Solar Radiation

G Kumaresan, PhD
Institute for Energy Studies
CEG, Anna University, Chennai
 Sun
About 74% of the suns mass is hydrogen, 25% is
helium, and the rest is made up of trace quantities of
heavier elements.
130,000 K
The sun is a hot sphere of gas whose internal
temperatures reach over 20 million degrees kelvin due
to nuclear fusion reactions at the sun's core which
which contains 40%
convert hydrogen to helium. of the suns mass

The suns total energy output is 3.8x1020 MW, which is

equal to 63 MW/m2 of the suns surface. This energy
radiates outward in all directions.

The earth receives only a tiny fraction of the total

radiation emitted, equal to 1.7x1014 kW; however, even
with this small fraction, it is estimated that 84 min of
solar radiation falling on earth is equal to the world
energy demand for one year (about 900 EJ).
 Sun
The total power from the sun is spread out over a much larger surface area and therefore
the solar irradiance on an object in space decreases as the object moves further away from
the sun.

The sun is about 1.5 x108 km away from earth, so, because thermal radiation travels with
the speed of light in a vacuum (300,000 km/s), after leaving the sun solar energy reaches
our planet in 8 min and 20 s.
 Solar radiation intensity on an object

The solar irradiance on an object some distance D from the sun is found by dividing the
total power emitted from the sun by the surface area over which the sunlight falls.
The total solar radiation emitted by the sun is given by T4 multiplied by the surface area
of the sun (4 x Sun Radius2). The surface area over which the power from the sun falls
will be 4D2.
where D is the distance of the object from the sun.
Therefore, the solar radiation intensity, H0 in (W/m2), incident on an object is:
 Solar radiation Outside the Earth's Atmosphere

The solar radiation outside the earth's atmosphere is calculated using the radiant power
density (Hsun) at the sun's surface (5.961 x 107 W/m2), the radius of the sun (Rsun), and
the distance between the earth and the sun. The calculated solar irradiance at the Earth's
atmosphere is about 1.36 kW/m2.
6
 THERMAL RADIATION
gamma rays are produced by nuclear
reactions,
X-rays by the bombardment of metals with
high-energy electrons,
Microwaves by special types of electron tubes
such as klystrons and magnetrons
Radio waves by the excitation of some
crystals or by the flow of alternating current
through electric conductors
Thermal radiation extends from about 0.1 to 100 m, since the radiation
emitted by bodies due to their temperature falls almost entirely into this
wavelength range. Thus, thermal radiation includes the entire visible and
infrared (IR) radiation as well as a portion of the ultraviolet (UV)
radiation.
7
8
 Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface
The solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere is relatively constant, the radiation
at the Earth's surface varies widely due to:

atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering;

local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and pollution;
latitude of the location; and
the season of the year and the time of day. Earth atmosphere

Atmospheric effects have several impacts on the solar radiation at

the Earth's surface. The major effects for photovoltaic
applications are:
a reduction in the power of the solar radiation due to absorption,
scattering and reflection in the atmosphere;
a change in the spectral content of the solar radiation due to
greater absorption or scattering of some wavelengths;
the introduction of a diffuse or indirect component into the solar
radiation; and
local variations in the atmosphere (such as water vapour, clouds
and pollution) which have additional effects on the incident power,
spectrum and directionality.
Earth surface
Solar Radiation
Earth receive more than 4,000
hours per year of sunlight (more
than 90 percent of the maximum
possible), as in the Sahara;
others receive less than 2,000
hours, as in regions such as
Scotland and Iceland.

Ordinarily, sunlight is broken down into three major components:

(1) visible light, with wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.8 micrometre, (40%)
(2) ultraviolet light, with wavelengths shorter than 0.4 micrometre, (10%) &
(3) infrared radiation, with wavelengths longer than 0.8 micrometre (50%).

The visible portion constitutes nearly half of the total radiation received at the surface
of the Earth. Although ultraviolet light constitutes only a very small proportion of the
total radiation, this component is extremely important. It produces vitamin D.
The thickness of the atmosphere the radiation has to pass through is described as the pathlength or Air Mass (AM).
AM0 Sunlight just outside the atmosphere
AM1 Pathlength when the sun is directly overhead
AM2 Sun 60o from overhead (Its twice of AM1)
AM1.5 - Sun 48o from overhead
where is the angle from the vertical (zenith
angle). When the sun is directly overhead, the
Air Mass is 1
Solar Constant, Io (1360 W/m2)
Solar radiation outside the Earths atmosphere Extra Terrestrial Radiation
Solar radiation at the Earths surface Terrestrial Radiation

As the distance between the sun

and the earth changes during the
whole year the value of the solar
constant changes also during the
year.

Solar constant (Extra Terrestrial Radiation) is defined as the total energy received
from the sun, per unit time, on a surface of unit area kept perpendicular to the
radiation, in space, just outside the earths atmosphere when the earth is at its mean
distance from the sun.
Solar Irradiance (or) Insolation, I
solar energy irradiation on earth surface of any orientation is called
Solar Irradiance (or) Insolation

where, Nd number of the day

On the other hand, solar radiation is attenuated as it passes through

the atmosphere and, in a simplified case, may be estimated according
to an exponential decrease by using Bougers Law

where, k absorption constant, and m - air mass

Different forms of Solar Radiation

Different coverings have different reflectance or albedo.

Fresh snow reflects over 80%, whereas water or forests less than 20%.
The average albedo for the earth is about 30%
It is possible to measure peak values of insolation
Over 1200 W/m2, when reflectance is considered.
 Cont
The albedo at any location is dependent on the following factors:
The type of surface
Solar elevation and the geometry of the surface (horizontal or slope)
relative to the sun
Spectral distribution and spectral reflectivity of the surface
 Attenuation of Solar Radiation due to scattering
The variation in solar radiation reaching the earth than received at the outside of the
atmosphere is due to absorption and scattering in atmosphere.

Monochromatic transmittance for beam radiation is calculated by

( s ) ( abs)
Monochromatic atmospheric transmittance considering scattering and absorption
(at wavelength )
The total effect (air molecules, dust & water vapour) of scattering on the beam
radiation is calculated by
 Attenuation of Solar Radiation Scattering effect problem
Determine the atmospheric conditions for scattering, when the sun is at zenith. Take the
following data:
Wave length, =0.5m
Total pressure, p=750 mm of mercury
Dust particles concentration at ground, d=800/cm3
Depth of precipitable water, w=20mm
Assume monochromatic atmospheric transmittance considering absorption only (abs) = 0.6
Soln:

( s ) a p / 760
d d / 800
w
w / 20 m
(Eq.1)
-0.00389-4
a 10 10 -0.00389(0.5)-4
10-0.0623
-0.0353-0.75
d 10 10 -0.0353(0.5) -0.75
10-0.105
-0.0075-2
w 10 10 -0.0075(0.5) -2
10 0.03
using the values in eqn. (1) and m 1 ( sun is at zenith)
Problem cont..

0.5( s ) (10 ( 0.0623) 750 760

10 ( 0.105)800 800
10 ( 0.03) 20 20 1
) 0.633
Now total transmittance
( s ) ( abs) 0.633 0.6 0.3798

Determine the atmospheric conditions for scattering, when zenith angle is 60o. Take the
following data:
Wave length, =2.0 m
Total pressure, p=0.99 bar
Dust particles concentration at ground, d=800/cm3
Depth of precipitable water, w=20mm
Assume monochromatic atmospheric transmittance considering absorption only = 0.6
 Attenuation of Solar Radiation
( s ) ( abs)

( s ) a p / 760
d
d / 800
w
w / 20 m

-0.00389-4
where, a 10 , where, is in micrometre s
total pressure, p in mm of Hg
-0.0353-0.75
d 10
where, d - average dust particles at ground 800/cm 3
-0.0075-2
w 10
where, w - amount of water vapour in the air column above the observer
& air mass, m 1
Distribution of Annual Sunshine hours
It can be seen from Fig. that Rajasthan,
Gujarat, west Madhya Pradesh and north
Maharashtra receive more than 3000 to
3200 hours of bright sunshine in a year.
Over 2600 to 2800 hours of bright
sunshine are available over the rest of
the country, except Kerala, the north-
eastern states, and J& K where they are
appreciably lower.
During monsoon (June August), a
significant decrease in sunshine occurs
over the whole country except Jammu
and Kashmir where the maximum
duration of sunshine
occurs in June and July, and minimum
in January due to its location.
The north-eastern states and south-east
peninsula also receive relatively less
sunshine during October and November
due to the north-east monsoons.
Distribution of annual global solar radiation (kWh/m2-year)

More than 2000 kWh/m2-year are

received over Rajasthan and Gujarat,
while east Bihar, north West Bengal
and the north-eastern states receive less
than 1700 kWh/m2-year
Distribution of annual diffuse solar radiation (kWh/m2-year)

The annual pattern shows a

minimum of 740 kWh/m2-year
over Rajasthan increasing
eastwards to 840 kWh/m2-year
in the north-eastern states,
and south wards to 920
kWh/m2-year.
 Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn

Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn: Located at 23.5 degrees North and 23.5 degrees South of the Equator,
this area of Planet Earth (between those two lines) is known as the "Tropics . This area experiences no
dramatic change in season because the sun is consistently high in the sky throughout the year.

People living North of the Tropic of Cancer and South of the Tropic of Capricorn experience dramatic
seasonal climate changes, based on the earth's tilt, and the subsequent angle of the sun.
Map of the Hemispheres
 Solstice
There are two solstice days each year corresponding to the
longest day (the summer solstice) and shortest day (the winter solstice).
The days of these events depend on the hemisphere:

The solstices occur because the rotation axis of the Earth is tilted by an angle of
23.5 degrees from the vertical. If the Earth's rotation was at right angles to the
plane of its orbit around the Sun, there would be no solstice days and no seasons.

Around 21 June, the Sun is at its most northerly declination (+23.5 degrees). This
corresponds to the northern summer solstice and marks the longest day of
the year for northern hemisphere observers.

In contrast, this is the date of the southern winter solstice and marks the
shortest day of the year for southern hemisphere observers. Six months later,
the Sun is at its most southerly declination (-23.5 degrees) and the solstices are
reversed in each hemisphere.

http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/S/Summer+Solstice
 Solstice

Around 21 June, the Sun is at its most northerly declination (+23.5 degrees). This
corresponds to the northern summer solstice and marks the longest day of
the year for northern hemisphere observers.
 Solstice

In contrast, this is the date (21 June) of the southern winter solstice and marks the
shortest day of the year for southern hemisphere observers. Six months later,
the Sun is at its most southerly declination (-23.5 degrees) and the solstices are
reversed in each hemisphere.
Solar angles
The apparent motion of
the sun, caused by the
rotation of the Earth
about its axis, changes
the angle at which the
direct component of
light will strike the Earth.
From a fixed location on
Earth, the sun appears
to move throughout the
sky. The position of the
sun depends on the
location of a point on
Earth, the time of day
and the time of year
The most obvious
apparent motion of the
sun is that it moves
daily in an arc across
the sky, reaching its
highest point at midday..
 Solar angles
The position of a point
P on earth's surface
with respect to sun's ray
is known at any instant
if following angles are
known:
Latitude angle (L),
Hour angle (h) &
Suns declination
angle () .

Declination angle is the angle between a line extending from the

centre of the earth, and the projection of this line upon the earths
equatorial plane.

The declination angle, denoted by , varies seasonally due to the tilt of

the Earth on its axis of rotation and the rotation of the Earth around the
sun. If the Earth were not tilted on its axis of rotation, the declination
would always be 0. However, the Earth is tilted by 23.45 and the
declination angle varies plus or minus this amount. Only at the spring
and fall equinoxes is the declination angle equal to 0.
 Solar angles

The declination is zero at the equinoxes (March 21 and

September 21), positive during the northern hemisphere
summer and negative during the northern hemisphere winter.
The declination reaches a maximum of 23.45 on June 21
(summer solstice in the northern hemisphere) and a minimum of
-23.45 on December 21 (winter solstice in the northern
hemisphere).
Solar angles
Easy reference of declination angle
 Hour angle, h

x (Number of minutes from local solar noon)

1 hour = 0.25 rad, or 15o, thus 4 min =1o or h= (ST-12)15

where, ST- Solar Time
 Latitude angle, L
It is the angle between a line
OP and the projection OP on
the earths equatorial plane
(or) defined as the angle
between a line from the center
of the earth to the site of
interest and the equatorial
plane.

Latitude is used to express Longitude shows your location

how far north or south you in an east-west direction,
are, relative to the equator. relative to the Greenwich
meridian.
If you are on the equator your
latitude is zero. Places to the east of Greenwich
If you are near the north pole (such as Middle East, India and
your latitude is nearly 90 Japan) have longitude angles
up to 180 degrees east.
degrees north.
Places to the west of Greenwich
If you are near the south pole
(such as the Atlantic and North
your latitude is almost 90
and South America) have
degrees south. angles up to 180 deg west.
Lines of Latitude
Lines of Longitude
Lines of Latitude & Longitude on Flat map

Angle of the arc from the equator to

our position (latitude) and from the
Greenwich Meridian to our position
(longitude)

Latitude: 130516 N Chennai

Longitude: 801642 E Location
 Elevation (or) Altitude angle,

It is a vertical angle between the

projection of the suns rays on the
horizontal plane and the direction of
suns rays (passing through point).

The elevation angle varies throughout the

day. It also depends on the latitude of a
particular location and the day of the year

Sunrise Sun position - Sun position at Sun position - Sunset

around 9.30 am noon around 3.00 pm
 Zenith angle,
Zenith angle is complimentary angle of
suns altitude angle. Its a vertical angle
between the suns rays and a line
perpendicular to the horizon (horizontal
plane) through the point.

i.e. It is a angle between the beam from

the sun and the vertical.

Altitude angle is also related to the solar

Zenith Angle.
 Azimuth angle, z

At the equinoxes, the sun rises directly east and sets directly west regardless
of the latitude, thus making the azimuth angles 90 at sunrise and 270 at
sunset.

Sunrise Sun position - Sun position at Sunset

around 9.30 am noon (z=0o)
Azimuth angle, z

Sunrise hsr, Sunset hss and Day length

The sun is said to rise and set when the solar altitude angle () is 0
OR the zenith angle () is 90o. [wkt, sin = cos ; i.e. sin (0) = cos (90)]
So, the hour angle at sunset, hss, (or, sunrise, hsr)can be found by
Sunrise hsr, Sunset hss and Day length cont

wkt, each 15 of longitude equivalent to 1 h

Solar Time
Correction 1 : Equation of Time (ET)

Due to factors associated with the earths orbit around the sun, the
earths orbital velocity varies throughout the year, so the apparent solar
time varies slightly from the mean time kept by a clock running at a
uniform rate. The variation is called the equation of time (ET).

The values of the equation of time as a function of the day of the year
(N) can be obtained approximately from the following equations:

ET = 9.87 sin (2B) - 7.53 cos (B) -1.5 sin (B), [min]

where, B=(N-81) (360/364)

Solar Time cont

A graphical representation of variation of ET

Correction 2 : Longitude correction
The sun takes 4 min to transverse 1 of longitude, a longitude correction
term of 4 (Standard longitude - Local longitude) should be either added
or subtracted to the standard clock time of the locality.

+ve sign for western and ve sign for eastern hemisphere (eg: India

Therefore, Solar Time = Standard Time 4 (longitudestd - longitudelocal) + ET

Therefore, z=65.67o
Cos (hss) = -tan (40) tan (23.35),
hss= 111.23/15 = 7h 41 min
hrs = 12-7.41 = 4h 59 min
The solar incidence angle,, is the
angle between the suns rays and
the normal on a surface. For a
horizontal plane, the incidence
angle,, and the zenith angle, ,
are the same.

Surface azimuth angle (Zs) is the

angle made in the horizontal plane
between the horizontal line due
south and the projection of the
normal to the surface on the
horizontal plane. This angle will
vary from -180o to +180o. This
angle is considered as +ve if the
normal is east of south and -ve if
west of south.

Solar azimuth angle (Z) is the

angle made in the horizontal plane
between the horizontal line due
south and the projection of the
suns rays on the horizontal plane. The slope is the angle made by the plane
This angle is taken to be +ve if the surface with the horizontal. This angle will vary
projection of suns rays is east of from 0o to 180o.
south and negative if west of
south.
 EQ. (2)
Equation (2) is a general relationship for the angle of
incidence on a surface of any orientation

Note: If, vertical surface facing due south, =0 and Zs =0)

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