Dredging Handbook For Engineers

Dredging:
A Handbook for
Engineers
R. N. Bray BA,MICE
Edward Arnold
R. N. Bray 1979
First published in 1979

by Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd
41 Bedford Square, London WC1B 3DQ
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Bray, R N
Dredging.
1. Dredging
I. Title
627.7'3 TC187
ISBN 0-7131-3412-7
To my wife Sally
All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
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Preface
Over the past ten years there has been a considerable improvement in the amount of
information published on the subject of dredging. In spite of this, the practicability
gap - that sparsely populated area between case history and theoretical report - has
remained remarkably barren. With a few notable exceptions, there appears to have
been little effort directed towards extracting the essence of the subject from the mass
of accumulated technical information from the site and the laboratory.
Although the technology of dredging is complex it should not be necessary for the
engineer to concern himself with its intricate details. This book, therefore, has been
written for those engineers and students who have not the time, nor perhaps the
inclination, to delve deeply into the abundance of highly specialised papers on each
aspect of the subject. The object is to provide a readable and useful guide to the uses
of dredging equipment, their methods of operation, capabilities and place in
maritime and fluvial civil engineering.
One of the greatest problems in tackling an unfamiliar branch of engineering is to
get the feel of the subject and, in this respect, dredging is no exception. The
intangibility of the work and the obfuscation which surrounds the prowess of the
major exponents of the science do little to aid the outsider. However, the technical
secrecy which, it is claimed, is necessary to maintain commercial competitiveness is
instrumental in fostering a degree of misunderstanding in those not acquainted with
the dredging profession. For, without an adequate amount of knowledge, the
engineer is unable to discover whether he is being overcharged for relatively simple
work or whether the work is really difficult and justifies a high unit cost. In order to
try and overcome this problem I have resorted to discussing average characteristics,
outputs, etc., and it has been necessary to make many generalisations. For similar
reasons the book is virtually devoid of mathematics, with the exception of some
simple algebraic statements, and even these have not been developed in the text. In
short this is intended to be a practical handbook which, if it does not provide the
answer directly, points out the types of problem which may be encountered and
suggests a number of ways by which they can be overcome.
Many of the subjects mentioned in the text are worthy of detailed study and it is
hoped that, by referring to the sources mentioned, the engineer will be encouraged
to research them further. Indeed some aspects, such as estimating output, ship
behaviour and reclamation, could well be expanded into treatises in their own right.
It is hoped that the condensed coverage given here will be more manageable for
general use.
A considerable time has elapsed since the inception of this book during which my
everyday work and my writing have been allowed to mingle with considerable
VI Preface
freedom. My sincere thanks are, therefore, due to the Partners of Livesey and
Henderson for permitting me to work in this manner and also to my colleagues for
putting up with it. My appreciation is also due for the assistance, facilities and helpful
comments which have been forthcoming from them all. Apart from the numerous
organisations who, unknowingly, have assisted me and those which are listed in the
acknowledgements, I would also like to record my special thanks to Captain Cor-
nelius J. Wennink for his comments on Chapter 9. Finally, my grateful thanks to
Caroline Pontin and Rosemary Lemon for battling with my handwriting and
corrections respectively and Nigel Wright for transforming my rough sketches into
illustrations.
R. N. BRAY
1979
Acknowledgements
The assistance of the following organisations and individuals, not recorded in the
text, is gratefully acknowledged, as is the work of all those who have tried to
encourage dissemination of dredging information:
Atlas Copco (Great Britain) Ltd
A. D. Bates, Esq.
British Transport Docks Board
Decca Survey Ltd
The Dock and Harbour Authority
The Dredging and Construction Co. Ltd
The Explo Group
Hakodate Dock Co. Ltd
The Hydraulics Research Station, Wallingford
IHC Holland
Imcos Marine Ltd
International Dredging and Port Construction
The National Ports Council
Orenstein & Koppel Ltd
Professor F. Ottman
Pilcon Engineering Ltd
Poclain Ltd
Priestman Brothers Ltd
Ruston- Bucyrus Ltd
Sea and Storm Service Specialists Ltd
Seadrec (Paisley) Ltd
Terra et Aqua
The Westminster Dredging Company Ltd
Wimpey Laboratories Ltd
Contents
Preface v
Aclrnowledgements VB
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Dredging defined 1
1.2 Dredging today 1
2 The balance of nature 4

2.1 The environmental balance 4
2.2 The basic mechanisms of sediment movement 5
2.3 The need for dredging 8
2.4 The effect of dredging 10
2.5 The effect of dumping 14
3 Dredging methods 18
3.1 The basic dredging processes 18
3.2 The drilling pontoon 24
3.3 The dipper dredger 29
3.4 The backhoe dredger 32
3.5 The bucket dredger 35
3.6 The grab dredger 40
3.7 The cutter suction dredger 42
3.8 The trailing suction hopper dredger 50
3.9 The dustpan dredger 56
3.10 Special purpose dredgers 58
3.11 Worldwide distribution of dredgers 60
4 Factors affecting performance 63

4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Dimensional factors 63
4.3 ph ysical conditions 68
4.4 Operational constraints 85
4.5 Environmental constraints 88
4.6 Contractual constraints 88
x Coutcnt-.
5 Estimating output 90
5.1 Introduction 91
5.2 The division of time 92
5.3 Bulking factors 93
5.4 Basic principles 93
5.5 The pretreatment barge 97
5.6 Oi pper dredgers 99
5.7 Backhoe dredgers 102
5.8 Bucket dredgers 105
5.9 Grab dredgers 108
5.10 Cutter suction dredgers 111
5.11 Trailing suction hopper dredgers 117
6 Precontract planning 121

6.1 Introduction 121
6.2 The scope of investigation and choice of method 121
6.3 Weather conditions 123
6.4 Water conditions 126
().5 Soil and rock conditions 138
6.6 General investigations 156
6.7 Programming dredging works 159
6.8 Budget cost of dredging works 161
7 The dredging contract 163

7.2 Types of contract 164
7.3 Contract documentation 172
7.4 Special conditions of contract 174
7.5 Specifications 177
7.6 Measurement 182
7.7 Tender analysis 193
8 Contract supervision 195

8.2 Publicity 196
8.3 Setting up 197
8.4 Hydrographic surveying 198
8.5 Additional survey methods 209
8.6 Measurement 209
8.7 Timing and delays 213
8.8 Environmental control 214
8.9 Problems on site 215
9 Design of the dredged area 217

Con tell ts xi
9.2 The basic dimensions 217
9.3 Optimisation of channel design and maintenance 227
9.4 Dredging and quay design 231
9.5 Dredging methods and construction 234
10 Reclamation 238
10.2 Feasibility of reclamation 239
10.3 Fill characteristics 241
10.4 Containment 246
10.5 Methods of placing fill 248
10.6 Consolidation and compaction 249
10.7 Dredging methods 252
10.8 Beach replenishment 254
11 Dredging and the environment 256

11.2 Areas and types of impact 256
11.3 Impact measurement and control 259
11.4 Future developments 267
Index 269
1 Introduction
1.1 Dredging defined

A dredger is a vessel fitted with equipment for underwater excavation. In the USA it
is called a dredge. Dredging may be defined as excavating with a dredger. In
practice, however, material underwater can sometimes be excavated with land-
based equipment and, also, many dredgers can excavate material which is above
water-level. This book is about the use of dredgers in maritime and fluvial civil
engineering. The following terms are used in the text:
Dredger - the excavating vessel
To dredge - to excavate by dredger
Dredging - excavating by dredger
Dredgemaster - the dredger operator, i.e. man at the controls
Dredging equipment - any piece of equipment (dredger or ancillary) which is
required to perform the act of dredging.
Dredging is an ancient art but a relatively young science. Traces of man's work
involving primitive dredging techniques have been discovered in many places,
dating back to thousands of years BC(l). However, in such instances, the vessel was
probably little more than a raft and the excavating equipment a man with a bucket.
The development of this method of excavation into the spoon and bag dredger and
the subsequent proliferation of dredging machines have been recounted (2,3). With
the development of powerful dredging machinery there was a corresponding
increase in the scope and complexity of engineering projects which could be
executed by dredging. For a considerable time the art of using dredgers was known
to relatively small groups of men who passed their experience on from one genera-
tion to the next. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, which transformed
many arts into sciences, the dredging process was subjected to greater scientific
analysis.
Today dredging is treated as a science, covering not only the design of the
dredgers but also the dredging methods and their effect on the site. This does not
mean that the mystique of the dredging world has vanished but rather that it lives on
in the secrecy of the specialist dredging companies and their ability to compete with
the vagaries of maritime and fluvial conditions.
1.2 Dredging today

Dredging today is carried out for a variety of reasons and by a number of different
types of dredger. However, the basic reason for the dredging is to achieve one, or a
combination of, the following five results:
1
2 Dredging: A Handbook for Engineers
(a) to dig a hole (or remove material)

(b) to fill a hole (or place material)
(c) to replace bad material with good
(d) to win material
(e) to recycle material.
Examples of the types of work where these five results have been achieved are
given below.
(a) Hole digging
Construction: to form new harbours, basins, entrance channels and canals; to dig
trenches for foundations and for laying pipelines
Navigation: for deepening harbours, channels and rivers; for removing obstructions
such as boulders, rock pinnacles and sand banks
Maintenance: for removing siltation from harbours, rivers and channels; for deepen-
ing lakes that have become silted up
Others: to alter seabed contours to improve wave conditionsc''; to form holes around
wrecks in order to lower them into the seabed(S).
(b) Hole filling
Construction: to form new or improved land for ports, industry, agriculture,
roadsv", etc.; to place fill in prepared foundations for breakwaters, caissons and
pipelines
Coast protection: to form dykes and artificial beaches; to nourish beaches with
additional beach sand.
(c) Material replacing
Construction: to excavate and remove material unsuitable for supporting founda-
tions and replace with suitable material.
(d) Material winning
Construction: for obtaining aggregate, gravel and sand for concrete and other uses
Mining: for excavating minerals from the sea and river bed (manganese nodules,
gold, etc.).
(e) Material recycling
Mining: for excavating, processing and redepositing materials containing minerals
and mineral ores (gold, tin, etc.)
Environmental: for excavating, removing unwanted substances and redepositing
material such as mine tailings, in settlement ponds, polluted lakes, etc.
In this book only the first three of the above categories are examined in detail. An
examination of dredging must cover the four facets of the work; the need, the
method, the action and the effect. The need for dredging is examined in Chapter 2.
Dredging methods are described in Chapters 3, 4 and 5. The action of dredging
(precontract, contract and supervision) is covered in Chapters 6,7 and 8. In Chapters
9 and 10 some aspects of the design of dredged areas and reclamation sites are
discussed. Finally, Chapter 11 examines the environmental effects of dredging.
Introduction 3
References
(1) Linssen,J,G, Th., The Performance and the Future Development of Dredging Equipment. Proceedings of
the 1st International Symposium on Dredging Technology, Canterbury, 1975
(2) Gower, G.L., A History of Dredging. Dredging Symposium, ICE, London, 1967
(3) Springer, W., Hisrorische baggermaschinen, Forschungsarchiv)lir Industrie-Geschichte, Berlin-
Halensee, 1938
(4) Scholes, W.A., Dredging Sydney's second port, Terra et Aqua, No.5, 1973
(5) Van Dixhoorn,J. and Bliek,J.D., Disposal of wrecks by dredging, The Dock and Harbour Authority,
March 1966
(6) Anonymous, Marine sand for m-way fill, Hvdrospace, February and April 1972
j
2 The balance of nature
The act of dredging is primarily associated with change of the natural environment,
the sea or river bed, even the coastline. Man-made changes of this type are notorious
for the effect that they have on the delicate balance of nature. It is essential, therefore,
that any proposed dredging scheme should be viewed in the context of its effect on
the environment and in this respect the correct approach is to examine the need for
dredging and whether it can be avoided; assess the effects of dredging if it is con-
sidered to be unavoidable; and investigate the environmental balance.
2.1 The environmental balance

The shape of the earth, both above and below sea level, has been formed by the
natural processes of earth movement, such as bending, folding and breaking,
erosion, deposition, and chemical action, etc. The major earth movements now
occur irregularly in specific areas (volcanoes, earthquakes) or very slowly over large
areas (tilting, movement of plates). The factors which effect equilibrium or change
in a specific area over a short period, say a decade, are mainly those relating to the
effects of erosion and deposition.
There are two sites for erosion and deposition; above the sea and below it. Above
sea-level a number of forces are at work. Sun, wind, rain and frost are all combined
in an environment which generally acts as a leveller. Erosion and deposition are
usually slow. Thus, if a hole is excavated it may fill with water but is unlikely to fill
with earth. Similarly, if a pile of earth is placed in a field it will not disperse over-
night, nor necessarily for a number of years. Relative equilibrium is, therefore,
generally static. The obvious exception to this is a sandy desert, which due to its con-
stant movement, is probably the nearest equivalent, above sea-level, to the seabed.
Below water-level almost all material movement is caused by forces exerted by
the water. A large proportion of the surface of a sea or river bed is in motion,
especially in shallow water or in the nearshore zone. Equilibrium is often
characterised by a balance of material transported into and out of a site. If a hole is
excavated it usually fills with material. A heap of dumped material tends to flatten
out and disperse.
There is, therefore, a considerable difference between the effects of excavation
above and below water and dredging is not a direct extension ofland excavation.
Material movement underwater consists essentially of three stages; erosion, trans-
port and deposition. The state of any site can be defined by the net transport of
material into and out of the site, seasonal variations excepted. To understand the
4
The Balance of Nature 5
regime of any site, it is necessary to examine the natural mechanisms of material

movement in the area. Once these are understood the effect of dredging or deposit-
ing material can be assessed.
2.2 The basic mechanisms of sediment movement

The mechanics of sedimentation are complex and the study of sedimentary
mechanisms is a subject which is already well-developed. Readers who wish to study
the subject in more detail should resort to standard textbooks(1.2.3)or consult specialist
organisations, such as the Hydraulics Research Station, Wallingford, UK. The
summary of mechanisms given here and in Section 2.4 is intended only as a guide.
For convenience the areas of interest are split into three groups, those relating to
coastal, fluvial and estuarial sites. Methods of carrying out the measurements
suggested are given in Chapter 6.
Coastal sites
Sediment movement at coastal sites is known as littoral transport. Littoral transport
is caused by the action of waves and currents. It is divided into two classes; longshore
transport (parallel to the shore) and onshore-offshore transport (perpendicular to the
shore). The material moved by either of these processes is called littoral drift.
Onshore-offshore transport is primarily a function of beach slope, sediment
particle size and wave height and period, i.e. wave steepness. It is caused by water
motion at the seabed due to the passing of each wave. Sediment is moved if the water
motion has sufficient velocity to move the size of particle on the seabed and if the
beach is not too steep. The threshold velocity for movement of the most easily
Table 2.1 Depths of water at which specific maximum

seabed orbital water velocities occur for waves of
1 metre height and various periods
Depth of water (metres) for maximum

seabed orbital velocity of:
Wave period
(seconds) 0.15 ms-1 0.30 ms-1
4 9 6
6 17 10
8 25 14
10 33.5 16
12 40 18
14 49 20
16 56 22
18 61 22
20 65.5 22
moved particles is around 0.15 ms", whilst that for movement of a coarse beach sand
of around 2mm diameter is about 0.30 ms'. Table 2.1 shows depths of water in
which a wave, one metre high, causes those velocities to occur at the seabed. It can be
seen from the table that movement will occur at considerable depths when wave
periods are large.
. Longshore transport is a result of the turbulence caused by the breaking wave,
which stirs up the sediment and transports it in the wave direction. The movement
along the shore is due to the component of wave direction which is parallel to the
shore and the longshore current generated by the breaking wave. Since wave direc-
tion and energy vary throughout the year the direction and amount of longshore
transport also vary. However, over a full year or number of years, there is usually a
net drift in one direction.
In order to calculate the seasonal or net annual longshore drift it is necessary to
obtain high quality wave records of the area in question and accurate surveys of the
beach and seabed. As an alternative to purely theoretical calculations tracer experi-
ments are sometimes used to quantify drift volumes.
In most coastal zones there are also unidirectional currents. These may be oceanic
or tidal in nature and, hence, may vary seasonally, tidally or both. Current velocities
are sometimes low, between 0.05 and 0.15 ms"; and are then not capable of moving
sediment unless it is already in suspension. In areas where wave action is the pre-
dominant cause of sediment motion, bed particle sizes are usually 0.2mm and
upwards. In such places unidirectional currents will not have an appreciable effect
unless their velocities are in excess of 0.5 ms' .
When there are weak currents and small wave action the silt and clay fractions of
material, which have been transported into the coastal zone, will tend to settle out of
suspension. This is usual in well-protected bays and harbours which are not sub-
jected to any tidal f1ushing action.
When the littoral drift is interrupted by a natural or artificial barrier such as an
inlet or jetty the drift material eventually finds its way past the barrier in order to
preserve continuity. The action of moving from one side to the other side of the
barrier is known as bypassing. For inlets, the bypassing action consists of a combina-
tion of tidal flushing and wave action which transfers the drift to an offshore, or
inshore, bar and back to the beach again.
If the obstruction to drift is artificial and there is no appreciable tidal action, the
drift material will build up on one side of the barrier and eventually continue round
the outer end of the barrier. Often this will result in the silting up of the harbour or
entrance channel. One method of avoiding this is to dredge the material on the
updriit side and dump it on the downdrift side, thus restoring the balance of nature
and helping to eliminate erosion of the coast on the downdrift side.
An investigation into the sedimentary mechanisms at work in a coastal site should
include:
(a) Measurement of the wave climate, i.e. wave height, direction and period
distribution on a seasonal and annual basis
(b) Current measurements on a tidal and seasonal basis
(c) Seabed and beach material sampling
(d) Surveying of the seabed and obtaining beach profiles

(e) Measurement of suspended sediment concentrations on a tidal and seasonal basis.
Fluvial sites
In fluvial sites, i.e. in rivers above the region which is influenced by tidal flows, sedi-
ment movement is caused by the flow of water in the downstream direction. Sedi-
ment movement occurs in three forms: suspension, saltation and rolling. Light
particles are carried permanently in suspension; larger particles tend to move in a
jumping motion off the river bed and back on to it again, which is called saltation;
and the largest particles never leave the bed but roll along on the surface. The factors
that determine the manner in which a particular size of particle behaves are the water
velocity distribution in the river, the degree of turbulence and the river bed profile.
Most rivers behave in a seasonal fashion, i.e. the flow of water down the river and
the quantity of sediment being supplied to the river are related to the season. Often a
high proportion of the annual sediment load is transported down the river in one
major flood. In other cases there is a gradual increase and decrease of flow
throughout the season, augmented by irregular floods of short duration. Whatever
the pattern of river flow and sediment supply, it is known that rivers alter their bed
profiles according to the flow. This has the effect of changing the bed roughness and
affecting the flow characteristics. In this manner rivers are able to reduce their
apparent frictional resistance when overloaded by floods and to increase it during
seasons of low flow. The result of this action is improved navigation and the
minimum of flooding.
An investigation of the sedimentary mechanisms at work in any particular fluvial
site must involve the following measurements:
(a) Stage-discharge relationships, i.e. the relationship between river depth and
current velocities across a river section
(b) The quantity of material in suspension at various times of the year
(c) The particle sizes occurring in the river bed
(d) The height, wave length and rate of movement of the ripples or dunes of
material on the river bed.
Estuarial Sites
Estuarial sites combine the features of coastal and fluvial sites but are largely
characterised by the tidal flow into and out of the site. The rise and fall of the tide at
the mouth of the estuary causes large quantities of sea water to enter the estuary
during the flood and to leave during the ebb. The total volume of sea water moved
into and out of the estuary during a tidal cycle is known as the tidal prism. The
relationship between the volume of the tidal prism and the volume of fresh water
entering the estuary during a tidal cycle serves as a classification for the various types
of estuary.
Apart from the relationship between fresh and sea water volumes, the rate at
which the fresh water mixes with the sea water is of great importance in an analysis
of sedimentary mechanisms in the area. When the fresh water volume is high com-
pared with the total prism it is common for diffusion to take place very slowly, and
the mixing of the two types of water is largely incomplete at the mouth. In such
circumstances the fresh, less dense, water tends to flow over the saline water and con-
tinue out into the sea. A wedge-shaped volume of saline water remains under the
fresh water and this wedge, which is called a saline wedge, projects into the estuary.
The existence and position of the saline wedge is known to be largely responsible for
silting patterns observed in estuaries". Well-mixed estuaries do not have a saline
wedge.
Thus, for sites situated at the mouths of estuaries an examination must be made of
any coastal effects, the ebb and flood currents, the freshwater sediment load and the
existence of a saline wedge. Further up the estuary, coastal effects can be ignored and
the mechanisms become dependent on tidal currents, sediment load and saline
wedges. In very wide and shallow estuaries, the scour and siltation which occur are
variable and can be affected by small variations in tidal currents. Some estuaries
remain relatively stable for many years and then suddenly change to assume a new
stability in a different form. Complete analysis of the sedimentation pattern of a
whole estuary would be very complex and would not usually be attempted.
However, hydraulic, and more recently mathematical, models of estuaries are able
to help in determining the overall patterns.
The following measurements, which should cover seasonal variations, are
necessary to investigate sedimentation in estuarial regions:
(a) Extensive measurement of tidal and fluvial currents, directions and distributions
with water depth
(b) Extensive measurement of water temperature and salinity and their distribution
with water depth and tidal state
(c) Bed and suspended sediment samples
(d) Wave records, if region is exposed to wave action.
2.3 The need for dredging

From the various sedimentary processes described in Section 2.2 it can be seen that in
most sites the various forces of nature are delicately balanced. Any artificial distur-
bance, such as that caused by dredging or dumping material, is likely to upset the
balance in some manner. In some instances the balance of nature may have already
been upset by some other artificial means such as the building of a breakwater or
jetty. Thus, the need for dredging may arise because the required bed configuration
does not exist and must be formed; the required bed configuration is unstable and
will return to its stable shape; or the original bed stability has been upset by other
artificial means.
The formation of a new bed configuration by dredging, whether it is stable or not,
is known as capital dredging; the implication being that the work involves the
payment of a single capital sum. Any other dredging work would be recurrent and,
since it is necessary to maintain the desired bed configuration, it is known as
maintenance dredging.
The desirability of dredging in a particular location depends on economic and
environmental factors, and must be viewed in the light of the total development
being planned. From the environmental, and in some cases economic, aspect the
possibilities, in order of preference, are: no dredging at all; capital dredging only;
capital and maintenance dredging. The first two of these are discussed below. The
third is a result of the failure to achieve one of the others. Figure 2.1 illustrates the
various possibilities.
No No
Ye. Ye. No
I. Ye.
No No
~ No dredging
Key @] Capitol dredging
~ Maintenance dredging
Figure 2.1 The dredging need

Development without dredging

There are three basic ways to avoid maintenance dredging when adequate water
depths are available.
(1) Develop at a site where there is no sediment movement
(2) Develop at a site where sediment movement occurs but is not affected by the
development
(3) Develop at a site where sediment movement occurs but where the development
helps the movement away from the site.
Examples of (1) can be found on rocky coastlines and where water close to the shore
is deep. Structures can also be built on predominantly sandy coastlines at locations
where the gross littoral drift is negligible. This sometimes occurs at headlands where
the drift either side is always away from the headland. Another location often chosen
for port development without dredging is inside sheltered bays where there is
already a sufficient depth of water and virtually no sediment movement.
A type (2) development can be carried out by use of structures which do not
impede water movement and, hence, do not interrupt the movement of sediment,
such as open pile jetties. An alternative to this is to construct a berthing face using a
natural feature which has adequate water alongside.
Type (3) developments include structures in rivers, which tend to channel the
main river flow and, hence, maintain adequate water depth, and breakwaters, which
deflect the littoral drift out from the coast into some natural sink, such as a submarine
canyon. Also included in this category are certain harbours whose entrance con-
figurations are designed to be self-cleansing'v .
Development with capital dredging only

There are two main ways to avoid maintenance dredging.
(1) Dredge at a site where there is no sediment movement
(2) Dredge at a site which is stable in its developed state.
Examples of (1) are generally the same as those in (1) above, but dredging will be
carried out only where there is insufficient water depth.
Examples of type (2) dredging occur in rivers where the bottom is hard and where
an enlargement of the river cross section does not sufficiently reduce current
velocities to cause siltation. Where dredging is carried out in soft material of a coarse
nature, the dredged area will remain intact if the water currents are inadequate to
move any more coarse material but sufficiently high to scour fine material away.
When channels are dredged in open water at an angle of 15 or less to the pre-
dominant current direction, the mean velocity of flow tends to increase due to an
increase in hydraulic radius and, in areas where there is no appreciable sediment
movement due to wave action, this tends to lead to a self-cleansing situation.
2.4 The effect of dredging

In this Section the sedimentary aspects of dredging are discussed, i.e. what happens to
the dredged area after dredging has taken place. Other environmental aspects are
covered in detail in Chapter 11.

In order to establish a basis for investigating the sediment movement in and around
the dredged area it is necessary to assume that the dredged material has either been
removed from the sedimentary system or returned to the system without appreciably
altering it (see Section 2.5), and to identify the type of area in which the dredging has
been carried out. The former is a reasonable assumption since every effort is made to
reduce maintenance dredging to a minimum.
The type of area

Although the sedimentary systems which are likely to be encountered have been
described in Section 2.2, it is necessary to identify not only the zone in which the
dredged area has been formed, but the predominant sedimentary mechanism which
is going to produce siltation. The zones, and, where appropriate, the sedimentary
mechanisms, can be categorised as follows.
Offshore - sediment load in suspension; sediment load on the bed
Inshore - sediment load due to waves; sediment load due to waves and currents
Fluvial - sediment load in suspension; sediment load on the bed; sediment load on
bed and in suspension
Estuarial - tidal inlet; wide estuary - entrance, wedge (or mixing) area, upper
reach; narrow estuary - entrance, wedge (or mixing) area, upper reach.
For estuaries it is also necessary to determine whether the sediment is predominantly
silt or sand, and whether the dredged channel is transverse or longitudinal with
respect to the main axis of flow.
Siltation in offshore areas

The offshore area is that area which is seawards of the breaker zone. Sediment in the
offshore area is moved by currents or orbital wave motions. There are two distinct
approaches to the determination of siltation rates and the choice of which approach
to adopt depends on the predominant type of sedimentary action occurring.
Sediment load in suspension

The quantity of suspended sediment at a particular location depends on the current
velocity profile and, by measuring currents and suspended sediment concentrations,
a relationship between current velocity and sediment concentration can be obtained.
The effect of dredging will be to either increase or decrease current velocities and the
sediment concentrations will alter accordingly. In this manner it is possible to
compare suspended sediment loads before and after dredging and, hence, predict
rates of siltation.
Sediment load on the bed

The transport of sediment as bed load in offshore areas is caused by the bed shear
generated by orbital wave motions at the seabed. Relationships between sediment
moved and wave characteristics have been developed experimentallv'". Dredged
area infill rates can be estimated by computing the quantity of sediment entering a
given area for a given wave climate and integrating over the annual or seasonal
distribution of wave heights, periods and directions.
Siltation in inshore areas
The inshore area is that area which is between the breaker zone and the shore. Sedi-
ment transport in this area is usually caused by a combination of wave action and
longshore currents.
Sediment load due to waves

Many relationships have been proposed for estimating longshore sediment move-
ment caused by waves striking a coast obliquely(1_6.7).Most of the formulae are based
on the assumption that longshore transport is some function of the energy flux of the
waves towards the coast. To use any of these formulae it is necessary to know the
annual wave climate, and in some the grain size of the inshore bed material must be
ascertained. In6ll rates can be estimated by considering the relationship between the
dredged area and the direction of sediment movement. In practice, few dredged
channels are inside the breaker zone.
Sediment load due to waves and currents

A method of predicting sediment movement due to waves and currents has been
developed=". Since the current used in this method is the net or measured current at
the site, the method is applicable for all situations, whether the current is tidal or
wave-generated. The method also takes account of suspended as well as bed load.
In611rates can be estimated by considering the relationship between the dredged area
and the direction of sediment movement.
Siltation in rivers
There are many different methods of calculating sediment transport rates in rivers,
depending on the size of the river and whether field data is available or no(2,lO). Each
case must be judged accordingly. The following refers to nontidal sections of rivers.
Sediment load in suspension

When the sediment load is in suspension it is necessary to establish the relationship
between the concentration of sediments in the different depth layers of the river and
the velocities in these layers. A settling basin theory can then be applied to calculate
the rate of settlement of suspended particles. Increasing the depth of the river by
dredging causes a reduction in mean river velocity and from this can be calculated
the reduction in the velocities of the different layers. Since a change in layer velocity
leads to a change in concentrations, an infill rate can be calculated from the
difference in settlement rates before and after dredging.
Sediment load on the bed

When the infill of the dredged channel will be caused by the transport of bed load it
is necessary to establish the relationship between bed load transport rate and mean
river velocity. It is then possible to estimate bed load transport rates for the mean
river velocities before and after dredging, and the difference is the rate of deposition
in the dredged area. The mean river velocity after dredging is predicted from normal
continuity equations.
Sediment load on bed and in suspension

The two methods described above can be combined to predict infill rates in situa-
tions where both bed and suspended sediment load are appreciable.
Siltation in estuaries
An estuary is defined here as the portion of a river or coastal inlet, which is subject to
periodic variation in water level due to the rise and fall of the tide. Estuaries which
do not receive any fresh water from upland discharges are called tidal inlets. The
behaviour of tidal inlets has been well-researched(I1.12) Estuaries with fresh and saline
waters are, however, considerably more complex in their sedimentary behaviour
and, as such, are often difficult to analyse in a simple manner.
Tidal inlets
The stability of a tidal inlet on an alluvial shore depends on the flushing ability of the
current in the entrance channel, or gorge, and the quantity of littoral drift being
transported along the coast. The littoral drift quantities can be calculated using the
formulae for sediment transport in inshore areas. Comparisons of this quantity with
the volume of water being passed through the gorge during each tide (the tidal
prism) give indications of the mean maximum current velocity in the gorge. This
mean maximum velocity is found to vary very little in practice, in spite of variations
in sediment grain size. It is usually between 0.9 and 1.2 ms-I.
The stable cross-sectional area of gorge can be estimated once the values of the
tidal prism, mean maximum velocity and tidal period are known. The siltation rate
in an unstable channel can be computed by comparing the littoral drift with the rate
of transport of bed load in the gorge(13).
Other estuaries
Apart from the special case of a tidal inlet, all other estuaries exhibit a zone of
mixing, and the sedimentary characteristics of a dredged area, or channel, will
depend on the location of the channel with respect to the mixing area. In addition,
the width of the estuary and the nature of the sediment have a profound effect on the
infilling rate of a dredged area.
The importance of the estuarial width lies in the prediction of current velocity
changes due to changes in cross section caused by dredging. In wide estuaries the side
effects can be neglected whilst in narrow estuaries a small increase in cross section can
have a marked effect on current velocities.
Sediment type gives an indication of the physical properties which are likely to
have the greatest bearing on rates of erosion and deposition. The sedimentary
characteristics of sandy areas depend to a large degree on sediment grain size whilst
in a silty area the shear velocities which cause erosion and deposition are important.
Siltation in the saline wedge, or mixing, area of an estuary is usua ly high due to
the bed velocity being upstream in the saline portion of the wedge and downstream
in the fresh water area. These two opposing bed currents meet at a null point and it is
towards this null point that both the river and coastal element 0 ~sediment are
carried. Dredging work upstream of the mixing area and above low water level will
increase the tidal prism and alter the position of the mixing area, thereby altering the
zone of high siltation.
Many of the studies into siltation in estuarial regions require complex
mathematical modelling and, although in some cases some of the simpler methods
for predicting siltation, mentioned previously, can be applied, it is gen erally prudent
to allow specialist hydraulic laboratories, such as the Hydraulics Research Station,
Wallingford, UK, to handle studies of these areas. References (14), (15) and (16)
may also be of interest to readers who wish to pursue the subject further.
2.5 The effect of dumping

Dredged material can be dumped, or deposited, in three different types of site.
(1) On land, i.e. not in any sedimentary system
(2) In the same sedimentary system as that which contains the dredging site
(3) In a different sedimentary system from that which contains the dredging site.
To determine the effect of dumping in each of these categories of site it is necessary to
obtain the correct data. The environmental aspects of dumping are discussed in
Chapter 11. The sedimentary aspects are discussed below. A flowchart of the logical
procedure for choosing a dumping site is shown in Figure 2.2.
Dumping sites on land

On a land site the most important considerations are whether there is sufficient
capacity at the site to contain all the dredged material; whether the resulting load
will affect the stability of the soil underneath, due to the weight of material placed;
and whether the dredged spoil will be of subsequent use.
In order to assessthe suitability of the site from these aspects it is necessary to obtain
the following information.
(1) The characteristics of the existing site with regard to soil strengtl., load bearing
capacity and stability
(2) The characteristics of the dredged spoil with regard to consolidation, draining
and subsequent strength (see Chapter 10)
(3) The availability of suitable material for the construction of dykes, bunds or
levees
(4) The topography of the entire site and its drainage system.
Select site
Ve. Ves
Ve. No
No No
Ves
Key 0 Acceptable m Chanoe site
Figure 2.2 The choice of dump site
When the site is in a tidal zone below high water level it may be desirable to assess
the effect of reclamation on the hydraulic regime of the area. For large areas the
effect could be considerable and in such cases a hydraulic model of the entire area
may prove to be of great help in determining subsequent current and sedimentation
patterns. It should be noted that, although this is not strictly dumping on land, it is
the shape of the reclaimed area and not the movement of the dumped material which
is investigated.
Dumping and dredging sites in the same sedimentary system

When it is proposed that both dumping and dredging should be carried out in the
same sedimentary system there are two possibilities: either the sedimentary system is
circulating or cyclic; or the sedimentary system is directional.
If the sedimentary system is circulating it is assumed that some of the dumped
material will eventuall y return to the dredging site. The important thi ng to be deter-
mined is whether the quantity (""Ifmaterial being dumped is going to add appreciably
to the total quantity of material moving within the sedimentary system. If it is, then
there is some virtue in choosing a location for dumping within the system which is as
far removed as possible from the dredging site. If, however, as is bund in many
cases, there is so much sediment in movement that the dumped material is a
negligible percentage, there is little to be gained in dumping any further from the
dredging site than is necessary to prevent the material actually returning to the site
during the dumping process.
Directional sedimentary systems are those in which the sediment has a net annual
movement in a prevailing direction, and they are somewhat easier to assess than
circulatory systems. First, the direction, method and quantity of sediment in move-
ment are more easily determined and, secondly, it is usually possible to fmd dumping
sites which are on the downdrift side of the dredging site. In this manner it is possible
to ensure that the dumped material will not return to the dredging si:e and that the
balance of nature is not being upset. It is important to note that sites in s.reas oflittoral
drift may suffer from longshore drift in both directions during the '{ear. It is thus
desirable to choose a dumping site on the net downdrift side of the dredging site
which is sufficiently far away for material not to return to the dredging site during
periods when the drift is reversed.
To assess the suitability of dumping in the same sedimentary systerr. as the dredg-
ing site one needs to know details of the sedimentary system (see Section 2.2);
characteristics of the dredged material, such as particle size distribution, total
quantity, etc.; method of dumping.
Dumping and dredging sites in separate sedimentary systems

In many cases the spoil is dredged from one sedimentary system and dumped in
another since in this manner there is no possibility of the spoil returning to the dredg-
ing site. The sedimentary system of the dumping site will, therefore, be injected with
foreign material. Whether or not this material will be compatible with the system
will depend on details of the sedimentary system (see Section 2.4); characteristics of
the dredged material, such as particle size distribution, total quantity, etc.; method of
dumping.
References
(1) US Army Coastal Engineering Research Centre, Shore Protection Manual, 197~
(2) Vanoni, V.A. (Ed.), Sedimentation Engineering. ASCE Task Committee, Hydraulics Division,
American Society of Civil Engineering, 1975
(3) Ippen, A.T. (Ed.), Estuary and Coastline Hydrodynamics. McGraw Hill, 1966
(4) Donnelly, P. and Macinnes, I., Experience with Self-dredging Harbour Entrances, Proceedings of the
Eleventh Conference on Coastal Engineering, London, 1968
(5) Anonymous, Calculation of Infill of a Dredged Channel, Hydraulics Research Station, Wallingford,
UK. Annual report, 1971
(6) Larras,]., Cubes de sable charries par la houle parallelemente it la cote, Annales desPonts et Chausees,
March-April, 1966
(7) Bonnefille, R. and Pernecker, L., Etude theorique et experimentale du transport littoral, Bulletin de
la Direction des Etudes et Recherches - Electricite de France, No.3, 1967
(8) Bijker, E.W., Littoral Drift as a Function of Waves and Current. Coastal Engineering Conference,
London, 1968, Chapter 26, pp. 415-435
(9) Bijker, E.W. and Svasek,J.N., Two Methods for Determination of MorphologicalChanges Induced by
Coastal Structures. 22nd International Navigation Congress, Paris, 1969, pp. 181-202
(10) Shen, H.W., River Mechanics, I, II. Edited and published by Hsieh Wen Shen, PO Box 606, Fort
Collins, Colorado, USA, 80521
(11) Brunn, P., Port Engineering. Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas, 1976
(12) Brunn, P., Gerritsen, F. and Bhakta, N.P., Evaluation of Overall Entrance Stability of Tidal Entrances.
Proceedings of 14th International Conference on Coastal Engineering Copenhagen, 1974,
Chapter 91
(13) Lopez Gutierrez, H. and Cervantes Castro, D., Study ofTopolobampo's Bay, Mexico, Entrance. 12th
Coastal Engineering Conference, Washington DC, 1970, Chapter 73
(14) Glenne, B., Classification system for estuaries, ASCE Journal of Waterways andHarbourDivision, 93
(WW1), February 1967
(15) Harrison, A. and Owen, M., Siltation of Fine Sediment in Estuaries. Proceedings of the 14th IAHR
Conference, Paris, 1971. Paper D1
(16) O'Connor, B.A. and Lean, G.H., Estimation of Siltation inDredged Channels in Open Situations. 24th
International Congress, PIANC, Section II Subject 2, Leningrad, 1977
3 Dredging methods
3.1 The basic dredging processes

Before reviewing the many types of dredger it is helpful to examine the physical
mechanisms involved in the dredging process. These may be broadly classified as
pretreatment, extraction, transportation and disposal.
Pretreatment
Pretreatment means treatment of the ground before the dredging operation. It

usually consists of a separate operation carried out independently of other dredging
operations. There are two basic methods of pretreatment; chemical and mechanical,
and both are applied to rock or cemented soils. Normal soils are disintegrated in the
extraction process.
Chemical methods
Chemical methods involve the use of explosives or expanding gas cartridges. The
most common method is to place the cartridges in boreholes drilled vertically into
the material to be blasted. A grid of boreholes is drilled, covering the whole area to
be pretreated. Loading and firing of the charges is carried out in convenient groups
of boreholes. The work is usually carried out from a floating or jack-up pontoon but
has, occasionally, been carried out underwater by divers with submersible drill~l) .
High explosives are also used underwater in the form of surface or lay-on charges.
These charges are laid on the surface of the material to be broken up and are used in
three forms; cartridges, slabs or shaped charges. The cartridges and slabs are nor-
mally standard commercially available products, whilst the shaped charges have to
be specially prepared. Shaped charges utilise the Munroe effect which focuses the
explosive shock wave in one direction. The principle was used with effect in armour
piercing shells during World War II. Surface charges are generally only effective in
fragmenting boulders, weak sedimentary and easily crushable rocks and thin layers
of rock or cemented soil.
Mechanical methods
Mechanical methods of pretreatment are less common now than chemical methods,
having been superseded by the use of explosives. However the rock breaker, which
is the standard mechanical pretreatment machine, still has applications in cases where
explosives might be undesirable or inefficient. The rock breaker consists of a
pontoon on which is mounted a heavy needle or chisel which can be hoisted and
1R
Dredging Methods 19
dropped vertically on to the material to be broken. Fragmentation is caused by

shearing or crushing the material depending on its crystalline structure. Modern ver-
sions of the rock breaker arc sometimes fitted with pneumatic or hydraulic rock
hammers which strike the rock with a frequency of 1.5 to 2 blows per second.
Various methods of pretreatment are illustrated in Figure 3.1. In addition to these
methods, tests have been carried out recently involving the use of high pressure
Fuse
Fragmented
rock
(b)
(0 )
, S'oft
material
(d)
1 1
(e) (f)
Figure 3.1 Methods of pretreatment and rock breakage a, explosives In

boreholes, b. slab charge on a boulder; c. shaped charges; d. lav-on charges;
e, rock chisel shearing rock; t. rock chisel crushing rock
water jets to cut rock. Microwaves have also been tested in efforts to break up the
crystalline structure of the rock. These two methods have not yet been put into
practice commercially.
Extraction
The extraction process involves the movement of the spoil from its natural or pre-
treated position into vertical transportation and its delivery to the transport system.
Extraction processes are often a combination of at least two operations; the primary
operation which disintegrates or dislodges the soil and the secondary operation
which moves it. The first of these operations is performed either mechanically or
hydraulically.
Mechanical primary extraction methods

Mechanical primary extraction is effected by digging or cutting. Digging is
achieved by means of various types of bucket which are forced into the ground in
such a way that a portion of soil is detached from the soil mass and retained in the
bucket. The effectiveness of the operation depends, to a great extent, on the force
which can be applied to the bucket and the configuration of the rim of the bucket
which is to penetrate the soil. When high point loads are desirable to overcome the
strength of the soil, bucket rims are made sharper, teeth are added and higher
digging forces are applied.
Common forms of bucket are the face shovel (dipper dredger); the backhoe
bucket (backhoe dredger); the bucket chain (bucket dredger); the grab bucket (grab
dredger). Less common forms are the bucket wheel (bucket wheel excavator); the
drag bucket (dragline).
Cutting is achieved by means of a blade, or number of blades, which are applied to
the soil either in a chipping or slicing action in such a manner that small pieces of soil
are separated from the soil mass. These are subsequently removed by the secondary
excavation process. The most common form of cutter is the rotary cutter head which
is used in the cutter suction dredger. Cutting blades of both fixed and rotary type
have been used in active dragheads for the trailing suction hopper dredger.
Effectiveness is determined by the velocity and force behind the cutting blade and its
shape.
Hydraulic primary extraction methods

Hydraulic primary extraction is achieved by the movement of water. The initial
water movement may either be towards the dredger or away from it. When the
water movement is towards the dredger, as in the case of a dredger which sucks in
water, soil is eroded from the sea bed and enters the water stream to become part of
the dredged soil/water mixture. The rate at which soil is eroded depends on the
velocity of the water stream and characteristics of the soil. The suction head which
receives the soil/water mixture takes various forms, such as the plain suction head
(suction dredger); the draghead (trailing suction hopper dredger); the dustpan head
(dustpan dredger); and other types related to pneumatic dredging methods.
Dredging Methods 21
The draghead and dustpan head are often augmented by water jets situated in the
suction heads themselves, which are directed away from the main water stream, i.e.
away from the dredger. These jets are used to put soil into suspension in order that it
may be more readily entrained in the main suction stream.
Secondary extraction methods

The secondary extraction process consists oflifting the dredged spoil and depositing
it in the means of transportation. This may also be achieved either mechanically or
hydraulically. The mechanical means are usually an extension of a primary extrac-
tion process and consist of raising a single bucket or chain of buckets up to the desired
level, shifting horizontally by the necessary amount and releasing the soil into the
means of transportation. The hydraulic methods oflifting soil rely on four different
processes. These processes are illustrated in Figure 3.2.
Centrifugal pumps are used both to raise the dredge spoil vertically and also to
transport it horizontally. The characteristics of the pumps used, therefore, depend on
whether or not both jobs are to be done. Dredging pumps are not very different
from large water pumps except that the impeller is designed to allow the passage of
large solids through the pump.
The jet pump is normally used as an addition to a system which has a centrifugal
pump. The jet pump consists of a high pressure water jet which is directed upwards
into the stream ofliquid flowing up the suction pipe. The two liquid streams mix in a
venturi section of the suction pipe and the jet stream energy is converted to a pressure
head. The energy imparted to the system by this method may be sufficient to remove
the suction head from the centrifugal pump or allow it to dredge at depths which
would have been impossible without an increase in pump size.
The air lift is one of the simplest methods of hydraulic lifting. Air under pressure is
released inside the bottom of a suction tube. The air rises rapidly up through the
water in the pipe expanding under the reduced pressure. Water is carried up by the
air and ejected from the top of the tube. This process creates a flow of water through
the tube which is capable of carrying solids.
The sea bed pump can be powered by electricity or compressed air. Most of these
pumps work on the principle of evacuating the water successively from a number of
chambers and allowing the water pressure over the pump to force a water/soil
mixture into the chambers. The raising of the soil is accomplished by using com-
pressed air to act as a piston pump.
Transportation
The transportation process covers the movement of the dredged spoil from the
dredging site to, or near to, the dumping ground. It may be achieved by use of the
main dredging machine or by other means.
Own hold
When the dredging machine has its own hold or hopper, dredging is continued until
the hold is full, or has been filled to an economic level. The machine then stops
dredging and proceeds to the dumping ground. After dumping and returning to the
site the dredging operations are recommenced.
Discharge pipe Discharge pipe

Water level Water level
'W-I
I" Wore. jet
Water in
!
!\
Suction pipe
Seabed
1
Suction pipe
7 and"
Water soil in \ Seabed
(a) Water and soil in

(b)
'" ~~ ~ 7:::r, water and soil out
~.\j,~compressed air in
016 , Power in
Water and soil out
Water level
00
o
Water level 1t
o 0
o
o 0 Flexible discharge pipe
o
00
0
00
o
o 0
0
0
,0
,.
0.'
0, Seabed pump
" unit
j \. Seabed Seabed
Water and soil in

(d)
(e)
Figure 3.2 Hydraulic methods for lifting soli. a, centrifugal pump; b. jet pump;
c. air lift; d. seabed pump
Dredging Methods 23
Self-propelled barge
The self-propelled barge is moored alongside the dredging machine and receives the
dredged spoil until it is fully laden. When laden it proceeds to the dumping ground
leaving the main dredging machine on station. Barges are used in pairs, and some-
times threes, in order that the main dredging machine never has to halt operations to
await the return of a barge.
Dumb barge
Dumb barges are used in exactly the same way as self-propelled barges except that
they do not have their own propulsion units so they have to be towed by tug to the
dumping ground and back. Since it is usually necessary to have a tug in attendance to
the main dredging machine the use of dumb barges minimises the number of propul-
sion units on the site.
Pipelines
Pipelines are used to transport dredged spoil in a water/soil mixture from the main
dredging machine to the dumping ground. The pumping unit is normally the same
unit as that which is performing the extraction process but on long pipelines,
additional pumping units or booster stations are inserted in the pipeline. Pipelines
may be either floating, submerged or on land. Pipelines are also used in the disposal
operation (see p. 24).
Natural processes
Dredged spoil is transported by natural processes in such cases where the dredging
machine releases the dredged spoil into the water at the dredging site.
Other methods
Transportation may also be achieved by a variety of other methods such as belt con-
veyor, ropeway, railway, lorry. However, these are often secondary transportation
methods which either occur after dumping or in an operation which is matched to
the dredging operation and not vice versa.
Disposal
Bottom discharge
Bottom discharge is used to release spoil from a hold or hopper by gravity into the
water and, hence, to the spoil dump. There are various methods of discharge such as
bottom opening doors, bottom valves, horizontal sliding doors and split hulls but all
have the same end result; that of releasing spoil downwards into the water.
Grab
A grab can be used to unload a self-propelled or dumb barge at the disposal point. A
grab dredger can also unload its own hold at the dumping ground.
Scrapers
Scrapers are built into self-propelled and dumb barges in order that the material in
the barge may be extracted and fed into another means of conveyance, i.e. conveyor
belt.
Pipeline
Pipelines are normally used for discharge into a reclamation area although in some
cases they are used for discharge direct into the sea. The pipeline is either a continua-
tion of the pipeline used for transportation or, occasionally, is set up at the reclama-
tion area and the dredging machine pumps out its hopper into the pipeline.
Land-based unit
When dredged spoil is required for reclamation or other uses the spoil can be
removed from the hopper by land-based suction pumps. In such cases the material in
the hopper is put into suspension by the addition of water and this enables the suction
pump to operate.
Natural processes
In cases where the dredged spoil has been released into the water at the dredging site
and transportation has occurred due to natural processes, disposal also occurs
naturally and depends entirely on the natural characteristics of the site.
The classification of dredgers

The basic methods of extraction, transportation and disposal have been briefly
described and most of the dredgers used in normal dredging practice may be
classified by reference to these methods (see Table 3.1). Not all types of dredgers are
shown in Table 3.1, but other combinations of extraction/transportation/disposal
processes which result in further varieties of dredger are less common, having been
developed for one specific purpose or generally superseded by more modern
machines. Some special purpose dredgers which have been developed recently to
meet particular needs are described in Section 3.10.
Since many of the dredgers mentioned in Table 3.1 have common features it is not
necessary to describe them all. Indeed, most have already been described in great
detail in other books and papers on the subject of dredging. For that reason the
descriptions which are given in the following sections have been confined to a select
list of dredgers whose operating methods are different from one another and the
details which have been given are intended to relate to factors affecting their opera-
tion rather than their construction.
3.2 The drilling pontoon

Drilling pontoons are generally of two types; floating or jack-up (spudded). Many
drilling pontoons are constructed specifically for one job and are dismantled at the
Dredging Methods 25
Table 3.1 Classification of dredgers
Main Method of Method of Method of

classification Individual type extraction transportation disposal
Mechanical Dipper dredger Face shovel Barge Bottom discharge, grab

or suction pump
Backhoe dredger Backhoe bucket Barge Bottom discharge, grab
or suction pump
Stationary bucket Bucket chain Barge Bottom discharge, grab
dredger or suction pump
Self-propelled bucket Bucket chain Barge Bottom discharge, grab
Self propelled hopper Bucket chain Own hold Bottom discharge, grab
bucket dredger or suction pump
Pipeline bucket Bucket chain Pipeline Pipeline
dredger
Draqhr-e Drag bucket Barge Bottom discharge, grab
or suction pump
Stationary grab Grab Barge Bottom discharge, grab
Self propelled grab Grab Own hold Bottom discharge, grab
Hydraulic Stationary suction Suction head Pipeline Pipeline

dredger (primary) or barge Bottom discharge, grab
Centrifugal pump or suction pump
(secondary)
Jet pump suction Suction head Pipeline Pipeline
dredger (primary) or barge Bottom discharge, grab
Jet pump or suction pump
(secondary)
Hopper suction Suction head Own hold Pipeline or bottom
dredger (primary) discharge
Centrifugal pump
(secondary)
Cutter suction Cutter head Pipeline Pipeline
dredger (primary)
Centrifugal pump
(secondary)
Bucket wheel Bucket wheel Pipeline Pipeline
excavator (primary)
Centrifugal pump
(secondary)
Trailing suction Draghead Own hold Bottom dump or
hopper dredger (primary) pipeline
(with or without
water jets or blades)
Centrifugal pump
(secondary)
Trailing suction Draghead (primary) Natural process Natural process
sidecast.nq dredger (with or without
water jets or blades)
Centrifugal pump
(secondary)
Pipeline Natural process
Dustpan dredger Dustpan head with
water jets (primary)
Centrifugal pump
(secondary)
Pneumatic 'Pneuma' dredger Suction head (primary) Pipeline Pipeline

'Ooze+dredqer (and drag head If or barge Bottom discharge, grab
necessary) or suction pump
Seabed pump
(secondary)
All litt dredger Suction head Barge Bottom discharge, grab
(primary or suction pump
Air 11ft
(secondary)
26 Dredging: A Handbook [or Engineers
(0)
(b)
Fig 3.3 Drilling pontoons: a, with drills cantilevered over side; b. with drills
over a central well; c. as b but spudded
Dredging Methods 27
end of the job. There are many different possible conftgurations but most drilling
pontoons have common characteristics which are as follows.
(1) A hull of either bulkhead construction or formed from unit floats. The shape of
the hull will depend on how the drills are to be worked, either over the side or
through a central well
(2) Drilling rigs, from one to as many as ten or twelve mounted to drill over the side
of the pontoon or through a central well. The drills are usually capable of lateral
movement and, if working through a well, are mounted on a bridge unit which
moves across the well
(3) Winches and anchor wires capable of holding the pontoon on station for long
periods or moving it regularly by small increments over the working area.
The three most common types of drilling pontoon are shown in Figure 3.3. These are
floating pontoons with drills cantilevered over the side or operating in a well and a
spudded pontoon with a well.
The basic objective of the drilling pontoon is to drill, charge and fire as many
vertical shotholes on a prearranged grid as possible in a standard shift. The drilling
cycle consists oflowering a casing to the sea or river bed, driving it through any soft
material and sealing, or collaring, it into the rock. The inner string of drill rods and
bit are then inserted through the casing and rock is drilled out to form a shothole of
the desired depth. After removal of the drill rods explosive charges are inserted into
the hole either on a line of detonating fuse, or on electrical leads. The casing is then
lifted from the bed and a ring is slipped down the outside of the casing to catch the
fuse, or leads, and bring it up outside the casing to a point on the pontoon. This cycle
is shown diagramatically in Figure 3.4. The drill is then moved to a new position.
All drilling pontoons, whether they are spudded or floating, have a similar basic
subcycle.
(1) Lower outer casing to sea or river bed and collar into rock
(2) Drill out rock with inner drill rods to desired depth
Completed
shothole
Figure 3.4 The basic drilling cycle: outer casings collared into rock; inner
string drilling shothole; shothole drilled; loading explosive charges;
retrieving fuse
(3) Charge hole with explosives

(4) Lift outer casings and retrieve fuse
(5) Move drill rig or pontoon.
Certain drilling methods which have been developed for softer rocks, however, do
not have two drill strings and when using those methods the first two actions are
combined.
The number of times that this subcycle will be repeated before blasting takes place
will depend on the type of pontoon, the speed of the subcycle, the number of drills
being used, the length of the shift, etc., but in any event the main cycle of operations
follows a general pattern.
Spudded pontoon
(1) Move onto position
(2) Jack up platform to correct height
(3) Subcycle, repeated as many times as necessary
(4) Jack down onto water
(5) Move off position
(6) Blast
and floating pontoon
(1) Move onto position
(2) Subcycle, repeated as many times as necessary
(3) Move off position
(4) Blast.
During the work it will be necessary to move the pontoon anchors to new posi-
tions. However, for floating pontoons this operation takes place when moving onto
position or off position for blasting. It is not normal and sometimes dangerous to
move a floating pontoon's anchors when drill holes have been charged or when drills
are in operation. The anchors of a spudded pontoon can be moved whenever the
pontoon is elevated on its spuds and the operation does not interrupt the drilling
cycle.
A typical subcycle for a drilling pontoon would be as follows.
(1) Lower outer casings to bed and collar into rock 10 min
(2) Drill out hole to desired depth 20 min
(3) Charge hole with explosives and recover fuse 8 min
(4) Move to next hole 5 min
Total subcycle time = 43 min

On pontoons which have drills cantilevered over the side it is normal to drill as
many holes in a row as possible. The pontoon is then moved backwards until the
drills are placed over the next parallel row (Figure 3.5a). The number of rows drilled
and charged before blasting will depend on the number of drills and the working
method but blasting is often arranged to take place at the end of each shift. Pontoons
with drills mounted over a well will normally be kept stationary until the drills have
covered most of the area under the well (Figure 3.5b). Blasting will then occur
before the pontoon is repositioned in an adjacent area. When a jack-up or spudded
pontoon is used it is necessary to lower the pontoon to the water and float off posi-
Dredging Methods 29
tion before blasting occurs.

The time taken to carry out the blasting operation from floating pontoons varies
between twenty and sixty minutes depending on circumstances. Spudded pontoons
take considerably longer, a reasonable time being ten hours.
Drilling pontoons, without spuds, have a shallow draught, 0.6-1.0 m, and are
therefore able to operate in shallow waters. Maximum operating depth is around
25-30 m, depending on drill type, rock formation and water conditions. A good
general description of underwater drilling and blasting operations is given by
Abrahams(21.
o 0 0 0 03comp,eled
o 0 0 0 0 rows
o 0 000
o 0 0 0 0
tal {bl
Figure 3.5 Drilling operations. a. pattern produced by a cantilevered drill

arrangement; b. pattern produced ~y drills over a well
3.3 The dipper dredger

The dipper dredger is a form of floating face shovel. The bucket (Figure 3.6) digs
forwards into the ground or the face of the excavation. It is fixed to the extremity of
a hinged rigid arm and the digging power is supplied by a forward leading hoist
wire. The lower rim of the bucket is formed into a strengthened cutting edge which
is usually augmented by the addition of teeth. The teeth serve to concentrate the
digging forces into high point loads which enable relatively hard material to be
disintegrated and dug. The bucket is emptied by release of the bucket door at the rear
of the bucket.
A typical dipper dredger is shown in Figure 3.7. Since large horizontal forces have
to be applied to the ground by the bucket it is necessary for the pontoon to have
positioning spuds in order that reaction forces do not have to be taken in the anchor
wires. The standard method of operation is for the bucket to dig and lift out of the
water, the derrick slews through about 900 and releases the spoil to a barge moored
alongside. After dredging all spoil which is within reach of the bucket, the
Bucket door
Figure 3.6 The dipper bucket (after de Koning(7))
dredge master lowers the bucket onto the bottom, hauls up the spuds and pulls the
dredger forward using the bucket arm as a lever.
The basic subcycle for the dredger is to lower bucket to bottom; dig; raise bucket
to above level of hopper; swing; dump; swing. The main cycle is to repeat subcycle
as many times as necessary; lower hull to floating; move to new position; jack up
onto spuds.
Repositioning of anchors is required occasionally and since this takes an appreciable
time it is usually arranged to coincide with some other operation, such as changing
shifts. Changing hopper barges is normally accomplished without a break in
production.
The number of subcycles which the dredger can achieve in an hour usually lies
;;<--+- Boom
Bucket wire
:'r--+-- Dipper arm
Forward spuds
Figure 3.7 The dipper dredger (after de Koning(7))

Dredging Methods 31
between forty and eighty. This is because they are designed to operate at about sixty
subcycles an hour in standard conditions. The actual rate of work will depend to a
great extent on the dredging depth since the greater the depth the longer it will take
to lower and raise the bucket. The soil type also influences the time taken to com-
plete a cycle since a stiff or sticky soil takes longer to dig and also longer to eject from
the bucket into the hopper.
Most dredgers with a single bucket work in a series of strips across the dredging
area (see Figure 3.8) dredging to the full depth. Thus the rate at which they cover the
area depends on the subcycle time, the width of cut and the depth of material to be
dredged. In cases where the material to be dredged degrades under the action of
water the operator may decide to dredge in two cuts, thereby allowing time for
material in the second cut to soften up. If the dredger is incapable of reaching the full
Water level
\\
\\
Backhoe "
II
I
redglng I1/I
Average dradoi
deplh "
11
___________ ~,4
...~W
~~L H 'L,
l cut
_
(b)
Figure 3.8 Dredgers with a single bucket: method of operation a, plan;

b. elevation
dredging depth during high water periods a stepped system of dredging will be
necessary which allows work to be carried out at all stages of the tide (Figure 3.9).
The working method, and therefore the length of the main cycle, will vary con-
siderably due to these factors.
Dipper dredgers vary considerably in size, power and capacity. The bucket is
usually between 1 and 9 m! in volume and the maximum dredging depth may vary
from 6 to 12 m below water level. However, dippers with a bucket size of12 m ' have
been built and dredging depths of20 m are possible. Figure 3.10 shows the distribu-
tion of dipper dredger sizes in the world and gives an indication of their installed
horsepowers. Dipper dredgers are often built such that they may be converted easily
to rock-breakers. This allows the machine to be used for pretreatment and also for
dredging the pretreated material.
High water
Low water
Figure 3.9 Dredgers with a single bucket: tidal working
3.4 The backhoe dredger

The backhoe dredger is basically a backacter excavating machine mounted on a
pontoon. The backhoe digging bucket is operated in such a way that the digging
action is performed towards the machine (Figure 3.11). Thus, when working a face,
the bucket is made to penetrate the soil from the top of the face, or, if the machine sits
above the face, digging is performed from the bottom of the face upwards. Backhoes
are powered by line pull or direct hydraulic linkage, the latter being usualin modern
machines. The outer rim of the bucket is used as the cutting edge and teeth are fitted
to increase the point pressure on the material to be dug.
Before modern, hydraulically operated backhoe machines, the pontoon and
backhoe were often integral and the pontoon was supplied with spuds in order that
horizontal reactions to the digging forces could be transferred to the ground.
However, the hydraulically operated digging arm of the modern machine is so
versatile that, usually, the machine is mounted on a freely floating pontoon. Many
backhoe dredgers are made specially for a specific job from a standard crawler
Dredging Methods 33
3000
/
20 2000
~..
.go 15 o.r ;
o
.,0.
e
..,~
..~
/ o
.&:
..,
~
..
s
..Q
; 10
z / 1000 .E
/
5
Bucket capacity (cubic metres)
Figure 3.10 Dipper dredgers: distribution of sizes and associated installed

horsepower
machine mounted on a suitable pontoon. For this reason records of backhoe dredgers
are scarce. Figure 3.12 shows the general arrangement of a backhoe dredger. In
operation it is similar to a dipper in that, after each digging stroke, the bucket must
be lifted out of the water, the machine slewed through an appropriate angle and the
spoil deposited in a barge moored alongside. Movement of the dredger is achieved
by hauling itself along by use of the digging arm or by means of anchor wires.
The method of operation at the dredging site is also similar to that of the dipper
dredger (Section3.3) except that the main cycle of a floating backhoe dredger con-
sists of repeating the subcycle as many times as necessary and then moving position.
Figure 3.13 gives the general characteristics of backhoe dredgers. It should be
noted that maximum dredging depths are given from below the base of the machine,
not from water level. Since most modern machines have various optional arm
lengths and bucket sizes the details given here are only indicative. The distribution of
sizes refers only to those machines recorded as permanent dredgers and not the many
dredgers built for one job and dismantled afterwards. Some modern machines have a
Figure 3.11 The backhoe bucket: methods of digging. a, overcutting;

b. u ndercutti ng
Dump barge
(
\-------~/I
III!
I
L
Pontoon
_
III I
III I
~I I
I -t1
\\ \-
'o~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I)'
1/\
III
~ 'to:!
" I I
#-1 I
I.f;---'i\ )
~.J~
! i
\ '<,_--.\"
Figure 3.12 The backhoe dredger: hydraulic type (Poclain Ltd)

Dredging Methods 35
Number of dredgers
O----~---L--+-~~_+--~--r_~--_r--~~r_-L--~--L-~---L--+
2 3 4 5 6 7 8+
Figure 3.13 The backhoe dredger: distribution of sizes and associated power and
maximum dredging depth
maximum dredging depth of 18 m, and it is likely that machines with a reach in

excess of this depth will be developed.
3.5 The bucket dredger

The bucket dredger is one of the most common forms of mechanical dredger. Its
basic design has remained much the same for many years and centres around the
bucket chain, which is the main dredging component of the dredger. The bucket
chain consists of a large number of buckets linked together in an endless chain which
is carried by a rigid movable support called a ladder. The bucket chain is driven by
an upper tumbler at the top, fixed end, of the ladder. At the lower end of the ladder is
a bottom tumbler. This end of the ladder may be raised or lowered by means of
hoisting wires.
The lower portion of the bucket chain, Figure 3.14, digs into the face. In this type
of dredger a number of buckets are performing their digging action simultaneously,
Figure 3.14 The bucket chain: lower end
since at least three and maybe more buckets are in contact with the ground at one
time. Power to dig is transmitted from the top tumbler to the bucket chain and
thence to the buckets at the face. The outer rims of the buckets perform the cutting
action in the soil and for cutting rock it is common to use smaller buckets with teeth
to increase the point pressure on the material to be dug. Figure 3.15 shows the
general arrangement of a bucket dredger.
Dredging is achieved by setting the bucket chain in motion and lowering the end
of the ladder to the desired depth. Soil is captured by the individual buckets on the
chain, transported up the ladder to the top tumbler and then tipped out into a chute
which is directed to one side or other of the dredger where a barge is positioned. In
order to obtain a continuous flow of dredged material the dredger is moved from
side to side, on its side mooring wires, and is also advanced in small regular incre-
ments forward on its bow or head wire. The head wire is used to transmit the
digging reaction forces back to the ground.
The operation of a bucket dredger is such that the dredging process is almost con-
tinuous and the bucket chain is kept moving throughout the whole cycle, except
when it is necessary to move the head wire anchor position. The operation of
digging to a set depth over the width of the swing is called a cut. The basic subcycle
Dredging Methods 37
Figure 3.15 The bucket dredger
is to cut; advance on head wire; cut; advance on headwire; (repeat as necessary);

move side wire anchors. The main cycle is simply repeating the subcycle as necessary
and then moving the head wire anchor.
In fact the head wire anchor is often left in position for a considerable time and in
some cases it may not be necessary to move it at all if the dredging site is relatively
small.
The changing of hopper barges is usually carried out without a break in operation
as is the alteration of discharge chute arrangements on board the dredger. However,
a short break may be necessary when hopper barges come alongside or leave the
dredger.
The method by which the bucket dredger covers the dredging area is shown in
Figure 3.16. It should be noted that the digging action of the bucket chain is used
irrespective of which way the dredger is swinging. The distance the dredger
advances at the end of each swing will depend on the depth of cut and type of
material to be dredged. As a guide, when dredging a cut of1.5 to 2.0 m thickness, the
following range of advance distances would be likely.
Material type Advance distance (m)
Hard 0.3-0.5
Soft 0.8-1.0
Very soft 1.8-2.0
The width of cut will vary according to the anchoring arrangement and the shape
and size of the dredging area. A width of between 60 and 100 m is normal.
In order that the digging forces may be transmitted to the head wire and not taken
by the side wires the dredger is angled during the swing, as shown in Figure 3.16.
It'
\\ '\\
\
\ \
\
\ \
\ \
\ \
\
~ \
...---1 n-:
Width
\ \ \
H.eodline pOntoon
of cut \ \ _----
-----_ \ 1_1\.. _-_..:-?-:----
-----+--=.......
-=::-----tc---"::'-C': ::-:.-----------------
-_ ---==-y
/ /
Current direction
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
J ,
Figure 3.16 The bucket dredger: method of operation
The angling of the dredger in this manner causes it to move outside the plan area of
the cut. This can cause problems in shallow water and when cutting side slopes,
because for this work the dredger must be angled into the cut, which will cause some
of the digging forces to be taken by the side wires.
Side wires play an important part in the movement of the dredger during its
operational cycles. When the angle of the wires becomes more than 30 or 40 to the
perpendicular it is necessary to move the anchors forward to new positions. If this is
not done the power and degree of control required for the sideways movement of
the dredger will not be available. The normal side wire pull required is about 3-4
tonnes per 100 litres of bucket capacity.
Bucket dredgers vary in size, bucket capacity and power depending on the type of
work for which they were originally designed. However, using the capacity of the
individual buckets as a guide, the size distribution of bucket dredgers in the world is
given in Figure 3.17. In Figure 3.18 the power of the bucket dredger and its dredging
depths are shown against the bucket capacity. These graphs show the average
Dredging Methods 39
40
~ 30
'"'"
-0
e
-0
'020
~
'"E
.0
::>
z
10
o
< 100 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Bucket capacity (Iitres)
Figure 3.17 The bucket dredger: distribution of sizes
10 20
19
8 16
15 ..
f
14
E
"
0:::
13 ~
"li
:.gu 6 12 .:l
.,.
.........
u
II .;'
"C
"
....5 10 ~
0:::
..
o
~
I<
9
..
&.4 8
:s
::t:
7
3 6
2 4
3
2
o 2 3 4 6 7 8 9
Bucket capacity (litre.) x 100
Figure 3.18 The bucket dredger: power on the bucket chain and dredging
depths
characteristics which are likely to be encountered. The bucket capacities relate to a

dredger equipped for dredging soft material. Wide variations in design occur and
dredgers are often modified to suit particular jobs. For instance, in order to dredge
soft or pretreated rock the bucket chain is usually replaced with another chain which
has buckets of half the capacity and with teeth fitted on the cutting edge. Sometimes
every fourth bucket is replaced with a ripper tooth to assist in digging hard materials.
Ladder, and hence bucket chain, lengths may be extended by dropping the hinge
point of the ladder down to a lower level and bridging the gap between the top
tumbler and ladder with an auxiliary ladder. Maximum dredging depths may be
extended by forty to fifty percent by this method. In this manner dredging depths of
up to 30 m can be achieved when necessary and there are a few dredgers in use with
dredging depths of 35 m.
The speed of the bucket chain is variable. Modern bucket dredgers are usually
designed to dredge soft material at between sixteen and twenty-five buckets per
minute, although speeds of up to thirty buckets per minute are used. Speeds in hard
material will be considerably lower, possibly twenty-five to fifty percent of the
above figure.
3.6 The grab dredger

The grab dredger is the most common form of mechanical dredger and is cons-
tructed in a variety of forms. All designs have the grabbing system which is
characterised by a slewing crane which lowers and hoiststhe grab into and out of the
water. Wires from the crane system operate the grab mechanism.
Grabs are made in a variety of forms (Figure 3.19). The digging principle is
generally common to all types. The grab is lowered, open, onto the top of the
material to be dredged. The weight of the grab bucket enables some penetration to
be achieved and closing of the jaws by mechanical means, usually upward line pull,
allows each half of the grab to dig into the soil, so that horizontal action is provided
by the opposite half. The most common types of grab buckets are:
(1) The mud grab, which hasjaws offlat plate with no teeth. Used for mud and soft
clay
(2) The tine grab, which has interlocking jaws with short teeth or tines. Used for
sand, clay and gravelly soils
(3) The rock grab, which has long teeth. Used for stones and broken rock
(4) The orange peel or cactus grabs, which have four or more spherical segments or
units which, when closed, form a rough sphere. Used for large stones and pieces of
rock.
In addition to the above there are now grabs which have hydraulically assisted
closure which, when fitted to a machine with a hydraulic arm, are capable of exert-
ing much higher downthrust on the ground and are, therefore, more efficient in
digging the harder materials.
Many of the older grab dredgers were built as self-propelled craft with their own
hoppers. These dredgers fill their hoppers, lift their anchors and steam to the dump
Dredging Methods 41
Closed
Open
(0)
Open
Closed (b)
Figure 3.19 The grab bucket. a, clamshell type: line closure; b. cactus type:
hydraulic closure (courtesy of Priestman Bros Ltd)
site. It is necessary to re-lay, or pick up, anchors again on return to the dredging site.
However, the modern trend is to use pontoon mounted grabs which load into
hoppers, thereby enabling the dredger to operate for long periods without having to
interrupt operations in order to steam to the dump. Figure 3.20 illustrates a grab
dredger of this type.
drums
Winch Luffing
unit drum
Pontoon
Side~
u--------- Underwater fairleads ---------u
Figure 3.20 The grab dredger: pontoon mounted, without hopper

The operational subcycle of a pontoon mounted grab dredger is the same as that of
the dipper dredger (Section 3.3) whilst its main cycle is the same as that of the
backhoe (Section 3.4). The method of dredging is represented by Figure 3.8. Tidal
working due to excessive depth is not necessary since the grab dredger is rarely depth
limited. A medium size dredger would normally have a width of cut of about 12 m
and would advance 2 m for each cut.
The grab hopper dredger has an identical subcycle to the pontoon mounted
dredger. However, since this dredger has to travel to the dumping ground its main
cycle is different. It consists of repeating the subcycle as many times as necessary, and
then moving position. In the new position the subcycle is again repeated until
another position is needed. Each cycle between moves is called an intermediate
cycle, and is repeated in as many positions as possible. Then the next steps are: casting
off from anchors, or raising anchors; sailing to dump; dumping; sailing to site;
picking up anchor buoys, or dropping anchors; and positioning. It should be noted
that the intermediate cycles are identical to the main cycle of the backhoe and
pontoon mounted grab dredgers.
In the somewhat rare event of the dredger having to dump by grabbing material
out of its hopper and dumping it in a barge or onshore, the dumping process itself
becomes a series of basic subcycles in reverse.
The grab hopper dredger is normally provided with more than one grab crane, so
its method of advancing over the dredging area will not be the same as dredgers
which only have one bucket. The method of working must ensure that one grab
does not dredge in an area already covered by another. This is achieved by aligning
the dredger at a particular angle to the main direction of travel across the area
(Figure 3.21).
The duration of the sub cycle will depend to a great extent on the number of grabs,
the hopper capacity and the distance to the dumping site. Depth of dredging and
type of dredged material will also have effect, as described in Section 3.3.
Grab dredgers are usually rated by their bucket capacities. Figure 3.22 shows the
distribution of the various sizes of the types of grab dredger. Since the grab itself is on
wires the maximum dredging depth is controlled by the winch drum capacity and
the site conditions rather than any physical dimension of the machine.
The operations of grab hopper dredgers are sometimes limited by the dimensions
of the vessel, and an indication of how the main dimensions vary with hopper
capacity is given in Figure 3.23.
3.7 The cutter suction dredger

The cutter suction dredger is the most common of all the dredger types. Since the
principles of the simple suction dredger are embodied in the design of the cutter
suction dredger a description of the former covers both. There are two main com-
ponents of a cutter suction dredger; the cutterhead and the dredging pump. The
cutterhead, which is situated at the entrance of the suction pipe, is used to agitate soft
materials or to cut harder materials in order that they may be in a suitable state for
Dredging Methods 43
Direction of working
(0)
Direction of working
""i~
VII)
(b)
R = Maximum radius of
grab crane
(c)
Figure 3.21 The grab hopper dredger: method of operation. a, with two grab
cranes; b. with three grab cranes; c. with four grab cranes
80
r--
70 r--
60 ~
..
~50
f... f--
f--
'040
:;;
.0
E
:i 30
20
- r--
r--
10
r--
<Yz I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II
Hl----rh r--I
12 13 14 15 16
Figure 3.22 The grab dredger: distribution of sizes
removal by hydraulic means. There are many types of cutterhead but most are based
on two standard forms; the basket and the straight arm. Various types of cutterhead
are shown in Figure 3.24. The straight arm cutter has straight blades bolted to a
spider, whilst the basket cutter has spiral blades which are integral with the front hub
and back wearing ring. The spacing of the blades is varied to suit the material being
dredged, e.g. stiff clay may clog between blades which are too close together, and
for cutting hard materials detachable teeth must be bolted to the blades. The angle of
the cutter blade has a considerable influence on the etficiency of its operation.
Cutters are usually rotated at between 10 and 30 rpm, and the rotary motor is located
either directly behind the cutter in a submersible drive unit, or with the main power
unit of the dredger.
The dredging pump, in the body of the dredger, creates a vacuum in the suction
pipe and draws the soil up the pipe and through the pump. The soil is then
discharged by being pumped through a pipeline. The raising of the dredged material
is due to the pressure of the atmosphere acting on the water column in the suction
pipe, so there is a limit to which dredging depths can be extended before losses in
effICiency occur. For this reason many of the modern cutter suction dredgers have a
dredging pump situated well below water level on the ladder which supports the
suction pipe, and so the height of the suction column is effectively reduced. There is
a strong argument for considering the use of a submerged dredging pump when the
Dredging Methods 45
13
12
"
10
..-..
f
8
E 7
<::)
c:
0
..
'iii
c:
E
zs 5
100 200 300 400 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

Hopper copacity (tonnes)
Figure 3.23 The grab hopper dredger: main dimensions related to hopper
capacity (courtesy of Priestman Bros Ltd)
dredging depth exceeds 9.14 m (3).

Figure 3.25 shows the general arrangement of a cutter suction dredger. When in
operation the cutter suction dredger makes use of two stern spuds which are
arranged to allow the dredger to advance in steps towards the dredging face. In each
dredging position the dredger is swung from side to side by means of side wires
anchored either side of the dredging area; the machine being pivoted around one of
the stern spuds. The suction tube may be raised or lowered by means of a hoist wire.
The cutter suction dredger, like the bucket dredger, carries out an almost con-
tinuous operation. The dredging pump is only stopped when it becomes necessary to
move the pipeline, either due to the advance of the dredger or in order to discharge
(b)
(0 1
(c 1 (d)
~Poi"' Hub Teeth
~;"' T.,-,."d,."
(el
Figure 3.24 Cutterheads. a. closed nose basket; b. basket: c. modified basket:

d. crown; e. toothed cutter (courtesy of IHC, Holland)
at a new location. Since the cutter suction dredger swings on a spud a cut is the action
of dredging, to a set depth, all the material within reach of the cutterhead as it is
swung across the dredging area.
Dredging Methods 47
Figure 3.25 The cutter suction dredger
The basic operational subcycle is then: cut; advance on spuds; cut; advance on
spuds; (repeat as necessary); move side wire anchors. The main cycle consists of
repeating the subcycle as many times as necessary and then changing pipeline posi-
tion. It should be noted that although the pumping process is continuous there will
be times when the dredger is pumping water only, for example, when advancing or
moving side wire anchors.
There are a number of different ways in which a cutter suction dredger can
advance on its spuds, depending on the spud arrangements and way in which they
are used. Figure 3.26 shows some of the possible variations in methods of advancing.
All spud systems work on the same basic principle that one spud is moved whilst the
other is kept firmly in the seabed. In the simplest form both spuds are mounted at the
rear of the dredger and movement forwards is achieved by swinging on one spud
until the other is ahead and then dropping it and lifting the first spud. However, as
can be seen from Figure 3.26a; this leads to an overlapping cutting area which is nor-
mally undesirable and inefficient. To overcome this problem various methods have
been devised to give cuts of equal thickness by advancing along one centreline,
which produces parallel cuts. Two of these are shown in Figure 3.26b and c. In the
first, both spuds are mounted in a revolving drum and in the second, one spud is
mounted in a moveable carriage. The latter method has been used extensively in the
recent construction of large rock cutter suction dredgers.
When hard material is being dredged the cutter is only used during the swing in
one direction. When the cutter head is swinging in the other direction the cutter
teeth approach the dredging face at the wrong cutting angle and the cutter head has a
tendency to pass across the material without cutting it. Figure 3.27 shows the two
types of cutting action. The speed of swinging, movement forward and width of cut
(bl
Concentric circles about A

B
(el
Figure 3.26 The cutter suction dredger: methods of advancing. a, cutter track
with fixed spuds; b. cutter track with revolving drum; c. cutter track with spud
camage
Dredging Methods 49
Direction of swing --
Direction of rotation
--
Direction of rotation
~ Direction of swing
(a) (b)
Figure 3.27 The cutter suction dredger: cutting action. a, hard or soft material:
b. soft' material only (after de Koninq'?')
depend on the type of material being dredged, size of the dredger and dredging
depth.
The cutter suction dredger like the bucket dredger requires side wires which are
used for movement and control of the dredging head. In hard material a considerable
force is taken in the side wires and the largest rock cutter suction dredgers have a side
pull of about 200 tonnes. When the side wires form an angle 0000 or 400 with the
perpendicular the anchors must be moved forward to a new position.
The cutter suction dredger is connected to the shore by its floating pipeline and
this must be arranged so as to allow the dredger to advance forward as far as possible
without having to stop dredging to break the pipeline and either extend or move it
(see Figure 3.28). If a new section ofland pipeline can be set up before the dredger
Figure 3.28 The cutter suction dredger: discharge pipeline movement

has reached the limit of its travel forwards much time can be saved in transferring
from one land line to the next.
Cutter suction and suction dredgers are rated by the diameter of their discharge
pipes. The suction pipe is normally 50 mm or so larger in diameter than the discharge
pipe. Diameters of discharge pipe range between 150 mm and 1200 mm, but most are
between 300 mm and 600 mm. Figure 3.29 shows the distribution of sizes available.
Although cutter suction dredgers are designed to be used for various different jobs
there are many dredgers with similar characteristics. Figure 3.30 shows the average
characteristics of any size of cutter suction dredger with respect to maximum dredg-
ing depth, cutter motor and dredging pump horsepower. Any wide divergence of a
characteristic from the average will indicate that a dredger has been designed for
some special purpose. For instance, it is common nowadays to fmd cutter suction
dredgers specially designed for working in rocky soils and these will often have at
least three times the usual power on the cutter moror'" .
150
140
130 r--
120 r--
110 -
100
e
Q)
..,'" 90
-
..,~
-~
0
80
70
r--
- - -
Q)
..c
E
::>
z 50
60
- -
-
40
30
-
20
10 .-- ~
200 400 500 600 700 800

110
900 >900
DischarQepipeline diameter (mm)
Figure 3.29 The cutter suction dredger: distribution of sizes
3.8 The trailing suction hopper dredger

The trailing suction hopper dredger, or trailer dredger, is simple in concept but
composed of many highly sophisticated components. The dredger is a sea-going self-
propelled vessel which is equipped with a suction pipe, designed to trail over the side
Dredging Methods 51
6 24
23
22
21
5 20
19
18
17
4 16
.,..
15 _
0
0
Q .,
14 !:
13 ..
.,~ s:
0(:00.
~
",IS
~ 3 12 ~
.,
Q.
"c
l
e0 II '"
or;. s.
:I:
10 ~ ~o
:.l
0
9
2 8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Discharlle pipeline diameter (mm)
Figure 3.30 The cutter suction dredger Installed power and maximum dredging
depths .
of the vessel or through a well in its hull. The suction pipe terminates, at the lower
end, in a draghead which is designed to draw in the maximum amount of bed
material. Suction is provided by a dredging pump situated in the hull of the vessel
which discharges either into a hopper in the vessel or, in the case of a sidecasting
trailer dredger, over the side into the sea. Figure 3.31 shows the general arrangement
of a trailer dredger.
There are many varieties of draghead (see Figure 3.32) and each has its own
particular advantages and disadvantages, depending on the material to be dredged.
Generally, in soft materials the head sinks into the soil and, with a slow forward
movement, a high concentration of materials is lifted. In harder materials penetra-
tion is shallower and a greater forward speed is required to maintain output. In hard
materials it is also necessary to disintegrate the soil at the draghead in order to obtain
a satisfactory output. This can be achieved by the use of high pressure water jets
directed into the soil. The addition of teeth does not have much effect unless used in
conjunction with water jets(5,6).However, when pretreated rock is being dredged
teeth and even dozer type blades have been used effectively.
When in operation with its draghead on the bottom the trailer dredger moves
fairly slowly relative to the ground. The speed is varied to suit the material being
dredged, 3.5 knots being the average and 5 knots the usual maximum. When sailing
to the discharge site, speeds of between 9 and 14 knots are usual, depending on the
vessel size, and some dredgers are even designed to sail at 17 knotsl". Maximum
dredging depths also vary with vessel size usually ranging from 10 to 30 m. A depth
of 35 m is not normally exceeded.
Since the dredging pump feeds the hopper with a well diluted soil/water mixture
it is usual for the soil to be settled out in the hopper and the water to be discharged
over an overflow. When dredging light materials, such as silt, difficulty may be
experienced in getting the soil to settle in the hopper and, in these circumstances, it is
common for the hopper capacity to be increased by raising the weirs on the
overflow.
Discharge is normally effected by means of bottom dumping, either through
valves or sliding doors, or where reclamation is environmentally or commercially
desirable by pumping out the hopper into a land pipeline at a specially designed
berth.
The shortest operational cycle of the trailing suction hopper dredger is a single run
across the dredging area, which is accomplished as follows: lower draghead; sail
across site (dredging); raise draghead; turn. The main cycle, for bottom dumping,
then becomes: repeat subcycle as necessary; sail to dump; dump; sail to site. The
number of subcycles in a main cycle will depend not only on how long it takes to fill
the hopper, but also on how full the hopper is filled. When dredging fme materials it
Swell compensator
Hoist gantries
Lander discharge pipe
Figure 3.31 The trailing suction hopper dredger (after de Koning(7))

Dredging Methods 53
is often economically desirable to sail to the dump with a load which is less than the
maximum possible.
(b)
(0)
(c) (d)
Figure 3.32 Dragheads. a, modified ventur: with water jets; b. IHC with water
Jets; c. with active cutter; d. with cutting blade (courtesy of IHC, Holland)
The graph ofloading versus time (Figure 3.33) explains this. On the horizontal
time axis on this graph
AB represents the time taken to sail to the dump, dump and return
BC represents the time taken to fill the hopper up to the overflow weir
CD represents the time during which the loading continues with water, and fme
material, being discharged over the overflow
o is the time at which the dredger stops dredging and heads for the dump.
The line AE has a slope which represents the ratio of the load carried to the total
cycle time, i.e. its slope is a measure of the rate of production or output. The steeper
the slope, the higher is the output. Since a tangent to the curve BFE gives the steepest
slope, the time 0 is the optimum for the ceasing ofloading operations. At this time
the hopper is not full and, with a very fine dredged material would take a long time
to fill, if this was indeed possible.
When the trailing suction hopper dredger is being used for reclamation purposes
and is self-discharging ashore, the main cycle, for pumping ashore, is modified to:
repeat the subcycle as necessary; sail to berth; moor and connect to pipeline; pump
ashore; disconnect pipeline; sail to site. The same rule applies in this case to the
economics ofloading, as the time AB on the graph in Figure 3.33 would be the time
taken to sail to the berth, discharge and return to the site. Hopper loading times for
coarse granular materials are usually designed to be about 30 to 60 minutes.
Since the trailer dredger which discharges direct to the sea, the sidecast dredger, is
fairly uncommon, trailer dredgers are usually rated by their hopper capacities.
Hopper capacities may vary from some 300 to 11000 m '. However, trailer dredgers
with capacities of over 6500 m ' are not very common and the majority of trailer
dredgers are in the range between 500 and 3500 m '. Figure 3.34 shows the distribu-
tion of trailer dredger sizes in the world.
Although there are many variables in the design of trailer dredgers the average
Full ho er
Load int
hopper
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'
A o
Figure 3.33 The trailing suction hopper dredger: graph of load in hopper against
time
Dredging Methods 55
40
30
Q)
..c
~ 10
z
Hopper copacity (cubic metres) x 1000
Figure 3.34 The trailing suction hopper dredger distribution of sizes
characteristics of any size of trailer dredger are shown in Figures 3.35 and 3.36. Some
trailer dredgers are equipped with two suction pipes, so in Figure 3.36 the equivalent
diameter of a single pipe has been given.
Dredgingpump
horsepower
E
E .s
:::J '"
;c "0
0
'"
Q)
:::E 0 2
a 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II
Hopper capacity (cubic metres) x 1000
Figure 3.35 The trailing suction hopper dredger: pump power and maximum
dredging depth
o~-+ __~ __~~ __~ __~~~~ __~~~~ __~

o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
Hopper capocity (cubicmetres)x 1000
Figure 3.36 The trailing suction hopper dredger laden speed, maximum draught
and suction pipe diameter
3.9 The dustpan dredger

The dustpan dredger is a direct descendant of the simple suction dredger and,
although it is not particularly common, it fulfils a specific function; that of
maintenance dredging in rivers. Figure 3.37 shows the general arrangement of the
dustpan dredger. The large suction head or dustpan is situated at the lower end of a
suction tube which is raised or lowered by means of a hoist wire. The dustpan head is
a much modified suction head. An example is show in Figure 3.38. In this case the
extremity of the suction pipe has been split to form two suction intakes, each with a
gridded, broad, flat, suction mouth. The unit is moved slowly into the face of the
material to be dredged and material is drawn into the suction mouths. It is normal for
a dustpan head to be provided with high pressure water jets which are situated at
Dredging Methods 57
Head wires
Figure 3.37 The dustpan dredger (after de Konlng(7)
each grid in the suction mouth. These jets are aimed forward into the soil face and
help to put material into suspension before being sucked into the head.
Suction and discharge are by means of a dredging pump in the centre of the
dredger. Like the cutter suction dredger the dustpan dredger is operated by
manoeuvring the dredger on wires, but, unlike the cutter suction dredger, it is pulled
continuously forward into the dredging face and is not swung from side to side, and
spuds are not used in its operation. Discharge of dredged material is via a short
pipeline to the river bank or other convenient location.
The operation of the dustpan dredger is not truly cyclical but can be considered as
such if the dredged area is large and the thickness of material to be dredged is con-
stant. The subcycle then becomes: drop back to downstream end of strip; lower
--Suction
(b)
(a)
Figure 3.38 The dustpan head. a, plan; b. side elevation
suction head; dredge strip; raise suction head. The main cycle is then: place anchors;
repeat subcycle; pick up anchors; move to next position.
The frequency with which the main cycle will recur depends on the width of the
dredging area, the thickness of material to be dredged and the length and position of
the pipeline. In some locations one main cycle may be sufficient to cover the dredged
area. The method of covering the dredging area is shown in Figure 3.39. The
dredged strip can be as much as 12.5 m wide. The dustpan dredger is usually designed
with a propulsion unit to enable it to travel between dredging sites.
3.10 Special purpose dredgers

There are a number of special purpose dredgers which have been developed to cope
with specific problems which cannot be handled economically by the standard
dredgers described above. In some cases it is not the dredging method which is
adapted to meet the special requirements but the dredging vehicle itself which is
specially designed to overcome some problem, such as site accessibility. In other
cases designs have been adapted to suit environmental considerations. A few of these
dredgers are described below.
The hoverdredger
This is simply a hybrid of the hovercraft and any pontoon type dredger. It has all the
advantages of the hovercraft with respect to being amphibious and being able to
traverse very soft soils. The dredging equipment is usually of the backhoe or grab
type.
I Current
direction
I
I
I
I I I I
t!t t j
I ill I
'..._/
I :1,.../I l I
\_j
Figure 3.39 The dustpan dredger: method of operation

Dredging Methods 59
The Amphidredger
This is another amphibious dredger developed in Holland for working in areas
where only very low bearing pressures are feasible, or where work is being carried
out at the land/water interface. Figure 3.40 shows the general arrangement. Move-
ment can be achieved by rolling on the wheels, floating on the hull or walking
tortoise fashion on the legs. The base machine can be used to support a backhoe, a
grab or a cutter suction unit.
Figure 3.40 The Amphidredger
The Water Witch

This is a mini-dredger for surface or shallow water dredging. It consists of a shallow
draught self-propelled hull unit on which can be mounted a small backhoe, a dipper
bucket or various units for removing weed, oil, etc., from the water surface. Figure
3.41 shows the general arrangement.
The Mudcat
This is a small suction dredger which collects the soil by means of two horizontal
augers lowered onto the bottom. The augers draw the material inwards towards the
suction head and from there it passes through the dredging pump to the discharge
pipeline. The general arrangement is shown in Figure 3.42. The method is claimed to
be environmentally advantageous due to the small amount of turbidity generated.
Figure 3.41 The water witch
Discharoe pipe
Suction pipe
Sea bed
Figure 3.42 The Mudcat
3.11 Worldwide distribution of dredgers

Since development of the various dredging systems has taken place in different parts
of the world, mainly Western Europe and North America, and lately Japan, and
because some dredgers are particularly suited to the site conditons pertaining to
specific areas, the world distribution of dredger types is uneven. Table 3.2 shows the
world wide distribution of dredgers as extracted from the World Directories of
Dredgers 1977 and 1978, published by Symcon Publishing Company. Although
there are difficulties in classifying some dredgers in this form and some areas of the
world may not have been comprehensively included (i.e. Eastern block countries) it
does give an idea of where types of dredgers originated or have been extensively
used.
Dredging Methods 61
Table 3.2 Distribution of dredgers worldwide 1977 and 1978
Trailing
suction Cutter Dust- Hopper Bucket Back-
Area hopper suction Suction pan suction line hoe Dipper Grab
North (22) (394) (91) (8) (3) (8) (8) (30) (219)
America 34 376 81 8 3 12 15 27 221
Central
America
(13) (43) (-) (-) (-) (2) (-) (4) (4)
and
6 10 2 2 2
Caribbean
South (7) (55) (9) (2) (1) (28) (-) (-) (-)
America 8 53 9 2 1 24
Western (94) (230) (127) (1) (26) (104) (4) (4) (71)
Europe 94 240 127 2 23 108 10 2 81
Eastern (10) (18) (10) (-) (2) (17) (-) (-) (6)
Europe 10 20 10 1 15
Scandinavia (4) (28) (11) (-) (7) (15) (9) (7) (27)
5 26 8 7 14 11 5 23
Middle (4) (12) (1) (-) (5) (1) (-) (-) (3)
East 6 22 1 6 10 9
I ndia Sub (1 ) (3) (-) (-) (3) (3) (-) (-) (1)
Continent 2 8 3 5 3
Northern (2) (11) (-) (-) (-) (4) (-) (1) (-)
Africa 2 4 1 3
Southern (8) (1) (-) (-) (1 ) (2) (-) (-) (5)
Africa 8 5 3 2 4
Far East (20) (244) (18) (-) (16) (54) (-) (13) (94)
19 219 24 14 103 6 92
Austr a.asia (9) (41 ) (16) (-) (2) (13) (-) (-) (15)
11 43 15 2 15 17
USSR (8)
8
TOTALS (194) (1080) (283) (11) (74) (251 ) (21 ) (59) (445)
205 1026 275 12 72 313 36 42 452
GRAND TOTAL (2418)

2433
N B Figures In brackets are for 1977
The following points should be noted from the Table: the trailing suction hopper
dredger has been extensively developed in Western Europe; cutter suction dredgers
are well distributed around the world; dipper dredgers, which excel in boulder clays
and glacial tills, are generally associated with North America and Scandinavia
where these conditions exist; backhoe dredgers are becoming popular in similar
areas to those where the dipper is favoured for similar reasons. The figures in the
Table only show those backhoes which are permanent dredgers and not the many
small units built for one job only; the bucket dredger is basically a European dredger
and only appears in numbers elsewhere when used for mining, i.e. in the Far East;
the grab dredger, which is fairly well distributed is also well represented in the Far
East where it is used for mining.
Although there has been a considerable movement of dredgers around the world
recently, particularly with the upsurge of work in the Middle East, the overall
distribution of dredgers in the world is unlikely to change quickly. It is, thus, advis-
able when planning dredging works not only to find out which type of dredger can
do the work but also to ascertain which type is likely to be within reasonable reach
of the site.
References
(1) Anonymous, Underwater drilling at Slangentangen, Hydrospace, March 1971, p. 24
(2) Abrahams, ].L., Underwater drilling and blasting for rock dredging, Proceedingsof the Institute of
Civil Engineering, Part 1. Paper 7728, 1974, pp. 463-478
(3) Turner, T.M., Submerged dredge pumps, PIANC Bulletin, No. 26, 1, 1977
(4) Hoekstra, A.J., Progress in dredging, The Dock and Harbour Authority, 51, No. 605, March 1971
(5) Yagi, T. and Okayama, Y., Dredging Effect of Water Jet and Teeth with the Draghead. Proceedings of
the 1st International Symposium on Dredging Technology, Canterbury, 1975
(6) Waibel, R., Walter, 0., and Witt, W., Actual Developments of Large Trailing Suction Dredgers, Their
Way of Working and Systematic Study of Dragheads, 21st International Navigation Congress, PIANC
Section II, Subject 3, Stockholm, 1965
(7) de Koning,]., Boundary Conditionsfor the Use of Dredging Equipment. Paper of the course on dredging
operations in coastal waters and estuaries, Delft, The Hague, May 1968
4 Factors affecting performance
4.1 Introduction
The factors which affect the choice of dredger for a particular job and which also
affect the dredger's performance can be divided into five groups.
(1) Dimensional factors - the relationship between the site and the dimensions of the
proposed dredging unit
(2) Physical factors - the influence of the site conditions on the efficiency of the
extraction method and the ability of the dredger to carry out dredging operations in
those conditions
(3) Operational factors - the influence of the site location on the operational cycles
of the dredger and method of dredging
(4) Environmental factors - the environmental factors to be considered in the light
of the extraction and operational methods proposed
(5) Contractual factors - the constraints placed upon the proposed dredger due to
the nature of the work being carried out and any contractual stipulations.
4.2 Dimensional factors

The dimensions of the dredging unit are important when considering the work to be
carried out. Every dredger has optimum conditions in which its performance is
maximised. It is, thus, not only necessary to check that the proposed dredger is
capable of carrying out the work but also to try to provide a dredger which is
suitably matched to the job in hand. Both these aspects should be born in mind when
considering the dimensions of the dredger and the dredging site.
Depth of water
At the dredging site there are two important depths to be considered; the maximum
depth before dredging and the maximum depth after dredging. For dredgers which
have to pass over the dredging site as part of their operation, such as suction hopper
and trailing suction hopper dredgers, it is necessary for the laden draught of the
dredger to be less than the shallowest dredging area. For dredgers which work to a
face, and are, therefore, floating in that part of the site which has already been
dredged, the depth of water at low tide must be adequate to accommodate the
draught of the vessel and any dredged spoil which has been spilled into the already
completed area. Dredging units which require cooling water for their engines must
63
be allowed sufficient clearance between water intake and sea bottom to prevent spoil
being sucked in.
Water depths in the waterway giving access to the site and also between the site
and discharge point must be checked since all unladen dredging units must be able to
reach the site and the laden unit, either dredger or hopper barge, must be able to
reach the discharge point.
The usual draughts of trailing suction hopper and grab hopper dredgers are given
in Chapter 3. The draughts of the following dredgers vary as follows:
Dipper dredgers 2- 4 m
Bucket dredgers 2- 5 m
Cutter suction dredgers 1- 3 m
Most other dredgers are mounted on pontoons with draughts between 1 and 2 m. It

~CD
E
~ 3
c
o
"iii
c
CD
"~
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Hopper capacity (tonnea)
Figure 4.1 Average dimensions of dumb hopper barges (courtesy of Priestman

Bros Ltd)
Factors affecting performance 65
should be remembered, however, that spudded craft are often limited by the height
to which the spuds can be raised off the seabed.
Since the limiting draught may occur on the journey from dredging site to dump
site the draughts of hopper barges must be checked to ensure that they can make the
journey fully laden. Figures 4.1 and 4.2 give details of normal hopper barge dimen-
SIOns.
The maximum depth of water after dredging is important since, unless the dredger
is capable of reaching to just below dredge depth at high water, it will be necessary
.
..
~
E
~ ~
c:
o
in
.,
c:
E
o
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Hopper capacity (tonnea)
Figure 4.2 Average dimensions of self-propelled hopper barges (courtesy of

Priestman Bros Ltd)
to programme operations to suit the tides. The maximum dredging depth of most
dredgers can be increased without altering the power requirement. In the case of a
dipper this might be done by extending the bucket arm whilst decreasing the size of
the bucket or for a bucket dredger by dropping the ladder hinge point but decreas-
ing the number of buckets on the chain. It should be noted. however, that these
measures, whilst achieving the desired dredging depth, not only reduce the capacity
but also increase the cycle time of the dredger and will therefore considerably
decrease the output.
Length of dredging area

The length of the dredging area is important for dredgers that pass over the dredging
site during the dredging operation. Both dustpan and trailing suction hopper
dredgers are inhibited by short dredging sites. In both cases the shorter the passage
over the site the greater the proportion of time is spent in manoeuvring rather than
dredging. For trailing suction hopper dredgers any site less than 500 m long could be
classed as restrictive. Most effective operations are achieved on sites which are in
excess of1000 m, whilst on sites which are less than 250 m long the methods of opera-
tion may need to be modified to obtain the best results'!'. The effect is less marked for
dustpan dredgers which are affected more by the curvature of the site.
Width of the dredging area

The width of the dredging area is important when considering dredgers which
swing during the dredging operations, such as cutter suction and bucket dredgers.
The minimum width allowable is that which ensures that the dredger and its
auxiliary equipment are free to operate. Figure 4.3 shows dredgers working at the
side of dredging areas. In the case of the bucket dredger it is necessary to angle the
dredger to allow sufficient space for the barge to lie alongside whilst still being able
to dredge at the bottom of the side slope. A cutter suction dredger, however, needs
to be able to dredge at the toe of the slope without fouling the bank on either side
with its hull. Trailing suction hopper dredgers require sufficient width to swing
round at the end of a run. The minimum width needed will be reduced if the vessel is
equipped with a lateral thrust unit in the bows. Table 4.1 shows approximate
minimum width requirements at water level for various dredgers.
When the dredging site is inside an enclosed dock or in a canal, the dredger and
hoppers must be capable of getting through the entrance lock to the site and to the
dump site.
Thickness of material to be dredged

The thickness of the material to be dredged, or height of the dredging cut, has a con-
siderable influence on the effICiency of the dredging operation. All dredgers which
excavate by bucket will tend to become inefficient when the thickness of material is
insufficient to allow the bucket to be totally filled during each cycle. Bottom clean-
(b)
Figure 4.3 The effect of width. a, bucket dredger working at the edge of the
dredged channel; b. cutter suction dredger working in a narrow channel
ing and shaping operations must, therefore, inevitably lead to a lowering of output.
Dredgers which use suction are more efficient in small thicknesses of material than
those which use buckets. However, the type of material is of importance since
materials which flow will run towards the suction head and be dredged easily whilst
cohesive soil may not flow at all. As a general rule, the thicker the cut the better,
except when collapse of the dredging face is a danger. When the cut is so high that a
slip of the dredging face causes sufficient spillage into the area already dredged to
inhibit movement of the dredging craft it is necessary to take additional time to cut
the side slopes. If the dredging face is liable to collapse onto the dredging unit, as in
Table 4.1 Minimum cutting (turning) widths at water

level for various dredgers
Minimum cutting (turning)

Dredger type width at water level
Dipper, backhoe, Width of pontoon + 2 barge

dumb grab widths + 10m
Bucket 1.5 lengths of dredger
Cutter suction Length of dredger with
ladder raised to water level
Trailer without bow
th rust 4 lengths of dredger
Trailer with bow
th rust 2.5 lengths of dredger
the case of a cutter suction dredger dredging cohesive soil, it may be necessary to
dredge in two cuts to reduce the height of the face.
The thickness of hard material, which requires pretreatment will determine
whether a rock breaker or drilling pontoon will be the better piece of equipment for
the job. Generally rock breakers are only economically feasible for breaking thin
layers of rock.
4.3 Physical conditions

Every dredging site has physical characteristics which will affect dredging opera-
tions on that site in some manner, no matter what dredger is chosen. The most
important characteristics are the weather, the water and the soil conditions.
Weather conditions
Wind
Wind makes the manoeuvring of all vessels more difficult, particularly in confmed
areas. When hopper barges are being used they return to the dredger in a light con-
dition with a large part of their superstructure exposed and this may lead to
difficulties when mooring against the dredger. Dragging of anchors is also caused by
wind action.
Rain
Rain does not usually affect operations, although it can affect the jacking operations
on certain types of spudded craft. It does, however, cause flooding in rivers and this
has the effect of increasing current velocities and water levels.
Fog
Fog is particularly bad for dredging operations, and often causes them to be
suspended. Even when the dredger's positioning system is operationally efficient in
foggy conditions the dredger may still have to remain stationary to prevent collision
with other vessels. Self-propelled vessels with radar and good positioning systems
are sometimes allowed to operate.
Temperature
Temperature has an effect on personnel and mechanical working efficiency. Low
temperature also causes ice which may prevent or permit certain operations depend-
ing on their type.
Water conditions
Waves and swell

The effect of the sea state on a dredger's equilibrium has a considerable influence on
its operating efficiency and whether it is able to maintain its position on the dredging
site. The various types of craft are affected as follows.
Drilling pontoon (floating): Pontoons constructed from a number of small floats are
unsuitable for work in swell conditions unless specifically strengthened for the job.
Rigid flat topped barges are susceptible to swell, particularly when oflong period.
Limiting conditions are normally determined by the degree of movement of the
craft that prevents shothole charging operations. Drilling operations can often be
carried out in more severe conditions.
Drilling pontoon (spudded): This is susceptible to swell when floating due to the height
and weight of the spuds. In the jacked up position it can cope with much more severe
conditions than the floating pontoon. Limitations to work tend to be due to other
factors, e.g. excessive wind, inability to jack down due to water on the spuds, i.e.
friction loss, etc. Delays often occur when sea conditions are too severe to allow
jacking down to be carried out. The critical point is when the pontoon isjust in the
water and when any lifting of the pontoon will result in the spuds dropping back
onto the seabed.
Dipper dredger: The dipper is very susceptible to swell since it relies on spuds to take
the reaction from digging forces. It is usually employed to dig hard materials and is,
therefore, prone to damage occurring due to its rigid digging arm striking the
bottom. The dipper requires an attendant barge alongside but does not move in
sympathy with the barge, thereby incurring maximum forces in moorings between
the dredger and the barge. The barges are also affected by sea conditions en route to
the dump and whilst dumping.
Backhoe dredger: When the bucket arm is wire operated the dredger is normally of the
spudded type and thus suffers the same restrictions as the dipper dredger. When the
dredger is hydraulically operated, freely floating pontoons are used and operations
can be hampered by excessive pontoon movement. Problems arise due to the
difficulty of keeping the bucket in the digging position, damage to the rigid arm and
bucket due to overload and the diffICulty in keeping barges alongside. Barges are
also affected by sea conditions en route to the dump and whilst dumping.
Bucket dredger: The bucket dredger is relatively unstable due to its high supers-
tructure, particularly when going to or leaving the dredging site. Undue movement
of the vessel causes problems due to the bucket chain striking the bottom and dredg-
ing effICiency being impaired. Limiting conditions are usually dictated by the ability
of the crew to prevent the barge alongside from surging due to differential move-
ment between dredger and barge. Barges are also affected by sea conditions en route
to the dump and whilst dumping.
Grab dredger(self-propelled): This dredger is not particularly sensitive to sea conditions

since the vessel is sea-going and the dredging method is indirect. Inefficiencies occur
due to the lack of control at the moment oflifting the grab off the bottom and when
repositioning the dredger after dumping spoil, i.e. placing or picking up anchors.
Grab dredger (dumb): The dumb grab is less stable than the self-propelled grab
dredger. It is limited by the inability to maintain a barge alongside due to the exces-
sive surging of the barge. The effIciency of the dredging operations are not much
affected up to this point. Barges are also affected by sea conditions en route to the
dump and whilst dumping.
Cutter suction dredger: The cutter suction dredger is susceptible to movement due to
the possibility of the cutterhead striking the bottom, particularly in hard materials.
Inefficiencies in dredging also occur due to loss of contact with the bottom. The
floating pipeline is sensitive to wave motion and is often the limiting factor. The use
of a submerged pipeline can sometimes alleviate this condition. Substituting wires
for spuds allows work to be carried out in more severe conditions.
Trailing suction hopper dredger: This dredger is specifically designed to cope with open
sea conditions. It has a compensating device which helps to keep the draghead in the
dredging position. The dredging effIciency tends to reduce in severe sea conditions.
Dustpan dredger: This dredger is not normally operated in other than calm conditions.
Much has been written on the susceptibility of dredging craft and their auxiliary
plant to various sea conditionsv'+". It is unanimously agreed that the behaviour of a
dredger subjected to waves and swell depends on many variables, such as orientation
of vessel with respect to wave and swell direction; method of mooring; dynamic
characteristics of vessel; period of wave or swell action. These and many other
factors contribute to the overall picture of how a dredger or dredging operation is
affected by sea conditions. Also to be considered are other site factors which may
determine the limit of working, such as the sea conditions in which the crew can be
put onto or taken off the dredger, the warning period given before the arrival of bad
weather and the distance from the dredging site to the nearest sheltered water. In
order to give an idea of the range of working conditions and limitations which have
been recorded they have been combined and interpolated in Table 4.2. It has been
based on waves or swells of periods between 6 and 8 seconds and applies to dredging
in soils or pretreated rock. If virgin rock is to be dredged direct, the limitations will
normally be more severe. Similarly, if wave or swell periods become much longer
than 8 seconds, their effect will be much greater and the limiting heights will be less
than those shown.
Currents
Most currents make marine operations more awkward due to the difficulty of
manoeuvring and the problems of obtaining a good anchorage. Strong currents, of
Table 4.2 Limitations imposed on dredging equipment by wave and swell action.
Wave heights (m) - (period 6-8 seconds)
Heights above which

Limiting heights for operations are dangerous
Dredging plant efficient operations and/or very inefficient
Drilling pontoon (floating) 1.0 1.5

Drilling pontoon (spudded)
working 2.0 3.5
Drilling pontoon (spudded)
moving 1.0 2.0
Dipper dredger 0.3 0.6
Backhoe dredger 04 0.8
Bucket dredger 04 1.0
Grab dredger
(self -propelled) 2.5 3.5
Grab dredger (dumb) 04 1.0
Cutter suction dredger
(small) 0.2 0.5
Cutter suction dredger
(large) 04 0.8
Trailing suction hopper
dredger (small) 15 2.5
Trailing suction hopper
dredger (large) 2.0 4.0
Crew boat (small) under
way 0.6 1.2
Crew boat (small)
transferring crew 0.6 1.2
Crew boat (large) under
way 2.5 4.5
Crew boat (large)
tra nsf erri ng crew 1.0 1.5
some 2 knots and upwards, affect dredging operations in a number of different ways,
as follows.
Drilling pontoon: Floating pontoons have to be kept on station and repositioned

accurately after each row of holes has been completed. Positioning is awkward in
strong currents. Any work by divers, usually to sort out problems with fuses, is
hampered. The most serious problem is the bending of drill casing tubes due to the
lateral force of the current. Figure 4.4 shows the effect of various currents on a
standard 100mm diameter casing tube. Deflection may be reduced by the addition of
special underwater casing guides. Spudded pontoons, which are obliged to work
from well above the highest normal wave, are badly affected by this deflection.
..
~
E
30
25
._go 15
CI
u
'0
tc 10
.!!
..,
'".,~
E 5
E
OL- ~ ~ ~ ~ L_ ~
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Horizontol deflection of bottom of casing (mm)
Figure 4.4 The deflection of 100mm diameter casing tube due to currents
Dipper dredger, backhoe dredger, bucket dredger: Given sufficient anchorage these
dredgers can work in currents of up to 3 knots. However, barges should be self-
propelled to assist in mooring and manoeuvring when strong currents prevail. It is
also recommended that the pontoons should be swim-ended if currents exceed 2
knots. Fine dredged spoil will be washed out of the buckets in strong currents.
Grab dredger: Due to its indirect method of dredging with a grab supported by wires
this dredger is susceptible to currents which make positioning of the grab bucket
difficult. Larger and heavier grab buckets are less affected by this problem. Fine
dredged spoil will be washed out of the buckets in strong currents. Swim-ended
pontoons are recommended for currents over 2 knots.
Cutter suction dredger: This dredger suffers from the current in two respects; lateral
pressure on the ladder from side currents and the water pressure on the sides of the
pipeline pontoons. It is generally considered that a 2 knot current is the maximum
allowable for the large dredgers.
Trailing suction hopper dredger: This dredger will be affected by strong currents when
dredging in confined sites.
Dustpan dredger: The dustpan dredger is designed to operate in currents and uses the
current as an aid to manoeuvring.
Soil and rock conditions
The soil, or rock, conditions in the dredging site have a profound influence on the
performance of a dredger. Soil should be examined to determine whether a dredger
can dredge it and, if so, in what manner its output will vary from the maximum
obtainable. Table 4.3, which has been taken from the Appendix of the PIANC
classification of soils to be dredged(5), gives a good initial guide. The two
characteristics which most affect the dredge ability of a soil are the grain size and the
shear strength. This is shown schematically in Figure 4.5(6). Very hard soils must be
pretreated and, if this is carried out effICiently, will be reduced to the equivalent of
very coarse granular materials.
In the following list the types of soil have been split into groups according to the
PIANC classification (see Chapter 6) except for the first two items.
""
c:
II Clay_____,;'
Grain size
(0)
;
------"'l'L.- g~~~~s
Blasted rock
'"
.s
_g' Cohesi ve
~
"0
'0
"
.s
::: Cohesionless
o (excluding boulders etc.l
Shear strength
(b)
Figure 4.5 Hypothetical illustration of material characteristics Influencing

dredgeability a, grain size; b. shear strength (after Campbell & Mahmood'v'
Pretreatment
Rock which has not been pretreated by drilling and blasting, or some other method
of comminution, may be dredgeable, depending on the type of rock and the dredger
to be used. Generally, igneous and metamorphic rock cannot be dredged directly
whilst sedimentary rock can. However, even if a particular dredger is capable of
dredging a sedimentary rock it may still be economically desirable to pretreat the
rock in order that it may be dredged at a faster rate. The ease with which pretreat-
Table 4.3 General characteristics of soils and rocks for dredging purposes (rocks unweathered' and unblasted)
Excavation characteristics Often observed

Suitable as Suitability bulk density
Dipper Bucket Suction Cutter Trailer Grab reclamation to pipeline before
Rock/soil type dredger dredger dredger dredger dredger dredger material transportation excavation
ROCK"
I Igneous NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 20-2.8
Sedimentary Possible Possible Difficult Possible in Fair large

In soft in soft to fair fragments
rock but rock but
NA in softer
NA ~~ftt~e~~CkSVery good may block
1.9-2.5
difficult difficult rocks difficult pipes
III Metamorphic NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 20-2.8
Weatherlng of rocks will alter form and strength considerably and may allow direct dredging without blasting, etc
Boulders Very slow

Difficult
may Not
Fair NA NA NA but large
acceptable
NA NA
require
units cope
slinging
Cobbles or
Fair Fair Difficult Difficult Difficult Fair Bad to good Poor NA
Cobbles with gravel
Gravel Easy Fair Difficult Fair Difficult Fair Good Faif 1.75-22
to fair to fair
Sandy gravel Easy Fair to Fair Fair to Fair to Fair to Very good Fair to 2.0-2.3
easy easy easy easv good
Medium sand
Fine sand
1 Easy but
low Easy
Easy
Easy
Fair to
but
Easy
Very good Good
Very good
1 7-23
Extra fine sand overflow Good
production Fair
Silty fine sand losses
J likely
Cemented fine sand Fair Fair NA Fair to Difficult Difficult Good Bad to good 17-23
easy
Silt Fair to
Difficult
but
NA Easy Easy Fair Bad Very good 1.6-2.0
to fair
overflow
losses
Firm or stiff gravelly Only possible

Difficult Difficult Difficult
or sandy clays Fair NA NA Good after 1 8-2.4
to fair to fair to fair
{r.e. boulder clays) disintegration
Soft silty Fair to 12-18

NA NA Easy Fair Easy Bad Fair
(t.e. alluvial easy (fresh harbour
sediment
1 15-1 6)
Firm or stiff silty Fair to Fair to Difficult Only possible

Easy NA Fair Bad to fair 1 5-21
clay easy easy to fair after
dislnteqeation
Peats Easy if
no gas
NA Easy NA Fair Easy Unacceptable Very good 0.9-1.7
encoun
tered
NA Not applicable
Note: This table only gives a rough indication and should be used with caution
The feasibility to use a certain type of dredging equipment depends not only on the soil type, but also on site conditions, the size. strength of
construction and power supply of that piece of equipment. etc
The qualifications used above (bad, poor, fair. easy, very good. etc.) are meant to show the degree of suitability but should not be related to the
output or even less as Indicative of the cost per excavated unit
ment by blasting can be carried out will depend on the ease with which the rock can
be drilled and blasted.
The ease with which a rock can be drilled depends on its resistance to drilling, as
well as the relative ease with which the hole may be started and kept open. With
respect to the latter it should be noted that sharp, saw-toothed formations are
diffIcult to drill when they are not covered by soil because the casing tubes tend to
slide off location. Rock with internal discontinuities is also troublesome, due to
diffICulties in keeping the hole straight and the drill bit free. The speed with which a
rock can be drilled also varies considerably. MacGrego~7) relates the ease of drilling
different rocks to a drilling index which is based on the speed at which pink granite
from Aberdeen, UK., can be drilled (Table 4.4). In under water drilling and blasting
a rotary percussive drifter drill is normally used which would have a drilling speed
of approximately 12 m per hour in pink granite when drilled with a 70 mm diameter
drill bit.
Table 4.4 The ease of drilling rock: the drilling index for various rock
types (MacG regor(7))
Drilling
Rock type Location Index
Calcareous sandstone Bargate beds 52-

Fine grained sandstone Culm measures 80
Granite Penmaenmawr 99
Pink granite Aberdeen 100
Brecciated and recemented
limestone Saudi Arabia 105 t
Vein quartz 138
Basalt India 149
Shale Culm measures 166-
Dolomitic limestone Lower magnesian limestone 272
Thin-bedded sandstone With
carbonaceous partings Yorkshire coal measures 313
Coarse friable grit Millstone grit 463
"l ndex figure low due to air hardening of specimen

"Dense stone specific gravity 2.66: compressive strength 1600 kg cm-2
'Parallel bedding: norrnal-to-beddinq figures were 275-403 respectively
The ease with which a rock can be blasted is a measure of its behaviour under
shock and other dynamic loads and depends on the strength, structure and
homogeneity of the rock. A rock with a high blastability is one that fragments and
bulks to the required degree with a low blasting ratio (ratio of weight of explosive to
unit volume of rock treated). Bulking is the movement of the rock fragments which
causes an increase in volume of the rock mass and is dependent on the size, shape and
juxtaposition of the fragments. Blasting ratios can vary from 0.5 to 3.0 kgrrr ,
depending on the rock type and fragmentation required. To achieve these blasting
ratios the drill hole spacings have to be varied from between 1 m to 3 m depending
on the diameter of the holes. Smaller spacings are inadvisable for safety reasons and
larger spacings tend to result in unblasted patches of rock occurring.
Table 4.5, from Langefors(8) shows the variation in fragmentation which would be
obtained for various blasting ratios. It can be seen from this Table that to double the
blasting ratio will reduce the average size of fragmentation to one-sixteenth of its
previous size. The fragmentation required for a particular job will depend on the
type of dredger to be used to excavate the broken rock. Care must be taken when
assessing the blast ability of coral since, in weak corals, the energy of the explosives is
absorbed in crushing the rock and crack propagation is limited. Hole spacings should
thus be drawn in to ensure complete fragmentation.
Table 4.5 Underwater blasting: variation of

fragmentation with blasti ng ratio (Lanqefors'v')
Size of fragmentation -
Blasting ratio average side length, actual
(kg m -3) dimensions dependent on rock type
0.24 100
0.30 50
040 12.5
0.50 6.4
0.60 3.7
0.70 1.5
0.85 0.8
1.00 04
Direct rock dredging

It can be seen from Table 4.3 that only 4 types of dredger are likely to be capable of
dredging rock directly without pretreatment. These are the dipper, bucket, cutter
suction and grab dredgers. In addition, the backhoe dredger can also dredge
untreated rock.
Generally, rocks whose compressive strengths are in excess of500 kgcrrl will have
to be pretreated before dredging. However, the actual strength limit at which it
becomes economically necessary to pretreat the rock is gradually rising, as more
powerful dredgers are built. The limit also varies according to the type of dredger.
Some rocks, such as coral, vary in strength considerably from place to place on the
same site thus making it very difficult for dredging organisations to ascertain
whether all the rock can be dredged directly. Coral also forms high vertical
underwater faces which can hamper anchoring and spud arrangements.
Dipper dredger: The dipper dredger is used to dredge soft or decomposed rock only,
which it is able to do by virtue of the high point loads exerted by the bucket teeth.
Most dipper dredgers convert to rock breakers and so they normally only dredge
untreated rock if it occurs in a dredge able state, e.g. in thin lenses in clay or as a soft
marl or volcanic tuff.
Backhoe dredger: The backhoe dredger is able to dredge rock by virtue of its positive
action and ability to prise up pieces of rock using the leverage of the bucket on the
seabed. In this manner only indirect forces have to be transmitted back to the
machine itself. It is more effICient than a grab in hard rocks but suffers from twisting
of the boom when dredging in much below 15 m of water. The biggest backhoe
dredgers are able to dredge sedimentary rocks such as weak sandstones and shales.
Much of the effectiveness depends on the angle of the rock bedding planes and the
angle of attack of the bucket.
Bucket dredger: The bucket dredger is capable of dredging fairly hard sedimentary
formations, particularly when the dip and strike of the rock are most advantageous
and when the dredger is able to create a working face. The effectiveness of the
dredger is basically dependent on it being able to apply a sufficiently high point load
with a bucket tooth to the rock. This will depend on the bucket size relative to the
machine power, tooth length, angle and position on the bucket rim and the ability of
the machine to apply full power to the bucket chain at stalling speed. Dredging cuts
of up to 3.0 m in depth are possible, and as much as 7.5 m has been recorded9)
However, it is normal for the cut to be only 1 or 2 m deep, in order that stalling of
the drive motor is avoided and bucket chain speeds can be adjusted to obtain
optimum output throughout each swing.
A suitable specification of dredging in rock in situ, broken rock and other hard
materials appears to be that for every 100 litres of bucket capacity there should be
100--150 hp on the bucket chain drive and 3-4 tonnes pull on the side winches. In
addition to this the angle of the teeth on the bucket should be not more than 15 off
the tangent to the digging circle at the bucket's lip. The length of the teeth should be
adjusted such that the pre cutting circle is only 25 to 50 mm in advance of the digging
circle. The position of the teeth on the bucket is also important since it is necessary
continually to have at least one tooth in a digging position whatever the angle of the
dredger to the cut.
Grab dredger: The grab dredger relies on the weight of its bucket to assist in the initial
penetration into rock after which the line pull causing the grab closure assists the
penetration. For this reason the grab dredger is better able to cope with rock dredg-
ing when using a heavy bucket. In soft sedimentary rocks it is more efficient than a
backhoe dredger but cannot compete in the harder formations. The largest grab
dredgers are able to dredge rock with strengths of up to 200 kgcnr .
Cutter suction dredger: The cutter suction dredger has been used for direct rock dredg-
ing for some time and dredgers are now designed specifically for this purpose.
Capability to perform in rock is governed to a large extent by the size of the machine
and, hence, weight of the ladder, and the power supplied to the cutter head and the
pump. The design of the cutterhead and its teeth are also very important since the
excavation technique is partly a high speed chiselling action. Recent laboratory
experiments involving the cutting of simulated conglomerate with a model
cutterhead'l'l' showed that for optimum production a short cutter head was better
than a tall cutterhead; haul velocity, i.e. speed of swinging, must be related to cutter
rpm, so that the lower the haul velocity the lower the rpm should be; and a
prototype cutterhead should be swung at 0.09 ms-I with a cutter rotational speed of
30 rpm.
Rock cutter suction dredgers are as much as 2.5 times the weight of the equivalent
dredger designed for soft soils. A recent example, built with a 1050 mm diameter
discharge pipeline, had a 600 tonne ladder and side wires capable of a 200 tonne pull.
The power on the cutter motor was 2700 hp and the total installed power was 17000
hp.
Cutter suction dredgers can dredge rock direct only in relatively calm water, since
severe motion of the cutterhead is likely to result in damage. Direct rock dredging
by cutter has been reported in the following rocks:
Rock type Compressive strength

(kgcnl)
Sandstone'I' 700-1250
Sandstone(ll) 660-750
Limestone (II) 395-1100
Siltstone(ll) 380-2160
Gritstone and shale(9) 350-403
When dredging untreated rock the wear on the cutter is high and much time will
be required to replace the teeth on the cutterhead. Although the full set of teeth can
be replaced in 30 minutes, given the optimum conditions, the frequency of replace-
ment in abrasive rock could be as often as every 3 hours.
Dredging pretreated rock

In order for a dredger to dredge rock after pretreatment it is necessary for the rock to
be correctly fragmented and bulked to well below the desired depth. What is correct
in any situation will depend on the relative costs of dredging and pretreatment and
also the type of dredger being used, since, as long as the pretreated rock is dredge-
able, any increase in the dredge ability will only be achieved by an increase in the
cost of the pretreatment. In rocks that are normally undredgeable, such as igneous
and metamorphic, it is usual for pretreatment to be carried out to a relatively small
fragmentation because any unblasted rock or oversize fragments are extremely
expensive to retreat. In softer rocks, which are just dredge able direct, complete
effectiveness in pretreatment is less critical. In the following list it has been assumed
that the rock is too hard to dredge direct. Fragmentation size is the measurement of
the largest dimension.
Dipper dredger: Fragmentation required is 800 mm or less. The dipper is capable of

picking up much larger fragments. It is limited by its bucket size and the lifting
power available which is usually around 10 percent of its maximum line pull.
Backhoe dredger: Fragmentation required is 300 mm or less. In fact this dredger is also
capable of picking up larger fragments depending on its bucket size, but this tends to
reduce overall output.
Bucket dredger: Fragmentation required is 600 mm or less. Although the bucket

dredger can handle larger lumps, the restriction being the distance between the
ladder hoist wires and the width of the well, it cannot easily pick these lumps up and
tends to push them across the dredging area to one side.
Grab dredger: Fragmentation required is 400 mm or less. Grabs become less effective as
the fragmentation gets larger and the bulking decreases. However, large lumps can
be removed if the tines of the grab can reach and hold them. The maximum load is
governed by the maximum line pull. In general it is preferable to use one large grab
bucket rather than two smaller ones.
Cutter suction dredger: Fragmentation required is 300 mm or less. All fragments must
be able to pass between the cutter blades. For good output a consistently small frag-
mentation is required since large fragments need a high pipeline velocity which
means that the pump power must be increased. It is particularly important to ensure
that all rock above dredge level has been treated since the cutter head will be easily
damaged on any projecting unblasted pinnacles.
Trailing suction hopper dredger: Fragmentation required is 300 mm or less. Dragheads

are normally fitted with a grid to prevent fragments larger than 600 mm passing
through the pump. Much time will be spent unblocking these grids if the fragmenta-
tion is too large. In this respect, two suction pipes are advantageous since dredging
may be continued with one whilst the other is being unblocked. Ideally fragmenta-
tion should be kept as small as possible, say 50-100 mm.
Various types of ripper teeth have been fitted to dragheads to increase production.
These are only likely to be effective when the rock has been well blasted but
insufficiently bulked.
Dredging boulders and cobbles

Boulders and cobbles, which account for all naturally occurring particles in excess of
60 mm diameter, do not often occur in large quantities on their own. They are com-
monly found in glaciated or volcanic regions, often as a constituent of a mixed
material such as glacial till or agglomerate. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the
possibility of either dredging the material as a composite mass or dredging to
uncover the boulders, which may then be removed in a separate operation. An
example of the quantity of boulders that might be encountered when dredging
glacial material has been given by Lindblad(12).
Total volume of material dredged

(barge measure)
Number of Boulders Size

9 Approx. 1 m '
108 Approx. 0.8 m diameter
650 0.4 - 0.8 m diameter
The various dredgers are able to cope with dredging boulders and cobbles as
follows:
Dipper dredger: This is probably the best suited to dredging boulders and cobbles
when they are buried in other materials, particularly iflarge boulders are present. It
can also cope with loose cobbles and boulders with reasonable ease.
Backhoe dredger: The backhoe can dredge materials with cobbles but is limited by the
size of its bucket. It is not suitable, therefore, for large boulders, whether buried or
free.
Bucket dredger: This is suitable for composite materials with small boulders and also
loose cobbles. Much dredging of moraine is carried out by bucket dredger for which
the dredger should be equipped as for direct rock dredging (see p. 76). Large
boulders may either get stuck in the well of the dredger or get pushed to one side.
Grab dredger: The heavier grabs are quite suitable for dredging cobbles and small
boulders in composite materials. Large boulders, especially loose ones, can be
dredged with special rock grapples, but these will not cope with smaller stones. In
normal circumstances, therefore, a grab dredger will need to be equipped with at
least two types of grab bucket.
Cutter suction and trailing suction hopper dredger: These are unsuitable for boulders and
are rarely used in cobbles where their effectiveness is low.
Dustpan dredger: This is not suitable for boulders and cobbles.
Dredging gravels
The factors which influence the dredgeability of gravel are primarily the grain size,
the grain shape and the compactness. The compactness affects to a great extent the
ease with which the gravel can be dug. To some extent the grain shape, or
angularity, does as well since it determines the resistance to sliding. Problems can be
experienced in dumping gravels from a hopper due to the tendency for the material
to arch. The grain size and shape have a marked effect on the rate at which the gravel
may be pumped through a pipeline and the power required to pump it. The various
dredgers are able to cope with dredging gravel as follows.
Dipper dredger, backhoe dredger, bucket dredger: These dredgers are able to dredge gravel
with relative ease. The compactness of the strata will affect the output.
Grab dredger: Grab dredgers are able to dredge gravel with general purpose grabs
fitted with teeth. However, in hard packed gravels a heavy bucket is needed to
achieve reasonable output.
Cutter suction dredger: This dredger is able to dredge gravel with relative ease but
pumping distances may have to be shortened due to the power required for pump-
mg.
Trailing suction hopper dredger: Some diffICulty will be experienced in well-graded,

compacted gravels due to the difficulty in extracting the material but, once dredged,
the gravel will usually transport and dump with ease.
Dustpan dredger: This dredger is not usually used to dredge gravel.
Dredging sand
The dredgeability of sand varies according to its grain size, its grain size distribution
and its compaction. The cementing of grains together by chemical action also affects
dredgeability. For dredgers which dig the sand in the excavation process there are
two important characteristics; the angle of internal friction and the dilatancy of the
sand. The angle of internal friction which usually lies between 25 and 55 directly
affects the shear force necessary to produce shear failure of the soil. Densely-packed
sands often have a large angle of internal friction and, thus, require a high shearing
force in the dredging process.
Dilatancy is the tendancy of the volume of sand to increase under increasing stress
difference (see Figure 4.6). When the closely packed arrangement of grains in (a) is
sheared the grains have to move into a new array, as in (b). The volume of the sand
has increased, as has its porosity. When a saturated sand is sheared underwater a
negative excess pore water pressure is obtained which increases the normal stresses
between the grains, thereby increasing the force necessary to induce shear.
p Shear force P
(0) (b)
Figure 4.6 Dilatancy in sand. a, closely packed grains; b. grain arrangement

after application of shear force
Dipper dredger, backhoedredger, bucket dredger: These dredgers have no difficulty dredg-
ing sand except when it is very fme and liable to wash out of the bucket.
Grab dredger: In coarse to medium sands the grab is able to operate in a satisfactory
manner but in fine sands, it is necessary to have sharpened cutting lips on the grab.
Due to the limited closing force of the grab the required shear force to dig is of great
importance.
Cutter suction dredger: All types of sand are suitable for this dredger.
Trailing suction hopper dredger: The effectiveness of dredging in sand varies enor-
mously with this dredger. Coarse and medium sand is easily dredgeable and is
retained in the hopper. However, fme sands with a grain size diameter less than 0.1
mm, although dredgeable, tend to escape from the hopper in the overflow water
once the hopper has been filled with dredged mixture. The quantity overflowing
will depend to some extent on the size of the hopper and the turbulence within it but
with properly designed hopper equipment it is possible to achieve an average load
equal to more than 85% of the hopper volume, even with fme sandi). The particle
size distribution at the fme end of the sand range is therefore of great importance in
determining the effectiveness of the dredger on any site. Overflow losses will tend to
become appreciable when particle sizes drop below 0.18 to 0.12 mm. Cemented sand
is difficult to excavate.
The dredging of fme sand can be improved by the addition of high pressure water
jets to the draghead(I.13). Improvements of 90-100% as compared to normal
dragheads have been recorded. The beneficial effect of the water jets decreases as the
grain sizes get larger until, at the upper end of the sand range, the effect is almost
negligible.
It is also claimed(14)that the dredging offme sand can be improved with the use of a
draghead which forms a vacuum above the soil by means of the venturi principle.
Dustpan dredger: This dredger is designed to operate in granular materials, such as

river bed sands. The efficiency of the dredging operation depends on the ability of
the dredger to put the material into suspension with its water jets, and the degree of
free running of the sand. Cemented sands are not suitable.
Dredging silts
Particle size distribution is particularly important when assessing the dredge ability
of silts since coarse silt tends to behave like sand and fme silt like clay. In general silts
are easily excavated but present difficulties in disposal, particularly the fmer
particles.
Dipper dredger, backhoe dredger: Although these dredgers are able to dredge silt they
are not commonly used, since production is low compared to other methods. Fine
silts will wash out of the buckets during the dredging cycle and there are also settle-
ment problems in the hopper barges alongside. Much of the silt stays in suspension
and overflows when the water level in the barges reaches the gunwales.
Bucket dredger: This dredger can dredge silt easily. Problems with fme silts are also
encountered.
Grab dredger: This dredger is often used in silts, particularly when marine debris is
lying in the silt. The problems relating to fme silts are still encountered but are offset
in this case by the versatility and manoeuvrability of the dredger.
Cutter suction dredger: This dredger has no difficulty dredging silts and is able to pump
the material a considerable distance. However, most silts are unsuitable for reclama-
tion purposes and great difficulty is experienced in achieving a consolidated fill.
Trailing suction hopper dredger: This dredger is able to excavate silts with relative ease
but is unable to retain the material in the hopper once the overflow level has been
reached. In locations where discharge from the overflow or side-casting is environ-
mentally and operationally acceptable the dredger is able to achieve high outputs,
but when spoil is to be carried elsewhere these fme silts can prove to be very
troublesome. Thus, when the silt is to be carried in the hopper and dumped, the
output will decrease as the water content of the dredged material rises.
Dustpan dredger: This dredger is able to dredge silt but there may be problems in
discharging the spoil since the dredger is not capable of transporting the material any
distance and the silt is normally unsuitable for hopper transport.
Dredging clay
Clay is a material which can normally only be excavated by scooping, scraping or
cutting. Its dredgeability is governed by its resistance to this excavation and subse-
quently by the ease with which it can be handled. The ease of cutting is directly
related to the force required to induce shear in the material and thus is dependent on
the undrained cohesion of the clay. An attempt to compare the dredge ability of clays
of different strengths has been made(15). The results are shown in Table 4.6. Two
distinct problems in handling are the likelihood of clogging or balling of the clay in
pipelines and the adhesion of the clay to various steel surfaces.
Dipper dredger, backhoe dredger, bucket dredger: All these dredgers are capable of dredg-
ing clays with relative ease depending on the stiffness of the clay. However, highly
adhesive clay will stick in the buckets and will slow the bucket emptying process.
This is a particular problem for bucket dredgers where the spoil may drop back into
the water at normal bucket speeds. Problems may also occur when dumping from
hopper barges.
Grab dredger: This dredger is able to operate in clay with a heavy grab bucket fitted
with teeth. In some clays the adhesion between the bucket bottom and the virgin soil
Table 4.6 The dredgability of clays (Alves de Lima(15)
Index Shear strength Dredging rate

(kg cm -2) (m3 h -1)
Soft clay 0.4 0.45 200 1-3

Medium clay 06/087 OS/20 50 4-10
Hard clay 1.3 >2.5 25 11-25
is sutficient to demand a line pull well in excess of that normally required for a full
bucket load.
Cutter suction dredger: The two most likely problems in clay are clogging of the
cutterhead and the balling of clay in the suction pipe if the clay is plastic. In other
respects this dredger is suitable for dredging clay. Balling of clay tends to be more of
a problem with large cutter suction dredgers and can be reduced by careful control
of the dredged mixture.
Trailing suction hopper dredger: This dredger is able to excavate soft clays. The material
tends to be sucked up into the hold in lumps where it may form large masses and
hinder dumping. Clays with a plastic index in excess of 50 tend to be hard to dredge
with a trailer due to the difficulty of extraction. In the Loire(16)the dredgeability
limit for a trailer with an installed horsepower of 4000 hp is given as a soil with a
shear strength of 0.3 kgcm", a wet density of 1.69 and a water content of 110%. The
shear strength limit of dredgeability of 0.3 kgcrrr' confirms earlier fmding~17). The
recent introduction of active dragheads with rotary cutters(14) will help to improve
the effIciency of trailer dredging in clayey materials. Full scale trials have already
indicated that the range of dredgeable clays can be extended to those with shear
strengths of up to about 0.5 kgcm2
Dustpan dredger: This dredger is not suitable for dredging clay.
Peat and organic soil

This type of soil can be dug by all the bucket machines, including the grab dredger,
with relative ease. In many respects the characteristics are similar to clay. Cutter
suction dredgers are able to dredge the material but any gas in the soil will reduce the
effICiency of the system unless a gas removal system is available. These materials are
not used for fIll and hence disposal could be a problem. Trailing suction hopper
dredgers are able to dredge soft formations.
Debris/demolition spoil
Large pieces of debris are most easily dredged by dipper dredger since by virtue of its
bucket size it is able to pick up heavy lumps of masonry, rock, brickwork, etc. For
wires and other awkward items a grab dredger is usually considered to be the best.
Anchorage
One point which is often overlooked is the ability of the dredger to anchor at the
dredging site. Dredgers which need to transmit their digging forces back into the
ground require either a good anchorage or to be able to keep spuds well anchored
into the sea or river bed. Generally, the harder the material to be dug the better the
anchorage which is required. Anchorage problems are very time consuming and
lead to big losses in production. The following list gives an indication of the require-
ments for relatively current free waters. Anchorage becomes a greater problem for
all dredgers as the current increases.
Dipper dredger: The dipper is usually held in spuds. Reasonable anchorage is required.
Backhoe dredger: Hydraulic machines are able to operate with very light anchorage.
Line operated and very large dredgers usually have spuds.
Bucket dredger: Very good anchorage is required on the bow or head wire. The other
anchor points must be good, particularly in hard materials. In rock wires can get
worn and snap due to excessive rubbing on sharp edges.
Grab dredger: Only light anchorage is required.
Cutter suction dredger: The cutter is usually spudded, but reasonable anchorage is
required for the side wires. In rougher waters spuds are usually replaced by wires and
hence good anchorage is required.
Trailing suction hopper dredger: No anchors are used in normal operations.
Dustpan dredger: Firm anchorage is required on the head wires but the wires may be
attached to the shore.
4.4 Operational constraints

Apart from the physical characteristics of the dredging site which affect the perfor-
mance of the dredger on that site there are a number of other, generally man-made,
constraints which mayor may not hinder the dredging operations still further.
Local traffic
Much work, particularly maintenance dredging, is carried out in busy waterways
and there is a constant flow of marine traffic past the dredging site. Many small craft
are able to avoid interrupting the dredging operations by sailing down the side of the
channel or, at least, on the opposite side to the dredger. However, the larger vessels
using the channel, and therefore the most important vessels, often require a consider-
able width of channel for safe navigation and the minimum of depth restrictions. In
these circumstances it may be necessary for the dredging operations to be halted for a
short period of time. The vulnerability of the various types of dredger to this type of
interruption is discussed below.
Drilling pontoon (floating): If wind and sea conditions are favourable the pontoon may
be able to slack its wires on the channel side and remain in position whilst the vessel
passes by. If this is not possible the pontoon will most probably have to move off
position and blast its charged shotholes before the vessel passes. This is a time con-
suming operation and requires plenty of warning prior to the vessel's approach.
Drilling pontoon (spudded): Since it does not rely on wires to maintain position in the
elevated position vessels may pass quite close to this pontoon. However, if the
pontoon does have to move, it will require many hours notice since it will have to
jack down to the water, move off and blast before the vessel may pass.
Dipper dredger, backhoe dredger: These dredgers are able to slacken mooring wires and
move off position with relative ease at short notice. However, both use hopper
barges and these may interfere with local traffic to some extent when approaching or
leaving the dredger.
Bucket dredger: This dredger has a particularly long head wire and five other wires, all
of which may be a hindrance to shipping. The dredger is usually able to move to the
side of its cut and slack its wires if required to do so. As mentioned above the
manoeuvring of the attendant hopper barges may also interfere with local traffic.
Grab dredger: When self-propelled this dredger is particularly suitable for working in
constricted areas with traffic, such as docks and harbour basins. Dumb grab dredgers
have the same characteristics as the dipper and backhoe dredgers.
Cutter suction dredger: This dredger has the disadvantages of the other moored
dredgers in that it cannot move off site completely with ease. It can, however,
usually slack its wires on the channel side. One of the main disadvantages is the
floating pipeline which may be a hindrance to shipping. The pipeline is sometimes
submerged to overcome this problem.
Trailing suction hopper dredger: This dredger is the best suited to busy waterways since
it has no wires and is able to freely navigate over the dredging site.
Dustpan dredger: This has the same characteristics as the cutter suction dredger except
that it has fewer wires and they are deployed ahead of the dredger rather than to the
side.
Proximity to structures
In confined dredging areas, such as docks, and in front of jetties it is often necessary
to dredge right up to the side of existing structures and it is important that the
dredger should be capable of actually reaching soil beside the structure and being
able to operate in this position. Drilling pontoons are able to operate within a few
centimetres of a structure if the drills are cantilevered over the side of the pontoon.
The effects of blasting in close proximity to a structure are discussed in Chapter 11.
All the mechanical dredgers, except the bucket dredger, are suitable for working
close to structures, particularly the grab and backhoe. The bucket dredger is able to
work close to a structure if the dredging depth is relatively shallow and there is a
suitable way of positioning the head wire. It is necessary for the lower tumbler of the
dredging ladder to be well forward of the bow of the vessel.
The hydraulic dredgers are less suited to this type of work. The trailing suction
hopper dredger is able to dredge as close as navigational conditions permit and the
provision ofbow thrust is particularly helpful in this respect. Cutter suction dredgers
are able to work reasonably close to structures if the dredging depth is small, i.e. if
the cutter protrudes in front of the bows of the dredger.
Timing constraints
There are a few operational constraints which affect the time the dredging site is
accessible to the dredging craft, or the time the dumping ground is accessible to the
discharging vessel. The restrictions are usually of a cyclic nature and often related to
the tide. Two of the commonest restrictions of this type are:
Locks
Locks to enclosed docks are usually opened for a few hours during the high water
period. This will be a hindrance to most cyclic dredging operations and particularly
those dredgers whose working cycle, including dumping, is short.
Intertidal zones
Apart from the dimensional restrictions mentioned in Section 4.2 there are fre-
quently portions of the dredging site, or the dump site, which cannot be reached by
floating craft at low water due to the fact that the areas dry out. In some cases these
restrictions may be overcome by dredging a channel into the area or usmg
amphibious craft, but where this is not possible delays will occur.
Dump location
The location of approved dump sites has a considerable bearing on the type of
dredger to be used and its effectiveness. The distance from the dredging to the
dumping site is of great importance since, ifit is great, pipeline transportation will be
very costly and difficult. In these circumstances it is the dredgers that remain on
station and discharge their spoil to separate hopper units that will probably prove to
be most economic. When distances are short, pipeline transportation may well
prove economic but the possibility of pumping to a reclamation area will also
depend on two other factors; the suitability of the dredged material for fill and the
availability of suitable material for constructing the bund to contain the fill.
In general, pipeline dredgers or trailing suction hopper dredgers are used for
reclamation and mechanical dredgers are used for situations where the dump is
underwater. However, there are cases when the reverse is the case. In these
circumstances it should be noted that cutter suction dredgers are not very effICient
when loading into hopper barges, and mechanical dredgers, which are used for
reclamation, are usually combined with another dredger in a double handling
method.
Site location
The location of the dredging site may have a direct bearing on the size and type of
dredger to be used. Certain sites such as inland lakes and the upper reaches of rivers
may not be accessible to normal dredging craft unless the craft is either small enough
to be transported by vehicle to the site or capable of being dismantled into a number
of manageable pieces. At other sites, such as where the coast is unprotected, it may be
necessary to create a harbour basin separated from the sea in a new location before
breaking through to the sea. The excavation of the basin can be carried out in the
wet by dredger but diffICulty may be experienced in transporting the dredger to the
site initially.
4.5 Environmental constraints

On the basis that the initial preview of the site has shown that dredging operations of
some sort are environmentally acceptable, there are some environmental factors
which relate to the dredging operations themselves which need to be examined
before the right choice of dredger may be made and its output estimated. Full details
of the environmental considerations are given in Chapter 11.
4.6 Contractual constraints

In many cases the dredging contract itself has a direct influence on the dredging craft
available to do the work. In this respect it should be noted that work which appears
to be expensive may not be so as a result of severe soil or sea conditions, but due to
contractual conditions.
Mobilisation period
The mobilisation period should be long enough for the right piece of equipment to
be mobilised from any part of the world to the site. A shorter period may result in an
unsuitable piece of equipment being provided to do the job. A longer period gives a
better chance of the right piece of equipment becoming free to do the work or, on
rare occasions, the time to build a suitable dredger.
Contract period
The contract period should relate to the size of the job. Short periods allowed for
dredging large quantities may necessitate the mobilisation of a larger dredger than is
economical, or even two dredgers when one could have sufficed.
Contract timing
The timing of the contract is particularly important when the site is in exposed sea
locations or latitudes of extreme weather conditions. Such questions as whether the
work can be completed in one season and whether the equipment is able to leave the
site to do other work during the contract are particularly relevant and will affect the
choice of dredger.
Apart from the limitations imposed by the timing of the contract there are other
contractual matters which affect the choice of dredger and these are covered in detail
in Chapter 7. The most important of these is the question of dredging tolerances and
care should be taken to ensure that these are realistic.
References
(1) Dietze, W. et al., Paper of the 24th International Navigation Congress, PIANC, Section II,
Subject 5, Leningrad. 1977
(2) Santema,P., About the Estimation of the Number of Days with FavourableMeteorologicaland Oceanogra-
phical Conditionsfor Engineering Operations on the Sea Coast and in Estuaries. Proceedingsof the Fifth
Conference on CoastalEngineering, Berkeley, California. The Engineering Foundation, Council
on Wave Research, 1955,pp. 405--410
(3) Glenn, A.H., Progressreport on solution of wave, tide, current and hurricane problems in coastal
operations, Oil Gas Journal, 49, June 22, 1950, pp. 174-177
(4) Sargent,J.H., An outline offeasibility study requirements for dredging projects, Civil Engineering
and Public Works Review, 68, No. 801, April 1973
(5) Report of the international commission for the classificationof soils to be dredged. PIANC
Bulletin, No. 11, 1, 1972
(6) Campbell, K.J. and Mahmood, A., Dredgeability Assessment Surveys. Ports '77, 4th Annual
Symposium of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division, ASCE, 1977
(7) MacGregor, K., The Drilling of Rock. C R Books, 1967
(8) Langefors, U. and Kihlstrom, B., The Modern Technique of Rock Blasting. John Wiley, 1978
(9) Sargent,J.H., Posford,J.A., Swansbourne, ].F.C., Gardener, R., Mackworth-Praed, R.W., and
Clark, T.A., Underwater R,'ck Removal. CIRIA Underwater Engineering Group Report, UR 6,
January 1975
(10) Slotta, L.S. et al., Influence of Cutterhead Height on Dredge Production. 2nd International Symposium
on Dredging Technology, Austin, Texas, 1977
(11) Uchibayashi, T., On Dredging Hard Soil and Rock by a Cutter Suction Dredger. Proceedings of
Wodcon III, Singapore, 1971
(12) Lindblad, T., Developments in Dredging and Blastingfor Harbour and River Works. 21st International
Navigation Congress, PIANC Section II, Subject 3, Stockholm, 1965
(13) Genevois,R., Report at the 24th International Navigation CongressPIANC SectionII, Subject5,
Leningrad, 1977
(14) Monster, G.A. and Kooijam,]., The new Generation of Dragheadsfor the Hopperdredge. 2nd Inter-
national Symposium on Dredging Technology, 1977
(15) Alves de Lima, M.].C.P., Correlation between basic parameters of clayey soils and dredging
results. Ceotecnia, No.7, June;July 1973
(16) Lahuec, G., Dragages en mer - quelques problemes geologiques.Bulletin de liaisondes Laboratoires
des Ponts et Chaussees 75,January/February 1975
(17) Chapon,].P., Report at the 21stInternational Navigation Congress,PIANC SectionII, Subject3,
Stockholm, 1965
5 Estimating output
Symbols
A Rock area covered by each shothole or area covered in one dredging position
Rock area covered from one barge position
Advance distance
Bulking factor
Width of cut
Bucket capacity
Drilling speed
Suction pipe diameter
Water depth
Maximum dredging depth
Advancing delay factor or anchor moving delay factor
Breakdown factor
Cycle factor
Delay factor
Proportion of hopper filled
Face height and dredging depth reduction factor
Hopper changing delay factor
i: Modification factor
.1:, Operational factor
.I;, Spud moving delay factor
.I; Traffic delay factor
Iv Weather delay factor
j~ Tilt factor
g Distance to dumping ground
H Hopper capacity
hpd Horsepower on the dredging pump
hp, Horsepower on the cutter
: Minimum face height
L Length of discharge pipeline
I Length of dredging area
N Number of drill rigs or number of grab cranes
n Number of cycles per shift or number of buckets per minute
P Output
v.: Nominal uninterrupted output
r.: Maximum potential output
90
Estimating output 91
r, Instantaneous theoretical output

p Advance distance for each spud movement
T Shift length
ta Time to advance dredger or time to move side wires forward
tb Time for blasting
tc Time to charge shothole
td Time taken to dump spoil
th Time to change hoppers
t) Time to load hopper
trn Time to move rig or pontoon
to Time to make and break drill stringing
tp Time taken to advance on spuds
ts Duration of sub cycle
tt Time taken to turn dredger
Ub Base productive unit
Urn Modified productive unit
Vg Fully laden sailing speed
z Thickness of rock
5.1 Introduction
The estimation of the performance of a dredger in any given set of conditions is not
easy. However, it is not only the very experienced or technically specialised
engineer who can master it. Naturally those organisations which own and operate
dredgers, and have built up detailed records of each dredger's performance, will be
best suited to assess the performance of a particular unit, but given sufficient infor-
mation, any engineer should be able to assess performance with sufficient accuracy
to enable sensible programming and budget job costings to be made".
Performance, production and output are all terms used to describe the rate at
which a dredger moves soil. In this chapter the term output will be used and defmed
as the in situ quantity of soil dredged in a given period of time. A dredger will have a
number of outputs for any given conditions depending on the time period con-
sidered. The output must, therefore, be qualified as being one of the following:
(1) Hourly output - average quantity dredged in a working hour
(2) Shift output - average quantity dredged during a complete shift
(3) Weekly output - average quantity dredged in a complete week
(4) Annual output - total quantity dredged in a calendar year.
* The estimating methods outlined in this chapter have been derived from numerous sources and
records. They are still in a somewhat experimental stage but it is thought that their inclusion will be
more helpful than harmful. Engineers with particular experience of working results may fmd that they
are able to improve the methods by modifying the various factors used.
5.2 The division of time

Calendar time can be broken down into four standard divisions (see Figure 5.1).
(1) Dead time: This is time during which it has been established that no work of any
type will be carried out. It would normally include Sundays, national holidays,
annual overhaul of the dredger, moving the dredger between jo bs and the non-shift
hours each day
(2) Time spent in preparatory and ancillary operations: This time is necessary to
perform jobs that are essential to the dredgers operation but themselves do not allow
it to operate. These could include conveying the crew to the dredger, bunkering,
starting up and moving between locations on the same site, and carrying out routine
maintenance when it must be done in operating time. Jobs which are part of the
dredging cycle are not included
(3) Productive working time: This is time during which the dredger is performing
its cyclic operations and trying to dredge
(4) Non-productive working time: This time occurs due to weather delays,
breakdowns and other unwanted interruptions to the dredging operation such as
delays due to traffic, i.e. passing vessels, and even due to management or crew
inefficiencies. It is time when the dredger should be operating, but is not.
The output to be estimated is that which is achieved during productive working
time, modified to take account of non-productive working time. Both dead time
and time spent in preparatory and ancillary operations are usually determined by the
type and location of the site and its geographical context as well as the type of
dredger.
Calendartime
t
Time available
Deadtime
for operations
t
Time spent Non- productive
operating working time
+I I
Productive Time spent in
preparatoryand
working time ancillary operations
Figure 5.1 The division of time

5.3 Bulking factors

Output has been defined as the in situ quantity of soil dredged in a given period of
time. In practice the characteristics, and especially the density, of the soil will alter
during the dredging process. The alteration in density is caused by the formation of
additional voids in the soils, which fill with water when it is disturbed. Thus when a
dredger lifts soil off the seabed the volume which this soil occupies in the hopper
well or reclamation area is usually larger than the volume it occupied in situ. This
increase can be expressed as a percentage of the in situ volume or as a ratio of the two
volumes and is known as the bulking factor.
Bulking factors vary greatly for different types of soil, different particle size
distributions, and for different methods of dredging. Mechanical excavators usually
cause the least disturbance and, when silts with a high water content are dredged,
they have been known to actually increase the density during the dredging process.
Hydraulic excavators mix the soil into a low density slurry suitable for pumping.
When estimating output for mechanical and hopper dredgers it is necessary to
judge the bulking factor for the particular soil in question. Table 5.1 gives an indica-
tion of the range of values likely to be encountered. For the hydraulic dredgers the
degree of bulking will vary according to the in situ density of the material to be
dredged, the pipeline distance or hopper capacity and pipe diameters.
Table 5.1 Bulking factor, B, for various soil types

when excavated by mechanical dredger
__dredged volume)
(NB B
in situ volume
Soil type Bulking factor, B,
Hard rock (blasted) 1.50-2.00

Medium rock (blasted) 1.40-1.80
Soft rock (unblasted) 1.25-1.40
Gravel, hardpacked 1.35
Gravel, loose 1.10
Sand, hardpacked 1.25-1.35
Sand, medium soft to hard 1.15-1.25
Sand, soft 1 05- 1 15
Slits, freshly deposited 1 00-1 10
Silts, consolidated 1.10-1.40
Clay, very hard 1.15-1.25
Clay, medium soft to hard 1.10-1.15
Clay, soft 1.00-1.10
Sand/gravel/clay mixtures 1.15-1.35
5.4 Basic principles

It is assumed that at this point the characteristics of the site have been identified and a
possible dredger has been selected, after due consideration of the factors affecting
performance (see Chapter 4). The method of estimating output is then:

(1) Identify the basic unit of production
(2) Modify this unit to account for soil and excavation/pumping conditions
(3) Identify the pertinent dredging cycle
(4) Apply the dredging cycle to the modified unit of production
(5) Apply suitable reduction factors.
The basic unit of production
The base productive unit, Ub

The base productive unit is a characteristic of the dredger alone. It is a function of the
power available to carry out the work and the size of the excavating unit. Thus the
unit is a figure which is known once the dredger has been selected.
The modification factor, t;n

The base productive unit must be modified to suit the site and soil conditions. The
object of this modification is to take account of factors which affect the output of a
single cycle, i.e. the volume of soil excavated during the cycle.
The basic units and their modification are described in detail in Section 5.5
onwards.
The dredging cycle
The cycle factor, J

The standard dredging cycles are described in Chapter 3. However, the duration of
any particular cycle or subcycle will depend on a number of site and dredger
characteristics which must be assessed for every new set of circumstances. These
characteristics together effectively become the cycle factor which must be applied to
the modified base productive unit to give an output figure. The methods of taking
account of cycles and subcycles are described for each dredger in Section 5.5
onwards.
The outputs
It is necessary to consider various outputs during the stages of the estimating proce-
dure and, depending on the dredger type, a number of the following are used.
P, - Instantaneous theoretical output. This is an hourly output based on an
optimum instantaneous working rate.
fJn()m - Nominal uninterrupted output. This hourly output takes account of the
basic dredging subcycle. It is smaller than Pr.

Pmax - Maximum potential output. This output is obtained by reducing l~lOm to
take account of the main dredging cycle. It is a theoretical figure which
cannot be achieved in sustained operations and represents the average
hourly output in ideal circumstances with 100% efficient crew and
machinery in the given site and operating conditions. It is, thus, the output
achieved in the productive working time.
P - Output. This is the fmal estimated output to be used for obtaining
programme periods and budget cost estimates. It is obtained by applying
reduction factors to Pmax. It represents the output obtained during the
productive and non-productive working time.
Reduction factors
In practice, there are no ideal conditions and machines and crews are not 100%
efficient. It is, therefore, necessary to reduce the maximum potential output by a
number of reduction factors.
Delay factor,Jd
Delays due to bad weather and interruptions from passing traffic can be combined to
form a delay factor. It is necessary to express the time which will not be lost due to
traffic delays as a fraction of the working time available. This figure should be mul-
tiplied by the fraction of time during which weather is suitable for working.
(5.1)
Total working time available -time lost due to traffic during

working hours
where);
Total working time available
Total of days when weather is suitable for working
Total number of days
Operational factor,J,
Neither crew nor management in a dredging organisation can be 100%efficient. A
dredger operator cannot work his machine in the most efficient manner all the time,
nor can the supervisory staff on a site anticipate every conceivable contingency. An
operational reduction factor is thus necessary to take account of inefficiencies. Table
5.2 shows some suggested factors based on the competence of the management and
crew. The values given reflect the fact that the skill and experience of the crew have
a much greater effect than that of site management. The factors given in Table 5.2
are for work carried out in good climatic conditions. In poorer climates efficiency is
inclined to drop still further and it is suggested that the factors should be adjusted as
shown.
Mechanical factor, _Ii,

In theory, machinery which is serviced and maintained should continue to work as if
new. However, after a number of years it is evident that breakdowns will occur as
Table 5.2 Operational factor, t.. for given personnel ratings (valid for good
climate)
Crew rating
Management
rating Poor Mediocre Average Good Very good
VelY good 0,67 073 0,78 0,84 0,90

Good 0,65 0,71 077 0,82 088
Average 0,64 0,69 075 080 0,86
Mediocre 0,62 0,67 0,73 0,79 0,84
Poor 0,60 0,65 071 077 0,82
NB Climatic adjustments
Poor climate, xO,95, Arduous climate, xO,90
major parts become worn. Due to these breakdowns the output of the dredger will
drop. On the basis that after 20 years a dredger will be completely overhauled, the
following reduction factor is applied: for the first 5 years there is no reduction, and
tor every year thereafter a one per cent reduction, so that at year 20 the mechanical
breakdown factor ,ji" = 0.85.
Mechanical breakdown can be substantially reduced by continually overhauling
and replacing machinery before it reaches a stage when breakdown will occur. On
this basis, the mechanical breakdown factor would be almost unity. The percentage
reduction given above, applies to equipment which isjust given normal preventive
and running maintenance and not replacement.
Summary
The basic principles of estimating output can now be restated as follows:

The base base productive unit, Ub, is modified so that
(5.2)
modification factor
modified productive unit
The maximum potential output, Pmax' is obtained by applying a cycle factor, .. to t

the appropriately modified productive unit. It is often necessary to consider other
theoretical outputs during this stage of the process.
The average output, P, is obtained from
(5.3)
Plate IA The cutter suction dredger 'Sliedrecht 30' with Its ladder raised, This
dredger has a discharge pipeline diameter of 850 mm and an installed power of
7450 hp (by courtesy of Royal Adriaan Volker Group BV)
Plate IB The self-propelled rock cutter suction dredger 'Aquarius', This dredger
has a discharge pipeline diameter of 900 mm and an installed power of 17000 hp
of which 2700 hp is applied to the cutterhead. The large tubular members
stowed horizontally on the foredeck for sailing are the stern working spuds (by
courtesy of Zanen Verstoep NV)
Plate IIA Fitting a new cutterhead to the cutter suction dredger 'Sliedrecht
32', which was carrvinq out dredging and reclamation work III .Iubail. Saudi
Alabla. This dredqei has a discharge pipeline of 850 mm and an installed power
of 9062 hp (by courtesy of Royal Adriaan Volker Group BV)
Plate liB Reclamation In progress for the Lagos nnqroad. Nigeria (by courtesy
ot Westminster Dredglllg Company Ltd)
Estimating output ')7
whereJ\ dela y factor

t:, operational factor
Ii) breakdown factor
NB Where appropriate the output is reduced by the bulking factor, B.
This simplified algebraic statement of the method cannot necessarily be applied to

every dredger but it does indicate the logic of the estimating process. In the follow-
ing sections the estimating method will be applied to each dredger type.
5.5 The pretreatment barge

Pretreatment barges can be floating or spudded, with rigs cantilevered over the side
or in a well. In order to estimate production the following data must be assembled.
T ~ The average available working time (hours) in each shift, i.c, the total shift
length minus breaks, travelling to the barge, etc. For floating pontoons
only.
th The time taken to move off position, blast and return to a new position
(hours). This also includes time taken to move anchors when necessary.
I" ~ The time taken to make and br~ak inner and outer drill stringing during one
cycle (hours).
Ie ~ The time taken to charge the shot hole with explosives and retrieve the fuse
(hours).
1m ~ The time taken to move an individual drilling rig, or move the pontoon
back to the next row of holes (hours).
N ~ The number of drilling rigs on the barge.
A" ~ The total area of rock (square metres) which can be covered from one barge
position. For pontoons with wells only.
A ~ The area (square metres) treated by each shothole.
D ~ The average drilling speed (metres per hour) of the inner drill string in rock.
z: ~ The average thickness (metres) of the whole rock volume to be treated.
d ~ The average water depth (metres) over the area to be blasted, measured
from mean sea level.
The unit of production
The unit of production is the number of rigs operating, N. This is modified by mul-
tiplying by the volume treated by each rig, Az. The modified unit of production, or
volume treated per cycle, IS, thus, given by
lim = NA.z (5.4)

The production cycle

Both types of drilling pontoon have a basic subcycle whose duration, ts' is given by
hlA + z)
ts = trn + to + tc + D (5.5)
(vA + z)
where D represents the time taken to drill the hole
"and v'il represents the drilling necessary below dredging level to ensure total treat-
ment.
In order to establish how many subcycles will be performed before blasting it is
necessary to make two assumptions; that a floating pontoon will blast at the end of
each shift and that a spudded pontoon will blast on completion of a complete well
area.
For a floating pontoon:
If n is the number of cycles per shift, the total shift time, T, can be expressed by
T = nt, + tb (5.6)
or n (5.7)
ts
Since the shift output = n Urn' the hourly production is given by
nUm
Prnax=-- (5.8)
T
which can be expressed in terms of the basic variables by substitution to give
NAz (T-tb)
(5.9)
Prnax = T( t + t + t + (VA + z \ .
moe D)
For a spudded, well pontoon:
It can be shown that, using a similar analysis as above, the hourly production is given
by
(5.10)
Expressions (5.9) and (5.10) can be used to estimate the hourly outputs if all the
variables are known. Since the area of rock blasted by pontoons is usually more con-
sistent than the volume treated, it may be more realistic to express the output in
square metres per hour by dividing Pmax by the average rock thickness, z.
When the relative merits of floating and spudded pontoons are assessed it should
be noted that, not only will a spudded pontoon suffer delays when jacking up and
down in bad weather, but that any increase in the frequency of blasting will cause
the spudded pontoon to lose production rapidly due to the long period required to
carry out the blasting operation.
Simplification
Since many of the variables connected with cycle times are often unknown at the
estimating stage it may be necessary to make some assumptions, as follows:
T = 9 hours (for a nominal 10 hour shift)
tb = 0.6 hours (floating pontoon)
= 10 hours (spudded pontoon in exposed location)
d
to = 50 hours
i, = 0.12 hours
tm = 0.13 hours
With these assumptions expression (5.9) becomes
NAz
(5.11)
r.: = 0.93 (0.25 +.i_ + (VA + Z))
50 D
and (5.10) becomes
NAz
(5.12)
Pmax = d (vA + z) lOAN
0.25+-+ +--
50 D Aw
Drilling speeds and patterns for various rock types are given in Chapter 4.
5.6 Dipper dredgers

Dipper dredgers are somewhat infrequently encountered and are often built for a
specific task so that their main characteristics, such as installed power, bucket size,
maximum dredging depth, are thus essentially non-standard. In Chapter 3, Figure
3.10, the mean installed horsepower for various bucket capacities are shown. The
following method for estimating is based on the assumption that dipper dredgers are
standardised according to this. The output of non-standard dredgers should be
adjusted accordingly. The following information must be acquired or estimated
B - The bulking factor (see Section 5.3)
C - The bucket capacity (cubic metres) of the dredger
z - The average thickness (metres) of material to be dredged
H - The capacity (cubic metres) of the attendant hopper barge for the soil type
A - The area (square metres) covered in one dredging position
ta - The time required (hours) to advance to the next dredging position

th - The time required (hours) to change hoppers.
Also the soil type should be known.
The productive unit

The base productive unit, Ub, for the dipper dredger is the bucket capacity, C. To
take account of various soil conditions Ub must be modified according to the
digability of the soil, as shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Dipper dredger modification factor f m '

for various soil types
SOil type Modification factor, t;

Sand 0.90
Medium clay 072
Gravel 0.60
Boulder clay 040
Broken rock (blasted) 0.33
Weak friable rock 0.30
The cycle factor

A typical subcycle of a wire operated, non-hydraulic, dipper dredger can be broken
down into the following components:
Digging 40'X)of subcycle

Hoisting and lowering 26% of subcycle
Swinging 30% of subcycle
Dumping 4% of subcycle
Dippers are usually designed to work in water depths of between 10 and 20 m and to
raise the spoilS m above water level for dumping. Thus, on the basis of the above
subcycle breakdown and on the assumption that the hoisting and lowering time is
related to the distance moved, an alteration in dredging depth of1 m is likely to alter
the subcycle time by about 1%.
Hydraulic dipper dredgers are somewhat different to wire operated machines,
having a shorter digging period and being capable of dredging in much shallower
depths. In these circumstances dredging depth will affect output, much as for
hydraulic backhoe dredgers (see Section 5.7).
It is found, however, that for the average dipper there is a broad relationship
between bucket capacity and nominal uninterrupted output. This is shown for
various values ofJm in the lower right quadrant of Figure 5.2.
300
1000 Borge capacity adjustment 200
Pmar
(m3/hr)
100
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
,
I
I 0'3
100
I 0'4
06
Z
(metre
+3 /~_'__
3 Pnom 0-75
2
(m3/hr)
Dredging thickness adjustment Cycle time adjustment

0'9
1'0
300 Modification factor, 1m
Figure 5.2 Dipper dredger: outputs according to site and dredger

characteristics
Dipper dredgers advance forward 2 to 5 m after dredging the area ahead. Each
movement forward takes about 2 to 3 minutes. The delay factor, J' caused by these
movements can be expressed as follows:
/,=--p- (5.13)
ta nom
1+--
Az
In addition to the above delay there is another which is related to the time taken to
change hoppers and can be expressed as follows:
fi,= . (5.14)
th fa r.:
1 +. B
H
where Jh is the delay factor due to hopper movement.
NB It should be checked that the hopper is capable of carrying a volumetrically full

load without exceeding safe loading draft.
This allows the maximum potential output to be expressed in the form:
(5.15)
Simplification
On the basis that the normal area dredged by the dipper, A, is around 50 m-, that the
time taken to advance, ta' is 2.5 minutes and that for changing hoppers, th, is 15
minutes the maximum potential output will only depend on z and H. The effects of
z and H on production are illustrated in the left-hand quadrants of Figure 5.2. Sig-
nificant reductions occur only when z and H are relatively small.
5.7 Backhoe dredgers

Backhoe dredgers are in many ways similar to dipper dredgers (see Section 5.6).
However, the modern hydraulic backhoe dredger is an extremely versatile machine
and there are many variations of power, bucket capacity and digging reach which
can be obtained. The general characteristics of this type of unit are given in Chapter
3, Figure 3.13. In the following estimating method it is assumed that the relationship
between bucket capacity and power is standardised according to this. If not, an
equivalent bucket capacity should be used which equates to the horsepower of the
machine being used. The following information is required:
C - The bucket capacity (cubic metres) of the dredger
z - The average thickness (metres) of material to be dredged
d - The average dredging depth (metres) below mean water level
H - The capacity (cubic metres) of the attcndent hopper barge for the soil type
A - The area (square metres) covered in one dredging position
ta - The time required (hours) to advance to the next dredging position

th - The time required (hours) to change hoppers.
The productive unit
The base productive unit, Ub> for the backhoe dredger is the bucket capacity, C. To
take account of various soil conditions Ub must be modified according to the
digability of the soil, as shown in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4 Backhoe dredger modification

factor, t; for vanous SOil types
Soil type Modification factor, t m
Sand and gravel 0,90

Sandy clay 080
Medium dense clay 0,75
Wet sticky clay 072
Broken rock 0,55
Weak friable rock 0,30
The cycle factor

The subcycle of a backhoe dredger is susceptible to dredging depth and, thus, the
nominal output, Pnom, is a function of both dredging depth and soil type. In Figure
5.3 the lower half of the diagram can be used to assess, I~lOm' for various combin-
ations of d and f;n-
Delay fact;rs due to advancing and changing hoppers can be expressed as for a
dipper dredger, as follows:
(5.13)
wherej, is the delay factor for advancing

and:
fh=------ (5.14)
( 1 + thj~~lllmB )
whereji, is the delay factor due to changing hoppers.

This allows the maximum potential output to be expressed as follows:
(5.15)
250 500 1000

600
500
Dredging thickness adjustment
400
Z (metres)
Happer capacity
adjustment.
600 500 400 300

P nam (m3/hr)
Dredging depth adjustment

03
05
06
Cycle time
07
adjustment.
08
09
Dredging depth, d, (metres)
10 ~
Modification factor fm
Figure 5.3 Backhoe dredger: outputs according to site and dredger
characteristics
Simplification
For a standard dredger operating at about two-thirds of its maximum dredging
depth the area dredged will be about 2d2 For example, at 8 m depth, an area of128
rrr' will be dredged. If the time for advancing is assumed to be 2.5 minutes and for
changing hopper barges is 15 minutes then the resultant, Pmax, can be obtained from
the top half of Figure 5.3.
5.8 Bucket dredgers

The general characteristics of bucket dredgers are given in Chapter 3, Figure 3.18. In
order to estimate the output of this type of dredger the following information is re-
quired.
C - The bucket capacity (cubic metres)
dn - The normal dredging depth for the proposed dredger (metres) or the
normal dredging depth with ladder extended
d - The site dredging depth
h - The width of cut (metres)
z - The average thickness of cut (metres)
a - The advance distance (metres) between side anchor movements
H - The capacity of the attendant hopper barge (cubic metres) for the soil type
fa - The time taken to move side anchors (hours)
th - The time taken to change hopper barges (hours).
The productive unit

The base productive unit, Ub, for a bucket dredger is the bucket capacity, C, of an
individual bucket on the bucket chain. This has to be modified to take account of the
digability of the soil to be dredged. Modification factors for various soil types are
shown in Table 5.5
Table 5.5 Bucket dredger modification factor. f rn '

for various soil types
Soil type Modification factor. f m
Stiff clay 0.90

Medium clay 0.85
Soft clay 0.80
Coarse sand 0.80
Medium sand 0.70
Fine sand 0.60
Broken rock (blasted) 040
Weak friable rock 0.20
The nominal uninterrupted output of the dredger, Pnom' can then be estimated
from the following expression:
(5.16)
where n = bucket chain speed (buckets per minute)

_fu = tilt factor
The bucket chain speed, n, is related to the type of soil being dredged as well as a
number of other site factors. When the bucket dredger is being operated with its
normal ladder length and the horsepower of the machine is related to bucket
capacity, as indicated in Figure 3.18, Chapter 3, then the bucket chain speed may be
estimated from Table 5.6. Also included are notes indicating how the bucket chain
speed should be modified to suit non-standard conditions.
Table 5.6 Bucket dredger: bucket chain speed, n,

for various soil types and site conditions
Bucket chain speed, n.

Soil type (buckets per minute)
Very soft material 25 to 28

Soft material 18 to 22
Stiff material 15 to 18
Very stiff material 12 to 15
Broken rock (blasted) 8 to 12
Weak friable rock 3 to 5
NB
(1) If extended ladder is used, n is reduced
(2) If horsepower of dredger is above average,
n is increased
(3) If horsepower of dredger is below average,
n is reduced
(4) If soil is sticky, n is reduced
The tilt factor, _fu, takes account of the reduction in effective bucket capacity when
the bucket ladder is being used at an angle which causes soil to spill from the buckets.
The optimum angle is usually near 450 For convenience, the tilt factor has been
given in relation to the normal dredging depth, or extended ladder dredging depth,
dn, and the site dredging depth, d. Values of _fu, can be read off the graph shown in
Figure 5.4.
The cycle factor

Time is lost during the operations of a bucket dredger when hoppers are changed.
0'2
o ~-----0'2------0'4------0'6------0~'8------~1'~0----~1'~2------
Ratio of actual dredging depth,d, to normal dredging depth, dn
Figure 5.4 Bucket dredger: tilt factor. fo, against the ratio of dredging depth, d.
to normal dredging depth, d;
The delay factor,Ji" caused by this is given by
1
fh=----- (5,17)
. ( 1 + thP;;mB)
In addition to this, side anchors must be moved when the dredger has advanced a suf-
ficient distance. The delay factor caused by anchor moving, fa' is given by
r = 1 (5.18)
. a (1 + tafhPnom)
abz
Note that the order of calculating fa
and f h, has reversed compared with previous
dredgers, This is because of the relative frequencies of the two types of delays occurr-
Ing,
The maximum potential output can then be expressed in the form:
(5.15)
Simplification
The following values could be assigned to some of the variables, as follows:
a 75 m
b = 75 m
ta =
0.33 hours
th =
0.25 hours
Expressions (5.17) and (5.18) then become:
1
fh=----- (5.19)
. ( 0.25PnomB)
1+ H
i. =------- (5.20)
. ( 1 + 5.86 x 1~-1hPnorn J
It should be noted that expression (5.20) is for dredging to full depth in one cut, or in
two cuts from the same anchor position. If the whole site is dredged in one cut to an
intermediate level and subsequently in another cut to the final level, the value of z
must be taken as the cut thickness and not the total thickness of dredged material.
5.9 Grab dredgers

Grab dredgers are either self-propelled or dumb. The self-propelled dredgers have
their own hoppers. The dumb dredgers discharge their spoil into a hopper alongside.
For both types there is no particular relationship between grab and hopper size. The
following information is, therefore, required to estimate output:
C - The bucket capacity (cubic metres) of the grab
N - The number of grab cranes (grab hopper dredgers only)
H - The hopper capacity (cubic metres) (grab dredger hopper or attendant
barge) for the soil type
d - The average dredging depth (metres)
z - The average thickness of material to be dredged (metres)
A - The average area dredged (square metres) by each crane in one dredging
position
g - The distance to the dumping ground (kilometres) (grab hopper dredgers
only)
fa - The time required (hours) to advance to the next dredging position
th - The time required (hours) to change hoppers (dumb grab dredgers only).
The productive unit

For either type of grab dredger the base productive unit, Lb, is the bucket capacity,
C. Since most bucket capacities quoted are those for mud it is useful to note that the
following relationship usually exists between buckets for the same grab crane:
Bucket type Capacity
Mud 1.00 C
Sand/clay 0.72 C
Stones/rock 0.36 C
The productive unit of the grab must be modified according to the digability of the
soil. However, unlike the other mechanical dredgers, the digging action is not
powered by the dredger but by the weight of the grab bucket. For this reason the
modification factor ,fm, is lower than for other dredgers and varies according to the
size of grab. Table 5.7 gives values ofj:n for various soil types and bucket capacities.
Table 5.7 Grab dredger modification factor. f rn '

for various soil types and bucket sizes
Modification factor, f m
Soil type 2m3 bucket 4m3 bucket
Mud 0.75 0.80

Loose sand 0.70 0.75
Compact sand 0.60 0.70
Sand and clay 0.50 0.60
Stones 0.35 0.45
Broken rock 0.20 0.30
The cycle factor

The method of estimating the maximum potential output, Pmax , for a grab dredger is
different for dumb and self-propelled types.
Dumb dredger
The nominal output, Pnum, can be obtained from Figure 5.5, which gives values of
Pnom based on different dredging depths, bucket capacities and modification factors.
It should be noted that when the thickness of material to be dredged, z , is smaller
than the usual digging penetration of the grab bucket there will be a reduction in
efficiency. Pnorn should be reduced to account for this.
Delay factors due to advancing and changing hoppers can be expressed as for
dipper and backhoe dredgers as follows:
(5.13)
Pnom (m3/hrl
o 100 200 300
1-----------1.0
t
C
5 10 15 20 25 35 40
Dredging depth (metres)
Figure 5.5 Grab dredger: output. Pnom. for various bucket sizes and dredging
depths
where.fais the delay factor for advancing

and: 1
!h=-----
(5.14)
( 1 + ttJa~omB)
Jh
where is the delay factor due to changing hoppers.
The maximum potential output can then be expressed as follows:
(5.15)
Self-propelled dredger
For the self-propelled dredger with N grabs, the total nominal output is obtained by
multiplying the output of a single grab (obtained from Figure 5.5) by the number of
grabs, N. The delay factor due to the advance of the dredger will then also be given
by expression (5.13).
The delay factor,h, due to unmooring, sailing off to dump and remooring is given
by
1
.I~= --------- (5.21 )
0.66 + _!_).!aPnomB
( 3.25
1 + --'-----'-----
H
This allows the maximum potential output, Pmax' to be calculated from
(5.22)
5.10 Cutter suction dredgers

The average characteristics of cutter suction dredgers are given in Chapter 3, Figure
3.30. Modern cutter suction dredgers are being built for specific types of work, such
as rock dredging and dredging at great depths, and will not necessarily conform to
the characteristics shown. The estimating method given below assumes that average
characteristics apply and output should be adjusted accordingly if this is not the case.
The following information is required:
hpd - The horsepower of the dredging pump
hp, - The horsepower of the cutter
L - The length (metres) of the discharge pipeline
d - The average dredging depth (metres)
dmax - The maximum dredging depth for the dredger (metres)
z - The average thickness of material to be dredged (metres)
a - The average distance advanced between side anchor movements (metres)
b - The width of cut (metres)
p - The average distance advanced with each spud movement (metres)
ta - The time taken to move the side anchors (hours)
tp - The time taken to advance on spuds (hours)
Also the soil type (the Dso grain size for granular soils and the N-value) should be
known.
The productive unit
The productive unit for the cutter suction dredger is the pump horsepower, hru.
However, it is also necessary to ascertain that the cutter horsepower, hp., is suf-
ficient to be able to cut the soil to be dredged. Figure 5.6 gives an indication of the
cutter horsepower required for soil of a particular N-value. These values should be
treated as limiting values and, for good production, the cutter horsepower should be
well in excess of that indicated.
50
:;
.,
o
.c
40
co
0
o
.c
"
:E 30
~
g
0
2
0
20
>
~
E
:>
E 10
;;(
0
~
oo ~----~-----L----~------~----~-----L~--~
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Cutter horsepower, h Pc
Figure 5.6 Cutter suction dredger maximum N-value of soil which can be
dredged with cutter horsepower, hpc
Having established that the cutter has suthcient power it is necessary to check that
the pump horsepower is high enough to pump the soil the required distance. This
may be done by reference to Figure 5.7 which gives maximum discharge distances
for various dredging pump horsepowers and soil characteristics. If there is
insufficient pump power it is necessary to choose a bigger dredger or add a booster
pump to the pumping system. When sufficient pump horsepower has been made
available, and when a check has been made to ensure that the dredger is capable of
reaching the desired dredging depth, d, the theoretical output, Pr, can be established
using the graph in Figure 5.8. The modification factor,fm, obtained from this graph
is applied as follows:
(5.23)
The theoretical output, Pro estimated above is for a dredger limited by its pump. In
<6>
~L.
~ ~ Groin size
Oc}t:> -- 050 (mm)
5000
4000
..~
J:
3000
..g_..
(;
~
c.
E
"
c.
O'
c::
2000 '"
-0
~
C
1000
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Discharge distance (metres) x 1000
Figure 5.7 Cutter suction dredger horsepower required on dredging pump for
various discharge distances and soil characteristics
other words it is assumed that the cutter is able to supply the pump with the required
amount of material. In the case of the harder materials this will not be the case since
not only will the cutter not be able to cut material fast enough but it may be
necessary to cut only when swinging in one direction, the cutter tending to walk
over the ground when swinging in the opposite direction. Production can also be
limited by the height of the face to be cut and the relation between the dredging
depth and the dredger's maximum depth. The maximum dredging depths for
standard dredgers are shown in Figure 3.30, Chapter 3.
Optimum face heights for efficient dredging vary according to the type of
material to be dredged and the size of the cutterhead. For granular materials it is
necessary to have a face sufficiently high for the material to feed the cutterhcad.
Thus, reductions will only occur if the face is less than the minimum face height.
11
os
Sma II dredoers
08
07
0'6
.....~
i
o
~ 05
c
0
~
.~
...
:!:
0 O
::IE
03
0'2
Laroe dredgers
only
01 Grain lize
Oso(mm)- 125 0'40 0'25 0'10
0~----~--~~--~~---7-----+-----t----~----~----~
(5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Discharoe distonce (metres) x 1000
Figure 5.8 Cutter suction dredger: modification factor, f m- for various discharge
distances and soil characteristics
When stiff cohesive soils are to be dredged the face height should not be greatly
exceeded since higher faces may collapse and clog the cutterhead, thereby causing a
reduction in output. Large thicknesses of stiff material should be dredged in several
cuts. Minimum face height may be estimated from the expression
(5.24)
where hmin= minimum face height (metres)

D; = suction pipe diameter (metres)
NB The suction pipe diameter is usually just greater than or equal to the discharge
pipe diameter.
The reduction in theoretical output caused by the last two factors can be estimated
from the graph in Figure 5.9. The factor, J, obtained from the graph is applied as
follows:
Pnom = _kPt = fdmhPd (5.25)

(see 5.32 above)
The cycle factor

To take account of the time lost due to the advancing of the dredger on its spuds a
delay factor,fp, is obtained as follows:
. 1
f = (5.26)
. p ( Pnomtp)
1+--
zpb
There is an additional delay which occurs due to the time taken to move side
anchors. This delay can be expressed as a factor,fa, as follows:
r = 1 (5.27)
<1 (1 + Pnomfp ta)
zab
The maximum potential output, Pmax, is then given by
(5.28)
NB No delay factor has been used to take account of moving the floating or land
pipeline. It is assumed that this will be done during dead time. If this is not so, it will
be necessary to reduce the output accordingly.
Simplification
The following values could be assigned to some of the variables, as follows:
a 50 to 100 metres depending on size of dredger
b 20 to 90 metres depending on size of dredger and depth of dredging
p 1.0 D, to 6.0 Ds, where D, = diameter of suction pipe, depending on
hardness of soil. The smaller advances are taken in the harder soils
ta = 0.33 hours
tp = 0.05 hours
10
~08
09
-- - -- -- --_-
E
'".....
co
'\)~
_ ... 07
.c: ...
...i.e:::
co Q.
c: ..
:;0 ... 06
j ~
E
..
.;c
:::E
05
05 06 07 08 09 10
025
~
~()
Working face,z,
~ Minimum face,hmin
~ 04
.....
Q.
co
05
c:
:g06
......~
..
c:
075
~08
iii
..
.c:
()
{1.
10 )1
Figure 5.9 Cutter suction dredger: factor. '; for various dredging depths and
face heights
5.11 Trailing suction hopper dredgers

The average characteristics of trailing suction hopper dredgers are given in Chapter
3, Figures 3.35 and 3.36. Although there is considerable divergence from these
characteristics particularly in the larger dredgers, the general trends remain fairly
constant. The estimating method given below assumes that the standard
characteristics apply and output should be adjusted accordingly if this is not the case.
The following information is required:
H - The hopper capacity of the dredger (cubic metres) for the soil type
V~ - The fully laden sailing speed of the dredger (knots)
J? - The distance to the dumping ground (kilometres)
I - The length of the dredging area (kilometres)
(1 - The time taken to dump spoil (hours)
tt - The time taken to turn the dredger at each end of the dredging area (hours).
Also the soil type (the Dso grain size) should be known.
The productive unit

The productive unit for a trailer dredger is the hopper capacity, H. Sometimes two
figures are quoted for hopper capacity, e.g. 1100/1250. The difference is accounted
for by the minimum and maximum overflow weir heights. Generally the lower
figure should be used for granular soils that settle well and the upper ftgure for light
soils which tend to remain in suspension in the hopper. A few hoppers are designed
to carry a full load of soil at the upper ftgure.
The productive unit has to be modified by the bulking factor, B, which takes
account of the bulking of the dredged material, which in this case is the ratio of the
volume of material settled in the hopper to the in situ volume. Typical bulking
factors are given in Table 5.1. The modified productive unit thus becomes
'/
'"Ill _
- H
B (5.29)
and is the total in situ volume of dredged material which, theoretically, can be con-
tained in a full hopper load.
The cycle factor

The dredging cycle of a trailing suction hopper dredger consists primarily of four
components: loading (dredging), turning, sailing and dumping.
Loading
Since trailers are fairly standard the time taken to load their hoppers tends to be
similar, irrespective of hopper capacity, i.e. the larger the hopper, the bigger the
pump and suction pipe. Variations in loading time therefore depend on soil type and
associated overflow losses over the hopper weir. As the hopper fills with solids the
overflow losses increase up to a point at which dredging becomes uneconomical.
(This point is determined later). Graphs of loading time, tj, against proportion of
hopper filled,ie, are shown in Figure 5.10 for various soil types.
fe
1
Proportion of hopper
filled with sell led
material.
o
25 2'0 15 1'0 0'5 0 05 10 15
Sailing, dumping and turning time (hours)
(b) + fe
Ii
Loading time (hours)
Proportion of hopper /
filled with settled
material.
0'5
/'
/
-:-: o
15
(a)
Figure 5.10 Trailing suction hopper dredger: loading graphs. a, medium sand/
very fine sands and consolidated silts: b. fine sand/coarse sand/fresh
unconsolidated silt
Turning
Each time the dredger turns at the end of a dredging run productive dredging time is
lost. Assuming that dredging is carried out at 3.5 knots (smaller dredgers may dredge
at a lower speed), the number of turns is given by
6.84tl
Number of turns = --[-
The time spent turning thus becomes

6.84t 1 ,t t
Turning time = (5.30)
Sailing
The time taken to sail to the spoil ground and back is given by
1.02g
Sailing time = (5.31 )
VI'
Dumping
The time taken to dump at the spoil ground, which depends on soil type and hopper
design, is known, td. Thus, the total unproductive cycle time is given by
6.84tlt to 1.02g
Unproductive cycle time = ---+ -- +ttl (5.32)
I Vg
If this total unproductive time is set off on the left hand scale of the graph in Figure
5.10 it can be shown that a tangent from this point to the loading curve will touch the
loading curve at the point when dredging should be terminated. Loading time, flo
and the hopper fdling factor,fc, can then be read off the graph.
total load
Pmax is given by
total cycle time
Pmax
HJ
= ------:-----,----- (5.33)
. ( 6.84tltt 1.02g ~
Btl +--+--+t
, I Vg
NB It is assumed that the Pmax estimated in the manner given above will apply to
normal dredging depths, say about 75% of the maximum dredging depth, and for
material which is easily dredged, i.e. that output is pump limited. If difficulty is
experienced in feeding the suction pipe, such as when the material is slightly cohe-
sive, or very compact, output will drop. Output will increase, however, if the
dredging depth is substantially reduced.
Simplification
Standard dredging depths, sailing speeds, etc., can be estimated from Chapter 3,
Figure 3.35 and 3.36. The following values may also be used if others are not known:
t, = 4 minutes = 0.066 hours
td = 5 minutes = 0.083 hours.
6 Precontract planning
6.1 Introduction
The need for planning is self-evident in most branches of civil engineering. Often,
the only unknowns which exist at the precontract stage are those relating to below
ground conditions, and exploratory work to reveal the nature of the subsoil is
usually classed as site investigation. In maritime engineering, the term site investiga-
tion assumes a greater significance since its results not only signiftcantly affect the
design and cost of the works but may also cast serious doubts as to the desirability of
carrying out the work at all. It is of vital importance that as many as possible of the
factors which affect operations in the often obscure marine environment should be
known before the commencement of a contract.
In a recent review by the World Bank of two large port construction contracrsv
which had overrun on cost, it was stated that a major factor in the overruns had been
the quality of the original soil investigations. The cost increases which had occurred
were 43% and 51% of the original contract value. Instances of similar occurrences are
encountered far too frequently and reflect badly on the client, engineer and con-
tractor alike.
It is recommended that considerable thought is put into the precontract planning
process and that a sum of between 1 and 2% of the envisaged contract value be put
aside initially for site investigation. The fmal cost of investigation will depend on the
complexity of the site and the dredging to be carried out. It is often advantageous to
plan investigation in stages, thereby maximising the usefulness of the work.
6.2 The scope of investigation and choice of method

It must be emphasised that site investigation for dredging, or any marine works,
should not be confmed to investigation of soils. The scope of the investigation will
depend to a certain extent on the type of site and contract to be arranged but there
are two good reasons for not taking a conservative approach. First, many potential
problems can only be revealed by carrying out investigation and the more investiga-
tion that is carried out the more accurate the budget estimate for the work will be.
Secondly, from a clients point of view it is advantageous to build up a comprehen-
sive dossier of site information which will almost inevitably prove useful at some
later stage in the development of the site.
Site investigation is essential in each of the following aspects of planning a dredg-
ing operation.
121
Job identification
Should dredging be carried out? Apart from discovering whether material lies above
the desired dredging level it is also important to ascertain whether the presence of
this material actually constitutes a hazard. Recent work carried out in Buroporri'
suggests that materials of very low density may not warrant dredging.
Mapping of the seabed will indicate the best location for a dredged channel. It may
even show that a channel can be used which does not involve dredging. It also allows
the quantity of material to be dredged to be ascertained.
The effects of dredging

One of the most important, and until recently one of the most neglected, areas of
investigation is the environmental effect of dredging. Apart from the disturbance to
the ecological regime, which is discussed in Chapter 11, a point which is too often
overlooked is the siltation which will occur during and after the dredging. Siltation
during capital dredging operations can cause contractual problems and has been
known to have resulted in the complete breakdown of a contract.
The choice of dredger

The correct choice of dredger is of fundamental importance in the planning and
execution of a dredging contract. Although the final choice may lie with a dredging
contractor it is essential to allow the contractor sufficient information for him to
make his decision. It is unreasonable to suppose that each contractor will wish to
collect all his own data and to carry out his anlyses and, in cases where data collection
must be carried out over a long period, such as for wind or wave data, the normal
tender period would not allow this.
It is emphasised that the location of the dredging site with respect to prevailing
wave and swell directions, dumping grounds and protected waters is often of greater
importance in the selection of a suitable dredger than a detailed analysis of the soil to
be dredged.
Programme and budget costs

From the client's point of view the most important questions to be answered before a
dredging contract is set up are, how long it will take and how much it will cost.
Methods for determining the answer to these questions are given in Sections 6.7 and
6.8.
There is no quick method for estimating the cost of dredging works, to any
normal standard of accuracy. One small misjudgement in the assessment oflost time
due to bad weather or wrong assumption about the soil conditions can easily lead to
a doubling, or halving, of the cost of the work. It is also foolhardy to assess the
viability of dredging works on an economic evaluation which does not have as its
basis a sound cost estimate.
Precontract planning 123
Choice of investigation methods

There are three basic facts to be established before any site investigation is initiated:
the object of the investigation; the best method of investigation; the best method of
presenting the results. In the following descriptions of various site investigation
methods these three aspects are examined. It is important that the method of
investigations chosen should be the most suitable for obtaining the desired informa-
tion. For example, the drilling of half a dozen expensive boreholes may yield little
more than the information from one borehole, whilst a comprehensive probing
survey may give considerably more information at a fraction of the cost. It is often
the case that the distribution of materials in a dredging area is more important than
an exact analysis of each of the types of material in the area. This is especially true
when a proportion of hard material is present.
In the following sections the types of site investigation have been divided into four
classes; those dealing with the weather, water, soil and others.
6.3 Weather conditions
Wind
Object of investigation
The speed, direction and duration of the wind are very important factors in deter-
mining local sea states and the frequency and intensity of storms. In some cases wind
records are the only method of predicting sea states since at relatively remote sites
there are unlikely to be any wave records. The object is, therefore, to measure speed
and direction of the wind at regular intervals for as long a period as possible. One
year of recording is normally considered to be the minimum period necessary to
provide useful results. Ten or more years is usually accepted as being adequate for
statistical purposes.
Method of investigation
It is often the case that a local meteorological station will have wind records dating
back at least ten years. In these circumstances, and if the site is reasonably exposed, it
is not necessary to take further records. However, if no records exist locally, or these
are not really applicable because of the topography of the site, it will be necessary to
obtain records. This may conveniently be done by installing a self-recoding
anemometer which is capable of measuring the speed and direction of the wind and
recording these at regular intervals, say fifteen minutes, on a magnetic tape. The
device can be battery operated and can be left to run for periods of two weeks or
more depending on the sampling or interrogation interval.
Results of investigation
The most common form of displaying wind records is the wind rose. A typical
example is shown in Figure 6.1. There are many variations in the method of dra wing
N
Units:- Beaufort scale
Figure 6.1 The wind rose
Table 6.1 The wind frequency matrix
Wind direction
Wind speed
(Beaufort scale) N NE E SE S SW W NW Totals by speed (%)
8 0.5 0.5
7 0.5 0.5
6 1 1
5 0.5 1 4 5.5
4 0.5 1 5 1 7.5
3 1 2 1 6 7 3 20
2 1 2 2 6 9 3 1 25
1 4 4 2 10 8 6 2 37
Totals by
direction (%) 2 6 9 5 24 35 13 3 Calm 3
100%
a wind rose but all aim to provide the same information; the distribution, by
percentage, of the different wind speeds in the eight major directions on the
compass. The rose can apply to one year's records or, more usefully, to particular
months. However, although the wind rose gives a general picture of the wind
climate at a glance it is of little use in predicting the wave climate.
When the prediction of sea states from wind records is applicable it is preferable to
usc high quality unprocessed data or specific graphs and tables which have been for-
mulated from this data. Since the sea state at any point due to local wind conditions is
a function of wind speed, fetch (clear water distance over which the wind has
blown) and wind duration, it is necessary to obtain, for any wind direction, the
graphs or tables showing the distribution of wind speed and duration. Two of the
most useful methods of display are the wind frequency matrix shown in Table 6.1
and the wind speed persistence diagram shown in Figure 6.2.
>0 Knots
150
140
130
120
110
.,..
"c 90
t
:::I
o 80
o
-~
0
0 70
.a
E 60
:::I
Z
50
40
30
20
10
6 8 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ W H
Duration (hours)
Figure 6.2 The wind speed persistence diagram

Fog, ice, temperature, humidity and rainfall
There are a number of meteorological characteristics of any site which have a direct
or indirect effect upon dredging operations. Fog, or mist, often occurs during the
year. Fog hampers the dredging work in two ways; it makes navigation hazardous
both on the site and en route to the dump, and also prevents the dredger supervisor
positioning his craft accurately if he is using visual aids. Drilling pontoons, which
have to be positioned very accurately, are particularly susceptible to fog.
Ice is important in areas of the world where the sea or navigation channels freeze
over at some time during the year. Ice normally prevents dredging operations from
being carried out. However, it can be utilised during pretreatment, since it is some-
times possible to perform drilling operations from the ice and to fragment large
volumes of rock which are dredged when the ice melts. This procedure has been
used successfully in Finland.
Temperature is an important factor in determining operational efficiency and, in
the case of human efficiency, it is linked with humidity. It is well known that in hot
humid climates a man's output is lower than in temperate climates. Severe cold also
hampers men and machines.
In some areas of the world rainfall is markedly seasonal and often occurs at regular
times in the day. Heavy tropical rainfall may be so severe as to completely impair
visibility and, hence, interrupt many dredging operations. It is, therefore, advisable
to identify rainy seasons and the pattern, if any, of rainfall during that season.
There are no quick methods of obtaining meteorological information. Unless long
term records are already available for the area it is necessary to install a small
meteorological station at the site. Records should be taken for as long a period as
possible and one year should be regarded as the absolute minimum.
All climates exhibit some form of seasonality. It is, therefore, convenient to have
meteorological records presented in monthly groups. In the case of ice the most
important information is the date at which the ice forms and melts each year. There
will usually be considerable variation in these dates and a list of the dates is usually
considered to be most useful. Wet and dry seasons may be similarly recorded.
6.4 Water conditions
Water level
Tide level in the sea and the level of water in a river are usually related to a con-
venient fixed point on land. Both tide and river levels are to some extent cyclic and,
therefore, predictable. The recurrent nature of these levels gives rise to certain
defined maxima and minima which are of direct use in relating them to marine
operations. Knowledge of the water level regime at any point enables a datum level
to be defined to which all other water levels or working levels may be referred. This
datum is usually one of the lowest levels which is likely to be recorded, such as
lowest low water or low river level.
The measurement of water level has two very important uses; it provides a
method of checking whether a particular dredger or associated craft can operate in
the depths of water available on the site and also a method of relating the water depth
at a point at any moment to the datum level for the site. It, therefore, influences the
dredging operations and choice of dredger and is essential for the planning and
supervision of the dredging contract.
Although most ports in the world are mentioned in the various tide manuals
published by the British Admiralty(3) or the us Department of Commerce(4), there
are many coastal sites which are not covered or at which tide levels may only be
interpolated between major ports. Since every location in the world has a tidal
regime peculiar to itself it is advisable to install a tide level measuring device, both
with a view to defming a local datum and also for the purpose of relating water
depths to that datum.
There are many devices available for measureing tide levels, ranging from the
simple tide pole to the sophisticated automatic tide recorder, which will not be
described here. What is important is that the gauge or measuring device should be
related to a permanent local level and that readings should initially be taken for a
minimum of 30 days. This period is the minimum which allows the readings to be
analysed to determine the local tidal constants which are required for the prediction
of future tide levels, including the lowest astronomical tide, which is nowadays often
taken as the local datum. The various datums used and their approximate
relationships are shown in Figure 6.3. It is also important that the tide gauge should
be near enough to the site of the dredging operations to ensure that the levels at site
and gauge are roughly the same at any moment. Appreciable differences in level can
be detected in some locations where the separation is only 2 to 3 km.
Levels in rivers may be measured by the methods described above. However, since
the changes in level of rivers are usually slow and locally affected by floods, the usual
practice is to install fairly rudimentary measuring devices at frequent intervals down
the length of the river. Records are built up oyer long periods of measurement and
with extensive knowledge of the catchment ==

level prediction is possible only by sophisticated computer techniques combined
and tributary flows. Rivers must
be split into arbitrary sections each of which Ihasits own datum, since the natural
gradient of the river makes the use of one datum impracticable.
Tidal information is usually presented in tabular form as follows:
Mean high water springs +5.32 m

Mean low water springs -0.03 m
Mean high water neaps +3.93 m
Mean low water neaps + 1.07 m
Datum level is 2.46 m below National Ordnance Datum.
This information is sufhcient for most purposes unless the area exhibits an unusual
tidal cycle such as a double high water as in the Selent, England, in which case a
graph of the tidal height against time before and after high water is useful. Although
the water level in a river usually follows an annual cycle there are often wide varia-
tions in river level from one year to the next. In these circumstances, the level at a
chosen point may be estimated from a level exceedence graph (see Figure 6.4) which
is constructed to show lines which indicate the probability of the water being above
a certain height during the various periods in the year. Although this does not allow
the accurate prediction of level it does enable one to obtain average values for the
level, which are useful in estimating the periods of draught restriction at critical
points in the river.
Water depth
The measurement of water depth is offundamental importance both in the planning
sea level
Mean low water MLW

\
\
\
\
, Mean low woter springs (MLWS)
" ~7/~~==~~~~~~~~~
Lowest astronomical tide (LAT)

" ,,_~
~/
// Lowest low water (LLW)
---==::c.::.::_:_--=::.__:'-=-'-'''---'=''-'--_
Figure 6.3 Tide datums

Plate IliA The backhoe dredger 'MDK 4' dredging hard moraine with large
boulders In the Gota River, Sweden. The bucket capacity IS 5,5 m3 and the
dredging depth 7.5 rn. The machine has a maximum dredging depth of 10,5 m
(by courtesy of l.undqvist and Saner Muddrlngs A B, Box 110,45101
Uddevalla, Sweden)
Plate IIiB A line operated dipper dredger with a bucket capacity of 4 m3 and
IllstilllecJ POWCl of 1360 hp. built for the RepubliC of China (by courtesy of
ilil
Hilkodilte Dock Corr.panv )
Plate IV The grab dredger 'W D Burutu dredging cuts In'the Nigerian Delta
for 011 exploration rigs. The grab crane, a Manitowoc 4600, has a bucket
capacity of 6 m3 (by courtesy of Westminster Dredging Company Ltd)
Plate VA The bucket chain
of a small bucket dredger
used for maintenance dredging
and deepening projects in
small Turkish ports. The
buckets have a capacity of
500 litres and the dredger can
achieve a maximum dredging
depth of 20 m (by courtesy of
Orenstein and Koppel Ltd)
Plate VB (beneath) The

bucket dredger 'Beaver Chief
dredging fragmented rock to
form a pipeline trench In
Milford Haven, South Wales
The norma I capacity of the
buckets for dredging soft
material IS 800 litres (by
courtesy of vvestrnmster
Dredging Company Ltd)
Plate VIA The trailing suction hopper dredger 'Geopotes VI' usinq a
sidecastinq agitation dredging method to deepen the approaches to Newport,
South Wales. This dredger has a potential hopper capacity of 4220 m3 and an
Installed power of 7760 hp (by courtesy of Royal Adriaan Volker Group BV)
Plate VIB The drag head of the trailing suction hopper dredger 'Geopotes X'.
This dredger has a hopper capacity of 9070 m3 and an Installed power of
18300 hp (by courtesy of Royal Adriaan Volker Group BV)
Precontract planning 12lJ
CI>
'"
::J
C
(!)
o~~~----~----~---4-----+----+-----4--~~~--~--~~~~~~
Gaulle
datum~J~A~N~-F~E~B~~M-A-R--~A-P~R~--M-AY--~J-U-N~-J-U-L~--A-U-G~-S-E-P~--~~----~D-E-C~
Figure 6.4 River level exceedence graph
and execution of dredging works. Since it forms a large part of the measurement and
control of dredging operations a full description of the methods used and the control
of operations is given in Chapter 8 (Hydrographic survey).
Currents
Water currents have two main effects on dredging. First, there is the interaction
between water and machine. The current in the upper layers of water influences the
courses of vessels and is consequently a determining factor in the design of
navigational channels and waterways, and the whole current regime affects the
pcrtormance of dredging craft. Drilling pontoons are particularly susceptible to
high currents which make positioning and driving drill pipe difficult. Secondly, the
interaction between water and soil is an inherent characteristic of the site, and the
current regime at any point on the site must be known before an assessment can be
made of the effects of dredging. Rates of scour and deposition are strongly dependent
upon current velocity.
Currents have both a velocity and direction which vary with time and it is important
to decide whether the velocity or the direction are the most important. If the direc-
tion is of prime importance, Boat tracking may be the simplest method ofinvestiga-
tion since the tracking of a Boat gives a picture of the direction of travel of a water
particle against time. Floats are usually constructed in three parts; the drogue
underwater which supplies the necessary resistance, the buoyancy chamber or Boat
which ensures slight positive buoyancy and the identification marker. When
materials for constructing sophisticated Boats are not at hand engineers have been
known to make use of oranges with reasonable results.
However, Boat tracking for dredging works has proved to be only of marginal use
because of the low accuracy of the data obtained and the diffIculty of analysing it.
Floats are susceptible to wind-induced currents on the water surface and also to wind
itself. Although it is possible to counteract this effect by making the drogue large it is
quite common, in light currents, for a Boat to proceed in a direction slightly to the
right of the wind direction (about 30 at the latitude of the British Isles) due to the
Coriolus effect of the earth's rotation. It is also difficult to obtain information about
currents below the surface since in many dredging sites a Boat suspended near the bed
will either run aground or get caught in weeds.
The measurement of current velocity and direction at a point can now be carried
out with considerable accuracy and continuity in any depth of water in which
dredging is anticipated. The most sophisticated of the instruments used are the self-
recording current meters. These instruments are moored at the desired depth and
measure the current by counting the rotations of a calibrated vane over a constant
time interval. Direction is found by instantaneous reading of a compass at the
moment of interrogation. Both velocity and direction values are stored on magnetic
tape. The instruments are battery powered and capable of operating remotely for
two weeks or more depending on the sampling or interrogation interval.
Lesssophisticated devices, working on the same measuring principle, are common
and are usually operated manually from a survey boat. They have the disadvantage
that the station must be manned continuously over relatively long periods, i.e. more
than a complete tidal cycle, but readings can be taken at a number of water depths
during the recording period and it is unlikely that the instrument will be lost. self ..
recording meters are susceptible to theft and have vanished from the most com-
prehensive mooring systems.
On remote sites a pendulum type current meter(5)is effective if great accuracy is
not required. This instrument records the current velocity as a deflection of a
pendulum from the vertical as it is immersed in the water.
The diffIculty of displaying current measurements is that the information has three
components, velocity, direction and time, and most forms of presentation are two-
dimensional. Float tracks are normally traced on a chart with the position of the Boat
at various specific times shown, i.e. hours before and after high water. It is important
that wind direction and velocity are also shown at regular intervals on the track.
The current regime at a point can be plotted in the form of a scatter diagram of
velocity against direction using polar coordinates. Figure 6.5 shows a typical
example of such a diagram. However, although it gives a general idea of the major
current directions it does not show any relationship between velocity, or direction,
and time.
In order to define the current regime at a point the Author has developed the
current state diagram (Figure 6.6), which shows speed and direction of current
against tidal time on a tidal clock background. The current is represented by a
ribbon of varying thickness whose inner edge indicates the direction of flow and
whose width indicates velocity. The diagram can be plotted automatically by com-
puter using the raw data of a self-recording current meter. Although not suited to
regimes which have constantly varying current speeds and directions it does give an
instant picture of the general regime in most other situations. In order to give an idea
of the total current range at the point of measurement a tidal factor is quoted. This
factor is defined as follows:
'd I[; _Mean tidal range over measurement cycle
T 1 a actor - . id
Mean spnng ti c range
N
NNW NNE
SSW SSE
S
Scale 01Knot = 2cm Knots

o 0'1 0'2
Notes
I. Dote of recording 12and 13'873.
2.Average tide factor = range -r- 1'8m= 0'78.
Figure 6.5 The current scatter diagram

L)2 Dredging: A Handbook for Engineers
HW
Hours before
and after
high water
Scale: I Knot=4 ems Knots

o 0'2 0'4 0'6 0'8
Notes:
I. Date of recording 3'873
2.Averagetide factor = Range+I'8m=0'94
Figure 6.6 The current state diagram
The tidal factor is also given on the scatter diagram shown in Figure 6.5. Ideally
current state and scatter diagrams should be constructed for tidal cycles at spring and
neap tide ranges.
Waves
The effect that waves have on dredging craft is described in Chapter 4. Their
influence on dredging works extends also to the movement of coastal sediments, as

described in Chapter 2. Waves are normally of two types: locally generated wind
waves of relatively short period, say 3-5 seconds, and remotely generated ocean
swells oflonger period, say 10-20 seconds. In rare cases significant long waves of up
to 200 second period are present but they are difficult to detect and almost impossible
to predict.
Both wind waves and swell may be measured by special floating wave recorders, of
which the Waverider buoy is a good example. However, the instrument is not
capable of measuring both types of wave simultaneously and has to be set to record
the desired range of periods. The buoy is moored at the recording point and
transmits the measurement as a radio signal to a shore-based chart recording unit. It is
necessary to record for at least one year at any site to obtain a reasonable idea of the
wave climate and preferably tor considerably longer.
Wave direction is ditticult to measure accurately except with very sophisticated
equipment. Visual observations are generally inaccurate, particularly in confused
seas, although visual methods based on aerial photography can be quite successful. In
shallow water, devices can be used which measure the direction of the orbital water
motions generated by the waves at the seabed.
Although wave records are not usually available for a site there are alternative
methods for obtaining the desired information. In the case of ocean swells, most areas
111 the world are covered by a Marsden square in the Ocean Wave Statistics
published by the National Physical Laboratoryv". Each square represents an area of

the ocean for which ship-observed swell records have been collected. These statistics
can be used to establish a swell climate at any location, if suitable corrections are
made to take account of wave refraction and diffraction in shallow waters and
coastal areas, and if swells in offshore directions are appropriately reduced. It should
be noted that ship-observed swell records usually show a lower proportion oflonger
period swells in any particular area than actually occur on site. This is because the
longer period swells are more difficult to detect by eye.
Wind waves which are generated locally can be predicted by a number of
hindcasting techniques based on the local wind records. Much wave forecasting is
based on the work of Bretschneider as described in the US Armv Shore Protection
ManuaJ(7). Since there are many complexities in the accurate for~casting of waves it
is recommended that this type of work should be entrusted to specialist organisa-
tions.
Apart from the frequency, height and direction of waves in a site, which may be
displayed in a matrix form similar to the wind frequency matrix (see Table 6.1),
there is a signiflcant relationship between wave period and height. The importance
of the combination of height and period is that it defines steepness, which is the ratio
of wave height to wave length, and which in turn determines the effect the wave
will have on dredging craft and also whether the wave is likely to break. A con-
venient form in which to show this relationship is the wave scatter diagram (Figure
6.7) in which the signifIcant wave height is plotted against the zero crossing period.
This diagram is also useful for comparing wave character in different areas. The
number of occurrences of waves with the same heights and periods is termed the
probability density for those values. The densities may be expressed in parts per
thousand and equal values are joined by contour lines on the diagram. Lines of con-
stant wave steepness can also be shown.
70
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t / 3 V
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o ~ ~ " ....... ~2 2 :3 2/
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15
Zero crossing period (seconds)
Figure 6.7 The wave scatter diagram
Another useful diagram for determining how much lost time could be
experienced on a site is the signifIcant wave height persistence diagram. This is used
in two forms: one shows the number of occasions the wave heights remain at above
certain values for a given period of time (Figure 6.8a). The other shows the number
of occasions the wave height remains below certain values (Figure 6.8b). Not only
do these diagrams show the amount of time an operator might be delayed by bad
weather and the degree of favourable conditions that he might expect but they also
give an indication of the variability of the weather. It should be noted that, since
these diagrams are particularly sensitive to short gaps in the weather records, it is
necessary to base them on good quality data over long uninterrupted periods.
300
~ c: 200
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.c c:
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<4 metres -, ~~
2 345 10 20 40 100 200 1000
Duration ( hours)
(b)
300
200
~ .2
.. ~
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2 345 10 20 40 100 200 1000
Duration (hours)
(0)
Figure 6.8 Significant wave height persistence diagrams showing number of
occurrences when, a, waves are In excess of height shown: b. waves are less
than height shown
The diagram often used in maritime civil engineering for the estimation of design
wave heights, the log probability/wave height diagram, is not particularly useful in
the context of dredging operations,
Salinity
In Chapter 2 the effect of the intrusion of salt water into fresh water in estuaries is
discussed and it is shown how this process causes sedimentation in specific areas. To
study this effect it is necessary to make current and salinity measurements at a
number of different locations throughout the tidal cycle, in spring and neap tides and
for various seasons of the year.
The electrical resistance of water is dependent on its salinity and temperature. Thus
instruments for measuring salinity usually consist of a probe through which an
electrical current is passed and by which the resistance of the water can be measured.
The probe is usually combined with a temperature measuring device which either
gives a separate reading or automatically corrects the salinity reading for variations
in water temperature.
Measurements of salinity are taken at selected water depths in specific locations
throughout the tidal cycle. Seasonal variations are very pronounced at sites where
there is a large difference in fresh water flow due to tha wing of winter snow, tropical
wet season, etc.
The corrected salinity measurements for a particular location can be displayed as
vertical profiles for a specific tidal time and a number of profiles of consecutive loca-
tions can be dra wn together to obtain a longitudinal section showing the shape of the
saline wedge. Prof ties and sections should be drawn for high and low water at
springs, neaps and for the various seasons.
Suspended sediment
Material is usually in suspension both in coastal and river waters. The amount of
material in suspension is generally a function of the turbulence of the water and the
particle size of the material. It also depends on the salinity and temperature of the
water and the degree of flocculation occurring to small cohesive particles. In order to
study the sediment patterns on a site and to estimate rates of deposition it is useful to
measure the quantity of material held in suspension in the water.
One simple method of collecting a water sample at any reasonable depth is by means
of a small water pump. A 15 mm diameter flexible hose is connected to the suction
side of the pump and the opposite end of the hose is lowered to the desired depth.
The pump is run for a short time until uniform flow through the hose is obtained. A
sample is then collected in a standard sample jar for subsequent laboratory analysis. A
12 volt DC electric pump is particularly useful for this method since it can be run off
the starter batteries of most boats.
Another method of determining concentrations of suspended material in an
estuary or river is by means of a silt monitor. Silt monitors have a sensor which con-
sists of a light source beamed through water gaps to photocells. The amount oflight
transmitted through the water to the photocells is a function of the concentration of
suspended material in the water. The silt monitor has to be calibrated by immersion
in a liquid of standard turbidity and also calibrated against samples from the site to
take account of variations in sediment particle size. The number of calibrations
needed to ensure accurate results makes the use of this instrument more appropriate
for large scale investigations when the number of readings to be taken is also large.
The monitor is most accurate when particle sizes are small.
Various other methods of investigating suspended solids have been devised among
which is the settling velocity sampling tube, or Owen tube(H).The Owen tube is
specifically designed to measure the settling velocities of flocculated mud particles
immediately after sampling. It overcomes the inaccuracies associated with
laboratory analysis due to alteration of the samples during transport from site to
laboratory.
>2000
2000r--------------------------------------------,
MonitorI ---- Heightabovebed0'5m
1800 Monitor
2 ----- Heightabovebed 15m
1600
1400
1200
E
Q.
Q.
:;- 1000
.S!
~
c: 800
Q)
u
c:
o
u 600
HW 0600 1500 HW 1800

Time
Figure 6.9 Tidal variation of slit concentrations

Silt concentrations can be displayed in much the same way as salinity measurements,
i.e. as a vertical profile. Alternatively the concentration at a particular location can
be plotted against time. Figure 6.9 shows an example of the latter method.
6.S Soil and rock conditions

Whereas most of the investigation methods mentioned previously in this Chapter
are used specifically to determine the characteristics of one site factor, the techniques
which are employed to investigate soils and rocks are generally of a more com-
prehensive nature. It has been suggested(9) that a figure of one percent of the likely
project cost is not an excessive expenditure to be set aside for carrying out boreholes
and analysing the results. However, the term borehole covers a wide variety of
techniques and, although the basic methods of penetration into soils and rocks have
changed little over many years, i.e. flushing/percussion/rotation, the machines
employed in these operations have developed significantly, as have the alternative
methods of investigation.
The various methods of investigation may be divided into four categories: direct
sampling; direct contact; remote sampling; remote seismic.
Direct sampling
The most positive methods of investigation, and those which should give the most
comprehensive results at the borehole location, are those involving direct sampling.
Direct sampling means the continuous retrieval of soil or rock from the hole in an
undisturbed or semi-disturbed state. This allows a full classification of the soil to be
made at regular intervals, changes of soil type to be accurately positioned and both in
situ and laboratory tests to be carried out. By their very completeness these methods
of investigation tend to be expensive and it is common for them to be used in con-
junction with other methods.
Shell and auger

Although old, this method is still one of the most satisfactory routine investigation
methods available. It consists of a light derrick from which boring tools are lowered
and raised into and out of a casing tube by means of a powered winch. The shell is a
heavy metal cylinder with a cutting edge and flap or clack valve which is used to
excavate and take samples in granular and light cohesive soils. The auger has
generally been replaced by a clay cutter or cylinder with cutting edge. In over-water
work these tools are raised and lowered on a wire, boring rods only being used to
take undisturbed samples and to carry out in situ tests. It is usual for bulk disturbed
samples to be taken in granular soils and undisturbed samples, normally 100 mm
diameter, in cohesive soils. Small boulders and thin or weak rock strata can be
broken up by a heavy chisel if necessary.
It should be noted that, since the boring tools are connected to the derrick by wire
and penetration into the soil is achieved by use of the weight of the tools, it is possible
to operate this system from a floating pontoon even when up to 0.3 m of vertical
movement due to wave action is likely. Care has to be taken to ensure that the top of
the casing tube does not move below the bottom guide at deck level and this is
achieved by hanging a larger diameter guide tube from the bottom guide to a point
about 1.50 m below.
Rotary drilling
A rotary drill is often the only tool available to carry out marine site investigation
since it is a tool commonly used in the quarrying and on-land site investigation
fields. However, it is not particularly suitable for marine investigation except for the
coring of rocks and stiff clays, where it is essential. The penetration of soil with a
rotary drill is due to the rotation of a drill bit under pressure, which disturbs the soil,
and the flushing of loose material from the hole by means of water, drilling mud,
foam, etc. All samples taken from the drilling process are therefore highly disturbed
and often completely altered in character. This method is called open hole drilling.
Coring, on the other hand, is carried out with a hollow diamond impregnated bit
which cuts out an annular hole around the core. The core is held in place by a core
catcher which allows the whole diamond coring assembly to be brought to the
surface for removal of the core sample. Core drilling for dredging investigations can
be carried out in sizes ranging from 25 to 100 mm diameter and it is generally found
that the softer the rock, the larger the diameter of core required for effective coring.
Core recovery is an important guide to rock quality and much care is needed to
extract the maximum length of core from each 1.5 m or 3.0 m core barrel (see
Classification of soils and rocks p. 146).
Rotary drilling methods require pressure or down thrust to be applied to the drill
bit. A rough guide in open hole drilling is that every 25 mm of bit diameter requires
one tonne of downthrust. It is not, therefore, an ideal method for use on a floating
pontoon since to apply downthrust from a moving pontoon to a static string of drill
rods requires a sophisticated compensating mechanism. To eliminate this problem,
weights or drill collars are attached to the drill string in sufficient quantity to increase
the weight of the string to the desired downthrust. A modern alternative to this, and
one which is frequently employed when diamond coring through a casing which has
been used for shell and auger work, is to attach the diamond coring machine to the
top of the casing, i.e. independent of the movement of the pontoon. In this manner
down thrust can be exerted by the machine against the weight of the casings and their
ground friction. A system of this nature, marketed by Pilcon Engineering Ltd., of
Basingstoke, UK, is shown in Figure 6.10.
Direct contact
Although not as comprehensive as the methods described above there are a number
of cheaper probing methods used in marine site investigations which are often
particularly well suited to dredging investigation. These have been classed as direct
contact methods since, to a certain extent, information on ground conditions is
Standard shell
and
tube
Figure 6.10 Marine diamond coring apparatus (Pilcon Engineering Ltd)
received through the feel of the probing instrument in the ground. Often, it is found
that it is possible to carry out many probes for the price of one direct sampling hole.
In such cases, it is often possible to limit the number of comprehensive boreholes to
single figures and to fill in the gaps with probes. Some of the probing methods are
shown in Figure 6.11.
Jet probes
Probably the simplest probe of all, except for the straight piece of reinforcement bar,
the jet probe is simply a hollow tube through which water is pumped. It can be cons-
tructed from lengths of gas pipe, with threaded joints, and a simple submersible
pump. The water jet emitting from the end of the probe is usually suffiCientto allow
penetration through most granular and light cohesive soils. Refusal will normally
occur at rock and compacted or stiff strata. Since there is no recovery of samples the
materials penetrated cannot be identified.
Wash borings
Wash borings are similar to the jet probe described above, except that the probing
pipe is surrounded by a larger casing and the material loosened by the water jet is
~Water in
==H==-----Handle for controlling

choppingand
turning Waterlevel
Casing shoe
~;
;: ;;-Chopping bit
/~
(o) (b)
Static weights
-3 -3
Handle for
turning
Water level
1.. ..
C::--!:===~~"l.
",
r
c-:.:.{_~
o 20 40 60 80 100
Sees per 30cm
(d)
(c)
Figure 6.11 Probing methods. a, wash boring, b. Jet probing: c. weight soundmg:
d. typical weight sounding and rock drilling record
carried up the annular space between the casing and the probing pipe. Soil is settled
out in a tank at the top of the borehole and the flushing water recirculated if
required. Identification of soil is, therefore, possible but unreliable.
Soundings
In particular geographical areas, special sounding techniques have been developed
which are suitable for penetrating the soil in those areas and giving useful informa-
tion about the soil characteristics. The two most widely known in Europe are the
Dutch cone penetrometerv'" and the Swedish weight sounding apparatus'!'. The
former is suitable in soft unconsolidated sediments overlying granular strata and the
latter in glacial moraines or till. The method of sounding consists of forcing a probe
into the soil by means of static weights, rotation and, in the Swedish method, percus-
sion. Both methods rely entirely on the interpretation of data resulting from the
resistance of the sounding tool to penetration in the various strata. It is recommended
that they should not be used on sites unless accompanied by comprehensive direct
sampling methods or if the existing site information is of such quality as to have
effectively calibrated the sounding apparatus.
Overburden drilling equipment

The overburden drilling (00) method has been described in Chapter 3, Section 3.2,
where its use as a means of drilling shotholes has been shown to be particularly suit-
able for marine work. It may also be used as an investigation tool of the probing type
and is especially useful where pretreatment of rock or direct rock dredging is
anticipated. The machine is set up as if for drilling and blasting work such that the
main drill machine is able to slide on a mast independent of the movement of the
pontoon. The outer casings are lowered to the seabed and allowed to sink under
their own weight into the soil, air flushing being provided. When movement has
ceased, rotation is applied and the casing penetrates to a lower refusal level. When
rotation ceases to achieve penetration, percussion is applied and the casing is driven
to its fmal depth, usually well keyed into the weathered rock surface. Subsequently,
the inner drill string may be inserted down the casings and the rock drilled out to
prove its competence, and to obtain drilling speeds. Many probes of this nature can
be carried out in a day and a wide coverage may be obtained. However, where
possible, this method should also be correlated with a few direct sampling boreholes.
The advantages of this method are that the levels at which the casing ceases to
penetrate may be used to determine the level at which competent rock begins and, if
pretreatment is necessary, subsequently be used as a form of measurement. In addi-
tion to this, the fact that the drill has been used in investigation proves that it is oper-
able on that site and valuable operational parameters are established with respect to
cycle time and drilling speed.
Remote sampling
In some locations it is either extremely costly or merely unnecessary to carry out
investigations by means of boreholes or probes. For instance, in sites where sea con-
ditions are such that direct investigation methods cannot be carried out from a
floating pontoon it may be feasible to carry out remote sampling techniques. In other
cases, when the movement of bottom materials are being investigated, it is necessary
to sample the sea or river bed to a depth of only a few millimetres. Basically there are
two types of remote sampler; those which seek to obtain a shallow bed sample (bed
samplers) and those which seek to achieve the same effect as a continuous sampling
method by remote means (bed corers).
Bed samplers
In a review of sampling methods in 1969(12) it was pointed out that the various sampl-
ing devices reflect the special needs of the particular investigators who developed
them and hence rarely possess any measure of universal application. It is not intended
that the various methods of bed sampling should be described here but it is recom-
mended that, if bed sampling is envisaged, a thorough check is made of the methods
available and the characteristics of each method are matched against the expected soil
conditions.
Bed corers
Recent developments in the offshore field have accelerated the research into methods
of obtaining good quality cores from the seabed by remote means. There are now a
variety of different methods available ranging from the gravity corer, a device
capable of only a limited penetration depending on seabed material, to the fully
automatic underwater continuous coring device such as the Maricor, developed
jointly by Atlas Copco A B of Sweden and Wimpey Laboratories Ltd. UK, which is
capable of coring to 45 m below the seafloor; the cores being retrieved in 3 m lengths
by the attendant craft which floats above the device.
Most of the remote bed corers are sophisticated and expensive pieces of equipment
designed to overcome the problems of obtaining good samples at great depths in
exposed locations. They are often heavy, about 5 tonnes, and therefore require large
attendant vessels with lifting equipment. For these reasons the more comprehensive
types of bed corer are not often used in dredging investigations.
Remote seismic method

Geophysical or seismic methods have been used for substrata investigation in the oil
industry for a considerable time and these techniques have been adapted to suit the
needs of the dredging industry. There are a number of different systems available but
all are based on the same principle. A high energy acoustic source is triggered
periodically just below the water surface by the survey vessel. The acoustic energy
travels outwards as a sphere of ever increasing diameter. The seabed and horizons
lying beneath the craft reflect this signal back towards the surface where it is received
by a hydrophone array or transducer. The returning signal can then be displayed on
a paper chart recorder. By this means a continuous printed record of the seabed and
sub-bottom acoustic discontinuities can be made along a vessel's course. Figure 6.12
shows the system used.
Figure 6.12 Continuous seismic profiling (Huntinqs Geophysics Ltd)
The effectiveness of a seismic survey depends partly on the frequency of acoustic

source. Low frequency sources give deep penetration but normally low resolution,
whilst high frequency sources, which attenuate more quickly than the low, give
shallow penetration with high resolution. The three common types of seismic device
are as follows:
Name Frequency (kHz) Maximum penetration (m) Resolution (m)
Sparker 0.01 - 2.5 150 0.5-1.0
Boomer 0.5 - 2.5 100 0.3-0.8
Pinger 2.0 -12.0 50 (in soft sediment) 0.3
Effectiveness is also dependent on the soil conditions. Acoustic methods usually
perform well when there is a clear interface between two materials, such as sand
overlying rock. However, when changes of strata are gradual, great diffICulty may
be experienced in interpretation. For instance, clay which gradually increases in
stiffness, overlying decomposed rock, overlying competent bedrock is not good
material for seismic investigation.
In shallow water multiple echoes from the seabed can mask the reflections from
deeper layers, making interpretation difficult. It is, therefore, advisable to confme
seismic surveys to water depths in excess of 4 m whenever possible.
It is recommended that seismic methods should only be used in conjunction with
continuous sampling boreholes or, in simple geological areas, with probes. It is also
essential that the equipment is used by experienced operators and even more
important that the records should be analysed by experienced interpreters.
In situ testing
Some methods of in situ soil testing have already been described previously, since
both the Dutch cone test and the Swedish weight sounding methods of investigation
are types of tests in themselves and the measurement of rock drilling speeds to some
extent shows the characteristics of the rock. However, there are some specific tests
which may be carried out in any open borehole and which are able to give reliable
indications of soil strength when used in the right soil type.
Dynamic penetration tests

These tests consist of driving a sampling spoon into the soil at the bottom of the
borehole by dropping a standard weight through a standard distance and repeating
the action until the spoon has been driven in a set distance. The tests, which were
originally developed for assessing the resistance of the soil to piling, are suitable for
use in granular soils. The number of blows required to drive the spoon into the soil
the set distance is used as a measure of the compactness of the soil.
The set distance of driving is usually 30 ern and the number of blows required to
achieve it is called the N-value of the soil. In fact the test is often carried out in cohe-
sive soils to give an indication of resistance to penetration (see Classification of soils
and rocks, p. 146).
Vane tests
Vane tests are used in cohesive soils, particularly soft clays, to obtain shear strength
measurements. A four-bladed vane is inserted into the soil, and torque applied to the
vane until a cylinder of soil fails and allows the vane to rotate. The torque required
to produce soil failure is converted into a shearing resistance which indicates the
cohesive strength of the material.
Laboratory testing
Having obtained samples from the proposed dredging site it is necessary to carry out
laboratory tests, both to confirm the validity of the visual classification carried out
on site and to determine the basic properties of the soils. In most countries nowadays
the testing of soils is carried out to a standard(13,14)
, and these provide a good guide to
the basic tests required. It is wise to carry out a good variety of tests since there are
often a number of different types of dredgers capable of doing anyone job and the
performance of each type depends on a different selection of properties.
Granular soils
The normal tests for granular soils are to determine the following properties: bulk
density; particle size distribution; angularity; moisture content (not applicable to
gravels); organic/lime content. Boulders and cobbles are too big to be classed in the
normal range of granular soils. They are, however, important. An attempt should be
made to estimate the proportion of soil in the boulder and cobble range and an idea
of the average sizes, or range of sizes.
Cohesive soils
The normal tests for cohesive soils are to determine the following properties: bulk
density; particle size distribution; specific gravity (silts only); moisture content;
plastic and liquid limits; shear strength. Consolidation tests may also be required if
the soil is to be used as fill or is already in a ftll area. Where the soil is to be dug and
lifted by bucket it might be necessary to carry out a soil adhesion tesi15) to ascertain
whether the soil will cling to the surfaces of the bucket.
Rocks
The normal tests for rock are to determine the following properties: bulk density;
porosity; surface hardness; unconfined compressive strength; tensile strength; grain
size; cementation qualities. In addition to the above tests there are two tests directly
related to the dredging and pretreatment of rock. The fIrSt is the determination of
point load strength index(16)which is carried out in the laboratory or on site and con-
sists of crushing a rock core across its diameter. It gives a strength index related to the
actual digging action of a bucket tooth and is, therefore, much favoured as a reliable
test of rock strength. The second test is for drill ability of the rock and is called the
Protodyakanov drop test(17).The test consists of dropping a standard weight on small
samples of the rock from a ftxed height for a fixed number of blows and measuring
the quantity of fmes (less than 0.5 mm) produced. The strength coefftcient obtained
tends to show good correlation with drillability.
Classification of soils and rocks
In 1972 PIANC (Permanent International Association of Navigational Congresses)

published a report on the classification of soils to be dredged(IH). This classification
system, although not widely known outside the dredging world, has gained general
acceptance by the majority of organisations concerned with dredging. The follow-
ing is extracted verbatim from the report by kind permission of the Association:
'Describing soils:
III practice no soil will fall precisely within a single predetermined main type, so we must describecombinations of
types accurately and intelligibly. We can do so by using a noun to denote the chi(j constituent of the complex soil and
adiectives to denote other constituents that are present in smaller quantities. The noun should be regardedas denoting
the principal constituent, i.e. the one that determines the behaviour oj the soil.
E,'ery description of a soil should contain some indication as to the .following characteristics:
(a) structure (e.g. resistance to penetration, compactness)
(b) [or granular soils: quantitative distribution oJgrain sizes preferably indicated as a grading curve, descriptive
indication of the shape of the grains
(() for cohesive soils; consistency (i. e. shear strength)
(d) smell and colour.
Furthermore for composite soils the major characteristicsshould begiven depending on the predominant nature of the
soil; whenever possible a.full grading curve should beprovided but i{grading curves are not given or limited in extent
the percentage by weight of the several soil fractions should be stated.
Clear descriptions should be given, e.g.
(1) stiff, fissured, grey clay
(2) Loose, yellow, rounded, fine medium gravel and coarse sand containino shells
(3) Soli, grey/blue sandy silt
(4) Brown, round-grained, slightly compact.line sand
(5) Soli, black, clayey, strono smelling peat
(6) compacted, coarse, sharp-edoed sand mixed with scattered sharp-edoed, scaly gravel.
A briefdescription of the type of soil even together with certain observedproperties of the soil and a photograph can
never give us more than a rough idea of the nature of deposits. Consequently, even though full description and
analyses are made, representative samples should be kept in airtight containers so thatiurther examination can be
made at a later date. Nevertheless the tests should be made as soon as possible alter the samples have been taken.
Descrihil(~ rock:
Detailed description 0( rock carl's can be complex. The fallowing brief notes are intended as a guide to the more
important items to be noted.
R,)ck coredescriptionsare normally given on a drill log. Such logs may be simple in layout containing only a state-
incnt <>{therocks encounteredrelated to levels of changes in rock type, or may befully comprehensive, containing in
addition a I'ariety (~r
iniormation obtained during drilling.
The descriptive 5ectionof the log will be basedon ageologicalappreciationo{the type of rock. For dredging works it
seems unnecessary to be absolutely exact concerning a complex rock type, and descriptions should be simple but
accurate.
The state 0( the rock in situ is very important andfor this reason it is essential that the drilling method and size
employed is stated. In addition in order to assess the soundness of the rock, it is useful to define two items concerning
eore rec""ery. The corerecovery expressed as a percentage of the total corerecovery (i. e. maximum 100%) should be
gil'ell and, in addition a recentproposal is togive R QD. This is defined as the rockquality designation and represents
the percentage of solid core recoveredgreater than 0.1 m in length over each length drilled.
lnlonnation on weathering is extremely important [rom a dredging viewpoint and it is suggested that a scale of
",eathering should be included indicating the degree [rom a completelyfresh material with no evidence oiweatherino,
moderate weathering in which weathering is apparent but with someFesh rockpresent, highly weathered, in which
noFl'Sh rock remains but the structure is intact through to a completely weathered material in which the rock is in a
friable and disintegrated condition.
- In the caseo{sedimentary rocks, a note o{the hedding should also he made with an indicationof the beddingplane
separation.
In summary, in additon to the rock type, every description should contain some indication of the following
characteristics:
(aJ colour
(b) grairt size and texture (fine grained, glassy)
(e) rciativc strength
(d) bedding, iointino , _tracturing, discontinuities including orientation, etc.
(1') ''':eree of' weathering.
Th!'II!'I'erpossible quantitive measurements of the above mentioned characteristicsshould be made, in particular with
regard to strength.
Description o{ tables:
Table 1 giv!'s a general classification or soils based on two main properties: grain size and strength.
Tables 2 and -' indicate the tests by which the properties of the soil that aI{ect dredging operations may be hroadly
determined.
Table 4 gilles a general classification oirochs based on origin.
Tables 5 and 6 show the tests by u.hich more detailed iniormation on the rocks may be obtained.
Table 7 may he consulted when planning the work in thefield, which is carriedout hy such well-known methods as
penetration tests, undisturbed boring and samples. '
Table 1 General basis for Identification and classification of soils(1)for dredging purposes
Particle size Identification
Main soli type Range of SIZe(mm) BS Sieve(2) Identification Strength and structural characteristics
Boulders, Larger than 200 mIT' (6) Visual examination and measurement NA
cobbles Between 200-60 mm
Gravels Coarse 60-20 3"--a-" EasilyIdentifiable by visual examination Possible to find cemented beds of gravel which resemble
Medium 20-6 ;}"-r' weak conglomerate rock. Hard-packed gravels may exist
Fine 6-2 mm -l-"-No 7 Intermixed with sand.
Sands'>' Coarse 2.0-0.6 7-25 All particles visible to the naked eye. VelY little Deposits will vary In strength (packing) between loose,
Medium 0.6-0.2 25-72 cohesion when dry compact and cemented. Structure may be homogeneous or
Fine 02-006 mm 72-200 stratified. Intermixture with silt or clay may produce hard-
packed sands,
Coarse 006-002 Passing Generally particles are Invisible and only grains of a Essentially non-plastic but characteristics may be similar to
Medium 0.02-0006 No. 200 coarse silt may Just be seen with naked eye. Best sands if predominantly coarse or sandy In nature. If finer
Fine 0.006-0.002 mm determination is to test for oilatancv'<'. Material may will approximate to clay with plastic character. Very often
have some plasticity, but silt can easily be dusted off intermixed or interteavsd with fine sands or clays. May be
fingers after drvinq and dry lumps powdered by homogeneous or stratified. The consistency may vary from
ur finger pressure fluid silt through stiff silt into "siltstone"
2:
(/)
Clays ur Below 0002 mm NA Clay exhibits strong cohesion and plasticity, without Strength Shear strength(S)
I Distinction between silt dilatancy MOist sample sticks to fingers, and has a V. soft May be squeezed easily
o and clay should not be smooth, greasy touch. Dry lumps do not powder, between fingers Less 0 17 kg crn "?
U
based on particle size shrinking and crackinq during drying process with Soft Easily moulded by fingers 017-0.45 kg cm - 2
alone since the more im- high dry strength Firm Requires strong pressure
portant physical properties to mould by fingers 0.45-0.90 kg cm "?
of silt and clay are only Cannot be moulded by
related indirectly to particle fingers, Indented by thumb 0.90-1.34 kg crn "?
size Hard Tough, indented With
difficulty by thumb nail. Above 1.34 kg cm-2
- Structure may be fissured, intact. homogeneous, stratified

or weathered.
'=!
Peats and a:Z NA NA Generally identified by black or brown colour, often May be firm or spongy In nature. Strength may vary
organic soils 0 With strong organic smell, presence of fibrous or considerably In horizontal and vertical directions.
'" woody material.
Notes. NA ~ Not applicable

(1) Soil may be defined in the engineering sense as any naturally occurring loose or soft deposit forming part of the earth's crust. The term should not be confused with "pedoloqical
soil" which includes only the topsoil capable of supporting plant growth, as considered in agriculture
(2) Or National squivalent sieve size/no.
(3) There may be some justification for Including a range of 'extra fine' sand and 'extra coarse' Silt over the particle size ranges (01-0.06 mm) and (0.06-004 mm) respectively. It IS
recommended that whenever possible in borehole description or verbal discussion such further identification of these soils shouidbe used. However, to avoid the chance of
confusion. If the ctassrtrcation 'fine' sand or 'coarse' silt is used without further qualification, it will be taken that the particle size 'ranges fall within those given in Table 1 above.
(4) Dilatancy ISthe property exhibited by silt as a reaction to shaking due to the higher permeability of silt. If a moistened sample IS placed in the open hand and shaken, water will
appear on the surface of the sample giving a glossy appearance.A plastic clay gives no reaction
(5) Defined as the undrained (or immediate) shear strength ascertained by the applicable in situ or laboratory test procedure.
(6) Though only visual examination and measurement are possible an indication should be given with respect to the size of the 'grains' as well as to the percentages of the different
sizes
Table 2 Classmcanon ot soils tor dredging purposes by In Situ and laboratory testing
-
Main soil type

Particle size
distnnution
In SI[U density
or bulk
Specific
gravity at
the solid
Compactness
(m Situ)
I MOisture
content
I
Plasticity
Shear
strength
Lime
content
I
I
I Organic
content
l
!
densitv' 1)
particles! 11
Lab test
Boulders Visual
NA (on fraq NA NA NA NA NA NA
cobbles W In field
ments)
:':
~
"
s:
0
u
l:_
c;
0
Lab In SItu
Gravel -
c
ex:
t
NA
test test
NA NA NA NA NA
<t
_J
:=l
Z ,-----
[:_j
<t Lab test
ex:
CJ on Lab In Situ Lab Lab Lab
Sands NA NA
t undisturbed test test test test test
samples
Silts
w
2-
(f)
[~-- t
Lab. test
on
undisturbed
samples
Lab
test
In SItu
test or lab
test on
undisturbed
samples
Lab
test
Lab
test
L:J t
Lab
test
Lab
test
[~,~
l
I
0 In Situ
U Lab. test
test or lab
on Lab Lab . Lab
Clays NA NA test on NA
undisturbed test test test
undisturbed
samples
samples
u
-
z
La b test
Peats and <t on In Situ Lab Lab Lab Lab
NA NA NA
organic soils CJ undisturbed test test test test test
ex:
0 samples
Notes NA ~ Not applicable

Tests double outlined are considered to be of Priority tor assessment ot soil characteristics for dredging purposes
(1) For definitions see Table 3
Table 3 In situ and laboratory testing procedures of soils
Soil properties
or characteristics In Situ test Laboratory test (site or central laboratory) Reference"} (Butish Standards or equivalent)
Particle size analvs.s NA Sieving on granular soils. Sedimentation on BS 1377 (1967) P [)[)
cohesive SOils. Combination on mixed SOils such
as sandy clays
A rough evaluation by cornparsori With
standard SOil samples. by microscope or With
gild counter
Bulk density or In SIIU NA except for measurement of The unit weight of soil as found in Situ and For definitions:
density boulders and cobbles expressed as the ratio between total weight and Techn.cal terms. symbols and definitions' ISSMFE
total vol ume of soil (1968) p. 88 and 89
Spec.fie gravity of the NA S G. determined as the ratio between unit BS 1377 (1967) p. 48
solid particles weight of solid particles and unit weight of
water
Compactness (in situ) May employ several in Situ tests. NA (I) Foundation Eriqineer.nq (Peck. R.B. Hanson. W.E
e.g and Thornburn. T H) Chapman & Hall. London
(I) Standard penetration test (19[)3)
(II) Dutch penetrometer
(sounding)
(III) Swedish penetrometer
(II))l
( III
(IV) J Le Penetrometre
(Sanglerat).
etla Re,corinassance
Dunod. Pails (1965)
des Sols
(IV) French penetrometer etc
MOisture content (I) Can employ 'speedy' (I) Equipment manufactured by Thomas Ashworth &
moisture content tests on site Co. Ltd .. Burnley. Lancs .. UK
but not recommended (II) Melgh. A.C and Skipp. B O. - 'Gamma-ray and
(II) Radioactive meter method neutron methods of measur.no SOil density and
(III) MOisture content moisture
determination Geotechn.que. X (1960). 3 June pp 110-126
Plasticity NA Determination of liquid and plastic limits BS 1377 (1967) p. 33

(Atterberg test)
Shear strength May employ several In Situ tests
eg
(I) Hand penetrometer (I) Torvane (I) Item manufactured by 'Sorltes1' Inc. Evanston. III.
USA
(II) Vane tests (II) Geotechnique Vol. I. pili (Skempton. AW)
The Institution of Civil Engineers. London (1948)
(III)Dutch penetrometer (III) ,
(sounding)
(IV) Swedish penetrometer
(IV) l See reference given above for 'compactness'
(v) French penetrometer. etc (v) J

(VI) Hand penetrometer (VI) See reference given above
(vII) Unconfined compression apparatus (vII) Soil mechanics for road engineers (DSIR) HM
Stationary Office London (1964) p. 369 et seq
(VIII) Triaxial compression (VIII) Soil mechanics for road engineers (DSIR) HM
Stationary Office London (1964) p. 361 et seq .. or
for more advanced study:
The measurement of soil properties In the triaxial
test (Bishop. AW & Henkel. D J )
Arnold London (1962)
(ix) Cell apparatus (IX) Geuze. E.CW.A and Tan TJong Kie 'The shearing
properties of soils
Part I: The cell-test procedure
Part II Comparison of triaxial and cell-test results
Geotechnique II (1950). 2 December. pages
141-261
(X) Fall cone etc (x) A new approach to the determination Shear
Strength of clay by the Fall cone test (Hansbos)
Royal Swedish Geotech. lnst Stockholm (1957)
Lime content NA Visual test for effervescence when cold dilute
hydrochloric acid (HCI) is applied to specimen
Organic content NA Determination of organic content BS 1377 (1967) p. 86
NA ~ Not applicable
('It should be emphasised that other International or national references exist. It IS the Intention to obtain Information on the relation (for example) between the
approprrate national standards (e g BS. DIN. ASTM. etc.) and give this Information In later editions of the PIANC bulletin.
......
(J1
......
......
U"l
N
Table 4 General basis for Identification and classification of rocks") for dredging purposes
Examples of
Group rock type Onqin Identification Remarks
Igneous Granites Formed by the solidification All exhibit a crystalline form although the
Dol erites (crystallisation) of oriqinal molten individual crystals may be invisible to the naked
Basalts material (magma) extruded from eye Complex system of rocks. All Igneous rocks Full Identification of rocks may be complex
etc within the earth's crust are hard although may be altered by vanous Hand examination wrll give approximate
natural causes such as weather.nc Because of classification based on rock type name.
stress rocks may possess systems of JOints and Laboratory examination may be required
fissures USIng rock slices to confirm the more
difficult cases
Englneellng properties of rock for dredging

II Sedimentary Sandstone Dellved from pre exisu ng forma- Often recognisable by bedded structure. In purposes requires generally to be carried
Limestones uons by weatherinp and general terms the older the formation. the harder out In laboratory usmq Test Procedures
Marls disintegration. often being the rock although a considerable vananor. In suggested In Table 5
Chalk reconsolidated In hard strata hardness. colour and other characteristics IS
Corals Occurrinq as sequence of likely In many sedimentary rocks the individu al Whilst for practical purposes It may not be
Conglomerates deposits In beds particles forming the body of the material may necessary to Identify a rock by name It IS
etc be seen (e g. sandstone) and a rough grading of Inestimable value In analysing the
given In description project as a whole
Degree of weatherno In rock IS of extreme

III Metamorphic Gneisses Includes an Igneous or sedimen- Wide range In degree of metamorphism with Importance and will alter the englneellng
Marbles tary rock which has been altered some rocks stili close to orqmal condition. properties of even the hardest Igneous
etc by heat or pressure other rocks completely recrvstallised so that rocks.
oriqtnal structure obscured. Rock IS normally
very hard with glassy surface.
Notes. (1) Rock may be defined In the englneellng sense as the hard and IIgld deposits forming part of the earth s crust as opposed to dcpo s.ts classed as soil
Geological rock embraces both soft and hard naturally occurring depos.ts excluding topsoil
Table 5 Classification of rocks for dredging purposes by field and laboratory testing
Example
~oo,,- of
Bulk
Porosity Cementation
density
rock
Gr arures NA NA
, Igneous Lab
Basalts unless unless
weathered weathered
f---
Sandstones
Lab
II Sedrrwntary Limestones
Gneisses
Milfbles
Lob 'A
unless
Lab
"' '\i1pt;lrn(!'phl(
weathered
rcore be subjected to ViHH)USother more complex tests now In use ,,1rock rnechanrcs However while such
they appear to nave Illtle aophcauon at the present trrne for apprec.enon of the practical problems Involved In
projects
Table 6 Testing procedures of rocks
In suu test Laboratory Reference (0)
NA Vofume rwerqht retet.cosn.o

PUIOSTy NA Measure 01 pore space expressed as percernaqe Porosl1y value may be obtained In Similar manner
rauo VOids/total volume 10 the test lor water absorption given on BS 812
(1967) P 39 et seq
NA
strength NA Test to otnam direct measure of at ulnm ate BS 812

ta.rc.e under compressrve load. The drrnensro ns
of the testorcce and the dnectron of stratdrcauon
-ercvant tc tnc rurect.oo are 10 be stated
Particularly applicable to cordis "JA See Table 3
Standard penetration test
NA Relative measure 01 of bond between
constituents vtsuallv by soaking
spec.men ,n water
Measurrirncnt to be made dur NA
Note
wrth
P
1')lt that other uemanone: or national references ex.st It IS the Intention to on the relation (fer example) between the
standards (e 9 BS. DIN, ASTM, etc) and give ttus Information In later editions bcueun
Table 7 Sampling and investigation procedures for dredging purposes
Core rotary Hand auger

Rock or 5011 drilling (diamond Mud rotary Shell & auger or hand auger
type drilling) drilling boring tube
Igneous rock Best method of Method of drilling NA NA NA

Sedimentary obtaining core usmq mudladen
rock samples of Intact fluid to support
III Metamorphic rocks In In Situ side of hole. Not
rock conditions for recommended for
examination and site investigation
test
Boulders May be used to NA Chiselling required NA NA

Cobbles penetrate and ob- to penetrate strata
tam core samples
Gravels NA NA NA Very difficult to
penetrate coarse
gravel
Sands NA NA Difficult method

may locate top of
hard stratum
Silts NA NA Method employed

for stte mvesttqa Useful method
uor- In order to for determining In
obtain representa- Situ properties and
ttve & undisturbed Possible method If "hard" strata
samples and' to material IS soft or levels, In area
carry out field (in will stand Without With wide soli
Clays NA NA SitU) tests sides caving variation may be
Popular In UK Rather slow useful to supple-
Borehole sizes of ment borehole
6" and 8" oa information
Peats. etc NA NA Useful for locating

hard stratum be-
neath peat
Notes: NA = Not applicable
(1) Care should be observed In handling and ore secvnc samples. Samples of rock should be retained where possible in
conditions approximating to In sttu state. Undisturbed and disturbed samples of soil. particularly core samples of cohesive
materials. should be protected from loss of natural motstur e Great care In labelling samples IS of paramount Importance
(2) Reference IS for the "Standard Penetration Test" previouslv termed the ('Raymond Penetration Review of
other dvnarruc tests is given In Geotechnique Vol XVIII P 98, The Institution of Civil Engineers. London 968); see also
Table 3
Dlsturbedl'l
trnorsturbed'!' representative In Situ vane Geophysical
Wash borings sampling samples tron testing methods
NA Core samples or Fragments may be See Tables 5 NA

large fragments used for identihca and 6
ur-o!s tton
NA Cobbles retained NA -NA NA Useful method of

as undisturbed site Investigation
samples for "filling In"
detail between
bonngs and drli
Difficult to penetrate Not practicable to Used with cone NA linqs. However
retain gravel as an gives reasonable note should be
undisturbed sample In Situ compactness taken that such
unless In cemented methods stili
condition quire Improve-
ment and very
careful mterpreta
Patent Useful tor In 51[U NA lion. Necessary to
compactness est 1 have relatively
to sample In un mate at the same Simple soil/rock
disturbed condi- Obtained from time a sample IS conditions for
lion borings In nns or obtained success with this
bags Must be method u.e. soft
representative alluvium over
(I e. only from a rock), Where
If cohesive In na- Single horizon or Used for estimate only slight chan
ture can use clay stratum) _ Essential ges In strata
Not recommended undisturbed core for identification care densrtv occur
for site Investigation samplers, other of various strata InInter method IS doubt
except to determine wise see Sands cheapest samples pretanon ful and may be
the level of a hard misleading
str atom t)pnp<lth Variety of undrs . Very useful for
cotter rnat r I ~-11~ turbed core sarn C,CJnvery well be shear strength
plers available used, but .nterptet evaluation .n
with care alluvial clays
Variety of undrs Used for estimate

turbed core sam of shear strength
piers available but great care
needed In Inter
pretatton
Test dredging. There may be some projects on which the complexitv of the SOil or rock or other
warrant the use of test-dredging or even make test dredging desu ab!e In other cases (as channel results of
previous dredging contracts might be used In both cases full details With respect to all relevant circumstances should be
Including quantitative and qualitative examination of the spoil and descnpuon of the dredger used Great care
be taken by the principal In providing exact and reliable Information and by the contractor In interpreting this
information
Special considerations
There are other considerations, apart from the characteristics mentioned in the
PIANC classification, which may not necessarily be of general use but are important
in specific circumstances. A brief appraisal of the proposed dredging works and the
type of plant likely to be employed to carry out the dredging should give an indica-
tion of the information required. For example, when rock dredging is required there
may be a fine dividing line between the economics of pretreating and dredging the
rock direct. In these circumstances the relative blastability and digability of the rock
will be of extreme importance. The brittleness of the rock and its method of fractur-
ing are factors to be taken into account particularly with respect to the process of
crushing, either by rock-breaker or explosives, and rocks of similar compressive
strength have been observed to react in very different manners due to their differing
in ternal structures (19)
Rippability is another soil and rock property which does not feature in the
proposed classification system. However, it seems that the sonic velocity of the rock
and the rippability may be related(20). There may, therefore, be some virtue in
recording sonic velocities, particularly if a seismic method of investigation has been
used.
6.6 General investigations

Apart from the meteorological, hydraulic and geophysical properties of a site there
arc a number of basic characteristics which relate to operations carried out on the site
and the inhabitants or owners of the land of which the site forms a part.
Physical constraints
Debris in the dredging site

On most dredging sites there is a fair amount of debris and especially in busy ports or
ports with a long history. The site may even contain wrecks and possibly dangerous
wartime debris such as bombs and shells. If it is considered that the extent or type of
debris is sufficient to cause delay to dredging operations or to prove hazardous
further investigation should be undertaken. Two methods of investigation are avail-
able: magnetometer surveyor side scan sonar. The former is usually the most useful.
The latter is capable of detecting wrecks but is more advantageous for locating cables
(see p. 157).
A magnetometer (proton precession magnetometer) accurately measures the
earth's total magnetic field. Magnetic bodies introduced into this field cause distor-
tions to its regular pattern which are easily detected by the magnetometer. The
detector or fish is towed behind a survey boat which makes numerous parallel passes
over the site in a similar fashion to those effected for a hydrographic survey (see
Chapter 8). A contoured chart of the magnetic intensity over the whole site is
produced from which the distortions or anomalies may readily be located. Subse-
quent diving surveys are used to identify the nature of the objects discovered and to
ascertain the need for removal.
Submarine pipelines and cables

If it is known that pipelines and cables lie in or close to the dredging site it is
necessary to locate them accurately, establish ownership, and make arrangements for
relocation, removal or protection. Location may often be achieved by the use of side
scan sonar or possibly magnetometer survey (see above). A side scan sonar produces
a fan-shaped beam of acoustic energy which is transmitted perpendicularly to the
vessel's track (Figure 6.13). The reflected signals are recorded as changes in stylus
marking density on a continuous record. With large objects a shadow is produced on
the opposite side of the feature and, by using trigonometry, the height of the object
may be estimated.
Figure 6.13 Side scan sonar (Wimpey Laboratories Ltd)
Access to site
It is surprising how often details of the actual location of the site are overlooked. The
following points should be checked:
(1) Whether access to the site is restricted by a lock or locks, and if so, how often the
locks are open and for how long
(2) Whether access to the site is restricted by depth, either natural or due to man-
made restrictions
(3) Whether access to the site is restricted by width, such as a dock entrance
(4) Whether access to the dumping site is restricted by depth or by times at which
dumping is allowed.
Operational constraints
Interference from traffic

If the work is to be carried out in an existing port or waterway there is likely to be a
certain amount of waterborne traffic, which will cause the dredging or pretreatment
operations to be interrupted. Past records of shipping should be examined and
relevant information extracted and passed on to prospective contractors. If possible it
should be ascertained how long a warning period may be given of imminent ship
arrival and the effect of the interruption on the operations should be estimated.
Many dredging operations can be temporarily stopped for a few minutes with
relative ease, for instance, by slacking the side wires which are crossing the main
shipping channel. However, in the case of drilling and blasting operations the
slaking of wires may cause sufficient movement of the pontoon to make operations
hazardous and, in such circumstances, the round of explosive charges may have to be
fired before the vessel passes. Much time may be lost due to this enforced alteration
to normal working cycles and an appropriate compensation will have to be allowed
in the contract to suit this event (see Chapter 7).
Siting of working areas

Although the main working area will probably be the dredging area it may be
necessary to locate and construct suitable areas for reclamation. If the dredged spoil is
unsuitable for forming the edges of the reclamation area or if the area is not suf-
ficiently confined, it will be necessary to find suitable local sources of material with
which to construct the bunds. Possible quarry sites and borrow pits should be located
and their suitability and capacity assessed.
In addition to the dredging and reclamation sites the contractor, and the clients
representative, should have offices to house their staff. The contractor may also need
space to store his materials and spare parts. Adequate space should be located, con-
veniently close to the site. Much time can be lost travelling to the dredging site over
water and the distance to be travelled should be reduced to the minimum since the
cost of this travelling time is usually passed on to the client.
Safety
When operations are to be performed in exposed locations it is essential that there are
contingency arrangements made for possible emergencies at sea. Apart from the
immediate plans for lifting off injured or sick personnel, which are usually set up by
the contractor, the engineer who plans the contract should note the location of the
nearest lifeboat station and ensure that the nearest sheltered waters are both suitable
and capable of harbouring the dredging plant during periods of bad weather.
Statutory and legal constraints
Local and national laws

In most countries nowadays there are laws covering the dredging and dumping of
material at sea. Also, many shorelines and dump sites are owned by the state and
there are additional laws governing operations carried out at these locations. Labour
laws often govern the amount of expatriate labour that can be brought into a
country or at least fix the ratio of local to imported personnel employed. Further
laws may also control when work can be carried out, the number of working days
per week, and whether by night or day. Long delays may be incurred at the start of a
contract if these laws are not thoroughly investigated and the relevant permissions
sought. This is particularly true when the use of explosives is planned and temporary
explosive stores are required.
Land ownership
Investigations should be made to ascertain the ownership of all lands affected by the
dredging and reclamation works. Apart from the dredging site and the contractors
working area and sea access it may be necessary to erect beacons on headlands and
other suitable points. Landowners should be approached and relevant permissions
sought. As mentioned above, many shorelines are state owned and permission may
be required for temporary works, etc.
Local harbour regulations

Contractors are usually held responsible for dealing with the local harbour authority
and paying their pilotage and port dues if necessary. However, it is often advisable to
arrange for special moorings to be set aside for dredging craft.
Movement of navigational marks

Occasionally navigation buoys have to be removed to allow dredging operations to
be carried out. Arrangements have to be made with the relevant authority and steps
taken for the change in position to be made known to vesselsusing the area, usually
by means of a Notice to Mariners.
Environmental constraints
The environmental aspects of the proposed dredging contract should be fully

investigated. Details of the possible problems and controls are given in Chapter 11. It
is emphasised that if possible, environmental problems should be sorted out before a
contract is let, since, if this is not done, considerable time can be lost during the con-
tract at the expense of client, engineer and contractor alike.
6.7 Programming dredging works

An essential part of precontract planning is the programming of the work to be
done. Apart from being a reasonable estimate of how long a dredging project is
going to take, a good programme will ensure that maximum use is made of favour-
able site conditions. Since the dredging content of a port development scheme can
amount to up to 50% of the cost and since dredging is a high risk business it is sensible
to eliminate as much of the risk as possible. Considerable risk is inherent in the site
conditions; many of which are seasonal. Good programming is therefore, essential to
minimise this risk.
The usual factors to be considered when programming work are:
(1) The time when sea conditions are most favourable
(2) The time when river levels and current velocities are low
(3) The time when traffic through the dredging site is at a minimum
(4) In the Arctic and Antarctic, the time when either ice is thick or has melted
(5) In maintenance dredging, the time immediately after the main season for silta-
tion.
There is an additional factor which is often overlooked and this is the balance
between work in sheltered and unsheltered areas. It is well known that dredging
work in exposed locations is expensive, particularly when hard material is involved.
A large proportion of the cost of dredging in these areas is actually incurred through
not being able to dredge in them, i.e. in downtime. If, however, the dredging plant
could be employed to dredge in sheltered areas during periods of bad weather, the
cost of dredging in the exposed areas would be related only to the time spent in the
exposed areas and the time spent getting to and from them.
As an example, an exposed site which contains twenty days of dredging work
might only have suitable sea conditions for dredging for one day in four during the
summer season. Therefore, eighty days are required to complete the work. If the
weather statistics show that it will take five visits to the exposed site to achieve
twenty days working then at least another five working days will be lost in travell-
ing to and from a place of refuge. There are, therefore, fifty-five working days left
when the dredger could be occupied dredging in sheltered water. On the basis that
the actual work is as easy on the exposed site as the sheltered one and that the cost of
working is 1.25 times the cost of being idle, the costs of the exposed site are as
follows:
Cost without sheltered work:
Working on exposed site 20 days x 1.25 C = 25 C
Idle time, 60 days x C = 60 C
Total cost = 85 C
Cost with sheltered work:

Working on exposed site 20 days x 1.25 C = 25 C
Travelling time, 5 days x C = 5C
Total cost = 30 C
where C = unit cost of dredging plant per day idling.
The advantages of providing sheltered work are apparent.
Plate VII Site investigation for dredging works being carried out with a
Vibracore sea bed sampling unit. This unit will take disturbed bed cores of up
to 3 m length in granular material and can be used at all dredging depths (by
courtesy of Osiris-Cesco)
Plate VillA A drilling pontoon with three rigs mounted on a cantilever platform.
This unit was used to blast rock at Grut Wick, Shetland, and was fitted with a
special skirt which allowed it to be used as a hoverbarge when seeking shelter
from bad weather. Detonating fuses from drilled and charged holes can be seen
over the roller on the outer edge of the platform (by courtesy of Rock Fall
Company Ltd)
Plate VIIIB The drilling pontoon 'Sea Cow VII' working in Milford Haven,
South Wales, In 1967 This pontoon has four drilling rigs mounted on a bridge
unit which moves over the central well (by courtesy of Rock Fall Company Ltd)
6.8 Budget cost of dredging works

There is nothing special about the calculation of dredging costs. Most large dredging
companies work to about the same effICiency and have within their dredging fleets
many almost identical items of plant. It is not surprising, therefore, to fmd that
different estimating departments produce closely matched initial estimates for any
given tender. A company may be able to reduce this initial figure so that it is more
competitive than the others due to reasons such as that: they have an item of plant
available near the site and their mobilisation costs are reduced; they are prepared to
move a piece of plant to the site at low cost in order to break into a new area; they
have adopted a particular marketing strategy in the area which results in lower
prices; they have radically altered the working method, programme or other con-
tractual obligation to suit their own requirements.
These various factors should be ignored when estimating a budget cost for the
works. An economic appraisal should initially be based on global rates for plant and
mobilisation costs since a few months delay can substantially alter the dredging
market in any particular area and the conditions which allowed a low dredging cost
could disappear overnight. Any engineer who is familiar with the site and contract
conditions should be able to arrive at an initial estimate which is within 15% of that
given, as a global figure, by a dredging contractor. The steps are
Stage 1 Calculate the dredging quantities and assess the influence of the various
site conditions.
Stage 2 Choose a dredger which can definitely carry out the work (see Chapters
3 and 4). If there is a choice of dredger types, try using each one in turn
to obtain the lowest price.
Stage 3 Estimate output (see Chapter 5) and calculate time taken to carry out the
work. If the time is too long try more dredgers or bigger ones, if it is
very short try a smaller dredger.
Stage 4 Obtain from a suitable dredging company a global cost for operating the
particular dredger on site, plus its ancillary equipment and site
overheads.
Stage 5 Cost work on a time x unit cost basis and always show mobilisation and
demobilisation separately.
It is nearly always worthwhile to approach the job from as many sides as possible;
always try at least two types of dredger, work with conservative and ambitious
output rates, etc. In this way it is possible to arrive at a number of prices covering a
range of values. Finally, check against other jobs carried out in the area, or other
areas, which have similar characteristics, adjust these to account for inflation, loca-
tion, etc., and use the adjusted rates as a guide in the fmal selection of the budget cost.
Occasionally it may be found that a dredger which is near the site, but which is not
particularly well suited to the type of work, can complete the work at the minimum
cost because of its low mobilisation charge. Mobilisation costs for dredging plant are
high and usually have a significant bearing on the cost of the work.
References
(1) World Bank, Annual Review of Project Performance Audit Results, Washington, February 1978
(2) Parker, W.R., Sills, G.c. and Paske, R.E.A., In Situ Nuclear Density Measurements in Dredging
Practice and Control. Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Dredging Technology,
Canterbury, 1975
(3) Admiralty Tide Tables, 3 volumes published annually by the Hydrographer of the Navy
(4) Tide Tables, Published annually by us Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
(5) Pritchard, D.W. and Burt, W.V., An Inexpensive and Rapid Techniquefor Obtaining Current Profiles
in Estuarine Waters. Technical Report No.1, Cheasapeake Bay Institute,John Hopkins University,
1951
(6) Hogben, N. and Lumb, F.E., Ocean Wave Statistics. National Physical Laboratory, HMSO,
London, 1967
(7) Shore Protection Manual, US Army Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1973
(8) Owen, M.W., Determination of the Settling Velocities o{ Cohesive Muds. Internal Report No. 161,
Hydraulics Research Station, Wallingford, UK
(9) Swansbourne, j.F.C., Planning of projects, Terra et Aqua, No. 3/4, 1973
(10) Laboratorium voor Groudmechanica, Het Sonderen op het Water. LGM Publication, Delft, July
1961, pp. 1-13
(11) Alte, B., Swedish method of site investigations for proposed harbours in Ireland. The Dock and
Harbour Authority, October 1962
(12) Taylor Smith, D., Remote Sampling and In Situ Testing of the Sea Floor. Society of Underwater
Technology, Technical Panel Report, October 1969
(13) BS 1377 (1975),Methods o{Testing Soils." Civil Engineering Purposes. British Standards Institution,
London
(14) Special Proceduresfor Testing Soil and Rock for Engineering Purposes. American Society for Testing and
Materials, Publication No. STP 479
(15) Sakharov, S.M., Voronin, P.P., and Shopkov, A.B., Study of soil adhesion, PIANC Bulletin No.
14, 1, 1973
(16) Broch, E. and Franklin, j.A., The point load strength test, InternationalJournal of Rock Mechanicsand
Mining Sciences, 9, pp. 669--697, 1972
(17) Protodyakonov, M.M. Jr., Mechanical Properties and Drillability of Rocks. Proceedings of the 5th
Symposium on Rock Mechanics, University of Minnesota. Pergamon Press, 1962
(18) Report of the International Commission for the Classification of Soils to be Dredged, PIANC
Bulletin No. 11, 1, 1972
(19) Ottman. F. and Lahuec, G., Dredging and geology. Terra et Aqua, No. 11, May 1976
(20) Engineering News Record, 10 December, 1969
7 The dredging contract
7.1 Introduction
Since dredging appears to be simply the small portion of the job concerned with
underwater excavation there is often a disproportionately small emphasis placed on
its contractual framework. Indeed, in a large port development, the number of pages
of the contract devoted to dredging may sometimes be only a few pages, whilst the
value of the dredging work might be 40 to 50% of the whole contract sum.
The exectuion of dredging work is by no means simple and is often carried out in a
climate of risk and uncertainty by highly experienced personnel and with the use of
very sophisticated techniques. The comprehensive dredging contract is, therefore,
necessary to provide an enforceable agreement between the client and contractor as
to how they will jointly achieve the execution of the work. Apart from being a legal
agreement it should be a plan to meet all contingencies covering the scope of work;
payment; quality of work; and programme. These aspects should be related to the
natural factors of weather, site conditions, environmental aspects, etc.
It has been suggested(l) that the form of contract probably affects the fmal price of a
project at least as much as some of the engineering details. One of the main reasons
for this is the high risk content inherent in most dredging operations; but other
factors, such as the time allowed for tendering and the length of contract period, can
be just as important. The high risk content arises due to the high percentage of capital
tied up in the dredging equipment and the fact that the contractors' costs per unit
time are relatively invariable. The most important factors, therefore, are the rate of
production and the consistency with which it can be achieved, and these factors are
particularly susceptible to the site variables of weather and soil conditions.
In the light of the main opposing objectives of client and contractor, the minimisa-
tion of cost versus the maximisation of profit, a type of contract must be chosen
which suits the work to be carried out and distributes the risk appropriately between
both parties. The client, or his advisers, have a choice of contract type which varies
between taking much of the risk, thereby hoping to obtain the benefit of lower
prices, or letting the contractor take all the risk and probably paying more for the
work than might have been necessary.
Apart from the type of contract and its timing there are many other aspects which
affect the success of the job. These relate to the specification and measurement for the
contract, as well as the associated functions of contractor prcqualihcation and tender
analysis. These points are all discussed in the following sections, but as an overall
guide the more the contract reflects the type of work being carried out and the
circumstances in which it is being performed, the better it will be.
163
7.2 Types of contract

It is important, because of the high risk element present in most dredging operations,
that a type of contract should be chosen that splits the risk appropriately between
client and contractor. The choice of a suitable type of contract has been described in
some detail by Wallace(2)and much of the following discussion is based on his work,
with the kind permission of the publishers.
Figure 7.1 shows the possible types of contract, with decreasing contractor's risk
towards the right hand side of the diagram. The flexibility of contracts is further
extended by the use of various mechanisms. One important mechanism is the selec-
tion of the contractor and Figure 7.2 shows the several ways in which this selection
may be made, again with decreasing contractor's risk towards the right.
These diagrams show distinct types of contract or mechanism but it is better to
think of a gradual merging of one type into another since in real situations it is often
difficult to say which type pertains, and a single clause in the contract can displace it
either way in the spectrum.
Fixed price contracts

In fixed price contracts a fixed sum is agreed between client and contractor for the
work to be done, in advance of its execution. The contractor, therefore, accepts full
responsibility for all costs incurred, whether foreseen or not, and the relationship
between cost and profit is established before the project commences. Essentially the
contractor agrees to perform a total package for a total price.
Basically, the fixed price contract is heavily biased in favour of the client since all
risk is passed to the contractor. This is only acceptable in circumstances where design
or performance criteria are closely defined and where costs and prices can be
Figure 7.1 Basic contract forms (after vvallace'?')

The Dredging Contract 165
accurately estimated. Various modifications of the fixed price contract have been
developed to arrange a fairer system of risk-sharing, if the previous conditions are
not obtained. It is a fundamental principle of all fixed price contracts that there is
adequate competition; prior costing and price data for similar previous works are
available and can be extended for estimating purposes; uncertainties in the project
are reasonably identified and provided for.
In general terms the fixed price contract has the following advantages to the client:
there is a direct incentive to cost economy on the part of the contractor; the con-
tractor bears all risk and responsibility for management of the project; the necessity
for detailed and accurate costing leads to good discipline from the start; the project
data collected will provide a basis for evaluation of costs with the contractor operat-
ing at his best efftciency, hence making future estimates more accurately reflect true
costs.
The disadvantages are that the contractor is predisposed to cut costs by economies
in areas which may be inappropriate; if the contractor cannot bear the risk and goes
into liquidation the client bears the consequences; there is lessincentive for the client
to operate his own control and inspection system to keep the contractor up to the
mark; the contractor can usually fmd ways of incorporating additional costs to
alleviate the risk and these costs are paid by the client even if the risk fails to occur.
In the United Kingdom, government and local authority procedures require that
the fixed price competitive bid contract is used wherever possible and that other
contracts must not be used without justification and approval. However, a number
of investigations have indicated a need for revision of this situation and exploration
of alternatives. These comments apply to the dredging industry, not only through
the operation of local authority ports, but in all areas of activity.
The variations on the ftxed price theme arc outlined briefly.
Direct
Selective
selection8
negotiation negotiation
Figure 7.2 Selection of contractor (after Vvallace'<')

Fixed price contract with escalation

This is an attempt to reduce the risks placed on the contractor by allowing revision of
the contract price if the contingencies itemised in the contract actually materialise.
Price revision can be upward or downward depending on the movement of prices or
rates about an agreed index. The main areas of use of the escalation provisions are to
minimise the risk of price fluctuation of specific items; and labour and material
fluctuation, which are particularly important with present world commodity price
escalation and pressure for higher wages.
In order to maintain the fixed price aspect a ceiling price for the work after adjust-
ment for escalation is often used, but this increases the contractor's risk load accord-
ing to the height of the ceiling used.
Fixed price with incentive

This form of contract uses a set formula which relates the fmal cost of the work to the
level of profit which will be taken by the contractor (Figure 7.3). In effect the client
and contractor share in the actual cost saving or overrun on the target price. The
importance of realistic costing is obvious, as also is the agreement of what constitutes
a reasonable profit for the contractor. A ceiling price is often used and the contractor
undertakes the risk of excessive costs leading to declining profit towards the ceiling
cost, and loss above it.
Many alternative forms of incentive are available, including the quality or perfor-
$ (millions)
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/'
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12 20 / /
/' /
/
/' /
/' /
e~,/ ...... /
,0
..'/ Y
,}'
c,0/,
I'--- '<, c..';/ ,-,0';/
.. ....
....
........... /' ec,,/,
co
o
o e //'
.~ <,
...........
<0/
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10 0..
Target profit .........
/ // <,
.-!:,:Ofc
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,// <;
..........
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cost
/
/
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8
8 10 12
Execution costs $ (millions)
Figure 7.3 Incentive contracts (after Vvallace'<')

mance incentive where the parties to the contract agree a basic standard quality or
time of performance and substandard or high performance is correspondingly
adjusted for. This requires much effort in defming standards and measuring actual
performance. It also involves the client in placing a monetary value on the benefits of
improved performance which is extremely diffICult in the case of dredging. A
further difficulty in incentive contracts occurs when unavoidable delays lead to loss
of incentive, causing dispute as to who has liability for the loss.
Despite these problems it is anticipated that the growth of technology,
particularly in instrumentation and data-banking, will enable greater use to be made
of the incentive contract in the future.
Fixed price subject to redetermination

In this contract, an initial fixed price is negotiated with a redetermination clause
providing for renegotiation of the price during or after completion of the work.
Depending on the way the project is realised this may be to either party's advantage.
This type of contract is useful when the project is small in terms of time or money,
but requires careful control if it is not to become a cost-plus contract.
Fixed unit price

A common form of contract tendering in dredging work involves the use of unit
prices or rates. A ftxed rate is used for work of the same type. This is often given in
the form of a sliding scale of rates, related to a sliding scale of quantities. When the
client calls for tenders he also gives an estimate of the quantity of each material to be
removed. In a ftxed unit price contract it is the unit rates that are ftxed. Therefore, if
the quantities vary the price varies, whereas in a normal fixed price contract if the
quantities vary the price remains the same.
The fixed unit price contract does remove some of the risk of unknown site condi-
tions but it is subject to the following difficulties in use:
(1) Measurement of production, i.e. volume dredged can be in situ or in the hopper
and this influences the contractor's risk considerably
(2) Control and inspection is required to prevent inflation of the volume of dredged
material through incorrect or inaccurate recording or by superfluous dredging,
depending on the method of measurement used
(3) It introduces the possibility of unbalanced bidding, frontloading, cross-
subsidisation and other practices used by the contractor to improve his bidding
circumstances or cash flow (see Section 7.7).
Cost-reimbursement contracts
Under this type of contract the client agrees to pay whatever costs are actually
incurred by the contractor in carrying out the whole work and normally pays a fee
in addition. Since the client agrees to bear all allowed costs he is undertaking a major
part of the contractor's risk. This type of contract is therefore restricted to situations
where the work to be done is of such a nature that prior costing and estimating
cannot be relied upon; the client is not in a position, through either lack of essential
information or expertise, to assesswhether the contractor's quotation is reasonable
or not; the client has good reason to believe that insufficient competition exists to
allow the use of fIxed price contracts; the level of contractor's risk is such that the
fixed price bid will be grossly inflated to cover contingencies.
Where cost-reimbursement contracts are used the client cannot rely upon the
cost/profit incentive to contractor's effICiency and has a much greater commitment
to review project progress and the actual costs incurred throughout. This often pre-
sents difficulties in reconciling the different accounting and costing methods of each
party. The cost-reimbursement contract is subject to many forms of abuse, such as
charging overheads into direct costs, neglecting to include quantity discounts and
dumping of surplus plant on site.
Basic cost and cost-sharing

These are cost reimbursement contracts where no fee or provision for profit is used.
Basic cost contracts allow for full recompense of all costs incurred, whereas cost-
sharing contracts use an agreed basis of sharing actual costs between the parties.
These contracts have little scope in dredging and tend to be employed with organisa-
tions involved in research and development or non-profit making, charitable
organisations.
Cost-plus or prime cost contracts

Cost-plusfixedfee: In principle this contract operates through an agreement on a fixed
fee which will be paid to the contractor in addition to his incurred costs, whatever
they may be. Often, the initial fixed fee is provisional to the extent that future costs
are unpredictable. After completion of a part of the work the tlxed fee can be
negotiated in the light of actual costs. This has disadvantages (see below).
Cost-plus percentagefee: This form of contract requires stringent controls since the
payment of a fee which is proportional to the total project costs incurred is a direct
incentive to inetticiency and inflation of costs on the part of the contractor. In fact,
US government procurement regulations specifically prohibit this form of contract
and in the UK the treasury's attitude is that it should be used only when there is no
alternative.
Cost-plus incentive: In this contract, the incentive can be either a negative one which
sets a maximum price for the work, introducing an element of fixed-price contract-
ing, or a positive incentive scheme similar to the fixed price plus incentive method.
A target cost is agreed to which a percentage is added as profit and the actual price
paid to the contractor consists of the ascertained costs, the agreed profit and the
incentive adjustment according to the formula for cost savings or overruns. A ceiling
price can also be used as a further control.
This type of contract is used little in civil works and dredging since, if sufficient
information is available to calculate target costs, ctc., then a fixed price contract
could be used. It tends to be used when the fixed price cannot be determined with
any certainty but can only be set within a range. When repeated changes in
specification are likely during the project it is not advisable to use this type of con-
tract because of the contractors' loss of interest in incentive when target costs are
continuously changing.
Value cost contract: This method relies on an agreed schedule of unit prices at the start
of the project. The work actually done is then valued at the agreed rates. If the value
is more than the actual cost, then the agreed initial fee to the contractor is increased
by a set percentage, ifless it is decreased. The contractor, therefore, has an incentive
to economy. However, setting of the original schedules of prices must be very
carefully done.
Special contract forms
In general, special contract forms are contracts at a price to be agreed. They include
letters of intent and lease contracts, and arc usually used where emergency action is
needed or where very little information is available on the work to be done.
Letter of intent
This is an agreement that a formal contract will be drawn up with a contractor, who
in return offers his services on an immediate and ad hoc basis. Its legal standing as a
binding agreement is questionable both in the United Kingdom and America.
Lease contract
This involves the client paying a fixed hourly or daily rate for labour, plant, over-
heads, etc., to the contractor who places the facilities entirely at the client's disposal
for work as required. It is used where the nature and duration of the work is not
known to any useful extent, e.g. where shoaling occurs in dredging work.
Obviously since the contractor is paid pro rata the client has liability to ensure that
he gets value for his money in terms of an efficient operation.
In the Netherlands the lease contract is frequently used with a provision for
additional payments depending on output. This promotes contractor's efficiency
and acts as a support to the inspection programme. A ceiling price or quantity can be
used which the contractor cannot exceed without the client's permission. Lease con-
tracts have a special usefulness where the client is dissatisfied with all bids received
and decides to explore the real costs of a project as the work proceeds.
Contract mechanisms
The primary mechanism in any contract form is the method of selection of the con-
tractor. Competitive tendering of bids is the most common process of selection, but
selection by negotiation probably accounts for some of the largest value contracts
let, especially at government level.
Open competitive tender

This has been the method required by local and national government until recent
years and is dominant throughout the civil engineering industry. Invitations to bid
are formally advertised in the press and all contractors in the fIeld of work can
participate in the competition. Its claimed advantages are that all bids are tendered
on the same basis and can be compared directly to each other; it eliminates
favouritism or corruption; it allows smaller contractors to enter the bidding; it leads
to the lowest price. However, several top level investigations, notably those of the
Simon and Banwell Committees'Y'' have made the point that the lowest bidder may
not be the best qualified for the work and may have the lowest bid through inept
costing methods and underestimation. Also, the open competition involves all but
one of the contractors in the expense of tendering for work which they will not be
awarded.
Competitive bidding is obviously not suited to pure price competition, unless the
factors of quality, specification, service, delivery, etc., are well-established and
common to all contractors.
Selective tender
Because of the problems of open or fully competitive tender a system of selection of
qualified bidders for a specific work has developed. Its advantages are that the
number of bids, and evaluation costs thereof, is reduced; the existence of approved
bidder lists is an incentive to the contractor to give good performance; it avoids the
waste of resources involved when many contractors duplicate the work involved in
tendering for a project; it leads to a closer relationship between the client and those
contractors who are regularly invited to tender. However, there are a number ofless
satisfactory consequences: there is an inherent reduction in competition; a barrier to
new competition is set up; continuity of work of firms on approved list can give
them economic advantages and this may lead to concentration in the industry; a pre-
disposition exists for the reduced number of contractors on the selective listing to
collude and form price rings.
Selective competitive tendering is intermediate between fully competitive and
negotiated tenders, and this is reflected in its use when project characteristics are not
so well-defmed as to accept an off-the-shelf solution, but sufficient information is
available for limited competition between eligible contractors.
Negotiation
There is no definite transition from competitive tendering to negotiation, but more a
continuous spectrum between the two extremes. Selective tenders can resemble
simultaneous negotiation between client and several contractors, and the elements of
competition can also be introduced into negotiation at the initial stages.
Negotiation reflects a contract situation where competition is perhaps absent, e.g.
because of the existence of price rings or other forms of collusion; where only one or
two contractors are currently available; where only one contractor has the
capability to execute the work; due to geographical domination by a primary con-
tractor. Alternatively competition may be constrained, e.g. because of security
restrictions or urgency; where novel and original methods are called for; where a
contractor has developed special expertise or equipment to deal with specific project
problems.
Some interesting new contract forms using negotiation have emerged and are
receiving attention from local and national bodies in the UK and abroad. One of
these is the serial contract which uses an initial pilot project or notional bill of
quantities as the basis for competitive bids usually on a selective basis. Bidders are
made aware that further contracts in the series will be priced on the basis of the
original tender or bill of quantities and continuation will be subject to satisfactory
performance of each stage in the series. This arrangement is aimed at cutting down
the waste of time and money involved in repeated tendering and it allows for con-
tinuation of employment of the contractor with the benefits of development of
expertise and economy. It is, however, restricted to work where the project is
homogeneous and the initial project is representative of the whole series. Also, the
initial contractor has an unfair advantage in subsequent tenders because his mobilisa-
tion costs are already met.
Generally in the civil engineering industry there is a trend away from pure com-
petitive bidding on a single project basis as it is wasteful of resources and time.
However, the use of more lasting forms of contractual relationship will require
increasing attention to effective costing and estimating methods on the part of both
client and contractor; equality of information and expertise of both parties;
incentives to efficiency and quality for the contractor; measures to maintain
competition.
A systematic approach to contracts
Selection of the best type of contract for a particular project involves analysis at
several levels:
(1) Primary considerations, such as: what apparent competition is available; what
the real competition is after eliminating unsuitable or unavailable contractors; what
the nature and scope of the work is, i.e. small or large, simple or complex, high risk
or low risk; what the major client objectives are, i.e. whether cost minimisation is
more important than meeting time restrictions, etc.
(2) Secondary considerations, such as: what support facilities are available to the
client by way of inspection, site control, use of consultants, etc.; whether the client is
in a good negotiating position on the basis of size of project, future projects, prestige
work, quality of expertise, etc.; whether there are sufficient resources to use cost-
control and collection systems; what scope exists for incentive or productivity deals
in the contract; whether penalty clauses should be used and in which areas; what
areas of experience in previous projects can be used.
(3) Details: whether there is a resident or local contractor; whether there are any
contract policies to be followed; whether there are any specific problems in the
project which could be treated better separately to the main contract; whether the
project requires any special expertise, plant, etc.; what laws, acts, regulations, etc.,
must be applied; what restrictive practices operate; what level of quality control is
needed.
This analysis can obviously be extended but it serves to show the approach which
can be used to avoid the major pitfalls of poor contract selection. The contract must
be as fair and impartial as possible in the resolution of conflict at all stages. A contract
which shows suspicion and distrust of the contractor leads to prejudice from the
outset. Likewise, a soft or overflexible contract is not in either the client's or con-
tractor's best interests. The best contract form is the one which recognises the
unavoidable conflict of interests and inherent risks of the project in such a way as to
allow both client and contractor to reach a satisfactory conclusion.
7.3 Contract documentation

Whatever type of contract is chosen it must be based on some form of documenta-
tion. The ftxed price contract based on measured rates and issued to contractors for
competitive tendering will probably require the most documentation as follows:
(1) Instructions to tenderers
(2) General conditions of contract, including form of tender, form of agreement,
form of bond
(3) Modifications to general conditions of contract
(4) Special conditions of contract
(5) Speciftcation
(6) Bill of quantities
(7) Drawings
(8) Supporting documents
(9) Notices to tenderers
Other contract types may require some of these items, but not necessarily all. The
most important items are (4), (5) and (6) and these are discussed separately in Sec-
tions 7.4, 7.5 and 7.6.
Instructions to tenderers
The instructions to tenderers are provided to assistthe contractor in the preparation
of his tender and to provide a check list of documents which must be returned. The
following items should be covered: the currency of the contract; the offtcial
languages for correspondence during the tender period; details of major items of
plant to be used; a method statement; a programme of works; a staff organisation
chart; a certificate of site visit; a forecast of payments; a tender guarantee; bank
references; records of experience of similar works.
General conditions of contract

The general conditions of contract are those defmitions and legal arrangements
which provide the background against which the technical and fmancial aspects of
the contract are agreed. Many standard conditions of contract exist for civil
engineering works and most of these may be modified for dredging works. The
FIDIC Conditions of Contract, 3rd edition, March 1977, Pub. FIDIC (Federation
Internationale des Ingenieurs - Conseils}, are favoured by many European and
North American contractors and it is often advisable to choose a well-known docu-
ment such as this, rather than a more specialised one, since the known interpretation
of the former, through its wider use, may well help to avoid lengthy and costly legal
arguments.
Modifications to the general conditions

In order to adapt the general conditions of contract so that it is suitable for dredging
works it will be necessary to make a few substitutions, deletions and additions. These
may be covered in the special conditions of contract (Section 7.4) if they are peculiar
to the specific site or works proposed. The FIDIC Conditions of Contract has a third
part entitled Conditions of particular application to dredging and reclamation work,
and this should be used to modify the main document. Other amendments to the
standard clauses should be kept as brief as possible to avoid destroying the logic and
invalidating the case law backing up the interpretation of the original conditions.
Clauses that are often amended are concerned with insurance, additional work and
forfeiture.
Insurance for a dredging contract is particularly important, especially the liability
to third parties. Many contracts are carried out in busy harbours and waterways and
a mistake which causes a shipping accident can prove to be very expensive. Not only
should the client take great care in deciding the amount of third party liability cover
but also a joint approach by the prospective contractor and client to the underwriters
may help to obtain reasonable premiums.
Clauses which allow the client to make alterations to the contract without adjust-
ment to the rates or payment for work should be omitted. A small increase in dredg-
ing depth can make a considerable difference to the cost of carrying out dredging
work, whilst the additional quantity dredged may be very small.
In the event of a contractor becoming bankrupt most forms of contract allow the
client to take over the plant and materials on the site to continue the work.
However, vehicles engaged in transporting labour, plant and materials to or from
the site are usually excluded. Since most dredging plant comes within this category it
is normal for this exclusion to be omitted in dredging contracts.
Drawings
The contract should have an adequate number of drawings. The number of draw-
ings of the dredging area must be sutticicnt to include the following details:
(1) A clearly dimensioned plan of the dredging and/or reclamation areas showing
dredged depths, side slopes and the position of the dredging areas with respect to the
local grid, or national grid
(2) Sections of the dredging areas where appropriate, showing side slopes and
dredging tolerances. Also methods of payment, if visual explanation is helpful
(3) Hydrographic surveys of all the dredging areas. A scale of 1 :2500 is usual but
may be enlarged to 1:500 in areas where exposed rock conditions predominate (see
Chapter 8)
(4) A site plan showing dredging and reclamation areas, spoil grounds and the area
to be made available for the contractors site offICe and plant yard. This plan should
also show quarry and borrow pit locations for bund material if these are near to the
site
(5) Geophysical surveys where appropriate, drawn to the same scale as the
hydrographic survey and any other site investigation drawings showing borehole
locations, etc.
In locations where shore stations have already been erected for the purposes of sur-
veying it is useful to show these on the drawings and to provide a list of their
coordinates.
Supporting documents
The supporting documents contain all the information which has been obtained
during the site investigations in the planning stages (see Chapter 6). The information
is generally concerned with weather, sea state, soil conditions and other factors
which affect the output of the dredger on the site. In Chapter 6 a guide is given to the
method of presenting this information in order that it should be of maximum benefit
to the contractor. No matter how it is presented in the documents the contractor
should be allowed access to the original raw data if he wishes, in order that he may
check the analyses or carry out his own. If there is any doubt about how to analyse
the data it should be supplied in its raw, or sensibly modified, state.
The supporting documents should be included in the contract without a
disclaimer as to their accuracy or validity. It is better for the contractor to have the
maximum amount of data in order that the risk element of the contract is minimised.
Unforseen conditions do arise, but their probability of occurrence is reduced by
comprehensive investigation and reporting.
Notices for tenderers
Notices for tenderers are notices issued to all tendering contractors during the tender
period. They may be required for a number of reasons but are usually to clarify some
point in the documents which the contractors are fmding obscure or to amend the
documents due to reasons outside the control of the client or his representative.
These notices should be avoided if possible and should certainly be brief. They will
form part of the contract with the successful contractor and should, therefore, be
worded accordingly.
In dredging works a small change in the specification or scope of work may have a
considerable effect on the potential contractors working method, planning and
costs. It is, therefore, imperative that any changes to the contract during the tender
period be as small as possible. If a large change is unavoidable it is prudent and con-
siderate to allow a proportionate extension to the tender period.
7.4 Special conditions of contract

Apart from the few modifications to the general conditions which have to be made
there are a number of special conditions, or conditions of particular application,
which are required to cope with the peculiarities of the site and the specific job to be
carried out.
Working hours
Although most dredging operations are best carried out on a 24 hour day, 7 day
week basis it is sometimes necessary to insist on shorter working hours. In some
countries it is un wise or forbidden to work on the religious rest day of the week and
sometimes the nuisance value of the operations due to noise, etc., may make night
work undesirable.
Permits
Most countries have rules and regulations regarding the employment of labour,
work permits, licences to store explosives, licences to dump material and many other
such licences. If possible a search should be made to establish how many of these will
affect the contract and how long the relevant permits will take to be obtained. The
contract should state clearly whose responsibility it is to obtain these permits. If a
considerable time is required to get a permit the client is best advised to make
arrangements himself for obtaining it to avoid delays in the start of operations.
Sunken vessels and other marine debris
Before the contract is written the client or his representative should try and locate
any wreck which is likely to hinder dredging operations and organise its removal. In
naval docks and harbours there is a likelihood of shells, bombs and missiles being
discovered. It is best to locate as many of the items as possible by the use of a mag-
netometer survey (see Chapter 6) and have them removed by divers. The contract
should state whose responsibility it is to dispose of this type of debris and it probably
should be the client.
Harbour dues
When the client is a port authority it is normal for the contractor to be relieved of the
duty of having to pay harbour dues since the cost of these will be passed back to the
client at a premium. Similar charges should be waived whenever possible.
Interruptions to normal port operations

Dredging operations should be restrained from interrupting normal port operations
and the documents should state this. Since this implies that the dredging operations
will be interrupted occasionally, due allowance must be made for payment of stand-
ing time (see Section 7.6).
Price variations
Price variation is relatively easy to apply to dredging works since, apart from the
large items of plant, the variables are mainly fuel and labour, both of which are
usually well-monitored. The special conditions should cover how prices are to be
adjusted and how the contractor is to apply for the adjustment. In a recent discussion
of methods of price variation'f it was noted that a common form of price adjustment
formula used is as follows:
P=p w M T E )
( a-+b-+c-+d-+x
UJ In t e
(7.1 )
where P New price

p Old price
W,M,T and E New pnces of wages, materials, transport and
equipment
ur.m; and e Old pnces of wages, materials, transport and
equipment
x Buffer element
The coefficients a,b,c and d indicate the proportion of that particular item in the cost
price and thus:
a+h+c+d+x=l (7.2)
The number of variable costs and coefficients will depend on the length of the con-
tract period, risk content of the work and nationalla ws relating to price rises, etc.
However many variable costs there are, the coefficients must add up to one when
added to the buffer element. If all costs arc variable, the buffer element becomes
zero.
Table 7.1 shows some coefficients which have been used in Italy and Belgium and
also those suggested by Oostcrbaan". which incidently include 10% for currency,
monetary and other risks.
Table 7.1 Coefficients for use In price variation formulae

(after Oosterbaan & Bean(51)
General
Italy Belgium (Oosterbaan'v')
Wages 0.25 0.43 0.45

Materials 0.02
Fuel 0.13 017
Transport 0.01
Equipment 0.72 0.19 0.38
Buffer 5% reduction
applied to 0.25
calculation
Bonds
Bonds occur in a number of forms such as bid bonds, performance bonds and
payment bonds. All are designed to protect the client against additional expense in
the event of the contractor defaulting in some manner. The level of the bond, i.e. the
percentage of the contract value for which the bond is good, will vary according to
the type of work, reliability of the contracting industry and similar factors. Since
dredging is a high risk business, and the normal forfeiture clauses are difficult to
apply, it might be expected that performance bonds would be fairly high, and, in
fact, percentages vary from 10 to 100%. However, it should be remembered that the
cost of the bond is eventually borne by the client.
Other special conditions

There are many other special conditions of contract which usually depend on the
national laws of the country in which the work is to be carried out and relate to
employment of foreign labour, currency, retention money, arbitration, exemption
from taxes, etc. Since these items are not peculiar to dredging contracts alone they
are not discussed here.
7.5 Specifications
The specification in the dredging contract is the section in which the contractor is
told what the job is, what operational constraints are to be imposed during the
execution of the work and what quality of work is desired during the execution and
in the finished product. It is helpful to introduce the specification with a brief
summary of the job. This is often called the scope of work. Reference is made to the
drawings (sec Section 7.3) and other relevant supplementary documents and a
general description of the site and site conditions is given.
Timing of the work

After the scope of work, the timing of the contract is set out. The information
provided should be sufficient to tell the contractor the starting date or dates, if any,
and the completion date. If there arc interim completion dates, or key dates, for
different sections of the contract these should be stated as well.
Dimensions
Horizontal datum
Details of the site grid should be given and all horizontal lines should be coordinated
with respect to this grid.
Vertical datum
All water depths should be measured from a reference water level, usually local chart
datum, and the relation between this reference level and other local or national
datums should be given.
Dredged level
The concept of dredged level for the contract should be defmed. A number of
different systems are in use and the method adopted should be suitable for the job, the
site and the dredging plant expected to carry out the work. The definition of
dredged level is closely connected to tolerances and methods of payment. These
should, therefore, be examined in detail.
Side slopes
Side slopes should be specified together with their method of determination. N or-
mally they should be slightly flatter than the natural angle of repose of the dredged
material (see Chapter 9).
Tolerances
Tolerances in dredging work are required for a number of reasons; to allow the
dredger to perform its dredging operation, to ensure that the completed works are
functional in all respects, and to account for inaccuracies in the various methods of
positioning. The latter is taken into account in the design of the dredging area and is
reflected in the level chosen as the dredging level. The first two depend on the nature
of the works and type of dredger employed. The ideal tolerance is one which ensures
that the minimum of material is dredged, without an increase in the unit cost of
dredging, due to the difficulty of dredging within the tolerance. Naturally, if the
functional tolerance demanded for the work is smaller than the normal operating
tolerance for the dredger the optimum cannot be achieved.
Functional tolerances are set by the nature of the work and its aesthetic or
technical requirements; horizontal tolerances being important for narrow channels,
canals, retaining walls, quay walls and slopes in harbour basins, whilst vertical
tolerances are important in large shipping channels and prepared surfaces for
foundations. Slope tolerances become important when the slope is at the foot of a
quay wall or when it is to be protected by stones or asphalt.
The operational tolerances demanded by the various dredging machines vary con-
siderably from machine to machine and also according to the working conditions.
De Koning(6)reports the following factors as important:
The type and size of the equipment
The type and properties of the soil - hardness, compaction, cementation, cohesion,
etc.
The prevailing waves - height, length and frequency
The prevailing tide
The dredging depth in relation to the optimum position of the ladder
The experience of the personnel
The instrumentation on board the dredger

The method of position ftxing
The degree of automation of the dredger
The quality of survey, the sounding work and the equipment used.
He also gives a rough guide to the tolerances which might be required in practice
and a modified version of this is given in Table 7.2.
Tidal measurements
Inaccuracies in tidal measurement can lead to far greater errors than those occurring
in the normal use of depth measuring instruments, so it is important, especially in
areas where the tidal range is large, to have tide gauges or poles set up near the
dredging site. This requirement should be included in the contract.
I>epth measurements
The accuracy and method of measuring water depths is of great importance in the
dredging contract and, therefore, must be well defmed. The methods of carrying out
surveys are fully described in Chapter 8. Whilst the measurement of ftll quantities in
reclamation areas can usually be carried out by normal surveying methods, the con-
tract documents should specifically state the method to be used for hydrographic
surveys, including the accuracy of the equipment, the spacing of sounding runs and
the methods of calibrating the instrument before and after each surveying period. In
reclamation areas there may be settlement of the ground under the weight of new fIll
and the approved method of measuring this should be indicated in the documents
(see Chapter 10).
It is normal practice for the client to supply a representative to take part in, or be
present at, the taking of these measurements.
Materials
The classification of dredged material is one of the major causes of dispute in dredg-
ing contracts and, whether it is to be used for ftll or is merely being excavated, there
should be a clear method of classifying it for payment purposes.
Excavation
One of the most difficult problems is to differentiate between hard and soft
materials, particularly when they are either layered or graduate into one another.
There are four distinct cases which can occur:
(1) When the contract is basically to dredge soft material but a contingency item is
required for the possible occurrence of rock
(2) When the presence of rock in the dredging area is well-established but the loca-
tion and extent of the rock is not fully known and is not likely to be, without exces-
sivc investigation
(3) As (2) but the location and extent are known or can be estimated
Table 7.2 Proposed operating tolerances for vanous types of dredger after de Koning!!:)) _.
5
Organic Addition
Stone Not cohesive soil Cohesive soil soil for tide tJ
....
Weathere per metre Addition Addition 0
p_.
rock and difference for cross- for heavy (JQ
Type of Size of the Blasted softer Hard Soft In water current wave S'
dredger dredger rock stone Stones Gravel Sand Mud clay clay Peat height 1 5ms -1 attack (JQ
TH Tv TH Tv TH Tv Til Tv Til Tv TH Tv' TH Tv TH Tv TH Tv TH Tv TH Tv t>

Volume of buckets
::r:
I>'
;:l
(litre) p_.
Bucket 50-200 NA NA NA NA NA NA 50 20 100 30 75 15 50 10 75 15 75 25 50 25 15 U
0
dredger 200-500 150 30 100 20 150 30 75 25 150 50 125 25 75 15 125 25 100 35 75 50 25 0
500-800 NA NA NA NA 200 50 100 35 200 60 150 30 100 20 150 30 125 45 100 75 35 ~
Volume of buckets 0'
....
(rn')
tTl
Dipper and 0.5-2 100 30 NA NA 100 30 50 20 100 30 NA NA 75 15 125 25 75 40 5 25 25 15 ;:l
hack hoe CJQ
2-5 150 50 100 20 150 50 75 25 150 50 NA NA 100 20 150 30 150 75 5 50 50 25
dredgers S'
Volume of grab 0
0
(rn') ~
Floatl ng 05-2 100 50 100 25 100 50 75 50 100 25 NA NA NA NA 50 30 75 40 5 25 25 15
grab 2-4 200 75 200 50 200 75 150 75 200 50 NA NA NA NA 150 75 150 75 5 50 50 25
dredger 4-7 250 100 250 75 250 100 200 100 300 75 NA NA NA NA 250 100 250 125 5 75 75 35
Cutter diameter
(m)
Cutter 075-1.50 NA NA NA NA NA NA 150 50 200 40 150 30 75 15 100 25 100 30 50 25 15
suction 1.50-250 75 25 50 20 NA NA 225 75 250 50 200 40 100 20 150 40 125 40 75 50 25
dredger 2.50-3.50 100 30 75 25 NA NA 300 100 300 60 250 50 150 30 200 50 175 60 100 75 35
H opper capacity
(tonnes)
Trailing 500-3000 NA NA NA NA NA NA 1000 25 1000 25 1000 30 NA NA 1000 50 NA NA 250 100 0
hopper 3000-6000 NA NA NA NA NA NA 1500 501500 50 1500 50 NA NA 1500 75 NA NA 500 150 0
suction 6000-18000 NA NA NA NA NA NA 1500 75 1500 75 1500 50 NA NA 1500 100 NA NA 500 150 0
dredger
Tv the
r.
T H == horizontal tolerance In cm Slopes When the actual angle (,) of the slope IS steeper than tan , ~ horrzontal tolerance will be ruling
II T
Tv == vertical tolerance In cm The vertical tolerance IS ruling when the angle of the slope IS more gentle than tan '1. = ~
NA ~ not applicable
(4) When there is no soft material in the dredging area.

There is a fifth case which occurs when soft material is found in cemented patches
which cannot be dredged by the equipment on the site. This is really a special form
of case (1) and will be treated as such.
In case (1) the occurrence of rock, or hard material, is the exception rather than the
norm, and the quantities will not be known until after the completion of the work.
A dredger will be selected which is capable of handling the soft material efficiently.
However, its capability to deal with hard material might be almost non-existent. In
these circumstances it is suggested that, although a definition of rock is not
appropriate, there should be provision in the contract for the execution of dredging
work which is substantially different from that indicated by the site investigation;
the rate to do this work being negotiated on the basis of reduced output, hire rate or
the use of alternative methods. If this method is not used the contractor must be made
aware that he carries all the risk if hard material is encountered.
In case (2) there is not likely to be any method of measuring the relative propor-
tions of hard and soft material and so there is little point in differentiating between
the two. The contract should, therefore, be let for the dredging of any material.
However, a good site investigation is essential to ensure that the porportions of hard
and solt material can be estimated and that a suitable dredger or combination of
dredgers is supplied to do the job.
Cases (3) and (4) are examples where rock dredging may be paid for in its own
right and, therefore, the rock must be defined in order to be measured. Case (4) pre-
sents no problem since it is all rock but in case (3) the level at which the material
changes from soft to hard must be established. A level of this type is often determined
by the method of investigation and this is a convenient way in which to define the
rock level. Investigation has been successfully carried out using high pressure jetting
probes and also the casings of overburden drilling equipment (see Chapter 6). The
methods of investigation can be standardised by using standard equipment and
following a standard procedure. When drilling and blasting techniques are to be
used the method employing overburden drill casings is particularly useful since the
measurement of rock level may be undertaken during the drilling operations.
It should be noted that the old method of defming rock as material which cannot
be excavated without explosives is no longer applicable. Many modern dredgers are
capable of dredging rock without blasting, although with reduced output.
Fill
The characteristics of materials which are used in till are outlined in Chapter 10. The
specification should defme the types of soil which mayor may not be used for till by
reference to their plasticity, angle of internal friction, liquid limit and organic
content, etc.
Disposal and reclamation of soil

Areas for disposal of soil should be specified in the documents together with any
limitations concerning the times for dumping, i.e. during periods of ebb tide, etc. If
possible both dumping and reclamation spoil grounds should be offered, since this
gives the contractor every opportunity to choose his most economic working
method.
The method of forming the bunds for reclamation areas should be specified (see
Chapter 10) and it should also be stated whether any protection to the bunds is
required. If leaching of fIll material through the bunds is likely a suitable filter
material must be specified. Directions for the removal of unsuitable material in the
reclamation area should be given and also for the disposal of debris and refuse. The
method of compacting suitable material in the reclamation area should either be
specified or approved by the clients representative. The maximum thickness of fIll
layers must be specified and the degree of compaction required.
Environmental control
In Chapter 11 the environmental aspects of dredging works are discussed in detail.

There are certain points which are usually noted in the specification and these are
mentioned below. Other environmental aspects may have to be investigated in
detail and it is recommended that as much study as possible should be carried out
before the commencement of the contract in order that clear specifications relating
to control can be given in the documents.
Blasting vibration
Vibration from blasting operations should always be monitored and the contractor is
required to supply suitable instrumentation and personnel to do this. A suitable
vibration limit should be specified. However, this does not absolve the contractor of
his responsibility concerning noise and public nuisance. It is recommended that the
operational limits for any site should be established and agreed by the contractor and
the client's representatives on site after a series of test blasts.
Noise
Specific local regulations, if they exist, regarding the intensity and duration of noise
should be given in the contract. In the absence of any regulations it is usual for noise
to be regulated on an ad hoc basis depending on the remoteness of the site, the
nuisance quality of the noise, etc.
7.6 ~easurennent
The method of measurement and also the way in which the bill of quantities is set out
in a dredging contract vary considerably. There are three basic factors to be con-
sidered: the measuring technique; the way in which payment is to be made; and the
relationship between the billed items and the work itself. Each of these factors should
be assessed against the background of the work to be carried out and should take
account of: the equipment to be used; the type of work, i.e. capital or maintenance;
the rate of siltation; and the type of dredged material.
The method of measurement and billing chosen should attempt to make the opera-
tion of measurement as simple and accurate as possible, and the method of payment
as realistic as possible.
Format of the bill of quantities

The bill of quantities follows a fairly standard format. It begins with an explanation
of how the measurement is to be carried out and how the bill is to be completed by
the tenderer. This is followed by the bill, or bills, itself. If the job is large there will
be a number of bills which will relate to specific stages of the construction or types of
work. Within the bills will be the normal general items and then those which
characterise the actual work itself which consist of items for bringing plant onto the
site and subsequently removing them (mobilisation and demobilisation) ; items con-
cerning the actual dredging work; items concerning the idling charges for each
major item of plant (the demurrage rate); items covering contingencies, such as
removal of wrecks, etc. In addition to this there may be other items for reclamation,
constructing bunds, instrumentation, etc.
The fIrSt and last of the above categories do not usually present problems.
However, it should be noted that due to the high cost of mobilising single dredging
units, the first category should be split, not just into mobilisation and demobilisation,
but into items relating to the separate pieces of equipment. Items concerning the
actual dredging work should also be split up into specific sections. Such factors as
distance to dump or reclamation area, sea state, soil type and depth of water may all
have a profound influence on the cost of carrying out the work, and it is wrong for
sites with widely varying conditions to be grouped under one item.
Measurement technique
There are three ways to measure quantity of material dredged: in the cut, in the fill
or in the hopper. Generally, capital or non-recurrent dredging work is measured in
the cut, capital reclamation work in the fill and maintenance dredging work in the
hopper or other means of transport. There are some obvious exceptions to this, for
instance maintenance dredging work carried out by cutter suction dredger, when
the method of dredging does not allow sutficient accuracy of measurement to be
obtained. In these cases an alternative method of measurement is often more
satisfactory.
For jobs involving dredging and reclamation it is important to establish which
operation is the primary function and measure it accordingly. When both are
primary it is normal to measure the excavation in the cut but to allow for supple-
mentary filling in the reclamation area where necessary (see Method of payment).
When choosing a suitable method the following points should be checked:
In the cut:
(1) If the bed material is very light, or the method of dredging has resulted in a light
bed material being formed on the surface, an echo sounder may receive false echos
and indicate a much higher bed level than is effectively there. In this case an alterna-
tive method of sounding may be more appropriate such as a density meter or a

sounding line.
(2) When using sounding lines inaccuracies may occur due to the current moving
the line out of the perpendicular.
(3) Movement of material into and out of the dredging area may occur due to
natural siltation processes.
(4) If two materials are to be excavated it may be difficult to determine where one
fmishes and the other begins.
In the ftll:
(1) The sub-soil may shrink, sink or slide under the load of the fill and more fill may
be needed than would appear from direct measurement.
(2) Material may be lost from the reclamation area due to erosion by winds, waves
or currents.
(3) Fine materials may be transported out of the fill area by the overflow water.
In the means of transport:
(1) In order to relate to the in-situ cut or fill quantities the bulking of the dredged
material must be known. The density of material in a hopper may vary considerably,
as may the material on site.
(2) Methods of measurement in pipelines are very inaccurate under normal site con-
ditions and measurements in the hopper require good continuous supervision and
control.
Method of payment
In this context the method of payment is defmed as the method by which the
payment is related to the work carried out. The method of payment is closely related
to the method of measurement and the manner in which the work is performed, and
thus to the cost of carrying out the work. Since the manner of performing the work
depends to a great extent on the material to be excavated it is appropriate to consider
specific items.
Pretreatment
All methods of pretreatment, whether drilling and blasting, surface blasting or rock
breaking by mechanical means, demand a work method which is related to area but
made more difficult as the material to be dredged becomes deeper. Since surface
blasting and rock breaking techniques tend to be used when the rock is in thin layers
or in relatively small quantities they usually coincide with instances when rock is not
being measured separately. However, the following remarks about drilling and
blasting will usually apply to other pretreatment methods.
The drilling and blasting method involves setting up an expensive piece of equip-
ment to drill holes vertically over the area of rock, no matter what the thickness, and
so there is a substantial cost element which relates to area. Even if the rock is only a
few millimetres thick above the dredged level it is still necessary to drill down to a
depth well below this level to achieve adequate fragmentation all over the area.
Figure 7.4 shows how the costs of drilling and blasting vary according to the
I
5
I
I
Q)
0
I
o
on I
;::4 I
2 I
i'i
~ I
I
23 \
" \
(1)
a. \
0 \
\
-
so
0
0
\
\
\
<, ~,.... ~
<, -- __ J...~~~"'S..~~_:..... _j_
Cost per unit volume
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Thickness of rock (metres)
Figure 7.4 Relative costs of drilling and blasting with thickness of rock
thickness of rock to be excavated. Often, it is not possible to pretreat more than three
metres of rock in one cut and deeper rock must be taken in two cuts. Hence, there is a
sharp rise in cost for thicknesses in excess of three metres. Sometimes, the first cut
may be increased to a depth of up to five metres but only with the additional expense
of pulling in the drilling centres to maintain adequate fragmentation and bulking.
Figure 7.4 also shows that the method of operation, type and thickness of rock all
affect the cost of pretreatment. It is, therefore, recommended that the payment for
rock pretreatment should be based on the area of rock covered at a certain thickness,
r.c, as follows:
Item A Drilling and blasting rock above pay

level, not exceeding one metre thickness (x) rrr'
Item B Drilling and blasting rock above pay

level, exceeding one metre but not
exceeding two metres thickness (y) rrr'
etc.
The pay level mentioned in the items should preferably be the same as that for
payment for excavation. Whatever level is chosen it should be very clearly defined.
Excavation in the cut

Apart from the problems of siltation in the dredging area, the main points of conten-
tion in the measurement of work in the cut are the tolerances which should be
allowed, and the pay level. Tolerances are required to ensure that the work is
engineered to the desired accuracy and, occasionally, to denote the limits of over-
dredging for payment purposes. Overdredging is the amount of dredging which has
to be carried out below the desired dredged level in order to achieve that level.
Figure 7.5 shows three ways in which the measurement can be arranged. In (a) the
contractor is asked to dredge to a certain level and is paid by the measurement of
material between the original bed level and the nominal dredged level (the
vertically shaded area). In order to achieve this effect the contractor will have to
overdredge below the pay level and will not be paid for this work. When the paid
volume is small compared to the overdredge volume, i.e. when the layer to be
dredged is thin, the contractor's rates will be inflated to cover the cost of the over-
dredging. Any variation in quantities will probably result in an undesirable gain
either to the contractor or client.
In (b) the contractor is allowed to over dredge at will, but will only be paid for
over dredging carried out above the lower tolerance. If the lower tolerance has an
engineering significance he may be required to fill in excess overdredging. If the
lower tolerance is reasonably matched to the job and dredger type, and the con-
tractor is competent, it is probable that this method will allow the contractor to
carry out the work in an efficient manner and be paid for all dredging executed. In
these circumstances the rates quoted for dredging will be realistic and any variation
in quantity is not likely to result in a gain or loss for either contractor or client. The
one drawback to this method is that accurate pre- and post-dredging surveys are
essential and the method of volume computation is open to question.
In order to dispense with awkward volume computations and to facilitate the sur-
veying and checking of post dredging surveys the alternative method (c) is some-
times adopted. Here, the contractor is instructed to dredge to a nominal dredging
depth and is allowed to overdredge at will. On completion of the work a post-
dredging survey is carried out to prove that no material remains above the upper
tolerance level. If this proves satisfactory the contractor is paid for all the volume
between the original bed level and the lower tolerance, whether dredged or not.
When the lower tolerance has been set at a sensible level this method can be as fair as
that described in case (b).
Dredging in two stages

If the dredging work is to be carried out in two stages it will probably be found that
the method (c), above, will be the most satisfactory method of measurement. This is
shown in Figure 7.6a. It has been known for clients to pay to a fixed level in the first
stage, carry out a post-dredging survey and then base the payment for the second
stage on the actual volume remaining down to the lower pay level. As can be seen
.... Water reference level
(a)
y Water reference level
(b)
~1JllJTDlllI Nommal dredged level
(e)
Figure 7.5 Methods of measuring work carried out In the cut

y Waterreference level
of,ginal bed level
TT iTTI
Stage I paid volume
(0) (b)
Figure 7.6 Two stage dredging methods of measurement. a, recommended;

b. not recommended
from Figure 7.6b this results in the contractor not being paid for some work which
he has carried out and is, therefore, unfair and likely to lead to dispute.
Alternative measurement for large areas

An alternative method of measurement exists for excavation in the cut, which is
particularly appropriate for large areas where thin layers are to be removed, In this
Figure 7,7 Alternative method of measu ring excavation In the cut

method there arc two items; one for volume above dredged level and the other for
area of material at dredged level. This method has the advantages that it allows for
easy computation of quantities, since these are determined by the pre-dredging
survey, and it allows the contractor freedom to assesshis own overdredging require-
ments and cost them accordingly. Figure 7.7 shows this method of measurement.
Allowance for siltation

In capital dredging works in rivers and estuaries there may be occasions when silta-
tion during the dredging contract is appreciable. If the siltation rate is known and
fairly constant the prospective contractors should be informed of the rate, in the con-
tract, and asked to make due allowance for it. In such circumstances it is reasonable
to give a slightly lower dredging tolerance than usual and to pay the contractor for
the gross volume dredged (Figure 7.5(b)) since all overdredging can be considered
to be of benefit to the client as it tends to lengthen the period before the hrst
maintenance dredging is required. When the contract is lengthy and the rate of silta-
tion high it is wise to divide the work up into specific areas which the contractor can
complete and hand over to the client one by one.
In rivers and estuaries which are subjected to annual Hoods the rate of siltation is
often considerably increased during certain times of the year. In such areas capital
dredging projects should be programmed, if possible, to coincide with periods of
low siltation. Maintenance dredging projects arc usually carried out at the end of the
Hood season when the water level is still high but the siltation rate is beginning to
diminish.
Excavation of boulders
Separate payment for the excavation of boulders may be considered advisable when
the boulder size makes excavation by the normal dredging method either very
expensive or impossible. For instance, the occurrence of boulders in soft material,
such as fine sand, in open waters may cause problems because the normal dredger,
the trailing suction hopper dredger, may be unable to lift any material with a size in
excess of200 to 300 mm. If there are many oversize pieces the contractor is obliged to
alter his dredging method and his unit price would vary accordingly but when the
boulders are infrequent they should be priced separately. Normally a boulder is
defmed by its maximum dimension and paid for by its volume.
Other situations where boulders are likely to be paid for separately are in the
excavation of glacial tills (boulder clays) and volcanic agglomerates. There are
many ways in which boulders have been removed and there is at least one instance
recorded of them being caught in bottom trawl nets by fishing vessels specially
employed for that purpose.
Measurement of fill
There are three distinct types of reclamation contract and the method measurement
is usually varied to suit them.
(1) When all dredged material is suitable as fill. Both the cost of dredging and
reclaiming is included in the dredging price and there is a supplementary item, either
for carting excess material to dump or for bringing in additional fill material (Figure
7.8).
(2) When part of the dredged material is suitable as fill. In this case, the contractor
must be paid for all the dredging volume and there must also be a rate for reclama-
tion and supplementary fill. If the latter rate is combined the contractor will be
encouraged to make the best use of all reclaimable material. However, if there is
much doubt as to the relative proportions of suitable material it will probably be
better to measure the reclamation and supplementary fill items separately.
An alternative to this method is to price the dredging and disposal separately and
in this method four items would be used in the documents as follows:
Item Dredge in the dredging area, etc. (x+y) m'
Item 2 Dispose of dredged material in reclamation area, etc. (x) m'
Item 3 Dispose of dredged material at spoil ground, etc. (y) m'
Item 4 Provide supplementary fill, etc. (z) m'
It should be noted that all items except Item 4 would be measured in the cut.
(3) When there is no reimbursement for dredged volume. The contract then
becomes purely a reclamation contract and the reclamation and supplementary fill
volumes are all paid under one item.
Water reference level
Figure 7.8 Measurement for reclamation
Allowance for settlement

When the method of measurement involves measuring the fill material in the fill
area two effects may occur; consolidation of the ftil material and subsidence of the
subsoil. The fIrSt of these is no problem since the additional material needed to bring
the material up to the desired level may be calculated. However, subsidence of the
substrata may occur at any time and although measurement of the additional
material required may be possible in retrospect, it is advisable to make adequate
allowances for measuring ground movement from the outset of the work. This may
be achieved by covering the reclamation area with settlement gauging poles which
can be checked at regular intervals to determine whether any ground movement is
due to consolidation of the fill material or settlement of the subsoil. This is
particularly important when the contractor is responsible for taking account of the
former but not the latter.
Settlement gauging poles should be constructed with a base plate which will
remain at the subsoil/fill interface. They should be high enough, or be capable of
extension, to reach well in excess of the fmished reclamation level and should be
protected from accidental damage.
Measurement in the means of transport

The method of fmal measurement by calculation of quantities in the means of trans-
port is usually employed in maintenance dredging works where the dredging area is
very large, where siltation is continuous and often high, and when light materials are
involved. There arc two ways in which measurement can be made in a hopper. The
first of these involves sounding in the hopper to ascertain the level of dredged
material and the second involves measuring the overall increase in displacement of
the craft due to the dredged spoil and computing the quantity dredged on the basis of
agreed density volumes.
(1) Sandy materials, except very tmc sands, generally settle out in the hopper and
form a distinct water/sand interface which can be located by physical sounding
means. Tables are computed from which the volume of material in the hopper may
be estimated from the soundings taken. This is a reasonably accurate, direct method
of estimating the volume of dredged material in the hopper and, although it may not
be the same as the in situ volume removed, since there may have been a small amount
of bulking of the material, it is a reasonable volume on which to base the payment
tor the work.
(2) When very fme sand, silty or muddy materials are dredged they will often stay
in suspension in the hopper until dumping occurs. It is, therefore, impossible to
measure directly the quantity in the hopper. An indirect method must be used and
the choice of method, or rather of what to measure, will depend on the dredging
equipment used. In order to understand the problems involved it is necessary to
examine what happens to the material in the dredging process.
When bed material is excavated, it undergoes a density change, either an increase
or decrease, and is fmally deposited in the hopper. During this process there is one
property of the material which does not alter and this is the density of the dry solids.
There are also a number of variables which are measurable such as the volume of the
dredged material and the weight of dredged material, from the increase of displace-
ment of the vessel during dredging. Thus, if
V total dredged volume, i.e. water and solids in the hopper (rrr")
W Total weight of dredged load (t)
Pw density of water (t ml)
y bulk density of dredged material in situ (t nr')
p, density of dry solids (t ml)
Ph dry density of dredged material in situ (t m1)
it can be shown that
(y - Pw) (7.3)
(p,- Pw)
It can also be shown that the dry weight of dredged solids in the hopper is given by
(W - VPw)
W, = tonnes (7.4)
(
1- Pl.'
p,
)
Where W, is the dry weight of dredged solids in the hopper and the in situ volume
(~'t,) of the dredged material represented by this dry weight of solids is given by
~V, (W - VPw)
Vh = - = ------ (7.5)
Ph
Substituting (7.3) in (7.5) gIves
or, if the bulk density of material in the hopper is denoted by Ph, then
V( Ph - Pw)
VI = ----- m' (7.6)
, Y-- o;
It can be seen, therefore, that by de terming the bulk density of material in situ and in
the hopper, the volume of material in the hopper can be related to the in situ volume,
by usc of eq uation (7.6). If the density of the dry solids, II" a property which remains
tairlv constant for the site, is determined the weight of dry solids removed, vt;, can
be estimated using equation (7.4). Although W, is somewhat intangible it does give a
true measure of the amount of soil removed from the site and this may be related to
the quantity of solids entering the area. For an idea of how the dredging is improving
the navigability of the area the quantity of ill situ volume may be more appropriate.
In the past, frequent measurement of in situ densities has not been easy and, since
these densities can vary considerably over a dredging site, average values have been
used. However, the development of such instruments as the Harwell silt density
probei7) has made the measurement of densities both ill situ and in the hopper easier
and it is anticipated that this will lead to improvements in the measurement of light
silt dredging.
It should be noted that measurements in the hopper require high quality supervi-
sion if the accuracies gained by these methods arc not entirely lost due to accidental
or deliberate laxity in their execution.
Interinn nneasurennents
There are a number ofless accurate methods of measurement which arc used to assess
quantities for the purpose of making interim payments. They do not usually form
part of the contract and are discussed in Chapter 8.
Demurrage
Payment of demurrage, the charge made by the contractor when dredging opera-
tions are held up due to factors outside his control, are usually made on a time basis.
Each major item of plant and its ancillary craft should have a demurrage rate, since in
many large contracts an interruption to one dredger will not affect the others, and
the demurrage rate should be based on the true cost of a unit of downtime and not on
the dTective cost of downtime. The effective cost of downtime is the cost of the total
delay caused by the stoppage of the dredging unit which may be far in excess of the
actual period of interruption. It should be the duty of the site staff to ensure that
demurrage rates are applied to the correct delay period, as discussed in Chapter 8.
7.7 Tender analysis

It is normal for the client or his representative to carry out a formal appraisal of the
tenders received and to prepare a report on them. The fdlowing major points should
be checked.
Range of tenders
The range of tenders should reflect upon the accuracy and scope of the specification
and the assessment of risk. A wide range on a tight specification and low risk job
should be investigated further.
Level of tenders
The overall level of tenders should compare with the client's estimate. If there is a
wide divergence the reason should be ascertained.
Artificially low tender

A tender well below the client's estimate and also well below the other tenders may
indicate that a contractor intends to make claims later to restore his profitability, or
that there may be an error or omission in the build up of the total price.
Cover tenders
These may be difficult to detect but are the result of collusion amongst the tcndcrcrs
and arc fabricated to make competition look real when it is in fact only token.
Unbalanced elements
These should be detectable if a good estimate has been made and arc carried out as
follows:
Front loading - achieved by putting a high price on the items which will be started
tirst and is done to either increase the cash flow or allow the contractor to default and
let the performance bond pay for the work.
Cross-subsidisation - where lower rates arc quoted tor more costly items and sub-
sidised by slightly higher rates for less costly items. This can be used to encourage
certain types of work and discourage others.
Unbalancing - achieved by quoting higher rates for items which the contractor
knows have been underestimated and vice versa. This allows the contractor to make
substantial profits at very little risk to himself and great expense to the client.
All these practices are to be discouraged since they lead to bad feeling between the
parties and tend to make the contract inflexible.
References
(1) Dredging Research Unit, Contracting in Dredging Works. Report No. DRU 014, Department of
Maritime Studies, The University of Wales, May 1975
(2) Wallace, H., Contract Specifications in Dredging Operations. Report of the Dredging Research Unit,
The University of Wales, DRU/MAST/008, April 1974 (also published in Dock and Harbour
Authority, Vols. LV 643 and 644, May and June 1974)
(3) Parliamentary and State Papers - Contracts - Ministry of Works, The Placing and Management of
Building Contracts. Report of the Central Council for Works and Buildings (Chairman Sir E.D.
Simon). London, 1944
(4) Ministry of Public Building and Works, The Placing and Management of Contracts{or Building and
Engineering Work. Report of the Banwell Committee, London, 1964
(5) Oosterbaan, N. and Bean,].W., International Dredging Contract Conditions. Proceedings of the 2nd
International Symposium on Dredging Technology, Texas A & M University, November, 1977
(6) de Koning.]., Boundary Conditionsfor the Use of Dredging Equipment. Paper of the course on dredging
operations in coastal waters and estuaries, Delft, The Hague, May 1968
(7) Riddell, J.F., Harwell silt density probe. Dock and Harbour Authority, 56, No. 655, May 1975
8 Contract supervision
8.1 Introduction
The supervision of a dredging contract is an essential complementary function to the
writing of a good contract. Without supervision a good contract is useless, and
without a good contract supervision becomes a difficult, sometimes almost
impossible, task. Supervision is an activity of many diverse aspects and the choice of
suitable staff to carry it out should be made carefully. The duties of the engineer and
his representative on site are manifestly delineated by defmition and implication in
the contract conditions by which the work is going to be ruled. The FIDIC Condi-
tions of Contract (International) indicates the depth of responsibility implicit in the
site supervisor's job. Apart from interpreting the contract and specifications and
being a general all-purpose coordinator, he will also be expected to act as the go-
between for client and contractor and as a link between the contractor and general
public, including other port or waterway users. He must also be an experienced
engmeer.
The supervisor's main objectives are to ensure that the contract is completed to
schedule, in accordance with the specification, at the agreed contract price, or other
such varied price agreeable to both client and contractor, in accordance with the
contract conditions and with minimum disturbance to the local populace and their
environment. Supervision will, therefore, include the following activities:
Making the public, and the port and waterway users, aware of the operations which
are to be carried out
Approving the working arrangements, the work programme and coordinating all
activities
Approving and operating the method of contract control
Agreeing and operating the methods of measurement
Recording progress
Authorising variations in the contract and specification when desirable
Checking on tolerances and specification
Checking on observance of contract conditions
Certifying completion of work and authorising payment
Assisting the contractor wherever possible and particularly when there are
problems.
195
8.2 Publicity
Generally, the degree of acceptance of the public of a certain contract is proportional
to their awareness of the contract, what it entails and how it is to be carried out. This
is especially true when such operations as pretreatment by blasting and bucket
dredging of hard material, are going to take place. There is nothing which will cause
more irritation, bad feeling and, in some cases, legal action than the inhabitants of an
area being shaken from their beds by an explosion of which they had no prior
warning. It is, therefore, very important that every effort should be made to
publicise the operations and details of the contract, widely, before they begin,
because, if this is not done, the initial publicity will be bad publicity.
Apart from general publicity there are a number of specific notices which should
be considered, depending on the nature and location of the dredging site.
Notices to Mariners
In most charted waterways in the world there are specific authorities which have
jurisdiction over the navigational aspects of the waterways. It is, therefore, their
duty to ensure that any changes or obstructions to navigation in their areas are made
known to mariners. This is usually done by issuing either a temporary or permanent
Notice to Mariners, which informs them of the charts which apply; the area in ques-
tion; the nature of the change or obstruction; the method of marking the change or
obstruction; the safe way past the change or obstruction and how it may be
navigated. In dredging operations it is normal for the dredgers or pontoons to
exhibit particular marks which indicate which side vessels should pass them. When
blasting operations are to be carried out the appropriate safety measures should be
described.
Notices to diving and yachting clubs

Although general publicity will alert most of the local inhabitants to the dangers of
any particular operation being carried out it will not necessarily warn weekend
visitors or holiday makers. When blasting operations are to be performed it is
important that all local clubs, especially those concerned with yachting and diving,
should be individually approached and informed of the nature of the work and how
it is likely to affect their members. The agreed safety precautions and signals should
be explained to each club in detail.
Safety nneasures
When blasting is to take place it is normal to carry out a standard safety procedure,
which has previously been made public. A typical procedure might be as follows:
Fifteen minutes before blasting: safety vessels displaying red flags are sent up and
down channel of the blasting area in order to warn off any approaching vessels. The
blasting pontoon also displays a red flag.
Contract Supervision 197
Immediately prior to blasting: three hoots (each of three-second duration) are made
on the blasting pontoon's klaxon.
Immediately after blasting: an all-clear signal, ten seconds on the klaxon, is given
and red flags are lowered.
8.3 Setting up
There are three main points to be established when setting up the site organisation:
how the work is to be programmed; how the work is to be coordinated; and how
the progress is to be reported.
Programming
Good programming is essential, particularly when the dredging work forms part of
a larger contract. Since dredging machinery is expensive to mobilise, and to keep
standing idle, it is important that the arrival and departure from site should be well-
programmed. The completion of the work is as important as the commencement.
Contractors will not normally demobilise their plant until the post-dredging survey
shows that the work is acceptable since remobilising is a costly operation.
Normally the dredging contractor submits a draft of his intended programme of
operations at the tender stage. A revised programme should be drawn up and agreed
directly the contract is let. Any delay in letting the contract may alter plant
availability and due allowance should be made for this.
Coordination on site
Site coordination is most important when works are being carried out in busy
waterways or harbours. In order that the normal operations of the waterway or port
continue without interruption it is necessary for the central controlling organisation
to be fully informed of all the dredging vessels' movements and intentions. It is also
important that the dredging operations should only be interrupted when necessary,
and then for the minimum of time.
The controlling organisation (harbour authority or any other) will be in VHF
radio contact with all the relevant craft and the following procedures are advisable:
(1) That each dredging craft will report its position to the central control at least
twice daily
(2) That any movement from one position to another on the site will be carried out
in full accordance with the central control
(3) That each dredging craft will have an agreed warning period before interrup-
tion to dredging work occurs. It should be noted that this warning period may differ
for different craft, different dredging areas, etc.
(4) That the central control has ultimate responsibility for all craft in the area and
has the fmal decision in any case of dispute.
Progress reporting
In order that the site records are kept correctly and are up-to-date, a system of
progress reporting must be agreed and initiated from the outset. The reports must
include delays as well as progress, since delays are more likely to prove troublesome
and it is important that they should be agreed immediately. Any unresolved site
conflict will almost always cause additional problems when individual memories
become notoriously inaccurate and misleading. Therefore, the central control
should be encouraged to keep records of relevant downtime and vessel movements.
Progress reporting should also include details of any changes in the material to be
dredged, such as rock areas in soft soil, patches of cemented material and the
occurrence oflarge boulders. Any incident which causes the contractor to lower his
output, stop his work, vary his method of work or alter the equipment, men or
materials that he is using on the site, should be fully documented. In addition to this a
detailed record should be kept of the plant, labour and materials on the site and the
hours worked.
Records of progress should be kept in the form of bar charts and also as areas
marked up on the dredging plans. it is advisable to mark each shift's or day's progress
in colour on the chart with the date, so that the work can be identified later if
necessary. Areas pretreated by blasting should also be recorded. This can be done by
marking the position of each hole drilled together with the depth of rock and
quantity of explosive used.
8.4 Hydrographic surveying

Hydrographic surveying is the key to contract monitoring on most dredging works.
it can have at least four positive functions during the planning and supervision of a
dredging contract.
(1) Site investigation: used to detect the need for dredging works, and to quantify
the amount of work (see Chapter 6)
(2) Predredging survey: used to establish the bed level immediately prior to
dredging
(3) Interim surveys: used continually during the contract to ensure that dredging is
proceeding in a satisfactory manner and is also used to estimate interim dredging
quantities
(4) Post-dredging survey: used at the end of the contract to prove that the work has
been carried out, and that the correct tolerances have been observed.
It is, therefore, very important that the control of the surveying work, the accuracy
of measurement and interpretation should be the best that the sea and site conditions
allow. There are five main aspects to be considered: echo sounders; horizontal
control; vertical control; interpretation; presentation.
Echo sounders
The echo sounder is a simple time-measuring machine'!'. It measures the time taken
for a sound pulse to travel from the echo sounder transmitter down to the sea bed, to
be rctlected and to return to the receiver. The return time of the sound pulses are
transferred into electrical pulses which are marked on recording paper by means of a
marking stylus or pen which moves across the recording paper in either a radial or
transverse manner. A bottom profile is thus traced out on the recording paper and
from this depths can be measured, if the echo sounder is calibrated with regard to the
speed of the instrument, the velocity of sound in the particular stretch of water, the
depth of the transmitter/receiver unit below the surface and, in older types of echo
sounder, the separation distance between transmitter and receiver.
Pulse frequency
The frequency of the sound pulse emitted by an echo sounder determines its
characteristics of reflection, attenuation and resolution. Pulses of low frequency and
high energy are able to penetrate material more readily then those with high fre-
quency and low energy(2). Standard multipurpose echo sounders generally have a
pulse frequency of about 25 to 50 kHz , which gives good performance in normal
conditions. However, if the bottom material is soft and exhibits widely varying
densities due to variations in consolidation oflight particles, a low frequency pulse of
around 10 kHz or lower will tend to penetrate the various density layers. In shallow
inshore areas, that have a sharp bed density change, good defmition can be obtained
from a short damped pulse and instruments built specifically for this purpose have
higher frequencies of around 150 to 200 kHz. This type of instrument also tends to be
cheaper than the general purpose models.
Beam width
The sound pulse energy emitted from the transmitter is concentrated into a beam
which covers a fmite area of the bed, and the recorded echo approximately
corresponds to the minimum depth within the beam. The beam width, which can
vary from 3 to 45 depending on the transducer used, cannot be altered during
operation of the echo sounder. However, by reducing the sensitivity of the receiver,
reception of weaker signals from the outer edges of the area covered can be
eliminated. This effectively reduces the beam width. For a survey requiring total
coverage of an area, such as a rock outcrop, the receiver can be set to record signals
from areas at maximum divergence and survey runs would be made so as to obtain
overlap (Figure 8.1). For a normal survey over a soft bed the sensitivities would be
reduced to receive echoes from along the line of the run only, in order to obtain the
best dchnition.
Sounding rate
The rate of sounding which is the number of pulses per unit time, has an effect on the
definition which can be obtained. Where the survey vessel is moving due to choppy
water or where the bottom characteristics are poor, soundings may be lost and a
20() Dredging: A Handbook for Engineers
RUN RUN
2 I
o
I
I~
'"
rUi,/survey vessel
I r, I
F=~::!::::!=~
~--------------~Il,)
__-----'rl--------~====~
-
..... ;,'"
2~
I \
I---A.
L ~
I ---- \
;- __~ --A\
,L
/
-c,
-~----
~und pul&ebea~-\
\
f------- __
Figure 8.1 Echo sounding to obtain full coverage of the seabed
poor trace will result. The trace can be improved by increasing the rate of soundings
per unit time.
Recording paper
The width and speed of the recording paper controls the accuracy to which the trace
may be interpreted. The vertical scale, which is represented by the chart width is
normally fixed at a size which will allow depths to be read otT with an accuracy of
100 mm. The horizontal scale depends on the speed of the paper and the speed of
the sounding vessel. The horizontal scale can be expanded by increasing the paper
speed or by reducing the speed of the vessel. The latter may not be feasible due to the
difficulty of keeping the vessel on course in river or tidal currents or strong winds. It
is important that the horizontal scale is large enough to pick out relevant bottom
features because if not, large errors will be made in the positioning of individual
depth measurements.
Calibration
Calibration of an echo sounder is achieved by means ofa bar-check, which is carried
out by lowering a reflecting bar, or plate, below the transmitter to a series of known
depths below water level, say, at one metre intervals. If the records on the recording
paper do not correspond to the known depths of the bar the speed of the echo
sounder motor is adjusted until calibration is achieved.
The bar-check should be carried out through the full range of depths which arc
anticipated as necessary for the survey. This may involve a phase change, which
means that the echo sounder is switched to a second phase and uses the full recording
paper width to measure a second series of depths below the tirst series. The bar-check
should be carried out for both phases and it is important that the overlap between
phases is well-recorded.
When an echo sounder has been calibrated with a bar-check the recorded depths
can be read off the sounding trace to the accuracy of the vertical scale. However, any
change in the running speed of the echo sounder or change in the speed of sound in
water on the site will lead to inaccuracy. It is, therefore, normal to carry out a second
bar check after each surveying session.
Specification
Although the accuracy of tidal measurement, horizontal control of the survey and
stability of the survey vessel have a great influence on the overall accuracy of the
survey, it is still important to maintain the accuracy of the echo sounder itself, since
the total error is the addition of all the component errors. The following require-
ments are suitable for an instrument for precise coastal and harbour surveying:
(1) The vertical scale should be not less than 10 mm on the recording paper for each
metre of depth measured
(2) There should be an accurate timing device to show the running speed of the echo
sounder during the bar-check and continuously during the survey
(3) There should be a simple means to adjust the transmission line marked on the
recording paper, to the depth of the transmitter/receiver below the water level
(4) There should be a control to adjust the speed of the echo sounder during its
calibration and to maintain this speed as shown on the timing device
(5) There should be a remote push button control to mark the record each time the
survev vessel is fixed
((,) There should be an ade quare recording paper speed of about 300 mm mini.
Errors in operation of echo sounders

Errors in the operation of echo sounders can be caused by any of the following:
(1) The calibration plate, or bar, and its line have not been measured accurately or
the line is of a material which has too high an elasticity
(2) Calibration has been carried out outside the working range for the job
(3) The depth of the transducer below the water surface has been inaccurately
measured (the vessel should be loaded for surveying when this measurement is made)
or the chart adjustment to take account of this has not been made
(4) The feed spool of the recording paper is jamming causing distortion of the
distance scale
(5) The paper is feeding crookedly causing curvature of the trace
(6) The vessel's speed and course have been varied during a run
(7) The vessel's motion has been irregular due to wind or waves
(8) The battery voltage is too low.
Horizontal control
In order that a hydrographic survey may be used to estimate dredging quantities

accurately, or to check on tolerances, it is essential that the horizontal control of the
survey is precise. Therefore, the survey vessel must be able to fIX its position
accurately anywhere on the dredging site. Since the dredgers also have to fix their
positions on the site accurately it is common practice for both dredging craft and
survey vessel to use the same system.
The accuracy of a position fixing system depends on the accuracy of measuring the
positions of the shore stations or markers; the inherent accuracy of the system used;
the accuracy with which the instruments can be operated in the prevailing site con-
ditions. The accuracy of measuring the positions of the shore stations or markers is
controlled by the method of topographic survey used. It is important that the initial
stage should be carefully controlled since any error could have a fundamental effect
on the whole works. However, with modern electronic methods of surveying this
stage should not prove difficult.
The main methods of position fixing are: transits on shore marks; transit and single
sextant angle; double sextant angle; intersection by theodolite; electronic distance
measurement.
Transits on shore marks

This method (Figure 8.2a) is used in docks and confined waters. It requires personnel
ashore to move the main transit marks after each run and a considerable number of
marks for the lateral transits. It is not recommended for large areas or any survey
which is remote from the shore. Accuracy is controlled only by the ability of the
helmsman to stay on the transit line and the surveyor to fix correctly on each lateral
transit. On a moving craft the accuracy would be to within one metre at best.
Transits and single sextant angle

This method (Figure 8.2b) involves the usc of a single transit and two marks either
side of the front transit mark. The separation of the two marks is known and, by
reading the angle subtended by the two marks at the survey vessel, the distance from
the shore may be calculated. The two marks are sometimes replaced by a board of
known length called a subtense board, and the angle measured is called the subtense
angle.
This is a suitable method for positioning in long, thin survey areas, such as pipeline
trenches. It is also used in confined docks and harbours. The accuracy depends on the
ability of the helmsman to stay on the transit line, the size of the angle being
measured and the accuracy of measurement. Thus the lateral accuracy might be to
within one metre whilst, if the surveyor can read to the nearest minute of angle, the
longitudinal accuracy will vary depending on the distance represented by a change
in angle of one minute. For small angles the accuracy will be poor and for large it
will be good, except in cases where the angle is very large and is changing so quickly
that the surveyor is unable to measure it to the nearest minute. Both these problems
may be alleviated by using a number of subtense marks of varying separations.
I
~ Main transit marks
////utu-/*/////
.-----
I
I
I
I
+-----
I
I
+--+
+--+
\
,
,
,
'fT)/
\
I
I
I
10<1
I I
I
I
I
+--+
~~~~= +--+ +--+
'W I
I
I
I
(a) (b)
Shore
marks
(e) (d)
Figure 8.2 The principal optical position fixing methods. a, transits on shore
marks; b. transits and single sextant angle; c. double sextant angle;
d. I ntersection by theodolite
A laser can be substituted for the main transit. The laser is mounted on the shore in
the correct alignment and the vessel is provided with a target on which the laser
beam can be shone. This system is more useful for positioning dredgers than survey
craft.
Double sextant angle

The double sextant angle method (Figure 8.2c) relies on the fact that a position may
be determined by measuring, simultaneously, two different angles sub tended by
shore marks at known positions. The method is usually used in conjunction with a
circle chart.
The circle chart (Figure 8.3) consists of two families of intersecting circles. One
family of circles pass through a pair of shore marks, normally off the chart, and the
other family pass through another pair of shore marks. One of the marks may be
common to both pairs. When the surveyor measures the angle subtended by one pair
of marks he knows, because of the geometrical properties of a circle, that his position
is somewhere on a known circle, belonging to that family. The measurement of an
angle subtendcd by the other pair of marks positions him on another circle. His
actual position is where the two circles intersect.
By choosing suitable shore stations the accuracy of a circle chart can be such that a
change of one minute of angle represents around ISO to SOO mm on the site. Care
should be taken to ensure that the families of circles cut one another at an angle as
near 9()O as possible. The main advantages of the circle chart method of position
tixing are as follows:
Given sufficient shore stations, charts can be drawn up for all work areas prior to the
survey. This can be achieved rapidly by means of computer techniques
All position tixing is carried out on the vessel and can be plotted on the spot if
necessary
No personnel are required on shore.
Intersection by theodolite
This method is shown in Figure 8.2d. It requires two surveyors with theodolites to be
positioned on shore at known points. Each surveyor measures the angle between a
predetermined mark on the survey vessel and the other theodolite, or other reference
object. It is necessary for the surveyor on board and both theodolite operators to be
in radio contact in order to ensure that the fix marked on the echo sounder paper and
the theodolite angles are all recorded simultaneously.
The method is reasonably accurate if the survey vessel is moving fairly slowly and
has the advantage that it can be set up quickly since only two shore stations arc
needed and no permanent marks are required. However, for regular surveys it is
usually better to choose a method which does not require the personnel on shore.
Electronic methods
These methods can be conveniently grouped into three categories: long range
navigation systems, hyperbolic systems, and active ranging systems.
Long range navigation systems, such as Omega, Loran and Decca navigator, are
designed to aid vessels navigating through relatively large areas of the globe. They
are essentially long range, low accuracy systems and thus not applicable to dredging
works.
Hyperbolic systems, such as Hi-fiX, Toran, Raydist, and Pulse/tl, are more
accurate than the long range navigation systems, but work on the same basic
Figure 8.3 The circle chart
principle, i.e. of measuring distance by phase comparison of radio signals. In their

simple forms they produce hyperbolic intersecting grids and have absolute
accuracies of around 50 m and ranges of around 100 km. These systems can be con-
verted to measure distances directly and in this form they produce circular grids and
\
accuracies down to 10-20 m. The advantages of hyperbolic systems are that they can
be used at day or night, in most weathers, and out of sight of shore stations.
Active ranging systems, such as Trisponder , Hydrodist, work on the principle of
direct distance measurement. They use high frequency waves, which demand that
the shore stations be in visual contact with the vessel, and produce circular grids.
Maximum ranges are, therefore, around 30 to 50 km and accuracies between 1 and 3
m. Accuracy with the Hydrodist system may be improved in static use at short range.
Active ranging systems are the most likely to be of use in dredging operations.
When considering the use of electronic positioning systems for dredging works
the following points should be remembered:
(1) The quoted accuracy of the equipment is usually the accuracy of repetition, i.e.
the radius of the circle encompassing a series of positions given by identical readings
()11 the instruments
(2) The resolution is the accuracy to which the instrument may be read for anyone
fix. It is also the error in distance measured between two consecutive tlxes
(3) A system may be either a single or multiple user system. Multiple user systems
are easier to arrange with some methods than with others
(4) Electronic positioning systems require maintenance, monitoring and careful
handling. In remote areas they should only be used by experienced personnel.
Errors in position fixing

Errors in position fIxing can occur for the following reasons:
(1) The seabed or theodolite is out of adjustment due to incorrect checking at the
beginning of the surveyor accidental movement in use
(2) The instrument has been misread by a whole degree
(3) The reading has been incorrectly booked, e.g. 15 instead of 50
(4) The sextants have been situated too far apart and/or too far from the position of
the echo sounder's transducer
(5) The ftx switch on the echo sounder has not been depressed simultaneously with
the reading of the instruments
(6) The electronic lane counter has jumped a lane.
Vertical control
Vertical control in a hydrographic survey is obtained by relating the water level at
the site to that of the local sounding or chart datum. This is done by means of a tide or
river level gauge set up near the site. The gauge can either be self-recording or read
at 5 minute intervals throughout the duration of the survey. Most gauges are capable
of recording water level to an accuracy of 100 mm and to much greater accuracies,
if fitted with suitable wave damping devices.
Inaccuracies in vertical measurement can occur for the tollowing reasons:
(1) The gauge reading does not represent the water level at the site due to water
slope, tidal lag, draw-down in the stilling well of the gauge, etc. This must be over-
come by either using an additional gauge, interpolating between two gauges, or
changing the location or design of the gauge
(2) The gauge is not recording the correct water level, due to calibration error,
wrong chart paper, etc. This can be checked against a visual gauge at the beginning
of the survey
(3) The gauge clock is not set to the correct time. The surveyor's watch should be
adjusted to synchronise with the gauge prior to the survey
(4) The survey vessel is heaving in the sea and swell, or settling due to its velocity
through the water. The inaccuracy due to the former depends on the state of the
water and the experience of the surveyor in interpretation. The latter, which only
applies to larger vessels, may be alleviated by reducing velocity.
Interpretation
The ease of interpretation of the echo sounder record depends on such factors as sea
state, bottom material, bottom configuration and interference. The following points
should be noted:
Side echoes
Since the sound impulse being emitted by the echo sounder is beamed to the seabed
in a roughly conical form, echoes are received from any part of the seabed within the
cone. Although the strongest part of the signal is in the centre of the cone, on steep
slopes the echoes from the edge of the cone will return to the receiver flfStand may
partly obscure reflections from directly under the vessel. The instrument is usually
used with the sensitivity turned right down in these cases to eliminate side echoes. It
is also common practice to make sounding runs across the contours rather than
parallel to them.
Pinnacles and potholes

Due to the conical beam, mentioned above, potholes will not necessarily show in the
trace whilst any projection above the mean bed level will always be recorded.
Interference
Air bubbles passing under the transducers will cause a reflection. Therefore, the ins-
trument must be carefully positioned such that pockets of bubbles formed due to the
motion of the vessel do not pass under the transducers at normal surveying speeds.
Excessive vessel speed will cause interference due to air bubbles, noise and possible
movement of the transducers if they are of the outboard type.
Soft bed materials

The main reflector on the echo sounder trace corresponds to the first major density
change in the bed material. Mostly, this is the recognised river or sea bed but when
soft silts and muds are encountered the densities of the upper layers are often very
close to that of water. The echo sounder will, therefore, record a reflector some-
where below the bed level. In order to determine what this reflection represents it
may be necessary to correlate the records with soundings by lead line or in situ
density measurements. In Europortv" the nautical bottom of the channel is defined as
that depth at which the silt density attains a value of 1200 kgm1 . In some cases use of
an echo sounder with a different pulse frequency can be of benefit (see p. 199).
Presentation
The method of presentation of results will depend on the type of work being carried
out, the type of survey, e.g. predredging, interim, post-dredging, etc., and the bed
material. The two important factors to be determined are the line spacing and the
chart scale, although a close line spacing usually implies a larger chart scale.
Line spacing
It is not normal for surveying to be carried out to give full coverage of the dredging
area, i.e. overlap of the area covered by each sounding run is unusual. Since each
survey tends to have a somewhat random positioning of survey lines, the recurrence
of surveys due to interim and post-dredging measurement tends to build up a com-
plete picture of the site. Line spacings between 10 and 30 m are common.
When rock outcrops are surveyed, or when post-dredging surveys are carried out
in rocky areas, complete coverage is essential since any remaining pinnacle will have
serious consequences. Complete coverage can be obtained by spacing lines accord-
mg to the beam angle of the transducer and the water depth, or by using some form
of multi-transducer array(4) to cover a wider strip on each run.
Chart scale
Charts are usually produced in one of three scales, as follows:
1:2500 For approach channels, bays, etc., in soft material
1:lOOOFor harbour basins, docks, ctc., and areas which have widely varying bed
levels over a short distance, or where infilling is to be measured
1:500 For rock outcrops, post-dredging surveys over rocky areas and areas being
used for dredging research.
It should be noted that when circle charts are used for position tixing, the circle chart
should be drawn to the same scale as that of the final sounding chart.
Automated systems
A considerable etlort has been made recently to automate hydrographic surveying
systems. The advantages of an automated system are that surveying can be carried
out and plotted rapidly, particularly in areas which have to be dredged at regular
intervals, and this can result in savings in the cost of maintenance dredging.
Automated systems consist of an echo sounder, which is modified to store its depth
readings in a data store, and a suitable electronic positioning system which also feeds
the data store. The sounder and positioning systems are linked in such a manner that
when the data is reprocessed through a computer the survey results can be
automatically plotted. The survey vessel is usually fitted with a track plotter on
board in order that straight survey lines can be run at the desired spacing. Automatic
systems are likely to become more widespread as the costs of the electronic com-
ponents fall. They are already being used in some ports':".
8.5 Additional survey methods

The hydrographic survey described in Section 8.4 is the most common form of sur-
veying method for dredging work but it is by no means the only method. Other
methods are normally used in conjunction with a hydrographic survey and are more
likely to be considered for use when the seabed is either very hard or very soft.
For soft materials

The lead line: the lead line can be used in very confined areas where echo sounding is
unsuitable. It can also be used in very soft muds to indicate where the hard bottom is
situated.
The density meter: modern in situ density meters are becoming increasingly
important in the determination of bed densities and the definition of nautical
bottoms (.1).
For hard materials

Side scan sonar: side scan sonars are described in Chapter 6, Section 6.6. They can be
used to locate rock pinnacles which have been missed in the hydrographic survey.
Sweeping methods: all sweeping methods rely on physical contact between the sea
bottom, rock pinnacles, etc., and a horizontal sweeping device. The device can be a
steel beam, supported by wires from a vessel, or a wire held taut by a diver. Sweep-
ing methods are particularly useful for checking dredged areas in offshore locations
where positioning is relatively inaccurate and echo sounding runs may not be giving
full coverage. Difficulties in sweeping will be encountered in areas which have high
currents and large tidal ranges.
8.6 ~easurement
One of the main duties of the supervisory staff on a dredging site is to measure the
quantity and quality of work carried out. The information gained from the measure-
ment will be used to record progress against the programme, in order that any altera-
tions due to slow or fast work may be taken into account; to measure quantities for
interim payments; to measure quantities for fmal payment; to check on the
tolerances to which the work is being carried out; to provide evidence in the case of
disputes concerning the dredging output, type of material dredged, delays, etc.
There are various different methods of measuring dredging progress and the
choice of which to use will depend on the type of dredger, material to be dredged
and dredging site, as well as the type of work being carried out, i.e. capital or
maintenance. The methods can be grouped into: operational; disposal; and subtrac-
tion methods.
Whichever system or systems are used it is essential that the measurements

themselves are made by both the staff of the contractor and the client's representa-
tive, in an agreed and approved fashion. In many cases it will be necessary for there
to be a hydrographic surveyor on site on the resident engineer's staff.
Operational
Operational methods are based mainly on the advance of the dredger across the
dredging site and the assumption that all material in the path of the dredger has been
removed. They are generally somewhat inaccurate and are used to establish
quantities for progress measurement and interim payment. The success of measure-
ment by the advance of the dredger relies on the fact that the predredging survey has
been completed accurately and that the dredger is operated in a predetermined,
regular fashion and not at random on the dredging site. The method used is as
follows:
(1) The position of the dredger at the beginning of the shift is determined and the
position of the start of the dredging cut is calculated from this. It will depend on the
dredging depth, the size of the dredger, etc.
(2) The dredging level is set and the width of cut noted
(3) During the dredging operations the position of the dredger is checked and
sounding carried out from the stern of the dredger to check that the set level is being
attained
(4) In situ quantities dredged are calculated from the dimensions of the hole cut by
the advance of the dredger.
Figure 8.4 shows this method using a cutter suction dredger. However, it is also
suited to the operations of bucket, grab, dipper, backhoe and dustpan dredgers. In
each case the method of calculation of volume removed will depend on the dredger
type and operating method. These methods should not be used for fmal estimation of
quantities dredged.
When rock blasting is being undertaken, however, the operational method of
measurement is often used to determine rock quantities for final payment. The
method used is as follows:
(1) The regular drilling pattern for the area is established, i.e. the surface area of
rock treated by one vertical blasthole
(2) The depth to which the outer casing for each blasthole penetrates is recorded, or
some other agreed level related to the penetration of the casing
(3) Thickness of rock is calculated by subtracting the level of the bottom of the
casing tube, or other agreed level, from the dredging level
(4) Area of rock is obtained by multiplying the number of casing tubes recorded
above dredged level by the area treated by each blasthole
(5) Volume of rock is obtained by multiplying the thickness of rock by the area.
The advantage of this method of measurement is that it is not necessary to remove
overburden off the rock before blasting purely to enable measurement to take place.
In many cases it also represents, fairly, what is not easily dredgeable without
pretreatment.
Figure 8.4 Measurement of dredged volume by study of dredger's operational

progress
Disposal
Measurement during disposal involves measurement of quantities removed from the

dredging site by means of hoppers or in pipelines. These methods are fairly rudi-
mentary and should be used as checks on progress or as a basis for interim payments,
except in cases when there is no alternative method, such as the dredging of soft silts
or fluid muds in areas of heavy siltation.
Measurement in the hopper

For most soils and broken rocks, measurement in the hopper consists of ascertaining
the level of spoil in the hopper at a number of locations and, by means of special
loading tables supplied by the manufacturer, calculating the volume of material in
the hopper. This volume is the bulked volume of spoil and will be greater than that
occupied by the spoil in situ. It must, therefore, be reduced accordingly by a bulking
factor which must be determined for the site. Comparison of volumes of material
removed from the site in hoppers and calculated from pre- and post-dredging
surveys is one method of establishing the site bulking factor. It may, of course, vary
across the site due to variations in the spoil characteristics.
When the material being dredged is so light as to stay in suspension in the hopper
the above method is not practicable and an alternative must be adopted. This is
possible if the hopper is being filled to a given volume with a spoil and water
mixture before each journey to the dump and also if there is a method of measuring
the displacement of the hopper, or dredger, before and after filling it. The method is
explained in Chapter 7, Section 7.6.
Measurement in the pipeline

The measurement of quantities of spoil transported through the pipeline is carried
out by estimating the average velocity of flow through the line, the density of
material in the line and the density of material in the seabed.
The velocity of flow in the pipeline, if not measured by instrument, can be deter-
mined by measuring the trajectory of the liquid being discharged from the end of the
line. When the line is horizontal, the trajectory shape is given by the expression
=:
where V is the velocity of emission
x is the horizontal distance from pipe end to water jet
(8.1)
y is the vertical distance from pipe end to water jet

g is the acceleration due to gravity
If the measurement is made to the upper surface of the water jet it will give the
maximum velocity in the pipe. The average velocity depends on the amount of
solids in the discharge, but is probably about 85% of this. Volume of discharge can be
calculated by multiplying this average pipeline velocity by the internal pipe area.
The measurement of density in the pipeline, and in the seabed, is not easy. A rough
guide can be obtained by taking samples of the discharge water and allowing the
solids to settle out but the results will vary depending on the position from where the
sample was taken. Modern methods of density measurement in pipelines use radioac-
tive sources which emit gamma radiation. The alternatives are, therefore, either
inaccurate and cheap or highly sophisticated and expensive. It should be remem-
bered that, no matter how accurate the method of density measurement, the limita-
tions imposed by other factors, such as variation in velocity and density, variation in
seabed density, restrict this method to that of a rough guide to volume dredged. It is,
perhaps, more useful as a guide to the dredge master to indicate the instantaneous
ethciency of his dredging technique.
Subtraction
Measurement by subtraction is the most accurate method of all and should be used
wherever possible. Since it involves making echo sounding surveys before and after
the dredging operation, it has the additional advantage that it acts as a check that the
work is being carried out to the correct tolerances and indicates where redredging is
needed.
Interim post-dredging surveys are usually carried out to allow estimation of
quantities for payment purposes and to check on quality and progress. A fmal post-
dredging survey is carried out at the end of operations to check that the whole area
has been dredged to the correct level and that any redredging has been effective.
When the material to be dredged consists of soil and rock, and they are to be paid
for separately, it may be necessary to carry out interim surveys after removal of soft
material and before removal of hard. Although the subtraction method can be used
for this purpose it should be noted that the sounding method does not differentiate
between hard and soft material. In such cases an operational method of measurement
may be more appropriate.
When rock without overburden is present, the subtraction method is ideal.
However, quantities computed from predredging surveys of jagged formations will
tend to be slightly inflated due to the echo sounder's characteristic of recording the
highest spots and losing potholes and small dips.
8.7 Timing and delays

On most dredging contracts it is inevitable that delays will occur. Some of these
delays will be of the contractor's own making whilst others, such as weather
downtime, may be risks accepted by the contractor at the time of tender and will not
warrant additional payment. However, there are other delays which are due to
factors outside the control of the contractor and for which he will seek reimburse-
ment. It is, therefore, necessary for provision to be made in the contract for an item
or items to cover payment for downtime of this nature and these are often referred to
as demurrage rates. A demurrage rate will be given for each major item of dredging
plant and its associated ancillary items of equipment.
The demurrage rate is intended to cover the actual cost of that item of plant stand-
ing idle, together with its associated overheads, and should, therefore, be applied to
the actual delay incurred. This is perfectly straightforward when the delay is ordered
by the engineer's representative or when the interruption occurs in such a way that
the duration of the interruption is the same as the loss in dredging time. There are,
however, often cases when the consequential loss of dredging time is greater than the
actual duration of the interruption. This is particularly true of interruptions due to
shipping when work is being carried out in a shipping channel.
The extent of the consequential loss in time will vary according to the type of
plant working, the relation between the dredging site and the shipping channel, the
point in the dredging cycle at which the interruption occurs and the weather, the sea
state, strength of current, etc. The following examples give an indication of the
situations where consequential time loss may be incurred.
(a) A bucket dredger working in the channel is ordered to move to the edge of the
channel to allow a vessel to pass. The time of moving off and back onto station must
be added to the time spent waiting at the edge of the channel.
(b) A blasting pontoon is ordered to slack its mooring wires on the channel side in
order to allow a vessel to pass. To do so would cause the pontoon to move in the
strong current and risk bending all the drill tubes. The pontoon captain elects to
move off and blast his charges before the vessel passes. The time spent moving off to
blast, blasting and moving back must be added to the time spent waiting for the
vessel to pass.
From the above examples it can be seen that there are a number of rules which must
be developed on the site to enable the contractor to operate in a rational manner
whilst still allowing normal shipping to navigate through the site. The following
points should be noted:
(1) The port authority (signal station) must have absolute authority over all ship-
ping and dredging plant movements in the area. The officer on duty should keep a
detailed record of all vessel movements and times of delay, etc.
(2) The individual dredger or pontoon captains must be responsible for their craft
and, therefore, must have the final decision concerning the action to be taken to
move the dredger into the ordered position to allow a vessel to pass. The captain
should also keep a detailed record of the movement of his craft, delays, etc.
(3) Both port authority and dredger captain should exchange information on
proposed movements in order that adequate warning can be given before interrup-
tions to work occur
(4) Where possible the clients representative and contractor should agree the conse-
quential time 105sto be added to the actual delay in standard cases.
The analysis of consequential delays is often difficult as it involves the assessment
of what would have happened had the delay not occurred. In situations where conse-
quential delays arc likely to occur the client's representative is well advised to
acquaint himself with the operational methods of each piece of dredging plant on site
and to establish what criteria affect their behaviour when the dredging cycle is
in tcrru pted.
8.8 Environmental control

It is normal for the environmental aspects of dredging works to be considered at the
feasibility or design stages. This implies that the major problems of work/environ-
ment mismatching will have been overcome long before the dredging plant ever
reaches the site. If, however, these aspects have been overlooked and problems occur
it is prudent to take specialised advice to enable sensible controls to be imposed.
It will be the duty of the supervisory stair to ensure that the environmental con-
trols arc observed and that other possible sources of dangers to the local ecology do
not get out of control. The following points should be checked:
(1) Whether the turbidity generated by the dredging, the transportation or the
dumping process arc excessive and likely to cause problems
(2) Whether the noise emitted by the dredging plant is likely to be of nuisance value
to the local community
(3) Whether, when blasting, the vibrations are being kept under the specified limits
and, even if so, whether the frequency of blasting is likely to cause irritation.
The last of these items can be checked by vibration monitoring instruments and the
client's representative should supervise the use of the instruments, to ensure that the
correct readings are being taken, at every blast and in a suitable location.
8.9 Problems on site

One of the main duties of the supervising engineer on the dredging site is to deal
with the contractor's grievances and to help him overcome his problems. This does
not necessarily mean committing the client to any further expenditure or to accept-
ing delay; it implies that wherever possible the client's representative should be
endeavouring to encourage the contractor to succeed in completing the contract in
the most efficient manner.
The contractor's problems may occur due to a number of causes. They may be
self-made, accidental, or inherent in the contractual format, risk element, etc. Many
problems can be overcome by the quality of the site investigation and the contract
type chosen, but this is small consolation to the site staff who have been saddled with
unravelling the difficulties.
The major causes of dispute involve those factors which control the rate of
production of the plant?", such as: the material being dredged, its type, quantity and
location; operational delays, interruptions due to traffic, wrecks, wartime debris,
ctc.; wind, wave motion and strong currents. In addition, there are other problems
which mayor may not have been overlooked at the planning stage: infilling of the
dredged area; dumping of material in the dredging area by other vessels; sharp
increases in the contractors costs; interaction between contractors on the site or
hindrance by the client.
It is of great importance that the supervising engineer keeps adequate records to
enable him to determine the type of problem that faces the contractor, and, where
the contractors efficiency is impaired, to help him to improve. Kylin~f) gives the
following reasons for poor operations when a contract is running badly: poor
control of dredging during the hours of darkness; inadequate operator training; lack
of production standards and control by contractor; delays in surveying, causing
retention of certificate of completion; lack of direct cost control; poor pipeline
control; lack of anticipation and longer range planning; poor shift arrangements and
unduly long work periods; neglect of maintenance.
These and many other faults may be spotted by the clients representative who
should encourage the contractor to put things right. It should be remembered that
successful completion of any major civil engineering works within schedule reflects
with credit upon both contractor and employer alike.
References
(1) Brogan. J. R.. Echo sounders - a low cost alternative. The Dock and Harbour Authority. 55. No. 645.
July 1974
(2) Jackson. W.H. rt al., J4'orking Party Report 011 Echo Sounders and Surlil'ying. British Transport Docks
Board. Dredging Research Steering Committee, Report No. D 203, October 1975
el) De Nckkcr , J. et al., Paper of the 24th International Navigation Congress, PIANC, Section II,
Subject 5. Leningrad, 1977
(4) Hopman, R.J" Channel sweeping systems put to use, World Dredging and Marine Construction,
March 1978
(5) Romaniello, e.G., A new concept in position fixing, World Dredging and Marine Construction,
November 1977
(6) Dredging Research Unit, Contracting in Dredging Works, Report No. DRU/Mast/014, University
of Wales Institute of Science and Technology and Department of the Environment, 1975
(7) Kyling, I.C., Is a bad contract really necessary?, Proceedings of Wodcon IV, Symcon Marine
Publishing, pp. 93-108, 1972
9 Design of the dredged area
9.1 Introduction
Dredging is a construction process and a dredged area may be considered to be a
structure. The design of the structure and the method of construction must,
therefore, be examined as carefully as that for a wharf or jetty or other such maritime
structure. The fact that the dredged area is hidden and not often liable to collapse
usually tends to result in too little attention being paid to the economy of its design.
The cost of the dredging work in a port development can easily amount to 50% of
the total cost of the development. However, it would be unusual if any more than 5
or 10% of the total design time had been spent investigating designing, costing and
specifying this aspect of the work.
This chapter is concerned with the design of the dredged area and its relationship
with the size, performance and economics of vessels using the area; the structures
adjacent to or above it; and the working methods required to dredge it.
9.2 The basic dimensions

Most dredging is carried out to enable a vessel, or vessels to navigate a particular
stretch of water. There is a direct relationship between the vessel's characteristics and
the design of the dredged area. For smaller vessels this relationship is merely a com-
patibility between the relevant dimensions of vessel and water space but for large
vessels it will involve the manoeuvrability of the vessels and the hydrodynamic
effects connected with such factors as vessel speed, and the proximity of the bottom
and sides of the channel. In some cases the design of the dredged area will involve. a
balance of transport economies and dredging costs (see Section 9.3). The various
components which define the dredging area are discussed below.
Depth
The minimum depth of water that a vessel requires for navigation is made up of a
number of components. These are shown in Figure 9.1, which is based on those
given by the International Oil Tanker Commission(l). Although some of the factors,
squat, etc., may only be appreciable with large vessels they should all be checked for
each different portion of the waterway which make up the navigable area of the
port. Whether the navigable waters will be dredged to accommodate all vessels, for
the whole of the year, in all weathers, will be determined by the frequency of entry
217
I
I

Lawest water level
I
Ship
I
Admissible
draught (including allowance for density change
and trim
V/ / /
I I Vertical ship
I I movement (including squat I pitch and roll)
I'- _____ J I
Net under keel clearance

Nominal channel bed level.
Sounding accuracy
Sediment deposit between maintenance

dredging operations
C~nnel dred~evel
~///~///
Dredging tolerance
'/777
Figure 9.1 Components of depth (after Reference (1))
of the various vessel types and sizes. Often, economy will dictate that this is too
generous an allowance and depths will be reduced accordingly. In ports that receive
the upper range of sizes the entrance channels are often designed to allow laden
vessels to enter, or leave, only for a short period during high water.

This will usually be chart datum in a port or estuary and low river level in a river.
Generally these datum levels will be fixed at some arbitary low level which is within
the bottom five percent of all low levels recorded. They are not necessarily the
lowest level to which the water will fall.
Lowest water level

The lowest water level will be the lowest astronomical tide, or lowest recorded river
level, less an appropriate amount to account for meteorological conditions, e.g. high
pressure, wind, etc.
Admissible draught
If the vessel to be accommodated has not been specified, but is hypothetical, it will be
necessary to estimate its maximum draught when using the port. This could be the
maximum summer draught (in the northern hemisphere), the tropical draught, the
applicable load line zone for the port in question or any other condition dictated by
the vessel's operation. For small vessels the draught varies according to the length
and type of craft (see Figure 9.2). Larger vessels are usually classified according to
their capacity or deadweight tonnage (DWT). In Figure 9.3 the average dimensions
Design of the Dredged Area 219
20
a) offer Myers
b) otter Lilsch
c)and d) afler Dunnam
10
9
LLb-
.:
8 /L
7 LL
6 LtL:::
-;;; ~ Fishingcraft
~ 5
Q;
E 4 LC ~ ~
,V t:/ V
Sailing7
(keel)
2
v v-- r-
L.--"" V d
v' VI'
;'
V
I
POW7 V
3 4 5 6 7 8910 20 40 60 80 100 200 300
Length (metres)
Figure 9.2 Draughts of small vessels (after Myers!2!, l.usch'>' and Dunham!4!)
350
50
-;;;40 300
!..
E
-;;;
!Q)
530 E
Q)
.c ;:
..,c
0 ..'"
c:
...J
~20 250
:::>
~
0
10
~--~----~~~--------~~------ ~ ~200
1000 2000 3000 4000
Capacity (TEU's)
Figure 9.3 Containerships average dimensions (after Reference (5))

of container ships are shown; the bigger dimensions for a ship of anyone capacity are
associated with higher speeds (the average speed is around 26 knots) and the smaller
with lower speeds. The draughts of tankers, bulk and general cargo vessels are
shown in Figure 9.4.
These draughts apply to salt water conditions and allowance must be made if the
vessel is to enter fresh water in an estuary or river. The increase of draught due to
fresh water can be as much as 3%. Draught will also alter according to the trim of the
ship. Vessels are trimmed for a number of reasons. The ship's master will often trim
his vessel in order that its draught will be the minimum under the effects of squat (see
below). Oil tankers are trimmed at the berth during unloading and it is possible for
the draught of the vessel to increase by some 2-3% as the first hold is discharged.
100
80
60
40
\..-el\~\>""'"-1
V
~ -::--
~
--
/"
I..-'
jI lr
~Q 20
_..... .... F'

~ V Tankers
...-1
L
<
_. ....-
v
_. - Bulk
-,
---
\
'"
4 ....---r ~
I _.
'/ ~~
-
....-:::::
2
Gener~1
...-
I---"~
cargo"
V
I .->-
2 3 4 5 678910 20 40 60 80 100 200 400 600 1000
Dead weight (tonnes) x 1000
Figure 9.4 Average dimensions of tankers, bulk and general cargo vessels
Vertical ship movement

The position of the keel of a vessel relative to the ground will vary according to the
sea state, the vessel's speed and orientation, and the relative dimensions of draught,
depth, channel width, etc. On entering shallow water vessels produce waves which
are bigger than those produced in open, deep water. Consequently a surface depres-
sion is created due to an average decrease in the water surface level along the ships
profile. This causes the vessel to sink lower into the water and to change its trim. The
phenomenon is known as squat. The effects of squat have not yet been fully
investigated but the following points are generally accepted:
(1) Squat increases proportionally with length of vessel and the square of the
forward speed((')
(2) Squat increases when the ratio of the wet section of the channel to the midship
cross-section of the vessel decreases, and also when underkeel clearance decreases!'
(3) Wide beamed vessels tend to trim down by the bow and narrow beamed down
by the stern
(4) Bulbous bows seem to diminish the effect of squat.
Generally for the larger vessels entering or leaving a port at speeds between 5 and 10
knots the squat will vary between 0.3 to 1.3 m((').
Vessels will also move vertically due to the influence of waves and swell. The
movements involved are heaving, rolling and pitching. These have not been fully
investigated in prototype but a considerable amount of model testing has been
carried out?'. The amount of vertical movement will depend on the vessel size, speed
and direction of sailing with regard to the swell, the water depth to draught ratio
and the amplitude and period of the swell. In severe cases the allowance for this type
of movement can be considerable and at Richards Bay, South Africa, an overdepth
of 35'Y(, of the vessel's draught is considered necessary.
Net under keel clearance

Net undcrkccl clearance is the safety margin between the lowest calculated position
of the vessel's hull and the highest probable portion of the channel bed. When the
channel bed is composed of soft material and a slight touch between vessel and bed is
not likely to prove disastrous the net underkeel clearance will normally be taken
between 0.3 to 0.5 m. However, for rocky bottoms this allowance is usually
doubled.
Sounding accuracy
In Chapter 8 it was noted that the accuracy of sounding depends on a number of
factors such as tidal range, instrument accuracy, movement of survey vessel. No
matter how recently a channel survey has been carried out it is advisable to assume
that the actual bed level is at least 0.15 m above the shallowest depth shown by the
survey.
Sediment deposit and dredging tolerances

These are controlled by the site characteristics and method of dredging and are
discussed in Chapters 2 and 7 respectively.
Width
The minimum width of a straight channel depends on the size and manoeuvrability
of the vessel navigating the channel, the type of channel bank, the effect of other
vessels in the channel and the effects of wind and currents. The width required may
be split into three distinct zones (Figure 9.5).
Bank clearance
Manoeuvring lane
(0 )
, Manoeuvring
lane
Bank clearance
Ship
clearance
Manoeuvring
lane t
b B I
-
uaJ h Ship width I
777?A I """"I ""'" ~ I /7// ///
'/))j77J7777777777777 //7~
(b)
Figure 9.5 Components of channel width a, one-way traffic, b. two-way

traffic (after Kray(7))
The manoeuvring lane

Each vessel in the channel requires a manoeuvring lane which makes allowance [or
the oscillating track produced by the vessel. The oscillations occur due to the vessels
inherent directional instability and the manner in which a course is steered.
Generally the width of the manoeuvring lane will vary [rom 1.6 to 2.0 times the
beam o[ the vessel depending on its controllability.
When there are cross currents or winds, particularly at the entrance of approach
channels, allowance must be made for the yaw of the vessel. The angle of yaw can
commonly be 5 and even sometimes as much as 10, For larger vessels a yaw of 5
can add an extra width to the manoeuvring lane equivalent to half the beam. Some
particular vessels, such as liquified natural gas carriers and tankers in ballast, have a
considerable windage and the manoeuvring lane [or these can sometimes exceed
twice the vessel's beam. Bends also increase the manoeuvring lane requirement.
The ship clearance lane

In a multi-lane channel it is necessary to separate manoeuvring lanes by a ship
clearance lane. This is to avoid excessive interaction between vessels travelling past
one another, either in the same or opposite directions. The degree of interaction
depends on variables, such as natural channel shape, channel depth, vessel speed,
currents, swell and wind. It is generally considered that an adequate ship clearance
lane is 30 m or the beam of the larger vessel, whichever is greater. An upper limit of
half the combined beam widths of the vessels has been suggested, but this is likely to
be excessive at low speeds.
Bank clearance
When a vessel sails close to the bank of a channel there is a bank suction effect due to
the asymmetrical Bow of water round the vessel. To counteract this effect helm must
be applied to the vessel and additional width is required to allow this, usually of
between 1.5 and 2.0 times the beam of the vessel, depending on the type of channel-
an open, trapezoidal section produces less suction than a steep-sided canal section;
underkccl clearance - bank suction increases as under keel clearance decreases; the
vessel's speed - an increase in speed slightly increases the rudder requirement.
The sum of the widths for the above lanes and clearances gives the total channel
width requirement. For large vessels in a single lane channel, PIANdl) recommend
that the total width should vary between 5 to 7 times the vessel beam depending on
sea and wind conditions. A similar method of analysis would give the width require-
ment for a double lane channel as about 9 times the width of the largest vessel.
Bends
The minimum width of a channel will be considerably larger in a bend than in a
straight channel due to the additional width of manoeuvring lane required. The ease
with which a vessel can negotiate a bend depends on a number of factors, including
bend radius; length of vessel; velocity of vessel; deflection angle. Figure 9.6 defines
bend radius and deflection angle.
Within reason the velocity of a vessel will be controlled to suit navigation of a
bend and the other factors must be adjusted until they are mutually compatible.
There is a minimum bend radius which must be satisfied and which is usually related
to vessel length. In 1926 it was suggested that the following relationship should be
applied (~):
Figure 9.6 Channel bend definition sketch

Angle of deflection Minimum bend radius

25 or less 3L
25 to 35 5L
35 or more 10L
where L is the length of the largest vessel passing through the channel. More recent
propositions for minimum bend radius have tended to be in the 8L to 10L range,
without being related to angle of deflection.
A number of formulae have been proposed for estimating the required manoeuvr-
ing lane in a bend which do not contain an adjustment for angle of deflection. Recent
model study tests'" have suggested the following average relationships for a 3810 m
radius bend:
Controllability of Width of manoeuvring lane

vessel Deflection Deflection
angle 26 angle 40
Very good 3.25B 3.85B
Good 3.70B 4.40B
Poor 4.15B 4.90B
where B is the beam of the vessel.
There are various configurations which produce the necessary channel widening.
Although channels which have gradually widening cross-sections can cause
problems due to the variation in bank suction experienced throughout the bend, it is
found that one of the most important factors is the ease with which the additional
width at the bend can be marked and used. A widening of the inside of the bend
(Figure 9.6) is now generally accepted to be the most suitable manner by which to
improve the navigability of the bend.
Basins and manoeuvring areas
The shape and size of basins and manoeuvring areas depend to a large extent on the
type of facility being constructed, the sea and weather conditions, the size and
number of vessels, use of tugs, etc. However, the following points are of use in
forming preliminary estimates of the areas required.
Stopping distances
When a vessel enters a port from the open sea, or from an approach channel which
contains bends, it will have a certain minimum velocity which is sufficient to enable
it to navigate to the port. Before manoeuvring to the berth can take place the speed
of the vessel must be reduced to virtually zero. This is achieved by putting the
vessel's engine astern until the forward movement has been eliminated. The distance
required to perform this manoeuvre depends on the speed and size of the vessel. The
speed of vessels entering a port varies considerably with the conditions at the port
entrance. Tank tests can be carried out to determine the entry speed and stopping
distance required. For moderate entry conditions, an average stopping distance of 5
times the length of the longest vessel is the minimum which should be provided I)
This distance includes the diameter of the turning basin, if it forms part of the stopp-
mg area.
The action of putting the engines astern tends to cause lateral movement, or sheer,
in the vessel, for which allowance must be made. The shorter the stopping distance
provided, the greater must be the width of channel.
Turning basins
Most vessels are turned either just before berthing or when leaving the berth. The
minimum area required to perform this manoeuvre will depend on whether the
vessel has tug assistance. The following minimum diameters of turning basin are
generallyaccepted(III):
Diameter of turning
basin
With tug assistance 2.0L
Without tug assistance 4.0L
where L is the length of the largest vessel. In good conditions these diameters might
be reduced to 1.6L and 3.0L respectively but these figures should be considered to be
the lower limit.
Berths
Where a vessel has to manoeuvre to a quay whose dredged basin is adjacent to
shallower water, allowance must be made for overshoot whilst berthing. In good
conditions the following should be sufficient.
Length of basin
Tug assisted berthing 1.25L
Berthing without tugs 1.SOL
where L is the length of the largest vessel to use the berth.
The width of a dredged tidal berth, which is deeper than the entrance channel,
should be at least 1.25B, where B is the beam of the largest vessel to use the berth. For
non-tidal berths the width will vary according to the angle of ship approach and
departure, use of tugs, and number of berths along the quay.
Undcrkccl clearances at berth will depend on the soil and sea conditons. In
sheltered areas the clearances will normally be 0.3 to 0.5 m for soft soils and possibly
double that when the bottom is hard. When berths are constructed in exposed loca-
tions, such as offshore berths for bulk carriers, an additional clearance will have to be
added to take account of vessel movement at berth.
In cases where an entrance channel has been designed to accommodate the largest
vessels at high water only, the berth will need to be dredged to an increased depth to
allow the vessel to float fully laden at the berth at low water. If this method of
accommodating large vessels is planned, the siltation in the proposed berth should be
carefully studied.
Side slopes
The dredging of sea or river bed results in the formation of side slopes at the edge of
the dredging area, except when a complete shoal is removed. For reasons of
economy the port designer usually wishes the side slopes to be as steep as possible.
However, there are a number off actors which affect the angle at which the slope can
be maintained or whether the slope of that angle is desirable.
Soil type
Every soil has a natural maximum underwater angle of repose to which it may be
excavated and which depends on the soil characteristics. Once the soil characteristics
are known for any site the angle at which a slope will fail can be computed I I)
However, these computations are based on theoretical considerations of
homogeneous soil and, for small slope heights, give very high critical angles at
which the slope will stand. Most non-cohesive soils will not stand at a slope angle
greater than 45, but cohesive soils will stand initially at much higher angles. Over a
period of time the cohesive soils tend to degrade and these high angles cannot be
maintained. For example'{", side slopes which had persisted for 6 months at slopes
between 1:3 and 1:6 degraded to 1:10 after two or three years and fmally reached an
equilibrium of 1 :30 to 1:60 twenty years later.
Table 9.1 Typical side slopes

below water level for various soil
types
Side slope
Soil type vertical horizontal
Rock Nearly vertical

Stiff clay 11
Firm clay 1 1~
Sandy clay 12
Coarse sand 1.3
Fine sand 15
Mud and silt Ul to 1 60
Table 9.1 shows the side slopes which are often adopted for various soils and
which have been found to be satisfactory over long periods of time. The
characteristics of muds and silts depend to a great extent on the time during which
consolidation has been taking place. In the extreme they may be little more than li-
quids.
In practice it is usually found that some characteristics other than inherent slope
stability is the controlling factor.
Slope location
The location of a side slope often has an important influence on its design. Side slopes
may be:
(1) Totally submerged and below wave disturbance effects - in such cases water
current velocities due to natural currents, propeller wash and return water, i.c, the
water flowing around a vessel in a narrow canal, should be checked
(2) Totally submerged but liable to wave disturbance - water velocities should be
checked as above, and wave effects taken into account
(3) Partially submerged - in such cases the slope acts as a beach and is, therefore,
liable to assume a beach profile.
Earthquakes
Slope failures due to earthquakes occur for various reasom(Ll), such as increases in
vibration intensity which are known to occur near the top of the slope; reduction in
material strength of soil due to vibrations or rise in pore water pressure; lowering of
stability due to earthquake forces. Underwater slopes are generally only likely to fail
when near their critical slope angle. The most likely circumstances for failure would
be in rme sands when liquefaction could occur. Acceptable slope angles can often be
ascertained from examination of natural slopes near the site.
Ease of construction
Side slopes have to be constructed by the dredger in a manner which suits the dredg-
ing action. In certain cases very steep slopes are difficult, and therefore expensive, to
construct. In these circumstances any saving in dredging quantities may be com-
pletely offset by the increase in unit cost of dredging. Generally slopes of 1:3 and
flatter, cause no problem. The following points may prove helpful:
(1) The natural seabed or river slope should be noted. It is a common fault to fmd
that side slopes have been specified which are only marginally steeper than the
natural bed. This is usually too flat and can result in excessive dredging being carried
out
(2) Side slopes can be constructed with an alteration of slope at a certain level,
particularly when the slope is partially submerged
(3) When considering soil layers of different types care should be taken to assess the
amount of dredging required to achieve a specific slope and the effect this may have
on the adjacent ground levels. Free-flowing soils in the lower layers can cause con-
siderable problems'!",
9.3 Optimisation of channel design and maintenance

Many optimisation processes consist of four basic steps: choice of a suitable project
life; identification of alternative demands and developments; estimation of alterna-
tive development costs and benefits; economic cost comparison and selection of best
solution. Since the estimation of development costs and benefits is an iterative
process which usually deals with a considerable amount of basic data, it is often desir-
able to use a combination of statistical analysis and computer techniques to produce

the results. Although the actual mechanics of analysis and computer programming
might be considered to be outside the skills normally acquired by the civil engineer,
the principles of analysis are very simple and must be understood if the engineer is to
be able to use the results in a sensible manner. The same applies to economic cost
comparisons. Benjamin'l'" and the ICE(lh) give basic guidance on the subjects of
statistics and economics.
The optimisation of entrance channel or river channel design is described in two
stages: the main optimisation procedures involved in determining the optimum
amount of channel deepening and widening, and the suboptimisation procedures for
minimising capital and maintenance dredging costs. The suboptimisation procedures
can also be used independently in cases where the required dredged depth has
already been defmed.
Port entrance channels
Choice of project life

In most economic appraisals the evaluation period, or life of the project, is no more
than twenty years. In exceptional circumstances such as when a specific cargo is
likely to increase dramatically in the later years, a longer period may be chosen.
However, with prevailing discount rates and the difficulty of predicting traffic
growth and trends in ship sizes over long periods, the analysis of operations twenty
years on is almost meaningless and, in any case, hardly appreciable in terms of cost
companson.
Identification of demand and possible developments

The deepening of an approach channel brings at least three major identifiable
benefits(17):it increases the number of ships that can sail at any time free of tidal
restrictions, and it reduces the restrictions on free movement of deeper draught ships;
it reduces the delays to ships otherwise able only to enter harbour at spring tides; it
raises the limit of the maximum size of ship that can be accommodated. Thus, the
channel deepening not only improves the existing operations but may actually
increase demand. It is, therefore, necessary to examine the developments and the
demand together.
The entrance channel can be improved in the following ways:
(1) The channel can be straightend and widened - this allows the larger vessels to
enter the port unrestricted by bends, if there is sufficient depth. It can also change the
channel from one-way to two-way
(2) A one-way channel can be deepened - this can be carried out to various depths
(3) One half of a two-way channel can be deepened - this produces a stepped
channel in which there is always one deepwater channel. The other channel is avail-
able for smaller craft or large vessels in ballast or lightly loaded
(4) The full two-way channel can be deepened to various depths.
For each of these possible alternatives there will be an annual traitic flow consisting
ota range of ship sizes. The distribution of vessel sizes and types will be a function of
the type of port, future traffic demand, degree of port development, ctc., and can
best be torccast by analysing present trathc and projecting on the basis of future
developments.
Estimation of development costs and benefits

Development costs will include the capital cost of dredging to the new contigura-
tion; the cost of future maintenance dredging to maintain the new depth; the cost
and future maintenance, of new navigational aids for the improved channel; the cost
of shipping delays during the improvements; the cost of improving port facilities,
handling methods, ctc., to cope with larger and more vessels. The question of how
tar the channel development affects the port operations, etc., depends on many
factors. Great care should be taken in defining the limit of the cost/benefit
cmnpanson.
Benefits will include reductions in shipping delays, both in queueing to enter the
port and in queueing to leave; increased throughput over the existing, or new,
berths and increased utilisation of other port facilities.
Ship waiting times will be a function of ship size distribution, ship arrival distribu-
tion, variation in available water depth and berth service times. Variation in water
depth is determined by the tidal characteristics of the area and the degree of channel
improvement carried out. In order to take account of all these variables it is often
best to resort to a simulation of the annual port operations. Simulation can be carried
out using computer techniques and consists essentially of programming the com-
puter to behave in a manner related to the known variables. In effect, a model of the
port is set up and shipping movements are followed through as they would occur in
real life. The random nature of such variables as ship arrivals, sizes, ctc., is accom-
modated by feeding the model random figures, whose distribution is similar to that
determined from statistical records of actual events. This method of simulation is
called the Monte Carlo method.
Economic cost comparison

The economic cost comparison is carried out on the basis of determining the actual
present day costs and the present day values of all the benefits. These monetary costs
and values are then expressed in present values by discounting them back from their
year of occurrence to the beginning of the evaluation period. If the present value of
the benefits exceeds the present value of the costs, the scheme is viable. Ifa number of
alternatives are viable, the best is that which has the highest positive net present value
(NPV).
River channels
The analysis of river channel improvement schemes can be carried out on the same
basis as that for port entrance channels, when the river already has a considerable
amount of traffic on it. However, there are cases when a river is to be opened up
solcl y for the purpose of allowing vessels to transport a specific product and in such a
situation the optimisation procedure is modified.

In a recent study(IH), the minimum cost of transporting iron ore in barge trains
down a river which has relatively shallow and tortuous upper reaches was deter-
mined. Amongst the many variables considered were: barge train shape and size;
annual water level variations; increased traffic levels; channel depth and width
improvements. Since the draught of the barges was limited by the water depth and,
to some extent, so was the speed, it was decided that a simulation computer program
was desirable. The program which was developed simulated a complete barge train
journey up and down the river and, in this manner, determined the journey time,
load carried and the number of barge trains required each month. Various channel
improvements were proposed which included eliminating navigational hazards,
improving bends and dredging to obtain various minimum water depths. It was
determined that significant savings in transport cost could be obtained by dredging.
Suboptimisation
Minimising capital dredging costs

The cost of capital dredging depends on the volume to be dredged and the unit cost
of dredging, including the mobilisation and de mobilisation of dredging plant. In any
development alternative the shape of the channel, i.e. width, depth, etc., will have
been set, but the absolute position of the channel within the river, estuary or port
entrance will still be a variable. By altering the position of the channel, the quantity
of material to be dredged can be reduced to a minimum value.
When the seabed consists of both hard and soft material there will usually be
separate unit prices for dredging the different materials. In such a case the minimum
cost of dredging may not be associated with the minimum quantity of soil to be
dredged, but by an optimum combination of volumes of hard and soft soil. It might
be advantageous to halve the volume of hard dredging and triple the volume of soft
dredging in order to obtain the lowest dredging cost.
Rapid calculation of dredging quantities greatly facilitates this type of optimisa-
tion and computer techniques are helpful. By assembling ground models of hard and
soft bed levels it is possible to program a computer to read out dredging quantities
for any desired channel shape, size and position.
Minimising maintenance dredging costs

The cost of maintenance dredging depends on the quantity of material to be
dredged, the unit cost and the frequency of dredging. Often, the quantity of material
and the frequency of dredging are determined by the rate of siltation and the extra
depth which was dredged previously to allow for siltation. It is a fairly simple
calculation to determine the optimum extra depth, or overdredging, which gives the
minimum maintenance dredging cost over a period of a few years.
However, in locations where the bed material is composed of fme silt the con-
solidation of the silt must be taken into account in the optimisation procedure.
Because of the difficulty of dredging fme silt it is found that the cost of dredging
decreases as the silt density increases. It is also found that the average density of silt
increases as the overdredging is increased. The result of these effects is to increase the
optimum overdredging depth compared with soils which do not consolidate. Figure
9.7 (Dc Nekkerl'") shows how the optimisation is reached. It does not, apparently,
take account of an increase in siltation rate due to the increase in overdredging.
However, this may not always be appreciable.
"-rota I cost
10
"\:: r-; _...
<,
~ Cost of dredging
and transport
~
0
....... .........._
u
'"e
05
~
.Ll
-- l----
0
u; ~
0
0 Costof capital
.J._---
0
0'5
- 10 2'0 25 3'0
Additional overdredgingfor siltation (metres)
Figure 9.7 Optimising maintenance dredging costs (after de Nekker(19))
9.4 Dredging and quay design

The design of a quay depends on many factors, including the depth of water
required; the tidal range; the type of vessel; the level of the ground before dredging;
the soil type; the relative costs of materials and labour; the availability of construc-
tion plant, etc.
However, although the choice of quay structure may not be directly affected by
the dredged area, the point at which the dredged area and quay structure meet is of
signitlcance. The following points should be checked: whether dredging should
occur before or after the construction of the quay; whether the dredged area is to be
deepened at a later date; whether the dredging tolerances are of importance in rela-
tion to the method of construction. Figure 9.8 shows four common types of quay
design.
Open pile structures

In open pile structures (Figure 9.8a) dredging has to be carried out before installation
of the piles, since the side slopes, and dredged area adjacent to it, could only be
Driven or bored piles
Deck
Mean water level
(0 )
Deck
Mean water level
Box
caisson
(b)
Deck
Mean water level
(c)
Deck
Mea n water level
(d)
Figure 9.8 Quay designs a, open pile structure: b. caisson: c. sheet pile
structure: d. diaphragm wall
torrned afterwards with difficulty. This order of canst ruction would not be essential
in cases where the seabed under the structure was already of adequate depth; such as
on the shore-side of aT-head jetty.
Provision for further deepening of the dredged area should be made by ensuring
that the leading line of piles is driven, or cast, to sufficient depth to be stable at the
deepest dredged depth. In addition, the side slope should be formed in a position
suited to the deepest dredged depth and, in hard ground, the toe would be dredged
to this depth. In soft ground the toe of the slope would be automatically extended
when additional dredging was carried out. Dredging tolerances are unlikely to be of
particular significance except in hard ground when excessive excavation or tractur-
ing of the bed could result in deeper piles being required.
Caissons
Caissons are structures which are sunk through ground or water fC1f the purpose of
excavating and placing a loundation. The caisson becomes an integral part of the
permanent wor k?". Open, pneumatic and monolith caissons are open at the bottom
for the purpose of dredging from within the structure itself. They are suitable for
placing on site before the dredging of basins and manoeuvring areas. Box caissons,
however, are closed at the bottom (Figure 9.8b) and it is necessary to prepare a flat
bed of suitable material on which to place them. The flat bed may be prepared by
dredging, dredging and filling or dredging, filling and piling. The dredging
required tor the caisson bed must be carried out first. However, other dredging
work is often carried out after the caissons have been positioned, particularly when
this allows the dredging plant to work in calm waters, thereby facilitating the dredg-
ing of hard material.
A caisson which is to be used as a berthing face must be founded at a level at least as
low as the deepest dredged level. Otherwise, subsequent deepening of the berth will
undermine the toe of the caisson foundation. Excessive over dredging on the
berthing line could have a similar result.
sheet piles
The sheet pile form of quay construction is normally used when it is desirable to
retain soil behind the berthing face. The piles are driven before dredging otthe berth
IS started. A typical sheet piled quay is shown in Figure 9.8c. It is essential that the
design of the sheet pile wall takes account of the maximum dredged depth which is
likely to be attained in the berth area, including allowable overdredging, since the
stability of the wall depends, amongst other things, upon the fixity of the pile toes.
Dredging operations alongside sheet pile walls must be carefully supervised and
over dredging tolerances not exceeded.
When the original ground level at the toe of the proposed berthing face is too low
for sheet piles to be driven, or when the soil is unsuitable, it is sometimes necessary to
remove the original soil, fill the area with suitable material and then drive the sheet
piles. In other cases the ground level behind the sheet piles may not be high enough
to allow anchorage of the piles until some of the till has been placed. Dredging of the
berth area should not be carried out until anchorage is installed.
When backfilling behind the sheet pile wall is to be carried out it is
rccommended+" that, for slow draining soils, dredging along the face of the wall
should be performed after backfilling. The dredging should be performed in
separate lifts, at reasonable time intervals, to allow excess pore water pressures in the
ftll to dissipate. If this is not possible, the design of the sheet piles should be checked
to ensure that they are capable of withstanding any additional load sustained during
construction.
Diaphragm walls
A quay incorporating a diaphragm wall is shown in Figure 9.8d. The method of con-
structing diaphragm walls depends on the ability of the soil to stand vertically when
supported by a bentonite slurry in the excavation. Since the slurry must be contained
it is necessary to retain the soil on either side of the wall until the casting has been
completed. When a quay is constructed by this method the dredging of the berth is
carried out after the wall has been cast. The diaphragm wall is also a retaining
structure and, therefore, excessive excavation below dredged level must not be
allowed since this would affect stability. The structure must be designed for the
lowest dredged level planned, including allowable dredging tolerances.
In situations where the diaphragm wall type of construction is to be used at a site
whose original ground level is below water level a different technique can be
applied. Fill material, hydraulic or otherwise, is placed within a temporary bund and
the site is reclaimed to normal working level. The diaphragm wall is cast in place and
the material seawards of the wall is subsequently removed.
9.5 Dredging methods and construction

There are a number of points which should be noted when sequence of construction
and dredging methods are being considered. There are described below.
Pretreatment
The function of pretreatment is to destroy the structure of the material being pre-
treated and this action is liable to produce considerable ground vibration and water
shock when explosives are used. For this reason pretreatment is usually carried out
before construction begins. But when a structure has been built it is still possible to
carry out pretreatment, almost to the edge of the structure, if a suitable blasting
method is adopted and charges are detonated to give minimum vibration (see
Chapter 11).
To preserve the integrity of the ground beneath or immediate] y around a structure
it is necessary to contain the breakage and cracking of the bed material within the
dredging area. This can be achieved by the use of the presplitting method. Presplitt-
ing consists of drilling a line of vertical holes along the edge of the dredging area and
detonating small charges spaced throughout the lengths of the holes. The explosive
action in the holes is sufficient to form a cracking of the rock linking one hole to
another without causing damage to the general rock mass. In this way the rock to be
pretreated is separated from the rock under the foundations by a split line which pre-
vents subsequent cracks in the dredging area from spreading into adjacent areas.
Alternatively, there may be occasions when it is desirable to extend the area of
pretreatment beyond the dredging zone. One such case is when steel piles are to be
driven into rock after dredging. The rock can be fractured well below the dredged
level by drilling the shotholes an additional distance below the normal overdrilling
depth and filling the entire hole with explosives as normal. The fractured rock
remaining after dredging has been completed allows the pile to be keyed into the bed
before the driving into homogeneous material begins. This is especially useful when
driving a vertical pile into a sloping face.
Dredging in the berth

When material is to be dredged in an existing berth area and particularly against the
quay wall or berthing face itself, it is wise to consider the type of dredging plant
which can be utilised. Dredgers which require firm moorings for high line pulls,
such as bucket and cutter suction dredgers, arc usually unsuitable for working up
against a quay wall, due to the difficulty of obtaining a satisfactory mooring
arrangement. The same two dredgers by virtue of their dredging methods, arc
incapable of dredging alongside a quay wall at any depth which causes the bottom of
their ladders to lie within the plan area of their hulls. In this condition, the dredging
head is prevented from reaching the berth line by the hull coming up against the
berthing face. Trailing suction hopper dredgers are usually unsuitable for working
in berth areas because of the difficulty of manoeuvring. They are also prone to exces-
sive overdredging.
Both backhoe and grab dredgers arc suited to working adjacent to quay walls; the
backhoe particularly, since it can work right against the quay wall whilst the grab
usually loses a small wedge of material at the toe of the wall. Although it is undesir-
able tor material to be left in the dredged area, the wedge of material along the toe of
the berthing face will not interfere with vessels alongside if the wedge is small. This
is because the shape of most vessels' hulls prevents them from encroaching into the
area. Generally, if wedge material does not protrude outside a 1.5 m radius quadrant
drawn at the toe of the quay wall, there will be no problem.
Generally, mechanical dredgers are more suitable for keeping to tolerances, due to
their accuracy in dredging at a particular depth and their positive digging action. A
suction dredger of tell overdredges to an excessive amount and this can cause
problems if it occurs at the toe of a sheet pile wall.
Trenches
Since a trench may be required for a number of uses, and may be dredged in any kind
of material, it is not practical to consider the various methods of dredging them here.
Reference should be made to Chapter 4 for a general review of site factors which
influence dredger output. However, the following points are relevant:
(1) In soft ground, moored or spudded dredgers are more accurate than self-
propelled
(2) In hard ground, pretreatment should be carried out to a smaller fragmentation
than in an open dredging area since any misfire or undercharged shothole is not
being supplemented by as many other shorholes as usual. Dredging in a trench is nor-
mally more awkward than in an open site
(3) In locations with a high siltation rate the speed of dredging the trench may be the
dominant factor in dredger selection.
Placing material
In foundation work material has to be placed underwater on site by a dredger, as
opposed to being dumped at a spoil ground or pumped to a reclamation area. It is
essential that the material is placed accurately. Suitable material for foundation work
usually consists of sand, gravel or broken rock. Although a grab dredger can be used
to pick material out of a barge and place it on the seabed, this method is occasionally
too slow, particularly in the early stages of placing. In these circumstances, material
may be dumped from barges with bottom opening doors. Both heavy and light
materials will tend to sink directly to the seabed beneath the barge since it has been
shown (22) that, if the material is discharged en masse, spreading is surprisingly
limited, even when the silt content is as high as 90%.
When caissons or block work are to be laid on the seabed the final levelling of the
placed material cannot be carried out using dredging equipment since it cannot
produce an even surface. It is normal for the fmallevelling work to be carried out on
the seabed by divers.
References
(1) International Oil Tanker Commission, Working Group No.2 Report, Bulletin No. 16o{PIANC,
Volume lll, 1973
(2) Myers, J.J. et al., Handbook 0( Ocean and Underwater Engineering. Mcgraw Hill, 1969
(.1) Lusch, L., Some Aspects of the Choice of Fishing Ports. Fishing Ports & Markets, Fishing News
Limited, London, 1970
(4) Dunham, J. W. and Finn, A.A., Small Craft Harbours:Design, Constructionand Operation. US Army
Corps of Engineers, Special Report No.2, Coastal Engineering Research Center, 1974
(S) Newcastle University, Transhipment in the Seventies. National Ports Council, 1970
(6) National Ports Council, Port Approach Design - A Survey 0( Ship Behaviour Studies, 1975
(7) Krav, C.j., Supership effect on waterway depth and alignments, Journal 4thI' Wateru'ays and Har-
bours Division, ASCE, 96, No. WW2, Paper 7305, May 1970
(H) Carvalho, F.V. de M., Paper of the 14th International Navigation Congress, PIANC, Section 2,
Communication 1, 1926
(')) Wicker, C.F., Evaluation of Present State o{Knowledge of FactorsAllccting Tidal HydraulicsandRelated
phenomena. US Army Engineers, Vicksburg, May 1965
(10) Hay, Duncan, Harbour entrances, channels and turning basins, The Dock andHarbourAuthority, 48,
No. 567, January 1968
(II) Tcrzaghi, K., and Peck, R.B., Soil Mechanics in Etlgineering Practice, 2nd Ed. John Wiley & Sons,
1%7
(12) Philpott, K.L. and Ploeg, J, Tlie Miramaclii Channc! Stlldy ~ A Dm~~itlg Feasihility Study 0( an
Environmrntaliv Sensitive Estuary, 24th International Navigation Congress, Section 2, Subject S,
Ll'llingrad, 1')77
(1.1) Okamoto. S., Introduction to Earthoualic Enginecring. University of Tokyo Press, 1'JTI
(I~) KISS, S., Hydraulic dredging work cthcicncy evaluated, World Dm~~il1gand Marine Cotlstruction,
April 1LJ75
cu:
(IS) Benjamin, JR. and Cornell, CA., Prol",hility, Statistics ,11111 Decision [or Engineers. McGraw-
n.n, ILJ70
(I() All lntroductu: to Engineering Economics. The Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1,)(><)
(17) Stonharn, P.E., Cost-benefit of Improving port entrance channels, Maritime Studies and
Manaocnu-nt, No.3, 1976, Taylor & Francis Ltd., London, (also published in Terra et Aqua, No.
12/D, January 1,)77)
(I K) R il'''' P.zragu"y Transport Study, Stage 2, Livesey & Henderson, Hydraulics Research Station, Sir
JH. Biles & Co., Maxwell Stamp Associates Lrd., 1')77
(10) Dc Nckker , J rt al., Developments in Dutch Maintenance Dm~~ing. Proceedings of the 24th Inter-
national Navigation Congress, PIANC, Section II, Subject 5, Leningrad, 1977
(20) Tomlinson, M.J., Foundation Design and Constructioll. Pitman, 1'.175
(21) Rccomnicndationso{the Committee t;" Wateriront Structures, EAU 1')70, 4th edition, Wilhelm Ernst &
Sohn, Berlin, 1971 ..
(22) (;ordon, R. B., Dispersion of dredge spoil dumped in nearshore waters, Estuarine and Coasta! Marine
Science, 2. pp. J4<)~35H, 1974
10 Reclamation
10.1 Introduction
The act of raising the level ofland which is either just below or adjacent to water is
known as reclamation. The land is effectively being reclaimed from the water.
When the level is being raised with ftIl material which has been dredged from
underwater, the material is usually known as hydraulic fIll. Reclamation may be
carried out for the following reasons:
(1) It is cheaper to place the dredged spoil in a reclamation area than to dump it at an
acceptable underwater dump
(2) It is ecologically more acceptable to reclaim with dredged spoil than to dump it
underwater
(3) There is a need for the reclaimed land for port development, industrial develop-
ment, agricultural or recreational use.
In (1) acceptable underwater spoil grounds are usually situated well offshore and,
when maintenance dredging is being carried out in a river, the distance from the
dredging site to the spoil is often more than 10 krn, In addition, the spoil may be very
light and each dredged load could be well below the normal full hopper load.
Nagel(1) and Dietze(2) show that for any dredger, and set of dredging conditions,
there is an easily definable line which separates those situations where reclaiming is
cheaper than dumping from those where it is not (Figure 10.1)
Recently, the laws governing the dumping of dredged spoil have been made more
stringent (see Chapter 11) and one effect of this has been to force engineers to
identify more environmentally acceptable spoil grounds on shore as alternatives to
underwater sites. This has also led to a number of investigations into ways of
accelerating consolidation of dredged spoils in order that they may be used for
industrial or agricultural purposes as soon as possible. In many cases there is a defmite
cost advantage in producing additional land by reclamation, whilst in a few cases it is
the only method of providing more working space in an already crowded port.
In a recent review of reclamation works':': it was noted that, of 140 sites, the
distribution according to the use to which the reclaimed land was put was as follows:
Commercial and industrial 46%
Recreational 16';1"
Wildlife habitat 10%
Agricultural 6%
Hydraulic control 6%
Transportation 5%
Future use and research 5%
Other, e.g. military, residential, etc. 6%
23H
Reclamation 239
,\
\~~"
110
/
100 ~\I /
E Reclaiming more l'fi /
-"" economical than \'~/ \
90
2! dumping ~V/ "~/~/
"iii
80 ~j
0-
c;
'" o~
~q/
,,') ?'
bY 0
"0.
E 70 ~... q
:::J
,0
"'C
.2 60 ~// y
q,o..
s
"iii ;jt>j r.//
50
0-
.s
.,'"
"'C 40
;j / / Dumping more economical
-0 / than reclaiming
E
....,~ /
0
c
2on 10
CI
I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Distance from dredging site to reclamation site (km)
Figure 10.1 Limits of economy for dredging systems (after Nagel(l) and
Dletze(2))
However, the motivation for the dredging which resulted in the above reclamation
was as tl)1I0WS:
Maintenance dredging 39%
Harbour and channel improvement 24%
Port or channel creation 20'7{)
Mining 9%
Water quality improvement 6%
Other 2%
Since many of the works included in the above analysis have been initiated in the
last five years, it would appear that a considerable effort is being made to utilise
dredged material both for economic and environmental reasons.
10.2 Feasibility of reclamation

Amongst the many factors which affect the suitability and technical feasibility of any
reclamation scheme are the following: land ownership; the effect of the reclamation
on the hydraulic regime; the stability of the ground on which the fill will be placed;
till characteristics and ultimate monetary value; the availability of material for cons-
tructing bunds. Of these, fill characteristics are discussed in Section 10.3 and the
remainder are discussed below.
The economics of the reclamation scheme will be largely influenced by the type of
dredging plant required to carry out the work, the suitability of the dredged spoil for
reclamation, the final monetary value of the reclaimed land and the cost of dumping
the spoil elsewhere and bringing in fill from another source.
Land ownership
Once a suitable location for reclamation has been selected it is important to discover
to whom the existing land belongs, or if there is no land, to whom an area of land
would belong if reclaimed at that location. In many countries, much of the coastline
is owned by the state and in the United Kingdom by the Crown. Arrangements may
have to be made to rent a reclamation area, and a comprehensive agreement will
have to be drawn up regarding the method of placing, containing, draining and con-
solidating dredged material in the area.
Effects of reclamation on the hydraulic regime

Reclaiming an area ofland, i.e. substituting soil for water, isjust as likely to affect the
hydraulic regime of a site as dredging a portion of the seabed, i.e. substituting water
for soil. It is, therefore, essential that the effects of reclamation should be considered
at the feasibility stage of a project by means of a mathematical or hydraulic model, or
by consideration of the various sedimentary mechanisms which maintain the balance
of the area (see Chapter 2). In most cases, alterations in the shape and alignment of
the reclaimed area will significantly affect the amount of siltation or scour in the
nearshore waters and, by influencing the cost of future maintenance, may even be
significant in determining the feasibility of the scheme.
Stability of the underlying ground

Apart from the hydraulic regime of the site it is also necessary to study the type and
form of the underlying soil strata, since the placing of a surcharge on these strata may
induce excessive settlement, mass movement or slippage of under-consolidated
clays, or instability of the reclamation resulting from overstressing of soft clays and
silts below the fill. In the construction of the Butterworth Wharves, MalaysiJ4) , a
coarse sand fill was placed on soft estuarine and marine muds and clays. Considerable
settlement due to compression of the soft underlayers was predicted and steps were
taken to accelerate and accommodate this settlement, which amounted to about two
metres, twenty-nine weeks after placing the fill. It is of considerable importance that
site investigations should be carried out in the proposed reclamation area including
the drilling of boreholes down to hard material, or to an adequate depth in soft
material, say, 30 to 40 m. Most methods of assessing stability involve well known soil
mechanics principlesv". However, Leimdorferv?' gives approximate stability assess-
ment methods, for reclamation areas.
Reclamation 241
Availability of material for bund construction

In most reclamation sites it is necessary to contain the fill in some kind of levee or
bund (see Section 1004). The material used for constructing bunds to contain the fill
depends on the type of fill material, depth of fill, existing ground level and location.
In coastal areas the bund may well be exposed to wave or swell attack. In areas where
suitable material for constructing bunds is not available on the site, it will be
necessary to ascertain whether material is available locally. The availability and cost
of this material will effect the feasibility of reclamation.
10.3 Fill characteristics

A large variety of soils have been used for hydraulic fill material but there is little
data on this subject. For a ftll to have some value after the dredging operation it must
be capable of sustaining plant and animal life or supporting appreciable loads. In the
former case the quality and type of soil is of prime importance; in the latter its
structure.
In order to assessthe suitability of the soil for reclamation the following points are
usually examined:
(1) The load bearing capacity of the soil, as placed
(2) The ultimate load bearing capacity of the soil after allowance for improvement
in quality or strengthening of the fill due to consolidation of the material
(3) The time taken, and methods used, to achieve the ultimate load bearing capacity
(4) The settlement of the soil during its strengthening period.
The load bearing capacity of non-cohesive soils, and their strength relative to the
maximum obtainable, can be assessed from the degree of compaction (see Section
10.6), which is also related to density. A measure of the degree of compaction of the
soil is the relative density. Although relative density is unsuitable for assessing com-
paction on a quantitative basis, due to the errors inherent in its application, it is a
useful qualitative parameter'f'. The relative density, Dr' is defined as follows:
D _ Eo-E
r - Eo-E,n (10.1)
where Eo = voids ratio of soil when in loosest state in laboratory

E = voids ratio of soil in field
Em = voids ratio of soil when compacted to densest state in laboratory
or, more conveniently,
(10.2)
where Yo = minimum density of soil in laboratory

Y = field density of soil
Y m = maximum density of soil when compacted in laboratory
The maximum density should be measured after vibratory compaction, but not
kneading which may give a higher value.
The relative density can vary from zero to unity, or expressed as a percentage,
when 0% represents the soil in a completely loose state and 100% the soil at its most
compact. The various relative densities of a soil can affect the angle of internal fric-
tion and variations between 27.5 and 48 are cornrnorr ". Care must be taken to
ensure that the method of measuring field density and the locations of the measure-
ments are appropriate.
Due to the difficulty of measuring in situ density many attempts have been made
to correlate relative density with the N-value given by the standard penetration test
(SPT) and the penetration resistance given by the Dutch cone penetrometer (see
Chapter 6, Section 6.5). However, although it is possible to show that some correla-
tions exist, their value is questionable. It is probably of more use to assessabsolute soil
strength on the SPT and penetration resistance values.
The local bearing capacity of cohesive soils depends to a great extent on the con-
solidation of the soil (see Section 10.6) which is characterised by the amount of water
in its pores. Pore water pressures, which can be used to assessthe degree of consolida-
tion, can be measured in situ by means of a piezometer. Shear strength can also be
measured in situ by vane testing (see Chapter 6, Section 6.5) and, for stiff clays, by the
laboratory testing of undisturbed samples. However, it is preferable to obtain
undisturbed samples of cohesive soil and carry out laboratory tests to determine the
shear strength characteristics of the soil.
In Table 10.1 various types of hydraulic fills are classified by reference to their soil
type.
Fills derived from clean sand

Fills derived from fairly clean sand, i.e. less than 15'1,fines, are generally suitable for
industrial and commercial development because the material can be placed naturally
to a medium relative density, and it will drain and compact naturally with relative
speed. It may also be compacted further by mechanical means. If reasonable care is
taken in the placing of the material, a medium dense sand fill can be obtained, by
hydraulic methods, which is capable of supporting foundation pressures of25 to 150
k Nm ', depending on the level of the water table and the sensitivity of future
structures to differential settlement. There is no evidence to show that a dense sand
can be produced solely by hydraulic filling. Generally, relative densities in the
placed state vary between 45% and 55%.
When the fdl is to be used to support structures which might be damaged by
difterential settlement, it is necessary to excavate and replace the fill in well-
compacted layers whose thickness is related to the type of compaction plant to be
used. Relative densities of around 80% may be obtained.
In certain parts of the world non-cohesive fill can be affected by earthquakes. The
vibration of the earthquake reduces the strength of the soil, which acquires a
mobility sufficient to permit movement ranging from several feet to several
thousand feet(lll). The effect is known as liquefaction. The liquefaction potential of a
Reclamation 243
Table 10.1 Classification of hydraulic fills according to soil type
SOil type Characteristics of fill
Soft sedimentary rocks Good. but fragments should be kept small

and mixed With finer material. Some siltstones
decompose and produce fines Natural
compaction occurs relatively easily and
quicklv during drainage of the fill
Boulders and cobbles Reasonable If mixed With finer material.
Large boulders should not be allowed.
Upper layers should be graded
Gravel Excellent
Sandy gravel to medium sand Good Compacts' well If well graded.
Fine sands Reasonable. Must be well-compacted to
achieve high densities In earthquake areas to
avoid liquefaction
Silts and muds Very poor Very weak as placed and drains
slowly. Consolidation takes years
Soft cohesive soil Laminated fill, usually under-consolidated
after placing. Takes a long time to consolidate.
Silty or clayey sand Very heterogenous fill of large VOidratiol91
Consolidation rate Increases With higher
psrrneabilities
Stiff cohesive SOil Skeleton of clay balls In matrix of sand and
clayl91 Consolidation period variable
depending on proportion of sand and clay
soil depends on soil type, i.c. particle size and grading; relative density or void ratio
- less dense material is more acceptable to liquefaction; initial confining pressure -
the risk of movement caused by liquefaction of material is reduced if the material is
confined both laterally and vertically; intensity of ground shaking; duration of
ground shaking. Generally, medium silts to tine sands of a uniform grain size are
most susceptible to liquefaction. However, when reclamation is to be carried out in
earthquake zones, all types of sand fill should be checked for liquefaction potential
and the relative density increased when necessary to reduce the risk of liquefaction
occurrmg.
Specifications for sand fills should include the following:
(1) The required grain size grading - to ensure that the soil can be compacted to a
suitable density and achieves uniformity of fill characteristics
(2) The minimum acceptable particle size and the proportion of till of this size
which is acceptable - this controls the amount of differential settlement due to the
presence of tine material
(3) The acceptable organic content - the decomposition of organic materials affects
settlement and soil strength.
Specifications are likely to vary considerably depending on the material available,

the required strength and settlement characteristics of the reclamation area and
whether the bunds are to be constructed from the fill material or not.
Fills derived from dirty soils
Fills derived from silty or clayey sands (Dso or medium grain size about 0.06 mm)
can either be placed with their original particle size distribution unaltered or
attempts can be made to separate out the fines from the sand. It should be noted that
various dredging methods have the effect of reducing the fmes content (see Section
10.7). In addition, experiments with hydrocycloncs-'!' have indicated that, although
not efIective for concentrating dredge spoils of high solids content, the capability of
a hydrocyclone to recover medium size sand from a dredged spoil sample containing
a large percentage of fme silt is excellent.
Ifneither of the two methods of reducing the fmes are attempted it is preferable to
place the fill in such a way that all the fines are retained and well-distributed in the
reclamation area. The result will be a compressible and heterogeneous fill which will
demand special foundations in order to support structures. A fill of this nature,
whose relative density may vary from 45% to 85%, will have highly variable
properties. However, immediate compression of the fill can occur upon loading,
since the permeability of the sand fraction will allow pore water to be squeezed out
and so the fill is able to support heavy structures!"). Structures which are sensitive to
difIerential settlement would have to be founded upon piles. These soils may also be
susceptible to liquefaction and this aspect should be checked where the soils are used
as fill in earthquake zones.
Fills derived from stiff cohesive soils
Fills derived from stiff cohesive soils, which have been dredged by cutter suction
dredger, consist of clay balls in a matrix of other soils. The balling of clay does not
occur if a grab or a dredger which excavates with a bucket is used. Whatever the
method of dredging employed the resultant till usually consists of ridges of clay
lumps separated by areas of mixed or tine materials. The engineering properties of
the fill are equally variable.
Laboratory tests are of little use for determining the properties of fill from tifI
cohesive soils since the compressibility of the fill depends on the rate and degree of
deformation of the clay lumps, whilst the rate of consolidation is determined by the
matrix surrounding the lumps. In the absence of any special double handling or
drying technique it is evident that fills derived from stiffdays can be used for bearing
considerable loads if prcloading of the fill is carried out at a slow rate and sufficient
measurements are made to predict settlements when the tmal loads are applied.
Reclamation 245
Fills derived from soft cohesive soils
Fills derived from soft cohesive soils are emitted from the pipeline as a slurry, have a
very high water content and generally remain soft for a long time. The slurry
emitted from the pipeline will usually have a solids content of between 1O'i{} and 20%
by volume and, after the excess water has run off, this will increase to 30% to 40%; a
condition like its in situ state(12).Slurries formed of soft cohesive materials have a low
permeability and the rate of processes of squeezing or drying the water out depends
on the methods of placing, preloading and draining as well as the extent to which
laminations are developed during deposition'!".
The suitability of the soft clay fill for subsequent engineering use depends on its
undrained shear strength, its compressibility and the rate at which it consolidates.
Both strength and compressibility can be considerably improved by overconsolidat-
ing (see Section 10.6) which consists of preloading the fill with a load which is
greater than the design load.
Access onto soft fills is often gained over the stiff crust which forms on the deposit
during drying. The increased strength of the crust is due to overconsolidation of the
clay caused by capillary tensions in the pore water during drying(U).
It is possible to show that certain engineering relationships hold for the natural
consolidation of clay slurries in the reclamation area(Ll.14):
(1) Maximum settlement can be predicted by examination of the statistical
relationship between the compression index and the liquid limit. The relationship is
normally linear
(2) The shear strength of the soil at high mixture contents is found to vary almost
linearly with water content.
Field and laboratory testing have shown that given sufficient care in the methods of
sampling and testing these slurries, their behaviour over long periods of slow con-
solidation may be predicted with some certainty by means of existing soil mechanics
theories and empirical relationships. However, it should be noted that coefficients of
permeability in the field may be three orders of magnitude higher than those
measured in laboratory conditionsv'"; Recent developments of slurry consolidation
equipmcnt'U' may prove to be of great use in assessing consolidation characteristics
when materials are too soft or fluid to test by conventional means.
In order to appreciate the time involved in the natural consolidation of clay
slurries, a mixture of organic silts and clays, of medium to high plasticity, and
inorganic clays of high plasticity with sand, silt and clay proportions, in the ratio
1:3:2, was invcstigated'<", and it was found that the fteld strengths increased at the
rate of 4 kNm ' per year over a period of ten years, and the dry density increased at a
rate of about 4% per year over an eight year period.
The preceding characteristics are generally those of slurries deposited above water
level. Where slurries are to be deposited below water level their characteristics are
likely to be far inferior'l", having low bearing capacities with associated large settle-
ments. A shear strength of only 2-3 kNm2 may be achieved after 10 years. When the
slurry is placed on sand which has good drainage characteristics the shear strength
will be improved considerably, particularly after (1 or 7 years of consolidation.
10.4 Containment
The degree of containment required for a hydraulic fill will depend on the soil type
and the use to which the land is to be put. Coarse granular materials which would
naturally form a slope of 1:3 or 1:4 need only be contained at the edges of the
reclamation area, or, if areas are to be reclaimed in stages, at the division of the
stages. Drainage of such clean materials can be effected along a large proportion of
the periphery of the reclamation area, depending on the point at which the spoil is
being discharged from the pipeline. Fills derived from fmc cohesive materials must
be contained on all sides; the contained area depending on the placing method.
Overflow weirs and slots must be carefully located and controlled.
Containment bunds, dykes or levees, must be capable of retaining all solids inside
the reclamation areas whilst at the same time withstanding attrition caused by the
action of wind, waves and currents. The construction of the bund should be such that
there are adequate filter layers to prevent fines from the fill seeping into the bund
and, also, such that fines already in the bund are not carried through the outer
protective layers, causing bund failure. The filtering can be achieved by correct
grading of the bund materials or by means of the many proprietary brands of porous
membranes, such as Terram ICI Ltd.
Sometimes, bunds are constructed from the fill material and sometimes borrowed
from the bed of the reclamation area before filling is commenced. However, in these
circumstances, great care must be taken to ensure that the bund is stable and well-
protected. When under the attack of waves the armouring must be calculated as if
the structure was a breakwater or, for wind waves only, rip-rap protection may
suffice. The crest level of a breakwater/bund will be dictated by considerations of
wave run-up and overtopping. In some locations, where rock of sufficient size might
not be available, the breakwater can be constructed with a bituminous sand revet-
ment or might even take the form of an artificial beach.
From considerations of the reclamation area only, the height of a bund must be
sufficient to contain the till material in its unconsolidated state, with additional
freeboard to take account of wind waves inside the reclamation area. For slow drain-
ing slurries, a volume must also be included which allows adequate time for material
to settle out of suspension. A minimum freeboard of about one metre would be
reasonable. When the bund is being constructed using fill material it is often built up
in stages as the average level of the reclamation area rises. If the hydraulic fIll is to be
placed on top of soft material, such as mud, it will be necessary to lay down a blanket
of hrm material on which to build the initial bund. Subsequent raising of the bund
can be carried out by placing it on the tirsr layer of hydraulic fill.
Overtlow from the reclamation area will usually consist of a slot, an adjustable
weir or a drop inlet (Figure 1O.2a,b). The size of the overflow will vary according to
the type of fill, the capacity of the dredger and the area being fIlled. In general, the
width of a weir will be as follows:
hp of pumping dredger Width of weir (m)
3000 6-8
1500 4-6
1O()() or less 4
Reclamation 247
Bund
~t:r"'!4)
~t):::>;~}':::;"'::.~,~,~~~~rF~
':.::.;."" Bund
'.~.;,
"
,
(a) (b)
Main drainage channel
(cl
Main drainage channel
(d)
Figure 10.2 Reclamation details. a, drop Inlet overflow: b. adjustable weir

overflow: c. d. layouts of reclamation ponds
24H Dredging: A Handbook for Engineers
The cross-section of a drop inlet overtlow will normally be about 5 to 7 times the
area of the pipe which is discharging spoil to the reclamation site. The overflow will
be positioned as far from the pipeline discharge as possible in order to allow
maximum time for the soil to settle and, tor large reclamation projects, there may be
a number of overflows of substantial construction in steel and concrete.
The area of each enclosed section will vary according to the type of till material
and the rate at which it is to be dried and consolidated. However, when more than
one area is being used, which is usually the case for light slurries and fine silt from
maintenance dredging, often a number of separated ponds are fed from one main
discharge pipe. Two possible arrangements are shown in Figure 10.2c, d.
10.5 Methods of placing fill
Sandy fills
Hydraulic fills of a predominantly sandy nature must be placed in such a way that the
small proportions of rmc material are not allowed to collect into mud pockets in the
reclamation area. For this reason the formation of ponds in the reclamation area
should be avoided and, where possible, the intllling should be carried out from the
land towards the sea, and not vice versa, to facilitate the drainage of the area. In some
cases, it is considered advisable to limit the amount of infdling at anyone point to a
certain lift height, which is the height of the mound at the point of discharge. The
higher the lift height, the further the material is being carried before deposition, and
the greater is the chance that ponds will be formed. A maximum lift height of2 or 3
m is reasonable for filling areas above water level.
When coarse sand fills are deposited underwater, the initial layer should be
tormcd to a level about 0.5 m above the maximum level of the water. Finer sands,
which will settle further, should be taken to a level about 1.0 m above the maximum
water level. Subsequent layers, about 1.0 m thick can be added later.
Sometimes, it is necessary to place tine sand fIll over a layer of weak silt overlying
some stronger material. In these circumstances care must be taken not to overload the
silt by placing till unevenly. It has been found beneficial to have multiple discharge
pipelines covering the reclamation area, to have dispersion plates at the ends of the
main pipes and to fIll the reclamation area with water to a level about 1.5 m above
the silt leveli151. All these measures are designed to ensure that the sand is spread
evenly over the silt layer and no localised excess loads are applied.
When tIlls arc derived from silty or clayey sand it may be impossible to remove
the tines in the overflow water, or it may be environmentally unacceptable to do so.
In these circumstances it is better to accept the presence of the tines and to try to
ensure that they are distributed as evenly as possible over the site in order to minimise
the degree of difTcrential settlement. This can be done by raising overflow heights
sutficientl y, to form a large pond of discharged spoil and by moving the discharge
point at frequent intervals.
Reclamation 249
Clay fills
Fills consisting of stifTclays cannot be placed by hydraulic means in any form other
than a hcte;ogeneous mixture. If dredged by a machine with a digging bucket,
however, they will tend to retain their in situ character and can be spread out in a
well-drained drying area in a layer about one metre thick to be rehandled, subse-
quently, to a suitable site.
Slurries formed by the dredging of soft clayey and silty soils must be retained in
settling ponds in order to allow the material in suspension to settle out. Layers up to a
metre thick are formed before the discharge is moved to another pond and the hrst
pond is left to settle, drain and dry (see Section 10.6).
10.6 Consolidation and compaction

The consolidation or compaction of a hydraulic fill is an essential step in the transfor-
mation of the soil from a slurry, or water/soil heterogeneous mixture, to a com-
petent load bearing structure suitable for its intended use. Compaction is the process
whereby the soil particles are constrained, by rolling or other means, to pack more
closely together, thus increasing the dry density of the soil. Consolidation is the
process whereby soil particles are packed more closely together by the application of
continued pressure over a period of time. Both processes help to reduce settlement of
the soil under load, if they have occurred before the application ofload to the soil.
The time period over which these processes occur depend on the state and type of
soil. For instance, sand hydraulic ftll with a small silt fraction will compact naturally
in a few hours as drainage occurs, whilst consolidation of soft clays might take 5
years or longer.
Sandy fills
Fills derived from clean sands, with a silt content under 15(11), compact naturally, as
they drain in a short space of time. However, since the relative densities achieved by
this process are generally only in the medium dense range, further compaction is
often necessary. There are a number of methods for improving the compaction, and
the relative density, of this type of soil, e.g. vibroflotation and vibratory rolling.
Vibroflotation consists of inserting a vibrating probe into the soil to the desired
depth and feeding the annular space round the probe with backfilling material as the
probe is withdrawn. The vibrational energy imparted by the probe to the ground
has the effect of increasing the density of the soil in situ. Relative densities can be
improved from between 40 and 50% to around SO%by this method. The probe must
be inserted into the ground on a close grid for full coverage to be obtained. A
spacing of less than 5 m is normally required for a 100 hp probe. The method
becomes less effective as the proportion of silt and clay in the sand increases, due to
damping of the vibration and other effects. Dcnsification by this means is effective
both above and below the water table.
Compaction by vibratory roller is also effective in sands and for thick layers of soil
a frequency of between 1500 and 1700 Hz is favourcd'?". The maximum density
achieved by compaction will depend on the moisture content of the soil and the soil
characteristics (Figure 10.3). Uniformly graded sand and gravels will not compact
well in the top 100 to 150 mm using vibratory methods. Tests for compaction carried
out in this region are not, therefore, representative of the whole layer. Densities
between 85% and 100% of the modified proctor test (ASTM D-1557-58T) can be
achieved by vibratory roller in optimum conditions within the compacted layer.
..,E 20
..
......
'"
~ 18
'iii
c::
'"
."
0
e
1'6
1-4 L......__ ---'- ....I-. L......__ ---'- ....&... .I..-__ --I

o 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Water content ("10)
Figure 10.3 Maximum densities of soils versus water content for compacted
sand and silt
The passage of heavy earth-moving equipment over hydraulic fill should not be
assumed to result in adequate compaction since, not only is this equipment designed
to exert low bearing pressures on the ground but the resonant vibration frequency
necessary for good compaction is unlikely to be present.
Clay fills
Soils with high silt contents, or cohesive soils, are less susceptible to compaction by
vibration than clean sands. Layer thicknesses must be considerably reduced (to less
than 0.5 m) and compaction at or near the optimum water content is desirable (see
Figure 10.3). Due to their low permeability, watering of these soils is usually ineffec-
tive. However, in most cases hydraulic f!lls suffer from an excess of water, due to
Reclamation 251
their low permeability, and the problem of enhancing the engineering properties of
clay fills becomes one of consolidation.
Apart from the natural processes of consolidation due to drainage and weight,
there are a number of ways in which the amount and rate of consolidation may be
increased and methods by which soils may be over-consolidated or preloaded,
which improves their subsequent load/settlement characteristics. Since it is necessary
to reduce the amount of pore water present in the clay ftll for consolidation to occur,
all artificial consolidating methods are designed to increase the loss of pore-water.
This can be achieved by improved drainage, increase of evaporation surfaces and
loading the soil mass or a combination of these factors. The rate of consolidation of
cla y fills is inversely proportional to the square of the length of the drainage path and
directly related to the applied loading.
Drainage can be improved by building in bottom drains, vertical drains or even
placing sand layers in the fill itself. When the soil is almost impermeable it becomes
necessary to resort to a combination of evaporation and drainage of thin layers by
ditching. The most important factor in drainage is to reduce the length of the
drainage path through the fill to a minimum. De Nekker(17) describes a method used
for treating Rotterdam harbour mud in which the slurry is deposited in ponds in
layers of one metre thickness. After two months, sufficient drainage and evaporation
has occurred to enable a specially developed vehicle, the amphirol, to work in the
mud. The following ditching system is then produced to drain the mud:
Time after deposition Ditch depth Ditch spacing
(months) (cm) (m)
2 10 2
4 20-30 2
6 50-60 10
When the soil has ripened sufficiently another layer is deposited on top and the
process repeated. In this manner a seven layer deposit can be built up in about ten
years. Due to shrinkage of the soil a seven layer deposit will eventually be about four
metres thick.
Experimental results from investigations into methods of accelerating
cvaporation'l'l' have indicated that mechanical and chemical means are unlikely to be
practicable in the field. However, it has been noted that the initial evaporation rate
of very thin layers, up to 15 cm is considerably higher than layers 30-60 cm thick,
which might indicate that some improvement could be gained by using special
placing methods.
Consolidation by preloading has been used successfully for many years on sites
where stiff clays, or silty, clayey sands, have been deposited. Preloading can be
applied by the placing of additional fill on the reclamation area; by bunding the area
and creating a temporary reservoir over the fill (Bishop-':"] which was the method
proposed for the Elizabeth marine terminal, New Jerseyll')); or by test loading a
particular area and making good after settlement has occurred, particularly when
tanks or stockpile areas are being constructed.
The purpose of preloading clay tills is to induce settlements and improve the soil
properties to a similar degree to that which would have been achieved after applica-
tion of the fmalloads. After removal of the preload the settlement is made good and
the final load applied, when only small settlements will occur. Even smaller fmal
settlements can be achieved by overconsolidating the soil by prcloading with a load
in excess of the design load.
Prcloading must be carried out very carefully under controlled conditions with
measurements of pore water pressure, settlement, ground movements, etc., being
monitored. In weak soils the preload may have to be applied incrementally in order
to avoid shear failure of the soil. Additional drainage passages placed within the fill
will considerably increase the rate of consolidation which can be achieved.
Coarse and heterogeneous fills
The density of f!lls derived from broken rock, rubble, stones and heterogeneous
clay /sand mixtures can be improved by means of dynamic consolidation. Dynamic
consolidation is achieved by tamping the upper surface of the fill by dropping a large
block onto it from a considerable height. The weight of the block is usually between
]() and 20 tonnes and the drop height between 10 and 20 m. The tamping process is
normally carried out in at least two passes separated by an appropriate time interval.
The effect of the tamping is to produce high energy impact which transmits shock
waves through the ground to a considerable depth. This causes consolidation in
saturated soils by partial liquefaction, an instant increase in permeability, and the
creation of tension cracks. These assist percolation of the pore water, accompanied
by ground settlement and an increase in bearing capacity and density of the treated
soil.
Dynamic consolidation has been carried out successfully on soil up to 11 to 12 m
thick(211).It can also be carried out underwater. One advantage of the method is that,
after achieving settlements of between 0.3 to 1.2 m in a relatively short period, subse-
quent settlement is reduced and, more important, settlement differentials arc much
reduced. Due to the intensity of the vibration, however, it cannot be carried out
close to existing structures. The dynamic consolidation method can be used to treat
most soil types encountered in construction work.
The change in properties of the soil during consolidation should be monitored by
field tests and measurements. These should normally include the usc of the Menard
pressuremeter, borings with standard penetration tests (SPT), static cone penetration
tests, and the installation of piezometers and surface and subsurface settlement plates
to monitor ground movements.
10.7 Dredging methods

Dredging and reclamation can be carried out by a number of different dredger types
and by means of a variety of methods. These methods can be classified as follows:
Reclamation 253
Type Classification Method
A Direct Site ---> suction (or cutter suction) ---> disposal

B Semi-direct Site ---> trailing suction hopper ---> disposal
C Indirect Site ---> dredger ---> barge ---> pumping station (or
self-emptying device) ---> disposal
D Double handling Site ---> trailing suction hopper (or dredger --+
barge) ---> sump ---> suction (or cutter suction) --->
disposal
Each of these types involves handling the dredged material in a different way and
this results in a change of spoil characteristics between dredging site and disposal.
The change is due to the loss of fme particles during the handling processes and,
when the dredged spoil is of a sandy nature, has the effect of improving the quality of
soil. Since sandy soil is the most suitable type of material for reclamation by
hydraulic means the degree of improvement is significant.
Ottman and Lahuecv'!' noted that the improvement of the soil occurred during
three of the handling processes:
(1) Washing - when the soil is in suspension in a pipeline or during handling of the
soil
(2) Settling - when the soil settles into a hopper, barge or sump
(3) Disposal - when the soil is delivered to the reclamation area. The types of
reclamation method can, therefore, be broken down in the following manner:
Dredging and Type and number of handling methods

reclamation method
(see previous classification) Washing Settling Disposal
A 1 1
B 2
C 2
D 2 2
In order to assess the degree of improvement of spoil due to handling, the sand
equivalent (SE) method of testing the soil can be used. The SE which is well known
in France(22),is an abstract index which represents the purity of the sand being tested.
The index is defmed as the ratio of the height of an elutriated column of sand to the
height of the column containing the sand and the clay fraction in suspension, mul-
tiplied by 100. In the test the clay particles are encouraged to coagulate by the use of a
special fluid containing a solution of calcium chloride, glycerine and formaldehyde.
Pure sand has an SE of 100. Sand for the building industry is usually required to have
an SE above 70, whilst the minimum SE for hydraulic fill and road works would be
around 40-45.
Using the SE method samples of in situ soil, i.e. before dredging, and from the
reclamation area, were tested for purity and the gain in SE noted. The following
results were obtained from the various sites at which the different handling methods
were being used.
Dredging and reclamation method Gain in SE due to handling
A 23
B 60 - 70
C 60
D Minimum of70
Although these results apply to fairly coarse sand (U,o of 0.4-0.7 mm), they indicate
not only the difference in the handling methods but the considerable improvements
to fill quality which can be achieved. It should, however, be noted that wherever
quality of fill can be improved by these methods, somewhere during the handling
process water is being polluted by the washed out fines and, therefore, the environ-
mental aspects should be carefully examined. An example of where double handling
of the dredged spoil improved f!ll material quality is given by Phillip,(21) when
describing the construction of deep water quays at Dar es Salaam.
10.8 Beach replenishment

Another form of reclamation, but one where the reclamation is the primary con-
sideration and the material source secondary, is beach nourishment. In the past seven
years a number of beaches around the world have been nourished, many of them
with sea-dredged sand. Beach nourishment is usually required to halt erosion and to
enhance amenity value. Additional sand is pumped onto the beach such that either
erosion is eliminated or reduced to a controlled rate.
Dredging methods for beach nourishment are similar to those for normal reclama-
tions. However, since the dredged material has to be deposited on an open beach, the
site is often exposed and subject to considerable wave action. In many cases,
therefore, the dredger cannot sail close to the reclamation site and strong pipelines
through the breaker zones are required. On rare occasions when a trailing suction
hopper dredger can approach the beach and the material does not require secondary
handling, a dredger with horizontally sliding hopper doors is advantageous as it
allows the vessel to approach to depths almost equal to its laden draught.
The following points emerge from recent studies of beach nourishment
projects(24.2)):
(1) Replenishment sand should have a u'o (medium grain size) It to 2 times that
occurring naturally on the beach (often about 0.2 mm). A high content of fine
particles should be avoided since this will lead to initial instability and rapid loss of
the tine fraction
(2) About 20 to 30% of the bulk replenishment volume is normally lost during the
construction work
(3) Replenishment sand is usually pumped onto the beach above high water level.
On rare occasions some sand is also dumped in shallow water (4 to 6 m deep)
(4) During the initial sorting process, brought about by wave action, the beach
slope should be artificially maintained at between 1: 15 to 1:25 to avoid the formation
of unstable berms
Reclamation 255
(5) The formation of deep holes due to dredging in offshore borrow pits should not
be allowed since this will affect the local wave regime and could lead to undesirable
increases in incident wave energy or the formation of new erosion zones
(6) In some locations it may be necessary to construct groynes during the replenish-
ment process to prevent the new beach from being depleted by the effects of littoral
drift.
References
(I) Nagel. H-H .. Rrclamation of Spoil with Hopper Suction Dm(~'rs. Proceedings Wodcon V. Hamburg,
1'!74
(2) Dietze, W. et al.. Paper ofthe 24th International Navigation Congress, PIANC, Section 2, Subject
S. Leningrad. 1977
(-1) Hubbard. B.S. and Herbich,J,B., Productive Land Use ofDm(~ed Material Containment Areas: lnter-
national Literature Rrvicu, Center for Dredging Studies, Report No. 199, Texas A & M University,
January 1977
(4) Tapp, J.W.T. Dixon, A.J.B. and Carpenter, A.C., The Design and Construction of Butterworth
>Vlwrl'es,Malaysia. Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers, Supplement, Paper 7323S, 1970
(5) Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R.B., Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. John Wiley & Sons, 1967
((J) Licmdorfcr , P., Quick assessment of the bearing capacity of soils. The Dock and Harbour Authority,
56, No. 659, September 1975
(7) Lcimdortcr , P., Concentrated loads on soils. The Dock and Harbour Authority, 57, No. 674,January
1')77
(K) Tavenas, F. and La Rochelle, P., Accuracy of relative density measurements. Ceotechnique, 22, No.
4, 1')72
('J) Whitman, R.V., Hydraulic fills to support structural loads. Journal o(thl' Soil Mechanics and Founda-
tiolls Division. ASCE, 96, No. SM1, January 1970
(10) Seed, H.B. and ldriss, I.M., Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential.Journal
of titr Soil Mechanics Division. ASCE, 97, No. SM9, September 1971
(II) Tiederman, W.G. and Reischman, M.M., Feasibility of hydro cyclones for dredge spoil.Jourtlal or
the Watt'rli'ilYs, Harbour, and Coastal Engineering Division. ASCE, 100, No. WW4, November 1974
(12) Salem, A.M. and Krizek, R.j., Consolidation characteristics of dredging slurries. Journal 01 the
IV"r",ways, Harbours and Coastal Engineering Division. ASCE, 99, No. WW4, November 1973
(U) Bishop, A.W. and Vaughan, P.R., Consolidation ofFillI' Grained Dredged Material alia Hydraulic
])('I'ositioll, Report to the National Ports Council by Department of Civil Engineering, lrnpcria]
College, London, August 1')72
(14) Krizek, R.J. and Giger, M. W., Use oIDm(~illgsl;" Landfill. Final Report, Technological Institute,
Department of Civil Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, December 1974
(IS) Kanagawa, K. and Kuninobu, S., New Method of Reclamation on pery Soli Layer. Proceedings
Wodcon V, Hamburg, 1974
(16) Forssblad, L., Vibratory compaction - A to Z review. International Construction, 16, July 1977
(17) De Nckkcr , J, and ln'r Veld, J.K., Dredged Rotterdam harbour mud; its qualities and usc as soil.
'Ferra rt Aqua, No. H/Y, 1975
(I K) Krizek, RJ., Giger, M. W. and Jin, J .S., Dewatering o(Dm~~ ..d Materials by Evaporation. Proceedings
of the First International Symposium on Dredging Technology, Canterbury, England, September
1975
(19) Cooper, H.R., Practical Dm(~ing and Allied Suhfl'cts. Brown, Son and Fergusson, Glasgow, 1974
(20) Menard, L., The dynamic consolidation of recently placed tills and compressible soils - application
to maritime works, (translated from French), Trallaux, November 1972
(21) Ottman, F. and Lahuec, G., L'amelioration de l'cquivalent de sable lors de dragages ct de
n-mblaicments hydrauliques. Bulletin Liaison Laboratoir: Pont.' ct Cliaussces, 60, July/August 1'!72
(22) Mode Opcratoire LCPC, Essa! d'equivalent de sable, Dunod, Paris, 1970
(2.,) Phillips, L.c., Design and construction of deep water quays at Dar ex Salaam and Mombassa.
Proceedings 0( the Institute of Civil Engineers, Part I, 62, November 1977
(24) Newman, D.E., Beach replenishment: sea defences and a review of the role of artificial beach
replenishment. Proceedings or the Institute 0( Civil Engineers, Part I, 60, August 1976
(25) 2_lrd International Navigation Congress, Section II, Subject 2, Ottawa, 197.1
11 Dredging and the

cnvtrorirnent
11.1 Introduction
In recent years, and with the increasing awareness of the need for a balance between
industrial development and environmental sanctity, the dredging industry has been
subjected to a critical review of the environmental impact of its operations. The
environmental impact was not entirely neglected in the past, but the emphasis has
moved from the immediate and obvious, such as noise, vibration and smell, to the
less obvious and often long term effects, such as changes in water and soil quality,
movement of contaminating chemicals and slow alterations to site ecology.
This chapter reviews most of the likely environmental impacts that might occur
during, or as a consequence of, dredging operations and describes methods of
measuring impact and controlling it. Reference to specific laws governing dredging
and spoil disposal have intentionally been kept to a minimum because the laws may
change.
In order to study environmental impact it is necessary to examine the following
aspects: areas of impact; types of impact; measurement of impact; control of impact.
11.2 Areas and types of impact

There are three main areas of impact: the dredging site; the transportation route; and
the disposal site. Each of these may be subdivided in terms of proximity and conse-
quence, as follows:
The dredging site: areas affected directly by the dredgers operations; areas affected
indirectly by the dredgers operations; areas affected directly by the results of dredg-
ing; areas affected indirectly by the results of dredging.
The transportation route: areas affected by the means of transport; areas affected by
the loss of spoil en route.
The disposal site: areas affected directly by the action of dumping spoil; areas
affected indirectly by the action of dumping spoil; areas affected directly by the spoil
dump; areas affected indirectly by the spoil dump.
These categories are significant for two reasons. Firstly, with a view to detecting
and eliminating undesirable environmental impact, it should be noted that impacts
due to the action of dredging or dumping may be overcome by changing the type of
dredger or the method of dumping. However, impacts related to the location and
size of the dredging and dumping sites cannot be overcome without substantial
alteration to the job specification. Thus, certain aspects of the environmental conse-
256
Dredging and the environment 257
lluences of dredging should be investigated at the design stage and should not be left
until the contract is imminent or until after the contractor has arrived on site.
Secondly, the above categories also form a convenient way of classifying the types of
impact that dredging will have on the environment.
Areas affected directly by the dredger's operations
This group includes all those problems caused by the movement of the dredger
during its operations and the forces applied by the dredger to the environment, i.e.
the movement of the dredger around the dredging site and the consequent risk of
collision; the snapping, rubbing or jumping of wires attached to points on the shore
which could cause damage to persons and property; the accidental damage to
underwater cables and pipes due to the anchors or digging action of the dredger; the
possibility of dredging unexploded shells or bombs which might explode in the
pump, pipeline or hopper; the turbidity caused by the agitation, raising and
overflow of dredged material; the formation of density layers from overflow water;
the destruction of fauna in the dredging process.
In addition, there are the possible advantages that the water may be aerated by the
deepening process, and the agitation and overflow of dredged spoil may release
nutrients into the water.
Areas affected indirectly by the dredger's operations
This is a most important group since it includes all those characteristics of the dredg-
ing process which are likely to cause disturbance, and possibly annoyance, to the
local community. It is a group which should be checked carefully since, although it
may not be of great longterm environmental importance, will certainly be crucial to
good public relations. This group includes the noise of the dredging operations such
as the clank of bucket chains, whine of compressors, hammering of rock drills and
blasting; the vibration caused by blasting or rock crushing operations; the water
shock wave caused by blasting operations, from the point of view of both vesselsand
swimmers or divers; the smell of dredged spoil in the hoppers, particularly when
polluted or gaseous; the general disturbance due to dredging operations which could
cause loss of both flora and fauna, as well as specific harmful effects such as the pre-
vention of fish migrating to spawning grounds.
Areas affected directly by the results of dredging

This group includes all aspects of the environmental effect of excavating material by
dredging, i.e. the possibility of the subsidence of adjacent works due to undermin-
ing; the possibility of causing subsoil failure by the removal of a surcharge of soil; the
alteration oflocal soil characteristics by the repeated dredging of coarse or fine soils;
the change in local flow patterns together with associated scouring or siltation in the
dredged trench; the destruction of spawning grounds by the removal of habitat; the
destruction of flora or fauna causing a depletion in local fish communities; the
destruction of shell-fish communities and other species living on the seabed.

There is also the possible advantage that the dredging may remove polluted soil
from the seabed and harmful weed and algae from deoxygenated areas.
Areas affected indirectly by the results of dredging

This group is particularly important in coastal and estuarial locations where delicate
regimes may be upset by the formation of a dredged channel or the removal of
seabed material. The following aspects should be checked:
(1) The possibility of beach drawdown, i.e. movement of material seawards, due to
the removal of offshore deposits
(2) The removal of coast protection by the dredging of an offshore bank or bar and
the consequent erosion of the coastline
(3) The refraction of waves caused by the change in seabed contours due to dredg-
ing and the consequent erosion or deposition of material caused by this
(4) The possible effect of the dredging area acting as a littoral sink and preventing
littoral material from passing alongshore, causing erosion on the downdrift
side
(5) The effect of increased tidal flushing of an estuary or tidal inlet and the conse-
quent alteration to sediment loads, habitats, etc., including movement of the position
of the saline wedge
(6) The effect of concentrated dredging in one channel of an estuary and the conse-
quent silting up of the estuary in other areas.
Areas affected by the means of transport

Types of impact in this group include the risk of collision due to the additional
vessels sailing to and from the dump; the hindrance caused by the floating pipeline;
the damage caused to land and property along the route of the pipeline.
Areas affected by the loss of spoil en route
Types of impact in this group include the turbidity caused by leakage of spoil from
hoppers and floating pipelines; the damage caused by leakage of dirty water from
land lines; the damage caused by leakage of water from pipelines onto roads,
particularly in freezing conditions.
Areas affected directly and indirectly by the action of dumping spoil

Types of impact in these groups are connected with the act of dumping the dredged
spoil at the dump site, and include the turbidity plume generated at the dump site
due to the passage of spoil through the water; the movement of dredged spoil away
from the dump location into adjacent areas, and the consequent alteration to water
quality and bed material; the discharge of saline, dirty, or possibly polluted, water
from a reclamation area or settling pond into the local freshwater drainage system.
Areas affected directly by the spoil dump

This group includes those effects due to the existence of the dump of dredged spoil,
such as the extinction of flora and fauna by burying under the dredged spoil, both
underwater and on land; the change in seabed characteristics and the loss of local
habitats; the possibility that the spoil may itsclfbe polluted by oil, heavy metals, etc.;
the degradation of land by formation of reclamation areas for poor quality or
polluted soils.
Areas affected indirectly by the spoil dump

These types of effect include the smell of 611 material in the reclamation area; the
possibility of sand being blown from the reclamation area into adjacent areas; the
refraction of waves caused by alteration of seabed contours due to dumping, and the
consequent changes in coastal regime.
However, the dumped spoil may give some advantages, such as the improvement
of beaches; the improvement of agricultural conditions; the protection of coastal
regImes.
A review of the environmental effects of dredging operations and disposal is given
in Appendix IIIofPIANC(l).
11.3 Impact measurement and control

The environmental effects described in Section 11.2 relate to each area of influence.
However, there is considerable duplication and in order to discuss environmental
efIects it is convenient to treat these effects as alterations to the regime. These altera-
tions can be classed as changes in air quality, i.e. smell; noise level; vibration level;
water quality; soil quality; physical configuration; etc. Changes in physical con-
flguration due to dredging are discussed in Chapter 2.
Noise level
Noise can be a problem for excavation plant, notably bucket dredgers, and
especially for drilling and blasting pontoons. Dredging is often carried out on a 24-
hour basis and, although the noise output may be generally constant throughout the
period, complaints are usually received from people who object to the level of noise
at night. This is partly because the ambient noise level is lower and partly because
people are more susceptible to irritation at night.
The basic unit of sound measurement is the sound pressure level, expressed in
decibels (dB), as follows:
P
Lp = 20 loglO (--) (11.1)
r:
where Lp = the sound pressure level in dB
p = the rms sound pressure in N m-2

Po = the reference sound pressure, usually 2 x 10-5 N m-2
Sound level is the value measured with a sound level meter which is able to weight
the various sound frequencies. An A-weighting network, which approximately
corresponds to the frequency response of the human ear, is commonly used. Sound
levels recorded would be expressed in dB(A).
Sound levels tend to fluctuate, so it is necessary to use a method of measurement
which takes account of this fluctuation. What is measured is the equivalent con-
tinuous sound level, Leq, which is expressed in dB(A). Thel4q is a summation of the
energy in the fluctuating sound which is expressed as a steady level having the same
energy.
Leq is given by
Leq
1
= 10 10glO T
f t= T
t=0
(PA(t,>\
-P;:-) dt (11.2)
whereLeq = the equivalent continuous sound level in dB(A), over a time

period T
pA(t) = the instantaneous A-weighted sound pressure (in N m-2) varying
with time t
= the reference sound pressure, usually 1irs N m-2
Lcq can be determined over any time period; the period being indicated in brackets;
i.e.Leq (12h)(2).
National authorities do not usually set noise limits. Any noise limit would usually
be set by a local authority, which would be more likely to be aware oflocal ambient
noise levels and noise-sensitive areas. Beaman & Jones(2) give tables of noise levels
produced by construction equipment and methods of applying these to actual sites.
In order to understand the significance of the various noise levels which might be
experienced near a site the following examples oflikely ambient levels, given by the
British Noise Advisory Councilv", should be noted
Noise level in a bedroom with the windows open in a quiet urban area at night
would be about 35 dB(A)
Noise level in a large grocery store would be about 60 dB(A)
Noise level in a busy workshop where raised voices have to be used for conversation
would be about 85 dB(A). Various methods of successfully reducing the sound level
both on and near bucket dredgers are described by Dietze(4).
Vibration level
Vibrations are caused when underwater rock is blasted. The vibration travels
through the ground and affects the environment. A water shock wave is also
produced which is capable of causing damage.
Water shock
Water shock can harm bathers and divers. It can also upset delicate machinery
installed on vessels and, when unconfined explosive charges are detonated near
structures, damage can be caused by the water shock wave. It is possible to estimate
the peak pressure caused by a spherical charge, freely suspended in water
(Enhamre(S)). Subsequent work by Edwards(6) shows that, for charges detonated in
rock, the peak pressure is 1{}-14% of that caused by the same weight of explosive
freely suspended.
Peak pressures from water shock waves can be reduced by means of an air bubble
curtain and reductions by a factor of 6-10 have been measured(7,8). The curtain is
produced by pumping air into a perforated tube on the seabed. The air bubbles rising
from the tube form a curtain between the blast and the zone which is to be protected.
Shock wave reduction, which is caused by the curtain absorbing and reemitting the
shock wave energy, depends to a great extent on the amount of air used.
Although it is possible to estimate peak water pressures from blasting operations, it
is not always necessary. The most common concern is that the shock wave will harm
bathers, and it is possible to estimate the safe distance from a given weight of an
explosive charge from the following expression (Morrisonc"]:
R 270M (11.3)
where R = distance from explosive charge in metres
W = explosive charge weight in kg
This expression has been derived from charges freely suspended in the water, so it
has a safety factor of about 10:1 when used for charges in rock.
Another consideration which must be considered when blasting operations are
carried out in an existing harbour, is the effect of the water shock wave on vessels,
particularly those with delicate instruments or machinery. On one contract in
Table 11.1 Standard values of resultant peak particle velocity, VR, for
Intermittent vibrations
Class of Maximum permissible V R

building Type of building mm S-1
Ruins, damaged building being protected

as monuments 2
II Buildings With evident damage, cracks in
masonry 4
III Building without damage, in good
structural condition, possibly with plaster
crac ks 8
IV Good reinforced buildings, e.q. industrial
buildings 10-40
Milford Haven(lIJ), the detonation of large charge weights near tankers with
automated pumping systems caused the pumps to reverse, and charges had to be
restricted when these vessels were discharging. Maximum instantaneous charge
weights were limited, as shown in Figure 11.1.
Vibrations
Vibrations transmitted through rock and their effect on structures have been the
subject of considerable research. Vibrations have amplitude, frequency and
propagation velocity which depend on the weight of explosive detonated and the
characteristics of the site. It is now generally accepted that it is the peak particle
velocity of the vibration which is the best criterion for assessing the damage potential
of the vibration with regard to a particular structure.
Particle velocity can be calculated from:
V=2 nfa (11.4)

where V particle velocity in mm
= S-l
f frequency in Hz
a = amplitude in mm
I~OO
..'"
~ 1000
..e
o
.c
o
E
::I
E
';c
; 500
o~----------~~----------~------------_.--------
1000 2000 3000
Distance from tanker (metres)
Figure 11.1 Maximum allowable instantaneous charge weights at given

distances from automated tankers
The United States Bureau of Mines have developed an expression which relates
particle velocity to other variables, as follows
- r
V - K (___E_)-B (11.5 )
where V = particle velocity in mm S-I

R = distance from the explosive to the recording point in m
W = the instantaneous charge weight, or maximum charge per delay
K and B are site constants and can vary considerably from site to site: K between 102
to 108 and B usually between 1 and 2. These constants must be determined by taking
site measurements.
In practice, it has been established that, for normal, modern structures, there is
little risk of damage occurring if the scaled distance (rw) is greater than 23. If the
scaled distance falls below this value the probability of particle velocities in excess of
50 mm S~I occurring increases. This velocity is considered to be a useful upper limit
for particle velocity. Figure 11.2 shows the relationship between charge weight and
distance for scaled distances of 23.
Other expressions relating V, Rand W have been developed empirically, usually
1000
800
600
i.--'
Lr'
400
V
:;
.; 200
ik'V
o~~..1..: \<I
0:\..\ .....
E
..~o\~V
~
c
s
a 100 ~eVl
k2'/
..'r-\9
~\of\
80
10-"""
60
I..;
40 ............
.....
V
20
V
I
2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100 200 400 600800 1000
Maximum char<~e weiQht per delay (kQ)
Figure 11.2 Graph of charge weight, W, against distance. R. for scaled
distances ( ~) of 23
vW
by fixing the relationship between Rand Wand establishing constants to relate these
variables to V.
When older or more delicate structures are affected, particle velocities much
lower than 50 mm S~l should be used, so as to limit vibration. Some possible limits
which can be adopted are contained in the German Standard DIN 4150 (draft of July
1971) and are shown in Table 11.1 (p. 261).
International standard organisations have not yet laid down firm standards with
regard to blasting. However, some authorities appear to believe that vibration
should be kept to a level below human perception, i.e. around 1 mrns' , and well
below the vibration level caused by passing lorries, piling, etc. It is doubtful whether
this degree of control is either justifiable or necessary from any viewpoint, including
the economic and environmental, for daytime operations.
Water and soil quality

Water and soil quality can be defined by reference to the chemical and biological
state of the water and soil; the turbidity, or amount of suspended solids in the water;
the dynamic characteristics of the water, i.e. currents, turbulence, etc., and their
effect on marine life; the physical state of the soil.
Chemical state
Changes in the chemical state can arise as a result of increased turbidity caused by the
spillage or dumping of contaminated or chemically active dredged spoils. Toxic sub-
stances and nutrients may be released from the suspended solids and remain in the
water. The toxins released are potentially dangerous to local marine organisms
whilst the nutrients, in the form of phosphates and nitrates which are the inorganic
end products of degenerated organic wastes, will cause algal and marine plant
growth if allowed to remain in relatively high concentrations. This growth will
alter the ecology of the area.
A check on the chemical state of the soil and water before and during dredging
operations involves monitoring the following characteristics: dissolved gases; P,
P04, NO} and S02; chemical oxygen demand; hydrocarbons; toxins, pesticides,
heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), etc.; salinity variations. It is also
necessary to carry out soil sampling in order to perform chemical analysis of the
dredging and disposal sites.
Biological state
The biological state of the soil and water is characterised by the dissolved oxygen
level and the benthos which survive in it. Benthos is the term used for organisms
living at the bottom of a mass of water. It is possible that dredging will lower the
dissolved oxygen content of the water to a lethal level, and it is essential that the con-
centration should at all times be capable of meeting the biological oxygen demand
(BOD) of the site and dredged spoil. Examination of the benthic communities
before and after dredging are of great importance, as is the frequency of dredging. If
dredging is infrequent, recolonisation may occur each time, particularly if the sedi-
mcnts in the perturbed sites are the same after dredging as they were before.
The following characteristics should be monitoredl!": bioligical oxygen demand;
coliform and nominated pathogen counts; samples and analysis of neckton, plankton
and nueston; samples and analyses of the benthos.
Turbidity
Turbidity is the most obvious effect of dredging on the quality of water. Increased
turbidity is likely to have an adverse effect on the environment. It can cause clogging
of ftsh gills which leads to suffocation and it can also clog the membranes of fIlter
feeding organisms. Also, by reducing the amount of sunlight penetration into the
water, it can slow down photosynthetic activity of plant life.
When turbidity is measured on site it should be compared with the level and fre-
quency of turbidity caused by storms at the site. It is quite common to fmd that, for
considerable periods, natural turbidity exceeds the levels caused by dredging.
Dynamic characteristics
Changes in the dynamic characteristics of water at the site due to dredging are
discussed in Chapter 2. Generally, increased flushing and water depth lead to
environmental changes. The new habitats created sustain different benthic com-
munities. This mayor may not be beneficial. The following characteristics of the
dredging and dumping sites should be monitored+": temperature, turbidity, odour
and particulate matter related to the water; wave action, tidal flows, flushing period,
current speeds and directions at the site; observations of resident and migratory fish
and marine creatures.
Physical state
Apart from chemical and biological changes of the soil which take place due to
dredging, the physical state can also change. This may occur in a number of ways,
such as an alteration in grain size at the dredge or dump site, or the exposure or
covering of large areas of rock due to the removal or dumping of material. The
resulting change in habitat may eliminate or foster certain types of organisms and
marine life, bringing about a permanent change in the ecology.
Regulation
Pollution control has been the subject of concentrated research in the last few years
and particular emphasis has been placed on the quality of water and soil, especially at
the dump site. The most recent, and to date most reasonable, approach to the regula-
tion of dredging works from the environmental aspect has been the formulation, in
the USA, of the ocean dumping guidelines(12). These guidelines set out not only how
the location of dumping sites will be agreed but also which will be used for polluted
and non-polluted spoils. In addition three tests are given which will be used to deter-
mine whether a spoil is polluted. If the dredged material passes at least one of these
tests it is regarded as non-polluted. The tests are:
(1) Whether the material is composed of sand or gravel, or any sediments larger
than silt size
(2) Whether the water quality in the dredge site is acceptable for the propagation of
fish, shellfish and wild life, and the biota associated with the material to be dredged
are typical of the body of water in question, considering the normal frequency of
dredging
(3) Whether the material to be dredged passes the standard elutriate test: one part of
(wet) bottom sediment from the dredge site is mixed with four parts of water from
the dump site and vigorously shaken for thirty minutes, after which it is allowed to
settle for one hour. Then the supernatant is filtered or centrifuged to remove
particulate matter and tested for the presence of soluble pollutants, and BOD. The
material passes the test if the concentration in the supernatant of any constituent
deemed relevant to water quality is present at a concentration not greater than 1.5
times its concentration in the water of the dump site.
Similar inland dumping guidelines are also proposed with the provision for alter-
ing the criteria for the elutriate test, depending on the type of pollutant, and of
including a criterion regarding bulk sediment analysis for certain pollutant con-
stituents. Whilst there are still many questions to be answered concerning the effects
of pollutants and what should be considered to be environmentally harmful, these
guidelines are the beginning of a rational approach to the problem.
A summary of the legislation and pollution standards adopted by various
countries, or proposed at international conventions, is given in Appendix VI,
Reference (1).
Dredging methods and pollution

The way in which the method of dredging affects the amount of pollution will vary
according to the type of work to be carried out and the material to be dredged. It has
been shown(13) that, where disposal is the problem, the spoil from mechanical
dredgers is likely to be less polluting than that from hydraulic dredgers due to the
higher density of the dredged spoil dumped by the former. An investigation into the
pollution caused by three different dredger types on the same site(14)showed that at
the dredging site the relative turbidity and dissolved oxygen levels vary according to
the type of dredger being used.
Since the choice of dredger depends on so many variables related to the site condi-
tions and job specification, it would seem more appropriate to try to reduce the
pollution caused by the dredgers rather than select them as to how much pollution
they cause. The following steps have already been reported:
(1) A silt-retaining curtain should be placed around the dredging site to contain the
area of turbidity(13)
(2) The solids content of overflow water from reclamation areas should be reduced
to a minimum (13)
(3) The overflow systems from trailing suction hopper dredgers should be modified
to reduce turbidity(15)
(4) Cutter blades should be shaped and a special hood placed over the cutter head of
a cutter suction dredger(16)
(5) Hopper doors should be well sealed to prevent the escape offine material'"? .
The manner in which conventional dredgers are used also affects the degree to which
they pollute the surroundings. Such practices as using trailer dredgers without the
overflow, not force-feeding cutter and suction dredgers, help to reduce turbidity,
albeit at the expense of a reduction in output.
11.4 Future developments

A considerable amount of time, effort and fmancial aid has been allocated to research
into the effects of dredging on the environment and there is no doubt that very soon
many of the arguments related to what is or is not a pollutant will be resolved.
However, since every dredging job is unique, there is always going to be a need for
measuring environmental impact and controlling it. It is, therefore, likely that future
efforts will be directed towards standardisation of monitoring techniques, and
development of non-polluting dredging techniques. Evidence of this already exists.
In a recent report of a dredging works at Tampa, Florida(17), the environmental
monitoring programme showed not only a realistic attitude towards the various
local concerns and pressure groups but also a sensible degree of emphasis on research
for the future.
Special purpose dredgers have already been developed, such as the Mudcat (see
Chapter 3), special anti-pollutant grab buckets for dredging polluted ooz('P) and
settling-pond dredgers with cutters and pump on the bed of the pond-IS). No doubt
many more will appear in the future.
References
(1) PlANe, Final report of the international commission for the study of environmental effect of
dredging and disposal of dredged materials, Bulletin, Annex to No. 27, Vol. II, 1977
(2) Beaman, A.L. and Jones, R.D.,Noise from Construction and Demolition Sites-Measured Levels and their
Prediction. CIRIA report No. 64, April 1977
(3) The Noise Advisory Council, A Guide to Noise Units. Department of the Environment, HMSO,
London, 1973
(4) Dietze, W. et al., Paper of the 24th International Navigation Congress, PIANC, Section II,
Subject 5, Leningrad, 1977
(5) Enhamre, E., Effects of underwater explosions on elastic structures. Transactions of the Royal
Institute of Technology, 82, 1954
(6) Edwards, A.T., Reduction of Hydraulic Shock: Periormanceof Air Curtain. Report No. 61--84,Hydro
Electric Power Commission, Ontario, 1961
(7) Abrahams,J.L., Underwater drilling and blasting for rock dredging. Proceedingsof the Institute of
Civil Engineers, 56, Part 1, Paper 7728, November 1974
(8) Jacobson, R.C, Air bubble curtain to cushion blasting, Ontario Hydro Research News, 6,14,1954
(9) Morrison, W.R., Underwater drilling and blastinghistory, equipment, methods, World Dredging
and Marine Construction, October 1974
(10) Swansbourne, J.F.C and Dudley, G., The development of Milford Haven. Proceedingsof the
Institute of Civil Engineers, Supplement XV, Paper 74195, 1971
(11) Longworth, CR. and Ferguson, N.J.. Ecologicaland Environmental Aspects of Dredging and Port Cons-
truction. Proceedings of Seatec, 1977
(12) US Army Corps of Engineers and Arthur D. Little Inc., Dredging Market in the United States.
Symcon Publishing Company, San Pedro, 1976
(13) Mohr, A.W., Energy and pollution concerns in dredging, Journal of the Waterways, Harbours ,md
Coastal Engineering Division, ASCE, 101, No. WWA, Paper 11733,November 1975
(14) Wakeman, T.M. Sustar, J.F., Dickson, W.j., Impacts of three dredge types compared in SF
district, World Dredging and Marine Construction, February 1975
(IS) Ifuji, I. and Ishirnatsu, N., Dredge overflow system solves turbidity problem, World Dredging and
Marine Construction, November 1975
(16) Sato, E., Application o(Dm\Ring 'Techniquelor Enuironmrntal Protcction.Proceedings ofScatcc, 1977
(17) Wisdom, D.A., Tampa harbour deepening project. World Dredging and Marine Construction,
February 1978
(Ill) Anonymous, Contaminated silt removal requires special equipment. World Dredging and Marine
Construction, November 1977
Index
Acti vc ranging systems, 204 bottom discharge, 23

air bubble curtain, 261 bottom drains, 250
air lift, 21 boulders, 145
Amphidredger, 59 boulders, dredging, 79, 1119
Amphirol, 251 measurement of, 1119
anchorage, 115 bucket chain, 20, 36
anemometer, 123 speed, 40, 106
angle of internal friction, 111,242 bucket dredger, 35, 69, 72, 77, 79-83, 85, 116
angle of repose, underwater, 226 advance, 37
chain speed, 166
Backtlllmg, 234 operation, 36
backhoe bucket, 20, 32 output, 105
backhoc dredger, 32, 69, 72, 77, 79-83, 115,86 side wires, 311
opcrution, 32 size, 311
output, 102 bucket ladder, 3()
size, JJ bucket wheel, 20
balling of clay, 244 hulking, 75, 1115
bank clearance, 223 hulking factor, 93
bankruptcy, 173 bund,246
bar check, 200 bund construction, material for, 241
barge, dimensions, 65 buoys, removal of, 159
dumb, 23 Butterworth Wharves, Malaysia, 240
self-propelled, 23 bypassing, 6
base productive unit, 94
basins, 224 Cables, 157
basket cutter, 44 cactus grab, 40
bathers, protection of, 261 caissons, 233
beach replenishment, 254 capital dredging, 8, 183
bed corers, 143 capital dredging, costs, 230
bed samplers, 14J channel, design of, see dredged area
bends. 223 design optimisation, 227
berths, 225 port entrance, 2211
bill of quantities, 1113 river, 229
biological state of environment, 264 self-cleansing, 10
hlastabilitv, 75, 156 channel deepening, benefits of, 228
blasting, 211,196, 260 chemical state of environment, 264
blasting ratio, 76 circle chart, 204, 208
blasting, vibration, 182 classification of soils and rocks, 146
bombs, 15(), 175 clay, dredging, 83
bonds, 177 cobbles, 145
269
cobbles, dredging, 79 operation, 47
compaction, 182, 249 output, 111
computer, use of, 131,204,230 side wires, 49
consequential time loss, 213 size, 50
consolidation, 249 cycle factor, 94
containment, 246
contract, basic cost, 1611 Dar cs Salaam, 254
choice of, 171 datum, horizontal, 177
conditions of, 172 vertical, 1711
cost-plus, 168 debris, 84, 156, 175
cost-reimbursement, 167 deflection angle, 223
cost-sharing, 1611 delays, 213
documentation, 172 delay factor, 95
fixed price, 164 demurrage, 183, 193, 213
fixed price with escalation, 166 demolition spoil, 84
fixed price with incentive, 166 dcnsitication of fill, 249
tixed price subject to redetermination, 167 density measurement, 212
tixed unit price, 167 density meter, 1114,209
insurance, 173 diaphragm walls, 234
lease, 169 dilatancy, 81, 148
mechanisms, 169 dipper bucket, 29
negotiation, 170 dipper dredger, 29, 69, 72, 77, 79--113,85, 86
period, 88 advance, 101
special conditions of, 174 operation, 30
special forms of, 169 output, 99
specifications, 177 size, 32
supervIsion, 195 dispute, causes of, 215
target, 166 discharge distances, 113
timing, 119 ditching system, 250
types of, 164 diving, safety, 196
contractor, selection of, 164 drag bucket, 20
coral, 76 draghead, 20, 51, 112
cost benefit analysis, 229 draught, admissable, 218
cost of dredging, 122, 161 increase of, 220
cost of site investigation, 121 drawings, 173
cost of soil investigation, 138 dredged area, bends, 223
crew efficiency, 95 depth of, 217
cross-subsidisation, 167, 193 design of, 217
current, scatter diagram, 131 dimensions of, 217
state diagram, 131 length of, 66
unidirectional, 6 width of, 66, 221
wind-induced, 130 dredged level, 178, 186
current meter, 130 dredger, choice of, 122
currents, 70, 129 dredgers, classification of, 24
cutterhcad, 20, 42, 711 distribution worldwide, 60
cutterhead, horsepower, 112 draughts, 64
speed, 44 minimum cutting widths, 66
cutter suction dredger, 42, 70, 72, 77, 79--116 special purpose, 58
advance, 47 dredging, and the environment, 256
Index 271
avoidance of, 10 Earthquakes, 227
boulders and cobbles, 79 echo sounder, 1~3, 199
clay, ~3 beam width, 199
contract, 163 calibration, 200
cost, 161 errors in operation, 201
cut, (,6 interference, 207
dctmition. phase change, 200
eHect of, 10, 122 pulse frequency, 199
tor reclamation, 252 recording paper, 200
gravels, 80 sounding rate, 199
history of, 1 specification, 201
methods, 1~ economics, 228
and construction, 234 electronic position fixing, 204
and pollution, 266 CIIvironmental aspects, 159, 256
and quay design, 231 environmental balance, 4
near structures, 86 environmental control, 182, 259, 265
ooze, 267 environmental control on site, 214
pretreated rock, 78 environmental impact, measurement, 259
processes, 1~ type of, 256
programme, 159, 177 equivalent continuous sound level, 260
pump, 21, 44 estimating output, 90
pump horsepower, 112 principles, 93
rock, 76 estuary, 7
sand, ~1 evaporation, 251
Silt, ~2 cxplosi ve store, 159
site location, 88 explosives, 18
tolerance, 1~6, 1~9 explosives, usc of, 159
trenches, 235
dredging in exposed site, 160 Face height, 113
in the berth, 235 face shovel, 20
in two stages, 31, 186 factor, cycle, 94
drill casing, bending of, 71 delay, 95
drilling and blasting, see pretreatment mechanical, 95
drilling, cycle, 27 modification, 94
open hole, 139 operational, 95
overburden, 27, 142, 1~1 reduction, 95
rotary, 139 tilt, 106
drilling pontoon, 24, 6~, 69, 71, ~6, 97 fill, 23K
operation, 27 characteristics, 241
output, 97 classification of, 242
dry solids, density of, 191 compaction, 182, 249
dump site, choice of, 15 consolidation, 249
dustpan dredger, 56, 70, 72, ~0-S6 containment of, 246
operation, 57 densiftcation, 249
dustpan head, 20, 56 layer thickness, 1~2
Dutch cone penetrometer, 142, 144,242 measurement of, 1R9
dyke, s('e bund method of placing, 24R
dvnarnic consolidation, 252 quality improvement, 253
dynamic penetration tests, 145 settlement, 249
fill from clean sand, 242 land ownership, 159, 240
from dirty soils, 244 large areas, measurement of, 188
irom soft cohesive soils, 245 laser, 203
from stifT cohesive soils, 244 lay-on charges, 18
filter layers, 246 lead line, 209
ltJg, 68, 126 letter of intent, 169
tloat tracking, 130 levee, see bund
Hocculation. 136 lift height, 248
fragmentation, 78 liquefaction, 242
front loading, 167, 193 littoral drift, 5
locks, 87, 157
Geophysical survey, 143 longshore transport, 5
glacial till, 79
grab, unloading, 23 Magnetometer survey, 156
grab bucket, 20, 40, 108 maintenance dredging, 9, 183
gnb dredger, 40, 70, 72, 77, 79--83, 85, maintenance dredging, costs, 230
86 manoeuvring areas, 224
operation, 42 manoeuvring lane, 222
output, 108 Maricor, 143
size, 42 marine trafhc, 85
gravel, digging, 80 material, for fill, 181
to be dredged, 179
Harbour dues, 175 winning, 2
harbour regu!ations, 159 measurement, 182
harbours, self-cleansing, 10 by advance, 210
Harwell silt density probe, 192 by subtraction, 212
head wire, 36 during disposal, 211
heaving, 221 in the hopper, 211
hopper, measurement, 191 in the means of transport, 191
hopper barge, SI'C barge in the pipeline, 212
hopper capacity, 117 of pretreatment, 210
hover dredger, 58 on site, 209
humidity, 126 techniques, 183
hydraulic fill, SCI' fill meteorological records, 126
Hydraulics Research Station, 5, 14 mechanical breakdown, 96
hydrocyclones, 244 mechanical factor, 95
hydrographic surveying, 198 Menard pressuremeter, 252
hyperbolic systems, 204 mining, 2, 62
mobilisation, 183
Icc, 12() mobilisation, costs, 161
instructions to renderers, 172 period, 88
interim surveys, 198 Modified Proctor test, 250
intertidal zones, 87 modified productive unit, 96
modification factor, 94
Jack-up pontoon, 24 Monte Carlo method, 229
jet probe, 140, 181 Mudcat,59
jet pump, 21 mud grab, 40
multi-transducer array, 208
Ladder, 36 Munroe effect, 18
Index 273
Na vigation systems, 204 errors in, 206
N-valllc, 145,242 precontract planning, 121
noise, 1H2, 25'1 preloading, 25(), 252
nois. from construction equipment, 260 presplitting, 234
notices t;lr renderers, 174 pretreatment, IH, 73, 184, 234
Notices to Mariners, 196 chemical, 1 H
cost, lH4
Ocean dumping guidelines, 265 measurement, 1H4
ocean wave statistics, 133 mechanical, IH
ooze, dredging of, 267 site measurement of, 210
operational factor, 'IS pretreatment barge, see drilling pontoon
opel! pile structures, 231 price variations, 176
optimisation of channel design, 227 probing, 13'1
orangc peel grab, 40 production, 91
output, ')J programme, 122, 197
estimating, '10 progress reporting, 19H
instantaneous theoretical, lJ4 Protodyakanov drop test, 146
ma xnnum potential, lJ4 publicity, 1%
nominal uninterrupted, lJ4 pump, dredging, 21, 44
ovcrburdcn drilling, 27, 142 jet, 21
overconsolidation, 250 seabed, 21
ovcrtiow , drop inlet, 24H
weir, 24(J Quantities, variation of, 173
()verdrl'dging, 1H6, 233 quay design, 231
Owen tube, 137
Rain, 6H, 126
Pav level, lH(J reclamation, IH1, lH3, 23H
paymcnt, method ot, IH4 dredging for, 252
peak particle velocity, 262 eHect of, 240
peat, H4 fl'asibility of, 239
pcrtormancc, 91 tIll. Sfl' till
factors aHecting, 63 on soft soil, 240
pcr mca bi litv, 250 ponds, 24H
permits, 175 usc of, 23H
physical state of environment, 265 reduction factors, 95
PIA NC clasxihcation, 73 relative density, 241
piezometer, 242 rippabilitv, 15(1
pipeline. 23, 4'1, 212 river, level, 127
submarine, 157 level cxcccdence graph, 12H
pitching, 221 Rock, blasting, 73, IH4
placing material, 236 breaker, lH, 32, 68
planning, precontract, 121 breaking, 184
point load strength index, 146 classifIcation of, 73, 146, 152
pollution control, 265 conditions, 73, 13H
pollution standards, 266 coring, 13lJ
pore water prcssure, 242 definition, 152
port operations, interruptions to, 175 description, 147
position fixing, 202 dredging, 76
electronic, 204 drilling, 75
fragmentation, 76 silt dredgmg, 82
level, determination of, 181 simulation, 229
quality designation, 147 site, access, 157
testing, 153 coordination, 197
testing in laboratory, 146 investigation, 121, 154
rock cutter suction dredgers, 78 choice of method, 123
rock grapples, 80 cost of, 121
rolling, 221 general, 156
rotary drilling, 139 organisation, 197
rotary percussive drifter drill, 75 problems, 215
supervision, 195
Safety, 158, 196 slurry, 245
saline wedge, 8, 136 soil, adhesion test, 146
salinity, 136 classification of, 73, 146, 148
saltation, 7 conditions, 73, 138
samples, disturbed, 138 definition, 148
undisturbed, 138 density, 93
sand, dredging, 81 maximum, 250
equivalent test, 253 description, 146
purity, 253 dredgeability, 73
scaled distance, 263 investigation, 138
scrapers, 24 low density, 122
sea state, prediction of, 125 organic, 84
sediment, suspended, 7, 11-13, 136 quality, 264
sediment movement, 5 slope, 226
coastal,S stability, 240
estuarial, 7 strength, 148
fluvial,7 testing, 150
seismic survey, 143 in laboratory, 145, 149
settlement, allowance for, 190 ill situ, 144, 149
gauging poles, 190 thickness, 66
sextant angle, 202 sound, equivalent continuous level, 260
shaped charges, 18 sounding line, 184
shear strength, 242 specifications, 177
sheer, 225 spoil, disposal of, 23, 181
sheet piles, 233 dump location, 87, 238
shell and auger, 138 effect of dumping, 14
ship clearance lane, 222 extraction, 20
side echoes, 207 transportation, 21
side scan sonar, 156, 209 spudded pontoon, 24
side slopes, 178, 226 squat, 217
silt density, 192, 231 stage discharge relationships, 7
silt monitor, 137 standard penetration test (SPT), 145, 154,
siltation, allowance for, 189 242
during dredging, 122 statistics, 228
in estuaries, 13 statutory and legal constraints, 159
inshore, 12 stopping distances, 224
offshore, 11 submersible drills, 18
in rivers, 12 straight arm cutter, 44
Index 275
subtcusc angle, 202 trafhc delay, 95, 158
subtcnsc board, 202 trailing suction hopper dredger, 50, 70, 72,
suction hcad , 20 79---B6
supervision, 195 operation, 52
surbce blasting, 184 output, 117
surface charges, 18 size, 54
survey, accuracy of, 221 speed, 52
automated systems, 208 transducer, 199
chart scale, 20H transits, 202
geophysical, 143 trenches, 235
horizontal control, 202 turbidity, 265
hydrographic, 198 turning basins, 225
interim, 19H
in n.rprctation, 207 Unbalanced bidding, 167
line spacing, 20H unbalancing, 194
Dr soft bed, 207 under keel clearance, 221, 225
prc- and post-dredging, 186, 19H underwater slopes, 226
pr cscntation , 20H
seismic. 143 Vane tests, 145
vertical control, 206 vertical drains, 250
Swedish weight sounding, 142, 144 vessel, dimensions, 218, 220
swceping, 209 effect of shock on, 261
swell, !J9, 133 heaving, 221
pitching, 221
Temperature, 6H, 126 rolling, 221
tender, competitive, 169 shen,225
selective, 170 stopping distances, 224
tender analysis, 193 sunken, 175
theodolite, intersection of, 204 yaw, 222
threshold velocity,S vibration, IH2, 260, 262
tidal. ElC~tor.131 limits, 264
inlets, 13 vibratory rolling, 249
measurement, 179 vibroflotation, 249
prism, 7, 13
working, 32 Wash boring, 140
tide, datum, 127 water, conditions, 69, 126
gauge, 127, 206 depth, 128
level. 127 effect of, 63
lowest astronomical, 127 measurement, 179
manuals, 127 restriction, 157
tilt factor, 106 level, 126, 218
time, dead, 92 quality, 264
non-productive working, 92 shock, 261
productive working, 92 Water Witch, 59
spen t in preparatory operations, 92 wave, climate, 6
tine grab, 40 conditions, improvement by dredging,
tolerances, 178, 233 2
tracer experiments, 6 direction, 133
traffic. 85, 213 height, limiting, 70
persistence diagram, 134 wind, 68, 123
period, 133 frequency matrix, 125
recorders, 133 rose, 123
scatter diagram, 134 speed persistence diagram, 125
statistics, 133 working areas, 158
steepness, 133 working hours, 175
Wavcridcr buoy, 133 wreck disposal, 2
waves, 69, 133 wrecks, 156, 175, 183
weather, 68, 123
delay, 95 Yaw, 222

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What is the purpose and scope of the book?

What is the purpose and scope of the book?

What gaps in knowledge does the author aim to address?

What gaps in knowledge does the author aim to address?

Dredging:

First published in 1979

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Phototypeset by Tradespools Ltd, Frome, Somerset

2 The balance of nature 4

4 Factors affecting performance 63

6 Precontract planning 121

7 The dredging contract 163

8 Contract supervision 195

9 Design of the dredged area 217

11 Dredging and the environment 256

1.1 Dredging defined

1.2 Dredging today

(a) to dig a hole (or remove material)

2.1 The environmental balance

regime of any site, it is necessary to examine the natural mechanisms of material

2.2 The basic mechanisms of sediment movement

Table 2.1 Depths of water at which specific maximum

Depth of water (metres) for maximum

(d) Surveying of the seabed and obtaining beach profiles

2.3 The need for dredging

Key @] Capitol dredging

Figure 2.1 The dredging need

Development without dredging

Development with capital dredging only

2.4 The effect of dredging

covered in detail in Chapter 11.

The type of area

Siltation in offshore areas

Sediment load in suspension

Sediment load on the bed

Siltation in inshore areas

Sediment load due to waves

Sediment load due to waves and currents

Sediment load in suspension

Sediment load on the bed

Sediment load on bed and in suspension

2.5 The effect of dumping

Dumping sites on land

Key 0 Acceptable m Chanoe site

Figure 2.2 The choice of dump site

Dumping and dredging sites in the same sedimentary system

Dumping and dredging sites in separate sedimentary systems

3.1 The basic dredging processes

Pretreatment means treatment of the ground before the dredging operation. It

dropped vertically on to the material to be broken. Fragmentation is caused by

Figure 3.1 Methods of pretreatment and rock breakage a, explosives In

Mechanical primary extraction methods

Hydraulic primary extraction methods

Secondary extraction methods

Discharge pipe Discharge pipe

(a) Water and soil in

Water and soil in

The classification of dredgers

3.2 The drilling pontoon

o~-+ ~ ~~ ~ ~