MATH 1130 1 Discrete Structures

Chapter I Logic and Proofs

Propositions

A proposition is a statement that is either true (T) or false (F), but or both.

Examples

Propositions:
1. I am a man.
2. I am taller than 170 cm.
3. You are studying in Baptist U.
4. 1 + 1 = 3 .

Not propositions:
1. How are you?
2. Go to catch the dog.
3. I like this colour.

Negation of a Proposition
Let p be a proposition. The statement
It is not the case that p
is another proposition, called the negation of p. The negation of p is denoted by p and read not
p.

Example

P: It is a sunny day.
p : It is not the case that it is a sunny day., or simply It is not a sunny day.

Truth Table
A truth table displays the relationships between the truth values of propositions. Truth tables are
especially valuable in the determination of the truth values of propositions constructed from simpler
propositions.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 2 Discrete Structures

Example

The truth table for the negation of a proposition

p p
T F
F T

Logic Operators (Connectives)

Conjunction
Let p and q be propositions. The proposition p and q, denoted by p q , is the proposition that is
true when both p and q are true and is false otherwise. The proposition p q is called the
conjunction of p and q.

The truth table for the conjunction of p and q

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Disjunction
Let p and q be propositions. The proposition p or q, denoted by p q , is the proposition that is
false when p and q are both false and true otherwise. The proposition p q is called the
disjunction of p and q.

The truth table for the disjunction of p and q

p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 3 Discrete Structures

Exclusive Or
Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q, denoted by p q , is the proposition that is
true when exactly one of p and q is true and is false otherwise.

The truth table for the exclusive or of p and q

p q pq
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Conditional Propositions

Implication
Let p and q be propositions. The implication p q is the proposition that is false when p is true
and q is false and true otherwise. In this implication, p is called the hypothesis and q is called the
conclusion.

The truth table for the implication p q

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Remarks: I) Equivalent expressions of implication

1. if p, then q
2. p is sufficient for q
3. p implies q
4. p only if q
5. q is necessary for p
II) Related Implications
1. q p is called the converse of p q
2. q p is called the contrapositive of p q

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 4 Discrete Structures

Biconditional
Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional p q is the proposition that is true when p and q
have the same truth values and is false otherwise. In this biconditional, p is necessary and sufficient
for q, or p if and only if q.

The truth table for the biconditional p q

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Translating English Sentences

Example
He will not be charged (c) if he is handsome (h) or he is muscular (m).

(h m ) c

h m hm c c
T T T F F T
T T T T T F
T F T F F T
T F T T T F
F T T F F T
F T T T T F
F F F T F T
F F F T T F

Bit String
A bit string is a sequence of zero or more bits. The length of a bit string is the number of bits in the
string.

Example

0100100111 is a 10-bit string.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 5 Discrete Structures

Bitwise OR, bitwise AND and bitwise XOR

We define the bitwise OR, bitwise AND and bitwise XOR of two strings of the same length to be the
strings that have as their bits the OR, AND and XOR of the corresponding bits in the two strings,
respectively.

Example

01 1011 0110
11 0001 1101
11 1011 1111 bitwise OR
01 0001 0100 bitwise AND
10 1010 1011 bitwise XOR

Logical equivalence

Tautology, Contradiction and Contingency

A compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the truth values of the propositions that
occur in it, is called a tautology. A compound proposition that is always false is called a
contradiction. Finally, a proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a
contingency.

Truth table of examples of a tautology and a contradiction

p p p p p p
T F T F
F T T F

Logically Equivalent
The propositions p and q are called logically equivalent if p q is a tautology. The notation
p q denotes that p and q are logically equivalent.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 6 Discrete Structures

Example

The following truth table shows that the compound propositions ( p q ) and p q are
logically equivalent.

p q pq ( p q ) p q p q
T T T F F F F
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
F F F T T T T

Exercise

Complete the following truth table to show that p q and p q are logically equivalent.

p q p p q pq
T T
T F
F T
F F

Logical Equivalences

Equivalence Name
pT p
Identity laws
pF p
pT T
Domination laws
pF F
p p p
Idempotent laws
p p p
(p ) p Double negative law
pq q p
Commutative laws
pq q p
( p q ) r p (q r )
Associative laws
( p q ) r p (q r )
p (q r ) ( p q ) ( p r )
Distributive laws
p (q r ) ( p q ) ( p r )
( p q ) p q
De Morgans laws
( p q ) p q

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 7 Discrete Structures

p p T
p p F
p q p q

Predicates and Quantifiers

Predicates
In statements involving variables, there are two parts the variable (is the subject of the statement)
and predicate (refers to a property that the subject can have).

Example

In the statement: x > 3 (x is greater than 3)

x is the variable and is greater than 3 is the predicate.

Let P ( x ) denote the statement x > 3 .

The value of P (4 ) is true and the value of P (2 ) is false.

Universe of Discourse
Many mathematical statements assert that a property is true for all values of a variable in a particular
domain, called the universe of discourse.

Universal Quantification and Universal Quantifier

The universal quantification of P ( x ) is the proposition: P ( x ) is true for all values of x in the
universe of discourse, and is denoted by x P ( x ) for all (every) x P ( x ) . Here, is called
the universal quantifier.

Existential Quantification and Existential Quantifier

The existential quantification of P( x ) is the proposition: There exists an element x in the universe of
discourse such that P ( x ) is true, and is denoted by x P ( x ) for some x P ( x ) . Here, is
called existential quantifier.

Statement When True? When False?

x P ( x ) P ( x ) is true for every x. There is an x for which P ( x ) is false.
x P( x ) There is an x for which P ( x ) is true. P ( x ) is false for every x.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 8 Discrete Structures

Examples

Translating logical statements into English

I) x (C ( x ) y (C ( y ) F ( x, y )))
where C (x ) is x has a computer, F ( x, y ) is x and y are friends, and the universe of
discourse for both x and y is the set of all students in this class.

Every student in your school has a computer or has a friend who has a computer.

II) xyz (((F ( x, y ) F ( x, z ) ( y z )) F ( y, z )))

where F (a, b ) means a and b are friends and the universe of discourse for x, y and z is the set of
all students in your school.

There is a student none of whose friends are also friends with each other.

Translating sentences into logical expressions

III) Some student in this class has visited Mexico.

Let M ( x ) be the statement x has visited Mexico.

xM ( x ) , the universe of discourse for x is the set of all the students in this class.

IV) Every student in this class has visited either Canada or Mexico.

Let M ( x ) be the statement x has visited Mexico and C (x ) be the statement x has visited
Canada.
x(C ( x ) M ( x )) , the universe of discourse for x is the set of all the students in this class.

V) If somebody is female and is a parent, then this person is someones mother

Let F (x ) be the statement x is female, P(x ) be the statement x is a parent, and M ( x, y )

be the statement x is the mother of y.
x((F ( x ) P ( x )) yM ( x, y )) , the universe of discourse for x and y is the set of all people.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 9 Discrete Structures

VI) lim f ( x ) = L (For every real number > 0 , there exists a real number > 0 such that
x a

f ( x ) L < whenever 0 < x a < .

x(0 < x a < f ( x ) L < ) , the universe of discourse for and is the set of

positive real numbers, and that of x is the set of real numbers, and a is a real constant.

Negations
The negation of a universal quantification is an existential quantification.

xP( x ) xP ( x )

The negation of an existential quantification is a universal quantification.

xQ(x ) xQ( x )

Method of Proofs

Theorems
A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true.

Proofs
We demonstrate that a theorem is true with a sequence of statements that form an argument, called a
proof.

Axioms and Postulates

Statements used in a proof include axioms and postulates, which are the underlying assumptions about
mathematical structures, the hypotheses of the theorem to be proved, and previously proved theorems.

Lemmas
A lemma is a simple theorem used in the proof of other theorems.

Corollaries
A corollary is a proposition that can be established directly from a theorem that has been proved.

Conjectures
A conjecture is a statement whose truth value is unknown.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 10 Discrete Structures

Remark: When a proof of a conjecture is found, the conjecture becomes a theorem. Many times
conjectures are shown to be false, so they are not theorems.

Rules of inference
The rules of inference, which are the means used to draw conclusions from other assertions, tie
together the steps of a proof.

Rule of Inference Tautology Name

p
p ( p q) Addition
pq
pq
pq p Simplification
p
p
q (( p ) (q )) ( p q ) Conjunction
pq
p
pq ( p ( p q )) q Modus ponens
q
q
pq (q ( p q )) p Modus tollens
p
pq
qr (( p q ) (q r )) ( p r ) Hypothetical syllogism
pr
pq
p (( p q ) p ) q Disjunctive syllogism
q

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 11 Discrete Structures

Examples

I) Show that the hypotheses It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday, We
will go swimming only if it is sunny, If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe
trip, and If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset lead to the conclusion We
will be home by sunset.

Let
p: It is sunny this afternoon
q: It is colder than yesterday
r: We will go swimming
s: We will take a canoe trip
t: We will be home by sunset

Hypotheses
It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday p q
We will go swimming only if it is sunny rp
If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip r s
If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset st

Conclusion
We will be home by sunset t

Step Reason
1. p q Hypothesis
2. p Simplification using Step 1
3. rp Hypothesis
4. r Modus tollens using Steps 2 and 3
5. r s Hypothesis
6. s Modus ponens using Steps 4 and 5
7. st Hypothesis
8. t Modus ponens using Steps 6 and 7

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 12 Discrete Structures

II) Show that the hypotheses If you send me an email message, then I will finish writing the
program, If you do not send me an email message, then I will go to sleep early, and If I go to
sleep early, then I will wake up feeling refreshed lead to the conclusion If I do not finish
writing the program, then I will wake up feeling refreshed.

Let
p: You send me an email message
q: I will finish writing the program
r: I will go to sleep early
s: I will wake up feeling refreshed

Hypotheses
If you send me an email message, then I will finish writing the program pq
If you do not send me an email message, then I will go to sleep early p r
If I go to sleep early, then I will wake up feeling refreshed rs

Conclusion
If I do not finish writing the program, then I will wake up feeling refreshed q s

Step Reason
1. pq Hypothesis
2. q p Contrapositive of Step 1
3. p r Hypothesis
4. q r Hypothetical syllogism using Steps 2 and 3
5. rs Hypothesis
6. q s Hypothetical syllogism using Steps 4 and 5

Fallacies
Some common forms of incorrect reasoning are called fallacies.

I) Fallacy of affirming the conclusion (( p q ) q ) p

((F T ) T ) F is False

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 13 Discrete Structures

Example

p: it is an apple q: it is red.

It is red but it may not be an apple.

II) Fallacy of denying the hypothesis (( p q ) p ) q

((F T ) T ) F is False

Example

p: it is an apple q: it is red.

It is not an apple but it may be red.

III) Circular reasoning ( p p) p

(F F) F is False

Example

p: it is an apple

If it is an apple, then it is an apple is always true, even though it is not an apple.

Rules of Inference for quantified statements

U is the universal of discourse

Rule of Inference Name
xP( x )
P(c ) if c U
Universal instantiation

P(c ) for an arbitrary c U

xP( x )
Universal generalization

xP( x )
P(c ) for some element c U
Existential instantiation

P(c ) for some element c U

xP( x )
Existential generalization

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 14 Discrete Structures

Methods of Proving Theorems

Direct Proof
A proof that the implication p q is true that proceeds by showing that q must be true when p is
true.

Example

Show that if n is odd, then n 2 is odd.

Suppose n is odd. I.e. n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. n 2 = (2k + 1) = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 4k (k + 1) + 1 ,

2

is an odd number.

Indirect Proof
A proof that the implication p q is true that proceeds by showing that p must be false when q is
false.

Example

Show that if n 2 is odd, then n is odd.

Suppose n is even. I.e. n = 2k for some integer k. n 2 = (2k ) = 4k 2 , is an even number.

2

Vacuous Proof
A proof that the implication p q is the based on the fact that p is false.

Example

Show that if 3 > 5 , then 5 > 9 .

Since 3 > 5 is false, the statement if 3 > 5 , then 5 > 9 is true.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 15 Discrete Structures

Trivial Proof
A proof that the implication p q is true based on the fact that q is true.

Example

Show that if 5 > 3 , then 9 > 5 .

Since 9 > 5 is always true, the statement if 5 > 3 , then 9 > 5 is true.

Proof by Contradiction
A proof that a proposition p is true based on the truth of the implication p q where q is a
contradiction

Example

Show that the sum of 2m + 1 and 2n 1 is even.

Assume the sum of 2m + 1 and 2n 1 is odd. 2(m + n ) , a multiple of 2, is odd. This is a

contradiction.

Proof by Cases
A proof of an implication where the hypothesis is a disjunction of propositions that shows that each
hypothesis separately implies the conclusion

Example
Show that if n > 3 or n < 2 , then n 2 n 6 > 0 .

Case 1 Suppose n > 3 . n 2 n 6 = (n 3)(n + 2) > (3 3)(3 + 2) = 0 .

Case 2 Suppose n < 2 . n 2 > 4 . n 2 n 6 > 4 ( 2) 6 = 0 .
Therefore, if n > 3 or n < 2 , then n 2 n 6 > 0 .

Existence Proofs
A proof of a proposition of the form xP(x ) is called an existence proof.

Constructive Existence Proofs

An existence proof of xP(x ) given by finding an element a such that P (a ) is true is called a
constructive existence proof.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 16 Discrete Structures

Example

Show that there exists an irrational number between any two rational numbers.

Let and be two rational numbers. With loss of generality, we may assume < . Let
1
= . Clearly, is also a rational number and =1> > 0 < + < .
2 2

Nonconstructive Existence Proofs

An existence proof of xP(x ) given by not finding an element a such that P (a ) is true is called a
nonconstructive existence proof.

Example

Show that for every positive integer n there is a prime greater than n.

Let n be a positive integer. To show there is a prime greater than n, we may consider the integer
n!+1 . One possibility is that n!+1 is already prime. Otherwise, n!+1 is divisible by a prime
number. Clearly, n!+1 is not divisible by any number less than or equal to n. Thus, the prime
factor of n!+1 is greater than n.

Counterexample
Suppose a statement of the form xP( x ) is false. We find an element a such that P (a ) is false.
I.e. xP ( x ) is true. The element a for which P (a ) is false is called a counterexample.

Example

Show that 3n + 1 is odd for all integers n is false.

For n = 3 , 3(3) + 1 = 10 is even. Therefore, 3n + 1 is odd for all integers n is false.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 17 Discrete Structures

Mathematical Induction

To use prove that a statement is true for all natural numbers n by mathematical induction, we have the
following three steps:

1. To prove the statement is true for the first (few) case(s).

2. To assume the statement is true for n k for some k.
3. With the induction hypothesis in step 2, to prove the statement is true for n = k + 1 .

Example

I) Eulers Formula

If G is a connected plane graph, then v + f = + 2 where v, f and e are the numbers of vertices,
faces and edges of G respectively.

The formula can be shown by induction on the number of faces of G. If f = 1 , then edge of G is a
cut edge (a bridge) of G and so G is a tree. In this case, v = + 1 , and so the theorem holds. We
may suppose that the theorem holds for all connected plane graphs with f k , and consider a
connected plane graph G having k + 1 faces. Since G has more than one face, there should be an
edge e in G that is separating two faces. By taking away e from G, we may obtain G e with
v(G e ) = v(G ) , f (G e ) = f (G ) 1 and (G e ) = (G ) 1 . Then
v(G e ) + f (G e ) = (G e ) + 2 , and so v(G ) + f (G ) = (G ) + 2 .

IIa) Four Colour Theorem

Any map can be coloured using no more than 4 colours.

Remark: Any map can be represented by a simple connected plane graph.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan
MATH 1130 18 Discrete Structures

IIb) Five Colour Theorem

This theorem can be proved by induction on the number of vertices of G. If v 5 , the theorem
holds. Suppose the theorem holds for all graphs of v k and consider a graph G of k + 1
vertices. From Eulers formula, we may deduce that the minimum degree of G (any plane
graph), (G ) , is less than or equal to 5. Choose a vertex u in G of the minimum degree. In
the case d (u ) 4 , G u is a graph of k vertices. By the induction hypothesis, G u can be
coloured with five colours, and so we may add u back and put on u a colour which is not on the
adjacent vertices of u. In the case d (u ) = 5 , there should be two adjacent vertices, s and t, of u
which are not adjacent. It is because the 5-complete graph is not planar. Then we may merge s

and t to form G u | s ,t of k 1 vertices. Clearly, G u | s ,t is 5-colourable by the induction

hypothesis, and the any colourings on G u | s ,t are also valid on G u with s and t of the same

colour. Thus, on any colourings of G u , there are at most four colours on the adjacent
vertices of u in G. Then we may put on u the a colour other than those on its adjacent vertices.

Reference: K.H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2003. Daricks Chan