Prelims 2017

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Day 13

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 Geography www.iasscore.in

OCEAN CURRENTS AND TIDES

Ocean current has been defined as the persistent, dominantly horizontal flow of ocean water. It is the general
movement of a mass of oceanic water in a definite direction which is more or less similar to water streams
(rivers).

Ocean currents flow for great distances, and together, create the global conveyor belt which plays a dominant
role in determining the climate of many of the Earths regions. Primarily, ocean currents influence the temperature
of the regions through which they travel.

CAUSES OF OCEAN CURRENTS

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1) Planetary Winds - The water beneath the wind forms surface water current. The pushing action of these
winds makes the water flow in definite direction.

2)
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Rotation of Earth The earth rotates from the west to the east. As a result of the Coriolis force, the
permanent winds are deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere; consequently the ocean currents are also deflected in similar manner. The Counter equatorial
Currents are also result of the rotation of the earth.
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3) Configuration of Coastline The direction & shape of the coastline modify the ocean currents.

4) Ocean water temperature - The temperature of ocean water decreases from equator towards the poles.
The density of water is low in the equatorial region due to high temperature. The lighter water of the
equatorial region moves towards the colder and denser polar areas and vice versa.
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5) Ocean water salinity - Ocean currents on the water surface are generated from the areas of low salinity
to the areas of high salinity. For example, ocean currents flow from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean
Sea and from the Arabian Sea to the Red sea. Water in the polar region is cold and heavy, so it sinks and
flows towards the equator.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF OCEAN CURRENTS

1. The general movement of the currents in the northern hemisphere is clockwise and in the southern
hemisphere, anti-clockwise except for those currents seen in the northern Indian Ocean. Here, the direction
of the currents changes in response to the seasonal change in the direction of monsoon winds.

2. In the lower latitudes, the warm currents flow on the eastern shores and cold on the western shores. The
situation is reversed in the higher latitudesthe warm currents move along the western shores and the cold
currents along the eastern shores.

3. The warm currents move towards the cold seas and cool currents towards the warm seas.

4. The currents flow not only at the surface but also below the sea surface. Such currents are caused by the
differences in salinity and temperature.
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CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN

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Name Nature Significance

North & South Warm Current
Equatorial Current
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Equatorial Warm Current

Counter Current
Gulf Stream Warm Current 1. It increases the intensity of cyclones along the east coast of
the US.
2. The theoretical maximum energy dissipation from Gulf
Stream by turbines is in the range of 20-60 GW. Ocean
thermal energy could also be harnessed to produce electricity
utilizing the temperature difference between cold deep water
and warm surface water.
North Atlantic Warm Current The relatively warm waters of the North Atlantic Drift are
Drift responsible for moderating the climate of western Europe, so
that winters are less cold than would otherwise be expected at its
latitude. Without the warm North Atlantic Drift, the UK and
other places in Europe would be as cold as Canada, at the same
latitude.
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Labrador Current Cold Current It meets the warm Gulf Stream at the Grand Banks southeast of
Newfoundland. The combination of these two currents produces
heavy fogs and has also created one of the richest fishing grounds
in the world.
Canary Current Cold Current Due to the occurrence of upwelling of nutrient-rich waters it
plays a key role in stimulating primary productivity. This has led
to the enhancement of coastal fisheries in western Morocco.
Brazil Current Warm Current
Falkland Current Cold Current
South Atlantic Cold Current
Drift
Benguela Current Cold Current

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CURRENTS OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN

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Name Nature Significance

North & South Warm Current
Equatorial Current
Equatorial Warm Current
Counter Current
Kuroshio Current Warm Current
Oyashio Current/ Cold Current 1. It flows through the Bering Strait in southerly direction and
Kurile Current thus transports cold water of the Arctic Sea into the Pacific
Ocean.
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2. The convergence of cold Oyashio (Kurile) and warm Kuroshio

Current causes dense fogs which become potential hazards
for navigation.
California Current Cold Current It is one of five major coastal currents affiliated with upwelling
zones, the others being the Humboldt Current, the Canary
Current, the Benguela Current, and the Somali Current. The cold
water is highly productive due to the upwelling, which brings to
the surface nutrient-rich sediments, supporting large populations
of whales, seabirds and important fisheries.
Peru/Humboldt Cold Current 1. The Humboldt Current Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) is
Current one of the most productive ecosystems in the world, as well
as the largest upwelling system. Approximately 18-20% of
the worlds fish catch comes from the Humboldt Current
LME.
2. Periodically, the upwelling that drives the systems

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productivity is disrupted by the El Nio-Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) event.
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3. The Humboldt has a considerable cooling influence on the
climate of Chile, Peru and Ecuador. It is also largely
responsible for the aridity of Atacama Desert in northern
Chile, coastal areas of Peru and southern Ecuador. Marine air
is cooled by the current and thus is not conducive to generating
precipitation (although clouds and fog are produced).
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East Australia Warm Current

Current
CURRENTS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN
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Notes

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The oceanic current systems in the Indian Ocean are affected by the contour of the landmass and monsoon
winds. The consistent system of ocean currents cannot be developed in Indian Ocean as it is surrounded by
the Indian subcontinent, Africa and Australia on three sides. The characteristic feature of the currents in the
northern Indian Ocean is that there occurs change in flow direction twice a year due to north-east and south-
west monsoon winds.
Name Nature Significance
North-East Monsoon Current Warm Current Important for sea-trade, cultural interaction
South-West Monsoon Current Warm Current

Thermohaline circulation
Thermohaline circulation is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density
gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes. Extensive mixing takes place between the ocean

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basins, reducing differences between them and making the Earths oceans a global system. The thermohaline
circulation is mainly triggered by the formation of deep water masses in the North Atlantic and the
Southern Ocean caused by differences in temperature and salinity of the water.
At the Indian Ocean, some of the cold and salty
water from the Atlantic drawn by the flow
of warmer and fresher upper ocean water from
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the tropical Pacific causes a vertical exchange
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of dense, sinking water with lighter water above.
It is known as overturning. In the Pacific Ocean,
the rest of the cold and salty water from the
Atlantic becomes warmer and fresher more
quickly. A recent and popular name for the
thermohaline circulation, emphasizing the
vertical nature and pole-to-pole character of this
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kind of ocean circulation, is the meridional

overturning circulation.
On their journey, the water masses transport both
energy (in the form of heat) and matter (solids, dissolved substances and gases) around the globe. In this
way, the state of the circulation has a large impact on the climate of the Earth. The thermohaline circulation
plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions and thus in regulating the amount of sea ice
in these regions. Changes in the thermohaline circulation will have significant impacts on the Earths
radiation budget. By governing the rate at which deep waters are exposed to the surface, it also plays an
important role in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
OCEAN TIDES
Tide is the regular rise and fall of water level in the worlds ocean, resulting from the gravitational
attraction that is exerted upon the earth by the Moon and the Sun. The gravitational & centrifugal forces
together play an important role in formation of tides.
The tide-producing force of the Moon is slightly more than twice that of the Sun. The times and
amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon, by the
pattern of tides in the deep ocean, by the amphidromic systems of the oceans, and the shape of the
coastline and near-shore bathymetry.
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Most coastal areas, with some exceptions, experience two high tides and two low tides every lunar day.
Unlike a solar day, a lunar day is 24 hours and 50 minutes. The lunar day is 50 minutes longer than a
solar day because the moon revolves around the Earth in the same direction that the Earth rotates around
its axis.
Because the Earth rotates through two tidal bulges every lunar day, coastal areas experience two high
and two low tides every 24 hours and 50 minutes. High tides occur 12 hours and 25 minutes apart. It takes
six hours and 12.5 minutes for the water at the shore to go from high to low, or from low to high.
There are 2 types of tides
1) Spring tide - Spring tides are produced when sun, moon and earth are in a straight line. They occur twice
every month during full moon and new moon.
2) Neap Tides - Neap tides are produced when sun, moon and earth are in such a position so as to form
a right angle. They too occur twice during a month.

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OR
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The difference in height between the high tide and the low tide is called the tidal range. A horizontal
movement of water often accompanies the rising and falling of the tide. This is called the tidal current.
According to the characteristics of the tidal pattern tides are classified as follows:
1) In the Diurnal Tide, only a single high and single low water occur each tidal day. Tides of the diurnal
type occur along the northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico, in the Java Sea, the Gulf of Tonkin, and in
a few other places.
2) In the Semidiurnal Tide, there are two high and two low waters each tidal day, with relatively small
differences in the respective highs and lows. Tides on the Atlantic coast of the United States are of the
semidiurnal type.
3) In the Mixed Tide, the diurnal and semidiurnal oscillations are both important factors and the tide is
characterized by a large inequality in the high water heights, low water heights, or in both. There are
usually two high and two low waters each day, but occasionally the tide may become diurnal. Such tides
are prevalent along the Pacific coast of the United States and in many other parts of the world.
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Importance of Tides
1. Tidal flows are of great importance in navigation. Tidal heights are very important, especially harbours
near rivers and within estuaries having shallow bars at the entrance, which prevent ships and boats from
entering into the harbour.
2. Fish may concentrate during ebb tides. Commercial fishermen follow the tides and learn to fish during
levels of highest concentration to improve their economic investment and to make more efficient use of
their time.
3. Tides and tidal currents affect the weather by stirring the ocean waters. The tides and tidal currents mix
arctic water that cant absorb lots of sunlight with warmer topic water that does. The stirring produces
more predictable and habitable climate conditions and balances temperatures on the planet.
4. Tidal energy is non-polluting, reliable and predictable. Tidal barrages, undersea tidal turbines - like wind
turbines but driven by the sea - and a variety of machines harnessing undersea currents are under
operation world over. Unlike wind and waves, tidal currents are entirely predictable.

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OR
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Notes

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 Geography www.iasscore.in

OCEAN RESOURCES
The ocean is one of Earths most valuable natural resources. In its broadest sense marine resources are the
things that plants, animals and humans need for life that originates in the ocean. Different organisms derive
different resources from the marine biome.
A) Physical Resources: They are the result of the deposition, precipitation or accumulation of useful substances
in the ocean or sea-bed e.g. minerals, petroleum, natural gas, sand & gravel etc.
B) Biological Resources: It consists of living animals (fish, crabs etc) and plants collected for human use.
C) Non-extractive services: (i) Marine tourism & recreation , (ii) Waste disposal, absorption & detoxification,
(iii) Carbon capture & storage, (iv) nutrient cycling, Transportation of people and commodities by sea
Non-Renewable Resources

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Resources such as oil, natural gas, and solid mineral deposits are present in the ocean in fixed amounts and
cannot be replenished during human life times.
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Petroleum and Natural Gas: The oceans make a significant contribution to the present world needs of
petroleum and natural gas. Gulf of Persia, Gulf of Oman, North Sea, Seas of South East Asia have huge
reserves of oil & natural gas.
Sand and gravel: Although not very glamorous marine resources, they are second in dollar value only to
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oil and natural gas.

Supporting and regulating services
1) Marine tourism - Humans use the sea for leisure in many different ways, from scuba diving to whale
watching, surfing to sailing, jet-skiing to fishing.
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2) Waste disposal, absorption and detoxification - Since 2006, disposal of waste at sea has been regulated
under the Global London Dumping Convention. Now, only certain types of wastes may be dumped at
sea, including dredged material, sewage sludge, fish wastes, natural organic material, and carbon dioxide
streams from carbon dioxide sequestration programmes. Marine organisms store, bury and transform
many waste materials through assimilation and chemical transformation, either directly or indirectly.
3) CO2capture and storage - Scientists are trying to mitigate climate change by capture and storage of
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
4) Habitats - Marine habitats, such as coral reefs, support biodiversity, which we rely on for food (fish),
medicines (from certain marine species we get painkillers and cancer drugs), tourism (e.g. fishing and scuba
diving).
5) Nutrient cycling - Nutrient cycling is the storage, cycling and maintenance of nutrients by living organisms.
Marine microbial nutrient cycling is essential for primary production in the sea (for phytoplankton and
algae); without it the marine primary production ecosystem, which is the basis for most life on Earth,
would collapse.
6) Water circulation and exchange - Water circulation is essential for life in the oceans, as it enables
transport of nutrients and oxygenated water around the oceans. Water that comes up from the deep ocean
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through upwelling is nutrient and oxygen-rich, and these upwelling zones are associated with high
productivity of fisheries.
7) Gas and climate regulation - Gas and climate regulation include in particular the maintenance of the
chemical composition of the atmosphere and oceans. An important mechanism in this regard is the
biological pump, a series of biologically-mediated processes that transport organic material from the ocean
surface to deeper layers. The biological pump recycles nutrients and provides food for deep-sea species.
It also plays an important role in the Earths carbon cycle, carrying carbon away from the atmosphere and
upper ocean layers.
Marine organisms act as a reserve or sink for carbon in living tissue and by facilitating burial of carbon in
seabed sediments. Through this natural carbon sequestration and storage process, it provides a climate regulation
service.
Polymetallic Nodules
Polymetallic nodules (also known as manganese nodules) are potato-shaped, largely porous nodules found

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in abundance carpeting the sea floor of world oceans in deep sea. Besides manganese and iron, they contain
nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, cadmium, vanadium, titanium, of which nickel, cobalt and
copper are considered to be of economic and strategic importance.

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India signed a 15 year contract for exploration of Polymetallic Nodules (PMN) in Central Indian Ocean
Basin with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) (an Institution set up under the Convention on Law
of the Sea to which India is a Party)
It will enhance Indias presence in the Indian Ocean where other players like China, Korea and Germany
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are active. The program will be implemented by the Ministry of Earth Sciences with the participation from
various national institutes and research laboratories/organisation.
Classification of Marine sediments by source of origin of particles
Sediment Type Source Examples Distribution Percent of All Ocean
floor area covered
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Terrigenous Erosion of land, Quartz sand, Dominant on continental -45%

Volcanic erupti- clays, estuarine margins, abyssal plains,
ons, blown dust mud. polar ocean floors
Biogenous Organic; Calcareous Dominant on deep -55%
accumulation of and siliceous ocean floor (siliceous
hard pats of oozes ooze below about 5km)
some marine
organism
Hydrogenous Precipitation of Manganese Present with other more <1%
Dissolved nodules, dominant sediments
Minerals from phosphorite
water deposits
Cosmogenous Dust from Tektite spheres Mixed in very small 0%
Space meteorite glassy nodules proportion with more
Debris dominant sediments
(Note: Coral Reefs and Bleaching will be discussed in Environment section)
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 Indian Polity www.iasscore.in

UNION AND STATE COM

Union Council of Ministers

Key Highlights
Article 74(1) state that there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid
and advise the President.
The Constitution itself recognizes a Council of Ministers.
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President. He necessarily appoints a person as the Prime Minister

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who is either the leader of the party, which holds majority of seats in the Lok Sabha or is able to prove
his majority by gaining support of other political parties.

who allocates portfolios to the other ministers.
OR
The President on the advice of the Prime Minister appoints all other ministers. It is the Prime Minister

The Prime Minister may call for the resignation of any minister at any time and in case of refusal he may
advise the President to dismiss the minister.
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Constitutional Provisions
1. Article 74-Council of Ministers to aid and advice Presiden
a. There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the
President
b. The advice tendered by Ministers to the President shall not be inquired into in any court
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2. Article 75-Other Provisions as to Ministers

a. The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed
by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
b. The total number of ministers, including the Prime Minister, in the Council of Ministers shall not
exceed 15% of the total strength of the Lok Sabha. The provision was added by the 91st Amendment
Act of 2003. A member of either house of Parliament belonging to any political party who is
disqualified on the ground of defection shall also be disqualified to be appointed as a minister. This
provision was also added by the 91st Amendment Act of 2003.
i. The ministers shall hold office during the pleasure of the President.
ii. The council of ministers shall be collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
iii. The President shall administer the oaths of office and secrecy to a minister.
iv. A minister who is not a member of the Parliament (either house) for any period of six consecutive
months shall cease to be a minister.
3. The salaries and allowances of ministers shall be determined by the Parliament Article 77-
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Conduct of Business of the Government of India

a. All executive action of the Government of India shall be expressed to be taken in the name of the
President.
b. Orders and other instruments made and executed in the name of the President shall be authenticated in
such manner as may be specified in rules to be made by the President.
c. The President shall make rules for the more convenient transaction of the business of the Government
of India, and for the allocation among Ministers of the said business.
4. Article 78-Duties of Prime Minister
a. To communicate to the President all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration
of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation
b. If the President so requires, to submit for the consideration of the Council of Ministers any matter on
which a decision has been taken by a Minister but which has not been considered by the Council.

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Nature of Advice by Ministers

The 42nd and 44th Constitutional Amendment Acts have made the advice binding on the President.
OR
Further, the nature of advice tendered by ministers to the President cannot be enquired by any court.
This provision emphasises the intimate and the confidential relationship between the President and the
ministers.
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In 1971, the Supreme Court held that?even after the dissolution of the Lok Sabha, the council of
ministers does not cease to hold office.
Article 74 is mandatory and, therefore, the president cannot exercise the executive power without the aid
and advice of the council of ministers.

Strength of the Council

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The Constitution did not lay down the number of ministers that may constitute the Council of Ministers.
However, a ceiling has been put on the strength of the Council of Ministers both in the union as well
as in the states by 91st Amendment Act, 2003.
Total number of ministers including the PM shall not exceed 15% of the total members of the Lok Sabha
in case of the Union Council of Ministers and 15% of the state legislative assembly in case of state
Council of Minister.
All the members of the Council of Ministers do not belong to the same rank. The constitution does not
classify minister into different ranks but in practice 4 ranks have come to be recognized.
Cabinet Ministers - He has the right to be present and participate in every meeting of the Cabinet.
For proclamation of an emergency under Art. 352 the advice must come from the Prime Minister
and other ministers of cabinet rank.
Minister of State with independent charge- He is a Minister of State who does not work under a
Cabinet Minister. When any matter concerning his department is on the agenda of the Cabinet, he
is invited to attend the meeting.
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Minister of State - He is a Minister who does not have independent charges of any department and
works under a Cabinet Minister. The work to such minister is allotted by his Cabinet Minister.
Deputy Minister - He is a minister who works under a Cabinet Minster or a minister of State with
independent charge. The work to him is allotted by the minister under whom he is working.
The Prime Minister allocates portfolios to the Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of the State with independent
charges. The other ministers are allocated work by their respective Cabinet Ministers.
Ministers may be chosen from the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha. A minister who is member of one
House has the right to speak and to take part in the proceedings of the other House also.
A minister is allowed to vote only in the House of which he is a member.
Appointment of a Non legislator as a minister
Art. 75(5) - A person who is not qualified to become a member of a legislature cannot be appointed a
minister.

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A person who is not a member of either House may also be appointed as a minister. He can continue
as a minister only for six months.

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Because, that is the limit fixed by Art. 75(5), if he desires to continue as minister he has to become a
member of any one of the Houses of Parliament before the expiration of the period of 6 months.
Collective Responsibility of the Ministers
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The principle of collective responsibility finds place in Art. 75(3) where it is stated that the Council of
Ministers shall be collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
In other words, this provision means that a Council of Ministers which loses confidence of the Lok Sabha
is obliged to resign. The ministers fall and stand together.
Individual Responsibility of Ministers
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The rule regarding individual responsibility is to be found in Art. 75(2)

It is stated that ministers shall hold office during the pleasure of the President.
Collectively the ministers survive so long as they have the required support in the Lok Sabha.
An individual minister may continue to be a member of the council of ministers as long as he has the
confidence of the Prime Minister.
Refusal to oblige the Prime Minster may lead to his dismissal by the President.

State Council of Ministers

Key Highlights
Art 163 Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor
Art 164 Other provisions as to Ministers
Art 166 Conduct of business of the Government of a State
Art 167 Duties of Chief Minister as respects the furnishing of information to Governor, etc.
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The council of ministers headed by the chief minister is the real executive authority in the politico
administrative system of a state
The principles of parliamentary system of government are not detailed in the Constitution but two
Articles (163 and 164) deal with them.
Article 163 deals with the status of the council of ministers while Article 164 deals with the appointment,
tenure, responsibility, qualifications, oath and salaries and allowances of the ministers.

Article 163-Council of Ministers to aid and advice Governor

If any question arises whether a matter falls within the Governor's discretion or not, decision of the
Governor shall be final, and the validity of anything done by the Governor shall not be called in question
on the ground that he ought or ought not to have acted in his discretion.
The advice tendered by Ministers to the Governor shall not be inquired into in any court
Composition of the Council of Ministers
The Constitution does not specify the size of the state Council of Ministers or the ranking of ministers.

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They are determined by the Chief Minister according to the exigencies of the time and requirements of
the situation.
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Like at the Centre, in the states too, the Council of Ministers consists of three categories of ministers,
namely, Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State, and Deputy Ministers.
The difference between them lies in their respective ranks, emoluments, and political importance. At the
top of all these ministers stands the Chief Minister- supreme governing authority in the state.
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The Cabinet Ministers head the important departments of the state government like home, education,
finance, agriculture and so forth. They are members of the cabinet, attend its meetings and play an
important role in deciding policies. Thus, their responsibilities extend over the entire gamut of state
government.
The Ministers of State can either be given independent charge of departments or can be attached to
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Cabinet Ministers. However, they are not members of the Cabinet and do not attend the Cabinet meetings
unless specially invited when something related to their departments are considered by the Cabinet.
Next in rank are the Deputy Ministers. They are not given independent charge of departments. They are
attached to the Cabinet Ministers and assist them in their administrative, political and parliamentary
duties. They are not members of the Cabinet and do not attend Cabinet meetings.
Responsibility of the Council of Ministers
1. Collective Responsibility
The fundamental principle underlying the working of parliamentary system of government is the principle
of collective responsibility.
Article 164 clearly states that the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the legislative
assembly of the state. This means that all the ministers own joint responsibility to the legislative assembly
for all their acts of omission and commission. They work as a team and swim or sink together.
When the Legislative Assembly passes a no confidence motion against the Council of Ministers, all the
ministers have to resign including those ministers who are from the Legislative Council.
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The principle of collective responsibility also means that the Cabinet decisions bind all Cabinet Ministers
(and other ministers) even if they deferred in the cabinet meeting.
It is the duty of every minister to stand by the Cabinet decisions and support them both within and
outside the state legislature. If any minister disagrees with a Cabinet decision and is not prepared to
defend it, he must resign. Several ministers have resigned in the past owing to their differences with the
Cabinet.
2. Individual Responsibility
Article 164 also contains the principle of individual responsibility.
It states that the ministers hold office during the pleasure of the Governor. This means that the Governor
can remove a minister at a time when the Council of Ministers enjoys the confidence of the Legislative
Assembly.
But, the Governor can remove a minister only on the advice of the Chief Minister. In case of difference
of opinion or dissatisfaction with the performance of a minister, the Chief Minister can ask him to resign

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or advice the Governor to dismiss him.
By exercising this power, the Chief Minister can ensure the realization of the rule of collective responsibility.
3.

No Legal Responsibility
OR
As at the Centre, there is no provision in the Constitution for the system of legal responsibility of the
minister in the states.
SC
It is not required that an order of the Governor for a public act should be countersigned by a minister.
Moreover, the courts are barred from enquiring into the nature of advice rendered by the ministers to the
governor.

91st Amendment Act, 2003 and the strength of the council of ministers: The constitution did not lay down
the number of ministers that may constitute the council of ministers. However, a ceiling has been put on the
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strength of the council of ministers both in the union as well as in the states by 91st Amendment Act, 2003.
The total number of ministers including the Prime Minister shall not exceed 15% of the total members of
the Lok Sabha in case of the union council of ministers and 15% of the state legislative assembly in case of
state council of minister.
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PM AND CM
Prime Minister
Key Highlights
In a parliamentary form of government in India, the post of the Prime Minister is considered the most
important constitutional post. The Prime Minister plays a very significant and highly crucial role in the
politico-administrative system of the country. Dr B R Ambedkar stated, 'If any functionary under our
constitution is to be compared with the US President, he is the Prime Minister and not the President of
the Union'.
Prime Minister is the real executive authority (de facto executive).

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Is the head of the government
He wields the real executive powers heading the entire Council of Ministers.
OR
Appointment
Art. 75 - provide that the Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President.
But the President has no choice except to appoint as Prime Minister the leader of the party which has
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absolute majority in the Lok Sabha.

However, in case no single party enjoys an absolute majority in the House, the President may use the
discretion to appoint any person as Prime Minister in whom he has confidence that he can muster
majority support of Lok Sabha.
Here also, the President follows certain conventions developed over a period of time in case of a hung
Parliament. The President first invites the leader of the single largest party to form the government. In
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case he is not able to form the government, then the President calls the leader of a pre-election coalition
of political parties. If he also fails then the President calls the leader of a post election coalition of parties
to form the government.
There is no provision in the Constitution that the Prime Minister must belong to the Lok Sabha.
A member of Rajya Sabha may also be appointed as Prime Minster
In case the Prime Minister is from Rajya Sabha, he cannot be the leader of Lok Sabha.
Even a person who is not a member of either House of Parliament may be appointed as the Prime
Minister provided he gets elected to one of the Houses of Parliament within 6 months.
The Prime Minister is the keystone of the arch of the Cabinet. It means that the existence of the entire
Council of Ministers is dependent on the Prime Minister.
The death or resignation of the Prime Minister automatically brings about the dissolution of the Council
of Ministers. It generates a vacuum.
The demise, resignation or dismissal of a minister creates only a vacancy, which the Prime Minister may
or may not like to fill.
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The Government cannot function without a Prime Minister.

Powers and Functions of the Prime Minister
1. In Relation to Council of Ministers
The Prime Minister enjoys the following powers as head of the Union Council of Ministers:
a) He recommends persons who can be appointed as ministers by the President. The President can appoint
only those persons as ministers who are recommended by the Prime Minister.
b) He allocates and reshuffles various portfolios among the ministers.
c) He can ask a minister to resign or advise the President to dismiss him in case of difference of opinion.
d) He presides over the meeting of Council of Ministers and influences its decisions.
e) He guides, directs, controls, and coordinates the activities of all the ministers.

E
f) He can bring about the collapse of the Council of Ministers by resigning from office.The resignation or
death of an incumbent Prime Minister automatically dissolves the Council of Ministers and thereby

2.
OR
generates a vacuum. The resignation or death of any other minister, on the other hand, merely creates a
vacancy which the Prime Minister may or may not like to fill.
In Relation to the President
The Prime Minister enjoys the following powers in relation to the President:
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1. He is the principal channel of communication between the President and the Council of Ministers. It is
the duty of the Prime Minister -
(a) To communicate to the President all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration
of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation
(b) To furnish such information relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals
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for legislation as the President may call for; and

(c) If the President so requires, to submit for the consideration of the Council of Ministers any matter
on which a decision has been taken by a minister but which has not been considered by the council.
2. He advises the president with regard to the appointment of important officials like Attorney General of
India, Comptroller and Auditor General of India, chairman and members of the UPSC, Election
Commissioners, Chairman and members of the Finance Commission and so on.
3. In Relation to Parliament
The Prime Minister is the leader of the Lower House. In this capacity, he enjoys the following powers:
1. He advises the President with regard to summoning and proroguing of the sessions of the Parliament.
2. He can recommend dissolution of the Lok Sabha to President at any time.
3. He announces government policies on the floor of the House.
4. Other Powers & Functions
In addition to the above-mentioned three major roles, the Prime Minister has various other roles.
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These are:
1. He is the chairman of the Planning Commission, National Development Council, National Integration
Council, Inter-State Council and National Water Resources Council.
2. He plays a significant role in shaping the foreign policy of the country.
3. He is the chief spokesman of the Union government.
4. He is the crisis manager-in-chief at the political level during emergencies.
5. As a leader of the nation, he meets various sections of people in different states and receives memoranda
from them regarding their problems, and so on.
6. He is leader of the party in power.
7. He is political head of the services.
Relationship between the President and the Prime Minister
1. Article 74 - a council of ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President

E
the President may require the council of ministers to reconsider such advice and the President shall act
in accordance with the advice tendered after such reconsideration.
OR
2. Article 75
a. The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other ministers shall be appointed
by the president on the advice of the Prime Minister;
b. The ministers shall hold office during the pleasure of the president; and
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c. The council of ministers shall be collectively responsible to the House of the People.
3. Article 78 - It shall be the duty of the Prime Minister:
a. to communicate to the President all decisions of the council of ministers relating to the administration
of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation;
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b. to furnish such information relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals
for legislation as the President may call for; and
c. if the President so requires, to submit for the consideration of the council of ministers any matter
on which a decision has been taken by a minister but which has not been considered by the council.
Chief Minister
CHIEF MINISTER
Key Highlights
Article 164 only says that the Chief Minister shall be appointed by the Governor.
The form of government in the states, as at the centre, is parliamentary.
The functioning of the Council of Ministers in the states is nothing but a replica of the union Council
of Ministers.
The governor is the nominal executive authority (de jure executive) and the Chief Minister is the real
executive authority (de facto executive).
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In other words, the governor is the head of the state while the Chief Minister is the head of the
government.
Thus the position of the Chief Minister at the state level is analogous to the position of prime minister
at the Centre.
Appointment of Chief Minister
The Constitution does not contain any specific procedure for the selection and appointment of the Chief
Minister.
Article 164 only says that the Chief Minister shall be appointed by the governor.
However, this does not imply that the governor is free to appoint any one as the Chief Minister.
In accordance with the convections of the parliamentary system of government, the governor has to
appoint the leader of the majority party in the state legislative assembly as the Chief Minister.
But, when no party has a clear majority in the assembly, then the governor may exercise his personal

E
discretion in the selection and appointment of the Chief Minister.
In such a situation, the governor usually appoints the leader of the largest party or coalition in the

OR
assembly as the Chief Minister and asks him to seek a vote of confidence in the House within a month.
The governor may have to exercise his individual judgment in the selection and appointed of the Chief
Minister when the Chief Minister in office dies suddenly and there is no obvious successor.
However, on the death of a Chief Minister, the ruling party usually elects a new leader and the governor
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has no choice but to appoint him as Chief Minister.
The Constitution does not require that a person must prove his majority in the legislative assembly before
he is appointed as the Chief Minister.
The governor may first appoint him as the Chief Minister and then ask him to prove his majority in the
legislative assembly within a reasonable period. This is what has been done in a number of cases.
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A person who is not a member of the state legislature can be appointed as Chief Minister for six months,
within which time, he should be elected to the state legislature, failing which he ceases to be the Chief
Minister
According to the Constitution, the Chief Minister may be a member of any of the two Houses of a state
legislature.
Usually Chief Ministers have been selected from the Lower House (legislative assembly), but, on a
number of occasions, a member of the Upper House (legislative council) has also been appointed as Chief
Minister
Term
The term of the Chief Minister is not fixed and he holds office during the pleasure of the governor.
However, this does not mean that the governor can dismiss him at any time. He cannot be dismissed by
the governor as long as he enjoys the majority support in the legislative assembly
But, if he loses the confidence of the assembly, he must resign or the governor can dismiss him
The salary and allowances of the Chief Minister are determined by the state legislature. In addition to
the salary and allowances, which are payable to a member of the state legislature, he gets a sumptuary
allowance, free accommodation, travelling allowance, medical facilities, etc
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Powers and Functions of Chief Minister

The powers and functions of the Chief Minister can be studied under the following heads:
1. In Relation to Council of Ministers
a) The governor appoints only those persons as ministers who are recommended by the Chief Minister.
b) He allocates and reshuffles the portfolios among ministers.
c) He can ask a minister to resign or advise the Governor to dismiss him in case of difference of opinion.
d) He presides over the meetings of the Council of Ministers and influences its decisions.
e) He guides, directs, controls and coordinates the activities of all the ministers.
f) He can bring about the collapse of the Council of Ministers by resigning from office. Since the Chief
Minister is the head of the Council of Ministers, his resignation or death automatically dissolves the
Council of Ministers. The resignation or death of any other minister, on the other hand, merely creates
a vacancy, which the Chief Minister may or may not like to fill.

E
2. In Relation to the Governor
(a) He is the principal channel of communication between the Governor and the Council of Ministers. It is
OR
the duty of the Chief Minister:
(i) To communicate to the Governor of the state all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to
the administration of the affairs of the state and proposals for legislation;
(ii) To furnish such information relating to the administration of the affairs of the state and proposals for
SC

legislation as the Governor may call for; and

(iii) If the Governor so requires, to submit for the consideration of the Council of Ministers any matter
on which a decision has been taken by a minister but which has not been considered by the council.
(b) He advises the Governor with regard to the appointment of important officials like Advocate General,
Chairman and members of the State Public Service Commission, State Election Commissioner, and so
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on.
3. In Relation to State Legislature
The Chief Minister enjoys the following powers as the leader of the house:
a) He advises the Governor with regard to the summoning and proroguing of the sessions of the state
legislature.
b) He can recommend the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly to the Governor at any time.
c) He announces the government policies on the floor of the house.
4. Other Powers and Functions
In addition, the Chief Minister also performs the following functions:
a) He is the chairman of the State Planning Board.
b) He acts as a vice-chairman of the concerned Zonal Council by rotation, holding office for a period of one
year at a time.
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c) He is a member of the Inter-State Council and the National Development Council, both headed by the
Prime Minister.
d) He is the chief spokesman of the state government.
e) He is the crisis manager-in-chief at the political level during emergencies.
f) As a leader of the state, he meets various sections of the people and receives memoranda from them
regarding their problems, and so on.
g) He is the political head of the services.
Thus, he plays a very significant and highly crucial role in the state administration. However, the discretionary
powers enjoyed by the governor reduce to some extent the power, authority, influence, prestige and role of
the Chief Minister in the state administration.

E
OR
SC
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Notes

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OTHER STATE AND UNION EXECUTIVES

VICE-PRESIDENT
Key Highlights
Art. 63 has creates the office of the Vice-President of India by declaring that. "There shall be a Vice-
President of India".
The post of Vice-President in India is comparable to that of the US Vice-President both of which are
equally weak posts.
The normal function of the Vice-President is to reside over the Rajya Sabha.

E
It is only when a vacancy occurs in the office of the President due to any reason that the Vice-President
assumes the role of an acting President.
OR
Qualifications
A person is eligible for election as Vice-President if he:
Is a citizen of India;
Has completed the age of 35 years; and
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Is qualified for election as a member of Rajya Sabha.

It is also required that he must not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or of any
state or under any authority under the control of the said Governments (Art. 66).
Election
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Eligible Voters
The members of the Lok Sabha and
The members of the Rajya Sabha
The Vice-President is also indirectly elected by an electoral college.
But unlike the Electoral College of the President, in case of Vice-President nominated members are also
electors.
The election is held by the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.
Another difference in the election of the Vice-President with that of the President is that of the President
is that the members of State Assemblies have no right to vote in the election of the Vice-President.
Term of Office
The Vice-President holds office for a term of 5 years from the date he assumes charge of his office.
The office of Vice-President may fall vacant before the expiration of the term:
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By resignation. He can resign his office at any time by writing to the President.
By removal from his office: The Vice-President may be removed from his office by a resolution of Rajya
Sabha passed by a simple majority of all the members and agreed to by the Lok Sabha.
Functions of the Vice-President
The Vice-President has no functions to perform per se.
By virtue of his office (i.e., ex-officio), he is the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. Hence the normal function
of the Vice-President is to preside over the Rajya Sabha.
The Vice-President acts as President when there is a vacancy in the office of the President.
The vacancy may occur by reasons of death, resignation, removal by impeachment or otherwise. He
discharges the functions of the President when the President is unable to perform his functions. The
reasons may also include absence of the President from India or illness or some other cause

E
Vacancy in both the offices of the President and Vice-President
A situation may arise when the offices of both the President and the Vice-President fall vacant by reason

of death, resignation, and removal or otherwise.

OR
Article 70 empowers the Parliament to make provisions for such contingencies.
The Parliament has enacted an act in 1989 to take care of such situation. Under this act, when both the
posts are vacant the Chief Justice of India or the senior most judge of the Supreme Court of India
available shall discharge the function until a new President is elected.
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ATTORNEY-GENERAL OF INDIA
Key Highlights
The Attorney-General of India is the first Law Officer of the Government of India.
The Attorney-General is appointed by the President and he holds office during the pleasure of the
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President.
In order to be appointed as the Attorney General of India, a person must have qualified to be appointed
as a Judge of the Supreme Court.
He shall also have the right to speak in the Houses of Parliament or in any Committee thereof, but shall
have no right to vote [Art. 88].
By virtue of his office, he is entitled to the privileges of members of the Parliament [Art. 105(4)].
In the performance of his official duties, the Attorney-General shall have a right of audience in all Courts
in the territory of India.
He represents the Union & the States before the courts but is also allowed to take up private practice
provided the other party is not the state. Because of this he is not paid salary but a retainer to be
determined by the President. The Attorney-General gets a retainer equivalent to the salary of a Judge of
the Supreme Court.
It is a political appointment, and therefore, whenever there is a change in the party in power, the Attorney-
General resigns from his post to enable the new government to appoint a nominee of its choice.
The Attorney-General is assisted by two Solicitors-General and four Additional Solicitors-General.
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Duties of the Attorney - General of India

To give advice on such legal matters and to perform such other duties of a legal character as may, from
time to time, be referred or assigned to him by the President; and
To discharge the functions conferred on him by the Constitution or any other law for the time being in
force [Art. 76].
COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR-GENERAL
Key Highlights
As observed by Dr BR Ambedkar, the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India shall be the "most
important officer under the Constitution of India". For, he is to be the guardian of the public purse and
it is his duty to see that not a farthing is spent out of the Consolidated Fund of India or of a State without
the authority of the appropriate Legislature. In short, he shall be the impartial head of the audit and
accounts system of India. In order to discharge this duty property, it is highly essential that this office
should be independent of any control of the executive.
Appointment

E
The Comptroller and Auditor General of India is appointed by the President.
OR
He holds office until he attains the age of sixty five years or at the expiry of the six-year term, whichever
is earlier.
He is the guardian of the public purse.
Duties
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His duties are to keep the accounts of the Union and the States and to ensure that nothing is spent out
of the Consolidated Fund of India or of the States without the sanction of the Parliament or the
respective State Legislatures.
He submits an audit report of the Union to the President who shall lay it before the Parliament and the audit
reports of the States to the respective Governors who shall lay it before the respective State Legislatures.
In case of Union Territories, the Comptroller and Auditor-General submit audit reports to Lt. Governors
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where the Union territories have Legislative Assemblies of their own.

The accounts of the other Union Territories are audited by him as part of the account of the Union of India.
What are the provisions to secure CAG's independence?
Because of the importance of the office of the Comptroller and Auditor - General, the Constitution of India
contains provisions to ensure the impartiality of the office and to make it independent of the
Executive. These are as follows:
He can be removed from his office only on ground of proven misbehavior or incapacity and in a manner
a Judge of the Supreme Court is removed, i.e., each House of the Parliament passing a resolution
supported by two-thirds of the members present and voting and by a majority of the House.
His salary and conditions of service cannot be changed to his disadvantage during his term of office
except under a financial emergency.
His salary is charge on the Consolidated Fund of India and is not subject to the vote of the Parliament.
After retirement he is disqualified for appointment either under the Union or the State.
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ADVOCATE-GENERAL FOR THE STATE

Art. 165 provides that there shall be an Advocate General for the state to be appointed by the Governor. The
person who is qualified to be appointed a judge of a High Court only is eligible for the post. Art. 165
corresponds to Art. 76 which deals with the post of Attorney General. But unlike the Attorney General, the
Advocate General does not have the right of audience in all courts of India. The duty of the Advocate General
is to give advice to the state government on such legal matters and to perform such other duties of a legal
character as may be referred to him by the Governor. He holds office during the pleasure of the Governor.
Solicitor General of India
The Solicitor General of India is below the Attorney General for India, who is the Indian government's chief
legal advisor, and its primary lawyer in the Supreme Court of India.
The Solicitor General of India is appointed for the period of 3 years. The Solicitor General of India is the
secondary law officer of the country, assists the Attorney General, and is himself assisted by several Additional
Solicitors General of India.

E
Duties of Solicitor General are laid out in Law Officers (Conditions of Service) Rules, 1987:
To give advice to the Government of India upon such legal matters, and to perform such other duties of

OR
a legal character, as may from time to time, be referred or assigned to him by the Government of India.
To appear, whenever required, in the Supreme Court or in any High Court on behalf of the Government
of India in cases (including suits, writ petitions, appeal and other proceedings) in which the Government
of India is concerned as a party or is otherwise interested;
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To represent the Government of India in any reference made by the President to the Supreme Court under
Article 143 of the Constitution; and
To discharge such other functions as are conferred on a Law Officer by or under the Constitution or any
other Law for the time being in force.
Restrictions of private practice
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As law officers represent government of India, there are certain restrictions which are put on their private
practice. A law officer is not allowed to:
Hold briefs in any court for any party except the Government of India or the government of a State or
any University, Government School or College, local authority, Public Service Commission, Port Trust,
Port Commissioners, Government aided or Government managed hospitals, a Government company, any
Corporation owned or controlled by the State, any body or institution in which the Government has a
preponderating interest;
Advice any party against the Government of India or a Public Sector Undertaking, or in cases in which
he is likely to be called upon to advise, or appear for, the Government of India or a Public Sector
Undertaking;
Defend an accused person in a criminal prosecution, without the permission of the Government of India; or
Accept appointment to any office in any company or corporation without the permission of the Government
of India;
Advise any Ministry or Department of Government of India or any statutory organisation or any Public
Sector Undertaking unless the proposal or a reference in this regard is received through the Ministry of
Law and Justice, Department of Legal Affairs.
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DELIMITATION COMMISSION
Delimitation literally means the act or process of fixing limits or boundaries of territorial constituencies in a
country or a province having a legislative body.
In India, such Delimitation Commissions have been constituted 4 times - in 1952 under the Delimitation
Commission Act, 1952, in 1963 under Delimitation Commission Act, 1962, in 1973 under Delimitation Act,
1972 and in 2002 under Delimitation Act, 2002.
Under Article 82 of the Constitution, the Parliament by law enacts a Delimitation Act after every census.
After coming into force commencement of the Act, the Central Government constitutes a Delimitation
Commission.

E
This Delimitation Commission demarcates the boundaries of the Parliamentary Constituencies as per provisions
of the Delimitation Act.

OR
The present delimitation of constituencies has been done on the basis of 2001 census figures under the
provisions of Delimitation Act, 2002. Notwithstanding the above, the Constitution of India was specifically
amended in 2002 not to have delimitation of constituencies till the first census after 2026. Thus, the present
Constituencies carved out on the basis of 2001 census shall continue to be in operation till the first census
after 2026.
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The Delimitation Commission in India is a high power body whose orders have the force of law and cannot
be called in question before any court. These orders come into force on a date to be specified by the President
of India in this behalf. The copies of its orders are laid before the House of the People and the State Legislative
Assembly concerned, but no modifications are permissible therein by them.
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Notes

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NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION 2016

The National Policy on Education has been formulated by the TSR Subramanian Committee. The 2016
National Policy on Education, which is being formulated nearly three decades since the last Policy, recognizes
the criticality of Education as the most important vehicle for social, economic and political transformation.
It reiterates the role of education in inculcating values, and to provide skills and competencies for the citizens,
and in enabling him to contribute to the nation's well-being; strengthens democracy by empowering citizens;
acts as an integrative force in society, and fosters social cohesion and national identity.
The Salient recommendations are:
1) An Indian Education Service (IES) should be established as an all India service with officers being on
permanent settlement to the state governments but with the cadre controlling authority vesting with the

E
Human Resource Development (HRD) ministry.
2) The outlay on education should be raised to at least 6% of GDP without further loss of time.
OR
3) There should be minimum eligibility condition with 50% marks at graduate level for entry to existing B.Ed
courses. Teacher Entrance Tests (TET) should be made compulsory for recruitment of all teachers. The
Centre and states should jointly lay down norms and standards for TET.
4) Compulsory licensing or certification for teachers in government and private schools should be made
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mandatory, with provision for renewal every 10 years based on independent external testing.
5) Pre-school education for children in the age group of 4 to 5 years should be declared as a right and a
programme for it implemented immediately.
6) The no detention policy must be continued for young children until completion of class V when the child
will be 11 years old. At the upper primary stage, the system of detention shall be restored subject to the
provision of remedial coaching and at least two extra chances being offered to prove his capability to
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move to a higher class

7) On-demand board exams should be introduced to offer flexibility and reduce year end stress of students
and parents. A National Level Test open to every student who has completed class XII from any School
Board should be designed.
8) The mid-day meal (MDM) program should now be extended to cover students of secondary schools. This
is necessary as levels of malnutrition and anaemia continue to be high among adolescents.
9) UGC Act must be allowed to lapse once a separate law is created for the management of higher education.
The University Grants Commission (UGC) needs to be made leaner and thinner and given the role of
disbursal of scholarships and fellowships.
10) Top 200 foreign universities should be allowed to open campuses in India and give the same degree which
is acceptable in the home country of the said university.
The New National Policy on Education has tried to address these deficiencies and challenges, along with the
need to sharply increase the quality of Indian education, across the board. It offers a framework for change,
make education modern with optimal use of technology, without compromising on India's traditions and
heritage.
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PRO-ACTIVE GOVERNANCE AND TIMELY

IMPLEMENTATION (PRAGATI)
PRAGATI is a unique integrating and interactive platform. The platform is aimed at addressing common
man's grievances, and simultaneously monitoring and reviewing important programmes and projects of the
Government of India as well as projects flagged by State Governments.
Three major objectives of the program
a) Grievance redressal
b) Project implementation
c) Project monitoring

E
The PRAGATI platform uniquely bundles three latest technologies: Digital data management, video-

OR
conferencing and geo-spatial technology.
It will be a monthly conference call with state chief secretaries and secretaries of the Union government
for the speedy redressal of grievances and monitoring and implementation of projects. The Pragati sessions
will take place every fourth Wednesday.
It is to see that programmes and projects launched by the central and state governments are monitored
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properly for timely implementation and desired outcome. For holistic development of the country, it is
necessary to facilitate from central government level the projects of the states.
It also offers a unique combination in the direction of cooperative federalism since it brings on one stage
the Secretaries of Government of India and the Chief Secretaries of the States. With this, the Prime
Minister is able to discuss the issues with the concerned Central and State officials with full information
and latest visuals of the ground level situation. Such an effort has never been made in India. It is also an
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innovative project in e-governance and good governance.

The initiative could give rise to concerns about the Centre- State framework. The system may be seen as
bypassing the chief ministers. The move has been criticized for not respecting the federal structure of the
country.
However, the Pragati programme will attempt to find solutions for issues picked up from the available data
base regarding public grievances, on-going programmes and pending projects. This new system of governance
will definitely give a boost to government projects that have been publicized due to their delays. The need
of the hour is speedy implementation and completion of government projects.
Notes