Yokogawa - PMCA - Flow

INPM Training Manual 1
Pa r t 1 - Flow
Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Training Department File No : TRG - 010600
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INPM Training Manual Part 1 - Fluid Properties and Parameters Definition 2
A Fluid Properties and Parameters Definition:
The abilit y t o accurat ely m easure and cont rol flow is essent ial t o m aint ain t he
process condit ions required t o m axim ize plant product ion and product qualit y. I n
m ost process applicat ions, proper regulat ion of flow rat es ensures cont rol of process
react ion rat es as well as t he regulat ion of ot her variables such as pressure, level and
t em perat ure. Oft en, flow m easurem ent s are used as indicat ors of overall process
performance.
A- 1 Density:
Densit y is a m easurem ent of t he proxim it y of t he m olecules t hat m ake up a

subst ance. I n t he sim plest t erm s, densit y is m ass per unit of volum e. This can be
expressed as:
m
v
Where:
= density
m = mass
v = volume
A- 2 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Density:
The densit y of a subst ance is affect ed by variables such as t em perat ure and
pressure. These effect s vary according t o t he physical propert ies of t he subst ance.
For exam ple, t he effect s of t em perat ure on t he densit y of solids and gases varies
widely. Gases are m ost affect ed; solids are least affect ed; wit h liquids generally
ranging som ewhere in bet ween. The effect s of pressure on t he densit y of solids and
liquids are considered negligible because bot h are relat ively non- compressible.
However, t he effect of pressure on t he densit y of gases is very pronounced.
Consequent ly, syst em s designed t o m easure t he flow of gases m ust include
compensation for both variables in order to ensure accurate results.
Volumetric expansion, which affects the density of a liquid, can be expressed as:
V Vo 1 T
where:
= t he cubical coefficient of expansion of t he liquid t hat is consist ent wit h t he
temperature units used.
Vo = Initial Volume
T = Temperature difference
Gases Volume to Pressure Relationship (Charles Law): This phenomenon is described

in Charles' Law, which st at es t hat for an ideal gas or m ixt ure of gases at const ant
pressure, the volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
V = constant x T
To com pare t he volum es of an ideal gas at const ant pressure and at different
temperatures, the following equation is used:

.
V T
Vo To
Gases Volum e t o Pressure Relat ionship ( Boyles Law) : This principle is described in
Boyle's Law which st at es t hat for any ideal gas or m ixt ure of ideal gases at a
constant temperature, the volume is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure.
V = constant P
Boyle's Law can also be stated in another form:
V P
Vo Po
This form ula can be used t o com pare t he volum es of an ideal gas at different
pressures while maintained at a constant temperature.
A- 3 Specific Gravity :
Anot her t erm com m only used t o express t he densit y of fluids is specific gravit y.
While density is a stand- alone measurement, specific gravity is a ratio comparing the
densit y of a fluid at a specific t em perat ure t o t he densit y of wat er or air at t he sam e
t em perat ure. The specific gravit y of liquids and gases can be represent ed by t he
following equations.
Specific Gravity = (Density of a liquid) / (Density of water at standard conditions)
Specific Gravity = (Density of Gas) / (Density of air at standard condition)
St andard condit ions should be defined when densit y is t o be calculat ed from t he

specific gravit y. Typically, liquid specific gravit y is referenced t o 60 o F and 14.696
psi. Since ot her st andard t em perat ures m ay also be used, t he following inform at ion
may be helpful.
Density of water at 60o F = 62.33630 lb/ft3
= 0.999012 1 g/cm3
o
Density of water at 68 F = 62.31572 lb/ft3
= 0.9982019 g/cm3
o
Density of air at 60 F = 14.696 psia.
= 0.0764 lb/ft3
A- 4 Flow:
While a study of flow measurement requires an understanding of what causes fluid to

flow, accurat e m easurem ent syst em s m ust also t ake int o account t he flow profile of
fluids. Fluids m ay m ove in sm oot h pat t erns, agit at ed or t urbulent pat t erns, or t he
patterns may be a combination of these characteristics.
Flow classification:
Lam inar Flow: Figure 2- 3A represent s a sm oot h, layered flow, which is

described as Lam inar flow. I n Lam inar flow, t he fluid part icles m ove along
parallel pat hs. I f Lam inar flow could be observed, it would appear as several
streams of liquid flowing smoothly alongside each other.

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Figure 2- 3A
Turbulent Flow: Figure 2- 3B represent s a t urbulent flow pat t ern. I n

com parison t o lam inar flow, t urbulent flow is agit at ed and dist urbed.
Turbulent flow appears t o have sm all, high frequency fluct uat ions t hat t ravel
in all directions forming eddies.
Figure 2-3B
Transit ional flow, which is illust rat ed in Figure 2- 3C, exhibits characteristics of
bot h lam inar and t urbulent pat t erns. I n som e cases, t ransit ional flow will
oscillate between laminar and turbulent flow.
Figure 2- 3C
The degree of fict ional resist ance generat ed by t he t hree t ypes of flow pat t erns
varies. Lam inar flow offers t he least am ount of frict ional resist ance t o fluid flow,
whereas t urbulent flow causes a great deal of Fict ional resist ance. The degree t o
which t ransit ional flow t ends t oward one pat t ern or t he ot her is a m aj or fact or in
determining the amount of friction the flow generates.
A- 5 Viscosity:
Viscosit y is t he propert y t hat det erm ines how freely fluids flow. Viscosit y can be
furt her described as t he propert y of a fluid t hat cont ribut es t o lam inar or t urbulent
flow charact erist ics. Fluids have various degrees of viscosit y. Such variat ions result
from int ernal frict ion bet ween t he part icles of t he subst ance. I f t he m olecules slide
easily over one anot her, t he subst ance has a relat ively low viscosit y. A subst ance
with a higher viscosity has a higher resistance to flow.
I f t he flow is lam inar, t he viscous force causes t he flow t o slow as it approaches t he

pipe walls. Theoret ically, t his flow is parabolic, wit h t he cent ral core having a higher
velocit y and t he out erm ost area having a lower velocit y. This is illust rat ed in Figure
2- 4.
Turbulent flow is less affect ed by viscous forces along t he walls of t he pipe. Due t o
relat ively low viscous forces, t urbulent flow exhibit s a m ore uniform profile t han
lam inar flow. However, t he fluid layer next t o t he wall rem ains lam inar even in t he
case of fully developed turbulent flow.
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Turbulent Flow Laminar Flow
Figure 2- 4 Flow Profiles
A- 6 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity:
Tem perat ure has a significant effect on t he viscosit y of a subst ance. Relat ively small
changes in t em perat ure m ay produce significant changes in a fluid's viscosit y.
Generally, changes in temperature have an inverse effect on viscosity.
I f t he viscosit y of a liquid at one t em perat ure is known, it s viscosit y at anot her

t em perat ure m ay be est im at ed by using t he generalized viscosit y curve for liquids
( see Figure 2- 5) . The value is expressed in cent ipoise ( cP) , a unit of viscosit y
m easurem ent . For exam ple, if t he viscosit y of a liquid at 50 o C is 25 cP., t he viscosit y
of t he liquid at Oo C can be det erm ined using t he generalized viscosit y curve for
liquids.
The init ial viscosit y is indicat ed where t he generalized viscosit y curve int ersect s at
25g cP and 500o C. As each division represents 50o C, the estimated viscosity at Oo C is
approximately 400 cP. This exam ple illust rat es t he m agnit ude of t he effect on a
substance's viscosity even with small temperature changes.

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Figure 2- 5 Generalized Viscosity for Liquids
A- 7 Reynolds Number:
Flow is often measured in terms of velocity. Therefore, when different portions of the
flow are m oving at different velocit ies, m easurem ent accuracy will be affect ed.
Furt her, as st at ed earlier, t he flow profile depends on a com binat ion of fact ors,
including t he forces t hat resist flow and t he forces t hat act t o keep flow m oving at a
const ant rat e. The relat ionship bet ween t hese forces is expressed by t he Reynolds
number: a ratio of inertial to viscous form specific to flow conditions.
RD = inertial forces / viscous forces = Dv/
Like specific gravit y, t he Reynolds num ber is dim ensionless and is not absolut e for a
given liquid substance, but varies with the conditions of flow. The following equations
are used t o calculat e t he Reynolds num ber for liquid and gas flow t hrough a pipe,
given that is in pounds per cubic foot and D is in inches.
Liquid:
3160Q SG
R
D
where:
0 3160 = units constant Q = flow rate in gallons per minute
SG = specific gravity = Viscosity in Centipoise
D = Pipe diameter

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 Differential Producer Flow Meter 7
Gas:
379Q
R
D
Where:
379 = constant Q = flow rate in gallons/minute = Density
Flow Classification According to Reynolds

Number
Flow Classification Reynolds Number
Laminar Less than 2000
Turbulent Greater than 4000
Transitional Between 200 and 4000
Viscosity is the factor, which most affects the value of the Reynolds number. I n
cases where small changes in temperature cause relatively large changes in
viscosity, corresponding changes in the Reynolds number will also occur. These
changes affect whether the flow is in the laminar, turbulent or transitional regions.
The Reynolds number is often a significant factor in deter- m ining how well a specific
fluid- m easuring device win perform and which applicat ions are m ost appropriat e t o
its use.
B Fluid Flow Meter Classification:
B- 1 Differential Producer Flow Meter:

Figure 1 illust rat es a different ial- producer flow m et er. I t consist s of t wo separat e
devices t hat act in com binat ion t o m easure flow rat e. The first is t he prim ary device.
The geom et ry of t he different ial- producer elem ent , t he lengt h of t he upst ream and
downst ream piping, flow condit ions, and pressure t ap locat ion wit h respect t o t he
primary element are all individual elements of the primary device.
Different ial pressure is m easured by t ransm it t ing pressure t hrough lead lines t o a
secondary different ial- pressure m easuring elem ent . The secondary device in t his
case consist s of t hree elem ent s: lead lines, valving, and a m anom et er. Since flow
can be calculated by visually observing the differential, no further readout equipment
is required.
If flow rate were calculated by a central processor, by an on- site computer, or from a
chart recorder t hese would be addit ional elem ent s of t he secondary device. I n
com binat ion, t he t wo devices, prim ary and secondary, are referred t o as t he flow
meter. As shown in Fig. 1, differential pressure depends on pressure tap location and
on whet her t he cont ract ion is abrupt or gradual- orifice or flow nozzle. The
relat ionship bet ween m easured different ial and flow rat e is t hen a funct ion of t ap
locat ions, prim ary elem ent design, and associat ed upst ream and downst ream piping.
These effect s are included in t he discharge coefficient which relat es t he act ual flow
rate to the theoretically calculated flow rate.

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B- 1.1 Fundamental Unit Flow Rate equation:
If it is assume that the fluid is flowing through an inclined pipe, as shown in figure B-
1, t he relat ionship bet ween t he different ial ( pressure) and t he velocit y can be
derived from t he Bernoulli s equat ion from t he ideal incom pressible fluid where t here
is no density difference between taps due to gas expansion f1 = f2 = f
Figure B- 1
This takes the form,

2 2
P1 V1 gl P2 V2 gl
Z1 Zc (1)
pf 2gc gc pf 2gc gc
Z = Elevation above the datum of pipe center line, ft, m.

P = Static pressure, absolute psi, pascal.
f = Fluid density, ld/ft3 , kg/m3
V = average stream velocity, ft/sec, m/s.
g c = Conversion constant, 32.17405 lbm .ft/lbf .s2 , 1 kg.m/N.s2 .
g l = Local acceleration due to gravity, m/s2 , ft/s2
1,2 = upstream and down stream tap location respectively.
The relationship between average pipeline velocity Vf and the differential pressure
obtained,
2 2
P P1 P2 V2 V1
(2)
f f 2gc
For steady flow the mass flow rate qM (lb/s, kg/s) between upstream and down
stream location is the same, and
qlbm / s fl 1 A1V1 fl 2 A2V2 (3)
The relationship between pipe velocity V1 and the down stream velocity V2 for a
constant density fluid ( f1 = f2) is then
A2
V1 V2 (4)
A1
.
Substituting (4) to (2);
2gc P
V2 2 (5)
1 A2 / A1 fp
Flow rate is calculated in volume or mass units rather than in the velocity units of Eq.
5. To m ake t his conversion, it is assum ed t hat t he area at which t he velocit y is V2 is
t he area at t he prim ary elem ent . Then t he volum et ric flow rat e, at flowing
conditions, is calculated as
2gc P
qv A2V2 A2 4 (6)
fp 1
Where :
= Diameter ratio d = primary element bore, ft, m.
qv = volumetric flow rate at flow condition ft3 /s, m3 /s
P = Differential pressure lbf /ft2 , Pascal
In terms of mass flow rate

2gc f P
qm f qv d4 4
4 1
where qm = mass flow rate, lbm./s, kg./s.
Equations 6 and 7 are referred to as the theoretical flow rate equations in fundaments
units (feet, pounds-mass, pounds-force, seconds or meters, kilograms, seconds). Only for
contoured inlet devices, such as venturis and flow nozzles, will these equations calculate
a liquid flow rate to within 2%. Energy loss across the primary element and the expansion
of a gas (vapor) to the lower downstream pressure P2 requires that two correction terms
be introduced: the discharge coefficient and a gas expansion factor.
The empirically determined discharge coefficient C corrects the equation from theoretical
to true flow rate based on experimental data obtained in a hydraulic laboratory. The
discharge coefficient is defined as
C = True flow rate/ theoretical flow rate {eq. (6) or (7)}
where the true flow rate is determined by collecting liquid in a mass or volume receiver
over a measured time interval. The theoretical flow rate is calculated by Eq. 6 or 7 using
the average differential P and liquid density over the collection interval.
Experimental evidence shows that the discharge coefficient changes with the pipe line
velocity profile. This change is correlated with the pipe Reynolds number by the
generalized equation of the form
C = C + bRn D (9)
where the constants C and b may be beta-dependent. Table I lists some of these
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equations. The pipe Reynolds number is a dimensionless ratio of inertia to viscous flow
forces and is calculated as
q(lbm / s ) q (kg / s )
Rd = 22737 = 127,3239 (10)
D D
Where:
cp = absolute viscosity,cP, gm/cm.s
D = Pipe diameter in, mm.
Q= mass flow rate lbm./s, kg
Some equations and value for C , b, and n for equation 9

Primary devices Discharge coeff. At Reynolds number term
infinite Coefficient b Exponent
Reynolds number n
Venturi
Machined inlet 0.995 0 0
Rough cast 0.984 0 0
inlet
Universal Venturi tube 0.9797 0 0
Lo- Loss tube 1.005- 0.417 2 - 0.51 3 0 0
Nozzle 0.9975 - 6.53 0.5 0.5
ASME long 0.9900- 0.2262 4.1
radius
ISA 1708- 1.115
8936 +19.779 4.7
Orifice(corner taps) 0.5959+0.0312- 91.71 2.5 0.5
8
0.184
Note: For more expression of the discharge coefficient and Reynolds number term,
see Process Instrument and Control Handbook by Considine, 3rd edition, table 1 page
4.20
The assum pt ion of a const ant densit y bet ween t he t wo pressure t aps is not valid for
com pressible fluids ( air, nit rogen, et c.) . Densit y decreases when a gas expands t o
t he lower pressure m easured at t he downst ream t ap. A gas expansion fact or is
int roduced int o t he equat ion t o correct for t his expansion. This fact or is based on
experim ent al dat a ( orifice) or derived from t he t herm odynam ic general st eady flow
energy equation to correct for this density difference. Assuming that the liquid- deter-
mined discharge coefficient applies to gas flows, the gas expansion factor is defined
Y1 = True flow rate of the gas / flow rate calculated by flow rate eq. (11)
where subscript I denotes that the gas expansion factor is based on an upstream tap
location density determination; if a downstream tap is used, a subscript 2 is inserted. The
relationship between these two gas expansion factors is
Y2 = (1- x 1 ) - 0.5Y1 (12)
For summary of the gas expansion factor see Process instrument and control
handbook by Considine 3rd edition, table 2 page 4.22.

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Where x1 = (P1 P2 )/P1

The true volumetric flow rate equation (ft3 /s, m3 /s) is then calculated by
2gc P 2 gc P
qv = CY1 d 2 = CY2 d 2
4 1 4
fl 4 1 4
f2
and the true mass flow rate equation (lbm./s, kg/s) is then:
2gc P 2 gc P
qm = CY1 d 2 = CY2 d 2
4 1 4
fl 4 1 4
f2
where the subscript M is lbm./s in the U.S system of units and kg./s in SI units
B- 1.2A Orifice:
1. Square Edge:
I n 2- in ( 50- m m ) and larger line sizes, t he concent ric orifice ( Fig. 2) is t he m ost
com m on rest rict ion for clean liquids, gases, and low- velocit y vapor ( st eam ) flows. I t
is a sharp, square- edged hole bored in a flat , t hin plat e. The rat io of hole diam et er
( d) t o pipe diam et er ( D) defines t he bet a rat io ( ) . For m ost applicat ions t his rat io
should be bet ween 0.2 and 0.75, depending on t he desired upper range different ial,
a high bet a rat io orifice producing less of a different ial for t he sam e flow rat e t han
small beta ratio.
Depending on upst ream and downst ream t ap locat ions ( Fig. 3) , t he flow m et er is
referred t o as a corner t ap, a flange t ap, a D and D/ 2 t ap, a pipe t ap ( 2 1/ 2D and
8D) , or a vena cont ract s t ap orifice flow m et er. Pipe t aps ( 2 1/ 2D and 8D) are
som et im es used as bypass pum p rest rict ors for nat ural gas or where ot her t apping
arrangem ent s would require drilling t oo dose t o t he plat e. Vena cont ract s t aps are
replaced by D and D/ 2 t aps when fut ure changes in t he orifice bore will require no
tap relocation.
Figure 2 Square edge concentric orifice

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Differential Producer Flow Meter. (a)Flow meter, (b) elements of the primary device,
(c) elements of the secondary device,

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Range and Accuracy for square edge orifice:
Accuracy ranges from 0.8 t o 5% depending on fluid, upst ream piping

configurat ion, m easurem ent equipm ent , and whet her correct ions for t he Reynolds
num ber, gas expansion fact or, m easured pipe diam et er, or ot her effect s are included
in the computation. While standards differ for the minimum pipe Reynolds number, a
value of 10,000 is considered acceptable by most. The maximum Reynolds number a
value of 10,000 is considered accept able by m ost . The m axim um Reynolds num ber
may be as high as 3.3 X 107 (Gorter and Rooij, 1977).
2. Quadrant and Conic Edge
When t he pipe Reynolds num ber is below 10,000, t he upst ream orifice is eit her
round ( quadrant ) or conical ( fig.5) , t hese cont ours have a m ore const ant and
predict able discharge coefficient at lower Reynolds num bers. At low Reynolds
num ber t he coefficient of t he square- edge orifice m ay be change by as m uch as
30% , but for t hese geom et ries t he effect is only one or t wo percent m aking it t he
more usable flow meter for viscous fluids.
3. Integral Orifice
When t he pipe size is 1/ 2 in ( 12 m m ) or sm aller and t he fluid is clean, it is com m on

t o select an orifice inst alled int egrally ( Fig. 7) wit h t he different ial- pressure
t ransm it t er. This provides a com pact inst allat ion in which overall accuracy, usually
2 t o 5% un- calibrat ed, has been predet erm ined based on flow calibrat ing
reproducible fixed- bore orifices.
Figure 3 Orifice pressure tap location and their names

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Fig. Quadrant-edge Fig. 5 Conical Orifice

orifice
4. Eccentric and Segmental Orifice
By placing t he orifice hole at t he bot t om ( Fig. 8) of t he pipe for gases and at t he t op

for liquids, entrained water or gases flow through the plate rather than building up in
front of it . I f a Segm ent al opening ( Fig. 9) is m achined in t he plat e, t he passage of
liquids, air, or particulate matter is also possible. Data for both orifice geometries are
lim it ed, but bot h are a low- cost alt ernat ive for t roublesom e applicat ions. Accept ed
un- calibrated coefficient accuracy is 2%.
Orifice Advantages and Limitation:

Advantage:
Lowest Cost
Easily installed and or replaced.
Well established coefficient of discharged
Will not wiredraw or wear devices during test period.
Sharp edge will not foul up with scale or other suspended matter.
Disadvantages:
High non- recoverable head loss.
Suspended m at t er m ay build up at he inlet side of t he horizont ally inst alled
pipe unless accent ric or segm ent al t ypes of orifice are use wit h t he hole plus
with bottom of the pipe.
Low capacity.
Requires pipeline plunges, unless of special construction.

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B- 1.3 Venturi Tube:
The Vent uri t ubes com bines int o a single unit a short const rict ed port ion bet ween
t wo t apered sect ions and is usually insert ed bet ween t wo flanges in a pipe. I t s
purpose is t o accelerat e t he fluid and t em porarily lower it s st at ic pressure. Suit able
pressure connect ions are provided for observing t he differences in pressure bet ween
the inlet and the constriction portion, or throat.
Advantages:
Lowest head loss.
Has integral pressure connection.
Requires shortest length of straight pipe on inlet side.
Will not obstruct flow of suspended matter.
Can be used where no pipe line plunges exist.
Coefficient of discharge well established.
Disadvantage:
Highest cost.
Greatest weight and largest size for a given size line.
Accuracy:
For pipe Reynolds num bers great er t han 100,000, discharge coefficient s for
vent uris are const ant and predict able t o wit hin 0.5 t o 2% , depending on
design.
Application:
Since dirt will not build up as it passes t hrough t he cont oured sect ions, like it
does in front of an orifice, t his different ial producer can be used in dirt y flow
applications.
When pum ping cost and/ or short er upst ream inst allat ion lengt hs are
important, the additional expense for a venturi design is usually warranted.
Figure 10 Classical Venturi
B- 1.4 Flow Nozzle
Flow nozzle are anot her t ype of different ial head producing device used wit h
differential pressure flow m et er. Flow nozzle are rest rict ion consist ing of an ellipt ical
cont oured inlet and a cylindrical t hroat sect ion. A flow nozzle is illust rat ed in figure
12. Pressure taps used to measure the difference in static pressure created by a flow
nozzle are com m only locat ed one pipe diam et er upst ream and one- half pipe
diameter down stream from the inlet face of the nozzle.
.
Advantages:
Can be use where no pipe flanges exist.
Cost less than Venturi tubes and capable of handling same capacities.
Because of im proved rigidit y, it is dim ensionally m ore st able at higher
temperatures and velocities than an orifice.
Disadvantages:
Higher cost than orifice.
Same head loss as orifice for same capacity.
I nlet pressure connect ion and t hreat t aps when used m ust be m ade very
carefully.
Application:
Flow nozzles are well suit ed for m easurem ent of st eam flow and ot her high
velocit y fluid flow ( st eam flow at pipe line velocit y of 100 ft ./ sec.) where
erosion may be a problem.
Figure 12 Flow nozzle
B- 1.5 Elbow Flowmeter:
As a fluid passes t hrough a pipe elbow, t he pressure increases at t he out side radius
of t he elbow as a result of cent rifugal force ( Fig. 15) . I f pressure t aps are locat ed at
t he out side and inside of t he elbow at eit her 22% or 45 o , a reproducible
m easurem ent can be m ade. Taps locat ed at angles great er t han 45 o are not
recommended, because flow separation may cause erratic readings.
Advantages:
Elbows are inexpensive flow meters.
Disadvantage:
The m aj or disadvant age of t he elbow flow m et er is t he very low different ial
produced, particularly for gas flows.
Accuracy:
Even when the elbow is measured, differences between elbows limit accuracy to 4%
(Murdock et al., 1963), but precision (repeatability) is good ( 0.2%). Flow is, however,
unobstructed with no additional permanent pressure loss. Several manufacturers offer
proprietary machined elbows for improved accuracy, but few data have been published.

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Figure 15. Elbow flow meter.
B- 1.6 Pitot Tube and Annubar
The difference bet ween t ot al ( st agnat ion) pressure and st at ic pressure follow s t he
square root relat ionship, wit h velocit y being sensed at t he insert ion dept h only. By
traversing, an average velocity point can be located and used to measure flow rate.
The Annubar ( Fig. 17) is a m ult iple- port ed pit ot t ube t hat spans t he pipe. Pressure
port s are locat ed at m at hem at ically defined posit ions based on published
axisym m et ric pipeline velocit y profiles. These are claim ed t o average t he different ial,
t hereby elim inat ing t he need t o locat e t he average velocit y point as is necessary for
pit ot t ubes. A variet y of m ult iport ed designs are now available. The user should
review individual m anufact urer's support dat a before ext ending t he devices out side
the available data ranges.
Advantage and Disadvantages (Pitot Tube)

Advantages:
Essentially no pressure loss.
Economical to install.
Some types can be removed from the lines.
Disadvantages:
Poor Accuracy.
Calibration data needs to be supplied from the manufacturer.
Sensitive to upstream disturbances.
Advantages and Disadvantages (Annubar Tubes)

Advantages:
Available for wide rage of pipe size from to 150 inches.
Simple and economical to install.
Negligible pressure drop.
Can be place in service under pressure.
Can be rotated in service for cleaning action.
Long- term measurement stability.
Cost effect ive com pared t o an orifice plat e inst allat ion above 6 inches pipe
diameter.

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Disadvantages:
Not applicable to sticky or dirty fluids.
Operating data still limited.
Application:
The pit ot t ube ( Fig. 16) is used for large pipe sizes when t he fluid is a clean
liquid or gas (vapor) and an inexpensive measurement is required.
The Annubar has essent ially replaced t he pit ot t ube for clean liquids, gases,
and vapors ( st eam ) . Because t ot al pressure port s face t he flow, a purging
flow is suggested for dirty stream applications.
Figure 16. Pitot tube
Figure 17. Annubar
B- 1.7 Annular Orifice and Target Flow meter
Tot al ( st agnat ion) pressure t aps and rearward- facing t aps produce a high different ial
for a given bet a rat io ( ) , redefined as t he rat io of disk diam et er t o pipe diam et er.
Few data have been presented for line size correlation. Only air data are available for
t he norm ally used bet a rat ios. A design t hat slips bet ween flanges has report edly
been successfully used for air in 24- in (600 mm) and larger line sizes.

.
The t arget flow m et er ( Fig. 19) has t he feat ures of t he annular orifice wit hout t he
disadvant ages of freezing or plugging lead lines. The prim ary elem ent consist s of a
sharp leading edge disk ( t arget ) fast ened t o a bar. Different ial pressure produced by
t he reduced annular area creat es a disk drag force. This force is t ransm it t ed t hrough
a bar t o a suit able force m easuring a secondary device, and t he flow rat e is
calculated as the square root of this output.
Advantage and Disadvantage (Target Flow Meter)
Advantage:
Useful for difficult m easurem ent , such as slurries polym er- bearing and
sediment bearing materials, corrosive mixtures, etc.
Good accuracy when calibrated for specific streams.
Good Repeatability.
Good for relatively high temperatures and pressure.
Disadvantages:
In- line mounting required.
No flow conditioning must exist for zeroing.
Limited calibration data.
Accuracy:
Un- calibrat ed t arget flow m et ers accuracy ranges from 1 to 5% depending on

the size, beta ratio, and Reynolds number.
Application:
The annular orifice ( Fig. 18) was developed t o overcom e t he problem of dirt
buildup in front of an orifice in liquid st ream s and of liquid buildup in a m oist
gas stream.
Target flow m et er are part icularly well suit ed for dirt y and low Reynolds
number flow but are also used with clean fluids and natural gas.
Figure 18 Annular orifice

.
INPM Training Manual Part 1 Magnetic Flow Meter 20
Fig. 19 Target Flow Meter.
B- 2 Magnetic Flow Meter:
B- 2.1 General Principles of Operation:
Magnet ic flow m et ers operat e on t he principle of Faraday's Law of Elect rom agnet ic
I nduct ion. This law st at es t hat t he volt age ( E) induced in a conduct or m oving
t hrough a m agnet ic field at a right angle t o t he field is direct ly proport ional t o t he
num ber of conduct ors, or, as in t his cm , t he dist ance bet ween t he probes ( D) , t he
int ensit y of t he m agnet ic field ( B) and t he velocit y of t he m ot ion of t he conduct or
(v).
E = constant x D x B x v
When these three factors are present, an electrical voltage is induced in a conductor
dig is moving through a magnetic field and at right angles to the field. The faster the
conductor moves through the magnetic field, the greater the voltage induced in the
conductor.
Figure 5- 1 dem onst rat es how a m agnet ic flow m et er applies t his principle. The flow
m et er it self consist s of a st raight lengt h of pipe. This is called t he m et ering sect ion;
it is m ade of nonm agnet ic m at erial. I n t his case, t he process fluid serves as t he
conduct or. The direct ion of t he induced volt age will be perpendicular t o bot h t he
m ot ion of t he conduct or and t he m agnet ic field. The m agnet ic field is produced by
eit her elect ro- m agnet ic coils or perm anent m agnet s t hat are posit ioned on opposit e
sides of t he short lengt h of t he non- m agnet ic pipe. As t he fluid passes t hrough t he
m agnet ic field, a volt age is generat ed. Two elect rodes prot ect ing t hrough t he
m et ering t ube lining pick up t he induced volt age. Wires connect ed t o t he elect rodes
can be at t ached t o a m et er t hat will m easure t he am ount of volt age produced. Since
t he m agnet ic field is const ant , t he induced volt age is direct ly proport ional t o t he
velocit y of t he liquid and, t hus, t o t he volum et ric flow rat e of t he liquid passing
through the meter. This measured voltage can be used to calculate flow rate.
In pipes, the induced voltage can be determined from Faraday's equation:
.
E = constant x B x D x v
E = (constant x B x 4/ x D) x Q
D2
where Q is determined by the equation Q = A x v and, A =
4
All t he t erm s in parent heses are held const ant in a m agnet ic flow m et er. Therefore,
the induced volt age out put is linearly proport ional t o t he changes in flow rat e ( Q) .
This rat e of flow can be calculat ed and indicat ed as flow rat e, volum et ric flow rat e or
mass flow rate.
Figure 5- 1 Magnetic Flow
B- 2.2 Magnetic Flow Meter Classifications:
1. AC Magnetic Flow meters
Alternating current (AC) magnetic flow meters excite the electromagnetic field with
AC current A typical AC magnetic flow meter is shown in Figure 5- 2.
Problems to encountered when using AC flow meter to measure flow:
1. Signal dist ort ion and int erference caused by ext raneous volt ages or noises:
Noise m ay eit her be induced by or already present in t he syst em . Because
volt ages induced by t he elect rom agnet ic field are relat ively sm all in
com parison t o t he ext raneous volt ages, m easurem ent accuracy can be
seriously affected.
Noise m ay be produced wit hin t he m et er or wit hin t he process. The liquid
it self m ay bear t race volt ages induced from exposure t o a source of
elect rom agnet ic int erference upst ream , or a st at ic charge m ay be produced
by frict ion. St ray volt ages caused by t his noise, can be picked up by t he

.
elect rodes and int roduce subst ant ial inaccuracies in t he m easurem ent . Such
sources of noise can be part ially elim inat ed wit h a zero adj ust m ent in t he
m easuring inst rum ent . The zero m ust be adj ust ed when t he flow m et er is full
of process fluid at zero flow.
2. Elect rode Sensit ivit y: The second problem t hat can adversely affect t he
accuracy of AC flow m et er m easurem ent s is t hat t he sensit ivit y of t he
electrodes m ay be reduced if t he elect rodes becom e coat ed wit h a non-
conduct ive m at erial, eit her from elect rolyt ic by- product s of t he process or by
clinging process m at erial. Build up usually occurs gradually, but t he effect s
over time can be significant.
Figure 5- 2 AC flow meter
Some magnetic flow meters are available with removable electrodes. This option
allows the electrodes to be inspected periodically and cleaned, if necessary, without
dismantling the meter. Ultrasonic cleaning systems are also available to remove
accumulated non- conductive material from electrodes without opening the system.
2. DC Magnetic Flow meters
Direct current ( DC) m agnet ic flow m et ers excit e t he elect rom agnet ic field wit h a DC
current . A t ypical arrangem ent of a DC m agnet ic flow m et er is shown in Figure 5- 3.
When t he liquid flows t hrough t he m agnet ic field, a volt age is induced in t he liquid.
The voltage is picked up at the electrodes. The voltage measured represents the sum
of t he flow induced in t he m oving conduct or and t he noise present in t he syst em . To
elim inat e t he effect of noise, t he device is zeroed when t here is no process flow and
t he elect rodes only det ect ext raneous volt ages. Wit h flow rest ored, t he out put of t he
meter will only indicate voltage induced by the process.

.
INPM Training Manual Part 1 Ultra Sonic Flow Meter 23
Figure 5- 3. DC Magnetic flow meters
DC m agnet ic flow m et ers are not subj ect t o inaccuracies due t o t he coat ing of
elect rodes. As long as elect rode sensit ivit y rem ains high enough for a DC flow m et er
t o operat e, it s perform ance is relat ively unaffect ed. Miniat ure DC m agnet ic flow
m et ers are also widely used in m iniat urized elect ronic circuit s. These inst rum ent s
weigh less and have reduced power requirements.
Advantages:
Easy to install and, often more economical than other designs.
Magnetic flow meters provide virtually unobstructed flow.
Magnetic flow meters do not create pressure drop.
Velocity is measured directly, and, thus, variations in density do not affect
their accuracy.
Free of Reynolds number constraints; they may be used for measuring the
velocity of liquids with any flow profile.
Can be maintained without shutting down the process.
Disadvantage:
Logically, it cannot be used for non- conductive fluids.
Application:
Magnet ic flow m et ers are widely used t o m easure t he flow rat e of conduct ive liquids
in process applicat ions. Because t he flow pat h is relat ively unobst ruct ed, t hey are
well suit ed t o use wit h high viscosit y fluids and process liquids cont aining solids.
I m port ant applicat ions include flow m easurem ent of sludge in sewage t reat m ent
plant s, slurries in m ining operat ions and liquid m et als in various indust rial processes.
Further, since they produce an electrical output, this type of flow meter is compatible
with electronic control systems.
B- 3 Ultrasonic Flow Meters:
B- 1 General Principles of Operation:
Ult rasonic, or acoust ic flow m et ers are of t wo principal t ypes: ( 1) Doppler- effect
meters and ( 2) transit- t im e m et ers. I n bot h t ypes, t he flow rat e is deduced from t he
effect of t he flowing process st ream on sound waves int roduced int o t he process
stream. In clamp- on designs, these meters make it possible to measure the flow rate
wit hout int ruding int o t he st ream and t hus are classified
.
as noninvasive. But even in configurat ions where t ransducers are cont ained in
shallow wells, the flow- meters are essentially non- intrusive.
The principles of ult rasonic flow m easurem ent have been known for m any years, but
only wit hin t he last decade have t hese m et ers m ade m easurable penet rat ion of t he
flow meter field. This lag in acceptance has been variously explained, but the general
consensus is t hat t oo m any designs were int roduced t oo soon- prem at urely and
without testing them against adverse plant environments to the point that for several
years ultrasonic flow meter had somewhat of a tarnished image.
Doppler- Effect Meters
I n 1842, Christ ian Doppler predict ed t hat t he frequencies of received waves were
dependent on t he m ot ion of t he source or observer relat ive t o t he propagat ing
m edium . His predict ions were prom pt ly checked for sound waves by placing t he
source or observer on one of t he newly developed railroad t rains. Over a cent ury
lat er, t he concept was first considered for applicat ion in t he m easurem ent of flowing
streams.
For t he principle t o work in a flow m et er, it is m andat ory t hat t he flowing st ream
cont ain sonically reflect ive m at erials, such as solid part icles or ent rained air bubbles.
Wit hout t hese reflect ors, t he Doppler syst em will not operat e. I n cont rast , t he
transit- time ultrasonic flow meter does not depend on the presence of reflectors.
The basic equations of a Doppler flow meter are:
Vf
f = 2fTsin (1)
Vs
by Snell s Law
sin T sin
(2)
VT Vs
Simultaneously solving eq. 1 & 2

f VT
Vf = =K f
fT sin T
VT = sonic velocity of transmitter material
T = angle of transmitter sonic beam.
K = calibration factor
VF = flow velocity
F = Doppler frequency change
Vs = Sonic velocity of fluid
f T = transmission velocity
= angle of fT entry
Doppler- effect flow m et ers use a t ransm it t er t hat proj ect s a cont inuous ult rasonic
beam at about 0.5 MHz through the pipe wall into the flowing stream. Particles in the
st ream reflect t he ult rasonic radiat ion which is det ect ed by t he receiver. The
frequency of the radiation reaching the receiver is shifted in proportion to the stream
velocit y. The frequency difference is a m easure of t he flow rat e. The configurat ion
shown in Fig. 15 ut ilizes separat ed dual t ransducers m ount ed on opposit e sides of
t he pipe. Ot her possible configurat ions are shown in Fig. 16. I n essence t he Doppler-
.
effect m et er m easures t he beat frequency of t wo signals. The beat frequency is t he

difference frequency obt ained when t wo different frequencies ( t ransm it t ed and
reflected) are combined.
Figure 16. Principles of Doppler effect ultrasonic flow meter with separated opposite
side dual tranducers
Figure 16. Configuration of Doppler effect Ultra- sonic flow meter (a) single
transducer,(b) Tadem dual transducer, (c) separate dual transducer installed on the
When t he m easured fluid cont ains a large concent rat ion of part icles and/ or air
bubbles, it is said t o be sonically opaque. The m ore opaque t he liquid, t he great er
the number of reflections that originate near the pipe wall, a situation exemplified by
heavy slurries. I t can be not ed from t he flow profile of Fig. 15 t hat t hese reflect ors
are in t he low- flow- rat e region. I n cont rast , t he preponderance of part icle reflect ors
will occur in t he cent er of t he pipe ( where t he flow rat e is highest ) when t he fluid is
less sonically opaque. Where t here are relat ively few reflect ive part icles in a st ream ,
there is a tendency for the ultrasonic beam to penetrate beyond the centerline of the
pipe and t o det ect slow m oving part icles on t he opposit e side of t he pipe. Because
the sonic opacity of the fluid may be difficult to predict in advance, factory calibration
is difficult.
I t will be not ed from Fig. 15 t hat t he fluid velocit y is great est near t he cent er of t he
pipe and lowest near t he pipe wall. An average velocit y occurs som ewhere bet ween
t hese t wo ext rem es. Thus, t here are num erous variables, charact erist ic of a given
fluid and of a specific piping sit uat ion, t hat affect t he int eract ions bet ween t he
ult rasonic energy and t he flowing st ream . Should a m easured fluid have a relat ively
consist ent flow profile and include an ideal concent rat ion
.
and dist ribut ion of part icles, t hese qualit ies add t o t he fundam ent al precision of
m easurem ent and t hus sim plify calibrat ion. Various designs are used t o m inim ize
int eract ion inconsist encies. For exam ple, separat ion of t ransm it t ers and receivers
m akes it possible t o rest rict t he zone in t he pipe at which t he principal concent rat ion
of interaction occurs. This zone usually occurs in the central profile region of the pipe
less affected by variations in sonic opacity than near the pipe wall.
Transit- Time Flow meters :
Wit h t his t ype of m et er, air bubbles and part icles in t he flowing st ream are
undesirable because t heir presence ( as reflect ors) int erferes wit h t he t ransm ission
and receipt of t he ult rasonic radiat ion applied. However, t he fluid m ust be a
reasonable conductor of sonic energy. See Fig. 17. At a given
Figure 17 Principles of the transit time Ultra sonic flow meter. Clamp on type is
shown. Transducers alternately transmit and receive burst of ultra sonic energy
t em perat ure and pressure, ult rasonic energy will t ravel at a specific velocit y t hrough
a given liquid. Since t he fluid is flowing at a cert ain velocit y ( t o be m easured) , t he
sound will t ravel fast er in t he direct ion of flow and slower against t he direct ion of
flow. By m easuring t he differences in arrival t im e of pulses t raveling in a
downst ream direct ion and pulses t raveling in an upst ream direct ion, t his AT can
serve as a m easure of fluid velocit y. Transit - t im e or T flow m et ers t ransm it
alt ernat ely upst ream and downst ream and calculat e t his t im e difference. The
operation is illustrated by the following equations.
TU TD V S VS cos TVS
Vf =
sin d TL sin
By Snell s Law
VS VC
=K
sin sin
VF = K T/TL
TU = upstream transit time
TD = Down stream transit time
TL = zero flow transit time
.
VS = liquid sonic velocity

d = Pipe inside diameter
VR = liquid flow velocity
= angle between transducer and pipe wall
VC = transducer sonic velocity
I n t he clam p- on t ransit - t im e flow m et er, where t he t ransducers are st rapped t o t he

outside of the pipe, the sonic echo is away from the receiver and thus the device can
ret ransm it sooner and operat e fast er. Clam p- on m et ers are inst alled on a norm al
sect ion of piping, which is part icularly at t ract ive for ret rofit applicat ions. Ot her
designs m ake use of what are called wet t ed t ransducers, which are m ount ed wit hin
t he pipe. I n bot h designs, of course, t he t randucers are inst alled diagonally t o t he
flow, i.e., not direct ly across from each ot her. Wet t ed t ransducers are usually
inst alled in a shallow well, but because t here are no proj ect ions beyond t he pipeline
wall, they are still considered non- intrusive. There is no significant disturbance to the
general flow profile. However, slight , localized eddy current s m ay form in t he vicinit y
of t he wells. To avoid eddy current s, at least one m anufact urer put s t he t ransducers
within the wells, forming what is termed an epoxy window. This results in completely
filling the streamside of the well, making is essentially flush with the inner pipe wall.
I n anot her design ( dual- pat h ult rasonic flow m et er) , t wo pairs of t ransducers are
inst alled in t he piping. The upst ream and downst ream propagat ion t im es bet ween
each pair of t ransducers are int egrat ed in a m icroprocessor- based elect ronics
package to determine flow rate.
Open Channels
Ult rasonic flow m et ers are also applicable t o open- channel flow m easurem ent . The
t ransducer is inst alled above t he channel. Pulses em it t ed are reflect ed by t he liquid
surface back t o t he t ransducer. I n a form of sonar, t he t im e required for t he pulse t o
ret urn from t he liquid surface is relat ed t o t he height of t he liquid surface. By
knowing t he cross- sect ional propert ies of t he open channel, height m easurem ent s
can be converted to a measure of flow.
Numerous Variations:
Present ly, ult rasonic flow m et ers are charact erized by num erous configurat ions,
adding t o t he difficult ies of first det erm ining whet her an ult rasonic flow m et er is
basically suit ed t o an applicat ion and t hen select ing t he best possible configurat ion.
Careful checking wit h several suppliers is suggest ed by m any expert s. The decision
favoring a Doppler effect or a t ransit- t im e ult rasonic flow m et er has been sim plified
by at least one m anufact urer who offers an opt ional plug- in board which enables t he
unit t o select bet ween different ial- t im e or Doppler t echniques. A circuit select s which
t echnique should be used at any given inst ant . Thus, t he inst rum ent it self decides
how t o m easure t he flow in a given pipe- a decision based on act ual condit ions in t he
pipe. The Doppler sensing circuit ry is calibrat ed by t he different ial- t im e circuit ry.
Thus, when t he Doppler circuit ry is being used, it will read t he correct flow rat e
without a need for operator intervention.

.
INPM Training Manual Part 1 Positive Displacement Flow Meter 28
Advantages:
Linearity.
Wide rangeabilit y wit hout an induced pressure drop or dist urbance t o t he
stream.
Achievable accuracy comparable to that of orifice or venturi meters.
Bi- directionality.
Ready attachment to the outside of existing pipes without shutdown.
Com parable if not overall lower cost s- at t ract ive feat ures which can m ake a
product prone to overselling.
B- 4 Positive Displacement Flow Meters:
B- 4.1 General Principles of Operation:
I n m any applicat ions, posit ive displacem ent flow m et ers provide significant
advant ages over m et ers of ot her classes. They are accurat e, precise, have a wide
flow range and are ideal for m easuring low rat es of flow. I n addit ion, t heir operat ion
requires no external power supply and they usually require only simple maintenance.
Posit ive displacem ent flow m et ers operat e by t rapping a known quant it y of fluid, and
t ransferring t he fluid from t he inlet t o t he out let connect ions. The m easuring
cham ber follows a fixed pat h, and on each revolut ion t he m et er is filled at t he inlet
and discharged at t he out let Thus, each volum e of fluid displaces t he previous
volum e. No volum e of fluid is ever count ed t wice. Then t he num ber of t rapped
volumes that pass through the meter is counted to measure the flow.
Posit ive displacem ent flow m et ers also present serious disadvant ages, however.
Usually posit ive displacem ent m et ers are suit able only for clean liquids and gases.
Abrasive part icles in fluids can wear t he closely m achined part s and affect accuracy.
I n addit ion, t he flow m et ers m ay becom e plugged by solids. Placing a st rainer
upst ream of t he flow m et er can reduce t his problem , alt hough in high viscosit y
service, t he pressure drop across t he st rainer m ay significant ly affect t he m et er's
accuracy.
Any gas present in t he process liquid will also cause difficult ies. Because of t he
nature of the operation of this class of flow meter, it will read gas volumes as though
t hey were liquid. A com m on m eans of resolving t his problem is t o posit ion an air
map upstream of the flow meter.
Types of Positive Displacement Flow Meter:
B- 4.2 Nutating Disc Flow meter
Principles of Operation:
One of t he earliest and m ost com m only used t ypes of posit ive displacem ent flow
meters is the nutating disc. A typical nutating disc flow meter is shown in Figure 7- 1.
The m et er consist s of a housing cont aining a disc which is allowed t o wobble, or
nut at e. As fluid ent ers t he inlet point of t he m et er, it s m ovem ent in t he cham ber
causes t he disc t o t urn or nut at e. As t he disc t urns, it t ransfer a fixed quant it y of
fluid from t he inlet t o t he out let . A count er drive pin at t ached t o t he disc m oves a
shaft t hat is connect ed t o a count er m et er t o keep t rack of t he volum e of fluid t hat
has passed t hrough t he m et er. For each disc nut at ion, a fixed volum e of liquid
passes t hrough t he m et er. The t ot al num ber of nut at ions, or t urns, of t he disc is a
direct measure of the volume of liquid that passes through the meter.

.
Advantages and Limitations:
Advantages:
Relative low cost.
Moderate pressure loss.
Applicable to liquid batch system.
Several construction materials available.
Limitations
Limited as to pipe size and capacity.
Fair accuracy for PD meters 1%
Fluids should be cleaned.
Application:
Nut at ing disc flow m et ers are generally applicable t o clean, non- abrasive liquids.
Slippage (leakage) can pose a problem in low viscosity applications. This type of flow
meter is commonly used to meter water for businesses and residences, due to its ability to
measure low viscosity liquids reasonably well and economically.
Figure 7- 1 Nutating Dics.
Helical Gear Positive Displacement Flow meter
Figure 7- 2 illust rat es a helical gear flow m et er. I n t his t ype of posit ive displacem ent
flow meter, two radically- pitched helical gears are used to continually trap liquid as it
passes t hrough t he flow m et er. As t he liquid passes t hrough t he m et er, it causes t he
gears t o t urn. A sensing syst em , t ypically m agnet ic or opt ical, senses a pulse each
t im e a port ion of a revolut ion occurs. Flow t hrough t he flow m et er is proport ional t o
the rotational speed of the gears.
Limitation:
Alt hough t his design is som ewhat t olerant of solids, helical gear flow m et ers rem ain
susceptible to overspeed and bearing damage.

.
Application:
Helical gear flow m et ers are oft en used on ext rem ely viscous liquid service where it
is difficult to apply other flow meters because of Reynolds number constraints.
Figure 7- 2 Helical Gear Positive Displacement Flow meter
Oscillating Piston Positive Displacement Flow meters
The oscillat ing pist on flow m et er illust rat ed in Figure 7- 3 has a cylindrical
measurem ent cham ber. A part it ion plat e separat es t he inlet port from t he out let
port. A piston, positioned to fit off center in the chamber, is guided by a control roller
so that it can slide around the inner walls of the chamber. The motion of the piston is
oscillat ory; t he cent er of t he pist on m oves around t he cont rol roller and t he slot of
the piston can only operate in one plane.
When a quantity of fluid enters the chamber it causes the piston to rotate on its shaft
As it does so, a specific volum e of fluid is m oved t hrough t he m et er and discharged
at t he out let port . Each revolut ion of t he pist on corresponds t o t he m ovem ent of a
fixed volum e of fluid t hrough t he m et er. Thus, t he rat e of flow is proport ional t o t he
velocit y of t he pist on. The m ot ion of t he pist on can be t ransm it t ed t o a m agnet ic
sensing syst em . The sensing syst em can operat e a flow indicat or, a t ot alizer, or a
transmitter.
Advantages and Limitation:
Advantages:
Good accuracy especially at low flow rates.
Easily applied to liquid batching system.
Good repeatability.
Moderate cost.
Easy to install and maintain.

.
Limitations.
Available only in small sizes, normally two inches or less.
Limited power for driving accessories.
Fluids must be clean.
Application:
Oscillat ing pist on flow m et ers are com m only used on higher viscosit y liquid
applicat ions, as slippage can pose a problem wit h low viscosit y liquids, part icularly if
t here is any wear on m achined part s. I n m ost cases, t he design of t he device furt her
lim it s it s use t o t he m easurem ent of fluids wit h low flow rat es, usually not exceeding
200 gallons per minute.
Figure 7- 3 Oscillating Piston
Rotary Vane Flow meters
I n a rot ary vane flow m et er, spring- loaded vanes seal discreet quant it ies of fluid
bet ween t he eccent ric rot or and t he housing of t he inst rum ent . These quant it ies of
fluid are transported from inlet to outlet. A rotary vane flow meter is shown in Figure
7- 4.
As fluid ent ers t he m et er, t he vanes are m oved causing t he rot or t o t urn. The vanes
are spring loaded and able to slide freely in the rotor body as it turns. When the fluid
ent ers t he inlet port t he vanes ext end against t he housing wall t o enclose t he
m easuring cham ber, t hey ret ract at t he out let t o discharge t he fluid int o t he syst em .
Each com plet e revolut ion of t he rot or m oves several fixed volum es of fluid t hrough
the meter from inlet to outlet. Thus, the flow is proportional to the rotational velocity
of the moving rotor.
Advantages and Limitations.
Advantages:
Low pressure loss.
Applicable t o a wide variet y of gas and liquid fluids, including viscous
materials.
Has relatively high pressure and temperature rating.
Available in numerous construction materials.
Good accuracy.

.
INPM Training Manual Part 1 Lobbed Impeller and Oval Gear Flow Meter 32
Limitations:
Tend to be bulky and heavy in larger sizes.
Relatively high cost.
Susceptible to damage from entrained vapor and dirty fluids.
Accurately decreases at low flow rates; slip fact is high.
Application:
Rot ary vane m et ers are com m only used in bot h liquid and gas applicat ions. I t s
widespread use is found in t he pet roleum indust ry, prim arily for gasoline and crude
oil metering.
Figure 7- 4 Rotary Flow Meter
B- 5 Lobed Impeller and Oval Gear Flow meters
Lobed im peller and oval gear flow m et ers operat e in a sim ilar fashion. I n t he lobed
im peller flow m et er shown in Figure 7- 5, t wo lobed im pellers ( rot ors) are m ount ed
on parallel shaft s and are gear- synchronized t o keep t hem correct ly posit ioned in
relat ion t o each ot her. These lobes rot at e in opposit e direct ions, so as fluid ent ers
the meter and causes the impellers to rotate, a measuring chamber is formed.
As wit h ot her m et ers of t his class, a fixed volum e of fluid is t ransferred from inlet t o
out let wit h each revolut ion. A count er can be at t ached t o one of t he im peller shaft s,
which count s t he num ber of revolut ions of t he im pellers t o give a m easurem ent of
total flow.
The oval gear flow m et er is a variat ion of t he lobed im peller flow m et er. I n t his
design, shown in Figure 7- 6, t he lobed im pellers are replaced by a pair of m eshed
oval gears. The principle of operation for this type of meter is exactly the same as for
t he lobed im peller t ype. However, inst ead of being synchronized by an ext ernal gear
the rotating gears keep the rotations synchronized. Again, by counting the number of
revolutions made by the gears, an accurate measure of flow can be made.

.
INPM Training Manual Part 1 Axial Turbine Flow Meter 33
Application:
Lobed flow m et ers are used chiefly for gas service, alt hough t hey m ay also be used
for clean liquid applicat ions. Oval gear m et ers, however, are used only for m et ering
liquids to ensure that the gears remain wet and lubricated.
Figure 7-5 Lobed Impeller
Figure 7- 6 Oval Gear
B- 6 Axial Turbine Flow meters
Difference to Positive Displacement type flow meters:
The current - t ype class differs only slight ly in operat ing principle from posit ive
displacem ent t ype flow m et ers. I n current - t ype m et ers, a discret e volum e of fluid is
not actually captured and transferred from inlet to outlet to measure flow rate as it is
in a posit ive displacem ent m et er. Rat her, t he t ot al quant it y of flow is inferred from
the reaction of the turbine caused by the fluid flow.
Axial t urbine flow m et ers ( see Figure 7- 7) m easure flow rat e by m easuring t he
velocit y of t he fluid flow in a pipe. Most designs incorporat e a m et er housing wit h
end fit t ings for connect ion t o a pipeline. A t urbine rot or is m ount ed in t he housing.
Upst ream of t he rot or in t he m et er body is a sect ion of st raight ening vanes which
straighten the fluid flow as it enters the meter to ensure that it is free of swirls.
The fluid entering the meter causes the rotor to turn with velocity that is proportional

.
t o t he fluid's flow velocit y, and t herefore, t he flow rat e. The rot or is linked t o a
sensing unit . As t he rot or t urns, eit her a count er records t he num ber of revolut ions
or an elect rical pulse is generat ed in a pick- up coil. This pulse is proport ional t o t he
rot at ional speed of t he rot or and t o t he flow rat e. Charact erist ically, t urbine flow
m et ers develop a precisely known num ber of pulses for a given volum e m easured.
This can be stated as:
cycles / time Cycles Meter
volume / time Volume Coefficient
Rotor Design:
Rot or designs used in axial t urbine flow m et ers vary from one m odel t o anot her.
Generally t he rot or has a hub from which t he flow vanes proj ect . The hub rot at es on
sealed bearings. In turbine flow meters used for gas service, the central hub is large.
The large hub is used t o creat e a vent uri effect by decreasing t he area in t he pipe
and, t herefore, increasing t he velocit y of t he gas. Since t he t orque driving t he rot or
depends on the gas density and the square of the velocity, it is important to increase
velocity to ensure that there is sufficient torque to drive the rotor.
Range:
Operat ion of t his t ype of flow m et er is dependent upon t he Reynolds num ber and, t o
some degree, the momentum of the fluid which must be of sufficient velocity to drive
t he rot or. Reynolds num ber const raint s will vary wit h design, but , generally, m ost
turbine flow m et ers can operat e and produce a linear reading in t he t urbulent range
above a minimum Reynolds number varying between 4000 and 20,000.
Disadvantage:
Care m ust be t aken not t o operat e t he flow m et er at flows great er t han t hose
recom m ended by t he m anufact urer. Over spinning t he rot or can dest roy t he
bearings. Sudden surges of liquid flow, such as when a pum p is st art ed or a valve
are opened, can also damage the flow meter.
Application:
Turbine flow m et ers are generally suit able for use wit h lubricat ing fluids operat ing
wit hin Reynolds num ber const raint s. Except ions include requirem ent s t o operat e in
gas service where close at t ent ion t o bearing design is necessary due t o t he higher
rot or velocit ies encount ered. Current t ype flow m et ers used in a pipeline are
specifically designated turbine flow meters. Turbine flow meters are capable of a high
degree of accuracy when calibrat ed and inst alled correct ly. However, t he m oving
parts, particularly the rotor bearings, are subject to wear. Normally, ball bearings are
preferred but t hey can be used only in clean fluid applicat ions. When dirt y or
corrosive fluids are metered, sleeve bearings are used.

.
Figure 7- 7 Axial Turbine Flow Meter
B- 7 Rotameters
Rot am et ers can be used in a variet y of applicat ions. They are capable of handling a
wide range of liquids and can be used with slurries and gases.
Principles of Operation and Instrument Accessory Description:
Rot am et ers are variable area flow m et ers. As in ot her flow inst rum ent s, flow
m easurem ent is based on t he relat ionship bet ween t wo known fact ors. One fact or
rem ains const ant , a variat ion in t he ot her fact or indicat es a variat ion in flow rat e. I n
t he rot am et er, t he variable fact or is t he area of t he flow m et er opening, which
changes proport ionally wit h t he flow rat e. A t ypical rot am et er is illust rat ed in Figure
7- 8.
The rot am et er consist s of a t apered glass t ube, which is incorporat ed int o t he piping
syst em . The t ube is posit ioned so it s great est diam et er is upperm ost and cont ains a
float, which moves up and down freely as the flow within the tube changes. Since the
upward and downward forces on t he float are in equilibrium , t he float assum es a
definite position at a given flow rate.
At a const ant flow rat e, t he speed of t he flow depends on t he am ount of area
bet ween t he t ube and t he float . The only force, which act s downward upon t he float
is it s weight , which rem ains const ant . One of t he forces act ing upward is t he
buoyancy of t he float , which is t he weight of t he displaced fluid, and varies wit h fluid
densit y. A second upward force, t he pressure drop across t he float , also rem ains
const ant . The viscous drag of t he fluid passing t he float is t he t hird upward force
acting upon the float.
While the pressure drop is constant, the tube is tapered, and the cross- sectional area
for flow is variable. I ncreasing flow rat es do not , t herefore, increase t he pressure
drop across t he float . Rat her, t hey cause t he float t o t ake a higher posit ion in t he
tube, thus providing a greater flow area. More simply, when the fluid flow is high, the
float com es t o rest near t he t op of t he t ube where t here is a great er area. When t he
flow is low, t he float m oves down in t he t ube t o a sm aller area. The relat ionship
bet ween t he float placem ent and t he fluid flow is linear. A scale at t ached t o t he
rot am et er allows direct m easurem ent of flow rat e. The scale, however, m ust be
calibrated for each type of fluid, the design of the tube and the weight of the float.

.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages
Good rangeability
Relatively low cost.
Easily equipped with alarm switches.
No restriction in regards to inlet and outlet piping requirements (other than a
vertical flow measurement).
Viscosity immune design available.
Low pressure drop requirements.
Can be used in some light slurries services.
Disadvantages:
Glass tube type subject to breakage.
Not good in pulsating services.
Must be mounted vertically.
Generally limited to small pipe sizes (unless bypass Rotameters are used)
Limited to relatively low temperatures.
Fair accuracy.
Require in- line mounting (except bypass type).
Accuracy:
Rot am et ers are widely used for m et ering purge flows, pum p seal fluids and coolant s
and lubricant s for operat ing m achinery. I n t hese applicat ion, flow are relat ively
small, and accuracy requirements are not rigid. Accuracy is about 1/2 to 10%.
Application:
Rot am et ers can be used t o m easure m ass flow rat e in processes involving low
viscosit y fluids because t he act ion of t he float is in part dependent on t he densit y of
t he fluid in t he syst em . Sm all rot am et ers wit h ball float s respond t o Reynolds
num ber changes, m alt ing t hem sensit ive t o changes in bot h viscosit y and densit y.
Larger rotameters are less sensitive to these variations.

.
INPM Training Manual Part 1 Mass Flow Meter 37
Figure 7- 8 Area flow meter/Rotameter
C Mass Flow Meters
I n som e indust rial processes, accurat e m easurem ent of m ass flow is required. Mass
is defined as a m easure of t he quant it y of m at t er in a body. Mass is one of t he t hree
Fundam ent al quant it ies, t he ot hers being lengt h and t im e, upon which all physical
m easurem ent s are based. Oft en m ass is t hought of as weight , but t hese quant it ies
are dissim ilar. Weight is t he m easure of t he effect of eart h's gravit y on m ass and
varies over the earth's surface.
C- 1 Classification of Mass Flow Measurement:
Mass is independent of bot h t he physical propert ies of m at t er and t he am bient

condit ion in which t he m easurem ent is t aken. Thus, m ass can be m easured in t wo
ways.
True m ass flow m easurem ent: True m ass flow m easurem ent is one t hat is a
direct m easurem ent of t he m ass, independent of t he propert ies and t he st at e
of t he fluid. A m ass flow m et er is an inst rum ent in which t he react ion of t he
sensing elem ent is proport ional t o t he t rue m ass flow rat e. I n such a device,
m ass is det erm ined by m easuring force and accelerat ion. These inst rum ent s
are based on t he precept s of Newt on's second law: an unbalanced syst em of
forces act ing on a body produces an accelerat ion in t he direct ion of t he
unbalanced force that varies in inverse proportion to the mass of the body.
I nferent ial m ass flow m easurem ent : I nferent ial m ass flow m easurem ent is
dependent on a combination of the independent measurements of density and
velocity. A volumetric flow rate is measured and then converted to mass flow,

.
hence, an inferent ial, rat her t han direct , m easurem ent of flow is m ade. I f a
variat ion in densit y is charact erist ic of t he process, t hese m easurem ent s m ay
not accurat ely reflect t he t rue m ass of t he flow and m ust be correct ed by
calculation.
: It will not be covered for this text.
C- 2 Angular Momentum Mass Flow meter
The angular m om ent um m ass flow m et er is a t rue m ass flow m et er since t he

reaction of the primary element is proportional to the momentum of the flow stream.
In this type of device (see Figure 6- 1), fluid passes through an impeller and a turbine
m ount ed in series in a pipeline. The im peller is driven at a const ant speed by a sm all
m ot or. As it is rot at ed, it causes t he fluid ent ering t he im peller t o t ake on it s
rot at ional velocit y. When exit ing t he im peller, t he fluid has an angular velocit y equal
t o t hat of t he im peller in addit ion t o t he norm al axial m om ent um of t he st ream . The
fluid t hen ent ers a t urbine t hat is rest rained by a calibrat ed spring and does not
rot at e. The t urbine rem oves t he angular m om ent um from t he st ream and t his
m ovem ent is t ransferred t o t he t urbine. The t orque produced by t he t urbine on t he
calibrat ed spring is direct ly proport ional t o t he m ass flow. Conversely, if t he t orque
produced by the stream on the turbine is kept constant by varying impeller rotational
speed, the rotational speed is inversely proportional to the mass flow.
Figure 6- 1 Angular Momentum Flow Meter
C- 3 Coriolis Flow meters
The Coriolis flow meter is a true mass flow meter which operates on the physical
principle of the effects

.
Figure 6- 2 Coriolis Acceleration
of t he eart h's rot at ion on a m ass. This effect is referred t o as t he Coriolis

acceleration and produces a Coriolis force. It is the Coriolis force that makes water in
a vort ex swirl clockwise in t he nort hern hem isphere and count erclockwise in t he
southern hemisphere.
C- 3.1 Principle Application to Mass Flow Measurement:
An illust rat ion of t his principle is shown in Figure 6- 2. Consider t he person st anding
at t he cent er of t he rot at ing plat form shown in Figure 6- 2A. Since t he person is
st anding in t he sam e place, his dist ance from t he cent er of rot at ion is const ant , and
the rot at ional speed of t he t urnt able is const ant , t he force exert ed on t he person in
this plane is zero.
However, as indicat ed in Figure 6- 2B, a person walking radially out ward on t he
rot at ing plat form would experience t he Coriolis force act ing in t he plane of rot at ion,
and tangential to that plane as he attempted to move. Thus, he must lean toward, or
direct t he m ass of his body against t he force produced by t he Coriolis accelerat ion.
The Coriolis force is creat ed as a result of t he Coriolis accelerat ion act ing on t he
person as he changes posit ion in relat ion t o t he cent er of rot at ion of t he t urnt able.
Since t orque is equal t o m ass m ult iplied by accelerat ion, a m easurem ent of t he
Coriolis force provides the means for a direct determination of mass flow.
C- 3.2 Types Of Coriolis Mass Flow Meter:
1. Vane Type:
One t ype of Coriolis m ass flow m et er consist s of an im peller wit h radial vanes. The
m et er is posit ioned so t he vanes are in line wit h t he flow ( see Figure 6- 3) . The
im peller, powered by a sm all m ot or t urns at a const ant rat e. The vanes direct t he
flow in a direct ion t hat is radial and perpendicular t o t he axis of rot at ion. As in t he
case of t he person on t he revolving plat form , t his result s in a Coriolis accelerat ion
which t hen exert s a force on t he vanes. Force- sensing devices m easure t he t orque
produced, and, since t he am ount of t orque is direct ly proport ional t o t he m ass flow
rate, the value can be used to calculate the rate directly.

.
Application:
This device has a quick response t im e, so it is especially applicable for processes

with rapidly changing flows.
Figure 6- 3 Coriolis Mass Flow Meter
2. Vibrating U- Tube:
The vibrat ing U- t ube is anot her t ype of m ass flow m et er t hat uses t he principle of
Coriolis accelerat ion of a fluid. The flow m et er consist s of a vibrat ing U- t ube in which
t he Coriolis accelerat ion is creat ed and m easured. I n operat ion, process fluid flows
t hrough t he t ube. As it does, an oscillat or vibrat es t he t ube rapidly along t he axis
form ed bet ween it s open ends. An angular m ot ion is creat ed in t he t ube, which can
be equat ed t o t he rot at ing plat form ; while t he flowing process fluid is equivalent t o
t he person at t em pt ing t o walk t oward t he edge. Thus, a Coriolis accelerat ion is
induced, but , because t he m ot ion is oscillat ory, t he direct ion of t he accelerat ion
alt ernat es. Because of t his alt ernat ion, t he fluid in one arm of t he t ube flows away
from t he axis of rot at ion while in t he ot her half, t he sam e am ount of fluid flows
t owards t he axis of rot at ion. At any given m om ent , t he fluid in each half of t he U-
t ube has an associat ed Coriolis accelerat ion t hat act s in opposit e direct ions. These
opposing Coriolis accelerat ions result in forces in t he opposit e direct ions, which
produce a t wist ing m ot ion in t he t ube ( see Figure 6- 5) . The am ount of m ot ion which
is direct ly proport ional t o t he m ass flow t hrough t he U- t ube, is det ect ed by a
sensing device.

.
Figure 6- 4 Vibrating U- Tube
Figure 5- 5 End View- Vibrating U- tube
Application / Advantage:
The U- t ube offers no obst ruct ion t o t he flow- pat h allowing it t o m easure
liquids with varying physical properties.
This t ype of flow m et er m ay be used wit h liquids cont aining solids. Vibrat ing
U- t ube flow m et ers are also suit able for m easuring corrosive, abrasive and
very viscous materials.
Can also be used in gas applicat ions where t he gas has a densit y sufficient t o
generate the force necessary to produce a measurable deflection in the tube.
As wit h ot her Coriolis m ass flow m et ers, t here are no Reynolds num ber
constraints.
C- 4 Hydraulic Wheat- stone Bridges
The hydraulic Wheat - st one bridge m ass flow m et er is a t rue m ass flow m et er which
uses different ial pressure t o m easure t he m ass flow. I n principle, it is t he hydraulic
equivalent of t he elect rical Wheat - st one bridge. A t ypical configurat ion ut ilizing t he
Wheat- stone bridge principle is shown in Figure 6- 6.
Four ident ical orifice plat es are placed in a wheat - st one bridge arrangem ent . A
port ion of t he flow is pum ped at a const ant rat e from one segm ent of t he fluid loop
t o anot her segm ent of t he loop. A different ial pressure t ransm it t er is t hen used t o
sense t he flow signal. The
.
different ial pressure across t he flow m et er syst em is proport ional t o t he m ass flow
rat e. I t is im port ant t o not e, however, t hat t he fluid densit y at all point s in t he
t ransducer m ust rem ain const ant , lim it ing t he use of t his device t o liquid
applications.
Figure 6-5 Wheat-stone Bridge Configuration

.

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INPM Training Manual 1

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

A Fluid Properties and Parameters Definition:

Densit y is a m easurem ent of t he proxim it y of t he m olecules t hat m ake up a

A- 2 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Density:

Gases Volume to Pressure Relationship (Charles Law): This phenomenon is described

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Specific Gravity = (Density of a liquid) / (Density of water at standard conditions)

Specific Gravity = (Density of Gas) / (Density of air at standard condition)

St andard condit ions should be defined when densit y is t o be calculat ed from t he

While a study of flow measurement requires an understanding of what causes fluid to

Lam inar Flow: Figure 2- 3A represent s a sm oot h, layered flow, which is

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Turbulent Flow: Figure 2- 3B represent s a t urbulent flow pat t ern. I n

I f t he flow is lam inar, t he viscous force causes t he flow t o slow as it approaches t he

Turbulent Flow Laminar Flow

Figure 2- 4 Flow Profiles

A- 6 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity:

I f t he viscosit y of a liquid at one t em perat ure is known, it s viscosit y at anot her

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Figure 2- 5 Generalized Viscosity for Liquids

RD = inertial forces / viscous forces = Dv/

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Flow Classification According to Reynolds

B Fluid Flow Meter Classification:

B- 1 Differential Producer Flow Meter:

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

B- 1.1 Fundamental Unit Flow Rate equation:

This takes the form,

Z = Elevation above the datum of pipe center line, ft, m.

Substituting (4) to (2);

In terms of mass flow rate

C = True flow rate/ theoretical flow rate {eq. (6) or (7)}

Some equations and value for C , b, and n for equation 9

Y2 = (1- x 1 ) - 0.5Y1 (12)

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Where x1 = (P1 P2 )/P1

Figure 2 Square edge concentric orifice

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Range and Accuracy for square edge orifice:

Accuracy ranges from 0.8 t o 5% depending on fluid, upst ream piping

2. Quadrant and Conic Edge

When t he pipe size is 1/ 2 in ( 12 m m ) or sm aller and t he fluid is clean, it is com m on

Figure 3 Orifice pressure tap location and their names

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Fig. Quadrant-edge Fig. 5 Conical Orifice

4. Eccentric and Segmental Orifice

By placing t he orifice hole at t he bot t om ( Fig. 8) of t he pipe for gases and at t he t op

Orifice Advantages and Limitation:

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

B- 1.3 Venturi Tube:

Figure 10 Classical Venturi

B- 1.4 Flow Nozzle

Figure 12 Flow nozzle

B- 1.5 Elbow Flowmeter:

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Figure 15. Elbow flow meter.

B- 1.6 Pitot Tube and Annubar