: survey line using survey flags and tape, measuring wheel,
6.4.1 Location of Survey LinesIt is preferable to have an electronic measuring device, global positioning system, or
on-site visit to help design the site survey. If this is not other location system.
possible, preliminary location of survey lines can be done with 6.5.2.3 Note the distances so that corrections can be made to
the aid of topographic maps and aerial photos. The degree of the data.
accuracy of the location and elevation of transect positions 6.5.2.4 The survey lines should be referred to a permanent
varies with the objective of the survey. The datum for GPR data location so the grid can be revisited at a later date if necessary.
is the ground surface. In areas where significant changes in 6.6 Quality Control (QC)Quality-control practices are
elevation occur, elevations along the survey lines should be applicable to the field procedures, processing, and interpreta-
obtained. In addition to the preceding, consideration should be tion phases of the work. Quality-control procedures require
given to: that reasonable guidelines are followed and appropriate docu-
6.4.1.1 Need for data at a given location, mentation of the survey is made.
6.4.1.2 Accessibility of the area, 6.6.1 The following items are used to provide QC of field
6.4.1.3 Proximity of wells or test holes for control data, and operations:
6.4.1.4 Extent, location, and impact of any surface features 6.6.1.1 Run a test line to establish system settings and
such as concrete, buried structures and utilities, and other record all system settings and parameters.
sources of cultural noise that prevent measurements from being 6.6.1.2 Maintain a field log that records the equipment,
made. system settings, and field operational procedures used for the
6.4.2 CoverageThe area of survey should be larger than project.
the area of interest so that measurements are taken in both 6.6.1.3 Document any changes to the planned field proce-
background conditions and over the area of interest. Survey dures.
lines should be laid out over the site. The issue of whether lines 6.6.1.4 Record any changes in GPR control settings that are
will be run perpendicular to one another or parallel to one made, and the locations in the survey where they were made.
another should be considered. The survey lines should be 6.6.1.5 Document any conditions (weather conditions and
oriented perpendicular to any linear feature (buried channel, natural and cultural noise) that could impact survey results.
pipeline, tank, trenches, faults, and fractures) that is expected. 6.6.1.6 Note any problems with the equipment, what steps
Line spacing should be adjusted according to the size of the were taken to correct the problem, and how the problem could
target. In special cases, consideration of the antenna polariza- affect the data.
tion (orientation) may be needed to optimize or minimize 6.6.1.7 Review data as soon as possible, if the data are being
reflections from subsurface targets. recorded (by a computer or digital-acquisition system) with no
6.5 Survey Implementation: visible means of observing the data.
6.5.1 On-site Check of the PlanA systematic visual in- 6.6.1.8 Rerun test line(s) as needed to confirm that the
spection of the site should be made upon arrival to determine system is running properly.
if the plan developed is reasonable. At this point, modifications 6.6.2 Calibration and Standardization In general, the
to the field plan may be required. manufacturers recommendation is followed for calibration and
6.5.1.1 Often a set of initial GPR measurements is made to standardization. Conduct an operational check of equipment
confirm whether adequate radar depth of penetration exists. before each project and before starting fieldwork each day. A
The initial measurement(s) also can be used to assess the routine check of equipment should be made on a periodic basis
signal-to-noise ratio of the site relative to the various antenna and after each problem.
frequencies. On-site assessment of initial results may result in 6.7 Interpretation of Ground Penetrating Radar Data:
changes to the survey plan. Assess the need for antenna 6.7.1 The level of effort involved in the interpretation
shielding and penetration depth. Set range, gains, and filters. depends upon the objectives of the survey and the detail
Record a trial transect along a test line that is representative of desired.
average site conditions to evaluate the system set up param- 6.7.1.1 A problem inherent in all geophysical studies is the
eters and make necessary changes. Generally, it is good nonunique correlation between possible geologic models and a
practice to establish radar system control settings and then single set of field data. This ambiguity can only be resolved
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through the use of geologic, geophysical, and other available (1) Estimated ApproachIf the velocity of the EM wave in
information along with the experience of the interpreter. the material is not known, it can be sufficient to estimate the
6.7.1.2 Preliminary interpretation of field data should be velocity based on the material type present. Table 1 gives
labeled as draft or preliminary because it is easy to make errors estimated velocities and relative dielectric permittivities for
in an initial field interpretation and a preliminary analysis is various materials.
never a complete and thorough interpretation. Preliminary (2) Measured ApproachThere are three ways to measure
analysis in the field is done mostly as a means of QC. EM wave velocities: velocity sounding, hyperbolic geometry,
6.7.2 Methods of Converting Travel Time to Depth: and the depth to the known reflector methods.
6.7.2.1 Travel TimeDetermining the travel time to a hori- (2a) Velocity SoundingThe velocity sounding method uses
zon or target involves measuring the travel time on the GPR two separate antennas (one for transmitting and one for
record from time zero to the reflector. This measurement is the receiving) over a horizontal subsurface interface. The antennas
two-way travel time from the surface to the reflector and back are sequentially moved away from their original positions and
to the surface. The point of zero time, that is, the time at which in the opposite directions at known distance increments. This
the transmit pulse starts to radiate into the ground, is estab- method results in a measurement of reflection times over
lished several ways. For GPR systems with a monostatic known distances through the medium of unknown velocity.
antenna configuration, the zero crossing (polarity) of the With knowledge of the zero offset (x = 0), travel time and the
transmitted radar signal can be used. Another way to set the travel times observed for several antenna positions at known
zero-time position for a given antenna is to make measure- separation distances the effective propagation velocity in the
ments against a metal surface located at several different medium is given by:
distances from the antenna. Then, by regression, the zero-time
position is determined (Ulriksen (31)). For bistatic antenna V m 5 x/ =~ t x 2 2 t d 2 ! (4)
configurations, zero time must be measured in the field. In this
where:
case, zero time is determined by conducting common midpoint
(CMP) or wide angle reflection (WAR) soundings, and project- x = horizontal distance between the transmitting and re-
ing the air and ground waves on the time versus antenna ceiving antennas,
tx = two-way travel time of a reflection from an interface at
separation graph back to their intersection at zero time. A
x antenna separation, and
consistent approach to picking the time intervals must be
td = two-way travel time to the reflecting interface when x =
applied to minimize errors.
0.
6.7.2.2 Compute the DepthCompute the depth (D) to a
reflector, it is necessary to know the velocity (V) of the EM There are two modes of operation for conducting velocity
waves within the material(s). The reflection times recorded on soundings. In the common midpoint (CMP) sounding (Fig. 5),
a GPR record are the two-way travel times, where depth = both the antennas are moved equidistant from a fixed location.
two-way travel time velocity / 2. In a wide-angle reflection (WAR) sounding (Fig. 6), one
6.7.2.3 VelocitiesVelocities can be estimated, calculated, antenna is held fixed while the other is moved away. The WAR
or measured using the following techniques. If there is signifi- sounding is only valid when the subsurface reflector is flat.(2b)
cant lateral variability in the soil EM properties moisture Hyperbolic Geometry-Hyperbolic geometry uses reflections
content in the subsurface, or both, the velocity may only be from point reflectors (targets) such as pipes, tanks, or boulders
valid at the single point of calibration. that result in a hyperbolic pattern on the radar record. Fig. 3
FIG. 5 Schematic Diagram of a Common Midpoint (CMP) Sounding
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FIG. 6 Schematic Diagram Showing a Wide Angle Reflection Sounding
illustrates a hyperbolic pipe signature from a buried pipe. This supports, trees, or overhead objects may also cause errors in
information can be used to find the depth to the pipe when a interpretation if these are not accounted for in the interpretation
distance along the ground (x) is known and two-way travel of the survey.
time (tz and ty) to an object, which is scaled from the data. 6.8.3 Point ReflectorsPoint reflectors are identified by
~
Depth 5 x/ =~~ t z /t y ! 2 2 1) and v 5 ~ 2/t y ! x / ~ =~~ t /t ! 2
2 1 !! their characteristic hyperbolic shapes (Fig. 3). Typical point
z y
reflectors in the subsurface include pipes, drums, tanks, old
(5)
foundations, graves, boulders, cavities, fractures, faults, and
where: vertical geologic structures. Hyperbolas in radar records can
x = distance along ground, also be from tree limbs and powerlines overhead and trees and
tz = two-way travel time or slant range to pipe, ns, buildings off to the side, but these can be recognized by the
ty = two-way travel time to pipe when antenna is directly hyperbola being broader than those underground and fitting a
over pipe, ns, and velocity for the speed of light in air (relative permittivity = 1
v = velocity in m (ft)/ns. and velocity = 0.3 m/s).
(1) An example of these computations on field data from a 6.8.4 Lateral ChangesLateral changes in amplitude,
300-MHz antenna is shown in Fig. 3. The modeling program phase, or reflection patterns in the radar record can be caused
by Powers and Olhoeft (38) can be used to accomplish this, as by changes in rock or soil type, moisture content, the presence
well as several commercial processing packages. of contaminants and other human artifacts.
(2c) Known Depth to Reflector-Another way to determine 6.8.5 Integrating Information for Multiple LinesIn some
the velocity at a given point at a site is to use the travel time to cases, information from a single GPR survey line transect is
a reflector of known depth. Reflectors can include utilities, sufficient to meet the objective of the survey. Radar data
tanks, the water table in coarse-grained soils, clay layers, or collection from multiple transects is needed to fully map a
other geologic reflectors that have a known depth at the site. subsurface anomaly. If two-way travel times are converted to
Using the travel time from the GPR record and the known depth, contour maps of the tops of various reflectors (inter-
reflector depth, the average velocity of the radar signal can be preted as a subsurface layer) can be generated much as can be
determined from the formula: done with seismic reflection data (Annan, 1993). When GPR
V 5 d/t (6) data are collected on closely spaced two-dimensional lines
(0.25 to 1 m), these data can be used to generate three-
where t = total time and the antenna(s) are directly over
12
dimensional perspective views of radar data (Daniels et al (39);
the known target.
Knoll and Haeni, (40)); and fence diagrams (Olhoeft (41, 42)).
6.8 Interpretation of Results: 6.8.6 All other available information about the site should
6.8.1 Interpretation of radar data may involve some or all of be used when interpreting the radar data. This information can
the following steps depending upon the purpose of the survey include site maps, aerial photos, soil survey reports, well logs,
6.8.2 Recognition of NoiseContinuous horizontal signals geotechnical, geologic and hydrogeologic reports, and geologic
(banding) throughout a GPR record are generally indicative of information.
coherent system noise, and may be indicative of a system
malfunction or an unusually flat stratum. Such banding may 6.9 Data Processing:
also be the result of antenna ringing from poor coupling to the 6.9.1 For most surveys, interpretation of the radar record is
ground. Reflections from building foundations, bridge accomplished without processing of the data.
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6.9.2 FilteringFiltering of radar data is used in an attempt 6.9.2.2 Ringing from poor antenna-ground coupling may be
to remove unwanted noise and correctly position reflectors on removed by an average of all scans in the data set being
the radar record. Filtering processes include, but are not limited subtracted from each scan (background removal).
to, stacking, deconvolution, finite and infinite impulse filters, 6.9.2.3 Radio frequency interference from cellular tele-
Hilbert transforms, migration, and spectrum transforms (Yil- phones and other nearby radio transmitters may be removed
maz (43) and Fisher et al (44)). Care must be used when with a medium gradient filter (Olhoeft (27) ).
processing radar data because artifacts can be inadvertently 6.9.3 Variations in surface elevation can have a major
introduced into the data. Commercial programs for processing impact on radar data. The standard process for topographic
radar data are available from equipment manufacturers and correction is to apply a static time shift to each radar trace
software vendors. before plotting (Fig. 7). The time shift is a product of elevation
6.9.2.1 A variety of filtering methods may be used to change and knowledge of near-surface wave velocity. Most
remove or minimize noise in GPR data. interpretation programs accomplish this if altitude and position
FIG. 7 Illustration of the Effect of Elevation Changes on GPR Data (Modified from Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc., 1992, not to scale)
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of the antennas are recorded, and if the velocity of the near 7. Report of Results and Conclusions
surface can be estimated or measured.
7.1 The following is a list of the key items that should be
6.9.4 Since it is impossible to tow a radar antenna at a
constant speed, the data on the resulting record section are not contained within most formal reports. In some cases, there is
spaced at even distance increments. Rubber sheeting (rubber no need for an extensive formal report.
banding) is the process of stretching or compressing the radar 7.2 Report the following information:
record horizontally so that the data are spaced at even distance 7.2.1 Purpose and scope of the GPR survey,
increments. The before and after process of rubber sheet-
ing is illustrated in Fig. 8. Generally, rubber sheeting compres- 7.2.2 Geologic setting,
sion is achieved by removing scans, while rubber sheeting 7.2.3 Limitations of the GPR survey (sources of noise,
stretching is achieved by inserting duplicate adjacent scans or interferences, logistical constraints),
interpolating scans to expand the record (Bochiccio (45)). 7.2.4 Assumptions made,
FIG. 8 Spacing of Scans with Respect to Actual Horizontal Distance, Before and After Rubber Sheeting (modified from Bochiccio, 1988)
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7.2.5 Field approach used along with a description of the since subtle changes in moisture and soil/rock properties can
equipment and the data acquisition and display parameters, easily cause significant changes in radar velocity (travel time).
such as date of acquisition, gains, filters, antenna frequency, 8.3.1 Travel times must be picked as accurately as possible
and geometry, using the onset of the pulse. An error of 10 ns (two-way travel
7.2.6 Location of radar transects on a site map, directions of time) translates into an error of approximately 0.6 m in
antenna motion along transects, and orientation of antenna unsaturated sediments, 0.3 m in saturated sediments, and 0.6 m
polarizations, in many rocks.
7.2.7 Corrections applied to field data and justification for 8.3.2 The accuracy of a GPR survey is commonly based on
their use, how well the reflection depths agree with boring data. In
7.2.8 Measured results, general, when there is a significant change in physical proper-
7.2.9 How depths to reflectors were determined, ties such as a sand clay interface or a soil rock interface, the
7.2.10 What software program(s) and steps for processing radar data and boring data should be expected to agree. In some
and interpretation were used, cases, there will be considerable disagreement between the
7.2.11 Interpreted results and qualifications and possible GPR and boring data. While the GPR measurements may be
alternate interpretations, and accurate in themselves, the results may disagree with the depth
7.2.12 Appropriate references or comments for supporting obtained from drilling for the following reasons.
data used in the interpretation.
8.3.2.1 Fundamental Differences Between GPR Data and
7.3 Presentation of Data and Interpretations: Drilling DataThe GPR method is based upon a measure of
7.3.1 In some cases, there is little if any need for a formal travel time of the EM pulses. In order to measure depth to an
presentation of data or interpreted results. A statement of interface, such as that between soil and rock, there must be a a
findings may be sufficient. If the original data are to be significant change in velocity at the interface. The GPR method
provided to the client, the data and related survey grid maps gives an average depth over an area defined by the Fresnel
should be labeled. zone.
7.3.2 The final GPR interpretation generally leads to a 8.3.2.2 In contrast, when the top of rock is defined by
conceptual model of the site conditions (geologic, hydrologic, drilling it is usually based upon refusal, blow counts, or the first
or cultural). A conceptual model is a simplified characterization evidence of rock fragments. Differences between GPR mea-
of a site that incorporates all the essential features of the surements and drilling in defining the top of rock can account
physical system under study. The conceptual model is usually for differences between the two types of measurements. In
represented as a cross-section and contour map, along with addition, the drilling results are valid for only a sampling area
other drawings to illustrate the general geohydrologic condi- of a few square centimetres.
tions and cultural condition along with any anomalous condi- 8.3.2.3 Positioning DifferencesThe GPR survey and the
tions at a site. drill hole may not be located in the same location. In cases
7.4 Quality AssuranceIt is generally accepted practice to where the drill rig cannot easily get to the GPR line, the lateral
have the data interpretation and report reviewed by a person offset may account for significant discrepancies in depth, up to
who was not directly involved with the project, but has a several metres, where the top of rock is highly variable such as
general knowledge of the geologic/cultural setting and exper- karst terrain.
tise in the use and interpretation of GPR data.
8.4 Resolution:
8. Precision, Bias, Calibration, and Resolution 8.4.1 Lateral ResolutionThe antenna frequency, the rate at
which scans are recorded, and the speed at which the antenna
8.1 PrecisionFor the purposes of this guide, precision is a is moved determine lateral resolution of a continuous GPR
measure of the repeatability between measurements. Precision survey. Lateral resolution of a station-by-station GPR survey is
can be affected by the location of the antennas, the tow speed, determined primarily by the antenna frequency and station
the coupling of the antennas to the ground surface, the spacing. Lateral resolution is also controlled by the antenna
variations in soil conditions, and the ability and care involved patterns and the Fresnel zone, which get larger (poorer reso-
in picking reflections. Assuming that soil conditions remain the lution) with increasing depth.
same (that is, soil moisture), repeatability of radar measure- 8.4.2 Vertical ResolutionVertical resolution can be con-
ments is can be 100 %. sidered in two ways: (1) how small a change in depth can be
8.2 BiasFor the purposes of this guide, bias is defined as determined by the GPR method and (2) how thin a layer can be
a measure of the closeness to the truth. The accuracy of the detected by the GPR method.
GPR survey is dependent upon picking travel times, processing 8.4.3 The answers to both of the questions are a complex
and interpretation, and site-specific geologic limitations, such function of the amplitude and wavelength of the transmitted
as unknown changes in radar velocities (lateral or vertical) or pulse, the properties and electromagnetic propagation charac-
the presence of steeply dipping layers. teristics of the host material and the target, the complexity of
8.3 CalibrationA determination of velocity is only valid the geology, noise from man-made and natural objects at or
at the point where that velocity is calculated. Extrapolation near the surface, and the depth, shape, and size of the target.
beyond the point of measurement, or interpolation between two 8.4.4 Resolution of a few centimetres can be obtained with
or more measurement points, should be done with caution high-frequency antennas (1 GHz) at shallow depths, while
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TABLE 3 Resolution Limits (metres) for Various Antenna
Frequencies (f) and Relative Permittivities (r) Based on 1/4
r 1 5 10 15 25 80
f
25 MHz 3.00 1.34 0.95 .0.77 0.60 0.34
50 MHz 1.50 0.67 0.47 0.39 0.30 0.17
80 MHz 0.94 0.42 0.30 0.24 0.19 0.10
100 MHz 0.75 0.34 0.24 0.19 0.15 0.08
200 MHz 0.38 0.17 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.04
300 MHz 0.25 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.03
500 MHz 0.15 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02
900 MHz 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01
lower frequency antennas (10 MHz) may have resolution of

approximately 1 m at greater depths (Table 3).
9. Keywords
9.1 civil engineering; environmental site characterization;
geological engineering; geology; geophysics; ground penetrat-
ing radar; groundwater; subsurface investigation; surface geo-
physics
REFERENCES
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17
D6432 11
SUMMARY OF CHANGES
Committee D18 has identified the location of selected changes to this guide since the last issue, D6432 99
(2005), that may impact the use of this guide. (Approved May 1, 2011.)
(1) Added parts of speech to Terminology section. (3) Added Note 1.

(2) Added delimiting phrase to definitions duplicated in Ter- (4) Replaced Fig. 3.
minology D653.
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This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles

Standard Guide for

*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard

FIG. 1 Schematic Diagram of a Ground-Penetrating Radar System

TABLE 2 Radar Wavelengths (metres) for Various Antenna 6. Procedure

FIG. 4 Schematic Diagram of the Reflection Profiling Method

FIG. 5 Schematic Diagram of a Common Midpoint (CMP) Sounding

FIG. 6 Schematic Diagram Showing a Wide Angle Reflection Sounding

lower frequency antennas (10 MHz) may have resolution of

(1) Added parts of speech to Terminology section. (3) Added Note 1.

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