Babur - The First Mughal Emperor [1526-

30]
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur founded the Mughal Empire in India
after defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the Battle of Panipat in 1526.
At the age of 14, Babur ascended the throne of the Central Asian
kingdom of Farghana. His greatest ambition was to rule
Samarkand. He fought many battles in the pursuit of this goal,
winning and losing his kingdom many times in the process. In
1504, he ventured into what is now Afghanistan and conquered
Kabul.
His position in Central Asia was precarious at best. In order to
consolidate his rule, he invaded India five times, crossing the
River Indus each time. The fifth expedition resulted in his
encounter with Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat in April
1526. Babur's army was better equipped than Lodhi's; he had
guns while the sultan relied on elephants. The most successful of
Babur's innovations was the introduction of gunpowder, which
had never been used before in the Sub-continent. This combined
with Babur's newer tactics gave him a greater advantage. Babur's
strategy won the war and Ibrahim Lodhi died fighting.
Panipat was merely the beginning of the Mughal rule. Akbar laid
its real foundation in 1556. At the time of the battle of Panipat,
the political power in India was shared by the Afghans and the
Rajputs. After Panipat, the Hindu princes united under Rana
Sanga, the Raja of Mewar, resulting in a sizable force. Babur's
army showed signs of panic at the size of the huge opposing
army. To prevent his forces retreat, Babur tried to instill
confidence in his soldiers by breaking all his drinking cups and
vessels, and vowed never to drink again if he won. His soldiers
took heart, and when the armies met in the battle at Kanwaha,
near Agra on March 16, 1527, Babur was able to win decisively.
Kanwaha confirmed and completed Babur's victory at Panipat.
Babur thus became the king of Central India.
In 1528, he captured Chanderi from the Rajput chief Medini Rao,
and a year later he defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud
Lodhi in the battle of Ghagra at Bihar. These conquests made
Babur the "Master of Hindustan". He was not destined to enjoy
the fruits of his conquests as he died shortly afterwards in Agra on
December 26, 1530. He was buried at Kabul in accordance with
his wish.
The Mughal age is famous for its many-faceted cultural
developments. The Timurids had a great cultural tradition behind
them. Their ancestral kingdom at Samarkand was the meeting
ground of the cultural traditions of Central and West Asia. The
Mughals brought with them Muslim cultural traditions from Turko-
Iranian areas, which inspired the growth of the Indo-Muslim
culture.

Humans Rule [1530-40, 1555-6]

Babur was succeeded by his eldest son Human. Human failed in
asserting a strong monarchical authority. He inherited a freshly
won empire with a host of troubles; the Afghan nobles, the
Rajputs and worst of all, his three treacherous brothers. They
caused numerous problems for him. Following his father's advice,
Human treated his brothers kindly and appointed them to high
positions. Kamran was appointed as the Governor of Kabul,
Kandahar and later even Punjab. Asker was the Governor of
Smbhar, and Hindan the Governor of Altar. In return, his brothers
hindered him at every step and betrayed him in his hour of need.
All of them coveted the throne. This was a curse that each
successful Mughal king had to deal with. Human almost lost the
empire his father had fought so hard to bequeath him. In the first
ten years of his rule, he faced so many challenges not only from
his younger brothers but also from the Afghan General Sheer
Shah Sure who had served under Babur. Sheer Shah Sure
defeated Human in the battles of Chaise and Kanauji in 1540. This
defeat was the first setback to the infant Mughal Empire. He lived
the next 15 years of his life, from 1540 to 1555, self-exiled in
Persia. Later on, with the help of the King of Persia, he captured
Kabul and Kandahar. He was finally able to re-ascend the throne
at Delhi and Agra after defeating Siyanda Sure. After recovering
his throne, Human devoted himself to the affairs of the kingdom
and towards improving the system of government. He laid the
foundation of the Mughal style of painting. Later on, during the
reign of Akbar, a fusion of Persian and Indian style of painting
took place.
Unfortunately, after recovering his empire, Human was not
destined to rule for long. In January 1556, he met his tragic end
by slipping from the famous building known as Din Panay. After
him his eldest son Akbar took over the rule of the empire.

Suri Dynasty [1540-55]

Sher Khan, known as Sher Shah Suri, was an Afghan leader who
took over the Mughal Empire after defeating Humayun in 1540.
Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five
years, but his reign proved to be a landmark in the Sub-continent.
He formulated a sound imperial administration that was inspired
by the Safavid regime in Iran. Sher Shah employed a powerful
army, which is said to have comprised of 150,000 horses, 250,000
foot-soldiers and 5,000 elephants. He personally inspected,
appointed and paid the soldiers, thus making him the focus of
loyalty and subduing the jealousies between clans and tribes. To
prevent fraud, he revived the tradition of branding horses,
introduced first by Alauddin Khalji.
The principal reforms for which Sher Shah is remembered are
those connected with revenue administration. He set up a
revenue collection system based on the measurement of land.
Justice was provided to the common man. Numerous civil works
were carried out during his short reign; planting of trees, wells
and building of Sarai (inns) for travelers was done. Roads were
laid; it was under his rule that the Grand Trunk road from Delhi to
Kabul was built. The currency was also changed to finely minted
silver coins called Dam.
During his lifetime, Sher Shah commissioned the construction of
tombs for his father, Hasan Khan Suri and for himself. A third one
was begun for his son Islam, but remained unfinished due to the
dynasty's fall. Sher Shah died in 1545 by a gunpowder explosion
and left his kingdom to his two sons and grandsons.
Unfortunately, his successors were incompetent and succumbed
to old Afghan rivalries. This resulted in the downfall of the Suri
Dynasty.

Akbars Reign [1556-1605]

Humayun's heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was only 13 years old
when his father died. Thanks to his exceptionally capable guardian,
Bahram Khan, he survived to demonstrate his worth. Akbar's reign
holds a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually
fortified the foundations of the Mughal Empire. After a series of
conquests he managed to subdue most of India. Areas not under the
empire were designated as tributaries. He also adopted a conciliatory
policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them.
Akbar was not only a great conqueror, but a capable organizer and a
great administrator as well. He set up a host of institutions that proved
to be the foundation of an administrative system that operated even in
British India. Akbar's rule also stands out due to his liberal policies
towards the non-Muslims, his religious innovations, the land revenue
system and his famous Mansabdari system. Akbar's Mansabdari
system became the basis of Mughal military organization and civil
administration.
The reign of Akbar was a period of renaissance of Persian literature.
The Ain-i-Akbari gives the names of 59 great Persian poets of Akbar's
court. History was the most important branch of Persian prose
literature. Abul Fazl's Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari were complementary
works. Akbar and his successors, Jehangir and Shah Jehan greatly
contributed to the development of Indian music. Tansen was the most
accomplished musician of the age. Ain-i-Akbari gives the names of 36
first-rate musicians of Akbar's court where Hindu and Muslim style of
music mingled freely.
The Mughal architectural style began as a definite movement under his
rule. Akbar's most ambitious and magnificent architectural undertaking
was the new capital city that he built on the ridge at Sikri near Agra.
The city was named as Fatehpur to commemorate Akbar's conquest of
Gujrat in 1572. The most impressive creation of this new capital is the
grand Jamia Masjid. The southern entrance to the Jamia Masjid is an
impressive gateway known as Buland Darwaza. Like most other
buildings at Fatehpur Sikri, the fabric of this impressive gateway is of
red sandstone that is decorated by carvings and discreet inlaying of
white marble. Of all the Mughals, Akbar's reign was the most peaceful
and powerful. With his death in 1605, ended a glorious epoch in Indian
history.
Mujaddid Alf Sani''s Movement [1564-1624]
In the 16th century, during the reign of Akbar, Islam faced
overwhelming threats. The Infallibility Decree in 1579 and Din-i-Ilahi in
1581 were considered to be grave threats to the religion. The Din-i-
Ilahi, as propounded by Akbar, was a mixture of various religions. The
new religion combined mysticism, philosophy and nature worship. It
recognized no gods or prophets and the emperor was its chief
exponent. To believe in revelation was considered as "taqlid" (following
authority blindly) or a low kind of morality, fit only for the uneducated
and the illiterate. Akbar's Din-i-Ilahi had literally made the orthodox
Muslims outcasts in the affairs of the state. Akbar was actually
influenced by the Bhakti Movement that had started during the
Sultanate period. This philosophy propounded Hindu-Muslim unity.
Many sufis, including Qazi Mulla Muhammad of Jaunpur and Qazi Mir
Yaqoob of Bengal, condemned his religious innovations. However, the
man who took it upon himself to revive Islam was Sheikh Ahmad of
Sarhind, commonly known as Mujaddid Alf Sani, or "the reformer of the
second millennium". Sheikh Ahmad was born in Sarhind on June 26,
1564. He joined the Naqshbandiya Silsilah under the discipleship of
Khawaja Baqi Billah. He dedicated his sincerity of purpose to purify
Islam and to rid it of the accretions of Hindu Pantheism as well as the
philosophy of Wahdat-ul Wujud. He gave the philosophy of Wahdat-ush-
Shuhud. Mujaddid Alf Sani wrote Ittiba-al-Nubuwwah. In this pamphlet,
he quoted Imam Ghazali justifying the need for prophet-hood and
explaining the inadequacies of human intellect. Through verbal
preaching, discussions and his maktubat (letters) addressed to
important nobles and leaders of religious thought, he spread his
message amongst the elite in particular. He boldly opposed all plans to
bring Islam and Hinduism together on the religious level, knowing that
it would loosen the Muslim grip on the sources of imperial strength.
Because of these letters, and general atmosphere in the country, he
contributed to the swing from Akbar's heterodoxy to Aurangzeb's
vigorous orthodoxy instead of a return to Babur and Humayun's policy
of laissez faire. Iqbal rightly regarded him as the "Spiritual Guardian of
the Muslims" of the Sub-continent and one whom God had alerted to
the great perils inherent in the syncretism of Akbar.

British Arrive in India

In 1583, Queen Elizabeth I dispatched the ship Tyger to the Sub-
continent to exploit opportunities for trade. Sixteen years after
the Tyger sailed to India, Queen Elizabeth granted trading rights
to a group of London entrepreneurs. In 1614, the British East India
Company opened its first office in Bombay. The British continued
to seek concessions from the Mughal rulers and enjoyed a unique
trading monopoly. By the middle of the 18th century, the British,
in guise of the East India Company, had become deeply
enmeshed in the politics of India. The British and French had both
obtained permission to open factories and forts in India. It was in
the guise of defense for their forts that they were able to establish
large forces in India. In the middle of the 18th century the war
between France and Britain was extended to the Sub-continent in
order to establish control over India. The British succeeded in
their mission as they took advantage of the constant bickering of
the local rulers and the lack of consolidated power.

In violation of a trade agreement with the Nawab of Bengal, the

British started reinforcing Fort William in Calcutta. This led to a
clash between the British and the son of the Nawab of Bengal,
Sirajuddullah, who opposed the British violation and
reinforcement of Fort William. Owing to the treachery of his uncle
Mir Jaffar, Nawab Sirajuddullah was defeated in the battle of
Plassey in 1757. After the battle of Plassey, the British began the
systematic conquest of the Sub-continent. It was mainly the
Muslims who raised resistance to the British rule. The other
organized group, the Marhattas, periodically sided with the British
against the Muslims. The people of India were not united against
the foreign aggressors, which made it easier for the British to
seize power. The Marhattas, threatened by the British challenged
them under the leadership of their Peshwas. This resulted in a
series of Anglo-Marhatta wars, which finally resulted in bringing
the Marhatta confederacy under the British rule. Some Muslim
rulers like Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan single-handedly tried
to free India from the British yoke, but were defeated. After
minimizing the major threats, the British systematically expanded
their control and by 1823 had become masters of two-thirds of
India. They were proudly able to claim: "The sun never sets on the
British Empire"
Jehangirs Reign [1605-1628]
Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who took the title of
Jehangir, meaning "Conqueror of the World". He expanded the
empire through the addition of Kangra and Kistwar and
consolidated the Mughal rule in Bengal. Although many rebellions
arose in the empire, especially in Bengal and Mewar, Jehangir was
able to suppress them all. Jehangir was renowned for
administering impartial justice to his people, irrespective of their
religious faith. Around this time, European traders had started
coming to India. The English were able to find favor with Jehangir
and cultivated him through works of art, of which Jehangir was a
connoisseur. The first ambassador to the Mughal court was Sir
Thomas Roe. He was able to secure many trading facilities for his
countrymen.
The Mughal rule reached its climax during Jehangir's reign. In
the history of Mughal architecture, Jehangir's reign marks the
period of transition between its two grand phases, namely the
phase of Akbar and that of his grandson, Shah Jehan. The most
important feature of this period is the substitution of red
sandstone with white marble. Jehangir had a deep love of color.
The system of pietra dura, i.e. the inlaid mosaic work of precious
stones of various shades, gained popularity towards the end of his
reign. He was also fond of laying gardens. One of the most
famous gardens laid by him was the Shalimar Bagh in Lahore. The
Mughal style of art was greatly developed during his reign. The
most important feature of the paintings of this era was the decline
of the Persian and enhancement of the Indian cultural influence.

Mughal paintings lost much of their glamour and refinement after

Jehangir's death in 1627. During the late 17th and 18th centuries
this art migrated to regional centers such as in Rajput and Jaipur,
where it prospered under the influence of the local culture.

Shah Jehans Rule [1628-58]

Jehangir was succeeded by his second son Khurram in 1628.
Khurram took the name of Shah Jehan, i.e. the Emperor of the
World. He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the north
and conquered most of Southern India. The Mughal Empire was at
its zenith during Shah Jehan's rule. This was due to almost 100
years of unparalleled prosperity and peace. As a result, during
this reign, the world witnessed the unique development of arts
and culture of the Mughal Empire. During the reign of Shah Jehan,
Mughal architecture reached its supreme exuberance. He chose
marble as the chief medium for all his architectural undertakings.
Elaborate ornamentation, pietra dura, and creation of exclusive
landscape settings, are some important features of the buildings
of this period.
Shah Jehan built marble edifices at Agra such as the Diwan-i-Aam,
the Diwan-i-Khas, the Shish Mahal and the Moti Masjid, which
have been described as the most elegant buildings of their class
to be found anywhere. But all other architectural creations of
Shah Jehan are nothing when compared to the exquisite
conception of the mausoleum of his wife, Arjumand Bano Begum
(Mumtaz Mehal) at Agra. The Taj Mehal is the crowning glory and
culmination of Mughal architecture. Its construction commenced
in 1631 and was completed sometime around 1653. Gulbadan
Begum's "Humayun Namah", Jehangir's autobiography "Tuzk-i-
Jehangiri", Abdul Hamid Lahori's "Padshahnama" and Inayat
Khan's "Shah Jehannama" are some of the examples of Mughal
literature in the latter period of Shah Jehan's reign.

Aurangzeb Alamgirs Reign [1658-1707]

Aurangzeb ascended the throne on July 21, 1658 and ruled
supreme till 1707. Thus Aurangzeb ruled for 50 years, matching
Akbar's reign in longevity. But unfortunately he kept his five sons
away from the royal court with the result that none of them was
trained in the art of government. This proved to be very damaging
for the Mughals later on. Aurangzeb had three brothers. His father
Shah Jehan favored Dara Shikoh to be his successor. Dara Shikoh
was eclectic in his beliefs; therefore Aurangzeb challenged his
father's rule. Shah Jahan fell seriously ill and all his sons
proclaimed succession. Contrary to everyone's expectations, Shah
Jehan recovered. On his recovery, he again backed Dara as his
successor. A war of succession broke out among all the brothers.
In the long run Aurangzeb was victorious. But as Shah Jehan was
in absolute favor of Dara, Aurangzeb no longer trusted him, and
had Shah Jehan placed under polite restraint in his own palace.
Aurangzeb, a staunch Muslim, gave many grants for the
restoration of Hindu temples during his reign. He also appointed
Hindus to leading and commanding positions in his government.
His chief architectural achievement is the Badshahi Mosque at
Lahore, the largest mosque in the world at the time it was built. In
his 50 year, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his great ambition of
bringing the entire Sub-continent under one rule. It was under his
rule that in 1687 Bijapur and Golkonda, the last of the two Shia
states surrendered to the Mughal Empire. The Marhattas
continued to fight against Aurangzeb for some time. The last 26
years of Aurangzeb were devoted to his relentless Deccan
campaign for the purpose of which he had moved his court to
Deccan. Under Aurangzeb's rule, the borders of the Mughal
Empire spread out farther than ever before. But due to lack of
communication and poor infrastructure it was difficult to hold the
empire together. If the court was in the north, there was rebellion
in the south, and vice versa. Though he ruled longer than any of
his predecessors, yet he could not stop the decline of the Mughal
Empire, which hastened after his demise as none of his sons was
trained to rule. Finally in 1858 India came directly under the
control of British government.