Prelims 2017

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Day 62

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 Environment www.iasscore.in

ESTUARIES
Estuaries are partially enclosed bodies of water along coastlines where fresh water and salt water meet and mix.
They act as a transition zone between oceans and continents.
D.W. Pritchard (1967) define estuary as An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which has a free
connection with the open sea and within which sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived from
land drainage.
Types of Estuaries
a) Coastal Plain estuary: Coastal plain estuaries were formed at the end of the last ice age. As the ice melted

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and the waters warmed, sea level rose. The rising seas invaded low-lying coastal river valleys. These valleys
are usually shallow with gentle sloping bottoms.
b)

c)
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Tectonic Estuary: The earths crust is constantly in motion. This motion causes large cracks or faults and
folds to form in the crust. Often due to folding and faulting, the land sinks or subsides. Tectonic estuaries
are created when the sea fills in the hole or basin that was formed by the sinking land.
Bar-Built Estuary: Bar-built estuaries are formed when sandbars build up along the coastline. These sand
bars partially cut off the waters behind them from the sea. Bar-built estuaries are usually shallow, with
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reduced tidal action.
Importance of estuaries
Estuaries provide us with a suite of resources, benefits, and services. Some of these can be measured in dollars
and cents, others cannot. Estuaries provide places for recreational activities, scientific study, and aesthetic
enjoyment. Estuaries are an irreplaceable natural resource that must be managed carefully for the mutual
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benefit of all who enjoy and depend on them.

Thousands of species of birds, mammals, fish, and other wildlife depend on estuarine habitats as places to live,
feed, and reproduce. And many marine organisms, including most commercially-important species of fish,
depend on estuaries at some point during their development. Because they are biologically productive, estuaries
provide ideal areas for migratory birds to rest and re-fuel during their long journeys. Because many species of
fish and wildlife rely on the sheltered waters of estuaries as protected spawning places, estuaries are often called
the nurseries of the sea.
Estuaries have important commercial value and their resources provide economic benefits for tourism, fisheries,
and recreational activities. The protected coastal waters of estuaries also support important public infrastructure,
serving as harbors and ports vital for shipping andtransportation.
Estuaries also perform other valuable services. Water draining from uplands carries sediments, nutrients, and
other pollutants to estuaries. As the water flows through wetlands such as swamps and salt marshes, much of
the sediments and pollutants are filtered out. This filtration process creates cleaner and clearer water, which
benefits both people and marine life. Wetland plants and soils also act as natural buffers between the land and
ocean, absorbing flood waters and dissipating storm surges. This protects upland habitat as well as valuable real
estate from storm and flood damage. Salt marsh grasses and other estuarine plants also help prevent erosion
and stabilize shorelines.
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Threats to estuaries
Human activities within an estuary (shipping, recreation, aquaculture), or within the lands surrounding the
estuary (urbanization, agriculture, logging), may alter estuarine habitats either directly (shoreline alteration,
channelization, landfill) or indirectly through such problems as excessive nutrients or introduction of invasive,
non-native species.
Estuaries are coming under increasing pressure from:
Estuary margin development - population growth and coastal settlement.
Increased demands for recreational uses - such as boating and fishing.
Development in estuaries - such as marine farms and marinas.
Catchment development - such as forestry and agriculture.
Land clearance and reclamation.
Excavation and dredging for example for boat ramps and boat channels.

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Introduction of invasive species such asSpartina.
Resource extraction such as fishing.
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Long term climate changes including sea-level rise.
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 Environment www.iasscore.in

MANGROVES
Mangroves are plants that survive high salinity, tidal regimes, strong wind velocity, high temperature and
muddy anaerobic soil a combination of conditions hostile for other plants. The mangrove ecosystems
constitute a symbiotic link or bridge between terrestrial and marine ecosystems. They are found in the inter-
tidal zones of sheltered shore, estuaries, creeks, backwaters, lagoons, marshes and mud-flats.
Mangroves constitute a heterogeneous group of plants with similar adaptations to a particular environment.
They colonize tidal shores and brackish waters in the tropics and subtropics and in doing so not only stabilize
shorelines but also create new land by trapping debris, silt and mud along their interlacing roots. Mangroves
plants can survive high salinity, tidal extremes, strong wind velocity, high temperature and muddy anaerobic

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soil.
Mangroves in India

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In Worlds total mangrove vegetation, Indias share stands at 3%. Currently Mangrove cover in India is 4740
km which is 0.14 % of the countrys geographical area. Sundarbans in West Bengal accounts for almost half
of the total area. As compared to 2013 there is a net increase of 112 sq km in the mangrove cover.
Top five states with maximum Mangrove cover are as follows:
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West Bengal (2106 km2)
Gujarat (1107 km2)
Andaman & Nicobar Island (617 km2)
Andhra Pradesh (367 km2)
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Odisha (231 km2)

Importance of Mangroves
Mangroves are self propagating plants and if it is undisturbed, can grow quite easily in conducive soil and
locations. These are the plants that grow in the inter-tidal zone along the coastline of India. They are very hardy
plants that have adapted over millennia to grow in difficult conditions.
Mangrove ecosystems are rich in biodiversity and harbour a number of floral and faunal species (both terrestrial
and aquatic) many of which, e.g. the tiger, gangetic dolphin, estuarine crocodile, etc. are endangered. They also
act as nurseries for fin fish, shell fish, crustaceans and mollusks. Mangrove forests are regarded as the most
productive ecosystems in the world on account of the large quantities of organic and inorganic nutrients
released in the coastal waters by these ecosystems.
The mangroves besides providing a number of ecological services also play a major role in protecting coastal
areas from erosion, tidal storms and surges (tsunamis). They help in land accretion by trapping the fine debris
particles. They are also an important source of honey, tannins, wax, besides fish. Presently, these are one of
the most threatened ecosystems on account of both anthropogenic factors (reclamation of land, discharge of
waste etc) and natural factors like global warming.
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Mangroves under threats

The satellite data shows a decrease in the mangrove area.
The natural threats to mangroves include the following:
cyclones, typhoons and strong wave action especially in the geographically vulnerable Andaman and
Nicobar Islands;
browsing and trampling by wildlife (e.g. deer) and livestock (goats, buffaloes and cows), which are often
left to graze freely, especially in areas close to human habitation;
damage by oysters to the young leaves and plumules ofRhizophoraandCeriopsplants;
crabs, which attack young seedlings, girdle the root collars and eat the fleshy tissues of the propagules
insect pests such as wood borers, caterpillars (which eat the mangrove foliage and damage the wood as
well) and beetles;
The following are some of the human activities that have resulted in damage to mangroves

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indiscriminate tree felling and lopping, mainly for fuelwood, fodder and timber, especially in areas close
to human habitation;
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indiscriminate conversion of mangroves on public lands for aquaculture (e.g. for prawn culture at Chorao,
Goa), agriculture, mining (e.g. along the Mapusa estuary in Goa), human habitation and industrial purposes;
encroachment on publicly owned mangrove forest lands, e.g. cultivation of paddy observed on government
land, which involved uprooting of natural and planted seedlings;
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lack of interest of private landowners (village communities and individuals) in conserving and developing
the mangroves on their lands;
illegal large-scale collection of mangrove fruits for production of medicines, which hinders their natural
regeneration;
discharge of industrial pollutants into creeks, rivers and estuaries, which is a major problem in some
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regions of the world;

obstruction and diversion of water for culvert construction.
Legal and Regulatory Approaches for Protection
Legislations
At present, the mangroves are protected through a range of regulatory measures such as Coastal Regulation
Zone Notification, 1991; Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) studies under the EIA Notification, 1994 for
specialized industries; monitoring of compliance, with conditions imposed while according Environmental
Clearance, by Regional Offices of the Ministry and State Pollution Control Boards; enforcement of emission
and effluent standards by industries and other entities, and recourse to legal action against the defaulters.
Mangroves located within the notified forest areas are also covered under the Indian Forest Act, 1927 and
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.
Mangroves for the Future Initiative
Mangroves for the Future (MFF) is a unique multi- country, multi sectoral, partner- led initiative which builds
on the long history of coastal management interventions and lessons learned during the course of post- tsunami
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reconstruction and rehabilitation. The initiative is founded on a vision for a more healthy, prosperous and
secures future for all Indian Ocean Coastal communities, where all the ecosystems are conserved and managed
sustainably and seeks to promote investment and action in ecosystem conservation for sustainable coastal
development. MFF is being coordinated by International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN covering,
initially, six Tsunami affected countries namely India, Indonesia, Maldives, Seychelles, Srilanka and Thailand.
India has agreed to participate in the IUCN- MFF Initiative.
Mangroves for the Future have two objectives:
To strengthen the environmental sustainability of coastal development.
To promote the investment of funds and effort in coastal ecosystem management for sustainable
development.
The initiative seeks to effect demonstrable changes and results across four key areas of influence: regional
cooperation, national programme support, private sector engagement and community action using a strategy
of generating knowledge, empowering institutions and people to use that knowledge and, thereby promoting

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good governance in coastal areas.

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CORAL REEFS
Coral reefs are found in circum-tropical shallow tropical waters along the shores of islands and continents. The
reef substrate is mainly composed of calcium carbonate from living and dead corals. Many other invertebrates,
vertebrates, and plants live in close association to the corals, with tight resource coupling and recycling,
allowing coral reefs to have extremely high productivity and biodiversity, such that they are referred to as the
Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans.
Corals live in very nutrient poor waters and have certain zones of tolerance to water temperature, salinity, UV
radiation, opacity, and nutrient quantities.
Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within the coral polyp tissues and assist the coral in nutrient production
through its photosynthetic activities. These activities provide the coral with fixed carbon compounds for

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energy, enhance calcification, and mediate elemental nutrient flux. The host coral polyp in return provides its
zooxanthellae with a protected environment to live within, and a steady supply of carbon dioxide for its
photosynthetic processes. The symbiotic relationship allows the slow growing corals to compete with the faster
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growing multicellular algaes because the tight coupling of resources and the fact that the corals can feed by
day through photosynthesis and by night through predation.
The tissues of corals themselves are actually not the beautiful colors of the coral reef, but are instead clear.
The corals receive their coloration from the zooxanthellae living within their tissues.
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Geographical Conditions Required

Corals generally flourish in clear tropical oceans usually between 30N and 30S of the equator.
They grow best in the brightly lighted water about 5 to 10 meters deep. The suspended particles interfere
with feeding.
Corals live in saline water (27%).
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Coral reef can from to depth of 90 meters, but growth rate declines rapidly after 5 to 10 meters depths.
The reef building corals are found within the 21C isotherm.
Corals are not near the mouths of rivers.
Temperature below 18C causes their death.
Individual coral organisms are however, found in some cold, high latitudes waters as well (Norway and
Cap Verde Island and off New Zealand and Japan)
Uses of coral reefs
Remove and recycle CO2 a greenhouse gas
Protect the shore from erosion by storms and floods
Are home to over 4,000 species of fish, 800 species of coral and thousands of other forms of plant
and animal life, all of which will not survive without the reefs
Account for 12% of the marine fish catch
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Could provide important medicines including anti-cancer drugs and a compound that blocks ultraviolet
rays

Coral skeletons are being used as bone substitutes in reconstructive bone surgery

Coral reefs are threatened by

Destructive fishing practices, such as dynamite or cyanide fishing and trawling in deeper waters, cause
direct physical damage to corals.

Widespread over fishing leads to very low levels of herbivorous fish, which check coral killing algae.

Nutrient-laden sewage released near the shore causes algal blooms which block sunlight, stunting coral
growth and interfering with reproduction.

Shoreline construction disturbs sediments, which smother corals.

Tourism and tourists cause physical damage to reefs by construction activities, trampling, boat abrasion

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and the removal of corals souvenirs.
Conservation of coral reef

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The coral reefs of India come under the jurisdiction of the department of forests and wildlife and it is
their responsibility to monitor, manage and conserve these fragile eco-system.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests is responsible to develop an action plan to manage the reef
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resources and issue guidelines for the sustainable utilization of coral reefs.

Ministry of Environment and forests has taken charge of Marine national Parks which have coral reefs
in them.
The National Committee constituted for conservation and management of wetlands and mangroves
advises the Government on policy issues related to conservation and management of coral reefs. State
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level steering committees have been set up for the formulation and implementation of the Management
Action Plans for the identified coral reef areas.
Management plans for the Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park and Sanctuary has been prepared by the
Conservator of Forests in 1994. Recently the Ministry of Environment and Forests has sanctioned
preparation of management action plans for the Andaman and Nicobar and Gulf of Mannar coral reefs.

The coastal regulation zone notification 2011 offers the only legal protection to all coral reefs and In this
coral reef areas come under the CRZ1 category. A special category CRZ 4 has been prepared for the
Islands of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep. Norms for regulation of activities within the CRZ state
that corals and sand from beaches and coastal water shall not be used for construction and other purposes.
Dredging and underwater blasting in and around coral formations shall not be permitted. Notification also
states that construction of beach resorts/hotels shall not be permitted in ecologically sensitive areas such
as marine parks and coral reefs.
The Union Ministry of Environment and Forests is currently undertaking a UNDP supported pilot project,
Management of Coral Reef Ecosystem of the A&N Islands for developing a full project to ensure the
conservation and management of A&N Islands reefs. An Indian Coral Reef Monitoring Network has also
been established for the purpose. Besides, the Wildlife Institute of India is engaged in a project to develop
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a management plan for the Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park at Wandoor, which is one of the few
marine national parks in India. In 1996, the Department of Environment and Forests of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands notified three islands in the Ritchies Archipelago, comprising Outram Island, Henry
Lawrence Island and John Lawrence Islands and the coastal waters surrounding them, as the Rani Jhansi
Marine National Park.
Though monitoring of reefs remains poor in India, the WWF-India project has, hopefully, provided the
impetus for all concerned to take the right step for the preservation of our coral reefs.

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 History www.iasscore.in

GUPTA AGE ART AND CULTURE

The Gupta period witnessed a tremendous progress in the field of art, science and literature and on
account of this it has been called a golden age.
A few scholars even call this period a period of renaissance, but it should be remembered that there was
no dark period before the Gupta rule.
Therefore the cultural progress witnessed during the Gupta period may be called the culmination of Indian
intellectual activities.

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Architecture
By evolving the Nagara and Dravida styles, the Gupta art ushers in the history of Indian architecture a
formative and creative age with unlimited scope for future development and elaboration.
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The rock-cut caves continue the old forms to a large extent, but possess striking novelty by bringing about
extensive changes in the ornamentation of the facade and in the designs of the pillars in the interior.
The Most notable groups of rock-cut caves are found at Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra) and Bagh (MP).
The Udayagiri caves (Orissa) are also of this type.
Structural Temples: The following five groups may be distinguished among the structural temples:
1. Flat-roofed square temple;
2. Flat-roofed square temple with a second storey (vimana) above;
3. Square temple with a curvilinear tower (sikhara) above;
4. Rectangular temple; and
5. Circular temple.
The second group of temples shows many of the characteristic features of the Dravida style.
The importance of third group lies in the innovation of a sikhara that caps the sanctum sanctorum,

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the main feature of the Nagara style.
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Stupas: They were also built in large numbers, but the best are found at Sarnath (UP), Ratnagiri (Orissa)
and Mirpur Khan (Sind).
Sculpture
A good specimen of stone sculpture is of Buddha from Sarnath.
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Of the Brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive is the Great Boar (Varaha), at the entrance of
a cave at Udayagiri.
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Metal Statues: The art of casting statues on a large scale by the cire process was practised by Guptan
craftsmen with conspicuous success.
Two remarkable examples of Gupta metal sculpture are:
A copper image of the Buddha, about eighteen feet high at Nalanda in Bihar, and
Sultanganj Buddha of seven and half feet.
Painting
The art of painting seems to have been more in general practice and popular demand in the Gupta period
than the art of stone sculpture.
Remains of paintings of this period are found at Ajanta, Bagh, Badami and other places.
From the point of technique, the surface of these paintings was perhaps done in a very simple way.
Infact the mural paintings of Ajanta are not true frescoes, for a fresco is painted while the plaster is still

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damp and the murals of Ajanta were made after it had set.
The art of Ajanta and Bagh shows the Madhyadesa School of painting at its best.
Literature
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The Sanskrit language became prominent during the Gupta period. Nagari script had evolved from the
Brahmi script.
Numerous works in classical Sanskrit came to be written in the forms of epic, lyrics, drama and prose.
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The best of the Sanskrit literature belonged to the Gupta age.
Himself a great poet, Samudragupta patronized a number of scholars including Harisena.
The court of Chandragupta II was adorned by the celebrated Navratnas.
Kalidasa remain the foremost among them. His master-piece was the Sanskrit drama Shakuntala. It is
considered one among the hundred best books of the world. He wrote two other plays - the
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Malavikagnimitra and Vikramorvasiya. His two well-known epics are Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava.
Ritusamhara and Meghaduta are his two lyrics.
Visakadatta was another celebrated author of this period. He was the author of two Sanskrit dramas,
Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.
Sudraka was a renowned poet of this age and his book Mrichchakatika is rich in humour and pathos.
Bharavis Kritarjuniya is the story of the conflict between Arjuna and Siva.
Dandin was the author of Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita.
Another important work of this period was Vasavadatta written by Subhandhu.
The Panchatantra stories were composed by Vishnusarma during the Gupta period.
The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali.
This period is particularly memorable for the compilation of the Amarakosa by Buddhist author
Amarasimha, who was a luminary in the court of Chandragupta II.
The two great epics, namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were finally compiled probably in the
fourth century A. D.
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The Puranas in their present form were composed during this period. There are eighteen Puranas. The
most important among them are the Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas. The Mahabharatha
and the Ramayana were given final touches and written in the present form during this period.
Science
The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant activity in the sphere of mathematics, astronomy, astrology and
medicine.
Aryabhatta, a great mathematician and astronomer, wrote the book Aryabhatiya in 499 A.D. It deals with
mathematics and astronomy. It explains scientifically the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses.
Aryabhatta was the first to declare that the earth was spherical in shape and that it rotates on its own axis.
Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems. He was also a great authority
on astrology. His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in Sanskrit literature. It deals with a variety of
subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography, architecture, weather, animals, marriage and omens. His
Brihadjataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
A Gupta inscription from Allahabad district suggests that the decimal system was known in India at the

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beginning of the fifth century A. D.
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In the fields of astronomy a book called Romaka Sidhanta was compiled which was influenced by Greek
ideas, as can be inferred from its name.
In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during this period. He was the last of the great medical trio of
ancient India.
The other two scholars Charaka and Susruta lived before the Gupta age.
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Vagbhata was the author Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of the eight branches of medicine).
The Gupta craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze.
Several bronze images of the Buddha, which began to be produced on a considerable scale because of the
knowledge of advanced iron technology.
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In the case of iron objects the best example is the iron pillar found at Delhi near Mehrauli. Manufactured
in the fourth century A.D., the pillar has not gathered any rust in the subsequent 15 centuries, which is
a great tribute to the technological skill of the craftsmen. It was impossible, to produce such pillar in any
iron foundry in the West until about a century ago.
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CHANGES IN THE GUPTA AND POST-GUPTA PERIOD

The Gupta and post-Gupta period was characterized by certain changes in Indian economy.
During the Gupta period there existed a flourishing trade abundant custom revenue from ports in west and
east, flourishing robust guild system, flourishing manufacturing industries and a high standard of living.
The Trade contacts developed during the Kushana Period continued and Chandragupta II's conquest in
western India further added to this trade.
The important port towns which include Brigukachchaha, Kalyana & Sind, were bulk trade centres with
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Ujjain became a major commercial center and it was linked to southern and northern India. Nasik,
Paithan, Pataliputra, Benares were other major trade centers.



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Silk, Leather goods, Fur, Iron Products, Ivory, pearl, Spices and Indigo were major export items.
The Port of Tamralipti was used for trade with East Asia.
Most of the commodities were taxed one-fifth of the value as a toll in international Trade.
Agriculture was the main occupation in Gupta Empire and there was no governmental interference.
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Many cloth centers and silk industry witnessed a significant development during Gupta period.
The Mandsor Inscriptions gives account of support for the growth of Silk Industry.
Gold, silver and Copper was used in making ornaments and issuing coins.
The Gold coins show the pomp, power and prosperity of the empire.
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The Coins of Samudragupta and Kumaragupta issued after the Ashvamedha depict the horse tied to a
Yupastambha.
The coins of Chandragupta bear Garuda preying a snake.
In Gupta Era, the activities of Guilds were increased and these activities are recorded in various literature,
inscription, clay seals etc.
There is a mention of Guild of architects in Raghuvamsa.
The Indore Copper plate inscription mentions about a guild of oilmen.
The Mandsor Inscription mentions the guild of silk weavers.
The guild system declined after the Gupta Period.
During later phases of Gupta period trade and urban economy was badly affected due to Huna invasions
and trade and urban settlements, which were so much prominent features of Indian society, started
declining.
There are many indications of these changes. Many important cities (such as Taxila, Kausambi, Pataliputra)
ceased to exist after the Gupta period.
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This decline of urban settlements was not an isolated phenomenon and have been quite widespread.
Trade activities also suffered a setback because of various reasons.
This is perhaps most clear from the fact that minting and circulation of coins were on a much more
limited scale than before.
Many of these changes had begun in the Gupta period itself.
The decline of towns did not mean the overall contraction of the economy. However, it can be admitted
that the economy, instead of walking on two legs-agriculture and urban activities of crafts production and
trade - began to walk on one leg.
It was predominantly an agrarian economy.
According to some historians, one of the crucial elements in the chain of developments was the system
of land grants.
Land grants grew in number in the Gupta and especially post-Gupta times and became widespread

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throughout the country.
Land grants were made to Brahmanas and religious establishments like temples and monasteries on a large
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scale by kings, chiefs, members of the royal family and their feudatories.
Earlier the Satavahanas in the Deccan had given away only revenue rights.
From the fifth century onwards, not only were the revenues of the donated lands transferred to the donee
but the mines and minerals in the said area were also trasferred.
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The donated land, village or villages were exempted from the interference of soldiers and royal officials.
One of the conspicuous economic changes in the Gupta and post-Gupta period, was the decline of trade,
both internal and external. Indian foreign trade registered a peak during the post-Mauryan period when
India traded with the Roman empire, central Asia and south-east Asia.
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However, commercial decline set in during the Gupta period, and it became more pronounced by the
middle of the sixth century.
The inflow of Roman coins into India stopped after the early centuries of the Christian era. the Roman
empire itself broke up at a later -date.
The emergence of the Arabs and the Persians as competitors in trade did not augur well for Indian
merchants.
Decline of commerce is demonstrated by the paucity of coins in the post-Gupta period.
Gold coins, which were so abundant during the periods of the Kushanas and the Guptas, went out of
circulation after the sixth century.
The absence of silver and copper coins also attracts attention.
The percentage of gold in the Gupta gold coins was constantly falling and that the gold content of the
later Gupta coins was only half of that of the Kushana coins.
Decline in trade, paucity of coins and absence of coin moulds and commercial seals indicate economic
decline and fall in demand for finished products.
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Towns, which were active centres of craft production in the post-Mauryan period, experienced decay and
desertion.
The pre-Kushana and Kushana towns in northern India and those associated with the Satavahanas in the
Deccan began to decay from the middle of the third or the fourth century.
The epigraphic evidence of the Gupta and post-Gupta times suggests agrarian growth and rural expansion
on an unprecedented scale.
The patronage extended by kings, princes and chiefs, to agriculture, improvement in irrigational facilities,
increasing knowledge of agricultural sciences etc. were some of the causative factors which strengthened
rural economy.
Decline of towns may have led to the migration of a number of skilled artisans into the countryside and
some of them even changed their vocations.
The dispersal of technical skill along with artisans and craftsmen into the countryside stimulated agrarian

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growth.
Land grants in tribal frontiers brought within land under cultivation.



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Numerous villages with Sanskrit and non-Sanskrit names came up in this period.
Contemporary literature presents, a vivid account of village life and reflect and richness of rural settlements.
The post-Gupta period also underwent a major change in the rural sector and that was land grants on a
large-scale as donations.
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Land grant charters bestowed the beneficiary with superior right over those of the inhabitants in the
donated village.
The donee were entitled to collect all kinds of taxes. He could collect regular and irregular taxes and fixed
and unfixed payments.
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The donees enjoyed these exceptional advantages in addition to such regular taxes as bhaga, bhoga, kara,
uparikara, hiranya, udranga, halikakara, etc.
In fact, the peasantry in early medieval India was subjected to an even increasing tax/rent burden.
The donees were empowered with the right to evict the peasantry at will and to replace them with new
peasants.
From the seventh century onwards grants give away water resources, trees, bushed and pastures to the
donee.
The trend accelerated after the tenth century.
The transfer of these resources to the donee not only affected peasantry of the donated villages adversely
but also strengthened the power of the donees.
Forced labour is referred to in the Skanda Purana.
Inscriptions too suggest that by the fifth-sixth centuries, vishti was a well entrenched practice in western,
central and southern India.
In addition, the clause appeared in the landgrant charters asking the peasants to carry out the orders of
the donee.
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In regions such as Chamba, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern India, the condition of the peasants
clearly suffered a decline.
The earliest definite evidence of employment of forced labours in agriculture is in Bhagwat Purana (8th
century).
Social Changes
The social changes in the Gupta and post-Gupta times can be related to the economic changes.
The major economic forces of the period were large-scale landgrants, decline of trade, commerce and
urban life, paucity of money, agrarian expansion and growing agarian character of society, and the emergence
of relatively closed local units of production and consumption.
On above mentioned basis evolved a social structure broadly characterised by a sizable ruling landed
aristocracy, intermediaries and a large body of impoverished peasantry.
The unequal distribution of landed property and power led to the emergence of new social groups and
ranks which cut across varna divisions like Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra.

E
The other important changes in the social structure involved the emergence and proliferation of new
castes, the hardening of caste relations and the acculturation of the tribes.
OR
The acculturation of tribes was not simply the result of movement of Brahmanas into tribal areas as a
result of land grants. This was caused by the emergence of local royal families in remote areas, and the
Brahmanas were patronised mostly by these royal families with gifts of land, with employment at royal
courts and other offers.
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This implies that where tribes lived, there emerged a much more complex society in which social
differentiation, represented by different groups like peasants, Brahmanas, craftsmen, merchants, rulers etc.,
was present.
The scribe or the kayastha community was product of the socio-economic forces of the times. Land
grants involved the transfer of land revenues and land to Brahmanas, religious establishments and officials.
This and other complex administrative functions created the need for a body of scribes and record keepers
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who were employed to draft assignment of land and keep details of land transfer, including various items
of revenue.
The Gupta period witnessed the beginning of fragmentation of land.
There were laws of partition and rural boundary disputes, which constitute a part of the Dharmasastras.
The maintenance of proper records of individual plots was very much necessary for settling such disputes.
The existence of different types of rights in the same plot or village(s) made the land system quite
complex. Therefore, land records had to be maintained with all necessary details.
This difficult job was carried out by a class of writers who were known variously as kayastha, karana,
karanika, puslapala, chitragupta, aksapatalika, etc.
The kayasthas were only one group of the community of scribes. However, gradually the scribes and
record-keepers as a community came to be known as kayasthas.
The 'impure' castes or the untouchables had assumed a definite shape by the early Christian centuries.
Nevertheless, they were numerically small.
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From around the 3rd century AD onwards, the practice of untouchability appears to have intensified and
the number of untouchables registered a rise Katyayana, a Dharmasastra writer of the Gupta period, was
the first to use the empression asprsya in the sense of untouchables.
Several new castes were included in the category of the untouchables in the Gupta and post-Gupta times.
Not only hunters and some groups of artisans became untouchables but backward agriculturists were also
condemned to that status.
By the turn of the first millennium AD, hunters, fishermen, butchers, executioners and scavengers appeared
as untouchables.
Kalidasa, Virahamihira, Fahsien, Bana and others have given a vivid account of the social disabilities
imposed on them.
The Chandalas were only one section of the untouchables, although the lowest in the social ladder.
Interestingly, a caste hierarchy emerged among the untouchables as well. Contemporary literature describes

E
them in very disparaging terms.

OR
Brahmanical and Buddhist sources suggest that most untouchable castes were originally backward tribes.
Their backwardness and resistance to the process of acculturation and brahmanisation may have prevented
them from being absorbed within the society and pushed them to the position of untouchables. They may
have been dispossessed of their lands and made to settle outside the villages.
The contempt for the backward people, at times in inhospitable tracts, on the part of the Brahmanas and
SC
ruling elite and on occasions the former's opposition to the Brahmancial order, thus, to explain the
numerical growth of the untouchables and the practices of untouchability.
In the context of the growing demand for labour, the presence of the untouchables as a pressed, dispossessed
group of people was an enormous advantage to all other sections of society.
The untouchables did not normally hold land, settle outside the villages.
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They were condemned to menial jobs during slack periods of the year and were available for work during
peak periods of agricultural activity.
The untouchables thus, provided labour which the society required but were socially condemned and
segregated.
During this period, several groups of artisans and craftsmen lost their earlier status and many even came
to be regarded as untouchables.
To some extent, this may have resulted from the decline of urban centres where craftsmen were in great
demand.
Craft guilds became transformed into castes and thus transformation effectively sums up the changes in
the nature and organisation of craft production.
Various castes such as the svarnakara (goldsmith), malakara (garland maker), chitrakara (painter), napita
(barber), etc. emerged out of the numerous crafts (practised by different groups).
Some categories of artisans were rendered untouchable. Weavers, dyers, tailers, barbers, shoemakers,
ironsmiths, washermen and others were reduced to the position of untouchables by the turn of the
millennium.
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MARRAKECH CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCE

The Marrakech meeting was the 22nd Session of the Conference of the Parties to the U.N. Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), known as COP 22. It also served as the first meeting of the
governing body of the Paris Agreement, known by the acronym CMA.
The conference incorporated the twenty-secondConference of the Parties(COP22), the twelfth meeting of the
parties for theKyoto Protocol(CMP12), and the first meeting of the parties for theParis Agreement(CMA1).
The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combating climate change and to
[demonstrate] to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is underway.Participants work
together to come up with global solutions toclimate change.

E
Salient outcomes are:
International Solar Alliance: India went to Marrakesh with a draft Framework Agreement on International

OR
Solar Alliance, which 26 countries signed. The Agreement will take the shape of an international treaty
once 15 countries that have signed up, ratify it.
Adaptation of African Agriculture (AAA): The triple-An initiative seeks to climate-proof agriculture in
Africa by promoting sustainable soil management, better water management, and risk mitigation strategies.
27 African countries are already on the platform.
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Mission Innovation: There will be greater research collaborations between these countries, which together
account for almost 80% of all investments into clean energy research. The mission has identified 7
innovation challenges, including smart grids, carbon capture and sequestration, building of storage cells for
solar energy, clean energy materials and sustainable biofuels. Science Based Targets initiative got a boost
in Marrakech when over 200 companies worldwide committed to emissions reductions targets.
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Climate Vulnerable Forum: Member countries stressed that the target should be to keep global temperature
rise to within 1.5 (not 2) degrees Celsius from pre-industrial times. They vowed to update their climate
action plans before 2020 to bring in greater ambition, and prepare a long-term low-carbon development
strategy for 2050 with a 1.5-degree target in mind. They also said they would strive to reach 100%
renewable energy production between 2030 and 2050.
Sub-national jurisdictions target: 165 sub-national jurisdictions, calling themselves the Under2s, announced
that they would reduce their emissions by 80-95 per cent below 1990 levels and limit their per capita
emissions to under 2 tonnes of carbon dioxide by 2050. These governments range across states like
California, New York and Telangana and cities like Manchester and Sao Paulo, and contribute to over a
third of the global economy.
2050 Pathway Platform: This is an effort to get countries, cities and businesses to accept long-term targets
for climate action. Countries have submitted 5-year or 10-year action plans as part of their commitments
under the Paris deal.
Warsaw International Mechanismfor Loss and Damage, the framework for a five-year rolling work plan
was approved. It will serve as the basis for developing corresponding activities, starting with the first meeting
in 2017. Since adaptation has limitations, this is a global mechanism to provide support to countries that
sustain ongoing and future harm from climate change. The aim will be to address issues such as extreme
events, non-economic losses, displacement, migration, slow-moving climatic changes and risk management.
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Nearly 200 nations attending the COP22 to the UNFCC have adopted Marrakech Action Proclamation for
Our Climate and Sustainable Development.
One focus in Marrakech was to clarify all the rules related to NDCs so that each country could be confident
that others were being transparent about their actions.
India has welcomed Marrakesh Action Proclamation as most of its demands including the issue of providing
finance to developing nations to tackle climate change has been incorporated.
Future meetings: Negotiations will resume at the annual Subsidiary Bodies meeting, set for May 8-18, 2017,
in Bonn, Germany.
Fiji will assume the COP presidency at COP 23, to be held November 6-17, 2017, in Bonn.
Poland will host COP 24, set for November 5-16, 2018.

E
OR
SC
GS
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GRADED RESPONSE
ACTION PLAN ON POLLUTION
The Union Environment Ministry notified a Graded Response Action Plan against air pollution for Delhi and
the National Capital Region.
The plan puts governments under the lens and holds out the promise of improvement in air quality.
A graded response lays down stratified actions that are required to be taken as and when the concentration of
pollutants, in this case particulate matter, reaches a certain level.
At the level of 100 microgrammes per cubic metre of PM 2.5, for example, mechanised sweeping and water-
sprinkling along roads has to start. Traffic police personnel have to ensure smooth flow of traffic, and all

E
pollution control measures that are already in place such as stopping landfill fires, and enforcing Pollution
Under Control (PUC) norms and a ban on firecrackers have to be imposed strictly.

PM10 levels stay above 500 micrograms per cubic metre.

OR
The graded action plan will be implemented if PM2.5 levels stay over300 micrograms per cubic metre and

The Delhi specific comprehensive action plan was prepared by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
The new graded response action plan has proposed stratified levels of action according to the air pollution levels
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classified by air quality index, which range from moderate to poor to very poor to severe to severe+ or emergency.
The measures in the action plan are cumulative and add up to the highest level, which is severe+ or emergency.
Additional action can be proposed if pollution levels demand higher level of stringency. Decision to shut
schools will be taken as per the need of the hour.
The plan was prepared by the Supreme Court-mandated Environment Pollution Control Authority (EPCA)
GS

The job of ensuring implementation of the action plan will be EPCAs under the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986, which will delegate the responsibility to the concerned departments.
The concentration of pollutants will be communicated to EPCA by a task force that will primarily comprise
officials from the respective pollution control boards and India Meteorological Department. This will be an
average for the entire city.
The job of ensuring implementation of the action plan will be EPCAs, which will delegate the responsibility
to the concerned departments. According to EPCAs report, at least 16 agencies will have to work together to
implement the various parts of the plan.
These include the municipal corporations of all NCR towns, the traffic police, police, transport departments,
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation, Delhi Transport Corporation, Resident Welfare Associations, Public Works
Departments and Central Public Works Department, Chief Controller of Explosives, and the Petroleum and
Explosives Safety Organisation. Each body has been set a task that it will have to carry out when EPCA asks
it to, based on the concentration of pollutants.
Beijing and Paris, most notably, have implemented graded action plans over the past few years. Paris recently
implemented the odd-even road rationing scheme when PM 2.5 levels crossed 95 g/m. It also made public
transport free to encourage people to leave their vehicles at home.
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OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLES

Theolive ridley sea turtle(Lepidochelys olivacea), also known as thePacific ridley sea turtle, is a medium-
sizedspeciesofsea turtlefound in warm and tropical waters, primarily in the Pacific and Indian Oceans,
Atlantic Ocean.
The name for thissea turtle is tied to the color of its shell. They are carnivores in nature.
Olive Ridley Turtles are best known for their behavior of synchronized nesting in mass numbers called
Arribada
Nesting period:From October to early summer
In the Indian Ocean, the majority of olive ridleys nest in two or three large groups near Gahirmatha inOdisha.

E
The coast of Odisha in India is the largest massnesting site for the olive ridley, followed by the coasts of
Mexico and Costa Rica.
OR
Conservation status: Vulnerable according to the (IUCN) and is listed in Appendix I of CITES.
Protection under The Convention on Migratory Species(CMS) and the Inter-American Convention for the
Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles
Threats: Incidental take, particularly in shrimp trawl nets and near shore gill nets, direct harvest of eggs and
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adults for their meat and skin, Marine pollution(including oil spills) and debris.
To reduce accidental killing in India, the Orissa government has made it mandatory for trawls to use Turtle
Excluder Devices (TEDs), a net specially designed with an exit cover which allows the turtles to escape while
retaining the catch. However, this has been strongly opposed by the fishing communities as they believe TEDs
result in loss of considerable amount of the catch along with the turtle. WWF-India, along with its partners,
disproved this theory by conducting a study to measure the loss of catch through TEDs, revealing the loss to
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be a very small percentage of the total catch. This result, along with regular meetings with the fishing
communities, is slowly helping to change their mindset and encourage use of TEDs, thereby aiding the
conservation of Olive ridley turtles.
SEE TURTLES: It is a non-profit organization that protects sea turtles through conservation travel and
volunteer tours, educational programs, and Billion Baby Turtles.
Notes