Journal of English and Literature Vol. 2(8), pp.

174-181, 25 October, 2011

Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/IJEL
ISSN 2141-2626 2011 Academic Journals

Full length Research Paper

Translation techniques of figures of speech: A case

study of George Orwell's "1984 and Animal Farm"
Elaheh Fadaee
Vakil Abad Blvd. 6 Hashemieh 21 ST., Mashhad, Iran. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: 0098 881 83 44.
Accepted 14 September, 2011

Translating figures of speech deals with finding secondary meaning in the source language (SL), and
finding cultural meaning and appropriate equivalence in the target language (TL). Figures of speech and
multi-word expressions are some of the most challenging translation difficulties. In this article,
translation techniques of figures of speech in George Orwell's 1984 and Animal Farm and their Persian
translations are compared on the basis of Newmarks and Larsons theories of translation to answer
this question: Do English and Persian translation techniques of figures of speech correspond with each
other? Among translation techniques of metaphor, translation techniques for stock and clich
metaphors (TT stock and TT clich) are used more than other techniques in all six Persian translations;
in these six translations, translation techniques of similes have more correspondence with the ST than
translation techniques of metaphors. Hence, the study revealed that 1) according to Newmark (1988a:
57), "theories and techniques of translating figures of speech, such as metaphor and simile are so
limited which do not cover translating all types of metaphors and similes"; 2) in Persian language, there
is no general and fundamental technique for translating these metaphor and simile, and just English
techniques are used for translating these two figures of speech; and 3) there are so limited research
publications in the field of figures of speech, particularly about metaphor and simile, in both Persian
and English Language which must be considered critically.

Key words: Translation, translation techniques, figures of speech, George Orwell.

INTRODUCTION

Figurative language is the one that uses figures of borrowed. They are called source and target in the cog-
speech. A figure of speech is a way of saying one thing nitive linguistic approach to metaphor respectively. The
and meaning another. For example, "when Tennyson structure of metaphor and simile in English and Persian
says that the eagle "clasps the crag with crooked hands", languages are shown in Table 1. As it is observed,
he means that the eagles claw are anular, bent, and metaphor and simile are common in topic, image and
bony- looking- reminding him of mangled human hands" point of similarity, but similarity markers are specific to
(Rezai, 2004: 1). simile and are not used in metaphor.
Three of the most important figures of speech are
simile, metaphor and personification and as the numbers
of figures of speech are so numerous, the researcher has Techniques of translation
selected only two main important figures, metaphor and
simile to study their translation techniques in these two The process of translation is beyond finding equivalents
novels. In their definition, it must be said that a simile in the target language (TL) or conveying the general
compares one thing to another using like or as and a meaning of the source language (SL). For having an
metaphor compares one thing to another without using acceptable and understandable rendering, some tech-
like or as. In English rhetoric, Richard (1965) divided the niques and strategies should be selected as the basis of
structure of metaphor and simile into 'tenor and vehicle'. translating.
Tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed. Translation techniques are recognized as being uni-
Vehicle is the subject from which the attributes are versal, and independent of the languages involved in the
 Fadaee 175

Table 1. Structure of metaphor and simile in English and Persian.

Metaphor in Persian Metaphor in English Simile in English Simile in Persian

Mostaaroleh (topic) Topic Topic Moshabah (topic)
Mostaaromeh (image) Image Image Moshabahonbeh (image)
Jame (sense) Sense Sense Vajhe shabah (sense
........ ......... Similarity markers Adate tashbih (similarity markers)

translation process. "A 'strategy' is a generalization about it. However, she maintains that process-related strategies
typical courses-of-action exhibited by professional "are a set of (loosely formulated) rules or principles which
translators" (Neubert and Shreve, 1992: 52); they are the a translator uses to reach the goals determined by the
standard tools of the trade, the procedures offering a translating situation". Moreover, Jaaskelainen (2005)
solution to the various types of problems encountered in divides this into two types, namely, global strategies and
the translation task. local strategies. Global strategies refer to general
Krings (1986: 263) defines translation strategy as principles and modes of action and local strategies refer
"translator's potentially conscious plans for solving con- to specific activities in relation to the translator's problem-
crete translation problems in the framework of a concrete solving and decision-making.
translation task". Moreover, Loescher (1991: 8) defines Jaskanen (2001) divides the strategies employed by
translation strategy as "a potentially conscious procedure translators in terms of a SL-TL continuum into three cate-
for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any gories: exoticization, naturalization and neutralization.
segment of it". As it is stated in this definition, the notion She says exoticization is what Toury (1995) calls
of consciousness is significant in distinguishing strategies 'adherence to source norms,' retaining culturally specific
which are used by the learners or translators. In this elements in the ST or slightly modifying them whereas
regard, Cohen (1984: 70) asserts that "the element of naturalization means 'adapting the ST to target culture
consciousness is what distinguishes strategies from norms'.
these processes that are not strategic".
Furthermore, Bell (1998) differentiates between global
and local strategies and confirms that this distinction has Techniques of translating figures of speech
been derived from various kinds of translation problems.
Global strategies are meant for those dealing with whole Figures of speech are imaginative tools in both literature
texts, whereas local strategies refer to those concerned and ordinary communications used for explaining speech
with translating text segments. Venuti (1998: 240) beyond its usual usage. The Collins English Dictionary
indicates that translation strategies "involve the basic (2006) defines figure of speech as "an expression such
tasks of choosing the foreign text to be translated and as a simile, in which words do not have their literal
developing a method to translate it". He employs the meaning, but are categorized as multi-word expressions
concepts of domesticating and foreignizing to refer to that act in the text as units" (cited in Alhasnawi, 2007:3).
translation strategies. The language that uses figures of speech is called
Jaaskelainen (2005: 71) considers strategy as, "a 'figurative language' and "its purpose is to serve three
series of competencies, a set of steps or processes that elements of clarity, forth and beauty in the language."
favor the acquisition, storage, and utilization of infor- (Tajali, 2003: 100) However, as any figure of speech has
mation". He maintains that strategies are "heuristic and a figurative meaning, it may cause ambiguity which
flexible in nature, and their adoption implies a decision influences the clarity.
influenced by amendments in the translator's objectives". There are numerous classifications of figures of
Seguinot (1989) believes that there are at least three speech, as some rhetoricians have classified them into
global strategies employed by translators: "(1) translating as many as 250 separate figures. Metaphor and simile
without interruption for as long as possible; (2) correcting important figures of speech in almost all languages.
surface errors immediately; (3) leaving the monitoring for Richards (1965: 105) says, "the two most common
qualitative or stylistic errors in the text to the revision figures of speech are metaphor and simile, but there are
stage" (cited in Ordudari, 2007:10). many other less common ones".
Taking into account the process and product of Broeck (1981) says for a translator to be able to find
translation, Jaaskelainen (2005) divides strategies into appropriate equivalents in the target language, he/she
two major categories: some strategies relate to what must have access to the following: (cited in Miremadi,
happens to texts, while other strategies relate to what 2003: 170):
happens in the process. Product-related strategies, as
Jaaskelainen (2005: 16) writes, involve the basic tasks of 1. A clear-cut definition to differentiate between ordinary
choosing the SL text and developing a method to translate expressions and metaphors,
176 Int. J. English Lit.

2. Approaches to how a metaphor can be translated and without keeping the metaphorical imagery.
the zigzagging maneuvers to curve around irregularities Newmark (1988b: 81) mentions the difference between
and discrepancies, translation methods and translation procedures and
3. An awareness of different types of contexts, in which writes that, "while translation methods relate to whole
the use of metaphors is needed to flavor the writing and texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and
also the limitations of their use, the smaller units of language". He offers five types of
4. A correct realization of constraints, which emanate metaphors with particular translation techniques for each
from the nature of translation and are imposed on the one:
rendering of translation.
Morneau (1993) states five techniques for translating i. Dead metaphor: this kind of metaphor is typically easy
metaphors: (cited in Alhasnawi, 2007: 6): to translate, but they often defy literal translation and the
translator needs to find their culturally dependent coun-
1. Translate the metaphor exactly, word-for-word. terparts in the TL. "When dead metaphors combine with
2. Re-phrase the metaphor as a simile. This helps some other words and find figurative meaning, their translation
of the time, but only in languages where metaphor is becomes difficult" (Delkhah, 1996: 18). For example: the
rarely or never used. So, translating the metaphor in 'the foot of the table: (the same Persian equivalent)
ship plowed through the waves' to the form of a simile ii. Clich metaphor: in this kind of metaphor, a translator
'the ship moved through the waves like a plow' is an is entitled to get rid of clich in any informative text where
example of this kind. only facts are sacred, and in a socially operative or
3. Translate the metaphor into an equivalent metaphor in vocative text such as propaganda or publicity, where the
the target language. For example, the metaphor 'the ship translator might be considered to be justified in helping
ravaged through the waves' rendered into 'the ship the author obtain the optimum reaction from the reader.
pushed through the waves like a battering ram'. On the other hand, a translator is not entitled to touch
4. Translate the metaphor using literal language. This, of clich in expressive texts, authoritative statements, laws,
course, gets the point across, but destroys the imagery of regulations, notices, etc. "Sometimes, when there is no
the metaphor. 'the ship moved through the waves slowly, appropriate equivalence in the TT, the translator can
powerfully and with difficulty'. bring simile or dead metaphor in the TT" (Delkhah, 1996:
5. Use the metaphor, but provide all the necessary 17). For instance: she hasn't an ounce of common sense:
referents so that any listener will understand it. In effect, her wisdom is like the wisdom of a baby/ she hasn't an
you must explain the metaphor to those who might not ounce of wisdom (Persian equivalent)
understand it. Like, 'the ship moved through the waves, iii. Stock metaphor: Newmark (1988a) proposes six
slowly and powerfully, like a plow being pulled through procedures for the translation of stock metaphors from
the hard earth'. one language into the other. They are as follows in order
Mollanazar (2005: 46) says that the following steps of preference. Examples are cited from Tajalli (2003:
should be taken in translating a metaphor or simile: 107):

1. The metaphors and similes should be found in the text; a. Reproducing the same image in the TL provided the
the translator should always be alert to the metaphors image has comparable frequency and currency in the
and similes, appropriate register. Example: play with someone's
2. Then the translator should determine whether the feelings (the same Persian equivalent)
comparison is a live metaphor /simile or a dead figure; b. Replacing the image in the SL with a standard TL
and image which does not clash with the TL culture, but
3. Different components of the metaphor or simile should which, like most stock metaphors are presumably coined
be identified. by one person and diffused through popular speech,
Larson (1984: 245) suggests the following ways to writing and later the media. Example: I got it off my chest:
translate the live metaphors: I got it off my heart (Persian equivalent)
c. Translation of metaphor by simile, retaining the image:
1. The metaphor may be kept if the receptor language this is the obvious way of modifying the stock of a
permits (that is, if it sounds natural and is understood metaphor, particularly if the TL text is not emotive in
correctly by the readers); character. Example: the coast was only a green line: the
2. A metaphor may be translated as a simile (adding like coast was seen like a green line (Persian equivalent)
or as); d. Translation of metaphor (or simile) by simile plus
3. A metaphor of the receptor language which has the sense (occasionally a metaphor plus sense): this pro-
same meaning may be substituted; cedure has the advantage of combining communicative
4. The metaphor may be kept and the meaning explained and semantic translation in addressing itself both to the
(that is, the topic or point of similarity may be added; and layman and the expert if there is a risk that the simple
5. The meaning of the metaphor may be translated transfer of the metaphor will not be understood by most
 Fadaee 177

readers. Example: he is an owl: he is as clever as an owl definite translation procedures for metaphors in general.
(Persian equivalent) Newmark (1988b: 113) admits that:
e. Conversion of metaphor to sense: depending on the "The translation of any metaphor is the epitome of all
type of text, this procedure is common, and is to be pre- translation, in that it always offers choices in the direction
ferred to any replacement of an SL by a TL image which either of sense or of an image, or a modification of one,
is too wide of the sense or the register. Example: to keep or a combination of both, and depending on the
the pot boiling: to earn one's livelihood (Persian contextual factors, not least on the importance of the
equivalent) metaphor within text".
f. Translation of metaphor by the same metaphor All of the mentioned techniques have some common
combined with sense: the addition of a gloss or an expla- points, as all include substitution (metaphor into different
nation by the translator is to ensure that the metaphor will metaphor), paraphrase (metaphor into sense),
be understood. Example: the tongue is fire: the tongue is conversion (metaphor into simile) or deletion which helps
fire, the fire is destructive, what we say is destructive the translator to have knowledge of how to translate
(Persian equivalent) metaphors and also how metaphors are dealt with in
translation. Some translation techniques of simile are
iv. Recent metaphor: this culture specific metaphor can presented thus:
be conveyed from the ST to the TT by exploring the
connotations of the source culture and searching for the T1: Literal translation (retention of the same vehicle).
closest equivalent in the target culture. Example: green T2: Replacement of the vehicle with a different vehicle.
back (of banknote): red back (Persian equivalent) T3: Reduction of the simile, if idiomatic, to its sense.
v. Original metaphor: in principle, this metaphor must be T4: Retention of the same vehicle plus explicitation of
translated literally in authoritative and expressive texts, similarity feature(s).
whether they are universal, cultural or obscurely sub- T5: Replacement of the vehicle with a gloss.
jective. Original metaphors in most informative texts are T6: Omission of the simile.
open to a variety of translation procedures; depending on
whether the translator wants to emphasis the sense or Since target readers may not have the knowledge
the image. The choice of procedures in expressive or needed to interpret the simile, the translator will first
authoritative texts is much narrower, as is usual in assess their background knowledge. If he believes that
semantic translation. However, if an original cultural me- the target readership has the knowledge required, he will
taphor appears to the reader to be a little obscure and not leave the simile unchanged; if the target readership does
very important, the translator can sometimes replace it not, some modification to the source simile may be
with a descriptive metaphor or reduce it to sense. For required, for example, he can add some explanatory
example: the past was dead: (the same Persian information. Larson (1984: 246) mentions these
equivalent) techniques for translating simile:
Some believe that Newmarks suggestions for
translating metaphors do not serve well in translating the 1. Keep the same simile: As bright as day: (the same
meaning of the text and they are so problematic, because Persian equivalent); As white as snow: (the same Persian
they are based on separate text elements, not on the equivalent)
whole text. For example, word-for-word translation of 2. Replace another simile, but keep the original meaning:
original metaphor. Metaphors is not always possible, as it As harmless as a dove: as harmless as an ant (Persian
can describe a character or writer's thought and there is equivalent); As black as coal: as black/dark as night
no reason to render this kind differently from other (Persian equivalent)
metaphors. Also, dead metaphors may carry some 3. Keep the same simile, but spread it (bring its topic or
connotative meanings in both ST and TT, while being point of similarity): Life is like the hound equivocal: life is
dead or has referential meanings in other texts. Sapir like the hound equivocal, comes at a bound, either to
(1921) believes that "translation of metaphor is a relative rend me or to befriend me (Persian equivalent)
process. As metaphor deals with culture, it does not have In some cases, because of different cultural features, a
the fixed equivalence in different languages" (cited in combination of more than one strategy is needed to
Sharififar, 2001: 49). Based on this statement, it can be convey the meaning. If the translator used two or three
said that clich and recent metaphors have relative methods as explanation, paraphrasing or adaptation,
translation, because in their translation, cultural elements translating would be simpler and the message rendered
must be considered, too. But original metaphors are not in a better way.
relative at all, as they must be translated literally. Among these techniques, translation techniques of
Kloepfer (1967) argues that the more original the metaphor stated by Newmark and translation techniques
metaphor is, the easier it is to translate. of simile stated by Larson are selected, because they are
It is worth mentioning that no scholar in the field of more comprehensive and have more correspondence
contrastive analysis or translation theory has prescribed with Persian metaphors.
178 Int. J. English Lit.

Table 2. "1984"`s examples.

English simile Type Hosseini Tech. Bahremand Tech. Balooch Tech.

He had tasted Implicit He tasted T1 He had tasted Expression But he had Expression
chocolate like the simile chocolate like the chocolate like tasted other
piece she had one she has Julia's one chocolates
given him given him before

The rasping red Explicit The rasping red T1 The rasping red T2 The rasping T1
skin bore the same simile skin bore the skin bore the same red skin bore
relation to the body same relation to relation to the body the same
of a girl as the rose the body of a girl of a girl as the relation to the
hip to the rose as the rose hip to apple hip to the body of a girl
the rose apple as the rose hip
to the rose

English metaphor
Swum into his mind Stock Swum into the T1 Made its Expression It has flown in Expression
sea of his mind understanding his eyes
difficult

His eyes were Stock The ship of his T1 He couldn't attract Expression The boat of his T1
anchored by the eyes anchored his look toward eyes anchored
freckled face with on her face himself on her face
its faint, bold smile

PRACTICAL SIGHT books, 2 tables were drawn, 1 for similes and 1 for
metaphors. In these tables, the above row labeled with
Here, two novels of George Orwell, 1984 and Animal the frequency, relative frequency and percentage of
Farm and their six Persian translations are the subject of relative frequency and the left column labeled with types
analysis. The selected Persian translations of 1984 are of metaphor and simile.
by Hosseini, Balooch and Bahremand and Persian The results were analysed on the basis of Newmark`s
translations of Animal Farm are by Hosseini, Amirshahi translation techniques for metaphor and Larson`s
and Kooshesh. First, the two English novels of George translation techniques for simile. Newmark proposes five
Orwell with their six Persian translated books were translation techniques for dead, clich, stock, recent and
studied and their metaphors and similes with their original metaphors and Larson mentions three translation
Persian equivalences were found and collected into two techniques, TT1, TT2 and TT3 for similes which are given
separate tables; then their types, five types of metaphor below:
and two types of simile mentioned were determined. After According to Tables 4 to 9, the amount of using TT1 for
this, translation techniques of metaphor and simile similes in 1984`s translations is more in Hosseinis (96%),
mentioned by "Newmark" and "Larson" respectively were and in Animal Farm's translation (Tables 10 to 15), it is
put into the tables. To collect data, the number of more in Amirshahis and Koosheshs (90%). The amount
translation techniques used in each Persian translation of using TTs for stock metaphors in 1984`s translations is
was calculated. more in Baloochs, (51%), and in Animal Farm's
Some metaphors and similes of these two novels are translations is more in Hosseinis, (95%).The results
compared with their six Persian translations on the basis show that translation techniques of figures of speech in
of Newmarks translation techniques of metaphor and both English and Persian texts correspond with each
Larson translation techniques of simile to show types of other; figures of speech in both English and Persian texts
translation techniques used in each sentence (Tables 2 correspond with each other, too; translators did not use
and 3). all of these techniques and tried to be more faithful to
technique 1 of simile and technique of stock metaphor;
translator's style and interest in using translation
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION techniques is important. For instance, Hosseini`s
translations and works are so metaphoric and
Here, in order to find out the extent of using translation imaginative, so in these two novels he has used the high
techniques in George Orwell's two novels, the data were amount of translation techniques, even more than the
gathered and settled into 12 tables. For each translated source texts.
 Fadaee 179

Table 3. "Animal Farm`s" examples.

English simile Type Hosseini Tech. Amirshahi Tech. Kooshesh Tech.

He seemed more like Implicit Now he was like three horses in T1 Now he worked like Expression Now he appeared Expression
three horses than one simile the appearance of one horse three horses more like three horses

The cruel pellets swept Implicit The cruel pellets swept over T1 The cruel pellets Expression The cruel pellets Expression
over them like hail simile them like hail swept over them swept over them

English metaphor
The entire work of the Stock The entire work of the farm T1 The entire work of the T1 The entire work of the T1
farm seemed to rest on rested on his mighty shoulders farm rested on his farm rested on his
his mighty shoulders mighty shoulders mighty shoulders

The weather had Stock The weather had broken T1 The weather had T1 The coldness of the Expression
broken broken weather had reduced

Table 4. Book 1, Hosseini`s TTs of metaphor (total Table 6. Book 2, Balooch`s TTs of metaphor (total Table 8. Book 3, Bahremand`s TTs of metaphor (total
techniques: 222). techniques: 111). techniques: 120).

Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%) Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%) Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%)
TT Dead 9 0.0405 4.05 TT Dead 2 0.0180 1.8 TT Dead 6 0.05 5
TT Clich 80 0.3603 36.03 TT Clich 42 0.3783 37.83 TT Clich 41 0.3416 34.16
TT Stock 109 0.4909 49.09 TT Stock 57 0.5135 51.35 TT Stock 57 0.475 47.5
TT Recent 6 0.027 2.70 TT Recent 3 0.0270 2.7 TT Recent 12 0.1 10
TT Original 18 0.081 8.10 TT Original 7 0.0630 6.3 TT Original 4 0.0333 3.33

Table 5. Book 1, Hosseini`s TTs of simile (total Table 7. Book 2, Balooch`s TTs of simile Table 9. Book 3, Bahremand`s TTs of simile (total
techniques: 202). (total techniques: 179) techniques: 186).

Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%) Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%) Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%)
TT1 195 0.9653 96.53 TT1 169 0.9441 94.41 TT1 170 0.9139 91.39
TT2 7 0.0346 3.46 TT2 8 0.0430 4.3 TT2 13 0.0726 7.26
TT3 -- -- -- TT3 2 0.0107 1.07 TT3 3 0.0167 1.67
180 Int. J. English Lit.

Table 10. Book 1, Hosseini`s TTs of metaphor (total Table 15. Book 3, kooshesh`s TTs of simile (total
techniques: 36). techniques: 22).

Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%) Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%)

TT Dead 1 0.0277 2.77 TT1 20 0.9090 90.9
TT Clich 16 0.4444 44.44 TT2 -- -- --
TT Stock 17 0.4722 47.22 TT3 2 0.0909 9.09
TT Recent -- -- --
TT Original 2 0.0555 5.55
Farm with their six Persian translations and evaluating
the acquired data to find out the extent of using
Table 11. Book 1, Hosseini`s TTs of simile (total techniques: translation techniques, it is time to answer the research
24). question.
The question was about the correspondence between
Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%) English translation techniques of metaphor and simile
TT1 23 0.9583 95.8 and their Persian equivalences in the translated texts.
TT2 -- -- -- Among three translation techniques of simile, translation
TT3 1 0.0416 4.16 techniques 1 (TT1) is used more than other two
translation techniques (TT2 and TT3) in all six Persian
translations.
Among translation techniques of metaphor, translation
Table 12. Book 2, Amirshahi`s TTs for metaphor (total
techniques for stock and clich metaphors (TT stock and
techniques: 22).
TT clich) are used more than other techniques in all six
Persian translations. As it is stated before, technique 1 of
Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%)
simile focused on replacing the same simile of the ST in
TT Dead -- -- -- the TT. Also, technique for clich metaphor is focused on
TT Clich 9 0.4090 40.9 keeping the ST clich in the TT, too. Moreover, technique
TT Stock 11 0.5 50 1 of stock metaphor focused on replacing the same
TT Recent -- -- -- image of the ST in the TT. Therefore, the high rate of
TT Original 2 0.0909 9.09 using these techniques in Persian translations shows a
high rate of correspondence between English and
Persian translation techniques of figures of speech.
Table 13. Book 2, Amirshahi`s TTs of simile (total techniques: However, it must be considered that the amount of
22). using metaphors and similes in the target text, first
depends on the faithfulness to the source text, and then
Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%) on the translator's style and interest in using more or
fewer figures of speech than the source text. For
TT1 20 0.9090 90.9
instance, among translations of 1984 and Animal Farm, it
TT2 1 0.0454 4.54
is seen that Hosseinis translation has more
TT3 1 0.0454 4.54 correspondence with translation techniques of both
metaphors and similes which means that he is so faithful
to the writer of the source text. In addition, in these six
Table 14. Book 3, Kooshesh`s TTs of metaphor (total techniques: translations, translation techniques of similes have more
15). correspondence with the ST than translation techniques
of metaphors.
Trans. tech. F Rf P.Rf (%)
TT Dead -- -- --
TT Clich 3 0.2 20 IMPLICATIONS
TT Stock 9 0.6 60
TT Recent -- -- -- Here, some implications of this study are stated thus:
TT Original 3 0.2 20
i. According to Newmark (1988a: 57), "theories and tech-
niques of translating figures of speech, such as metaphor
and simile are so limited which do not cover translating all
CONCLUSION types of metaphors and similes".
ii. In Persian language, there is no general and funda-
Having analysed Orwell's two novels, 1984 and Animal mental technique for translating these metaphor and
 Fadaee 181

simile, and just English techniques are used for Larson ML (1984). Meaning- Based Translation: A Guide to Cross-
Language Equivalences. United States of America: University Press
translating these two figures of speech.
of America, In.
iii. There are so limited research publications in the field Loescher W (1991). Translation Performance, Translation Process and
of figures of speech, particularly about metaphor and Translation Strategies. Tuebingen: Guten Narr.
simile, in both Persian and English language which must Miremadi A (2003). Theories of Translation and Interpretation (3rd ed.).
be considered critically. Tehran: Samt.
Mollanazar H (2005). Principles and Methodology of Translation.
Tehran: Samt.
Neubert A, Shreve GM (1992). Translation as Text. Kent/London: The
REFERENCES Kent State University Press.
Newmark P (1988a). Approaches to Translation. London: Prentice Hall
Alhasnawi A (2007). "A Cognitive Approach to Translating International (UK) Ltd.
Metaphors".Translation J., 11 (3). Newmark P (1988b). A Text Book of Translation. London: Prentice Hall
Bell RT (1998). "Psychological/Cognitive Approaches". In: M. Baker International (UK) Ltd.
(ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London and Ordudari M (2007). "Translation procedures, Strategies and Methods".
New York: Routledge Publication. Translation J.,. 11(3).
Cohen AD (1984). "On Taking Tests: What the Students Report". Rezai A (2004). Poetry in Translation. Tehran: Samt Publication.
Language Testing. 11 (1). Richards IA (1965). The Philosophy of Rhetoric. New York: OUP.
Delkhah, M. (1996). "Metaphor". Motarjem J., 2 (20). Sharififar M (2001). "Metaphor, Life and Translation". Kerman University
Jaaskelainen R (2005). Translation Studies: What Are They?. J.,. 2 (7).
http://www.hum.expertise.workshop. Tajalli G (2003). Idioms and Metaphorical Expressions in Translation.
Jaskanen S (2001). Fine Kettle of Fish. http:// Eng. Helsinki-fi. 3 (10). Tehran: Samt.
Kleopfer W (1967). Die Theorie der Literarischen Ubersetzung. Fink, Toury G (1995). Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond.
Munich. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Krings HP (1986). "Translation Problems and Translation Strategies of Venuti L (1998). The Translation Studies Reader. New York and
Advanced Learners of French". In J. House, and S. Blum-Kulka London: Routledge
(eds.), Interlingual and Intercultural Communication. Tubingen:
Gunter Narr.