On Poetic Truth

Royal Institute of Philosophy
On Poetic Truth
Author(s): H. D. Lewis
Source: Philosophy, Vol. 21, No. 79 (Jul., 1946), pp. 147-166
Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of Royal Institute of Philosophy
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ON POETIC TRUTHI
H. D. LEWIS, M.A., B.Litt.
Reason has moons, but moons not hers

Lie mirror'd on her sea,
Confounding her astronomers,
But, O! delighting me.
RALPH HODGSON.
POETRY has to do with reality in its most individual aspect

thus at the opposite pole to science, and out of its reach. Studie
The Road to Xanadu,2 highly valuable though they may be i
way, do not help us in any measure to understand what poe
itself is; nor do they heighten substantially our appreciati
poetry. This may seem rather obvious, but it is not in fact idle t
it. For our thought is apt to be unduly coloured to-day by the
gress of science, and some of the votaries of science are pro
regard it, in the Biblical phrase, as 'profitable unto all things.'
are less naive to-day than their prototypes a century ago, and t
have a subtler psychology at their disposal when they turn t
But their view is no less pernicious for that reason. Science has
certain limits, and we only bring it into contempt by forcing
it a forlorn and unnatural enterprise beyond its own terrain. S
scientists, and they include eminent persons like Julian Hu
have made that mistake in regard to our ideas of right and wro
and have endeavoured to develop a science of ethics. It is not to
purpose here to expose the confusions involved in this part
act of aggression on the part of science. 3 Science has nothing to
the final analysis, with our ideas of right and wrong. And it is
true, quite apart from ultimate questions about the meani
value, that we cannot give a scientific analysis of art. Scienc
indeed help us to understand matters incidental to the purs
artistic activities. Harmonics will tell us a great deal that b
upon music, the chemist can instruct us in useful ways about p
the psychologist can tell us much that is of interest about the m
processes and states of the artist and his audience, but the essen
thing which is music or painting can never be taught or describ
I A lecture delivered to the Poetry Society at University College, Ba
2 A detailed study of Coleridge's "Kubla Khan" in terms of the poet
perience and reading.-J. Livingstone Lawes.
3 The matter is very fully discussed by C. D. Broad in Mind, October
PP. 344-357.
I47
PHILOSOPHY
this way. In its essentials every art is as far

thinking, and as far out of the reach of a
possible for any experience of self-conscious
This is because art has to do with reality
crete. That is not all that we can say abou
unit or atom, cut loose from the universe, h
scientist, the philosopher, or the poet. It der
the reality to which it belongs. But this ma
more ways than one. One way is that of the
me will have little significance for any of us
Indeed, I could not be aware of it as a tabl
deal besides looking at the colour. To see t
spective, for example, we require to draw
experiences that are past. All that we see an
in this way and becomes a coherent world in
intelligence and foresight although the actu
is made, taken in separation from one anoth
a chaos rather than a world of things wh
control. It is the function of science to com
of facts, both for the sake of completer kn
and to enhance the control we have to exercise over our environment.
The scientist can tell me much about the table which I cannot know
from ordinary observation. But however exhaustive information of
this kind may be there is something which it does not cover, and that
is the particularity of this table here and now in this room. The table
cannot be reduced, as has sometimes been supposed, into a collection
of universal qualities. There is something 'given,' a matter of fact,
particulars, irreducible data with which explanation ends. This is
apt to disconcert us because it sets so definite a limit to the strictly
rational operations of the intellect. And some have succumbed to the
temptation of representing the reality of various things in terms of
their relation to other things and the rules which determine these
relations, reducing an object to what we know about it and can
describe. One celebrated thinker in the last century, namely T. H.
Green, regarded the universe as a 'system of all-inclusive relations.'
But this will not really do. The particular, the given, refuses to be
conjured away. It remains a stubborn, disconcerting factor of
experience.
This is not the only reason for the limitations of science. For the
nearer we get to living realities the harder it is to attain scientific
precision. An organism seems to respond as a whole and thereby reacts
on its environment in a way which cannot be described by mecha-
nistic rules. Its own nature enters more completely into the events of
its own life, and this self-determination, the taking up of our environ-
ment into ourselves, is very extensive in the experience of self-
148
ON POETIC TRUTH
conscious or thinking beings. This is one

strictly speaking be a science of society, and
describe psychology as a mental science. But
importance for our purpose is that there
think of it as animate or inanimate, human
of individuality at which every form of r
short.
II
What has this to do with poetry? I shall

want first to take note of one thinker, in s
there has been, who took a very bold course
individual. He was Plato. For Plato the on
is exemplified best for us in the principles
of our lives should be to draw ourselves a
from the unsubstantial fluctuating facts of
establish some communion with the abid
which are apprehended by thought and
source of Plato's asceticism. We must so disc
tites that the soul may disentangle itself fro
and rise, in his own notable comparison,'
of the sea, into the realm of limpid unre
resisting in the sense that the mind can
completely, understand without remainder.
which we can ever be wholly successful,
world where we can never shuffle off our m
conditions. For the grip by which abstrac
by which our thought is enabled to pass from
as in a system of geometry, presupposes som
be itself explained in that way, and whos
cerned by a noesis, a glimpse or intuition. B
a vision of some condition of abstract pri
the culmination of a long and arduous strug
tion with the world of the senses and accustom ourselves to abstract
thought, the 'silent communion of the soul with itself.' In that rare-
fied atmosphere, we come to our own, we encounter what is most
'familiar' in the sense that it is akin to our own minds, and we are
thus no longer at the mercy of the alien unmanageable facts which
enslave and bewilder the majority of men. This striking, if, as it may
also appear when presented without equivocation, rather extravagant
view, has many features which cannot be properly exhibited in a brief
I Republic, 6II.
2 It makes little difference here that they are also thought of as entities or
things.
I49
PHILOSOPHY
reference; its ramifications in the spheres of

religion, are very extensive. But it must suff
missal of the individual and particular fact
importance in themselves. At best they c
diagrams by which we direct our thought
discursive intelligence, much as the triangle
us to discover and explain geometrical tru
'in itself.' This was carried by Plato to the
the observations by which scientific hypothe
various fields; and thus, although he can
that leaders of society require an extensive t
has to be understood in a highly specializ
hardly win the approval of the scientist to-d
may, as in the case of Adams and Leverri
into existence,' the calculation is the result
Whitehead is the thinker of to-day who
nearly resembling that of Plato, and I do
lation will quite yield the results he expects,
may be as a factor in scientific procedure. A
get very far with the counsel that Plato give
passage:
"These ornaments of the heavens, since they adorn a visible sky,
should be thought to be the most beautiful and to have the mos
perfect nature amongst visible things, but to fall far short of those
true adornments, those movements wherewith pure velocity and
pure retardation, in true number and in all true figures, are moved
in relation to each other, and wherewith they also move that which is
within them, which matters are to be apprehended by reason and
understanding, but not by sight.... Then we must use the adorn-
ments of heaven as models in our study.... But in respect to th
relations of night and day, of days and months, and months and
years, and of the other stars to sun and moon and to each other, do
you not think that he (the philosopher) will regard with astonish
ment the man who considers that these objects, bodily and visible as
they are, are ever invariable and never decline from their courses, and
will think it absurd to make enormous efforts to apprehend the truth
of these matters? . . . Astronomy, then, like geometry, we shall
pursue by the help of problems, and leave the starry heavens alone;
if we hope truly to apprehend it, and turn the natural intelligence of
the soul from uselessness to use."'
I Republic 529, Lindsay's translation, Everyman Edition, p. 255. The

student who is introduced to the Republic mainly through Nettleship's Lectures
on the Republic of Plato-a work that is little likely to lose its value for the
purpose-is apt to be misled at this point. For Nettleship represents Plato
as merely insisting on the need for an "interpretation of sense" (p. 276).
I50
ON POETIC TRUTH
This shows very clearly the extent to wh

to go in dispensing with any observation of
to-day is concerned with particular facts o
far as they exhibit or confirm his general ru
established by its conformity with facts. T
scientist has in mind when he prides himself
But Plato would describe himself as a realist i
namely in the sense that it is by breaking aw
facts that we make genuine contact with reali
The bearing of this on our problem will beg
we note next the sweeping condemnation of t
particular, which we find in the dialogues
some wholly mysterious aberration of a m
blind spot not capable of explanation in a nor
and deliberate, an integral part of the thin
were never allowed to settle in stagnant p
partments in Plato's philosophy; on the co
unified to a fault. Neither could we ascribe his view of the arts to
aesthetic insensibility. That is the least plausible of all suggestions.
For the literary excellence of Plato himself is as notable as his
power of thought. He was born into a civilization that accorded to
the poet a pride of place in education and culture. Homer and
Hesiod were especially revered, they were the scriptures, the holy
writ, by which the character and outlook of the young Athenian
were shaped. They were taught with a remarkable thoroughness
which does not seem to have detracted at all from the enjoyment
they continued to afford, an achievement which would repay closer
attention, I am sure, by the educationist to-day, for its secret, if it
can be discovered,' will take him a long way towards the solution of
what may well be regarded as the greatest intrinsic problem in
education. And Plato, being favoured by fortune in his circum-
stances as in his natural endowment, had the full benefit of this
training. He knew the poets of Greece, and their spell is unmis-
On this view all that Plato wishes to deny is that "we ever get at the truth
of astronomy by simply looking" (page 272). But this is only one of many
cases where exponents of Plato have endeavoured to make his view more
acceptable by representing him as exaggerating for effect. If we blur the
dualism of Plato we miss his intention entirely and fail to appreciate the
precise nature, and the importance for Plato, of logical considerations upon
which his view was based quite as much as upon the analysis of perception.
The more we study the movement of Plato's thought as a whole the more
evident also will be the completer rationalism of his final views. Nettleship,
as is usual with 'idealist' expounders of great philosophers, is somewhat prone
to interpret Plato in the light of his own idealism.
I We have to remember, of course, that there was little else for the Greek
to be educated upon.
I5I
PHILOSOPHY
takably upon him in all his writings. Ridicu

it; it is more subtle than the 'slyness' of
evident in the very tone and temper of the
art, to say nothing of the apt and discrimin
the dialogues abound. The artistry of Plat
evident to the most cursory reader. In rang
his peers are not many. The skilful opening,
it lightly touches on the matters that se
dialogue, the play of light and shade, the de
by a few deft strokes, the apt word and th
memorable simile and the sheer triumph of
myth and allegory, this, and much else, and
impression that is always conveyed of a m
borne himself by his art, this reveals that
by which the very structure of literature it
seems too extravagant for Plato the literary
who would expurgate Homer out of recog
all music except the very simplest notes o
instructs aspiring young men to cast aside p
other childish things, on reaching maturity
below the statesman and the soldier' and
usurper and tyrant enslaved by his own
well as by his bodyguard. It is he, at the clo
adds the final touch to the ideal city whic
cunning and care by firmly, all the more f
wistfully, turning the poets away as ones w
drawing the 'pattern that is laid up in heave
"Let it, then, be our defence now that w
subject of poetry, that it was only to be
expel poetry from the city, such being h
compelled us. And let us tell her also, in cas
brutality and boorishness, that there is an
philosophy and poetry. Phrases like 'the b
yelps,' 'the yelping hound that in assembl
head,' 'the conquering rabble of the over-
'the men of subtle thought are beggars a
signs of this ancient antagonism.... We ar
she exercises upon us. Only to betray the tr
impicus. ... As men who have loved but have
that their love is unprofitable, though it
turn away; so likewise, though by reason of
that out nurture in beautiful constitutions has bred in us we shall be
glad of any manifestation of her goodness and truth, yet until she
is able to defend herself, we will not listen to her without repeating to
Phaedrus 248.
152
ON POETIC TRUTH
ourselves as a charm this argument of ours

fear of falling again into that childish love
the many."I
So the poets leave. Was there ever a problem that could perplex
more the student of literature, has the paradox a rival in the history
of great thinking? I doubt it, and I doubt even more whether there
is any more instructive.
III
Instructive? Now why? Let us first dispose of some fairly inci

dental matters to which undue weight has often been attached
Firstly, as I have said, the Greeks took their poets very seriously
and not altogether with the right kind of seriousness. The poet was
for them, inspired, not in the sense we would nowadays give to the
term, but more in the sense in which devout persons used to believe
in the literal inspiration of the Bible. God spoke in the words of th
poets as he spoke to the Hebrew by the mouth of his prophets. And
this has obvious dangers, for it carries with it a conviction of very
immediate, if not of literal, infallibility, an attitude that could not
fail to be confusing, and sometimes also ludicrous and mischievou
in practice. And this was undoubtedly happening in a real and
serious measure in Greece. Plato was aware of the danger. He als
understood well the moral and political dangers that lurked in th
excessive excitability of the Greek temperament. There are many
passages in the dialogues which represent the poet as the purveyo
of excitement, as one who was made to pander to a licentious an
enervating emotionalism. And when we remember this we may b
tempted to conclude, as many have in fact done,2 that Plato was
opposing, in somewhat extravagant and misleading fashion, no
poetry in itself but a particular misguided view of the function of
poetry. That will not, I think, really hold. When we have made the
fullest allowances for the' circumstances in which he wrote, including
the deliberate use of poetry for mystification by the sophists, the
condemnation of poetry in the Republic and other dialogues remains
Republic 607-608, Everyman Edition, page 353.

Among the most interesting and scholarly attempts to substantiate this
view is that of R. G. Collingwood ("Plato's Philosophy of Art," Mind, April
1925). He does not ascribe to Plato "the puritanical moralist's objection t
art as such" (p. I69). The purpose of Plato, according to Collingwood, is to
show, on the one hand, "that art is not knowledge" and "cannot be praised
for its truth," but that, on the other, it is "symbolic of philosophical truth"
(p. 163). Plato, it is urged, is in this way bringing out the true function of ar
And that is where I cannot accept Collingwood's view. For while it is con-
tended in the present paper (see below, Section IV.) that art does expres
truth symbolically, what it does symbolize, on our view, is an aspect of realit
I53
PHILOSOPHY
far too consistent and direct to be a kind of inverted defence of

poetry, or a case of exaggerating for effect. This matter would tak
long to debate thoroughly, and many pens have, in fact, been kept
busy upon it, but I have little doubt that Plato really and con-
sistently considered poetry and all other forms of fine art to be de
basing and mischievous, an excuse for shallow sensibility, the no
talgic indulgence of an effete and unhealthy mind. And this attitud
is, I think, integral to the philosophy of Plato, his genius compelled
him to carry his point unswervingly to a conclusion so little respec
able (much less so, for example, to the Greek than the communism
of wives and property) that a lesser mind would certainly have cast
about for a means to avoid it. It was the penalty of genius to pa
the price of a principle without remission. I suspect it cost Plat
more than we think. In that case the deeper are we in his debt; we
learn so much more from him because he could not prevaricate.
What do we learn? Just this; that poetry has to do with reality in
that concrete and individual aspect of it which the mind can never
tackle altogether on its own terms, with matter that is foreign and
alien in a way in which abstract systems, ideas in which we detect
inherent pattern, a structure that belongs to the ideas themselves,
can never be. It is never familiar to us in the way in which Pla
wished the conquests of the mind to be familiar. On the contrar
its function, the salve which it brings to mankind, the need which
it meets and which has to be met in some way in every age that is
not to become decadent or barbarous is precisely this contact wit
reality as it impinges upon us from outside, the sense that we ca
touch and feel a solid reality which does not wholly dissolve itself in
other than that which can be comprehended intellectually. (Is not this the
only kind of symbolism that has importance?) On the view that is, rightly
believe, ascribed to Plato by Collingwood, art would have only very lo
value. It would do imperfectly what is done better by the strictly intellectu
operations of mind. And this, as I take it, is just what Plato does say. Art is
propaedeutic to knowledge; and it is to be encouraged only within the stricte
limits and dispensed with on reaching intellectual maturity. One finds it ha
to see how this could yield the conclusion that Collingwood expects of it,
namely that the quarrel between philosophy and poetry is that of "rivals
for the supreme allegiance of mankind" (p. I70). It may be true that Plato
"felt within himself a real conflict between the claims of his literary geniu
and those of his philosophical" (p. 170), but that is not how he himself unde
stood the incompatibility of art and philosophy. The quarrel originates pre
cisely where art makes a claim, quite preposterous on Plato's view of it
to be a serious rival to philosophy for our allegiance, and hinders the work
of philosophy. The very tone of the relevant passages in the Republic fully
bears this out, and I am sure we cannot get a true view of Plato's thought as
a whole unless we take his condemnation of poetry and the arts quite seriousl
The student who wishes to pursue this matter closely will find a valuabl
guide to the relevant passages of Plato's Dialogues in "Plato and the Poets,'"
G. A. Hight, Mind, 1922.
I54
ON POETIC TRUTH
the conceptions of our own minds. It is the

that does this. And the wonder and myst
religion in the last resort, is the revelatio
other' by which the inexpressible loneline
and enriched. To know facts as facts in the o
no particular power or worth. But a quicken
the irrevocability by which a thing is what
it is, I believe, the very soul of art. What
its purpose is to make us see things as w
before, see the familiar for the first time; and thus there are no
exclusively poetical or artistic subjects, anything may be a proper
subject for a poem or a painting or a song. This has often been
urged, but rarely, I fear, for the real reason; at best it is usually a
vague empirical generalization. But the real reason is just this, that
any device which makes us see any kind of object, in the material
or mental sphere, with a sense of wonder that it should be this and
not that, is an artistic achievement.I This is why we use the word
creation. All things are made new in art, they are made for the
first time, they count for their own sake instead of being pointers
by which we move about in our own orbit. This may refer to a
specific object that we know or to an imaginary one. The choice
is at bottom immaterial. What matters is that the sense of some
otherness in reality should be stirred. But this is obviously easier
when our attention is turned to the unfamiliar, to events in a remote
past, to fairyland and eldorado. It is the same awareness that we
have when there is a sudden fall of soft snow. There is a feeling of
wonder, an inexpressible delight in being alive when we first turn
out into the new snow. The sense of the unfamiliar is not, I believe,
all that we can say about beauty in nature or in art. To that I shall
turn again in a moment. But it is essential. The light in a picture
must be the 'light that never was on land or sea,' for it must make
us see what we could not normally see, not necessarily, or indeed
usually, by superimposing something on the ordinary scene, but by
making us aware of the familiar as we are not normally aware.
There must be a miracle. Whereas we were blind we now see, and the
miracle is greatest although not always in its ultimate consequence
the most sublime, when it evokes this new awareness in an ordinary
context-so much so as almost to frighten us.
But no fact is a bare fact, no individual is a universe in itself,
and just as it is the function of the scientist to exhibit to us the
abstract rational connection of things, the necessities which our
mind can follow and understand, so the artist exhibits affinities in
I I believe that this is what Gerard Manley Hopkins really means by
'inscape' notwithstanding the Platonism that colours his account of it. For
an excellent discussion of the 'topic' see Gerard Manley Hopkins-John Pick.
I55
PHILOSOPHY
the actual structure of objects by which the

and enhanced. All facts have 'ragged edge
it. They are torn out of some context, an
wholly those which science or philosophy s
bility of seeing things, even the humdrum
goes surety for the supreme worth of the
derive, and there are relations of things, h
worth of the whole articulates itself with g
we have to be careful here, for we must
that every individual reality is potentially p
to the harmonies to which a completer si
easy to determine, although I am certain tha
Neither is it possible to add much about the
belongs to some artistic contexts,' and w
speak of suitable poetic themes provided we
such themes with a special kind of context
fact as we ordinarily know it. Even if it pro
I doubt it, we could not embark on this fur
at our disposal. What I desire to stress is th
in the individuality of objects and discov
from the apprehension of rational conn
philosophers in the last century provided
this when they spoke of a 'concrete univers
the fullest justice.to this important concept
to think of the unity concerned as a rat
principle, of being understood through an
relate it sufficiently to the awareness we h
upon us, although some who were of tha
the awareness of this character of reality in
IV
To reveal this otherness of reality and t

matters most is the function of the artist. The result is not achieved
in any way resembling the deliberate procedures of science. For the
artist is dealing with matter that he never subdues. There are no
directions to be given, no rules or formulae by which his real work
can be done. Some study of technique is, indeed, possible. We can
distinguish the different forms of art, and within an art such as
poetry distinguish one mode from the other. This is also normally
1 The general question of the objectivity of value does not come within
the scope of this paper.
2 If I understand aright this is what Berdyaev means when he urges that
"Unity in reality does not resemble unity in thought" (Slavery and Freedom,
P. 75).
156
ON POETIC TRUTH
helpful to the poet, especially by making him

forms or media upon which his genius may ex
ledge of this kind will never take him very
reader much appreciation of poetry. We may
and miss its essence. It is much more importa
familiarize himself with what has been finely
cerning himself with such factual matters as
the media for what they are. But the trick mu
the miracle must be accomplished, in a way th
or anticipated, and it sometimes happens wher
technical equipment or analytical knowledge o
hits on the right symbol, some way of arrangi
words in a way that makes the real nature of
our mind. And this is what we mean when we
tially symbolic. It does not describe or analyse
in the strict sense. Method only concerns the
exhibition of conditions in which the mirac
the conditions are never exhaustive, they will
themselves. We must walk in ways that are ha
we may be lucky, but it is luck, or, if a m
preferred, grace. Vision is vouchsafed to us,
within some limits, when it may happen, w
certain kind of diligence will help, in particul
the continuous attention to what has been f
We must continue to look at pictures or to re
with ever finer perception how excellent th
should be so we can never say, the most that
tinct from just having the awareness of beauty
that are really incidental to artistic awaren
described or explained is not art.
This is why an artist who sets out to comp
notion of what his achievement is to be and how it can be accom-
plished, whose heart is not constantly a-flutter with the fear of
failure, stands little chance of success. A true poet or a novelist may
indeed know much about the incidentals of the course he propose
to follow, but unless there is ample room for him to take himself by
surprise the prospects are bleak. What his art will be really and
truly as art he cannot know until it is accomplished. In some rar
matters it may even be accomplished before he turns to the techni-
calities, but that will only be in a very specialized sense. The
technicalities in that case will be the equivalent of the treatment a
craftsman may give to a work of art, making the materials serv
more completely the purpose which the artist has already indicated
with precision. In any sense in which it is a part of the artistic
achievement the material has to be chosen and formed with renewed
I57
PHILOSOPHY
artistic insight at every stage. That is why

is often unutterably tragic. For 'tasks in
cannot here be 'in hours of gloom fulfille
again that the artist is not to be saved by 'w
special kind of artistic perseverance, namely
of great art, which is usually helpful. In all e
as in religion if the matter be properly u
rare among theologians. And the mistake wh
have made is to seek to direct and canalize t
wholly incompatible with its continued spon
only succeed so long as he continues to be h
quicken an awareness of some otherness in
express in the ordinary conventions of langu
be expressed at all in the usual sense, but on
An obvious form which suggestion of th
comparison, in the simile, or image. What we
in relation to something else, something lik
Consider a line from one of the much malig
"And when the downy twilight droops h
The comparison deepens the impression of a

which the poet is anxious to convey. Pers
effect. These are fairly obvious examples of
its forms consists in drawing some kind of
affinities by which objects become vivid for
ficance which cannot be reduced to rational terms.
The moral of this view for the artist himself has already been
drawn. He goes sadly astray if his artistic activities are made to
conform to some purpose or rule independently conceived. The
temptation to rationalize art in this way is greatest in literature,
where, as in the case of didactic poems, principles that are deemed
to have much importance in themselves, especially in the sphere of
morals or politics or religion are thought to acquire a further lustre
by having an artistic form imposed upon them. But that, in fact,
is precisely what we cannot accomplish. An idea has no importance
for the artist as such outside his work of art. It does not bring any
capital of its own to invest in an artistic undertaking. The soundness
or impressiveness of the ideas expressed in a poem, are irrelevant to
its merit. But that is not, perhaps, the best way of putting the matter.
The truth is that the rough distinction we make for some purposes
between form and content in art is apt to be more misleading than
helpful.2 The unity of artistic creation precludes any separation of
I Brumana, James Elroy Flecker.
2 It is also very misleading to identify the form with the sounds of the
words alone. Artistic relations of sounds that do not depend in any measure
158
ON POETIC TRUTH
its elements. What the poet has to say, in ot

he seems to say on the surface, not the mea
work if we considered it as philosophy or sc
of this meaning in a special way, a fusion of
ing something which could not be put in
stitutes the truth of a poem, poetry is i
veridical; 'Truth is beauty and beauty is
work of art it is a revelation of reality. But
concluding that a poem expresses ideas w
true. That is not its purpose. And when p
their genius as to endeavour to be philosoph
time they have invariably failed, as they we
works by a discernment of his own, not b
synthesis. When he borrows philosophical id
some instances of a successful appropriation
are important for the poem only in so far a
muted by the poet's art and become elem
presses symbolically something quite oth
selves. This happens very rarely, for close a
the philosophical principle or system predete
poem too rigidly to allow sufficient spontane
independent artistic pattern. Dante seems
to the extent of presenting an argument in
argument in itself that matters in such poem
itself nor the importance of the conclusion
the slightest account. It has value in the p
a part of a whole whose value is quite in
theoretical truth. As Eliot very properly obs
has behind him the 'exact intellectual system
we may record, Eliot has a special regard,
greater poet than Shakespeare or "mean
from Dante than Shakespeare."2 The most
believe Eliot ought to emphasize this more,
on overt meaning are music and not poetry. There

has no syntactical form that we can recognize to-
it must come very near being music rather than poe
other hand, overt meaning plays much the most
provides an obvious example, but it has to be str
succeeds as a poet, not because of the truth or im
in themselves, but because-to draw a distinction
too closely-he is doing with thoughts what Tennyson does with words.
Whether there can be poetry of thought alone, a bringing together of thoughts
that stirs the peculiar awareness which is art independently of the sounds
of words is an interesting but extremely difficult question.
1 The supreme example in recent times is Bridges in the Testament of Beauty.
2 "Shakespeare and the Stoicism of Seneca," Elizabethan Essays, p. 47.
I59
PHILOSOPHY
bility of Dante is all the more remarkable

successfully with material so full of induceme
his proper business.
V
The long course of literary activity is strewn with the wreckages

of artists lured to their doom by the siren songs of intellectual truth.
But this is not the only moral of our view.
Let it be clear, firstly, that it is not the poets themselves that stand
in most need of our warning. We must ourselves be sure that we allow
the poet to be about his own business. Consider the lines:
From too much love of living
From hope and fear set free,
We thank with brief thanksgiving
Whatever gods there be,
That no life lives for ever,
That dead men rise up never,
That even the weariest river
Winds somewhere safe to sea.
This is from Swinburne's The Garden of Proserpine, a po

which Swinburne appears to good advantage. Swinburne is
out of fashion at the moment, but I have no doubt that he will
recover his position, if not in the first rank of English poets, then
only a little below it. But most of us would be little inclined to en-
dorse the view that these lines appear to express. Similarly the poem
Hymn to Proserpine with the sub-title Vicisti Galiloee, a remarkable
poem little known nowadays, I fear, for anything other than its titles
and a famous line, might seem to have little to commend it to a
Christian. Is it not a complete distortion of religious truth? But
questions of this kind only arise on a very superficial view. The poet
is not advancing a theory or rational belief. He is enabling us to see
something which we could not otherwise see. And the meaning of the
poem as a poem is very different from what it may seem, on the face
of it, to tell us. As such it cannot lead us astray. It can only seem to
do so if we seek to distil the meaning out of the poem to be judged
by ordinary canons of truth. What was said could only be said as the
poet has said it.
Incidentally if we consider the matter closely, if we let ourselves
come sufficiently under the spell of their poems to read them aright,
we are certain to be struck by the affinity between the apparent
paganism of a Swinburne or a Housman or an Omar and the infinite
yearning that is found in notable hymns and other great religious
poems. This will in turn incline us to take a more cautious view of
the contempt of earthly things which we may also encounter in
religious poetry and prose. Hymns have often been subjected to
I6o
ON POETIC TRUTH
foolish and undiscering comment by those

what a hymn tries to be.
Unless these matters be borne in mind w
falling into much sophistication that will ser
and which, if we were to carry it out with c
would lead to such drastic pruning of our lit
survive.
The extraction of a meaning from a poem and appraisement of it
by rational standards of truth has mainly been due to enthusiasm
for moral or religious truth. But that is not usual to-day. Politics is
our culprit, not merely in totalitarian countries where all activities
are made to sub-serve a political end but also in democratic coun-
tries. Literature of the 'left' in particular is prone to regard con-
formity with certain social principles as a condition of artistic ex-
cellence. The viciousness of this procedure has, however, been
obscured for a reason on which our theory has a close bearing. The
'left-winger' is apt to pride himself on being a realist, and realism in
the sense that is proper to political thinking has some features in
common with the realism which we have found to be the secret of
genuine art. This applies especially to the interest in facts as they
really are and not as they present themselves under the rosy hues
of wishful thinking or distorted by prejudice. Art of the 'left' has
thereby been saved from much that is dilettante and artificial. But
the gain is won at far too great a cost if it perpetuates the substitu-
tion of a spurious realism, spurious, that is, so far as art is concerned,
for the integrity that is proper to the artist and the peculiar contact
with reality that he can establish. The eventual result will be all the
more ruinous to the proper work of the poet.
We have not here, however, the temptation that besets the poet
with most subtlety to-day. He is more likely to succumb to the preva-
lent preoccupation with 'form.' And here it must be said with em-
phasis that our view in no way minimizes the importance of content.
It would be fantastic to suggest that the overt meaning, that which
we have described as what the poem seems to say, contributes little
to the artistic significance and merit of a poem. We merely protest
against the abstraction of this content from the whole and appraise-
ment of it by other than aesthetic standards. The 'something said'
is important, but it is important for the poem only in so far as the
saying of that particular something in a special way is a revelation
of reality in the peculiar way we have noted. But it also follows that
the form derives its significance from the whole. This is much over-
looked to-day among poets and critics alike. And the reason is not
hard to discover. So much has been accomplished in the past, so many
possibilities have been exhausted, that the need for novelty is both
greater and harder to meet. This stimulates experimentation with
L I6I
PHILOSOPHY
new forms, and the impression is thereby l

forms distinct and complete in themselv
covered, waiting in some dim hinterland
appropriates them. But this is a complete
indeed few forms and the future may prese
richness of them. But they do not hang on
like a suit of ready made clothes. Form has
relation to the reality that is being revealed
colours may be pleasing in themselves, and
may attract in themselves. But this is not b
even where the sensuous attractiveness is ve
bright colours.I The poet must see what has
what cannot be expressed in any other wa
symbols which also make it possible for him
fore, no artistic forms unrelated to new per
is idle to strive after new developments in
into new bottles. The wine must also be new.
Warning may be entered here also against the foolish but prevalent
belief that, if art is realistic, it must cling very closely to objects as
we normally see them. That is precisely what art cannot do. The
genuine artist is never 'true to life,' for he is not living normally in
moments of artistic creation. He sees what is real, but not as we are
normally aware of it. Neither will his feelings be normal, nor those
of the characters whom he may describe. The rages or the sorrows in
which he traffics, and the moods by which the dramatis personae of
his world are shaken, are not those we normally experience in situa-
tions which outwardly resemble those which the artist may portray.
Normally, if we are to avoid sentimentality, our feelings, even feel-
ings of deep joy or sorrow, will be subdued. We do not go storming
through life like actors in a play. Neither Lear nor Hamlet nor any
other great Shakespearean character has a place in real life. But art
is never real life. It is life and it is real, supremely real, but it is both
these at a new power. The poet sees with a poignancy and penetration
that is altogether unique, and that is precisely what Plato failed t
see when he accused Homer and other poets2 of ascribing to great
men feelings and reactions which we would not, in fact, consider
proper in 'real life.' It does not follow that emotion, in so far as it
enters into art, must always be exaggerated or distorted. It is
irrelevant whether it is so or not. What matters is that the poet must
be true to his art and not 'true to life,' whether his art be simple or
complex, violent or subdued.
I It may be objected here that there are good pictures which seem to be
nothing but a riot of colours (e.g. some of S. J. Peploe's work). But then th
presentation of these colours is deeply significant although they have no
obviously recognizable pattern. 2 See Republic 386-39I.
I62
ON POETIC TRUTH
This brings us to two further matters. L

paper about emotion. But emotion is usu
centre of aesthetic experience. That, howe
appears to me. If I am right, the essence o
kind into reality. But such insight is bo
remarkable emotions. Emotions also heig
ness. But emotion itself is not art. Neither is it the business of the
artist (as is so often urged)I to express emotion. The emotion is
derivative and secondary. Its significance depends on the object by
which it is aroused. It is the revelation that matters, although the
revelation will possess us body and soul, personality being essentially
a whole. Subjectivist theories of art mistake the concomitants for the
essentials.2 The positivist does not quite accept this subjectivism, and
his theory has also a further feature in common with the view com-
mended here. This is my second point. For the Logical Positivists
whose views have such a wide influence at the present time art is
not the communication of a special meaning. It is rather some kind
of exclamation3 evocative of feeling. That suggestion is, I think, quite
preposterous. But it can be seen what makes it initially attractive if
it be allowed that 'overt meaning,' in the sense indicated above, is
not the meaning of art as art. It is easy to conclude that if a poem
does not depend on its content as such or its apparent meaning, then
it has no meaning. As in many other cases positivism owes its plausi-
bility to a half-truth. But a poem or a picture would be nothing
without some meaning. There could not even be an exclamation
without some specific occasion. The truth then is that meaning,
meaning of a rich and new kind, is the very soul of art, it is an aware-
ness and a communication. But it is no ordinary awareness, no
ordinary communication.
VI
Hence the predicament of modern poetry. The need for novelty is

greater because so much has been notably achieved in the past. The
shock that takes us out of ourselves is harder to induce in an age
I E.g. by Carritt in Theory of Beauty. See especially Chapter Io, p. 272;
also What is Beauty, Chapter 6.
z This goes also for Housman's celebrated dictum: "To transfuse emotion
-not to transmit thought, but to set up in the reader's sense a vibration
corresponding to what was felt by the writer-is the peculiar function of
poetry." The Name and Nature of Poetry, page 12. In view of the very close
affinity of this theory with Expressionism generally it is rather odd that
Listowel, after trouncing the latter very thoroughly (in "The Present State of
Aesthetics," Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, I934-35, p. II9) should
approve so heartily of Housman's theory (op. cit., p. 203).
3 See Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, Chapter VI.
163
PHILOSOPHY
when clever schoolboys can imitate their ant

facility. Poetry is too hard for us because i
easy. Originally it may well have sufficed t
The charm of the early poets depends in
ourselves into the conditions of their time
ances had the magic that belongs to the f
That anyone should think of saying 'the gr
ulterior purpose might put us into touch w
if it had not already been done. And the
much has been done. To imitate the past is
come to our originals. To seek the style of
Wordsworth is immediately to be senten
was the mistake of the Georgian poets. Th
ments of the past to a fine flower of perfec
generally allowed, but poetry in the Georgi
its capital. And that is always fatal. For in
immediately if it is not sunk in new ventur
now. But we must not for that reason be un
For it is only when the past is most alive in
break most completely with the past. Bu
adventure, and it is very hard to-day to fin
poets seek newness by a very great simplici
fice where we are most given to expect
success, but the course they have taken
dangers, for the simplicity that arrests is n
the trite and the banal. The pitfalls are man
many, nor do they gape so darkly as those
artist who cultivates an artificial novelty. H
Holy Ghost that deadens all inspiration. It
the shrewd medieval thinker put as the f
sins. To leap into an abyss, to cast ourselv
nacles, avails nothing. Art has no guardian
suicide, or to prevent us from making fools
world. The novelty must be inspired. But
For this reason poetry always invites us t
the break that is required to-day may
growth that is needed if we are not to si
rigid, that we may find ourselves groping v
we were cast into outer darkness rather tha
tion. We may, in fact, have reached a point,
art, where men can only continue to live by
thing very like a new dimension.
This crisis is most evident in religion. Th
religious thought at the present time may t
gant forms, but it has significant implicatio
164
ON POETIC TRUTH
is by confusionsI which a little reflection an

it nevertheless bears important testimony t
doom and 'an end of the world,' of forces th
change, and this in a way that cannot
epiphenomenon of political and economic
or a hysterical fantasy arising out of the str
thorough rationalist would have us regard
war, and before the impact of the disorders
been properly felt. Those are themselves the
that lie deeper than moral perplexities a
They have a significance to-day that they co
For, occurring within a civilization such
aspirations that cannot be met at any level t
by the forces released in the fifteenth centu
and there is certainly no remedy for the ill
ments of yet earlier ages. Our troubles ar
we have lost, but from something we hav
in the past will not therefore provide eas
superficial pessimism may underrate the ble
Creeds outworn are outworn for good. Th
the new emerges. And this is the need that
expresses to-day. The theologians do not
well. They are wedded to a past that is dead
within it what is quickening now into life,
defeatism and reaction by irresponsible play
doxes, the glorification of nonsense. In partic
difference, fairly grasped in the main (no
quacy for us) in the notable theological think
making religion articulate and giving an acc
of the whole of life. That is indeed the crux of the matter. For how-
ever ill they may do their own business, an extraordinarily hard one
in all conscience, the theologians whose thought is most astir to-day,
Otto, Barth, Niebuhr, Brunner, Berdyaev, do make articulate a
supreme need, and one that has now become also imperative, as
their urgency shows, the need to infuse into the ages of enlighten-
ment an awareness of reality adequate to their achievements and
such as will not be attenuated by them. Amid the strained theorizing
and the docile acquiescence in the eruption of primitive and pagan
forces there is one most welcome and authentic note in the vigorous
religious thinking set in play by continental theologians; it is the
insistence on 'the wholly other,' on a reality that forces itself upon
our consciousness and refuses to be managed and mastered. This, at
I For a brief but most penetrating discussion of these confusions see "The
Features and Factors of the World Crisis," by A. E. Garvie, Hibbert Journal,
Vol. XXXIX.
I65
PHILOSOPHY
bottom, is why we hear so much of crisis,

ing,' thinking that is rooted in the charact
individual. And it may not be possible to ap
way more conformable to our intellectua
gious experience is itself more substantia
and, I believe, apter words, until the 'revela
more in its grip. Bewilderment may the
possession, the mastery, of true prophetic
the affinity of art and religion is most evi
mediate for us a reality not ourselves, avoid
confuses us with exudations of ourselves and the obscurantism in
which the self is lost. It is easy to fail, and failure is rank in the pos-
turings of poets and religious teachers alike. Of success in either
regard one thing alone is plain. We must turn our minds out into the
world, break out of the routine of our own orbit to voyage among
things, we must touch and see; as the scriptures teach we have to
lose our own lives and then we may find that we have saved them.
This is what the poet does; conceited he may be and solicitous for
praise-what poet is not?-selfish and given to display, but he is
this, if at all, as the doctor in Plato's Republic is a moneymaker as
well-as a doctor his care is for the cure of bodies. The poet as poet
is in love with the world, not himself. His pride begins as the pride
of achievement and awareness. This is what Dostoievski meant in
a celebrated passage where he declares that the world shall be saved
by beauty, beauty that is in the world, not in the eye of the beholder.
The supreme virtue here is humility, for the humble are they that
move about the world with the lure of the real in their hearts.
I66

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Royal Institute of Philosophy

Reason has moons, but moons not hers

POETRY has to do with reality in its most individual aspect

this way. In its essentials every art is as far

conscious or thinking beings. This is one

What has this to do with poetry? I shall

reference; its ramifications in the spheres of

I Republic 529, Lindsay's translation, Everyman Edition, p. 255. The

This shows very clearly the extent to wh

takably upon him in all his writings. Ridicu

ourselves as a charm this argument of ours

Instructive? Now why? Let us first dispose of some fairly inci

Republic 607-608, Everyman Edition, page 353.

far too consistent and direct to be a kind of inverted defence of

the conceptions of our own minds. It is the

the actual structure of objects by which the

To reveal this otherness of reality and t

helpful to the poet, especially by making him

artistic insight at every stage. That is why

"And when the downy twilight droops h

The comparison deepens the impression of a

its elements. What the poet has to say, in ot

on overt meaning are music and not poetry. There

bility of Dante is all the more remarkable

The long course of literary activity is strewn with the wreckages

This is from Swinburne's The Garden of Proserpine, a po

foolish and undiscering comment by those

new forms, and the impression is thereby l

This brings us to two further matters. L

Hence the predicament of modern poetry. The need for novelty is

when clever schoolboys can imitate their ant

is by confusionsI which a little reflection an

bottom, is why we hear so much of crisis,

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