IDRC200e

ARCHIV
DAVY
50205 e Culture in Asia
rn. e Pacific

Editors: F. Brian Davy and Michael Graham

The International Development Research Centre is a public corporation
created by the Parliament of Canada in 1970 to support research designed to
adapt science and technology to the needs of developing countries. The
Centre's activity is concentrated in five sectors: agriculture, food and nutri-
tion sciences; health sciences; information sciences; social sciences; and
communications. IDRC is financed solely by the Parliament of Canada; its
policies, however, are set by an international Board of Governors. The
Centre's headquarters are in Ottawa, Canada. Regional offices are located in
Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East.

International Development Research Centre 1982

Postal Address: Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada KIG 3H9
Head Office: 60 Queen Street, Ottawa, Canada

Davy, F.B.
Graham, M.

IDRC. Asia Regional Office, Singapore SG

IDRC-200e
Bivalve culture in Asia and the Pacific: proceedings of a workshop held
in Singapore, 16-19 February 1982. Ottawa, Ont., IDRC, 1982. 90 p. : ill.

/ Oyster culture!, / molluscs, / fishery research /, 1'Asia j, / Papua New

Guinea!, /Fiji/, /French Polynesia/ /technical aspects, /fish
production/. /research and development!. /conference report!, /list of
participants!, / IDRC mentioned , bibliography.

UDC: 639.4 (5.9) ISBN: 0-88936-343-9

Microfiche edition available

1/ existe galement une edition francaise de cette publication.

La edicin espaiola de esta publicaci6n tambie'n se encuentra disponible.
 IDRC-200e

Bi VA L VE CUL TURE IN A SIA

A ND THE PA CIFIC

PROCEEDINGS OF A WORKSHOP HELD

IN SINGAPORE
16-19 FEBRUARY 1982

EDITORS: F. BRIAN DAVY AND MICHAEL GRAHAM

iQ (V-i '

(?')
 RESUME

Du 16 au 19 fvrier 1982, sous l'egide du dpartement de production primaire du

ministre du dveloppement national et du Centre de recherches pour le dveloppement
international, s'est tenu a Singapour un colloque sur les modes d'levage et l'tat actuel de
Ia culture des lamellibranches - huitres. moules, clovisses, palourdes - en vue d'tablir
un plan d'avenir dans ce domaine.
Le colloque a runi trente-cinq participants de l'ASEAN (Association des pays du
sud-est asiatique) ainsi que des dlgus de Bangladesh, Burma, Chine, Fiji, Papouasie
Nouvelle-Guine, Sri Lanka, Tahiti et du Canada. On trouve des bivalves en abondance
sur les ctes de presque tous les pays, o on les rcolte comme aliment de subsistance.
Mais quelques pays ont commence a les cultiver et us esprent que des recherches
appropries leur permettront de tripler Ia production.
Ii a surtout t question, au cours de Ia reunion, des possibilits d'adapter les
techniques de culture a l'environnement des pays intresss. Les participants ont t
invites a visiter les levages de moules suspendus a des radeaux et le systme de traitement
mis au point par le dpartement de production primaire de Singapour.
Les domaines de recherche prioritaires dtermins par les participants sont: la
formation aux mthodes de culture, un approvisionnement de naissain amlior, des
critres de selection de site mieux dfinis, des etudes conomiques plus dtailles, l'ta-
blissement de normes de salubrit des bivalves destins ala consommation humaine et des
mcanismes permettant l'change d'information technique sur Ia recherche relative aux
lamellibranches.

RESUMEN

Del 16 al 19 de febrero de 1982 tuvo lugar en Singapur un seminario auspiciado por el

Departamento de Produccin Primaria del Ministerio de Desarrollo Nacional de Sin-
gapur y el Centro Internacional de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo, destinado a
examinar los mtodos y el estado actual del cultivo de bivalvos ostras, mejillones,
almejas y coquinas en Asia y el Pacifico y hacer recomendaciones sobre programas y
actividades futuras en este campo.
El seminario conto con 35 participantes de las naciones de ASEAN (Asociacin de
Naciones del Sudeste Asiatico), asi como de Bangladesh, Birmania, China, Fiji, India,
Papua Nueva Guinea, Sri Lanka, Tahiti y Canada.
La mayoria de estos paises tienen bivalvos abundantes en las areas costeras, donde
son recogidos para consumo local ode subsistencia. Varios de ellos han iniciado el cultivo
artificial y se calcula que, con investigacin adecuada, las tcnicas de cultivo pueden
triplicar la produccin.
El seminario hizo nfasis en Ia adaptacin de las tcnicas actuales de cultivo de
bivalvos a las condiciones locales de los palses circunvecinos con miras a aumentar la
produccin. Los participantes tuvieron oportunidad de visitar el sistema de cultivo en
balsas y el equipo postcosecha respectivo para mejillones, desarrollado por el Departa-
mento de Produccin Primaria de Singapur.
Entre las prioridades identificadas esta Ia capacitacin en tcnicas de cultivo, la
mejora en el suministro de semilla y en los criterios de seleccin de sitios de cultivo, Ia
necesidad de estudios econmicos detallados y de normas sobre calidad sanitaria de los
bivalvos de consumo humano, asi como de medios para intercambiar informacin sobre
investigacin en bivalvos.
 CONTENTS

Foreword 5

Workshop Summary
Plans and Recommendations 8
Sessions 9

Country Reports
Bangladesh 20
China 21
Fiji 29
French Polynesia 31
India 34
Indonesia 44
Malaysia 47
Papua New Guinea 53
Philippines 55
Singapore 69
Sri Lanka 72
Thailand 73

Appendices
Participants 80
Papers Submitted at the Workshop 82
Bibliography 83

3
Adam Young and Evelyn Serna Aqua- PRODUCTION
culture Department, Southeast Asian In 1979, bivalves produced for food comprised
Fisheries Development Center, Iloilo green mussels (Perna viridis) 2.95 X l0 t; blood
City; and Department of Natural clams (Anadara sp. and Arca sp.) 1.95 X l0 t;
Resources, Bureau of Fisheries and oysters (Crassostrea iredalei and Saccostrea sp.)
Aquatic Resources, Quezon City, 799 t; scallops (Amusium pleuronectes) 62 t; and
clams (Paphia spp.) 47 t. Total production had
Philippines increased from 5.9 X l0 tin 1976 to 9.0 X l0
(Table 1).
Natural populations of oysters and mussels There are 22 commercially important species
have long been gathered for food by coastal in the country (Table 2), but, of the species mar-
communities in the Philippines, and bivalve keted domestically, only the green mussel (P.
farming began in early 1900. The first farms were viridis) and the slipper oyster (C. iredalei) are
no more than a series of bamboo poles inserted in farmed commercially. Nevertheless, commercial
the muddy bottom of Manila Bay in Bacoor farms - ranging from 100 m2 to 2 ha in size
Cavite. In May 1934, the Bureau of Fisheries and account for 75% of green-mussel production
Aquatic Resources (BFAR) established a pilot and 60% of oyster production. Most other
oyster farm in Binakayan, Cavite Province, bivalves are collected from the wild. Pearl oysters
Luzon, and a lucrative industry soon grew up. By are collected more for their shell and pearls than
1950, about 200 ha of private farms existed in for food. The nutrient composition of green mus-
Bacoor Bay, but, in the late 1950s, mussels sel, slipper oyster, and windowpane oyster has
appeared on the farms and threatened the indus- been investigated (Table 3).
try. The response of BFAR was to initiate farms Present culture practices are traditional but
for mussels, and the results prompted the estab- appropriate for local conditions. Bamboo poles
lishment of a mussel industry that proved to be at serve both as substrates for mussels and oysters
least as lucrative as the oyster industry. and as racks for suspension of other substrates.
Farming of windowpane oysters (Placuna pla- Bottom culture of oysters on rocks is practiced
centa) began in the late l940s in the tide flats of
Bacoor Bay, the delicate, translucent Placuna Table I. Bivalve production (t) in the Philippines,
shells being used for window glazing and shell- 1976-79.
craft. In the early 1970s, however, the bay became
increasingly polluted, the stocks could not sur- 1976 1977 1978 1979
vive, and they are still not found in the waters of
Oysters 33 84 799
the bay. Mussels
Brown
Green 415
- - 1697
21
3220 2952
17

This country report is an edited version based on Scallops 4894 4 68 62

two separate papers presented by the authors during the
Clams and shells
workshop. The general introduction was drawn from
both papers; the sections on mussels, windowpane oys-
Hammer oysters
Giant clams
105
243
- 1635- 2861-
664
ters, and other bivalves were written by Adam Young, 209 1947
Blood cockles 201 171
and Evelyn Serna wrote the sections on oysters, the Marine clams I 37 1134 47
economics of shellfish farming, and future prospects
and recommendations. The cooperation of the authors
in preparing this country report is gratefully
Placuna
Pieria
Pinctada
-
81 1635
485
581
457
-
221
53
63
acknowledged.

55
56 BIVALVE CULTURE

Table 2. Commercially important species of bivalve molluscs found in the Philippines.

Species Local name English name

Perna viridis Tahong, amahong Green mussel
(Mytilus viridis;
M. smaragdinus)
Modiolus metcalfei Abahong Brown mussel
Crassostrea iredalei Talaba, talabang, sinelas Slipper oyster
C. ma/abonensis Kukong kabayo
Saccostrea echinata Sisi Denticulated oyster,
S. cucullata horse's hoof oyster, palm-
root oyster
Placuna placenta Kapis, lampirong Windowpane shell
Pinctada margaritfera Black-lip pearl shell
P. maxima Mother-of-pearl
Gold lip
Pieria sp. Wing shell
Amusium pleuronecies Lampirong, Asian moon scallop,
Lupad-lupad sun and moon scallop
Cyriopleura costala Diwal Angel wings, piddock
(Pholas orientalis)
Anadara granosa Batotoy, imbow Blood clam, cockle,
Arca sp. litab, hungkay- Ark shell
hungkay
Prozapes; Katelysia Halaan Sand clam
(Paphia spp.)
Atrina sp. Pen shell
Pharella acutidens Tikhan Razor clam
Geloina striata Tuway Mud clam
Circe gibba Saropsaropan, Venerid clam
bugaton
Macira mera Katakao, punaw Hen clam, mactrid clam
M. macu/ala Kagaykay Surf clam
Donax radians Alamis, polopatani Bean clam
Corbicula fluminea Tulya Little-neck clam
(freshwater)

Table 3. Nutrient composition of the green mussel, extensively, although the species caught are not
slipper oyster, and windowpane oyster by weight/ 100 g always those desired. Blood clams are harvested
of flesh (edible portion).a wherever they occur. Obviously, there is much
Fresh flesh room for improvement, both in seed collection
and in farming methods, and current research
P. viridis C. iredalei P. placenta efforts are directed toward this goal.
Moisture (%) 40.8 85.5 70.2
Food energy (cal) 300 62 126
INsTITuTIoNs IN VOL FED IN
Protein (g) 21.9 5.9 23.3
Fat (g) 14.5 1.7 1.4 BIVALVE RESEARCH
Carbohydrate (g) 18.5 5.2 3.3
Ash (g) 4.3 1.7 1.8 The institutions involved in research on
Calcium (mg) 151 147 110 bivalve culture and utilization are: the Aquacul-
Phosphorus (mg) 199 77 257 ture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries
Iron (mg)
Sodium (mg)
24.8 5.9
882 -
17.3
Development Center - larval biology of
bivalves, spatfall forecasting, bivalve-culture
Potassium (mg)
Vitamin A (IU)
Thiamine (mg)
-0.5
237
365
0.21 0.02
technology, depuration, and sanitation aspects;
the Marine Science Center, University of the Phi-
Riboflavin (mg) 1.28 0.2 0.11 lippines - larval biology of bivalves and culture
Niacin(mg) 3.1 1.7 1.4 technology; the Biology and Zoology Depart-
Ascorbic acid (mg) 5 - ment, University of the Philippines - depuration
and uptake of mercury; the National Institute of
Source: Food Composition Table, FNRC-NSDB
Handbook (4th Revision) 1968, Manila, Philippines. Science and Technology (National Science
 PHILIPPINES 57

Development Board) - microbiology of bivalves Several smaller species of oysters - all called
and utilization; the Bureau of Fisheries and sisi locally - are found in various locations and
Aquatic Resources - culture technology and are utilized as food. However, because they are
utilization; the Philippines Atomic Energy only 3-4 cm long, they are difficult to shuck
Commission - heavy metals in shellfish; the the task usually being undertaken by the grower's
International Center for Living Aquatic Re- family before the flesh is sold to consumers or
sources Management - transplantation of mus- wholesalers.
sels in areas where they are not indigenous; the Crassostrea iredalei and C. malabonensis
Freshwater Aquaculture Center, Central Luzon occur in bays on the islands of Luzon, Panay,
State University, Munoz, Nueva Ecija - fresh- Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, and perhaps
water bivalves; the Binmaley School of Fisheries, others. However, there are extensive coastal
Pangasinan - oyster culture; and Bicol State areas where natural populations of talaba oysters
University - general biology of bivalves. are not found and where they could probably be
introduced (Table 4).
Many areas in the Philippines are well suited
OYSTERS
for oyster culture. Water temperature is ideal
throughout the year (26-30 C), nutrients in the
Oysters are widely distributed in the Philip- costal bays and estuaries are adequate, and food
pines in bays and estuaries that have some runoff (phytoplankton) is abundant. The growth rate of
from the land and, therefore, somewhat lower oysters is excellent, and a marketable crop of
salinity than the open sea. They filter food from medium-sized C. iredalei can be produced in 6-8
the water and grow best in areas that have mod- months. Large oysters take about 1 year, where-
erate to high concentrations of phytoplankton. as, in many places in the temperate zone, 2-5
The most desirable species for culture are the years are required. Thus, annual production in
large C. iredalei, which are usually about 6-9 cm the Philippines is better than that in the temper-
long when marketed and the moderately sized C. ate zone.
malabonensis, which are usually 4-5 cm long. Rainfall, although seasonal, is sufficient to
Both have excellent appearance and flavour and maintain the flow of the rivers that provide suit-
are accepted equally in the market. The two spe- able salinity for growth and reproduction. There
cies have similar environmental requirements are many unused, shallow bays protected from
and often occur together. surf and storms that would be excellent for oyster
culture, especially by the stake or hanging
Table 4. Estimated potential for expansion of method. In some locations, the sediment in shal-
oyster farming in the Philippines (Glude et al. 1981). low bays is firm enough to permit bottom culture
by the broadcast method.
Number Area now Potential
of used area
Oyster farms are located in 17 provinces, with
Location farms (ha) (ha) major production in Cavite, Bulacan, Pangasi-
nan, Sorsogon, Capiz, and Negros Occidental.
Pangasinan 386 16.8 300-5000 Total production exceeds 10000 t/year.
La Union 39 3.7 200-1000
Ilocos Sur II 1.3 100
Although farms average less than one-third hec-
Ilocos Norte 19 0.7 20
tare, oyster culture contributes significantly to
Cagayan 32 9.5 28 the income of more than 1200 families in coastal
Bulacan 145 18 17 villages (Glude et al. 1981). In areas where natu-
ral populations occur, they are usually gathered
Cavite
Batangas
Quezon
300

-
300
-- 50-100
200-1200
2
and sold by local people. Landings from wild
stocks represent only a small portion of the total
Sorsogon 32 6.6 500 oyster production, but the low cost of harvesting
Capiz 160 50 500 results in a low price for the product, which re-
Akian 9 8.3 100
Iloilo 14 3.3 15
duces the profitability of oyster farming in those
Negros Occidental areas.
Cebu
48
-7.8 100
100 Reproduction of oysters is generally good,
especially with off-bottom culture, which reduces
Bohol
Leyte - 100
2000 or eliminates mortality from silt and crawling
Samar
Davao Oriental
Surigao Sur 2
-0.3

0.5
200
170
400
predators. Some mortality was noted at Calape,
Bohol, and at Mona, Pangasinan, but much of
this was attributed to high summer temperatures,
58 BIVALVE CULTURE

especially during low tide when some oysters predators such as crabs, starfish, and oyster bor-
were exposed. In some areas, 4-5 of the 10-12 ers (snails) can crawl up the stakes and reach the
spat that attach to a single oyster shell survive to oysters; bamboo is expensive if not available
market size a satisfactory survival rate. locally; bamboo usually lasts only 1-2 years;
harvesting is difficult because the oysters must be
CULTURE PRACTICES removed from the stakes; the surface available
for attachment of oysters is small in relation to
Four principal methods of oyster culture are costs; and bamboo collects fewer spat per unit
used in the Philippines: lattice, broadcast area than do oyster shells.
(sabog), stake (tubs), and hanging (bitin or The hanging method uses empty oyster or
inhitin, sampayan or long line, horizontal, or coconut shells as collectors. These are hung on
bangsal) methods. synthetic twine or heavy, monofilament nylon
The broadcasting method is the most primitive line, held 10 cm apart by spacers - bamboo
and is used where the bottom is firm enough to tubes or knots in the twine. In some places, the
support the collectors. Old oyster shells, stones, shells are strung without spacers for spat collec-
rocks (paringit), and tin cans are scattered on the tion and then restrung with spacers for the grow-
bay bottom in areas where natural setting occurs. out phase.
In Tinagong-dagat, Capiz, blocks, boulders, or Variations of the hanging method include:
logs are used as collectors. Areas without natural Bitin or inhitin, in which empty oyster shells
setting can also be used, collectors with attached are threaded on polyethylene rope (no. 4)
spat or juvenile oysters being transplanted from and are hung on a bamboo platform or fence
areas where setting occurs. The oyster spat are with bamboo posts attached horizontally
left in place, attached to the collectors, for 8-12 near the high-tide level. The strings of oyster
months or until large enough to be harvested. or coconut shells are spaced about 25 cm
Gathering is usually done by divers. apart. String length depends on the depth of
The principal advantage of the broadcast the water, but, if the lower end is allowed to
method is low-investment cost; the disadvantages touch the bottom, some of the oysters will
are that it can only be used in shallow waters with die from siltation and predation.
a firm bottom; the production per unit of area is Sampayan or long line, in which the cultch
less than for off-bottom methods; mortality of consists of a long line of threaded oyster-
oysters is higher than for off-bottom methods shell valves held apart by tubes 12-15 cm
because of silt and predation; harvest is difficult, long. Four parallel lines, approximately 20
especially if stones are used as collectors, unless m long and 20 cm apart, are strung between
the beds are exposed at low tides. two bamboo posts. Oysters grown by the
The stake method is used in areas where the line method are not crowded and, thus, can
bottom is too soft for the broadcast method (the grow fatter and larger in 10 months than
water is usually not more than 1 m deep at lowest those grown by other methods.
tide); stakes, 5-9 cm in diameter, made of bam- Horizontal, in which horizontal pieces of
boo or other rigid materials are driven into the bamboo are replaced with synthetic rope or,
bottom. Usually, they are placed in rows and in deep water, the bamboo fence or platform
placed about 0.5 m apart during the April-July is replaced by an anchored raft. The frame-
spawning season. The tip of the stake extends to work, which is usually I mX 10 m, consists
the high-tide level because oysters, unlike mus- of heavy bamboo horizontal stringers and 20
sels, can survive and grow in the intertidal zone. small-diameter bamboo cross pieces 0.3-0.7
The stakes provide clean surfaces to which the m apart. The whole frame is driven 1.0-1.3
oyster larvae attach after their pelagic stage. In m into the bottom. It is partly submerged
some cases, culturists increase the attachment during low tide. The cultch of threaded
surface available by adding horizontal bamboo shells is prepared in June and July. In Pan-
pieces or by attaching empty oyster shells or gasinan Province, round strips of rubber
other hard materials to the stakes. This method is tires are used as collectors and are hung from
commonly used in Binakayan in Cavite, Binloc in horizontal poles.
Dagupan, Binmaley in Pangasinan, Sto. Tomas Tray, which is practical in still waters with
in La Union, and Abucay in Bataan. firm bottoms where silt is minimal. A bam-
The advantages of the stake method over the boo tray (1.5 mX I m) with 15-cm sides is
broadcast method are that mortality from setting used to hold the collectors. These trays rest
is eliminated, growth rate is increased as is pro- on horizontal supports, and oyster seedlings
duction per unit area. The disadvantages are that are left in them to grow to marketable size.
 PHILIPPINES 59

The hanging method, which was patterned Paralytic shellfish poisoning evidently does
after Japanese techniques, has several advan- not occur in the Philippine islands. However,
tages over other methods: high productivity per research is needed to verify this, especially in
unit area; no mortality from silt; no mortality areas where red tide has been observed. The
from crawling predators; the oysters grow major deterrent to wider use and increased
rapidly with thin shells; the quality of flesh from demand for Philippine oysters is the fact that
the mature oysters is excellent; the method can be most are grown in waters contaminated by
used in shallow water where the sediment is too domestic wastes. Although this kind of pollution
soft for culture by the broadcast system as well as usually does not adversely affect the growth rate
areas where the oysters do not occur naturally; or survival of oysters, the product must be
and harvesting is easy and economical. Disad- cooked thoroughly to avoid the transmission of
vantages include: cost of materials, including diseases and cannot be exported as it does not
ropes, strings, and bamboo (although less bam- meet the sanitary standards of most countries.
boo is needed than for stake culture); and the Harvesting procedures vary with the culture
requirement of floats, anchors, and anchor line, method. In the stake method, the bamboo stakes
and weights in the raft-culture system. are usually lifted from the water, the oysters
In the lattice method, bamboo trunk splits are removed on shore or in the boat, and the stakes
woven into a lattice and tied with galvanized wire discarded. If the stakes are strong enough to be
(no. 14) or monofilament nylon twine. The splits used again, the oysters are scraped or pulled off
are spaced about 15-30 cm apart, and, on aver- by divers, put into the boat, and brought ashore
age, a lattice comprises 10-16 splits, which can be for separation of clusters. When grown by the
handled easily by an individual. hanging method, oysters are lifted from the water
The lattice can be positioned horizontally or on the strings and brought ashore where they are
vertically; the setups include: fence style - either removed. When stones or logs are used, the oys-
stuck on the bottom or supported by bamboo ters are usually removed at low tide and the
posts; tent formation in rows; mounted on rocks; stones or logs left on the bottom.
flotation style (mounted on long bamboos and Although oysters may be harvested at the
empty drums); suspended (three pieces of lattice grower's convenience, the quality is best when the
assembled in a triangle and supported by long glycogen content of the oysters is high, usually
bamboos and empty drums); etc. just before or 3-4 months after the peak of
The advantages of the lattice method are that spawning. If spawning is continuous, with no
the device is usable alone or in groups; losses of clearly defined peak, the grower must experiment
collectors are eliminated; harvesting is simple; to determine the best time.
the oysters do not touch the bottom; the method Most oysters are transported in the shell; they
is practical for collecting, growing, and fattening are put into loosely woven plastic-coated sacks
oysters; production is increased per unit area, that hold about 37 kg. They withstand shipping
especially in three-dimensional setups; and the well because their shells are tight enough to retain
placement of oysters can be controlled for moisture. However, when they are shipped in the
abundant food, favourable water temperature shell, they are bulky and are more expensive to
and salinity, etc., and, hence, maximal oyster transport than are shucked oysters. They are sent
growth. to market in jeepneys, trucks, tricycles, buses,
boats, etc. If the growing area is close to the
market, intermediaries or even retailers provide
POSTHA R VEST HANDLING their own transportation as well as containers
The flesh of C. iredalei and C. malabonensis is often 5-gallon (20-L) vegetable oil or kerosine
excellent. Both species reach prime condition cans. When markets are nearby, shucked oysters
shortly before spawning, and the yield (weight of are packed (with or without fresh water) in
flesh compared with live weight in the shell) is polyethylene bags, bottles, or in evaporated milk
highest at that time. Both species recover rapidly cans.
after spawning, reaching marketable condition Oysters, as filter-feeders, extract microscopic
within about I month. The flavour is also excel- food particles from the water they inhabit. In
lent, at least as good as, and perhaps better than, sewage-contaminated areas, they digest, retain,
temperate-zone oysters. Although the oysters and discharge sewage bacteria. To be purified,
harvested at 6-8 months are small for consump- they must be placed in clean water for 7 days,
tion raw on a half shell, they are ideal baked, where they rid themselves of impurities naturally
smoked, or in stew or soup. before being marketed fresh.
60 BIVALVE CULTURE

Oysters are usually retailed in the shell; how- Luzon, growers get only 30-40 centavos/kg.
ever, if they have been transported for some dis- Retail prices of oysters in the shell in Manila
tance, they are shucked at the market in an effort vary between 4 and 5 pesos/kg, and markups in
to avoid discarding the weak ones. The flesh is other cities are also about twice the price to the
packed in polyethylene bags, fresh water is producer. The retail price includes transporta-
added, and the bags are iced until sold. Also, live tion costs, and, in some cases, the cost of contain-
oysters are shucked and sold at roadside stalls ers. There is no transport equipment designed
close to or at the growing sites. and built to deliver perishable products while
Oyster flesh, which spoils quickly, can be pre- maintaining quality.
served simply if packed in bottles with salt As there is little oyster processing in the Phi-
(bagoong, or salted oyster). Other methods of lippines, distribution channels from producer to
preservation include pickling, smoking, canning, consumer are relatively simple. Some conve-
freezing, and cold storage. Storing the flesh at niently located producers attempt to sell as much
-23C for 7 days has been found effective in limit- of their production as possible directly, through
ing contamination. roadside stands or wholesale-retail booths at
Oysters in the shell are protected naturally landing sites. Most of the production, however, is
from external contamination as long as the valves sold at landing points to wholesalers who trans-
are tightly closed. However, the growth of bacte- port the product to markets and sell it to other
ria in the liquid within the shells is enhanced if the wholesaler-retailers and institutional (hotel and
oysters are kept alive in ambient temperature. restaurant) buyers or sell it wholesale-retail
Shucking under unsanitary conditions at the themselves in one or more urban markets.
market adds to the bacterial load of the product, Prices are monitored weekly by the statistical
and, although the bags of flesh and water are division of BFAR through representatives in
usually put into pans of ice while being offered producing and marketing centres throughout the
for sale, the pans are shallow and the ice level Philippines. In April-May 1981, oysters in the
rarely rises to the warm water in which the flesh is shell were selling wholesale at about 3 pesos/kg
bathed. Oysters shucked and stored in this way and retail at 4 pesos/ kg in Manila markets. Thus,
have a shelf life of about 1 day. when the local demand is satisfied, wholesalers
Shucking at the growing sites is even more must buy at a price that includes the cost of
contaminating. It is usually done over a wet cloth transportation to another market.
on the ground, often by children who interrupt Oyster exports are small, but, in 1980, some
their work to play and then resume shucking with I.8X I0 kg of frozen oyster flesh was shipped to
dirty hands. The flesh is deposited in a pan on the Singapore. The value to the shipper was 2.5 mil-
ground and is, thus, exposed to dust, dirt, and lion pesos. Singapore is the only significant
insects. importer of Philippine oyster products, and
The best initial means of retarding bacterial export data show fairly regular increases since
spoilage and avoiding associated dangers is to 1976. From 1976 to 1980, oyster flesh was trans-
maintain careful sanitation during processing ported by air as chilled (iced) products; however,
and preparation. Cooking is indispensable, as it outbreaks of gastroenteritis in Singapore in 1979
minimizes bacterial growth. Rapid cooling, and were reportedly traced to Philippine oysters, and,
storage as close to 32F (0 C) as possible, also subsequently, Singapore authorities have
prolongs storage life. Spoiled, uncooked oysters required that the bacterial levels of imports be
develop a sour odour. If they are cooked long certified and that products be frozen during
enough for the enzymes to get hot, a rancid odour transportation.
prevails.
Wholesalers prefer the Manila market to other
areas because it absorbs large quantities of oys- MUSSELS
ters at prices higher than smaller markets. The
price to growers from sales to wholesalers is gen- Mussel culture occurs mainly in Bacoor Bay,
erally related to the distance between growing Cavite (about 134 farms, Glude et al. 1981);
areas and Manila and to the complexity of trans- Sapian Bay, Capiz (about 300 farms); and
portation. In the Cavite area, close to Manila, the Maqueda Bay, Samar (250 farms) (Table 5).
growers get 2-2.5 pesos/kg and in Sorsogon, Mussel farms range in size from 0.025 ha to
Luzon, and Jiabong, Samar, about 1 peso/kg; nearly I ha, and their productivity is generally
oysters from Tinagong Dagat, Capiz, destined higher than that of oyster farms, ranging from
for Panay markets are sold to wholesalers for 20-68 t/ha from stake culture to about 300 t/ha
60-70 centavos/ kg. In some parts of Pangasinan, from the hanging method.
 PHILIPPINES 61

Table 5. Estimated potential for expansion of currents better than do single stakes and, thus, is
mussel farming in the Philippines (Glude et al. 1981). used in deeper waters and where currents are too
Number Area now Potential
strong for single stakes.
of used area The bamboo poles serve as cultch for the set-
Location farms (ha) (ha) tling mussel larvae, and no thinning or trans-
Zambales 23
planting is done during the grow-out phase.
Bulacan 10 In Bacoor Bay, Cavite, the spatfall seasons are
Mindoro Oriental 10 March-May and August-November, and the
Palawan
Quezon - 25
200-1200
bamboo stakes are put out during these periods.
If they acquire a lot of barnacles (Ba/anus sp.), a
Capiz
Iloilo
Aklan
300
--
15 200
10
100
good set of mussels may be expected. Similarly,
in Europe, mussel larvae like to settle on
Negros Occidental 6 2 100
hydroids, which in turn like to settle on the cal-
Cebu 50 careous shells of barnacles. A catch of 2000-3000
spat/rn of pole is considered good. Poles staked
Bohol
Leyte - - 50
too in 12 feet (4 m) of water usually yield the most
Samar 250 200 5000 spat 4-7 feet (1.2-2.1 m) from the surface, with at
least 600-1000 spat/foot (0.3 m).
In the hanging method, cultch made of empty
Not all areas in which green mussels occur are
oyster shells or coconut shells strung on wire or
twine is hung on bamboo-pole racks. The cultch
suitable for commercial farming; factors affect-
materials are kept about 10cm apart by knots or
ing site selection include:
Availability of spat in the area; loops on the wire. Recently, the Southeast Asian
Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC)
Protection from strong winds;
found that pieces of coconut husk could be used
Availability of natural food in the water; and
Adequate tidal exchange.
as cultch in the hanging method. These are
inserted into polyethylene or polypropylene
ropes (12-20 mm in diameter) at 50-60-mm
CULTURE PRACTICES intervals. Bamboo pegs 1.5 cm wide and 15 cm
Philippine mussel farmers generally grow the long are inserted into the rope between husk seg-
spat to marketable size on the same materials and ments to prevent clusters of mussels from slip-
site that are used for collection. Farming is com- ping off the ropes during bad weather or when the
monly done with either the stake method or the ropes are lifted for inspection. Such collector
hanging method, although recently the rope-web ropes are also hung on bamboo racks or rafts and
method was tried in Capiz Province. spaced 0.5 m apart. The average farm using this
In the stake method, bamboo (Bambusa b/u- method is 100 mX 25 m and has about 20 mussel
meana) poles are sharpened at the base and plots. Each plot spans the width of the farm and
driven into the muddy bottoms of bays and estu- consists of five parallel pairs of stakes spaced Sm
aries at water depths of 2-10 m. In shallower apart, with 2 m between parallel rows. The space
areas, a shorter variety of bamboo (Schizosta- between plots is 3 m for navigation purposes.
chyum /umampao) known locally as buho is A new method using rope web was introduced
used, and, in areas where bamboo is in short in Sapian Bay, Capiz Province, by Bruce French,
supply, trunks from mangrove and palm trees are American Peace Corps. One unit of rope web
used. The stakes are spaced 0.5-1.5 m apart, with consists of a parallel pair of 5-rn ropes, positioned
some lanes left open for regular inspection. A 2 m apart, and connected at intervals of 40 cm, in
0.25-ha farm would normally comprise about a zigzag pattern, by a 40 m rope. Bamboo pegs
5000 stakes, and, if the current is strong in the are inserted into the rope at 40-cm intervals. Each
area, each row of stakes would be connected and unit is strung across a pair of bamboo stakes
reinforced by horizontal poles. The lower half of spaced 5 m apart, parallel to the current and
the poles are drilled full of holes so that water can positioned 2 m deep at low tide. The rough,
enter and prevent the poles from floating. fibrous rope serves as cuitch, and the mussel spat
A variation of the staking method is the wig- that settle on the ropes are left to grow to market-
wam method, where 7-10 poles are staked in a able size. Farms using the rope-web method have
2-rn radius from a central pole; then the upper the same layout as those using the hanging
ends of the poles are tied to the central pole to method, with the rope webs spaced 5 m apart.
form a wigwam, which withstands waves and Usually, the whole length of the farm faces the
62 B! VALVE CULTURE

current; however, in narrow tidal rivers, the On farms using the rope-web method, the
farms are laid out across the current so that navi- farmer inspects the rope web under water because
gation lanes are kept open. Rope webs are usually the laden ropes are too heavy to lift; repairs of
parallel with the current. ropes and bamboo pegs are made under water.
In the Sapian Bay region, the peak spawning Where settlement of spat is heavy, additional
seasons are February-March and September, bamboo posts are added.
with peaks in February and in March. Peaks Harvesting and selling begin when the mussels
probably differ in other areas of the country. are 5 cm long, rather than at a fixed time. The
quantity harvested depends on buyers' orders,
the prevailing market price, and the monetary
GROWTH AND CONDITION needs of the farmer.
Philippine green mussels grow an average 10 In the stake method, harvesting is done when
mm/ month and are marketed after 4-6 months the sea is calm. The farmer usually hires 3-5
when they are 40-60 mm long. After they reach divers, depending on the size of the farm. Divers
60 mm, they grow more slowly. wear goggles or face masks and improvised
They are ideal for harvest when they are in the flippers. The mussel-laden stakes are pulled on
resting phase of their reproductive cycle, when board a small boat (banca), and other hired
large amounts of glycogen are stored in the meso- workers strip the mussel clusters off the stakes
soma and mantle lobes. Condition-index studies with iron bars. The mussels are separated, sorted,
on mussels grown in Himamaylan, Negros and cleaned (placed in a nylon-net bag and
Occidental, from 1977 to 1978 indicated two shaken in the water until the dirt is removed).
periods when the mussels were in prime condi- Stakes with more undersized than marketable-
tion: July-September and January-March. Raw sized mussels are not completely harvested, but
flesh constitutes about 55% of the total shell-on partial harvesting can be accomplished by the
weight, and cooked flesh constitutes from 12% to
divers, the large mussels being stripped from the
33% of the total shell-on weight, depending on stakes under water and deposited in a nylon
the condition (gonadal) of the mussel.
basket tied around the diver's waist. After the
harvest, the poles that are still sturdy are res-
FARM MANAGEMENTAND PRODUCTION taked. Mussel yields vary from 2.5 kg to 15 kg/rn
of pole. A 0.25-ha farm using the stake method
On farms using the stake method, after spat can produce annually about 12-13 t of whole
have settled, little is done until harvest. If there is mussels; deeper, more productive farms in
heavy settlement of spat on the poles, farmers Sapian Bay, Capiz, produce as much as 5 t/250-
sometimes dive and tie thin ropes or plastic straw m2 plot each year. In good growing areas with
around the mussel clusters to prevent the over- regular spatfall seasons, two main harvests a year
sized clusters from falling. Regular management are possible.
practices include inspection of the farm area so In the rope-web method, the rope-web units
that floating debris can be removed and weak or are untied from the bamboo poles and hauled on
rotten poles can be replaced or reinforced. a small boat or an improvised raft made from 9-rn
On most farms, whatever the culture method, bamboo poles. Mussel clusters are detached,
there is a 24-h guard who lives in a small hut at the sorted, and cleaned as in the stake method. The
farm and who serves as farm caretaker. Near rope-web units are cleaned of foulers and dried in
harvest, more guards are posted to prevent the sun for a few days before they are restrung on
poaching. The stake method of culture on small the vertical poles for a new set of spat.
farms (<600 rn2) requires about 54 work days
(one work day is one person working 8 h) from In Sapian Bay, mussels harvested from rope-
farm layout to harvest. The figure for bigger web units are not always transported imme-
farms is about 71 work days. diately to markets. Instead, the improvised rafts
On farms using the hanging method, the grow- containing the mussels (sometimes packed in
ing ropes are lifted weekly for inspection. Poorly polyethylene sacks) are sunk (weighted down
settled collectors are replaced with new ones to with rocks, water-filled barrels, and other heavy
catch new sets of spat. During inspection, foulers objects) and kept under water until needed.
are scraped from the ropes and loose or rotten With the rope-web method, a unit with a good
bamboo pegs are replaced. If there are excep- catch of mussels produces an average 200 kg
tionally large clusters, additional pegs are pro- whole mussels. If the spatfall is heavy, the annual
vided as support. yield can be up to 300 t/ha.
 PHILIPPINES 63

PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS POSTHARVEST OPERA TIONS

The major problems in the mussel industry and Little or no processing is involved after green
the constraints to its expansion are: mussels have been harvested. They are trans-
ported to market where they are cleaned,
Irregular spatfall and lack of spatfall- trimmed of their byssal threads, and sold live and
forecasting services. Except in a few tradi- unopened. The only processed mussel product is
tional culture grounds, spatfall seasons are brined mussels (locally called bagoong), made of
generally irregular, and spatfall may occur flesh of oversized mussels or of mussels that have
in March and November one year and a died or weakened during transport.
month earlier or later the next year. The
intensity of spatfall also varies from year to
year, perhaps because of total harvesting by WINDOWPANE OYSTERS
mussel farmers and harvesting regardless of
gonadal stage. The Seafarming Project of
the Aquaculture Department of SEAFDEC The adult Placuna or windowpane is up to
is initiating spatfall-forecasting programs in 16cm in diameter and can be found in waters
Himamaylan and Batan Bay; however, as from 0.5 m to 100 m deep. If undisturbed, it
forecasting schemes are geared toward the prefers to live under a thin layer of mud that
hanging method of culture, farmers who use camouflages it from predators. Juveniles have
the stake method might not benefit. been observed to dive into the mud by repeated
(every 4-8 seconds), sharp contractions of the
Deterioration of prime farming areas. Rec- adductor muscle.
lamation of areas for housing and industry Unlike mussels or oysters, the windowpane has
has been detrimental to some culture an extended reproductive cycle; at 8-12 months,
grounds. Even more devastating than rec- it is sexually mature (about 70 mm diameter).
lamation is the increase in siltation caused Spawning usually occurs from February to May.
by bamboo stakes being placed too close When viewed against the light, the male Placuna
together and rotted poles being left to decay is a dull, dirty-yellow hue, whereas the female is
on the bottom. Putting new poles beside generally orange-yellow. Females release eggs
these rotting stumps results in slowed tidal with a sudden contraction of the adductor mus-
currents, reduced mussel growth, increased cle, which forcefully expels the eggs through the
mortality, and thin, brittle shells. In addition posteroventral margin. Males release sperm in
to biological deterioration, pollution from steady streams. Eggs are golden yellow and mea-
industrial wastes and heavy metals has sure about 45 m in diameter. Fertilization takes
increased and has adversely affected many place in the water.
mussel-culture areas. Developing larvae are planktonic for only
Lack of consumer demand because of about 10 days. Pediveligers settle at a size of
unsanitary measures in the culture and har- 220-230 tim. Settling larvae either sink directly to
vesting of mussels and because of variable the bottom or drift with the currents. Juveniles
up to 8 mm long are capable of crawling on clean,
quality from year-round harvesting, regard-
hard surfaces (e.g., glass) and have been observed
less of how plump or thin the mussels are. At
present, there are no sanitation programs for
to float either horizontally or vertically on or
near the water surface. They are capable of secret-
shellfish-growing waters or for shellfish.
ing thin byssal threads while floating or crawling.
Many mussel-culture areas are heavily pol-
luted with coliforms, and the mussels are not
The environmental limits of tolerance of the
depurated before being sold. As mussels are windowpane are (Rosell 1981): temperature
generally eaten without much cooking, the 24.5-30C; salinity 18-38 ppt; pH 6.4-7.7; and
consumers all suffer gastrointestinal dis- dissolved oxygen 2.65-6.06 ml/L.
orders at some time or other. Placuna thrives in soft muddy or sandy-
muddy bottoms. Notable Placuna beds are
Another factor contributing to the lack of located along eastern Manila Bay; Capiz; Iloilo;
popularity is the poor condition of mussels sold Talibon, Bohol; Hinigaran and Valladolid,
in the markets. Spent mussels shrink during Negros Occidental; Samal, Batan; Labrador,
cooking much more than do plump mussels and Pangasinan; San Jose, Mindoro Occidental;
leave homemakers feeling short-changed. Low Misamis Oriental; and Sulu. In the late l970s, the
demand is the main constraint to the growth and main collection grounds for the fishery were in
expansion of the mussel industry. Western Visayas, notably Leganes, Miag-ao,
64 BIVALVE CULTURE

Guimbal, Tigbauan, Oton, Zarraga, La Paz, and are again rinsed and then soaked in a solution of
Guimaras in Iloilo; Valladolid and Pontevedra in hydrogen peroxide to soften them so that they
Negros Occidental; at the mouth of the Visayan can be moulded into various shapes. Two layers
Sea channel in northern Capiz; and Batan, of shells are used in the making of trays or plates
Aklan. These beds range from 4 m to 20 m deep. so that only the smooth, lustrous shell interior is
seen on each side.
CULTURE METHODS Some shells are placed on a grill and exposed
briefly to heated charcoal, which gives them a
The usual gathering season in Panay and golden, mother-of-pearl lustre. The products are
Negros islands is summer (February-May), when all coated with a layer of fiberglass to give them
the water is clear enough for diving. Divers use strength.
goggles, improvised flippers, and stone weights. Processing is labour-intensive, providing
Instead of using standard scuba tanks, however, employment and income for entire coastal vil-
they breathe air from a thin rubber hose con- lages. Processors who have enough capital pur-
nected to an ordinary air compressor mounted on chase boats and hire divers to gather shells at the
a nearby service boat. This hose is usually 20-30 natural beds. Others, particularly the children
m long to allow the diver to move around. At the and women, shuck, clean, cut, sort, soak, and
sea bottom, the divers grope for shells with shape the Placuna shells into various shellcraft
gloved hands and place the shells in net bags that items.
are later pulled on board. Divers generally gather
about 6000 pieces a day, diving eight times and PROBLEMS
remaining under water for up to 1.5 hours/dive.
Placuna farms consist of mud fiats in protected In 1977-78, 42.5 billion Placuna bivalves,
bays or lagoons that the farmers enclose with valued at 850 million pesos, were gathered in
fences made of bamboo poles and barbed wire. Capiz Province alone. Total production of Plac-
Placuna seed, 25-40 mm in diameter, are una shells in 1979 was 221 t, only 14% of 1977's
gathered from wherever they occur and stocked production of 1635 t.
in these farms. In Bacoor Bay, stocking rate is As Placuna shells become increasingly opaque
100-200 seeds/rn2; thus, a 1-ha farm is usually with age and, thus, decreasingly desirable for
planted with 1 million pieces of seed. In Capiz shellcraft (for which translucent shells are
Province, seeds, 30-35 mm in diameter, are required), they are harvested early. Because of
stocked at a rate of 80000-120000/ha. Seeds this conflict between the demand for young,
planted in October-November are harvested in translucent shells and the need for maintaining
April-June the following year at an average older, sexually mature shells to replenish the
length of 90 mm, whereas those planted in April stocks, the occurrence and yield of Placuna are
become 80-100 mm long after 4 months, with a very erratic.
survival rate of 80-90%.
As Placuna shells more than 90 mm long
become increasingly opaque and cannot be used
for shellcraft purposes, most shells are harvested OTHER BIVALVES
as early as possible after they reach this size,
usually before they have had a chance to mature Bivalves other than oysters, green mussels, and
and spawn. windowpanes are not farmed; they are simply
collected wherever they occur. Modiolus spp.,
PROCESSING Pap hia spp., Arca and Anadara spp. are gathered
by divers using bare hands or simple digging
The shells are shucked on shore and then blades. In some areas, blood clams or cockles are
cleaned (soaked overnight in fresh water and then harvested in mud flats at low tide. Paphia is
brushed vigorously). They are then cut into usually gathered by divers, but, in some places,
rounded shells by a shell cutter that operates like people can gather it by wading through shallow
a paper punch with hollow plungers. The shell- waters and feeling for the clams with bare feet.
cutting machine cuts away the soft fragile edges, Modiolus occurs in mats or carpets, composed of
leaving a firm, translucent piece of shell. Cut intertwined byssal threads, found on the bottom
shells are sorted by size and then rinsed in fresh of many shallow bays, and is easily collected by
water. A weak solution of acid (HC1) is applied divers.
to the adductor-muscle scar with a piece of soft The angel's wings shell Crytopleura costata of
rubber to remove the scar impression. The shells Negros Occidental Province lives in burrows up
 PHILIPPINES 65

to 50 cm deep in sticky, soft sandymuddy bot- than for oysters because mussel farms have
toms rich in silt and detritus. It displays a general higher productivity. If fully utilized, this addi-
tendency toward gregariousness. Natural beds of tional area could provide sea-farming opportuni-
C. cost ata average 5-10 m in depth. Divers use an ties for nearly 20% of the municipal fishermen in
iron or wooden paddle-shaped implement or the Philippines.
bare hands to dig the animal from its burrow. Although Philippine oyster and mussel farms
Crytopleura costata does not burrow again if average less than 4 ha, they are profitable, earn-
taken from its original spot (Ablan 1938). ings being dependent upon the culture methods
Pearl oysters, Pinctada margaritfera, P. max- and on the size of the farms. Some culture
ima, and Pieria spp., occur in clear waters up to methods are more productive than others. In a
40 m deep where the current is strong and the study conducted by Ordoila and Librero (1976),
bottom sandy or gravelly. Juveniles and young total farm receipts for oyster culture were found
adults up to 10 cm long attach themselves with to be P19001/ha for the lattice method,
byssal threads to rocks and other objects; how- P18394/ha for the hanging method, P8942/ha
ever, when they become heavy enough to with- for the stake method, and P1556/ha for the
stand the currents, they detach and live un- broadcast method (Table 6). Earnings for mussel
attached or weakly attached on the sea bottom. farms were 76% of sales/ ha for long line, 74% of
The pearl shells are usually gathered by expe- sales/ha for rope web, and 53% of sales/ha for
rienced divers. the stake-culture method (Table 7).
The expansion of oyster and mussel farming
has been precluded in many areas by limited
demand, low prices, the high cost of transporting
ECONOMICS OF SHELLFISH FARMING
the product, the uncertain sanitary quality of the
oysters and mussels, and lack of capital.
At present, there are 1200 oyster farms and 700
mussel farms operating in the Philippines. The
oyster farms occupy 500 ha of coastal waters and
the mussel farms 300 ha. In 1980, the estimated FUTURE PROSPECTS AND
combined annual production of these farms was RECOMMENDATIONS
1.4 X l0 t: 1.0 X l0 t from oyster farms and
4.0X J3 t from mussel farms. Recent studies The shellfish farms in Bacoor Bay, the first
reveal that 9.0 X l0 ha of coastal waters are farms to be established in the Philippines, subse-
suitable for expansion of oyster culture and 5.0 X quently became the most productive. From 1935
l0 ha for expansion of mussel culture. A total to 1955, the farms produced an abundance of
86000 additional farms have been identified as oysters and mussels in an environment relatively
suitable coastal areas for bivalve culture: 45000 free from human and industrial wastes. The prox-
for oyster farms and 41 000 for mussel farms. For imity of the farms to Manila and outlying urban
these additional farms, the projected average areas made possible the distribution of fresh oys-
area per farm is 0.1 ha for mussels and 0.2 ha ters and mussels to markets at low transport cost.
oysters. The projected area for mussels is smaller These factors increased the area of shellfish farms

Table 6. Receipts, expenses, and measures of profitability

for various methods of oyster and mussel culture (based on Librero et al. 1976).

Mussel-culture
Oyster-culture method method
Item Stake Hanging Lattice Broadcast Stake
Average farm size (m2) 1603 5968 472 3678 3242
Capital investment
(P/ farm) 400 800 203 Ill
(P/ha) 2495 1340 4301 302
Total annual receipts (P/ha) 8942 18934 19001 1556 12975
Total annual expenses (P/ha) 5711 4975 9559 1408 5765
Net annual earnings (P/ha) 3231 13419 9442 148 7210
Earnings on sales (%) 36 73 50 10 56
aincludes unpaid family labour.
66 BIVALVE CULTURE

Table 7. Projected costs of, and income from, mussel farming at Samar
by long-line, rope-web, and stake methods.
Culture method
Item Long-line Rope-web Stake
Investment cost (P/ha) 64663a 31618 1617
Annual operating cost (P/ha) 28560 37808 102086
Annual interestb (P/ha) 33948 16600 849
Total annual expenses (P/ha) 127171 86026 104552
528840c 333450d
Total annual receipts (P/ha) 222300'
Net annual earnings (P/ha) 401669 247424 117748
Earnings on sales (%) 76 74 53
aAmortized over 5 years.
bBd on 14% of 75% of the total investment.
c476 t/ ha less 5% losses X 1.17 P/kg.
d300 t/ha less 5% losses X 1.17 P/kg.
'200 t/ha less 5% losses X 1.17 P/kg.

to 200 ha, with some of the farms producing as health through sanitary regulations; increase the
much as 50 t/ha annually. After 1960, demand demand for oysters and mussels through promo-
and production declined because the water tional measures; increase production through
became contaminated by human and industrial innovations in existing techniques and incentives
wastes. Now, there are about 70 ha of shellfish for expansion of farming.
farms left, and their output is steadily declining.
It is expected that, within the next few years, PROTECTING PUBLIC HEALTH
shellfish farms in the area will disappear.
The growth and the decline of shellfish farming Philippine oysters and mussels are harvested
in Bacoor Bay indicate that the potential for from waters of unknown sanitary quality, trans-
bivalve farming depends crucially on some fac- ported and processed under conditions that may
tors affecting demand for, and supply of, oysters be unsanitary, and stored at temperatures that
and mussels. The factors affecting demand encourage the growth of bacteria. There is, at
include: the nearness of the farms to the markets; present, little or no effective control by govern-
the cost of transporting the product from the ment. The government must protect the health of
farms to the markets; the palatability and clean- its citizens, visitors from other countries, and
liness of the product; the price; the existence of residents of other countries who consume Philip-
consumers who have the income to buy the prod- pine products.
ucts, and the presence of good market outlets Shellfish, and other foods, should be pro-
for the product. Major factors affecting supply duced, processed, and transported under condi-
include farm productivity; production and oper- tions that ensure safe products. Achieving this
ating costs; prices; availability of suitable (unpol- goal will require a series of actions over several
luted) culture areas; and government support. years, including:
These factors should be considered when plans Sanitary surveys of areas for oysters and
are made to develop potential oyster and mussel mussels. BFAR or other appropriate
seeding, culture, and cleansing areas. The oppor- government agencies should conduct or
tunity for developing a potentially profitable bus- commission sanitary surveys of all waters
iness must be demonstrated so that the municipal that are sources for bivalves used as food;
fishing families can be convinced that integrating the surveys should include periodic determi-
culture fishing with their capture fishing will nation of total and fecal coliforms in waters
make them economically productive members of and in shellfish from productive waters for
their community. at least 1 year and from waters proposed for
expansion of oyster and mussel farming.
A shellfish sanitation and health program.
RECOMMENDED A CTION BFAR should design and implement a sys-
tem for approving areas and methods
To expand oyster and mussel farming, the (including depuration where necessary) for
government must intervene to protect the public shellfish harvest as well as the means for
 PHILIPPINES 67

enforcing the regulations. Control proce- approved shellfish-sanitation and health

dures should be consistent with the require- program providing an acceptable certifica-
ments of countries that might import Phi- tion of wholesomeness precludes even the
lippine molluscs - for example, the USA, sale of processed shellfish in most world
whose Food and Drug Administration has markets.
laid down requirements for imported Develop better systems for packing and
shellfish. shipping to improve product quality. Shell-
A system for natural cleansing of shellfish fish from outlying areas such as Capiz,
grown in contaminated waters. A series of Samar, Negros, and Pangasinan require
shellfish-cleansing stations should be estab- 6-24 hours to reach Manila, the principal
lished in clean areas near contaminated market. Oysters in the shell can live about 3
growing areas, beginning with three sta- days out of water but a significant portion of
tions, probably at Pangasinan, Capiz, and green mussels die within a day. Therefore,
Quezon. Shellfish would be held for 1-3 the product reaching the Manila market
weeks at stations before being marketed. It is may already be in poor condition, leaving an
recommended that these stations be oper- extremely short time for distribution to
ated by BFAR in conjunction with other retailers, sale, and consumption. It is
appropriate government agencies. recommended, therefore, that BFAR evalu-
A pilot-scale, shellfish-depuration plant. A ate the existing methods of packing and
plant for depuration should be located near shipping and develop systems that will
Manila and operated by BFAR to develop reduce mortality en route and extend the
and test procedures for cleansing shellfish in safe marketing time in Manila. These sys-
areas where no uncontaminated waters are tems should be tested and demonstrated to
available for natural cleansing. If practica- industry.
ble, depuration plants could be established
in several areas and operated by government Introduce processing, for items that must be
or by private industry under government shipped, to reduce bulk and ensure quality.
supervision. Oysters shucked under sanitary conditions
A pilot-scale, shellfish-processing plant. and marketed in sealed containers kept on
BFAR should also operate a plant to dem- ice retain high quality for up to 10 days and
onstrate sanitary methods for shucking shell- are only 8-18% of the weight of oysters in the
fish; for processing, packaging, storing, and shell. A system based on this observation
shipping shucked flesh; and for the training would provide employment in local process-
of plant operators. Such a plant should be ing plants and would retain oyster shells
located in an area where production out- near the farms where they are needed as
strips local demand and where transport collectors. Likewise, mussels should be
costs preclude shipment in the shell. Possible opened by steam and the flesh frozen for
sites are Roxas (Capiz), Bacolod (Negros shipment to population centres in the Phi-
Occidental), and Dagupan (Pangasinan). lippines and to export markets. Other prod-
Another possibility is the Manila area, in ucts that might be processed and packed at
combination with a government-operated various places in the Philippines include
shellfish-depuration plant. In this case, shell- shucked or steamed oysters or mussel flesh
fish from a variety of sources could be frozen in blocks and packed in various-sized
cleansed, shucked, and processed at a single containers for shipment to world markets.
location. Canned products include smoked or boiled
oysters and mussels, and oyster or mussel
stew or soup; dried products are also a pos-
sibility. Government efforts should intensify
INCREASING DEMAND the development and testing of procedures
Limited demand is frequently cited as a major for preparing products in various forms for
reason for the failure of oyster and mussel farm- domestic use and for export, training indus-
ing to expand rapidly, and it is an area in which try personnel in their use.
government can intervene effectively to: Ensure continuity of supply. Because oysters
Ensure the availability of clean, safe prod- and mussels are grown on farms, it should be
ucts. The lack of assurance that shellfish possible to schedule harvests so that fresh
produced in the Philippines are safe to eat oysters and mussels are available to con-
limits sales in major markets. The lack of an sumers throughout the year. BFAR should
68 B! VALVE CULTURE

assist the sea farmers with analysis of the in Samar, 50% in Pangasinan, and more
market and advise them on the best time to than 5% in Quezon the priority provinces.
harvest their crops. Government actions to encourage municipal
part- or full-time farming might include
allocating space for oyster and mussel cul-
INCREASING PRODUCTION ture (restricting plots to a size large enough
There are good opportunities for expanding to provide substantial increases in the
production: more than 9.0 X 10 ha in shallow income of municipal fishing families but
bays are suitable for oyster culture, although small enough to make them unattractive to
fewer than 500 ha are now in use. Likewise, wealthy individuals or corporations); estab-
nearly 5.0 X J3 ha are suitable for mussel culture, lishing training programs and expanding
and fewer than 300 ha are now being used. To sea-farming extension services through
increase production, the government should: BFAR in cooperation with other appro-
Evaluate and modify high-productivity priate government agencies, universities, or
methods used elsewhere. organizations; providing funding to fishing
families who wish to become sea farmers
Establish training programs, expand sea- through assistance programs like Biyayang
farming extension services, and operate Dagat; operating and making available,
demonstration farms to encourage expan- without charge, shellfish-cleansing services;
sion of oyster and mussel farming. and offering business-management services
Contract or conduct research to solve bio- for sea farmers. BFAR-operated cleansing
logical problems (uncertainty in spatfall stations and demonstration farms should
forecasting, predator attacks and other perform the management functions of coop-
causes of mortality, etc.) limiting oyster or eratives until the sea farmers are able to
mussel farming. operate without government assistance. The
Help municipal fishing families to become services should include assistance in market-
sea farmers. There are enough suitable areas ing and bulk purchasing of supplies and
in the Philippines to provide space for more equipment. The BFAR cleansing stations
than 45000 additional oyster farms and would receive payment from buyers of
about 41 000 additional mussel farms. Such cleansed shellfish, so loan payments could
expansion could benefit nearly 20% of the be deducted from returns due the sea
municipal fishing families, including 100% farmers.