Mechanical Guide PDF

Grade 12
Learners Book
Mechanical
Technology
Charles Goodwin
CAPS Andr Lategan
Daniel Meyer

Mechanical Technology
Grade 12 Learners Book
SAMPLE COPY
Future Managers 2013
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, or otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN 978-1-77581-000-1
To copy any part of this publication, you may contact DALRO for information and copyright clearance.
Any unauthorised copying could lead to civil liability and/or criminal sanctions.
Telephone: 086 12 DALRO (from within South Africa); +27 (0)11 712-8000
Telefax: +27 (0)11 403-9094
Postal Address: P O Box 31627, Braamfontein, 2017, South Africa
www.dalro.co.za
First published 2007

Second edition 2012
Revised 2013
FutureManagers
Published by
Future Managers (Pty) Ltd
PO Box 13194, Mowbray, 7705
Tel (021) 462 3572
Fax (021) 462 3681
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.futuremanagers.net
ii
Please note that this copy is for sample purposes only and will still undergo final editing.
Contact Future Managers for more details on when final copies can be ordered
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iii
Contents
How to use this book............................................................................................................................................................................................................ iv
Chapter 1 Safety.............................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 2 Tools............................................................................................................................................................27
Chapter 3 Materials.....................................................................................................................................................51
Chapter 4 Terminology..............................................................................................................................................63
Chapter 5 Joining methods........................................................................................................................................79
Chapter 6 Forces....................................................................................................................................................... 105
Chapter 7 Maintenance........................................................................................................................................... 123
Chapter 8 Systems and control............................................................................................................................... 139
Chapter 9 Turbines................................................................................................................................................... 167
iv
How to use this book
Outline of the curriculum

Mechanical Technology Grade 12 Learners Book has been based on the new FET Curiculum for Mechanical
Technology which entails 9 topics.
Spider diagrams
Each chapter is introduced by a spider diagram which is a diagrammatical summary of the content covered in
a particular chapter. The following spider diagram is an example from Chapter 6:
Calculation of
forces in
engineering
components
Calculating
Advanced tests on moments in
various mechanical engineering
principles components
Forces
Calculation of stress, Concepts of stress,

strain and modulus of strain and modulus
elasticity of elasticity
v
Explanation of icons
The following icons are used throughout the book to help you to recognise important concepts or activities.
Icon Description
Topics
Assessment
Did you know?
Key word
Pause for thought
Caution!
Envoronmental
issues
Human Rights
Besides the various icons, explanatory notes, Pause for thought and Did you know? boxes have been placed in
the margin to give further insights.
vi
The importance of Mechanical Technology in the world
South Africa and many other countries in the world currently suffer from huge skills shortages and
desperately need skilled engineers, technologists, technicians and artisans. An introduction to Mechanical
Technology aims to produce learners who have been exposed to skills, knowledge, attitudes and values
(SKAVs) which will equip them for further study in Mechanical Engineering and related sectors.
The subject Mechanical Technology focuses on technological processes from conceptual design through to
the process of practical problem solving to produce or improve on products which can enhance our quality of
life.
Explanation of the key words

You may encounter many unfamiliar words in this course. For this reason, key words have been included in
the margins to explain the meanings of words that appear in bold print in the text. The key words also cover
acronyms (words made up of the first letters of the name of something) and abbreviations that are used in the
book.
Assessment activities
The assessment activities comprise individual, pair and group tasks. Some are pen-and-paper activities and
some are practical tasks. The solutions to some tasks can be found in the text but others will require you to
do further research. It is very important that you read the instructions carefully before attempting any of the
tasks.
Message from the authors

You have the good fortune to be one of the first learners to choose Mechanical Technology as one of your FET
subjects. It will definitely stand you in good stead for your future studies. To help you succeed in this subject,
it is essential to apply the following principles:
Go through your notes and make sure that you understand the work.
Learn the important concepts and definitions.
Solve as many problems as you can.
You will find that regular revision will help you to understand and remember the work better.
Do not hesitate to refer to other relevant reading material to broaden your understanding of the subject.
Above all, think and work hard.
We wish you well for your studies this year.

THE AUTHORS
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viii
Chapter 1
Safety
Topic 1
OHS Act
Lathes
Milling Grinding
machines machines
Testing Cutting
equipment machines
Safety
MIG
welder Shearing
machines
Gas Press
cylinder machines
Joining
1 Mechanical Technology
Introduction
Safety in the workplace was introduced in Grades 10 and 11.
In Grade 12, learners must be fully aware of all the safety precautions to be taken
during performance-based activities in order to avoid injuries or incidents.
Learners must demonstrate an understanding of the Occupational Health and
Safety (OHS) Act where applicable.
Occupational Health and Safety Act 1993 (OHSA)

The aim of the Occupational Health and Safety Act, Act 85 of 1993 (OHSA) is to
provide for the health and safety of employees at work. The following groups are
excluded from the Act:
Parties covered by the Merchant Shipping Act.
People employed in mines, mining areas or any works defined in the Mine
Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996.
The provisions of the Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 (OHSA) are as
follows:
The employer must provide and maintain a safe working environment.
Suppliers/manufacturers must ensure that items used in the workplace do not
pose a safety or health risk.
Employers must inform the workforce of hazards in the workplace.
Employees must:
Take reasonable care to ensure their own and others health and safety.
Carry out any lawful order and obey the health and safety rules and procedures
laid down by the employer.
Report unsafe/unhealthy situations.
Report incidents that may affect health or which may cause injury.
The Act also refers to the following:

The appointment of health and safety representatives.
The establishment of health and safety committees.
Reporting of incidents/diseases and inspections.
Extracts from the Occupational Health and Safety Act

of 1993 (OHSA) concerning General Health and Safety
Regulation
Personal protective equipment and facilities
1. Subject to the provisions of section 8(2)(d), every employer, self-employed
person or user, as the case may be, shall make an evaluation of the risk attached
to any condition or situation which may arise from the activities of such
employer, self-employed person or user, as the case may be, and to which
persons at a workplace or in the course of their employment or in connection
with the use of machinery are exposed, and he shall take such steps or
precautionary measures as may be necessary to render the condition or situation
safe and without risk to the health of persons.
2. Taking into account the nature of the hazard that is to be countered, and
without derogating from the general duties imposed on employers and users
by sub-regulations (1) and (2), the personal protective equipment and facilities
contemplated in sub-regulation (2) shall include, as may be necessary:
2
Safety 1
suitable goggles, spectacles, face shields, welding shields, visors, hard hats,
protective helmets, caps, gloves, gauntlets, aprons, jackets, capes, sleeves,
leggings, spats, gaiters, protective footwear, protective overalls, or any similar
personal protective equipment or facility of a type that will effectively prevent
bodily injury;
waterproof clothing, high visibility clothing, chemical resistant clothing,
low temperature clothing, chain-mail garments, waders, fire-retardant or
flameproof clothing, ice jackets, or any similar personal protective equipment
of a type that will effectively protect the wearer thereof against harm;
harnesses, nets, fall arresters, life lines, safety hooks or any similar equipment
of a type that will effectively protect persons against falls;
mats, barriers, locking-out devices, safety signs or any similar facility that will
effectively prevent slipping, unsafe entry or unsafe conditions;
protective ointments, ear muffs, ear plugs, respirators, breathing-apparatus
masks, air lines, hoods, helmets or any similar personal protective equipment
or facility of a type that will effectively protect against harm: provided that
hearing protective equipment shall be of a type that conforms to SANS 1451;
Parts I and II: provided further that respiratory protective equipment shall be
of a type that conforms to SANS 033-99;
suitable insulating material underfoot where persons work on a floor made
of metal, stone or concrete or other similar material; and such personal
protective equipment or facilities as may be necessary to render the persons
concerned safe.
It is important to protect yourself by wearing the appropriate protective clothing.

To begin with, a correctly fitting, fire-retardant overall (one- or two-piece) is the
first line of defence, as it protects your body and clothing from workshop dirt and
sparks. It also prevents your clothing from becoming entangled in machine parts.
Steel-capped safety shoes or boots are also important as they protect your feet from
falling objects. Depending on the activities you will be conducting in the workshop,
the following items of personal protective wear are also necessary:
chrome leather gloves and aprons essential when welding or working with
heated material
protective eyewear important when conducting any work which can be
hazardous to your eyes, for example, shaded lenses should be worn when
welding to protect your eyes from intense heat and light, and clear protective
lenses should be worn when doing grinding work or machining operations
ear plugs or ear muffs to protect your ears especially if you are working in a
noisy environment.
It is important to get into the habit of wearing the necessary protective equipment.
Neglecting to wear the appropriate equipment even once may result in permanent
injuries or worse. Figure 1.1 illustrates some basic, personal protective safety wear.
Overall
Safety goggles
Safety shoes
Ear plugs
Ear muffs
Figure 1.1: Basic personal protective wear

3
Grinding machines
Angle grinders
Body
Handle
Disc
Safety guard
Figure 1.2: Angle grinder
When working with angle grinders, remember the following safety precautions:
The same safety precautions applicable to other types of grinders are applicable
to angle grinders.
The safety guard must be in place before you start the grinding process.
Protective shields must be placed around the grinding object to protect people
passing by.
Use the right blade for the grinding job.
Do not force the grinding stone on the object.
Make certain that there are no cracks in the stone before you start the job.
Protective clothes and eye protection are essential when working with an angle
grinder.
Wear ear plugs or muffs.
Wear safety boots with steel toe caps.
Wear overalls or other close-fitting clothing.
Wear gloves.
Bench grinders
Perspex shield Head
Tool rest Wheel guard

On/off switch Maximum gap 3 mm
Grinding wheel
Stand
Figure 1.3: Bench grinder
4
Safety 1
When you use a bench grinder, remember the following:
Use a machine only when the guards have been correctly fitted.
Make sure that there is no oil or grease on the floor around the machine which
could cause you to slip.
Check that the tool rest is not more than 3 mm from the surface of the grinding
wheel. Gaps exceeding 3 mm increase the risk of material being drawn in
between the tool rest and grinding wheel.
When starting the machine, do not stand in front of the wheel. Before you start
Idle
grinding, let the machine idle for a few seconds. The risk of the grinding wheel Run without any load
rupturing is higher at start-up than when it is running at its operating speed.
If the wheel is running unevenly, dress it with an emery-wheel dresser.
Grind only on the face of a straight grinding wheel and never on the side of the
wheel.
Use wheels for their intended purpose only. Certain types of grinding wheels
Exceed
should only be used for their corresponding materials. Most grinding wheels are
Be more than
only suitable for grinding ferrous metals. The appropriate degree of coarseness
should also be selected for the finish required of the material.
Approach the wheel carefully and gradually and do not jab materials onto it.
Jabbing puts uneven pressure on the wheel surface, causing uneven wear or
structural damage to the wheel.
Never force grind so that you cause the motor to slow or stop. Stationary
Adjust the tool rest only when the wheel is stationary. At rest and not rotating
Clamp workpieces and holding devices safely and firmly.
Never allow the wheel to stand in cutting fluid as this may cause the wheel to
run off balance when you switch the machine on again.
Mounting of grinding wheels
The following steps are advised:

Select the correct type of wheel for the job.
Inspect the wheel for cracks and tap it to apply the ringing test. Never use a
grinding wheel which is damaged or not properly dressed.
Make sure that the wheels speed does not exceed the manufacturers Spindle
recommendation. The spindle of the
Never force the wheel onto the spindle. bench grinder is the
Use only one smooth paper spacer on each side of the wheel. rotating shaft onto
Use true and correctly recessed flanges of the same size and at least one-third the which the grinding
diameter of the wheel. wheel is attached
Gently tighten the grinding wheel with a spanner, only enough to hold it firmly.
Replace the guards correctly.
Stand aside and set the machine in motion. Let the machine idle before you
dress the wheel, using an emery-wheel dresser.
Finally, stop the machine and reset the tool rest to within 2 mm of the wheel
surface.
Ensure that the tool rest is parallel to the wheel surface.
Peripheral speed
Grinding wheels The peripheral speed
of the grinding wheel
All power-operated grinding machines should be clearly marked to indicate is the speed along the
the recommended speed (in revolutions per minute) of the spindle. This speed circumference of the
should not allow the peripheral speed of the wheel to exceed the manufacturers grinding wheel
recommendation.
5
Other safety measures are:

Every grinding wheel should have a guard which can withstand the force of a
rupturing wheel.
Rupturing Bench grinders must have a transparent shield to protect the operators eyes.
Breaking or bursting Each machine must carry a notice prohibiting persons from performing,
suddenly inspecting or observing grinding work without wearing suitable protection for
the eyes.
Surface grinders
Prohibiting
Not allowing Vertical adjuster
Grinding stone
Horizontal table
Horizontal adjuster
On/off switch
Figure 1.4: A surface grinder
Remember the following safety precautions when using surface grinders:

The safety precautions applicable to other types of grinders are applicable when
using a surface grinder.
Protective clothes and eye protection are essential when working with a surface
grinder.
Before operating the surface grinder, be sure you have been taught how to
control it and are aware of the potential dangers associated with it.
Do not operate the surface grinder unless all guards and safety devices are in
place and working correctly.
Make sure that you understand the operating instructions applicable to your
machine.
Never clean or adjust the machine while it is in motion.
Report any dangerous aspect of the machine immediately and stop using it until
it has been repaired by a qualified person.
You may have to stop your machine in an emergency. Learn how to do this
quickly and automatically.
Assessment 1
1. When working with an angle grinder, you must follow safety rules. Name six.
2. Name five safety precautions to observe when working with a grinding wheel.
3. Name five steps to follow when installing a grinding wheel.
4. Name five safety precautions to remember when working with a surface
grinder.
6
Safety 1
Cutting machines
Drill presses
Motor and gearbox
Depth gauge
Feed lever
Table
Column
Base
Figure 1.5: A drill press
Observe the following safety precautions when using a drill press:

Choose a drill bit correctly sharpened for the type of work you need to do and
the material of the workpiece.
Do not leave the key in the chuck when you are not at the machine.
Never leave the machine running if it is unattended.
Clamp the workpiece securely to the table and do not hold it by hand.
Never try to stop the workpiece by hand if it slips from the clamp.
A drill should run at the correct speed for the job.
Do not force a drill bit into the workpiece this may cause broken or splintered
drill bits and possible injuries.
Use a brush or wooden rod to remove chips from the drill. Do not use your
fingers, waste material or rags.
Did you know?
When reaching around a revolving drill, be careful that your clothes do not get A drill press is
caught in the drill or drill chuck. also called a drilling
Do not use a drilling machine with a faulty switch. machine.
Do not wear loose clothing or jewellery when drilling.
Portable electric drilling machine
Figure 1.6: Portable drilling machine
7
Observe the following safety precautions when using a portable drilling machine:
Wear safety goggles.
Choose the correct size and type of drill bit. A metal bit is used to drill into iron
and a masonry bit to drill into a brick wall.
The bit must be placed in the chuck of the drill and fixed in place by using the
chuck key. Make sure that the bit is centred.
Place the key in the key holder provided at the bottom of the drills handle.
If you are drilling into metal, mark the position with a centre punch.
Stand firmly with your legs slightly apart and one leg more forward than the
other.
Hold the drill firmly and squeeze the trigger.
If you are drilling through a metal plate you should decrease the pushing
pressure when you come close to drilling through the last piece of the metal
plate.
Power saws
Cutting blade
Material clamp
Power saw switch
Figure 1.7: A power saw
Observe the following precautions when using a power saw:

Ensure that all guards are in place.
Make sure that there is no oil, grease or obstacles around the machine.
Select the right blade for the material to be cut.
When changing blades, ensure that the machine is switched off at the main
switch.
Remove or replace the blade gently. Quick movements, such as pulling off the
blade, may result in a badly cut hand.
Do not adjust guides while the machine is running.
All material must be clamped properly before cutting is started.
Long pieces of material must be supported at the end.
Always stop the machine when you leave it unattended.
8
Safety 1
Centre lathes and milling machines
Toolpost
Top slide or
compound slide
Cross slide
Cross-feed handle
Saddle or carriage
Rack Thread dial
Leadscrew Power-feed control
Leadscrew engager
Feed rod
Carriage handwheel
Figure 1.8: A centre lathe
Adjustable overarm
Arbor support Arbor
Machine table
Knee and
saddle
Handwheel Power-feed unit
Base
Figure 1.9: A milling machine
Observe the following safety precautions when working with a centre lathe or
milling machine:
Make sure that all guards are in place.
Do not use a machine or come close to its moving parts while wearing loose
clothing.
Keep any cleaning material such as waste and rags away from rotating parts.
Check that there is no oil or grease on the floor around the machine.
Do not leave spanners or keys on rotary parts. Always disconnect, remove or
stand clear of handwheels, levers or chuck keys before setting your machine or
feeds in motion.
Never apply a spanner to revolving work.
Always clamp workpieces and holding devices safely and firmly. A loose fit,
especially of spanners and keys, may cause slipping and result in injury.
Do not use your hands to remove cuttings while a machine is in motion. Use a
wire hook or a brush once the machine has stopped.
Never adjust the cutting tool while a machine is running.
9
Resist the habit of leaning on machinery. This dangerous, automatic practice

often results in serious injury.
Do not attempt to stop a machine by placing your hand on the chuck while the
machine is slowing down.
Pay attention to cutting-fluid control before switching on a machine.
Assessment 2
1. When working with a portable drilling machine, you must adhere to safety
rules. Name six.
2. Name five safety precautions to follow when working with a drill press.
3. Power saws are dangerous power tools. Name five safety precautions that must
be observed when working with them.
4. Give four safety precautions to follow when working with a lathe or a milling
machine.
Shearing machines
Switch Blade safety mechanism
Machine platform
Activating mechanism
Figure 1.10: An electrical guillotine
Safety mechanism
Cutting
blade
Push-down pedal
Figure 1.11: A manual guillotine
10
Safety 1
Manual and electrical shearing machines
Where the opening at the point of operation of a pair of shears or a guillotine is

greater than 10 mm, the machine should be fitted with one of the following:
A fixed guard to prevent hands or fingers from reaching through, over, under or
around the guard.
A self-adjusting guard which automatically adjusts to the thickness of the
material being worked.
Some machines have manual or automatic moving guards which completely
enclose the point of operation so that the working stroke cannot be opened
unless the ram or blade is stationary.
Another safety device is the automatic sweep-away or push-away that pushes any
part of the machine operators body out of the danger zone when the working
stroke starts. Nowadays, there is even an electronic presence-sensing device
which stops the working stroke if the device senses a foreign object in the danger
zone.
Hydraulic press
Pressure meter
Return springs
Plunger
Platform
Hydraulic press cylinder
Adjustment holes
Figure 1.12: A hydraulic press
Observe the following safety precautions when using a hydraulic press:

The predetermined pressure must never be exceeded. This operating pressure is
always less than the maximum safe pressure and is shown by a pressure gauge on
the apparatus.
Pressure gauges must be tested regularly and adjusted or replaced if any
malfunction occurs.
The platform on which the workpiece rests must be rigid and square with the
cylinder of the press.
The platform must rest on the supports provided and should not be supported
by the cable by which it is raised or lowered.
Objects to be pressed must be placed in suitable jigs. Ensure that the direction of
pressure is always at 90 to the platform.
To prevent damage to soft material, the prescribed equipment must be applied.
Relieve the cylinder of all pressure after use by opening the valve.
11
Also remember:
The level of the hydraulic fluid in the reservoir should be checked regularly. If
fluid has to be added frequently, it is an indication that there may be an internal
leak.
Regularly inspect the apparatus for rigidity and tighten all nuts and bolts.
Pins and/or other equipment that keep the platform at a desired height on the
frame must be inspected regularly for damage.
When the apparatus is equipped with cables to alter the working height of the
platform, the cable and pulleys must be inspected for damage and lubricated
with grease.
Assessment 3
1. A hydraulic press is an important tool in the workshop. Name five precautions
to observe when working with this equipment.
2. Which safety devices are used in conjunction with guillotines?
Joining (arc, spot, gas)

Arc welding
Safety rules to observe when working with arc welders
Always wear personal protective equipment.
Make sure the area where you are going to work is clear of obstructions.
Use as small a rod as possible when tackling the job. This will ensure a much
better and neater weld upon completion of the job.
Only weld in well-ventilated areas.
Seek medical attention if someone suffers a burn.
Do not weld near flammable materials or liquids.
Do not weld on petrol tanks or any containers that contain flammable liquids or
gas.
Radiation from the arc is dangerous to the eyes. Always wear a welding mask.
Avoid striking an arc when other people are close to you.
An electric shock is always a possibility.
Spot welding
Figure 1.13: Spot welding machine
Safety rules to observe when working with a spot welder

Wear protective clothes.
Wear goggles.
Wear gloves.
12
Safety 1
The area must be cordoned off when the machine is being used.
Make certain that the time and current settings are appropriate to the type and
thickness of the material being welded.
Make certain that the alloy tips are kept in good condition and are not damaged
during operation.
Make certain that the copper tips are constantly cooled (through the circular
liquid cooling system) to prevent overheating.
Gas welding
Oxygen regulater
Oxygen cylinder
Oxygen flashback arrestor
Acetylene regulater
Cylinders secured
Acetylene flashback arrestor in a cylinder trolley
Acetylene hose
Oxygen hose
Acetylene cylinder
Parallel hose clips
Nozzle
Torch mounted flashback arresters

Universal cutting torch
Figure 1.14: Oxy-acetylene welding plant
The following are some safety precautions that should be followed when using
oxy-acetylene apparatus:
Welding or flame-cutting operations may not be undertaken unless:
An operator has been instructed on how to use the oxy-acetylene welding
plant safely.
The workplace is effectively partitioned off.
An operator uses protective equipment.
Effective ventilation is provided and maintained.
Masks or hoods maintaining a supply of safe air for breathing are provided
and used by the persons performing such operations.
The following precautions must also be considered:
Any vessel that contains a substance which, when subjected to heat, may
ignite or explode (or react to form dangerous or poisonous substances) must
not be welded or heated until it has been properly cleaned.
13
Where hot work involving welding, cutting, brazing or soldering operations

is carried out at places other than workplaces, steps must be taken to ensure
proper and adequate fire precautions. When in doubt, the manufacturers
instructions are always the final authority on safety precautions and
procedures. African Oxygen (Afrox) supplies safety booklets on all aspects of
welding safety, free of charge, at their outlets and depots.
Never use damaged equipment.
Never use oil or grease on or near oxygen equipment.
Never use oxygen or fuel gas to blow dirt or dust off clothing or equipment.
Never light a torch with matches or a lighter. Always use a striker.
Always crack cylinders before assembling the regulators to remove any dust.
Always make sure regulators have their adjusting screws released by turning
them anticlockwise untill free before opening the cylinder valves. Stand to
the side of a regulator and not in front of it when opening cylinder valves.
Always wear proper welding goggles, gloves and clothing when operating
oxy-acetylene equipment.
Always have a fire extinguisher handy when operating oxy-acetylene
equipment.
Always use the proper regulator for the gas in the cylinder.
Always use cylinders in the upright position only.
Always keep the valve wrench on the acetylene cylinder valve when in use.
Open the cylinder valve a maximum of 1 turns.
Do not carry lighters, matches or other flammable objects in your pockets
when welding or cutting.
Always be aware of others around you when using a welding torch.
Be careful not to let welding hoses come into contact with the torch flame or
the sparks from cutting.
Assessment 4
1. Name four safety precautions to observe when working with an electrical
welder.
2. Name four safety rules that should be considered when working with a spot
welder.
3. Name six safety precautions to be observed when welding with a gas welding
apparatus.
Handling gas cylinders
Figure 1.15: Oxy-acetylene cylinders

14
Safety 1
Every gas cylinder should have a label which contains the following particulars:
name of the manufacturer
country of origin
year of manufacture
manufacturers serial number
name, number and date of the standard of design
design gauge pressure in pascals
maximum permissible operating pressure in pascals
operating temperature
mark of an approved inspection authority.
No portable gas container should be used, filled, handled, modified, repaired or

inspected in any way other than in compliance with standards set by the South
African Bureau of Standards (SABS).
The following safety precautions must be observed when handling gas cylinders:
Store full cylinders and empty ones separately.
Keep cylinders in a cool place and protect them from sunlight and other sources
of heat.
Always store and use acetylene cylinders in an upright position.
Store oxygen cylinders and acetylene cylinders separately.
Never stack cylinders on top of one another.
Do not bang or work on cylinders.
Never allow cylinders to fall.
Do not allow oil or grease to come into contact with oxygen fittings as this forms
a flammable mixture.
Keep the caps on the cylinders for protection.
The thread on an oxygen cylinder is a right-hand thread.
The thread on an acetylene cylinder is a left-hand thread.
Cylinder testing register
The following are the requirements for cylinder testing:

Pressure vessels must be tested every 4 years, inspected every 2 years, tested before
commissioning, tested after each major repair and tested after being out of use for
longer than 2 years.
Location: Record of inspections and tests

Manufacturers particulars:
Manufacturer: Country of origin:
Makers number: Year of manufacture:
Hydraulic test pressure: Capacity:
Name and number of code of manufacture:
Maximum permissible working pressure:
Inspection/test date:
15
The following form is used by inspection authorities when testing cylinders.
Items Checked Remarks

Clean and free of carbonised oil and other matter Yes No
Chemically reactive matters
Internal surfaces and all seams
External and internal plates: cleaned
All plates hammer tested
All welds checked
Corrosion, internal and external
Internal pitting
Oil deposits
Red mark on pressure gauge (P.W.P.)
Safety valve set, locked or sealed
Liquid level indicator
Reducing valve
Leaks detected
Other defects detected
Remarks
I certify that this Vessel Hydraulic pressure test Y/N

pressure vessel has been May be used
inspected and/or tested May not be used Inspection Y/N
in accordance with legal
requirements and that Signature of competent person Commissioning test Y/N
the employer/manager
has been informed of all ________________________ Major repair/out of use Y/N
weaknesses and defects.
Date
Assessment 5
1. Which nine particulars must be visible on a gas cylinder?
2. Name five precautions that should be considered when handling gas cylinders.
16
Safety 1
Specific safety measures when dealing with the
following machines and equipment
Metal-arc gas shield welders
Gas hose Continuous wire reel
Flow meter
Wire-feed unit
Regulator Power cable
Gun conduit
Shielding gas cylinder Welding gun
Arc
Power cable
Figure 1.16: Metal-arc gas shield welders
The following safety measures must be adhered to:

An operator should be instructed to use a machine safely.
A workplace is effectively partitioned off.
An operator uses protective equipment.
Effective ventilation is provided and maintained.
Masks or hoods maintaining a supply of safe air for breathing are provided and
used by the people performing such operations.
The insulation of electrical leads is satisfactory.
The holder which contains the wire is completely insulated to prevent accidental
contact with current-carrying parts.
The operator is completely insulated by means of boots, gloves and rubber mats.
The argon gas cylinder is fixed in an upright position.
When welding operations are carried out at places other than workplaces,
steps must be taken to ensure proper and adequate fire precautions. When in
doubt, the manufacturers instructions are always the final authority on safety
precautions and procedures.
Hardness tester
Hardness indicator meter
Platform
Platform
Platform height adjuster
Platform adjuster
Activating knob Activating panel
Figure 1.17 (a): Rockwell hardness tester Figure 1.17 (b): Brinell tester
17

The area around the tester must be cordoned off.
Only one person should be in the confined space.
The person should wear protective clothing (an apron).
The tester should wear safety goggles.
The tester should wear gloves.
The hardness tester should be mounted on a rigid spot on a worktable.
A cover should be placed around the area where the metal ball will be launched
onto the material to be tested.
Tensile tester
Handwheel
Test specimen
Dial indicator
Figure 1.18: Mini tensile tester

The area around the tester must be cordoned off.
Only one person should be in the confined space.
The person should wear protective clothing (an apron).
The tester should wear safety goggles.
Make certain that the dial indicator is mounted properly.
Ensure that the front section of the indicator touches the bottom section of the
tester.
Move the protective cover over the specimen that must be tested.
For steel and duralumin, use half-turn increments of the handwheel moving
through the range.
For aluminium, one-fifth turn increments are acceptable.
For plastics, one-fifth turn increments for the first three turns are acceptable.
Thereafter, use increments of two turns until the material is crushed.
18
Safety 1
Torsion tester
Twisting rod
Twisitng
indicator
Rod clamp
Frame
Mass pieces
Figure 1.19: Torsion tester

Fasten the tester to a workbench.
Determine the strength of the bolts keeping the framework together.
Get the specification (torsion) of the different materials and of the rod size you
would like to test.
When you add pieces of different mass, you should attach them very gently
otherwise you could get a skew reading of the torsion on the rod.
Moments and forces testers

Frame
Bearing
Beam
Mass pieces
Moment of a force
Figure 1.20: Moments and forces testers

Determine the strength of the bolts keeping the framework together.
Get the specification.
When you add different mass pieces, you should attach them very gently
otherwise you could get a skew reading on the tester.
19
Beam-bending tester
Frame
Dial indicator
Bending bar
Mass pieces
Figure 1.21: Beam-bending tester

Ensure the beam is clamped parallel to the backboard.
Do not leave plastic beams loaded for any length of time. (They tend to creep if
left loaded.)
Gently drop the weights onto the hanger. This helps to bounce the beam and
reduces inaccuracies due to friction.
To get true deflection, take 10 mm off the dial gauge reading at each step.
Assessment 6
1. Name three safety precautions to observe when working with a metal-arc gas
shield welder.
2. Name three safety precautions that must be considered when the following
testing equipment is used:
Brinell tester
Tensile tester
Torsion tester
Beam-bending tester
Cylinder leakage tester
Pressure indicator
Air hose coupler
Air hose
Pressure adjuster
Plug adaptor
Figure 1.22: Cylinder leakage tester
20
Safety 1
Get the specifications of the engine to be tested.
The cylinder to be tested should be on Top Dead Centre.
The crankshaft should be locked so that it cannot turn during the testing
procedure.
Predetermined compressed air should be used or else the machine will be
damaged.
Do not play with compressed air.
Make certain that the dipstick is in its hole.
Make certain that the radiator cap is screwed onto the radiator.
Make certain that the oil filler cap is screwed on.
The adaptor which screws into the plug hole must be tightened, otherwise all the
compressed air will escape.
Pressure testers
Pressure meter indicator
Spark plug adaptor
Rubber pipe
Pressure relief valve
Figure 1.23: Compression tester

Make certain that the connections (pipes) are not broken.
Screw the adaptor into the plug hole without stripping the hole.
Do not over-tighten the adaptor.
Do not store the tester when the meter still contains pressure.
Always release the pressure before it is stored.
Do not drop the meter. You will damage it and impede its accuracy.
Radiator tester
Connector to the radiator
Radiator adapters
Radiator pump
Meter indicator
Figure 1.24: Radiator tester
21
Safety measures when working with the instrument

Make certain that all adaptors have no cracks.
Make sure that the pipes are leak-free and that the connections are tightened
properly.
Determine the specifications for the objects you want to test first.
Never pump the radiator to a point that exceeds the predetermined pressure of
the radiator or the cap.
Assessment 7
1. Name three safety precautions to consider for each of the following testers:
Compression tester
Radiator tester
Spring compressors and testers (valve and coil)

Lever
Valve adjuster
Valve cotter clamp
Figure 1.25: Valve lifter

Make certain that the front part is adjusted to fit tightly over the valve retainer.
Tighten the adjuster behind the valve lifter.
Determine the specifications of the cylinder head valve spring.
Do not stretch or compress the spring further/more than indicated in the
specification. You could damage the spring.
Load cell
Scale
Spring
Crosshead
Figure 1.26: Valve spring compressor Figure 1.27: Coil spring compressor
22
Safety 1
Make certain that the diameter of the compressor bolts can take the pressure of
the coil spring.
If the pressure exceeds the strength of the coil spring, the puller will snap and
damage the car and/or people may be hurt.
Assessment 8
1. Name two safety precautions to observe when using the following testers:
Valve lifter
Coil spring compressor
Gas analysers
Pipe to the exhaust system
Filter
Gas analyser meter
Figure 1.28: Gas analyser

The inlet hose should not be stepped on or restricted in any way.
The hose connections must be airtight and the valve on the condenser should be
in the horizontal position (closed).
The vehicle being tested should have no leaks in the exhaust, manifolds or
vacuum systems. (This will result in the analyser giving lean readings or no
readings at all. If you are unsure, test the analyser on another good vehicle.)
From time to time, condensate should be blown out of the hoses and pickup
probe with compressed air.
The hoses should be disconnected from the analyser or else the pump will be
damaged.
The condenser should be drained after each test, using the valve.
When the paper filter becomes light grey, it should be changed. (Take care when
inserting filter paper into the housing. Make sure the window is properly located
before tightening the large nut.)
The fuel filter on the condenser stand should be changed regularly.
On a 12-volt analyser, the battery clamps should be clean.
23
Multimeters
LCD display screen
Range selector switch
10A DC terminal socket
VmA terminal socket
Common terminal socket
Figure 1.29: Multimeter
The following safety precautions should be taken:

Keep the meter dry.
Keep the meter away from dust and dirt.
Use and store the meter in environments where the temperature is normal.
Do not drop the meter as it could be damaged and this will affect its operation.
Use only charged cells of the correct size. (Always remove old batteries as they
can leak and corrode the wiring.)
Assessment 9
1. Name three safety precautions to observe when using the following special
tools:
Gas analyser
Multimeter
Bearing and gear puller

Bearing pullers are used to remove and replace bearings and bushes.
Figure 1.30: Bearing and gear pullers
24
Safety 1
Figure 1.31: Bearing and gear pullers

Make certain that the puller is the right one for the job.
Make certain that the puller is strong enough to remove the bearing or gear.
You must tighten the clamps or fingers around the object, otherwise it could slip
and damage the objects or hurt you in the process.
Do not use a hammer on the puller.
Use the right spanner to tighten the clamps and to pull off the object.
Make certain that the puller is at a 90 angle to the horizontal before you start to
pull.
Assessment 10
1. Name four safety precautions to consider when working with a bearing and
gear puller.
25
26
Chapter 2
Tools
Topic 2
Gas
analyser
Thread Hardness
micrometer tester
Depth
Multimeter
micrometer
Mig/Mag Pressure
Tools
machines testers
Spring Leakage
tester tester
Compression Torsion
tester Beam tester
tester
Introduction
Tools are very important to complete different tasks in the workplace.
In Grade 10, hand tools was explained. In Grade 11, power tools and machines
were explained. In this chapter in Grade 12, we will explain advanced engineering
equipment in the workplace.
Gas analyser
Function
To analyse the gas emitted by the exhaust pipe of a motor car and determine the
amount of CO (carbon monoxide) being processed by the engine. The reading will
determine whether the petrol mixture of the engine is adjusted according to the
manufacturers specifications.
Pipe to the exhaust system
Filter
Gas analyser meter
Figure 2.1: A CO gas analyser
The test procedure

Connect the analyser to the 12-volt battery terminals of the vehicle. Polarity does
not have to be observed.
The LCD will display 000 during the 30-second, preheat period and will
go through the auto-zero self-test programme for 35 seconds, until 0.00 is
displayed.
Do not connect the armoured hose of the condenser pickup to the rear of the
machine until 0.00 is displayed.
Insert the silicone hose probe and clamp it onto the exhaust tailpipe with the
stand to the right or left of the exhaust fumes to prevent the heat from affecting
the stand.
Unroll the armoured hose and press it onto the brass inlet at the back of the
analyser.
Observe the readings on the display and make adjustments according to the
vehicle manufacturers specifications.
It is important to use the analyser with the condenser stand otherwise you will
damage the analyser.
If the analyser is accidentally switched off at any time, the pickup hose must be
removed from the back of the analyser. This allows the analyser, when switched
on again, to auto-zero without containing exhaust gas in the pump chambers
and hose. If the pickup hose is not removed, the auto-zero will start above 0 and
give inaccurate readings.
Never connect and disconnect clamps without removing the pipe at the back of the
analyser.
In addition, attention should be paid to the following:

The inlet hose should not be stepped on or restricted in any way.
28
Tools 2
The hose connections must be airtight and the valve on the condenser must be
in the horizontal position (closed).
From time to time, condensate must be blown out of the hoses and pickup probe
with compressed air.
The hoses should be disconnected from the analyser to avoid damage to the pump.
The condenser should be drained after each test, using the valve.
When the paper filter becomes light grey, it should be changed. (Take care when
inserting filter paper into the housing. Make sure the window is properly located
before hand-tightening the large nut.)
The fuel filter on the condenser stand should be changed regularly.
On a 12-volt analyser, the battery clamps should be clean.
Assessment 1
1. Explain the function of a gas analyser.
2. Explain how you would connect the gas analyser to a motor cars engine to
test the CO of the exhaust gas.
Brinell hardness tester

Function
To test how hard different types of materials are.
Hardness refers to a materials ability to resist plastic deformation, usually by
penetration. The term hardness may also refer to a materials resistance to
bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.
The Brinell Hardness Test involves indenting the test material with a 10 mm
piece of hardened steel or a carbide ball, by subjecting it to a load of 3 000 kg.
(For softer materials, the load can be reduced to 1 500 kg or 500 kg to avoid
excessive indentation.) The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds, in
the case of iron and steel, and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals.
The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a low-
powered microscope.
Rockwell Hardness Test

The Rockwell Hardness Test method involves indenting the test material with a
diamond cone or hardened steel-ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test
material under a preliminary minor load (F0), usually 10 kgf. Kgf is a method of
expressing load in terms of mass. The permanent increase in depth of penetration,
resulting from the application and removal of the additional major load, is used to
calculate the Rockwell Hardness Number.
Hardness indicator meter
Platform
Platform
Platform height adjuster
Activating knob Platform adjuster

Activating panel
Figure 2.2 (a): Rockwell hardness tester Figure 2.2 (b): Brinell tester
29
Procedure to use the Brinell hardness tester

The hardness of a material cannot be measured in standard units like the those
used to measure mass, length or time. We can only define hardness.
For many years, the hardness of a material has been assessed by its resistance
to scratching or cutting, for example, if material B scratches material C but not
material A. The relative hardness of minerals can be assessed by referring to the
Mohs scale, which ranks the ability of materials to resist scratching by other
materials.
Similar methods to assess hardness are still used today. An example is the file
test. In this test, a file, tempered to a desired hardness, is rubbed on the test
materials surface. If the file slides without biting or marking the surface, the test
material is considered harder than the file.
Hardness tests like these are limited and do not provide accurate numeric data
or scales, particularly for modern metals and materials. The usual method to
achieve a hardness value is to measure the depth or area of an indentation left by
an indenter of a specific shape when a specific force is applied for a specific time.
Care
Oil the platform adjuster to avoid rust.
When the tester is used, it should be mounted properly to ensure the correct
reading.
Do not exceed the pressure that is prescribed for testing certain materials. The
machine could be damaged.
The vice in which the sample material is clamped should be stable to ensure a
correct reading.
Assessment 2
1. Explain the principles of the Brinell hardness tester.
Multimeter
Function
The meter can be used to test different electrical components and concepts.
The switch on the meter selects the function and desired ranges and also turns
the meter on and off. To extend the life of the battery, the switch should be in the
OFF position when the meter is not in use.
To test current, voltage, resistance, continuity, transistors and diodes.
Panel description
LCD display screen
Range selector switch
10A DC terminal socket
VmA terminal socket
Common terminal socket
Figure 2.3: Multimeter
30
Tools 2
Use of a multimeter
How to test current flow
DC current measurement
Connect the black test lead to the COM jack and the red test lead to the VmA
jack. (If the current is equal to or greater than 200 mA, use the 10A jack instead.)
Set the range switch to the desired current range.
Open the circuit in which the current is to be measured and connect the test
leads in series with the circuit.
Read the current value on the LCD display along with the polarity of the red test
lead.
How to test voltage
DC voltage measurement
Connect the red test lead to the VmA jack and the black test lead to the COM
jack.
Set the range switch to the desired range. If the voltage is not known beforehand,
set the range switch at the highest range position and then reduce the range in
increments until the resolution is satisfactory.
Connect the test leads across the device or circuit to be measured.
Read the voltage value on the LCD display along with the polarity of the red test
lead.
How to test resistance
Resistance measurement
jack.
Set the range switch to the desired range.
If the resistor to be measured is connected to a circuit, disconnect the circuits
power and discharge all capacitors before measuring the resistance.
Connect the test leads across the resistor to be measured and read the resistance
value on the LCD display.
How to test transistors
Transistor test
Set the range switch to the hFE range.
Determine whether the transistor to be tested is a PNP or NPN type and locate
the emitter, base and collector leads. Insert the leads into the proper holes of the
hFE socket on the front panel. The meter will display the approximate hFE value.
How to test continuity
Diode and continuity measurement

jack.
Set the range switch to the range.
Connect the red test lead to the anode of the diode to be tested and the black test
lead to the cathode of the diode.
31
The approximate forward voltage drop of the diode will be displayed in mV. If
the connection is reversed, only the figure 1 will be shown on the LCD.
Connect the test leads to the two terminals of the circuit to be tested.
If the resistance is less than about 50 , the buzzer will sound.
Care of the multimeter

The following precautions should be taken:
Keep the meter dry.
Keep the meter away from dust and dirt.
Use and store the meter in environments where the temperature is normal.
Do not drop the meter as it could be damaged and its operation could be affected.
Use only charged cells of the correct size. (Always remove old batteries as they
can leak and corrode the wiring.)
Assessment 3
1. Explain how to use a multimeter to test for DC current.
2. Explain how you would measure DC voltage using a multimeter.
3. Explain, step-by-step, how you would test resistance using a multimeter.
4. Describe, step-by-step, how you would use a multimeter to test diodes and
continuity in a wire.
5. Name four points that have to be considered in the care of a multimeter.
Pressure testers
Cooling tester
Function
A pump is used on a cooling system to test the system for leaks.
To pump compressed air into the cooling system of a motor car to determine
whether there are any water leaks in the system.
To test if the pressure cap on the cooling system operates according to the
prescribed pressure of the system.
Connector to the radiator
Radiator adapters
Radiator pump
Meter indicator
Figure 2.4: Cooling pressure tester
32
Tools 2
Use of the cooling pressure tester
Unscrew the radiator cap. Determine the type of adaptor to be used for testing
the radiator.
Fix the adaptor to the tester and screw it onto the radiator.
Pump the tester to the predetermined pressure of the radiator cap.
Let the tester stand for a while.
Note the reading on the meter. If the reading drops, it indicates that the cooling
system has a leak.
You can use the cooling tester to determine if a cylinder-head gasket is leaking.
Screw the tester into the cooling system.
Pump until the predetermined pressure is reached.
Start the car.
Rev the engine and note the meter reading on the tester.
If the meter reading increases, it indicates that the cylinder-head gasket is
leaking.
Care
The meter should always be stored in its container to protect it from damage.
Check the connecting pipes regularly to determine if there are any leaks or if the
pipes are damaged.
Determine the pressure of the cooling system before pumping air into
the system. You could damage the pressure meter gauge if you exceed the
predetermined pressure.
Oil tester
Function
To use an indicator to determine the operating oil pressure in an engine.
To test the operating pressure of the oil in the lubricating system of an engine by
means of an oil pressure meter.
Oil pressure
Oil pressure meter pipe
meter
Pressure
meter
Meter connector
Figure 2.5: Oil pressure gauge and oil pressure tester
Procedure to use an oil pressure meter

An oil pressure gauge can provide an excellent indication of the health of various
systems in an engine. The key is to establish baseline readings when the engine is
healthy and then to be aware of any changes perceived over time.
33
How to test the oil pressure of an engine

Remove the oil sender unit.
Connect the oil pressure gauge to the hole of the sender unit.
Start the engine.
Activate the pump.
Check the reading.
Check the reading and compare it to the vehicles specifications.
If the reading is incorrect, replace the oil pump.
Care
The meter should always be stored in its container to protect it from damage.
Check the connecting pipes regularly to determine whether there are any leaks
or whether the pipes are damaged.
Make certain that the connector hole, where the oil sender unit is situated, has
been screwed in correctly and is not crooked.
Make certain that the relief valve is deactivated before the meter is stored.
Assessment 4
1. Explain how you would test the cooling system of an engine.
2. Explain how you would test the oil pressure of an engine.
Fuel pressure tester/meter

Function
To use an indicator to determine the fuel operating pressure in the system.
To test the pressure of the fuel in the fuel line that runs to the direct injection
system.
Pressure meter
Rubber pipe
Connectors Return pipe to tank
Pipe clamps
Figure 2.6: Fuel pressure tester
Procedure to use the fuel pressure tester

Disconnect the pipe running from the tank to the fuel pump.
Connect the fuel pump pressure meter to the inlet.
Activate the pump. Note the reading.
Keep the pump at the predetermined stroke and check whether the reading
decreases.
34
Tools 2
If it does, the inlet valve in the pump is leaking.
Remove the pressure gauge.
Remove the pipe from the fuel pump at the delivery side of the pump.
Connect the fuel pressure gauge on the delivery side.
Activate the pump.
Keep the pump at the predetermined stroke and check whether the reading
decreases.
If it does, the delivery valve in the pump is leaking.
Check the reading and compare it with the vehicles specifications.
If the reading is incorrect, replace the pump.
Care
Store the pressure meter in its container.
Make certain that the pipes are in good condition.
Check the clamps around the pipes to ensure that they are tight.
The fuel pump sucks the fuel from the petrol tank and pumps it to the
carburettor under pressure.
If the fuel pressure in the petrol pump is too high, the pipes could burst.
If the pressure is too low, the vehicle will not move due to fuel starvation.
Assessment 5
1. Explain how you would test the pressure in the fuel system.

Function
Use a meter with compressed air to determine if any compressed air escapes the
engine.
The function of the cylinder leakage tester is to check whether gases leak from
the cylinder in the engine during the compression stroke.
Pressure indicator
Air hose coupler
Air hose
Pressure adjuster
Plug adaptor
Figure 2.7: Cylinder leakage tester
Procedure to use the cylinder leakage tester

Turn the engine until both valves on cylinder 1 are closed. (Piston 1 is on the
power stroke.)
Unscrew the spark-plug.
Screw the spark-plug adaptor into the spark-plug hole.
Use a spanner to lock the crankshaft pulley so that it cannot turn.
Close the relief valve on the tester.
Connect the compressed air pipe to the tester and to the adaptor in the spark-
plug hole.
35
Connect the compressed air hose to the main supply.

Open the relief valve on the tester slowly.
Note the reading on the tester. The reading will determine the amount of gas
leakage occurring in the engine.
Determining the leakage

Listen to the carburettor for a hissing noise. (Inlet valve is leaking.)
Listen to the exhaust pipe for a hissing noise. (Exhaust valve is leaking.)
Listen for a hissing noise in the dipstick hole. (Piston ring is worn.)
Remove the filler cap on the tappet cover and listen for a hissing noise. (Rings
are worn.)
If you see bubbles in the radiator water, the cylinder-head gasket is blown or the
cylinder block is cracked.
Care
Store meter in a dry place.
Check the thread on the adaptors regularly.
Check pipes for damage.
Check that the clamps on the pipes are tight.
Always relieve the pressure on the tester after performing a test on a cylinder.
Assessment 6
1. What is the function of a cylinder leakage tester?
2. Explain, step-by-step, how to connect a cylinder leakage tester.
3. How would you determine where the leakage is when using a cylinder leakage
tester?
Torsion tester
Function
A torsion tester allows you to investigate the relationship between the momentum
or torque applied to material and the influence of the material or member length
on torsional deflection. To test how torque and the material type affect the torsional
deflection.
Torsion bar
Figure 2.8: A torsion bar used in a cars suspension
36
Tools 2
Twisting rod
Twisitng
indicator
Rod clamp
Frame
Mass pieces
Figure 2.9: Torsion tester
How to use a torsion tester

Measure the diameter of the material using a vernier caliper or a micrometer.
Place the material between the two drill chucks, allowing a length of 500 mm
between centres.
Zero the protractor using the pointer arm.
Add masses in 50 g increments to the load arm, noting the angle of twist (to the
nearest 0,25) on the protractor until either the load arm hits the end stop or a
maximum load of 500 g has been used.
Plot a graph depicting the angle of twist versus load.
Repeat the above and use different materials.
Compare the results.
Care
All nuts and bolts on the tester should be secured properly.
Do not over-tighten the chuck where the sample material is clamped.
Store the equipment in a dry place to prevent rust.
When adding different mass pieces, work very carefully or you could obtain an
incorrect reading of the torsion of the specimen.
Before you store the tester, remove all mass pieces.
Moments and forces tester

Principles
In order to understand moments and forces testers, it is necessary to know what the
terms force and moment mean. There are two types of forces acting on a body:
Load Loads are caused by acceleration due to gravity. (The weight of a body is
termed a load.)
Shear Shear stress refers to a state where the stress is parallel or tangential to
the face of the material as opposed to normal stress.
Function
To determine the reactions on either side of a simply loaded beam.
To illustrate the concept of the triangle of forces.
37
Procedure to use testing equipment

By using this equipment, you can test the reaction on either side of a simply loaded
beam.
Load cells
Frame
Supported beam
Mass pieces
Reaction of a
supported beam
Figure 2.10: A supported-beam kit
Assemble the equipment as indicated in Figure 2.10.

Zero the load cells.
Apply loads to the beam at any position via the plastic hangers.
Record the load cell reading.
Repeat for other loads and load positions.
Use the calculation methods you learnt in Grade 11 to confirm your findings.
Triangle of forces
Load cells
Frame
Mass pieces
on a string Pulleys
Equilibrium of
three forces
Figure 2.11: Equilibrium of three forces
38
Tools 2
Assemble the equipment as indicated in Figure 2.11.
Zero the load cell and compression cell.
Put the weight hanger in any position along the string and add a known mass
(300 g).
Take the reading on the load cell.
Obtain the geometry of the system of forces by measurement and then by
calculation.
Ensure that the pulley is free-running. Try other geometries by rearranging the
pulleys and load cells (as long as the pulleys allow the string to be attached to the
load cell vertically).
Care
Store the equipment in a dry place to prevent any rust.
When adding different mass pieces, do so very gently or you could obtain an
incorrect reading on the load cells.
Do not bump the load cells as this may cause damage.
Beam bending
Function
To use a tester to determine the deflection of various given pieces of material.
To investigate the deflection of beams. In the simplest case, the equipment can
be used as an illustration of Youngs modulus for a material. For example, an
aluminium beam will deflect roughly three times more than a steel beam of the
same section, under the same load conditions, since the modulus for aluminium is a
third of that of steel.
Frame
Dial indicator
Bending bar
Mass pieces
Figure 2.12: A beam-bending test kit
Procedure to use the beam-bending test kit

Assemble the equipment as directed in the kit, selecting an appropriate beam.
Using a ruler and a dry-wipe marker, draw a line across the beam 200 mm from
the root.
Add a 10 g weight hanger to the dial indicator and slide the dial gauge down
onto the beam until it reads 10 mm. Remove the weight hanger and zero the
outer scale using the bezel. With plastic beams, this may take several attempts.
Add a 100 g mass to the dial indicator and record the dial indicator reading.
39
Repeat the previous step until you reach 500 g, increasing the mass in 100 g
increments.
Plot a graph of deflection (x-axis) versus load (y-axis) to prove the relevant
theories.
Care
When adding the different mass pieces, work very gently on or you could obtain
an incorrect reading on the dial indicator.
Do not keep the specimen in a bent position after the testing has been
completed.
Tensile tester
Function
To demonstrate the fundamentals of the tensile test of different materials.
The tensile tester is a destructive tester which subjects a piece of material to an

increasing axial load while measuring the corresponding elongation of the material.
The test is designed to give the yield stress, ultimate tensile stress and elongation
percentage of a piece of material.
Handwheel
Test specimen
Dial indicator
Figure 2.13: A tensile tester
Procedure to use the tensile tester

Place the piece of material between the two anchor points.
Tighten the screws.
Turn the handwheel until the dial indicator starts to move.
Zero the dial indicator.
Note the measurement on the ruler near the top part of the anchor point.
Turn the handwheel one full rotation. (The reading on the ruler should be
1 mm.)
The top of the sample material will now be stretched by 1 mm.
The bottom of the specimen is connected to large springs, the deflection of
which is measured on the dial indicator.
40
Tools 2
The specimens elongation is calculated by subtracting the dial indicator reading
from the number of turns. For example, if the handwheel has been turned three
times and the dial indicator reading is 2,83 mm, the elongation is 3,00 2.83 =
0,17 mm.
The dial indicator also provides an indication of the force applied to the
specimen. Since the springs have a combined rate of 100 N/mm, each dial
indicator division is equal to one newton. In other words, if the dial indicator
reads 2,83 mm, the force is 283 N.
Towards the end of the test, the material will yield rapidly and an accurate dial
indicator reading may not be easily read. If the reading does not stabilise after
2030 seconds, take the specimen to fracture point by turning the handwheel
until the specimen snaps.
Wind the handwheel back until the ends of the snapped specimen touch and
read the length on the scale at the back.
Note
For steel and duralumin, use half-turn increments of the handwheel through the
range.
For aluminium, one-fifth-turn increments are acceptable.
For plastics, one-fifth-turn increments for the first three turns are acceptable.
Thereafter, use increments of two turns until the material snaps.
Care
Do not keep the specimen in a stretched position when you store it.
Oil the adjusting wheel and thread.
Check the dial indicator and clean the shaft.
Assessment 7
1. Explain the use of the following testers:
Torsion tester
Beam-bending tester
Mini tensile tester.
Compression testers
Function
By using a pressure tester, you can determine the condition of a motor engine. To
test the compression of an engine when the piston moves from TDC to BDC or
from BDC to TDC during the power stroke.
Pressure meter indicator
Spark-plug adaptor
Rubber pipe
Figure 2.14: Compression tester 41

Procedure to use a compressor tester

Run the engine until it reaches normal operating temperature. When a test is
done on a cold engine, it usually shows lower readings.
Remove the high tension (HT) leads and take out all the spark-plugs.
Mark each spark-plug so that you know from which cylinder it was taken.
The ignition system must then be disabled. If this is not done, it will continue to
generate high tension voltages into the HT leads which will have nowhere to go
with the plugs removed.
These high voltages will find another route to earth and can damage the ignition
system or even the cars ECU (engine control unit).
Unplug the low tension connections to the coil or to the distributor.
It is also good practice to unplug the fuel injectors or disable the fuel pump,
especially on cars fitted with a catalytic converter. This prevents unburned fuel
from getting into the exhaust system during the test.
Screw the gauge into cylinder 1 and rest it where you can see the dial while you
crank the engine.
Figure 2.15: Using a compression tester
Open the throttle fully, either by pressing the accelerator or wedging open the
linkage under the bonnet. If the throttle is not open, air cannot get into the
cylinder and the readings will be far too low.
Crank the engine until the gauge stops rising and count the revolutions while
you do so.
It should normally take no more than 10 engine revolutions (5 compression
cycles) to obtain a full reading.
You can count the cycles by watching the gauge too each jump of the needle is
one compression stroke.
Write down the final reading and also make a mental note of how quickly the
gauge rose on the first few cycles.
Make use of the release valve and release the pressure to zero.
Repeat the procedure for the other three cylinders.
Make sure that each cylinder reaches its highest reading after the same number
of engine revolutions. If all readings are good, you can finish the test there.
If any cylinders are low, you can do a wet test. This involves squirting a few
drops of oil into the cylinder and repeating the test.
The oil will help seal leaky rings and increase the reading but it will not solve the
problem, which lies in the valves or head gasket.
42
Tools 2
Care
Store the meter in a dry place.
Check the thread on the adaptors regularly.
Check pipes for damage.
Ensure that the clamps on the pipes are tight.
Always relieve the pressure on the tester after you have performed a test on a
cylinder.
Assessment 8
1. Explain, step-by-step, the use of a compression tester on a motor vehicle.
Spring tester
Function
The tester is used to test the properties of a compression spring. By using Hookes
law, you can determine the following: Strain (the amount by which a body is
deformed) is directly proportional to the stress its deformation causes, provided the
limit of the proportionality is not exceeded.
Scale
Indicator
Upper platform
Lower platform Compressing lever
Figure 2.16: A spring tester
Procedure to use a spring tester

Place the spring between the two jaws.
Take up the slack of the spring.
The spring is compressed by the top jaw.
Set the indicator to zero.
Turn the lever on the machine so that it compresses the spring 2 mm
(0,002 m). (The scale is on the front panel of the machine.) Take a reading from
the indicator.
Repeat in 2 mm (0,002 m) steps until you reach the end of the travel of the
spring.
Care
All moving parts should be cleaned properly before the machine is stored.
Lubricate the moving parts.
Secure all bolts before you use the tester.
43
Assessment 9
1. Explain Hookes law.
2. What is the function of a spring tester?
3. Explain, step-by-step, how you would use a spring tester to test the tension of
spring when you compress it.
Mig/Mag welders
Function
Mig welding is an automatic or semi-automatic process in which a wire connected
to a source of direct current acts as an electrode to join two pieces of metal as they
are continuously passed through a welding gun. A flow of an inert gas, originally
argon or CO2 (or a mixture of argon and CO2), is injected at the same time as the
wire electrode.
The wire is continuously fed through a gun to the weld pool by a wire feeder.
Either solid wire (GMAW) or cored wire (FCAW-GS flux-cored arc welding, gas
shielding) can be used.
This inert gas acts as a shield, keeping airborne contaminants away from the weld
zone.
Mig/Mag welders use the heat produced as electricity jumps across the gap from
one conductor to another. As the electricity passes through this gas, intense and
concentrated heat (3 600 to 4 000 C) is produced.
Figure 2.17: Mig/Mag welder
Procedure to use the Mig/Mag welder

The advantage of MIG welding is that it allows metal to be welded much more
quickly than traditional stick welding techniques. This makes it ideal for welding
softer metals such as aluminium. When this method was first developed, the cost
of the inert gas made the process too expensive for welding steel. Over the years,
the process has evolved, however, and semi-inert gases such as carbon dioxide can
now be used to provide the shielding function which now makes MIG welding cost-
effective for welding steel.
44
Tools 2
Gun
Trigger
Nozzle Contact tip

Wire Gas shield
Work Weld
Weld puddle
Figure 2.18: Mig/Mag welding process
Care
Close the bottles after use.
Remove the pressure on the gas cylinder after use.
Work in a clean, dry place.
Ensure that there is no water on the floors.
Shields should surround the welding process to protect you from the rays.
See to loose connections on the machine. Check for plugs that are broken.
Always store the gas cylinder in an upright position.
Always disconnect the welder from the electricity supply when it is not in
operation.
Assessment 10
1. Name six points that you should observe when caring for a Mig/Mag
welding machine.
Depth micrometer
Function
A depth micrometer is used to measure the depth of a workpiece accurately. It
works on the principle that you put a measuring tool in an open container, pipe or
cylinder to measure the depth of the objects.

How to measure
Take care not to lift the micrometer off the surface of the work to be measured.
Another error which could occur is in the reading of a depth micrometer, as its
scale reads in the opposite direction compared to other micrometers.
A depth micrometer is equipped with interchangeable rods of pre-set lengths for

measuring extra depth. With each change, the micrometer must be checked for
accuracy.
45
Thimble
Thimble cap
Interchangeable rods
Figure 2.19: A depth micrometer
Use of the depth micrometer

When using the 025 mm rod, the micrometer is laid on a flat surface and a zero
reading is taken. For larger rods, gauge blocks are usually set up.
Reading the depth micrometer

Take care when reading a depth micrometer as it differs from the outside
micrometer. The actual reading is hidden by the thimble.
The scale on the barrel reads in the opposite direction to the outside micrometer
and the scale on the thimble is also opposite in direction.
Example of the reading on the micrometer
Simple calculations
Depth micrometer: read

what you do not see
1 full turn = 0,5 mm

full mm 2 full turns = 1 mm
If the 0,5 mm between

two full mm cannot be
seen, then add 0,5 mm to
the reading. If it can be
seen, do not add.
0,5 mm
0,5 mm can be
seen, so do not add Reading = 6,47 mm
Figure 2.20: A depth micrometer reading
46
Tools 2
Examples
Reading: 13 + 0,5 + 0,15 = 13,65 Reading : 25 + 16 + 0 + 0,24 = 41,24
Figure 2.21: Examples of depth micrometer readings
Care of a depth micrometer

Store in a clean, dry place.
Do not let the micrometer drop. You will get an incorrect reading.
Clean with a rag before use.
Make certain that the extension rods are secured properly.
Zero the micrometer after you have fitted a new extension rod.
Assessment 11
1. State the function of a depth micrometer.
2. Use the following information and draw the micrometer scales:
6,46 mm, 63,12 mm.
Screw-thread micrometer
Function
The screw-thread micrometer is specifically designed to measure the pitch diameter
of a screw thread.
Thimble
Adjustable anvil
Thimble
lock nut
Micrometer
lock
Datum line
Figure 2.22 Screw-thread micrometer
Use
Figure 2.22 illustrates the screw-thread micrometer which is basically similar to an
ordinary outside micrometer. The difference is that the anvils of the screw-thread
micrometer are adapted to the form of the screw thread to be measured. The spindle
of the micrometer is pointed so that it fits into the angle of the screw thread and is
free to rotate, while the anvil is V-shaped and also fits into the screw-thread angle.
The shape of the spindle and anvil is adapted so that when measurements are taken
the point of the spindle as well as the root and crest of the V-anvil do not rest on
the root or crest of the screw thread, but the flanks of the spindle and V-anvil make
contact with the flanks of the screw thread. When the micrometer is set at zero,
47
the pitch lines of the spindle and V-anvil coincide as shown in Figure 2.22. When
micrometer readings are taken, they indicate the pitch diameter of the screw thread.
The same readings that you will get from an ordinary outside micrometer can be
used on the thread micrometer.
Checking the outside diameter (crest diameter)

An ordinary outside micrometer may be used to check the outside or crest diameter
of the screw thread. However, care must be taken that the anvils of the micrometer
have sufficient diameters for at least two screw threads, to ensure that, during
measurement, the micrometer is at right angles to the centre line of the screw
thread. See Figure 2.23.
Figure 2.23: Checking the crest diameter
Checking the root diameter

The root diameter of the screw thread may be tested using a micrometer, the anvils
of which are modified to measure the root diameter. See Figure 2.24:
Modified anvils
Figure 2.24: Micrometer with modified anvils for measuring the root diameter of a
screw thread
Checking the effective diameter (pitch diameter)

The effective diameter, also called the pitch diameter, is one of the most
important elements in the correct fitting of screw threads. If the pitch of the
screw thread cut on the bolt differs slightly from the thread cut into the nut into
which the bolt should fit, there will not be a good fit between the two parts.
To ensure an acceptable fitting, the outside diameter, as well as the root diameter,
may be left unchanged while only the effective diameter is adjusted. Thus the
relationship between the pitch of the thread and the effective diameter is of
particular importance in fitting screw threads.
48
Tools 2
Examples of thread micrometer readings
Reading = 10 mm + 0,5 mm + 0,14 mm = 10,64 mm
Reading = 5 mm + 0,5 mm = 5,5 mm
Figure 2.25: Thread micrometer readings
Care
Store in a clean, dry place.
Do not let the micrometer drop. You will get an incorrect reading.
Clean with a rag before use.
Clean the thread of the micrometer regularly.
Zero the micrometer before you use it.
Assessment 12
1. State the function of a screw-thread micrometer.
2. Determine the following readings of a thread micrometer:
49
50
Chapter 3
Materials
Topic 3
Engineering
Heat-treatment materials in
applications environmental
context
Materials
Iron-carbon
equilibrium
Introduction
In Grade 10 and Grade 11, materials, heat treatment, heat-treatment processes and
properties of engineering materials were discussed in detail. In Grade 12, we will
look at what really happens to the material during the heat-treatment process.
Engineering material in the environmental context

Mining is not an environmentally-friendly industry. There are clear negative
Did you know? impacts on the environment caused by mining, e.g. the Big Hole of Kimberley, the
The first blast unrestored, unrehabilitated mine dumps of Gauteng or the planned exploration for
furnaces did not earth (shale) gas in the Karoo. Shale gas is extracted by combining two established
have charging bells technologies hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling.
(open top) to prevent
environmental damage: Mining causes severe scarring of sensitive environments, e.g. coal mining, to
soot and dust from the supply South Africas power stations, as well as air and noise pollution, dust,
smelting process escaped
and contaminated soil and water, especially groundwater. Once groundwater
and caused respiratory
is contaminated, it is almost impossible to clean (great cause of concern for the
and health problems for
the inhabitants of the farmers of the Karoo and other parts of South Africa in their attempts to secure
surrounding areas. South Africas food security. South Africa recently became a food importer for the
first time in its history).
On the other hand, mining for iron ore, semi-precious and precious metals provides
work for an estimated 600 000 South Africans and people from neighbouring
states. Because of the nature of their work and living conditions, HIV/Aids and
lung diseases are the most important illnesses affecting mineworkers. Accidents in
foundries, factories, mines and workplaces are a great concern for trade unions and
the Department of Labour.
The Department of Environmental Affairs endeavours to control air and water

pollution, global warming and the release of greenhouse gases such as CFCs, carbon
Did you know? dioxide, water vapour and nitrous oxides and methane.
Hematite is the
most important iron ore Many mining and industrial companies have become socially aware of the need to
in South Africa and is rehabilitate land such as mine dumps to minimise dust. They have planted trees
largely an iron oxide. and greened areas to decrease carbon dioxide levels in the air. The production of
smokeless coke also helps.
We can play a part by participating in Arbour Day, by planting trees and by

remembering the three Rs (Reduce, Recycle and Re-use).
Assessment 1
The purpose of the crossword puzzle below is to help you to reflect on Grade 10
and Grade 11 knowledge which you should understand in this new section of
work. There are questions that you will not be able to answer but this has been
done on purpose to encourage you to read ahead (pre-read) this chapter.
Crossword

ACROSS
1 Aluminium is produced from an ore called ...................
2. Which element determines the properties of steel?
3. When you cut steel from colour-coded stock, you should always cut the steel
from the ............. end.
4. The graphite in grey cast iron is in the form of ......................
52
Materials 3
5. The weight of an object changes if gravity changes. Its mass will ...................
6. Carbon in the form .................. makes white cast iron very hard.
7. The most difficult steels to cut or form are the ........
8. Weld shrinkage distortion can often be corrected by ................................
9. A copper alloy is easier to machine if it contains a little ...........................
10. Alloys of copper and zinc make up the class of metals known as ............
11. Stainless steels are defined by the presence of ....................
12. The ability of a metal to be stretched into a thin wire is called ..........
DOWN
1. What element added to aluminium produces an alloy having high load
capacity and good fatigue strength?
2. Steel contains at least 98% of ........
3. When the film of corrosion on copper turns a pale blue-green colour, it is
called ...............
4. Steels containing one or more metals in addition to iron are called ...........
steels.
5. The ability of metal to resist deformation is called ..............
6. Which is not a property of high-alloy cast iron?
7. The ability of a metal to resist penetration is called ...................
8. The two major classifications of malleable cast iron are ferrite and ............. cast
iron.
1 1 2
2 4
4 5
6 6
10
11
12
53
Terminology in relation to the iron-cementite

equilibrium diagram
Carbon content
As we learned in Grade 10 and Grade 11, steels are divided into three classes
according to the amount of carbon they contain. The classes are known as low-
carbon steel, medium-carbon steel and high-carbon steel. In figure 3.1 below, some of
their uses are listed
As the carbon content increases, the mechanical strength, hardness and hardening
properties of steel improve, while properties like elasticity, ductility, forging,
welding and cutting ability are adversely influenced.
Carbon content Typical uses Heat treatment Special properties

Low Bolts, screws, rivets Annealing, hardening, Strong, durable
0,10 0,25% tempering
Medium Crankshafts, tie rods, Surface hardening, Tough
0,25 0,55% pliers, open-ended (case hardened)
spanners,screwdrivers tempering Hard surface
Did you know?
High Cutting tools, springs, Hardening, tempering Brittle,
To convert degrees
0,55 1,00% shafts, hammers, axes poor weldability
Celsius (C) to degrees
Fahrenheit (F):
F = 9/5 C + 32. Figure 3.1: Classes of steel
To convert degrees
Fahrenheit (F) to Temperature
degrees Celsius:
C = 5/9 (F 32). Temperature is the level of heat energy in a material as measured by a thermometer
To convert from Kelvin
or thermostat and recorded on any of several temperature scales, e.g. Celsius,
(K) to degrees Celsius
Fahrenheit or Kelvin. The freezing temperature of water on the Celsius scale is
(C): C = K 273.
To convert degrees 0 C and the boiling temperature is 100 C. The freezing temperature of pure/
Celsius (C) to Kelvin clean water on the Kelvin scale is 273 K and boiling temperature is 373 K at normal
(K): K =C + 273. atmospheric pressure.
Austenite
This is a solid solution of iron and carbon or iron carbide. The crystal formation
is created when the carbon dissolves in the steel crystals to form smaller crystals
between the higher and lower critical points. It is a high-temperature form of steel
called face-centred cubic (FCC) structured iron.
Grain boundary
Grain
Figure 3.2: Microscopic view of austenite (greatly enlarged)
54
Materials 3
Ferrite
Ferrite is the microstructure of iron or steel which is mostly pure iron or steel and Did you know?
appears light grey or white when etched and viewed under a microscope. A microstructure
is a structure that is
only visible at high
magnification under a
microscope.
Figure 3.3: Ferrite crystal of carbon steel
Cementite
Cementite also known as iron carbide, a compound of iron and carbon (Fe3C)
found in steel and cast iron. When the carbon content rises above 0,83%, the carbon
combines with the pearlite crystals to form a very hard combination of cementite
crystals.
Figure 3.4: Pearlite and cementite crystals
Pearlite
Pearlite is a combination of ferrite and cementite, occurring in alternating
layers in the microstructure. It is the type of crystal formed before hardening
when the steel contains 0,83% carbon.
Grain boundary
Cementite
Ferrite
Figure 3.5: Microscopic view of pearlite (greatly enlarged)
55
Martensite
This is the structure obtained when austenite is quenched suddenly. The needle-like
structure below shows a pattern of fine untempered martensite.
Figure 3.6: Microscopic view of martensite (greatly enlarged)
Structure Characteristics
Austenite Soft, grain structure coarse
Bainite Good strength, not as hard as martensite, ductile and tough
Cementite Intensely hard and brittle
Ferrite Soft and ductile
Martensite Extremely hard, strong and brittle
Pearlite Good ductility, very hard but not as hard as bainite, fairly strong and
tough, resistant to deformation
Figure 3.7: Table of the characteristics for the various types of steel structures
Critical temperature
This is the temperature where a phase change, structural change or a crystalline
structure change takes place. It greatly depends on the carbon or alloy content.
Critical temperatures are very important when heat treating a material.
56
Materials 3
Heating Cooling
Did you know?
The points
Temperature in C
where one phase
Austenite changes to another are
called critical points
by heat treaters and
transformation points by
Quench
metallurgists.
Pearlite
Ferrite
Time Martensiet
Martensite
Figure 3.8: Critical temperature diagram of 0,83% carbon steel
The figure above shows the grain structure in heating and cooling cycles. The
centre section shows quenching from different temperatures and the resultant grain
structure.
Lower critical point (AC1)

This is the lowest temperature to which steel must be heated to be hardened. The
lower critical point is always about 721 C in equilibrium or slow cooling but the
higher critical point changes as the carbon content changes.
Second arrest point (AC2) Did you know?

If heating continues uniformly, a second arresting or critical point (AC2) occurs, AC1, AC2 and AC3
are abbreviations for a
although the effect at AC2 is not as prominent as at AC1. When the temperature
French term arrt de
rises slowly above 700 C (AC1) until it reaches 800 C, it now displays a bright red
chauffage which means
colour. The changes at this point are entirely dependent on the carbon content. At
heating ends.
this stage, a partially annealing temperature is reached in most steel types.
Higher critical temperature (AC3)

This is the highest temperature to which steel can be heated to obtain maximum
hardness.
Percentage carbon Critical temperature for hardening and annealing in C

0,10 915 980
0,20 885 925
0,30 850 900
0,40 815 870
0,50 790 850
0,60 780 825
0,70 760 810
0,80 745 790
0,90 or higher 730 780
Figure 3.9: Critical temperatures in steels
57
Decalescence point
The temperature where carbon steel changes from pearlite to austenite when
heated (700 C for 0,83% carbon steel).
Recalescence point
The temperature where carbon steel changes back from austenite to pearlite
when the steel is cooled (700 C for 0,83% carbon steel).
Critical temperature of ordinary carbon steel
When a steel or iron sample is heat treated, it undergoes structural changes.
At this stage, the nature of the structural changes is not as important as the
temperature at which they take place. When an artefact consisting of ordinary
medium-carbon steel is heat treated, internal structural changes take place at
700 C and it takes up an entirely new form at a temperature of about 800 C.
For this particular sample, 700 C is regarded as the lower critical temperature
and 800 C as the higher critical temperature. The critical temperature of
any type of sample which is subjected to heat treatment must be known for the
process to be performed successfully.
The following points should be considered:

The lower critical temperature for all ordinary carbon steels is 700 C.
The higher critical temperature fluctuates in accordance with the carbon content
of the steel.
Steel or iron with a carbon content of 0,87% has only one critical temperature,
i.e. 700 C.
Did you know?
Cementite is Changes during the hardening of carbon tool steel
the silvery speckle in Carbon steel which has been fully annealed consists mainly of two parts: One of the
white cast iron after elements is iron or ferrite (derived from the word ferrous, meaning containing or
it is fractured (and resembling iron) and the other is a carbide of iron known as cementite.
is intensely hard). A
mixture of a certain When carbon steel in the fully annealed state is heated, usually to a temperature
proportion of these between 680 C and 720 C (depending on the carbon content), the alternate bands
two elements is called
or layers of ferrite and cementite form many alternating layers side-by-side, like
pearlite because under
layers of bread and meat in an endless sandwich. The layers in the steel are so thin
the microscope it
frequently has the that they are only visible under a microscope. They look like alternating sheets of
appearance of mother of white and black paper (viewed from the edge). The pearlite layers begins to merge
pearl, hence the name. into each other. The temperature at which this occurs is known as the lower critical
point (AC1).
The merging process continues until the pearlite is thoroughly dissolved, forming
what is known as austenite. If the temperature of the steel continues to rise, the
pearlite and any excess ferrite or cementite will also begin to dissolve into austenite
until finally only austenite will be present. The merging process continues until
the pearlite is completely dissolved to form austenite. If the temperature of the
steel continues to rise and there is (apart from the pearlite) any remaining ferrite or
cementite present, it will also dissolve until eventually only austenite is present.
The temperature at which the excess ferrite or cementite is completely dissolved into
austenite is called the upper critical point (AC3 ).
If the steel is now suddenly cooled by plunging it into a bath of cold water or oil, a
new structure is formed when the austenite is transformed into martensite and this
provides the steel with the property of hardness.
58
Materials 3
Figure 3.10: The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram
Steel characteristic changes at critical temperatures (AC1, AC2, AC3)
The change that takes place when heating steel is of great importance when
explaining the reasons for the effect of the different heat-treatment processes on the
metal. This aspect often causes considerable confusion.
If a steel bar containing, say, 0,3% carbon is gradually heated in a furnace and the
time limit of the heating process is observed, it will be noted that the temperature
rises uniformly at first. When, however, the temperature reaches 700 C (a dull, red
heat) it will remain stationary for a while and will then rise at a slower rate until
reaching 800 C (a bright red colour). Hereafter, the temperature will continue to
rise constantly if the heating can be maintained, as was initially the case.
This first arrest point (AC1) is called a critical point or point of decalescence.
59
Now observe a piece of steel heated to 900 C (a bright reddish-yellow colour) and
then allowed to cool in dim light so that the colour can be observed effectively.
On cooling, the steel will lose its brilliance first. The cooling will continue normally
until the temperature is reached (AR1) which more or less coincides with the
temperature where the steel experienced the arrest point during heating (AC1). At
this point, it will appear as if the steel has stopped cooling and, by taking careful
note, the steel will appear to have an extra glow as if it was heated. The rate of
cooling will continue normally after this point; so noting that time is important
during the cooling process.
Figure 3.11 shows a graph representing the steps for the duration of heating and
cooling of steel against time taken. We must remember that the point at which this
arrest in temperature drop takes place is known as the recalescence point (AR1) and
indicates that the change in the internal structure of the steel has taken place. In all
heat treatment, time and temperature are both important in producing the desired
change in the steel.
Uniform rise in temperature
Uniform drop in
temperature
Halt in temp rise Halt in temperature drop

(point of (point of recalescence AR1)
decalescence AC1)
AC3
AR3
AC1
AR1
Heating
curve
Uniform drop in
Temperature in C
temperature
Uniform rise in
temperature
Time
Figure 3.11: The temperature time graph
Effect of heating and cooling on the structure of steel

When a sample of steel or iron containing a small percentage of carbon is heated
and its temperature rise is measured, it can be seen that, after a certain time,
although we continue to soak the sample in the heat, the temperature stops rising
for a short period of time and then starts to rise again at a uniform rate.
Evidently, at this arrest or critical point (AC1) the heat was absorbed without
causing a rise in temperature but has caused a change in the internal structure
of the sample (steel or iron). If heating is continued, a second arrest or critical
point (AC2) occurs but the effect is not as noticeable as at the AC1 point. At higher
temperature still, a third critical point (AC3) occurs which is comparable to the first
(AC1). The AC3 (third critical) point is the most important, as the samples grain
structure is at its smallest and is called austenite.
60
Materials 3
Identification of material uses with enhanced properties in
practical applications
Crankshafts
Crankshafts can be forged from a steel bar generally through roll forging or casting
in ductile steel. With forged crankshafts, vanadium alloyed steels are mostly used
because of their air cooled properties, especially after reaching high strengths without
additional heat treatment, excluding the case hardening of the bearing surfaces.
The low alloy content makes the material cheaper than high alloy steels. Carbon
steels are also used but require extra heat treatment to achieve the sought-after
properties. Case-hardening (carburising, nitriding and cyaniding) is a surface-
hardening process. The objective is to produce a hard case over a tough core. Case
hardening is an ideal heat treatment for parts which require a wear-resistant surface
and, at the same time, must be tough enough internally at the core to withstand the
applied loads, such as gears, cams, cylinder sleeves, etc.
Almost all production crankshafts use induction hardened bearing surfaces, since that
technique provides good results with minimum costs. It also permits the crankshaft to
be reground without re-hardening. Then again, high performance crankshafts, (billet
crankshafts, a term to describe crankshafts that are made from casting a special
grade of iron alloy, in specific, tend to use nitriding instead. Nitriding is slower and
thereby more costly and in addition it puts certain demands on the alloying metals
in the steel to be able to create stable nitrides. The advantage of nitriding is that it can
be done at low temperatures, it produces a very hard surface and the process leaves
some compressive residual stress in the surface which is good for fatigue properties.
The low temperature during treatment is advantageous in that it doesnt have any
negative effects on the steel. With crankshafts that operate on roller bearings, the
use of carburisation tends to be favoured due to the high contact stresses in such
an application. Like nitriding, carburisation also leaves some compressive residual
stresses in the surface.
Gas carburising is a heat-treatment process for steel camshaft billets (see above
for the explanation of this term). In this procedure, the camshaft is placed in a
furnace with a carbon-gas atmosphere and heated to a specific temperature. After
the camshaft surface skin has absorbed a desired amount of additional carbon, it is
removed from the furnace and quenched to attain the proper temper. Tempering is
needed to minimise retained austenite and increase camshaft performance.
The material for the casting is a special grade of iron alloy, which is used primarily
for non-roller camshafts because of its excellent anti-wear properties. Certain
camshafts are nitride; in this case, the hardened skin depth is shallower. These
camshafts will be used for less critical applications.
Carburising inclines to be the more costly process of the two. This process is critical
to safeguard a high quality completed camshaft as well as delivered durability to
high performance camshafts.
Camshaft
The camshaft is driven by a chain, belt or set of gears from the adjacent crankshaft,
at half engine speed. This shaft is made of either forged steel or cast iron, machined
and hardened to give maximum resistance to the cam lobes against wear. The cams
are spaced at intervals to match the firing order.
As the camshaft rotates, each cam in turn lifts a tappet and push-rod causing the
corresponding rocket to pivot and push the valve down. The valve is closed by a
spring when further rotation of the cam allows the tappet to descend. Some engines
have two springs on each valve.
61
For efficient operation, the valves must return to their seats. To ensure this, a gap
known as tappet clearance is allowed between the closed valve and its rocker. This
allows the valve gear to expand when it is hot.
Piston rings
Grey cast iron and steel piston rings are manufactured in different processes. To
overcome the problem of low toughness and brittleness in cast piston rings, the rings
must be heat treated. Heat treatment and proper piston ring fit ensure long life and
less wear. Heat treatment provides maximum hardness which extends life. Rings
fit precisely into piston ring grooves, reducing ring band wear. The correct heat
treatment temperature is 480 520 C, with slow heating, the temperature being held
for 1 hour per 25,4 mm of thickness but at least 10 minutes for very thin rings.
The outer surface of the piston ring is selectively and superficially heat treated in
one of a variety of ways to form an austenitic metal layer on the surface of the ring.
The ring is then rapidly cooled in an appropriate environment, resulting in the
transformation of the austenitic compound into a martensitic compound adjacent
to the base material at the point of heat treatment.
Assessment 2
1. What does the hardness of steel depend upon?
2. What structure in steel determines the hardness of steel?
3. What structure in steel determines the ductility of steel?
4. How are the following formed in steel?
4.1 Martensite
4.2 Pearlite
5. When plain carbon steel is heated at a uniform rate, its temperature rises
evenly to 700 C. The temperature then remains constant for a while. This
point is called the
5.1 Recalescence point
5.2 Cooling point
5.3 Lower critical point
5.4 Decalescence point
5.5 Higher critical point
6. Explain the following terms which are used in connection with heat treating:
6.1 Austenite
6.2 Recalescence point
6.3 Decalescence point
7. Describe the term heat treatment as you understand it.
8. Explain briefly the reasons for performing the following heat-treatment
processes on carbon steel:
8.1 Hardening
8.2 Case hardening
8.3 Annealing
8.4 Tempering
8.5 Normalising
9. Draw a neat, simple iron-carbon diagram which will indicate the following:
9.1 The AC1 and AC3 lines
9.2 The different steel groups which are represented in the diagram in their
respective sequences.
9.3 Explain what is meant by the first and third arrest points of carbon steel.
10. Pearlite is a combination of __________ and _________.
11. The carbon content of ferrite is _________.
12. The carbon content of cementite is _____________.
13. The carbon content of pearlite is _____________.
62
Chapter 4
Terminology
Topic 4
Cutting
procedures
for lathes
Apply cutting
methods to make Screw cutting
an artifact
Terminology
Milling Milling machine

processes calculations
Terminology and procedures for using lathes and

milling machines
Screw-thread micrometer
The screw-thread micrometer below is specifically designed to measure the pitch
diameter of a screw thread. The anvil and spindle tips are shaped to match the
included angle (form) of the screw thread to be measured.
The screw-thread micrometer has a V-shaped anvil which fits over a thread form
and a cone-shaped spindle that fits into the opposite thread groove.
Spindle
Screw
Screw
thread
Anvil
Anvil
Spindle
Figure 4.1: Screw-thread micrometer
Basic screw-thread terminology

Helix angle Pitch Root
Crest
Major or
crest dia
Minor or
root dia
Pitch dia
Axis
Single depth
Screw
Thickness
of thread Thread angle Flank
Figure 4.2: Screw-thread terminology
Figure 4.2 illustrates the parts of a screw thread. Below are the definitions of the
parts.
Major, crest or basic diameter is the larger or outside diameter of the screw thread.
It is also known as the full diameter of the screw thread. It is the nominal size by
which it is recognised e.g. M 20.
64
Terminology 4
Minor, root or core diameter is the smaller diameter of a screw thread, measured
at its root or bottom. It is equal to the major diameter minus twice the depth of the
screw thread, measured at right angles to the axis.
Pitch, mean or effective diameter is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder. The

surface of this cylinder would pass through the threads at such points as to make
equal the width of the threads and the width of the spaces between the threads. The
mean diameter is the outside diameter minus the depth of the screw thread.
Pitch (P)
The pitch (P) of a screw thread is the distance from any given point on the screw
thread to a corresponding point on an adjacent thread, measured parallel to the axis
of the screw thread. A screw thread pitch gauge is used to measure the pitch of a
screw thread.
Lead (L)
The lead of a screw thread is the distance that the nut on a screw thread will
move (advance) along the screw thread axis when turned through one complete
revolution (turn). The lead and the pitch of a single start screw thread are equal.
The lead is calculated by multiplying the number of starts of the screw thread by the
pitch. Lead = number of starts pitch.
Crest
The crest of the screw thread is the top (outside) surface where the two sides
(flanks) of a screw thread join.
Root
The root of the screw thread is the bottom surface where the sides (flanks) of
adjacent threads join.
Axis
The axis of the screw thread is the centre line through the screw thread lengthwise.
Depth of screw thread

The depth of the screw thread is the distance between the crest and the root of the
screw thread, measured perpendicular to the axis.
Screw-thread angle
The screw-thread angle of the screw thread is the angle included between the sides
(flanks) of the screw thread measured in a plane through the axis.
Form of screw thread

The form of the screw thread is the cross-section of thread cut by a plane containing
the axis.
Series of screw thread

The series of the screw thread is the standard number of threads per 25 mm for
various diameters. A single thread is composed of one ridge. The lead is equal to the
pitch. Multiple threads are composed of two or more ridges running side-by-side.
Multiple screw threads are used where quick motion, but not great strength, is
important. A right-hand screw thread requires a bolt or nut to be turned clockwise
or to the right to tighten it. A left-hand screw thread requires a bolt or nut to be
turned anticlockwise or to the left to tighten it.
65
Screw-thread fit
Screw thread fit describes how tightly a bolt and nut fit together. There are four
general screw thread fit classes:
Class 1 fit is recommended only for screw thread work in which shake or play is
not objectionable. This fit is used in parts that are essential for rapid assembly.
Class 2 is for threaded parts that can be put together with the fingers (hand
tight). There may be a little looseness between the parts. A Class 2 fit is
recommended for most interchangeable screw thread work.
Class 3 is for a higher grade of threaded parts, requiring greater accuracy. It is
recommended only in cases where the high cost of precision tools and continual
checking are warranted.
Class 4 is for the finest threaded work. A screwdriver or wrench may be
necessary to assemble the parts. These screw thread fits are not adaptable to
quantity production.
Calculating the cutting depth

It stands to reason that, in engineering practice, the screw-thread shape be different
from the standard shape or form. This adaptation is made to prevent sharp corners
at the crest or at the root of the screw thread. The crest and the root of the screw
thread are rounded to smooth movement. This is also done to avoid the mating
threaded parts jamming or getting stuck.
Pitch line
Axis of thread
Single depth Depth = 0,86603 pitch
Figure 4.3: Calculating screw-thread depth
Cutting procedures
Screw cutting on a centre lathe
Screw-thread cutting on a centre lathe is executed by turning the workpiece at the
same time as giving a uniform longitudinal movement to the saddle of the lathe.
To cut dissimilar pitches on the lathe, trains of gears are provided. The principle of
screw cutting involves gearing the headstock so that, by turning the spindle once,
the leadscrew will turn sufficiently to carry the saddle forward a distance equal to
the pitch of the thread to be cut.
The modern centre lathe is fitted with a quick-change gearbox to speed up the
changing of gears for thread cutting.
Cutting an outside metric V-screw thread using the cross-slide

method
1. Set up the workpiece in the centre lathe and turn the part to be threaded to
the major (nominal) diameter of the thread.
2. Set the compound slide to 30 (equal to half the screw-thread angle) to the
right and set the cutting tool up accurately in the tool post (centre and square
to the workpiece height).
66
Terminology 4
3. Consult the index plate of the quick-change gear box and shift the levers
accordingly for the necessary pitch of the screw thread.
4. Start the centre lathe and set the cutting tool at touching point on the
workpiece. Set the graduated (micrometric) dials of the cross feed and
compound slide to zero.
5. Move the cutting tool a short distance off, to clear the end of the workpiece
and feed the compound slide 0,05 mm inwards.
6. With the centre lathe revolving (turning), engage the half nuts at the correct
line on the threading (chasing) dial, putting the first cut of the screw thread in
progress. The cutting tool will now scrape (scratch) the workpiece.
7. At the end of the cut, withdraw the cutting tool quickly and disengage the half-
nut lever. Return the carriage to the starting point of the screw thread.
8. Stop the centre lathe and check the screw-thread pitch with a screw thread
pitch gauge.
9. Repeat the process of cutting with successive cuts until the required depth is
reached and the screw thread is completed. (HINT: Bring the cross-feed collar
back to zero for each cut).
10. Each consecutive cut is set by means of the compound slide.
11. A very light finishing cut can be made by adjusting the cross-slide feed
screw.
12. On completion, check the finished screw thread with a ring gauge for the
correct fit.
Chuck
Workpiece
Cutting tool
Compound slide
Cross slide

___ = 30
2
Figure 4.4: Cutting tool set at right angle to the workpiece
The left-hand V-screw thread
The left-hand screw thread turns counterclockwise (anticlockwise) when advancing.

The centre lathe is set-up exactly as for cutting a right-hand screw thread, except
that the tool is fed from left to right (from the headstock to the tail-stock) instead
of from right to left. Left-hand threads are used for the cross-feed screw of centre
lathes and screw threads in oxy-acetylene welding equipment.
67
Turning exercise
Turn the following artefact from mild steel on a centre lathe. The exercise
includes step turning, groove cutting, centre drilling, chamfer and dual-centre
work.
Figure 4.5: Turning test sample
Milling machine calculations

Gears play an extremely important part in mechanical devices of all kinds. To
meet a variety of gearing requirements, many types of gears have been developed.
Although most gear cutting is done on specialised machine tools, a spur gear may
be cut on the milling machine by using straightforward machining technology.
Gears and gear cutting in general involve a number of terms, numerous dimensions
and calculations. To cut gears, you must be familiar with gear terminology and the
calculations involved in gear cutting.
Indexing on the dividing head

Simple indexing
When indexing is required, the number of turns of the crank needed must be
calculated to move the workpiece the required distance to cut the number of teeth
or grooves on the circumference of the workpiece.
Because the dividing head has a 40 to 1 ratio, the indexing movement calculation is
the crank T = 40
N
Number of turns = where N = number of divisions (e.g. number of teeth or grooves)
Example
Calculate the indexing for the following:
(i) 10 teeth
(ii) 8 teeth
(iii) 2 grooves
To calculate the number of turns
40
(i) Number of turns = N
40
Number of turns = 10
Number of turns = 4 full turns

68
Terminology 4
40
(ii) Number of turns = N
40
Number of turns = 8
40
(iii) Number of turns = N
40
Number of turns = 2
Cutting a gear
To cut a spur gear, the following method can be used:
Mount a gear blank on a mandrel between centres of the diving head and Did you know?
tailstock on the machine table as close to the column as possible. A mandrel is a
Fit the correct involute cutter on the arbor. work holding device.
Calculate and attach the proper index plate to the dividing head and set the
dividing head for the correct number of teeth.
Centre the cutter over the blank gear so that the cutter line of the gear teeth is
radialled to the gear axis and lock the table in position.
Raise the machine table and bring the gear blank in position under the cutter,
start the milling machine and lift the table until the cutter touches the gear
blank. (Test with tissue paper placed between the cutter and the gear blank, or
chalk on the workpiece).
Set knee graduated sleeve (vertical feed dial) to zero and move the table back to
the starting position.
Raise the table to an amount equal to the required tooth depth. (Raise the table a
lesser amount if two or more cuts are to be made) and lock in position.
Move the table so that the cutter is close to the gear blank and engage the
automatic longitudinal feed.
Make the cut across the gear blank.
At the end of the cut, stop the machine, disengage the feed and reverse the table
to the starting position.
Index the gear blank for the next groove (tooth) and repeat until all teeth have
been cut.
When all the teeth have been formed, the machine can be set for a finishing cut
if required.
Collars/Spacers
Involute cutter
Arbor
Ruler
Gear blank
Square
Machine table
Figure 4. 6: Centering an involute cutter on a gear blank

69
Milling a keyway or slot

Did you know? Milling a slot includes many operations, from cutting slots in the heads of small
A staggered- screws to milling narrow and wide slots in the workpiece.
tooth cutter should be A keyway is a slot milled on the centre and parallel to the axis of a shaft for the
used to mill deep slots
purpose of receiving a key.
and grooves. It lessens
vibration and results in
better workmanship. Procedure:
1. Place a staggered-tooth side milling cutter on the arbor.
2. Fasten the workpiece in the vice.
3. If the workpiece is rectangular, move the table to locate the work in the proper
position. Hold the end of the steel ruler against the side of the cutter. Move the
saddle to set the cutter the correct distance from the side of the work.
4. Use a piece of tissue paper or mark the contact point with chalk as a feeler
between the workpiece and the cutter. Raise the knee of the milling machine
until the revolving cutter tears the tissue paper away or scrapes the chalk away.
Caution: be sure that the paper is long enough so that your fingers will clear
the revolving cutter.
5. Set the graduated dial on zero to its index line.
6. Move the workpiece back from the cutter. Raise the knee of the milling
machine to take the correct depth of cut.
7. Start the milling machine. Engage the table feed.
8. To cut a keyway in a round shaft or bar, mount the staggered-tooth, side milling
cutter on the arbor.
9. Centralise the cutter (as discussed in Grade 11).
10. Raise the table to take the proper depth of cut; this depth can be found in the
machinist handbook.
Figure 4.7: Using a steel rule to measure the location of a slot or keyway on a
rectangular workpiece
70
Terminology 4
Side and face cutter
Arbor
Workpiece
Figure 4.8: Centralising a cutter to cut a keyway on a shaft
Example
A 15 mm-wide keyway must be cut on a shaft 60 mm in diameter. Sketch and
describe how a 15 mm-wide side and face cutter can be centred on the shaft to cut
the keyway.
Width of the key (W)
W = D
4
W = 60
4
W = 15 mm
71
Solution:
Side and face

cutter
Arbor with
spacers/collars
Ruler
Keyway
Workpiece
Square
Milling machine table
Figure 4.9: Centring a milling cutter on a workpiece
Measure, from the side of the square to the side of the cutter, a distance equal to
half the shaft diameter minus () half the width of the cutter:
= 30 7,5 mm
= 22,5 mm
When the distance of 22,5 mm is measured between the square and the cutter,
the centre of the cutter will coincide with the centre of the shaft.
Milling processes
Methods of milling
In peripheral milling, the workpiece can be fed either with or against the direction
of the cutter rotation. In face milling, however, the characteristics of the two
methods are usually combined. The feeding motion is normally partly with and
partly against the direction of the cutter rotation. The two methods are known as
up-cut milling and down-cut milling.
Up-cut milling (conventional milling)

In up-cut milling, the cutter turns against the direction of feed as the workpiece
moves toward it from the side where the teeth are moving upward. The separating
forces produced between the cutter and workpiece oppose the motion of work.
In up-cut milling, the cutter teeth come up from the bottom of the cut. Thus the
chip is very thin at the beginning where the tooth contacts the workpiece. The chip
increases steadily in thickness. The chip reaches its maximum thickness where the
tooth leaves the workpiece.
72
Terminology 4
Cutter
rotation
Feed
Figure 4.10 : Up-cut milling
Down-cut milling (climb milling)

If down-cut milling is used, all looseness in the table-feed screw must be eliminated.
The motion of the cutter tends to pull the workpiece into the cutter. In down-cut
milling, the maximum chip thickness is obtained close to the point where the tooth
contacts the workpiece. No build-up pressure is developed in down-cut milling.
Therefore no heavy burrs form on the surface of the metal.
Cutter
rotation
Feed
Figure 4.11: Down-cut milling
Assessment 1
1. Draw neat sketches to demonstrate the difference between up-cut milling and
down-cut milling.
Plain or slab milling

One of the simplest operations that can be performed on the horizontal milling
machine is plain or slab milling. This operation consists of machining a plain, flat,
horizontal surface with cylindrical milling cutters. These cutters have a length that
is usually greater than the diameter. Helical cutters generally produce a much better
surface than cutters with straight teeth.
73
Set-up
1. Clean the surface of the machine table.
2. Setup the vice in the centre of the machine table.
3. Bolt the vice down on the machine table.
4. Check the dial-test indicator to confirm whether the vice is square on the
machine table.
5. Check if the workpiece fits in the vice. (If the workpiece is too small, use
parallel bars to lift it.)
6. Tighten the vice and tap the workpiece with a soft-faced hammer to seat it
properly on the parallel bars. Push the parallel bars to ascertain if the work
piece is seated properly.
7. Move the saddle as close as possible to the column.
8. Choose a plain milling cutter of the smallest diameter to cover the workpiece.
The diameter of the cutter must be big enough to permit the arbor to clear the
work piece. A small cutter needs less time to make a cut than a large cutter.
9. Clean the tapered hole in the spindle nose and the arbors taper shank before
mounting the arbor.
10. In removing the arbor nut, the arbor support should be clamped in position to
prevent the arbor from springing out.
11. Mount the cutter on the arbor as close as possible to the column. Ensure
that the end thrust caused by the helix angle of the cutter teeth will be against
the spindle bearings.
12. Insert the key into the keyway of the arbor and cutter. Serious damage can be
done to the arbor if the cutter slips. Never rely on friction between cutter and
the arbor.
13. Clean the spacing collars and slide them onto the arbor. The bearing collars
should be as close as possible to the cutter.
14. Tighten the nut on the arbor with your fingers.
15. Move the overarm into position, slide the arbor support onto the overarm and
lock them in position.
16. Lock the spindle and tighten the arbor nut with a spanner.
17. Adjust the machine table to the proper height for the cut desired. Adjust the
trip dogs for the length of cut to be made.
18. Calculate the cutting speed for the type of cutter and material.
Milling cutter
Workpiece
Figure 4.12: Plain or slab milling
74
Terminology 4
Face milling
Face milling can be executed with a wide range of face-milling cutters. Face milling
is the production of a surface that is parallel to the face of the cutter and at right
angles to the cutter. This type of milling operation can be performed on both the
vertical as well as the horizontal milling machine.
Set-up
1. The face cutter should be approximately 25,4 mm bigger in diameter than the
width of the face to be milled. This enables the whole surface to be milled at
once.
2. Mount the workpiece in the vice, on the mandrel, angle plate or fixture. Locate
the workpiece in the centre of the machine table. Ensure that the holding device
is correctly aligned.
3. Set the machine for the correct speed and feed.
Carbide tips
Figure 4.13: Face milling
Straddle milling
The operation of milling the opposite sides of a workpiece at the same time is called
straddle milling. This operation is used to mill square heads and hexagonal heads
on bolts. It is done mainly with two side and face cutters, spaced at the correct
distance apart on the milling-machine arbor.
Side and face-milling cutters
Shoulder width Spindle nose

determined by
Arbor collars or spacers
Vice movable jaw Shoulder width

Vice fixed jaw
Workpiece
Parallels
Figure 4.14: Straddle milling
75
Gang milling
Gang milling consists of machining surfaces of manufactured workpieces by means
of two or more milling cutters mounted on an arbor. Sometimes a combination of
milling cutters may be used for plain milling and side milling simultaneously. When
helical cutters are used to produce a flat surface, these cutters should be equal in
diameter. Cutters of uneven diameters will produce a rib on the workpiece.
Overarm
Arbor support
Plain milling cutter
Arbor
Side and face cutter
Clamped workpiece
Machine table
Figure 4.15: Gang milling
Assessment 2
1. Calculate the indexing for the following:
(i) 25 divisions
(ii) 17 divisions
(iii) 28 divisions
(iv) 39 divisions
(v) 98 divisions
2. Name four main parts of a universal dividing head.
3. Name two advantages or two disadvantages of down-cut milling.
4. Choose the correct answer.
A. We fit braces to a horizontal milling machine to
(i) Protect the operator
(ii) Guard the cutter
(iii) Prevent the table from being raised
(iv) Improve rigidity of the overarm during heavy cuts
B. We usually mount the cutter of a horizontal milling machine on the
machines
(i) Arbor
(ii) Knee
(iii) Spindle
(iv) Overarm
5. What is the end milling cutter used for?
6. Explain what you understand by the gear ratio of a dividing head being 40:1.
7. True or False: The Brown and Sharpe index plate has holes on both sides.
8. What is the purpose of the dividing head on a milling machine?
9. Give two important features of a universal milling machine compared with a
plain milling machine.
10. How many cutters are usually found in a set of involute gear-milling cutters?
76
Terminology 4
Using advanced instructions to make an artefact
Milling exercise
Mill shoulders in the mild steel block below with the following dimensions:
length 70 mm, width 60 mm and height 38 mm. The tolerances are 0,02 mm and
0,03 mm.
Figure 4.16: Milling test sample
77
78
Chapter 5
Joining methods
Topic 5
Applications
Defects
Visual Destructive
inspection tests
Joining
methods
Manufacture
Non-destructive
joints using MIG
tests
welding
Apply advanced
permanent joining
applications
Introduction
In Grades 10 and 11, we learned about permanent and semi-permanent joining
methods by means of fasteners and basic welding/soldering techniques. In Grade 12,
we will focus on advanced joining methods as well as inspection and testing thereof.
Analysis of the possible defects of welding joints by

visual inspection
It is necessary to inspect and test welds to assess the quality, strength and properties
of the joints. A visual inspection, both during welding and afterwards, will give you
a good idea of the probable strength of the weld. Visual inspection is carried out by
the welder only after some welding experience has been obtained.
The following are the visual requirements of acceptable welds:

Shape of profile: The profile of a butt weld must be slightly convex and must
have a reinforcement that is within the limits specifications. The profile must
merge smoothly into the adjacent surface of the metal. In the case of fillet welds,
the leg length and the throat thickness (the distance between the root and weld
face of the weld) should not be less than those laid down in the code of practice,
which is a document published by the South African Bureau of Standards. This
code of practice specifies the requirements for welds and provides standardised
welding conventions for the welding/engineering industry. The profile must
merge smoothly into the adjacent surface of the parent plate.
Uniformity of surface: The weld face must be uniform in appearance throughout
its length. At points where the welding has been interrupted and restarted, the
weld must be smooth and must show no pronounced humps or craters.
Overlap: There must be no overlap at the toes of the weld.
Undercutting: Grades A and B welds must be completely free from
undercutting. In grade C welds, slight intermittent undercutting may be present,
provided that it does not produce a notch effect.
Penetration bead: In butt welds made from one side only and without the use
of a backing bar, a slight penetration bead should be present but the absence of
a penetration bead in isolated places may be disregarded, provided that there is
Defects full penetration.
Imperfections; things Root groove: In butt welds made from one side only and without the use of
that are wrong or not a backing bar, a root groove may, at the discretion of the welder, be present,
perfect provided that it has a rounded outline and does not penetrate below the level of
the adjacent surface of the parent plate.
Freedom from cracks: The weld metal, the heat-affected zone and the
surrounding parent metal must be free from cracks that arise from uncontrolled
expansion and contraction.
Freedom from surface defects: The weld face must be free from porosity, craters
or cavities and slag inclusion. More detail on these defects is provided later.
Applications
MIG/MAG welding
MIG stands for metal inert gas. MIG welding is also known as metal
active gas (MAG) welding. MIG welding machines are direct current
Inert
(DC) welding machines. Instead of using flux-coated electrodes like
Unreactive element metal-arc welding machines, MIG machines use a continuous wire
found in Group 8 of electrode feed. The wire electrode is shielded by an inert gas. The
the Periodic Table of inert gas takes the place of the flux coating in metal-arc welding
Elements electrodes. Inert gases are used to shield the molten pool because they
do not react with the weld metal and they shield the molten pool from
80 atmospheric gases. Figure 5.1: A MIG welding machine
Joining methods 5
Most MIG welding machines consist of four basic components:
a shielding-gas cylinder and gas flow meter/regulator
a power source (transformer/DC rectifier)
a wire-feed controller and feed wire
a gun and accessories.
Many MIG welders combine the transformer and wire-feed unit in the same
housing but some are supplied as independent units, as shown in Figure 5.2.
Gas hose Continuous wire reel
Flow meter
Wire-feed unit
Regulator Power cable
Gun conduit
Shielding-
gas cylinder Welding gun
Arc
Figure 5.2: Components of a MIG welding machine
Gas cylinder and regulator/flow meter

The cylinder normally contains 17 kg of inert shielding gas. The inert gas that is
usually used is a mixture of argon and carbon dioxide (CO2). UHP (ultra high
purity) argon is too expensive to be used on its own commercially, so it is mixed
with CO2. The cylinder must be fitted with a regulator to reduce the cylinder
pressure as well as a flow meter to control the flow rate of shielding gas (in litres/
minute).
Power source
The power source of most MIG welding machines is an alternating-current (AC)
welding transformer which has a bridge rectifier attached to it in order to convert
the AC to DC. Adjusting knobs adjust the power source voltage.
Voltage adjustment
Wire-feed
adjustment
On/off switch
Figure 5.3: The power source of a MIG welding machine

81
Wire-feed controller and feed wire
The wire-feed controller feeds the consumable electrode wire to the welding gun
at a constant predetermined speed. The speed can be adjusted to suit the welding
conditions. Normally, the higher the voltage, the faster the wire speed needs to be.
Higher voltages produce more heat, which in turn melts the consumable wire at a
faster rate and faster feed speeds are necessary.
Wire reels usually contain 15 kg of wire and are available in a large range of
thicknesses and alloy types for welding different materials.
Motor
Tensioner roller
Wire-feed unit
Wire liner
Wire-feed
roller
Consumable wire reel
Figure 5.4: The wire-feed controller of a MIG welding machine
Welding gun
The welding gun is attached to the power source and wire feeder by means of a
flexible conduit. This pipe contains a sheath for the feed wire, a shielding-gas hose
and electrical connections to the power source. The welding gun has a trigger
Simultaneous which remotely controls the simultaneous supply of gas, power and wire feed.
Occurring at the same The welding gun contains two main consumable parts, namely the gas shroud and
time nozzle. Regular spraying with anti-spatter spray and brushing clean with a wire
brush will prolong the lifespan of these parts.
82
Joining methods 5
Gooseneck
Trigger
Wire
Gas shroud
Figure 5.5:
Anti-spatter spray
Nozzle
Figure 5.6: A MIG welding gun
The process of MIG welding Did you know?

Consumable
As the welding gun trigger is pressed, the power, wire feed and gas flow are engaged components are
simultaneously. The intense heat of the arc melts the wire and the parent metal in a components which are
molten pool. As the MIG wire is consumed, more is fed into the molten pool and in discarded (thrown away)
after they have become
so doing a weld bead is deposited. Figures 5.7 and 5.8 show the difference between
worn out.
metal-arc welding and MIG welding.
Flux coating
Electrode
Arc
Shielding gas
Weld pool
Parent metal
Figure 5.7: Metal-arc welding
83
Gas shroud
Nozzle
Continuous feed
electrode wire
Arc
Molten Inert shielding gas

Did you know? weld pool
TIG welding
stands for tungsten
inert gas welding.
TIG welding is similar Parent metal
to MIG welding but
does not include the Figure 5.8: MIG welding
continuous wire feed.
The electrode is made
from tungsten (an
Without shielding gas, it is difficult to control the welding arc. Atmospheric gases
element with a very high also react with the weld, causing a lot of spatter and a poor quality weld.
melting point) which
is used to establish and
maintain a welding
arc. The filler rod is fed
into the molten pool
manually. The process
resembles gas welding
but has an electrical arc
as its source of heat.
Figure 5.9: MIG welding without shielding gas
Assessment 1
1. What type of shielding gas is used when MIG welding? Why is shielding gas
used?
2. Sketch the MIG welding set-up and label the four important components.
3. State four important safety precautions to be taken when MIG welding.
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Joining methods 5
Defects
The following section deals with defects which can occur during the welding
process. Commercially, defects are categorised according to severity.
Welding runs are either accepted or rejected, depending on the criteria set by
engineers and designers. There is a specific career in weld testing which we will look
at later in the chapter.
Numerous errors can occur during welding.
We will only look at six main defects:

1. Porosity
2. Slag inclusion
3. Weld craters/faulty restart
4. Incomplete penetration
5. Lack of fusion
6. Undercutting
Porosity
Porosity refers to gas pores (tiny bubbles) found in the solidified weld bead. As you
can see in Figure 5.10, these pores may vary in size and are randomly distributed.
Pores can occur either under or on the weld surface (the latter being called surface
porosity).
The most common causes of porosity are:

atmospheric contamination
surface contamination
dirty or wet electrodes when arc welding
rusted MIG wire.
Atmospheric contamination
Atmospheric contamination during MIG welding can be caused by:
inadequate shielding-gas flow
excessive shielding-gas flow (this can cause aspiration of air into the gas stream)
a severely clogged gas nozzle or a damaged gas supply system (leaking hoses,
fittings, etc.)
excessive wind in the welding area (this can blow away the gas shield: see Figure
5.9).
The atmospheric gases primarily responsible for porosity in steel are nitrogen and
excessive oxygen. Inspect the gas supply regularly to ensure there are
no leaks, thus ensuring continuity of the shielding gas and minimising atmospheric
gases from coming into contact with the weld.
Surface contamination
Surface contamination can be caused by dirty, oxidised (rusted), oily, wet or Brittle
painted surfaces. In all these cases, the gases formed by the melted surface Hard but easily broken
impurities become entrapped in the weld surface, usually resulting in a brittle weld.
85
Dirty or wet electrodes when arc welding

Even if the welding electrodes have not come into contact with water, they are
hygroscopic, which means that they tend to absorb moisture from the atmosphere if
not stored correctly.
Rusted MIG wire

MIG wire which is not often used may start rusting around the outer surface of the
reel. When the wire has rusted, welding should not be carried out as the rust can
damage the wire liner of the feed mechanism (see Figure 5.4).
Porosity
Figure 5.10: Porosity in a fillet weld
Slag inclusion
Slag
The layer on top a weld, Slag inclusions are non-metallic solids entrapped in the weld metal or
resulting from the between the weld metal and the base metal. Slag inclusions are solid regions within
melted flux the weld cross-section or at the weld surface where the once-molten flux used to
protect the molten metal is mechanically trapped within the solidified metal. This
solidified slag represents a portion of the welds cross-section where the metal
is not fused to itself. This can result in a weakened condition which reduces the
serviceability of the component.
Inclusions may also appear at the weld surface. Like incomplete fusion, slag inclusions
can occur between the weld and base metal or between individual weld passes. In
Fusion fact, slag inclusions are often associated with incomplete fusion. Slag inclusions can be
Joining avoided by thoroughly chipping off the slag from previous weld runs and brushing the
weld bead with a wire brush before doing any further welding.
Slag inclusion can also result from incorrect current settings. To remove slag
inclusion, grind out the offending part of the weld and re-weld the section.
Slag inclusion
Figure 5.11: Slag inclusion in a butt weld

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Joining methods 5
Weld craters/faulty restarts
Weld craters form where welding is resumed at the bottom of the previous weld
instead of at the top. When this happens, not enough weld filler material is added
to the beginning of the new weld run and therefore a depression or crater is formed
between the two weld runs. Always restart a weld run at the top of the previous
weld run.
Weld crater
Figure 5.12: A weld crater in a fillet weld
Incomplete penetration
This type of defect happens when:

1. The weld bead does not penetrate the entire thickness of the base plate.
2. Two opposing weld beads do not inter-penetrate.
3. The weld bead does not penetrate the toe of a fillet weld but only bridges across
it.
Eliminated
Removed
Welding current has the greatest effect on penetration. Incomplete penetration
is usually caused by the welding current being too low and can be eliminated by
simply increasing the amperage. Other causes include travel speed which is too
slow and an incorrect torch angle. Both will cause the molten weld metal to roll in
front of the arc, acting as a cushion to prevent penetration. The arc must be kept on
the leading edge of the molten pool. Incomplete penetration can also be the result Root gap
of poor edge preparation or an insufficient root gap when setting up a weld joint. The gap between two
Both conditions make it difficult for the electrode to approach the weld root and welded plates
therefore may result in inadequate fusion and root penetration.
Insufficient penetration to the weld root
Figure 5.13: Incomplete penetration in welded joints
87
Lack of fusion
Figure 5.14 shows a lack of fusion between the weld metal and the surfaces of the
base plate. The most common cause of lack of fusion is poor welding technique.
Either the molten pool is too large (travel speed is too slow) or the weld metal has
been permitted to roll in front of the arc. Again, the arc must be kept on the leading
edge of the molten pool. When this is done, the molten pool will not get too large
and cannot cushion the arc.
Another cause is using a very wide weld joint. If the arc is directed down to the
centre of the joint, the molten weld metal will only flow and cast against the side
Multi-pass welding walls of the base plate without melting them. The heat of the arc must be used to
When several welding melt the base plate. This can be done by making the joint narrower or by directing
runs are used to fill a the arc towards the side wall of the base plate. When multi-pass welding thick
welding joint material, a split bead technique should be used whenever possible after the root
passes. Large weld beads bridging the entire gap must be avoided.
Lack of fusion can also occur in the form of a rolled over bead crown. Again, this is
generally caused by a very low travel speed and attempting to make too large a weld
in a single pass. However, it can also be caused by the welding voltage being too low.
Excessive mill scale (iron oxide) can also hamper fusion even though light mill scale
can be welded over in mild steel.
Lack of fusion
Figure 5.14: Lack of fusion in a butt weld
Undercutting
As shown in Figure 5.15, undercutting is a defect which appears as a groove in the

parent metal, directly along the edges of the weld. It is most common in lap fillet
welds but can also be found in fillet and butt joints. This type of defect is most
commonly caused by improper welding parameters, particularly the travel speed
and arc voltage. When the travel speed is too high, the weld bead will be very
peaked because of its extremely fast solidification. The forces of surface tension
draw the molten metal along the edges of the weld bead and pile it up along the
centre.
Melted portions of the base plate are affected in the same way. The undercut groove
occurs where melted base material has been drawn into the weld and not allowed
to wet back properly because of rapid solidification. Decreasing the arc travel
speed will gradually reduce the size of the undercut and eventually eliminate it.
Undercutting can also be avoided by raising the arc voltage or using a leading torch
angle (an angle close to 90). In both cases, the weld bead will become flatter and
wetting will improve.
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Joining methods 5
However, if the arc voltage is raised to excessive levels, undercutting may again
appear. When the arc becomes excessively long, it also becomes too wide. This
results in an increased amount of base material being melted. However, the heat
transfer of a long arc is relatively poor, so actually the arc supplies no more total
heat to the weld zone. The outermost areas are cooled very quickly and again
proper wetting is prevented. The arc length should be kept short, not only to avoid
undercutting but to increase penetration and weld soundness. Excessive welding
currents can also cause undercutting.
Undercutting
Figure 5.15: Undercutting
Assessment 2
Sketch six different types of welding defect and state one cause for each type.
Testing welds
Although visual inspection is important, it has shortcomings. To check the quality
of welded joints more thoroughly, it may be necessary to conduct certain tests.
These tests are divided into two broad categories, namely destructive and non-
destructive testing, such as the free-bend test. Weld testing is a specialised career
path and provides well-paid employment opportunities.
Destructive testing
Destructive testing, as the name implies, requires that a test piece is destroyed in the
testing process. This method can provide useful information about the quality of a
welding sample but is not suitable for large scale testing, for example, on a welding
installation. Tests are usually carried out in laboratories by metallurgists but basic
tests can be conducted in your workshop. Metallurgists
People who study
There are numerous destructive tests which can be performed on welded joints, the properties and
for example, the free-bend test, the guided-bend test, the nick-break test and the production of metals
impact and tensile tests. We will first look at the free-bend and nick-break test.
89
Nick-break test
The nick-break test determines the internal quality of the weld metal and can
reveal internal defects (if present) such as slag inclusions, porosity, lack of fusion
and oxidised or burnt metal. To perform the nick-break test on a butt weld, make
a hacksaw cut at both edges, through the centre of the weld (see Figure 5.16). The
cuts should be about 6,5 mm deep. Next, place the saw-nicked specimen on two
steel supports. Use a sledgehammer to break the specimen by striking it in the
zone where you made the saw cuts. The weld metal exposed in the break should
be completely fused, free from slag inclusions and contain no gas pockets greater
than 1,6 mm. There should not be more than one pore or gas pocket per square
centimetre (of exposed broken surface of the weld).
Saw cuts
Test piece
Supports
Figure 5.16: Nick-break testing
Nick-bend test
The nick-bend test measures the ductility of the weld deposit and the heat-affected
area adjacent to the weld. It is also used to determine the percentage of elongation
Caution: of the weld metal. You may recall (from Chapter 3 in the Grade 11 Learners Book)
Destructive tests may that ductility is the property of a metal that allows it to be drawn out into a thin
involve large stresses wire.
being placed on test
pieces and should only
To prepare a welded specimen for the free-bend test, you must machine the welded
be performed under
the supervision of your face flush with the surface of the test plate. When the weld area of a test plate is
teacher. machined, perform the machining operation in the opposite direction that the weld
was deposited.
The next step in the test is to mark two lines on the face of the filler deposit.
Locate these lines 1,6 mm from each edge of the weld metal, as shown in Figure
5.17. Measure the distance between the lines to the nearest 0,001 mm and let the
resulting measurement equal x. Then bend the ends of the test piece until each
leg forms an angle of 30 to the original centre line. With the marked lines on the
outside, bend the test piece with a hydraulic press.
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Joining methods 5
Weld face
machined flat
Compression
1,6mm
Marked
lines
Testing
Weld specimen Preparation Compression
Figure 5.17: Nick-bend testing
When the proper precautions have been taken, a hydraulic press or hammer can
be used to complete the bending operation. If a crack more than 1,6 mm develops
during the test, stop the bending because the weld has failed; otherwise, bend
the specimen flat. After completing the test, measure the distance between the
marked lines and call that measurement y. You can then calculate the percentage of
elongation using the formula:
y x 100 = % elongation
A satisfactory weld will have a maximum elongation of 15% and no cracks greater
than 1,6 mm on the face of the weld.
Elongation refers to the degree of strain that the test piece has undergone. We look
at the concept of strain in Chapter 6.
Machinability test
Machinability testing can be applied to welds in various contexts but all are used to
determine the welds hardness and thus its strength.
The simplest method for determining comparative hardness is the file test. It is
performed by running a file under manual pressure over the piece being tested.
Information may be obtained as to whether the metal tested is harder or softer than
the file or other materials that have been given the same treatment.
The machinability test makes use of hardness testing machines such as the
Rockwell, Brinell or Vickers hardness testing machines to evaluate the strength
of the weld. Of particular interest is the hardness around the heat-affected zone
(HAZ). The hardness in and around the HAZ can assist you in evaluating the
brittleness of the weld and, thus, whether the weld has the desired strength.
Often, a series of measurements in a given pattern is made at a given distance from

the sample edge or from top of the weld. The progression of the hardness values can
then be plotted in a graph.
91
Tensile testing is also used to measure the strength of a welded joint. A test piece
of a welded plate is located midway between the jaws of the tensile testing machine
(Fig. 5.18). The width and thickness of the test specimen are measured before
testing and the cross-sectional area is then calculated. The tensile test specimen is
then stretched until it breaks. As the specimen is tested in this machine, the load in
newtons is registered on a gauge and the load at the point of breaking is recorded.
The tensile stress in the test specimen is calculated by dividing the tensile load
by the cross-sectional area of the test specimen. The higher the breaking stress
(measured in pascals), the stronger the welded joint. Chapter 6 goes into greater
detail in calculating stress and strain.
Tensile load = L
Tension test
specimen
Area = A = W T
Tensile strength = Tensile load = L
Area A
Figure 5.18: Tensile testing
Non-destructive testing
In contrast to destructive testing, non-destructive testing does not involve the
destruction of a test piece. Non-destructive testing is carried out on site or in the
workshop. The three non-destructive tests we will look at are X-ray testing, liquid
dye penetrant testing and ultrasonic testing.
Visual inspection during welding

The following items should be observed during metal-arc welding and
oxy-acetylene welding.
Inspection during arc welding
The following should be observed during arc welding:

rate of rod burning and the progress of the weld
amount of penetration and fusion
the way the weld metal is flowing (no slag inclusions)
the sound of the arc, indicating correct current and voltage for the particular
weld.
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Joining methods 5
Inspection during oxy-acetylene welding
The following should be observed during oxy-acetylene welding:

correct flame for the work on hand
correct angle of the blowpipe and rod, depending on the method being used
depth of fusion and amount of penetration
the rate of progress along the joint.
Visual inspection after welding will be dealt with at the end of the chapter (after the
practical assessments).
X-ray testing
X-rays are produced in the following way: a glass tube with two arms and a central
bulb is evacuated (the air is removed). In one arm, there is a filament which can be
heated to white heat (this will be referred to as the cathode).
In the other arm, there is a thick copper stem ending in a target made of platinum
and inclined at an angle of 45 to the axis of the tube (this will be referred to as the
anode). A high voltage of between 60 000 and 180 000 volts is placed across the
ends of the tube.
Copper anode
Platimum target
Cathode rays
High voltage X-rays
Electrons
Heated filament
(cathode)
Evacuated tube
Filament voltage Did you know?

X-rays are electro-
Figure 5.19: An X-ray tube magnetic radiations of
short wavelengths. They
The filament (cathode) is white hot and emits negatively charged particles. This occur just above the
enables the high voltage to send a current through the tube. The current causes a ultraviolet spectrum,
approximately between
stream of negatively charged particles, called cathode rays, to flow from the filament
0,01 10 nanometers.
to the positively charged target (anode) (see Figure 5.19). On hitting the target,
X-rays can penetrate
the rays are converted by a complex process of physics to X-rays and subsequently solid substances.
reflected, as shown in Figure 5.19.
93
Did you know?

The silver Figure 5.20: A chest X-ray X-rays penetrate less dense material more easily and hence
molecule in silver show the skeletal bones and not soft tissue
halides is precipitated
when exposed to light
When testing welds, a certain proportion of the rays are absorbed, depending on the
(photons) and hence
forms a dark area on the thickness of the substance and on its density. The denser and thicker the substance,
negative of photographic the less the proportion of rays which get through. In the same way that visible light
film. exposes a sheet of photographic paper (films covered with silver halides), X-rays
also expose photographic film.
When X-ray testing is done, the photographic film is sealed in an envelope (so that
light cannot expose it) and placed behind the object being tested. The X-ray (or
gamma ray) source is placed in front of the object being tested as shown in
Figure 5.21.
Radioactive source
Test piece
Photographic film
Pause for
thought
The use of gamma ray
sources is overtaking Figure 5.21: X-ray or gamma ray testing
the use of X-ray
sources because When the tester is standing behind lead shields and as far as possible away from
they do not require harmful exposure, the source is activated for a brief moment and the X- rays or
a power source to gamma rays penetrate the test piece. As they pass through areas of lower density (air
operate them. Gamma pockets, cracks or inclusions), the rays expose the film as lighter on the negative,
ray sources use a indicating a welding defect. Photographic films are useful because they provide a
radioactive plutonium permanent record of the shadow which can be carefully studied.
sample to produce
gamma rays (high
Just as in photography, an incorrectly exposed film will contain no detail, so the
energy photons) to
X-ray or gamma ray photograph will show no detail of defects in the object unless
expose photographic
film. This makes them the correct exposure is given. This is entirely a matter of practice. In order to make
more portable than sure that a correctly exposed negative is achieved (so that even the smallest defects
X-ray testers. will be shown), a penetrometer is placed on the upper surface next to the source. A
penetrometer is a small wire of the same material as the object (steel, for example)
94
Joining methods 5
and about 1 to 2 of its thickness. If it appears as a shadow on the
100 100
negative, you can be sure that any defects or holes of the size
1 to 2
100 100
of the thickness of the object will be indicated. In the same way, small lead letters
are arranged on the outside of the envelope (stuck together with masking tape) to
mark important details of the test, such as date, location and so on. Radiation does
not pass through lead easily and therefore the markings are permanently exposed
on the photographic film for reference.
Great practice is necessary to interpret the X-ray films of welds correctly and
to distinguish between various defects shown up as shadows. Gas holes causing
porosity are usually regular in shape while any included slag is usually very
irregular. In this way, you can determine whether there has been penetration to
the full depth and correct fusion between parent metal and weld metal or between
layer and layer in a multi-layer weld. The X-rays will also tell you whether there are
regions of entrapped slag, blowholes or other porous defects. In addition, defects
such as contraction cracks will be clearly shown.
Liquid dye penetrant testing
The liquid dye penetrant testing method uses coloured liquid dyes and fluorescent
liquid penetrant to check for surface flaws. This system can be used to detect surface
flaws only in metals, plastics, ceramics and glass. This method will not detect
sub-surface flaws. The liquid dye penetrant is sprayed onto the clean surface to be
inspected. After allowing a short time for the liquid to penetrate, the excess amount
of dye is removed with a cleaner (solvent), the surface is washed with water and
allowed to dry.
When the surface is dry, a developer is sprayed on the surface to bring out
the colour in the dye penetrant which has penetrated any cracks or pin holes.
Fluorescent liquids are also used. A fluorescent liquid is applied to the surface to be
inspected. After a short time, the excess fluorescent liquid is removed with a cleaner
and the surface is washed and dried. A black-light source (ultraviolet light) is then
brought up to the surface. Areas where the fluorescent liquid has penetrated will
show up clearly under the ultraviolet light. For convenience, the dye, the cleaner
and the developer are available in aerosol spray cans. Some solvents used in the
cleaners and developers contain high percentages of chlorine, a known health
hazard, to make the liquids non-flammable. Solvents and developers containing
chlorine should be used with great care.
Because the penetration ability of the dye varies according to the materials being
tested and because it is affected by the ambient temperature, it is important to allow
sufficient time (from three to 60 minutes) to enable accurate inspection. At room
temperatures, the recommended time is between three and ten minutes.
95
Figure 5.22: Liquid dye penetrant testing Figure 5.23: Liquid dye
penetrant aerosols
Ultrasonic testing
Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency sound waves to penetrate test pieces. This
testing technique can detect internal flaws as well as surface flaws.
The principle involved is the same as the echo-ranging principle used by dolphins
and bats to navigate, namely sonar.
Ultrasonic testing is commonly used to find flaws in materials and to measure the
thickness of objects. A high frequency sound wave (ultrasonic wave) is sent into the
metal for very short periods (l to 3 microseconds).
Did you know?
A special When the wave is stopped, the unit which was used to send the sound wave then
ultrasonic gel is placed acts as a receiver to listen to the ultrasonic wave as it is reflected through the metal.
on the surface of the This is called a transceiver (transmitter-receiver). Frequencies of 2 to 10 MHz are
test piece to ensure common but for special purposes other frequencies can also be used. Inspection
that there is no air gap may be manual or automated and is an essential part of modern manufacturing
between the transponder processes.
and metal surface. This
is because sound travels Most metals can be inspected as well as plastics and aerospace composites. Lower
more slowly through frequency ultrasound (50 kHz to 500 kHz) can also be used to inspect less dense
air than through metal. materials such as wood, concrete and cement.
An air gap would cause
false readings as the
ultrasonic waves would
Each wave is visually represented on an oscilloscope. The oscilloscope is calibrated
take longer to return to to pick up only flaws of a size which would be considered harmful. The oscilloscope
the transponder wave pattern is also calibrated to show the distance between the searching unit and
any flaw found, as shown in Figure 5.24. The transponder is moved in a zig-zag
motion alongside the weld being tested to broaden its detection range.
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Joining methods 5
Welding
defect
wave Reflection wave
Transducer
Figure 5.24: Ultrasonic testing
This system is fast and results are determined at the time of testing. The operator
must have some training to ensure consistent interpretation of results. Another
advantage of this system is that no additional materials are needed and the test piece
is not damaged.
Assessment 3
1. What is the difference between destructive and non-destructive testing?
2. Use illustrations to describe the nick-break test.
3. Use illustrations to describe the X-ray test.
Applying advanced permanent joining applications

Learning to MIG weld
Safety precautions
You should observe the following safety precautions before starting any MIG
welding. If in doubt, refer to the welding machine manufacturers safety
instructions.
Always wear the correct personal protective safety wear. This includes a fire-
retardant (cotton) overall, chrome leather gloves, apron and spats. Safety boots
and an appropriately shaded arc welding helmet are also essential to ensure
personal safety.
Make sure that the welding area is adequately ventilated.
Make sure that there are no fire hazards in the workshop and that adequate fire
protection is in place.
Ensure that your equipment is absolutely safe. Do not use welding equipment
without the direct supervision of your teacher.
Getting started
Begin by ensuring that the gas shroud and nozzle of the MIG gun are clean (use
a wire brush) and spray them with anti-spatter spray. Cut off the excess wire that
protrudes through the gas shroud, as shown in Figure 5.25.
97
Use side cutters to cut excess

wire off at this point
Caution: Figure 5.25: Cutting off excess wire

Always wear a correctly
shaded welding helmet Set the voltage and wire-feed speed according to the thicknesses of the wire and
when MIG welding. The the metal being welded. The following table is a guide for feed settings. The table
light generated by MIG is based on the types of MIG machine you are likely to encounter at your school.
welding is extremely Experience will teach you to adjust the voltage setting to suit the wire speed and
bright. Looking directly vice versa. As a general rule, thin, tall weld beads indicate that your power setting is
at this light for even a too low while broad, flat weld beads show that your power setting is too high.
split second can burn
the corneas of your eyes,
A grey block in the table indicates that the wire is not suitable for the steel thickness.
causing arc eyes.
Common wire thickness is 0,6 mm 1,2 mm for light engineering work.
Fire-retardant Figure 5.26: A self-darkening (photoelectric) welding helmet

Preventing the outbreak
of fire
Steel thickness (mm) Wire speed (metres per minute)
0,6 mm wire 0,8 mm wire
0,8 2,5 1,6
1,0 3 1,9
1,2 3,6 2,2
1,5 4,3 2,6
Did you know? 2,0 5,6 3,5

Having arc eyes
is very painful. It feels 3,0 7,9 4,9
as though someone is 4,0 9,8 6,1
sticking pins into your
eyes. Before you start 5,0 12,5 7,7
welding, warn people in
the area and use a
Once you have set up, hold the MIG gun at an angle of approximately 20 to the
welding screen to
protect passers-by. vertical, 10 mm above the sheet of scrap material on which you will be welding. The
wire should touch the weld metal.
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Joining methods 5
Weld
direction
Figure 5.27: The correct set-up of the MIG gun
Draw a straight line with boilermakers chalk on the material you will be welding.
This will help you to weld in a straight line. Once you have depressed the trigger,
push the gun forward along the chalk line, in a weaving motion as indicated in
Figure 5.28.
Figure 5.28: Weaving motion
During MIG welding, pull the gun towards yourself or push it away from your body
(see Figure 5.29). The latter method is recommended as it improves the coverage of
the shielding gas.
Push Pull
Figure 5.29: Results of pushing or pulling the MIG gun
99
One of the main advantages of MIG welding over metal-arc welding is that the weld
bead does not leave a slag layer which should be cleaned off after welding. MIG
welding is widely used commercially for this reason. MIG welding is also more
suitable than metal-arc welding because thinner material can be more easily welded
without the formation of defects.
Manufacturing various joints using a variety of joining

techniques which include gas metal-arc welding
Practical assessment 1
Conduct the following procedure in the presence of your teacher. Tack and braze
together two pieces of off-cut square tubing in a fillet joint as shown in Figure
5.30.
MIG weld
Figure 5.30: A fillet joint
The following score sheet can be used for self-assessment, peer assessment and
assessment by your teacher.
Name Start run: Uniformity: End run: Defect-free: Overall: Total:

/5 /5 /5 /5 /5 /25
Your
name:
Peer 1:
Peer 2:
Teacher:
/100
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Joining methods 5
Conduct the following procedure in the presence of your teacher. Cut two
pieces of off-cut 1,6 mm plate (50 100 mm) and tack together to form a square
bevel joint as shown in Figure 5.31. Then MIG weld and finish according to the
welding symbol below. Practise a few times before you attempt the assessment.
MIG weld
Figure 5.31: A square bevel joint
Name:
Interpretation of welding symbol /1
Interpretation of finish symbol /1
Interpretation of weld symbol /1
Interpretation of tail info /1

Arrow side orientation/1
Uniformity: /2
Defect-free: /3
Start run: /3
End run: /3
Overall: /4
Total: /20
Your
name:
Peer 1:
Peer 2:
Teacher:
/80
Convert to:
/50
101
Conduct the following procedure in the presence of your teacher. Tack weld
together two pieces of 50 6 mm flat bar according to the welding symbol as
shown in Figure 5.32. Practise a few times before you attempt the assessment.
MIG weld
Figure 5.32: A V-bevel butt weld
Name:
Interpretation of dimension (20) /1


Interpretation of weld symbol /1
Interpretation of tail info /1

Arrow side orientation/1
Uniformity: /2
Defect-free: /3
Start run: /3
End run: /3
Overall: /2
Total: /20
Your name:
Peer 1:
Peer 2:
Teacher:
/80
Convert to:
/50
102
Joining methods 5
Visual inspection of welded joints
You can use the following checklist to inspect the completed welds.
Checklist Yes No
Is there fusion between the weld metal and the parent metal?
Is there an indentation, denoting undercutting along the line where the weld joins
the parent metal (line of fusion)?
Has penetration been obtained right through the joint, indicated by the weld
metal appearing through the bottom of the V or U on a single V- or U-joint?
Has the joint been built up on its upper side (reinforced), or has the weld a
concave side on its face, denoting lack of metal and thus weakness?
Is the metal full of pinholes and burnt, indicating an incorrect flame?
In arc welding, has spatter occurred, indicating too high current, too high arc
voltage or too long arc length?
Are the dimensions of the weld correct and have they been tested by gauges such
as the gauge shown in Figure 5.33?
Figure 5.33: Using a gauge to check the leg length of a fillet weld
Assessment 4
1. Which aspects should be inspected during arc welding and oxy-acetylene
welding?
2. Name seven visual requirements of a good weld.
103
104
Chapter 6
Forces
Topic 6
Calculation of
forces in
engineering
components
Calculating
Advanced tests on moments in
various mechanical engineering
principles components
Forces
Calculation of stress, Concepts of stress,

strain and modulus of strain and modulus
elasticity of elasticity
Basic calculations of forces found in engineering

components
System of forces
In Grade 11, you learned how to calculate components (such as resultant and
equilibrant) in a triangle of forces. In Grade 12, we will use exactly the same
principles to calculate resultant and equilibrant forces in a system of forces with no
more than four forces.
Calculating the resultant of a system of forces

To calculate the resultant of a system of forces, the forces in the system must first be
resolved into their individual horizontal and vertical components.
However, remember to use the correct sign to indicate a + or position on
the Cartesian plain.
Basic trigonometry can be used to find the respective X and Y components as

follows:
sin = opposite (X or Y depending on orientation)

hypotenuse (force)
cos = adjacent (X or Y depending on orientation)

hypotenuse (force)
The arithmetic sum of the X and Y components is then used to find the
magnitude of the resultant using Pythagoras, i.e. R2 = X2 + Y2.
The direction of the resultant force is calculated by using the formula:
tan = opposite (sum of X or Y components depending on orientation)

adjacent (sum of X or Y components depending on orientation)
Example 1
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force (R) in the
system of forces below.
N
0
12
80 N
40
N
60 N
106
Forces 6
Solution:
Force Vertical component Horizontal component

60 N Y = 60 sin 0 0N X = 60 cos 0 60 N
120 N Y = 120 sin 45 -84,9 N X = 120 cos 45 -84,9 N
80 N Y = 80 sin 90 80 N X = 80 cos 90 0N
40 N Y = 40 sin 60 34,6 N X = 40 cos 60 -20 N
29,7 N -44,9 N
Arithmetic sum of components:
Y = 29,7 N
X = 44,9 N
Use Pythagoras to calculate R as follows:

R2 = X2 + Y2
R2 = 44,92 + Y2
R2 = 2 016 + 882
R2 = 2 898
R = 53,8 N
The resultant, therefore, can be represented as a single force representing the

entire system as follows:
Calculate the direction of the resultant as follows:
tan = opp (X)

adj (Y)
tan = 44,9
29,7
tan = 1,51
= 56,5
The resultant, therefore, has a magnitude of 53,8 N in the direction of 56,5
west of north or 303,5
107
Calculating the equilibrant of a system of forces

The equilibrant has the same magnitude as the resultant and acts in the same line
of action but in the opposite direction.
The equilibrant in the example above therefore has a magnitude of 30,1 N in the
direction of 350,6 180 = 170,6
Assessment 1
Calculate the resultant and equilibrant of the following systems for forces:
a.

50 N
30
N
45 N
0N
10
b.
6
N
5N
4N
7N
108
Forces 6
Calculating moments found in engineering
components: uniformly distributed loads ( UDLs)
A UDL is a load which is spread over a certain distance; a brick resting on a beam,
for instance, is a good example of a UDL because the mass is spread over its entire
length, not only at a certain point, as is the case with point loads. Until now, we have
only looked at beams with point loads. The reality, however, is that very few beams
have only point loads. It is, therefore, important to know how to calculate reactions
and bending moments of UDLs.
The first step in solving any problem relating to UDLs is to convert the UDL into a
point load. This is done by multiplying the force of the load per metre by the length
across which the force acts. UDLs are indicated by a broken arrow and placed on
top of a beam. Figure 6.1 demonstrates how the conversion should be done.
2N 3 N/m 2N
2m 2m 2m 2m
Figure 6.1: Representing UDLs
6N
2N 3 N/m 2N
1m 1m
2m 2m 2m 2m
Figure 6.2: Converting UDL to point load Take note

If there is already
In Figure 6.2, an imaginary point load is created in the centre of the UDL. The load another point load
of the UDL is 3 N/m acting across 2 m; therefore, the equivalent point load is 6 N. in the centre of the
UDL, indicate the new
The imaginary point load is always represented by a dotted line.
imaginary point load
above the existing point
Label the drawing indicating that the new imaginary point load is in the centre of load.
the UDL.
109
Example 2
A beam is subjected to two point loads and one UDL and is supported at each
end by RL and RR.
1N 3 N/m 3N
2m 2m 2m 2m
Figure 6.3: Example 2
Calculate:
1. The magnitudes of reactions RL and RR.
2. The bending moments at points A, B and C.
Solution:
Start by converting the UDL into a point load as follows:
6N
1N 3 N/m 3N
1m 1m
2m 2m 2m 2m
Figure 6.4: Converting 3 N/m UDL to 6 N point load
Calculating reactions:
Take moments about reaction left (RL)

RR 8 m = (1 N 2 m) + (6 N 3 m) + (3 N 6 m)
RR = (2 + 18 + 18)
8
RR = 4,75 N
Take moments about reaction right (RR)

RL 8 m = (3 N 2 m) + (6 N 5 m) + (1 N 6 m)
RL = (6 + 30 + 6)
8
RL = 5,25 N
110
Forces 6
Test: The sum of up forces must equal the sum of down forces.
RL + RR = down forces
5,25 N + 4,75 N = 1 N + 6 N + 3 N
10 N = 10 N
2. Calculating bending moments:

Bm A: (5,25 2) (1 0) = 10,5 Nm
Bm B: (5,25 4) (1 2) (6 1) = 13 Nm
Bm C: (5,25 6) (1 4) (6 3) (3 0) = 9,5 Nm
Assessment 2
A beam is subjected to two point loads and one UDL and is supported at each
end by RL and RR.
2N 2 N/m
1N
2m 2m 2m 2m
Figure 6.5: A beam with 2 point loads and one UDL
Calculate:
1. The magnitudes of RL and RR.
2. The bending moments at points A, B and C.
Concepts of stress, strain and modulus of elasticity

Before we can begin to discuss the concepts of stress and strain, it is important to
know some basic definitions. You might not understand them initially but they will
become clearer as we proceed. Memorising the basic definitions will help you to
understand the work and will assist you when you attempt the calculations later in
the chapter.
Load: is an external force acting upon matter.
Stress: may be defined as the internal resistance in a body to an external force or
load. It is directly proportional to the applied load and inversely proportional to
the cross-sectional area of the body.
Tensile stress: is an internal force present in material when an external tensile
load is applied.
Compressive stress: is an internal force present in a material resisting an
external load.
111
Shearing stress: an internal force in material which resists a shearing load or

force between two shearing planes.
Mass: is an indication of the reluctance of a body to move; it indicates the
quantity of matter which that body contains.
Original length: is the exact length of an object before an external load is
applied.
Change in length: is the length by which an object is shortened or lengthened
Take note when an external load is applied.
It is interesting Strain: is the ratio between the change in length and the original length and is
that the stress in
expressed as a constant.
example 2 is lower than
in example 1, even
Hookes law: strain is directly proportional to the stress it causes, provided the
though the load is 2 kN limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
bigger. What is the Youngs modulus of elasticity: theoretically, this may be defined as the ratio
reason for this? between the stress and the strain in a metal, providing that the limit of elasticity
is not exceeded; it is indicated by the letter E.
Calculating stress and strain (Hookes law)

Hookes law defines the relationship between stress and strain as follows:
Strain is directly proportional to the stress it causes, provided the limit of

proportionality is not exceeded.
Calculating stress
As you learned in Grade 10, stress is calculated by dividing the load (N) by the
cross-sectional area over which it acts (m2). Stress is measured in pascals (Pa).
Example 3
Calculate the stress in a 20 mm round bar if it is
subjected to a load of 35 kN.
Step 1:
Write down the formula. Stress = Load
Cross-sectional area
You will not need to manipulate the formula as stress is already the subject of the
formula.
Step 2:
Write down all the information you are given about the problem.
Stress = ?
Load = 35 kN
Cross-sectional area = 202
4
Step 3:
Convert all the variables to their correct units.
Stress = ?
Load = 35 103 N (Correct units are newtons.)
112
Forces 6

4 106 (area converted to m2)
Using a diameter of 20 mm gives an answer in mm2.

To convert to the correct units, the diameter must be divided by 106 because there
are 106 square millimetres in one m2 or 106 mm2 in 1 m2.
Step 4:
Substitute the variables in the formula and solve the equation.
Stress = Load
Stress = 35 103
202
4 106 (substitute)
Stress = 35 103 4 106

202 (simplify)
Stress = 111,41 106 Pa
Step 5:
Convert the solution to the appropriate units according to engineering notation.
Stress = 111,41 M Pa
Assessment 3
1. Calculate the compressive stress in a 15 mm round bar if it is subjected to a
compressive load of 30 kN.
2. Calculate the load which causes a tensile stress of 50 MPa in a round bar with
a diameter of 10 mm.
Calculating strain
Strain is the ratio between the change in length and the original length and is
expressed as a constant. Strain has no units; it is merely a ratio of how much an
engineering component has elongated or compressed under a certain load. This
is important to know as it gives you information about how metals react to the
loads placed on them. The value of strain is higher in soft, malleable materials
than in harder and tougher materials when subjected to the same loads because
they deform more easily. Strain on its own, however, has little value without the
knowledge of how much stress is present in the material. In the next section, we will
look at how stress and strain are proportional to each other according to Youngs
modulus of elasticity.
113
Strain is calculated by dividing the change in length (l) by the original length(l) of
an object which has undergone deformation according to the following formula:
Strain = change in length (l)

Original length (l)
Take note
Strain has no
units because the mm Strain is a constant and has no units. It is important when calculating strain
units cancel each other however, to make sure that both x and l are converted to the same units. For
out in the equation. example, if x is measured in mm then l must also be measured in mm. The solution
to a strain problem may be expressed as a decimal fraction or as an exponent.
Example 4
Calculate the strain in a 0,5 m long cable which elongated by 0,1 mm under a
certain load.
As with stress calculations, a few simple steps should be followed.
Step 1:
Write down the formula.
Strain = Change in length (l)
Original length (l)
Step 2:
Write down what you know.
Strain = ?
(l) = 0,1 mm
l = 0,5 m
Step 3:
Convert (l) and l into the same units.
Strain = ?
l = 0,1 mm
l = 500 mm (There are 1 000 mm in 1 m, so 0,5 m 1 000 = 500 mm)
Step 4:
Substitute the values and solve the equation.
Original length (l)
Strain = 0,1 mm
500 mm
Strain = 0,0002 or 2 10-4
114
Forces 6
Assessment 4
1. Calculate the strain in a steel rod which has elongated by 0,5 mm under a
tensile load if its original length was 2 m.
2. A brass bush is pressed into a machine part. The compressive force has
shortened the bush by 0,01 mm. Calculate the strain in the bush if its original
length was 50 mm.
Calculating compressive/tensile stress

Compressive stress occurs over the full length of a bar which is subjected to a
compressive (pushing) force.
Figure 6.6 shows the stress at section xx in a bar which has been subjected to a
compressive load.
Force Force
Figure 6.6: Compressive stress in a bar
Tensile stress occurs over the full length of a bar which is subjected to a tensile
(pulling) force. Figure 6.7 shows the stress at section xx in a bar which has been
subjected to a tensile load.
Force Force
Figure 6.7: Tensile stress in a bar
Both compressive and tensile stresses are calculated using exactly the same
method as in Assessment 3. The nature of the stress (compressive or tensile) has no
influence on the magnitude of the stress, only on the direction.
Calculating Youngs modulus of elasticity

Youngs modulus of elasticity is theoretically defined as the ratio between the stress
and the strain in a metal, providing that the limit of elasticity is not exceeded. It is
indicated by the letter E. Basically, what this means is stress in metal is proportional
to strain up to a certain point (the limit of elasticity). After this point, the elongation
in the metal starts to increase rapidly. This is because there is an internal shearing
process happening, known as slip. The metal molecules move past one another,
resulting in elongation of the metal. This results in permanent deformation called
plastic deformation.
115
Youngs modulus is calculated by dividing stress by strain for any given component.
The units are also measured in Pa, as with stress. The method of calculation is, as
shown earlier, (the same) as for stress and strain, with the final substitution of their
values into the following formula.
Youngs modulus (E) = Stress

Strain
Example 5
Calculating Youngs modulus
A 30 mm round bar lengthens by 0,2 mm in a tensile test under a load of

35 kN. Calculate Youngs modulus for the bar if its original length was 60 mm.
Step 1:
Write down the formula. Stress = Load
Step 2:
Write down all the information you are given about the problem.
Stress = ?
Load = 35 kN

4
Step 3:
Convert all the variables to their correct units.
Stress = ?
Load = 35 103 N
4 106
116
Forces 6
Step 4:
Substitute the variables into the formula and solve the equation.
Stress = Load
Stress = 35 103
302
4 106
Stress = 35 103 4 106

302
Stress = 140 109

900
Stress = 49 514 871,18 Pa
Step 5:
Convert the solution to the appropriate units in accordance with engineering
notation.
Stress = 49,51 MPa
Calculate strain:
Step 1:
Strain = Change in length(l)
Original length (l)
Step 2:
Strain = ?
x = 0,2 mm
l = 60 mm
Step 3:

Original length (l)
Strain = 0,2 mm
60 mm
Strain = 0,0033
Calculate Youngs modulus:
Step 1:
Write down the formula for Youngs modulus.
Youngs modulus (E) = Stress
Strain
117
Step 2:
Substitute the values for stress and strain and solve.
E = Stress
Strain
E = 49,51 106
0,0033
E = 14 854 461 355,24 Pa
E = 14,85 109
E = 14,85 GPa
Assessment 5
1. A 32 mm round bar lengthens by 0,5 mm in a tensile test under a load of
100 kN. Calculate Youngs modulus for the bar if its original length was
120 mm.
2. A 10 mm steel cable stretches by 0,6 mm under a load of 56 kN.
Calculate Youngs modulus for the cable if its original length was 20 m.
Calculating change in length (l)

Change in length is simply calculated by manipulating the strain calculation
formula as in the following example:
Example 6
A steel stud is pressed into a machine part by a compressive force resulting in
strain of 0,0045.
Calculate by how much it was shortened if its original length was 50 mm.
Step 1:
Original length (l)
Step 2:
Strain = 0,0045
l = ?
L = 50 mm
Step 3:
0,0045 = Change in length (l)

50
Change in length (l) = 0,0045 50 mm
(l) = 0,23 mm
118
Forces 6
The following diagram is a graph of stress (y-axis) against strain (x-axis), known as
the stress/strain diagram.
KEY
A Limit of proportionality
B Elastic limit
Strain
C Yield point
D Maximum stress
E Break stress
Stress
Figure 6.9: The stress/strain diagram
Performing advanced tests on various mechanical

principles
Testing bending moments
The beam tester is used to determine the deflection (bent shape) of various given
pieces of material at any given bending moment.
In the simplest case, the equipment can be used as an illustration of Youngs
modulus of elasticity for a material.
For example, an aluminium beam will deflect roughly three times more than a steel
beam of the same section, under the same load conditions, since the modulus for
aluminium is a third of that of steel.
Figure 6.10: A beam tester
Assemble the equipment as directed in the kit, selecting an appropriate beam.

Using a ruler and a dry-wipe marker, draw a line across the beam 200 mm from
the root.
Add a 10 g weight hanger onto the dial indicator and slide the dial gauge down
onto the beam until it reads 10 mm. Remove the weight hanger and zero the
outer scale using the bezel. With plastic beams this may take several attempts.
119
Add a 100 g mass to the dial indicator and record the dial indicator reading.
Repeat the previous step until you reach 500 g, increasing the mass in 100 g
increments.
Plot a graph of deflection (x-axis) versus load (y-axis) to prove the relevant
theories.
Testing shear forces
Shear force testing is used to establish the strength of a material or bonding material
which is subjected to shear forces (sliding forces).
A test device, as shown in the image, is commonly used to determine the shear
strength. Two skids are pressed together. The top tool provides the applied force on
the test medium that is sufficient to shear the specimen. The bottom tool holds the
specimen and is mounted on a movable skid to ensure that only shear forces affect
the specimen.
The test rig measures the forces which caused the specimen to shear as well as
the shear stresses during testing and the ultimate (or breaking stress) when the
specimen fails.
Figure 6.11: A shear tester
Testing stress/strain and elasticity
Knowing Youngs modulus of elasticity for any given component is very important
because it indicates whether the material can safely bear up under the applied load.
Values for Youngs modulus of elasticity for various metals have been determined
experimentally by using tensile testers which can measure both stress and strain
in standard samples. Comparing the calculated values of a particular component
to these experimental values will give a good indication of the strength of the
particular component.
120
Forces 6
Charting values for stress vs. strain for most engineering materials should yield a
very similar graph to the stress/strain diagram in Figure 6.9.
121
122
Chapter 7
Maintenance
Topic 7
The effect of lack

of maintenance on
operating systems
Identification
Replacement of of the most suitable
belt and chain preventative
drives and maintenance in
clutches operating
systems
Maintenance
Belt-, chaindrives Grading of oil

and clutches according to viscosity
(SAE Standards)
Introduction
In Grades 10 and 11, we learned about the basic concepts of friction, wear and
lubrication. We also looked at the basic principles of maintenance. In Grade 12, we
will explore properties of lubricants and learn about the maintenance of drives and
clutches.
The effect of lack of maintenance on operating

systems
The primary effect of lack of maintenance on operating systems is ultimately the
failure of particular parts or the system as a whole. As you learned in Grade 10,
maintenance may be:
preventive
predictive
reliability-centred.
Failure to conduct routine maintenance (regardless of which maintenance

methodology is used) can have very serious or even catastrophic consequences. The
most important effects are:
risk of injury or death (e.g. failed brakes)
financial loss due to damage suffered as a result of part failure
loss of valuable production time.
Identification of the most suitable preventive

maintenance in operating systems
Preventive maintenance is defined as:
Care and servicing by personnel for the purpose of maintaining equipment
and facilities in a satisfactory operating condition by providing for systematic
inspection, detection and correction of emerging failures, either before they
occur or before they develop into major defects.
Maintenance, including tests, measurements, adjustments and parts
replacement, performed specifically to prevent faults from occurring.
Preventive maintenance can be described as maintenance of equipment or systems

before a fault occurs. It can be divided into two subgroups:
planned/scheduled maintenance and condition-based maintenance.
The main difference between the subgroups is the determination of maintenance

time, or the determination of the moment when maintenance should be performed.
While preventive maintenance is generally considered to be worthwhile, there

are risks involved, such as equipment failure or human error, when preventive
maintenance is performed, just as in any maintenance operation.
Preventive maintenance, such as scheduled overhaul or scheduled replacement,

provides two of the three proactive failure management policies available to
the maintenance engineer. Common methods of determining what preventive
(or other) failure management policies should be applied are: OEM (Original
Equipment Manufacturers) recommendations, requirements of codes and
legislation within a jurisdiction, what an expert thinks ought to be done or
the maintenance which has already been done to similar equipment and, most
importantly, measured values and performance indications.
In simple terms:
Preventive maintenance is conducted to keep equipment working and/or extend the
124 life of the equipment.
Maintenance 7
Corrective maintenance, sometimes called repair, is conducted to get equipment
working again.
The primary goal of maintenance is to avoid or mitigate the consequences of failure

of equipment. This may be done by preventing the failure before it actually occurs, Did you know?
which planned maintenance and condition-based maintenance help to achieve. Automotive
This is designed to preserve and restore equipment reliability by replacing worn gears are gears found in
components before they actually fail. Preventive maintenance activities include manual transmissions
partial or complete overhauls at specified periods, oil changes, lubrication, etc. In and industrial gears
addition, workers can record equipment deterioration so that they know when are gears found in the
to replace or repair worn parts before these parts cause system failure. The ideal gearboxes of industrial
preventive maintenance programme would prevent all equipment failure before it machinery.
occurs.
Assessment 1
1. Define preventive maintenance and state its primary goal.
2. Give an example of preventive maintenance.
Properties of lubricants
Viscosity
Did you know?
SAE is the
The viscosity of a liquid can be thought of as its thickness or a measure of its abbreviation for the
resistance to flow. The viscosity should be high enough to maintain a lubricating Society of Automotive
film but low enough for the oil to flow around the engine parts under all conditions. Engineers.
Viscosity index
The viscosity index is a measure of how much the oils viscosity changes as the
temperature changes. The viscosity of an oil should be adequate to maintain a
hydrodynamic lubricating film under all working conditions. Industrial gear
lubricants are usually considered for their intended applications in terms of
their viscosities at 40 C (rather than 100 C), as they generally operate at lower
temperatures than automotive gear lubricants.
As automotive gear lubricants are more likely to be exposed to outside temperatures

than industrial gear lubricants, low temperature viscosity is important in
determining the particular SAE W viscosity grade of a lubricant. Viscosity
Kinematics
can also influence gear noise and the ease of changing gears. The oil should be
A branch of mechanics
adhesive enough to cling to the gear teeth and resist removal by transfer, wiping or which describes
centrifugal force. The oil film should also be resistant to rupture under heavy loads. the motion of
objects without the
The viscosity index is a measure of how much the oils viscosity changes as the consideration of the
temperature changes. A higher viscosity index indicates that the viscosity changes masses or forces that
less with temperature than a lower viscosity index. The viscosity index (VI) is bring about the motion
a petroleum industry term. It is a lubricating oil quality indicator, an arbitrary
measure for the change of kinematic viscosity with temperature. The viscosity of
liquids decreases as temperature increases. The viscosity of a lubricant is closely
related to its ability to reduce friction. Generally, you want the thinnest liquid/oil
which still forces the two moving surfaces apart. If the lubricant is too thick, it will
require a lot of energy to move the surfaces (such as with honey). If, however, the
lubricant is too thin, the surfaces will rub together and friction will increase.
125
The VI indicates how a lubricants viscosity changes with variations in temperature.

Automotive lubricants must reduce friction between engine components when
the engine is started from cold as well as when it is running. The best oils (with
the highest VI) do not vary much in viscosity over such a temperature range and,
therefore, will perform well throughout.
The VI scale was set up by the SAE. The temperatures chosen arbitrarily for
reference are 40 C and 100 C. The original scale stretched only between VI = 0
(worst oil) and VI = 100 (best oil) but better oils have recently been produced,
leading to VIs which are greater than 100. VI-improvement additives and higher
quality base oils are widely used nowadays. The VIs of synthetic fluids range from
80 to more than 400.
An oils VI should be high enough to keep the viscosity within permitted limits at
any temperature. The VI is also an indicator of the quality of the base oils used in
a gear-oil formulation. For multigrade, automotive gear oils such as the SAE 75W-
90, it is important to use a highly shear-stable, VI-improvement additive in the
formulation to ensure that oil viscosity is maintained under conditions of very high
shear, particularly as required by Japanese transmission manufacturers.
Pour point
Pour point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid remains pourable (meaning
it still behaves like a fluid). The pour point is, therefore, an index of the lowest
temperature of its utility for a given application. If the pour point of the oil is
higher than the ambient temperature in which the gears are operating, then they
will run the risk of dry operation during the time immediately after start-up.
The gears will cut channels in the lubricant (called channelling) and run virtually
unlubricated until frictional heat has caused the oil to flow more readily. Obviously,
severe damage can be done to the gear teeth during this period.
Flash-point
Flash-point is an important property of motor oil and is defined as the lowest
temperature at which the oil gives off vapours which can ignite. It is dangerous for
the oil in a motor engine to ignite and burn, so a high flash-point is desirable. At
a petroleum refinery, fractional distillation separates a motor-oil fraction from
other crude-oil fractions, removing the more volatile components and, therefore,
increasing the oils flash-point (reducing its tendency to burn).
Assessment 2
1. What is the difference between viscosity and the viscosity index?
2. Define the pour point of a lubricant.
3. Why is it important for engine oil to have a high flash-point?
126
Maintenance 7
Grading of oil according to viscosity (SAE standards)
Transmission oil
There two main types of transmissions in motor vehicles, namely manual and
automatic transmission. Each uses different types of oils for various reasons. To
understand transmission oils better, you need to know more about transmissions or
gearboxes.
Torque
Manual transmission oils A measure of the
turning effort of
The first application in which these oils are used is in manual transmissions (often the gears which is
called gearboxes). A gearbox is an arrangement of gears, bearings and shafts in an necessary for climbing
enclosed housing which allows the driver to adjust the speed and torque of the hills or starting from
vehicle. rest
Bigger gears rotate more slowly but carry greater turning effort. By manually
controlling the various combinations of larger and smaller gears with the
gear lever, a driver can progressively shift from low gear (low speed, high
torque) to top gear (high speed, low torque).
Gear lever
Selector for gear changes
Splined input shaft
Layshaft
Figure 7.1: A manual transmission
The types of gears usually found in manual transmission are spur or helical, EP gear-oil
which means that the lubrication conditions are not too severe. Some manual Extreme pressure gear
transmissions are fitted with yellow metal bushings which are vulnerable to oil
corrosive attack by the sulphur components of high EP gear-oil formulations.
Automotive gear-lubricant classifications
Automotive gear-oil classifications provide a convenient way of comparing the

performance of various gear oils. The American Petroleum Institute (API) is
regarded as the worlds authority on oil classification.
127
The API uses the following designations to identify the load-carrying

capabilities of automotive manual transmission and axle lubricants:
Firstly, there is API GL-6, which is not included here as it is obsolete (no longer
used) and not referred to anymore.
API GL-5 covers high EP lubricants, particularly for hypoid gears in axles
operating under high speed, high load conditions.
API GL-4 covers milder EP lubricants for spiral bevel (and some hypoid) gears
in axles operating under moderate speeds and loads. These oils may be used in
selected manual transmission and trans-axle applications.
API GL-3 covers service for manual transmissions and spiral bevel axles
operating under mild to moderate speeds and loads.
API GL-2 covers service for automotive-type worm-gear axles.
API GL-1 covers service for manual transmissions operating under such mild
conditions that straight mineral oil will suffice.
API MT-1 is the only current member of a new classification series specifically
for manual transmissions, hence the letters MT. This classification designates
lubricants intended for non-synchronised manual transmissions used in
buses and heavy-duty trucks. API MT-1 provides protection against thermal
degradation, component wear and oil-seal deterioration which is not provided
by lubricants meeting only the requirements of API GL-4 or GL-5.
The API GL specifications are described in the product guides of all oil
manufacturers.
The following table is a generalisation of the viscosity properties which are required
in gearbox oil at a range of different temperatures (outside temperatures). However,
the manufacturers specifications should always be observed when topping up or
replacing gearbox oil.
Gearbox oil Temperature

SAE
viscosity -29 C 17,8 C -6,7 C 4,4 C 15,6 C 26,7 C 37,8 C
75W
80W
80W-90
85W
90
140
Figure 7.2: Viscosity of gearbox oil for different temperature ranges
Automotive synchromesh transmissions
Synchromesh transmissions are found in most modern manual gearboxes and are
used to ease the gear-changing process. Once a vehicle is in motion, it is obvious
that for one gear to mesh with another quietly and without damage, both gears
must be rotating at nearly the same speed when they come together. Synchromesh
transmissions use the friction between the mating conical surfaces of the collar
and the free-running gear wheel to slow down or speed up the wheel. The cones on
the gear wheel and collar, which are made of yellow-metal alloy or sintered-steel
alloys, are the most critical elements of the synchroniser design, from a lubrication
128
Maintenance 7
perspective. The high temperatures generated by the sliding contact can cause
glazing of the surfaces with high EP additive formulations, resulting in difficulty
with gear changes. For this reason, mild EP products are recommended for
synchromesh transmissions.
Automatic transmission oils
ATFs (automatic transmission fluids) are probably the most complex and
sophisticated of all lubricating oils. Typically, they can contain over fifteen additives.
These additives must be delicately balanced in a carefully chosen base oil. They
must be capable of functioning in a wide variety of transmissions and vehicle
combinations, as well as being compatible with the range of materials present in the
transmission, including aluminium, steel, copper, bronze, brass, tin, silver, plastics,
paper and rubber.
ATFs must also be multifunctional and be able to perform functions such as:
transmitting power in the torque converter
acting as hydraulic fluid transmitting energy (hydrostatic) in order to move
various components such as the servo cylinder (which can then lock or unlock
various gears into place)
acting as a heat-transfer medium transfer heat from within the transmission
to the outside and so assist in cooling it down otherwise temperatures in some
areas would quickly reach 600 C+
acting as a lubricant for gears and bearings.
Torque converter
Planetary gears
Clutch assemblies
Figure 7.3: A cutaway model of an automatic transmission and torque converter
The viscosity of the oil needs to be sufficiently high over a wide range of
Cavitation
temperatures in order to provide the desired hydrodynamic film. Yet it should not The general term
be high enough to interfere with the flow of oil, cause viscous losses and overheating used to describe the
or affect shift times. It should also be able to flow readily at low temperatures in behaviour of spherical
order to reach components quickly at start-up, allow easy cold starts and avoid oil voids in fluid
pump cavitation.
129
Engine oil
Engine oils can be classified according to the type of engine in which they will
be used. There are several different types, such as four-stroke petrol engines,
two-stroke petrol engines and CI or diesel engines. Each type of engine has very
specific requirements for its lubricating oil. In this chapter, we will look only at the
lubrication of the four-stroke petrol engine.
Passenger car motor oil (PCMO) is probably the best known type of oil, yet PCMOs
are little understood by their everyday users. A PCMO must perform many
functions, most of them aligned with the basic fundamentals of lubrication theory
which you learnt about in Grade 10.
A PCMO should do the following:

Separate moving components by forming a film of lubricant between them. This
reduces friction and wear.
Clean deposits and sludges from engine surfaces and prevent the formation of
varnish or lacquering on the piston.
Suspend contaminants such as soot, dirt, worn metal particles and acidic by-
products of combustion until the oil is drained and these contaminants can be
removed with the used engine oil. In the case of suspending contaminants, it
holds them as microscopic particles, preventing them from blocking filters.
Minimise wear in areas of the engine where loads are high or speeds are low,
where the hydrodynamic lubrication film is broken and boundary lubrication, or
some metal-to-metal contact, can occur.
Resist oxidation, that is temperature-induced thickening. An engine oil is
exposed to extreme temperatures. Bulk crankcase temperature of an engine oil
will be somewhere around 100 C. The temperature of an engine oil flowing
through the main and big-end bearings will be around 150 C and the oil which
forms the lubricating layer separating the cylinder and the piston rings will
experience temperatures around 300 C or higher before being scraped back
down into the crankcase.
Cool parts of the engine, especially bearings and the underside of the piston. It is
therefore exposed to additional thermal stresses which place further demands on
its ability to resist oxidation.
Flow at low temperatures. In other words, it must circulate immediately on start-
up to form a lubricating film throughout the engine, whatever the temperature.
Thin out as little as possible with increasing temperature so that it forms a
lubricating film under extreme temperatures.
The engine oils viscosity determines how thick the oil film separating engine
components will be. There are a number of different viscosity conditions which oil
will experience within an engine. The SAE has drawn up a standard classifying the
viscosity grades for engine oils. The SAE J300 specification establishes the viscosities
which an oil should have under four different temperature conditions if it is to be
described as meeting the SAE viscosity grades.
There are two ranges of viscosity grades laid down by the SAE J300. The first is the
W grades, widely known as winter grades. This common description came about
because, in areas like the central US, a single-viscosity grade oil would previously
have been used in the engine during winter and changed to a summer grade during
the hotter months. The W grades are the SAE 0W, 5W, l0W, 15W 20W and 25W
grades.
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Maintenance 7
SAE J300 Viscosity Grades for Engine Oils set two low-temperature viscosity
conditions. These must be met by any oil carrying one of the W viscosity grades:
Low Temperature Cranking Viscosity, which ensures that the oil will allow the
engine to be cranked at the minimum speed needed to start it.
Low Temperature Pumping Viscosity, which ensures that the oil will be able
to be pumped (or flow) to all sections of the engine at the low temperatures
sometimes found at start-up.
The second range of SAE J300 viscosity grades is the high temperature grades, also
sometimes called, somewhat confusingly, the Non-W grades. These are the SAE
20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 grades. SAE J300 Viscosity Grades for Engine Oils set two
high-temperature viscosity conditions for the high-temperature viscosity grades:
1. a viscosity at 100 C
2. a viscosity at 150 C under high rates of shear as experienced in an engine
bearing.
The following table is a generalisation of the viscosity properties which are required
in engine oil at a range of different temperatures (outside temperature). However,
the manufacturers specifications should always be observed when topping up or
replacing gearbox oil.
Engine Temperature
oil SAE
viscosity -29 C -17,8 C -,7 C 4,4 C 15,6 C 26,7 C 37,8 C
20W-20
20W-40 a
20W-50
10W-30
10W-40
10W
5W-30
5W-20
Figure 7.4: Viscosity of engine oil for different temperature ranges
Differential oils
Power from the transmission is transferred along a shaft (called the drive shaft)
to the rear axle (in rear-wheel-drive vehicles). In order to transmit rotational
motion to the rear wheels, the drive needs to make a 90 change in direction. This
is achieved by means of a series of bevel gears called a differential. The differential
allows for a change of direction in the transmitted power and also enables the
driving wheels to turn at different speeds when cornering. (Remember that the
outside wheel has further to roll than the inside wheel.) Speed reduction depends
on the numbers of teeth used in the crown wheel and pinion. In passenger cars and
most trucks, the differential is the final stage of gear reduction.
131
Crown wheel
Pinion
Figure 7.5: A cutaway view of a differential
Spiral bevel gears (with curved teeth) are used in differentials. When the axis of the
pinion is set below the axis of the crown wheel, giving a lower propeller shaft, this
is known as a hypoid differential. Hypoid gears are not only difficult to lubricate
because their motion is more one of sliding than rolling and the sliding motion
tends to rub away the lubricant, but the service required of a differential is typically
severe, for example, high speeds, stop/starts and shock loads due to potholes.
Therefore, gear lubricants containing sulphur-phosphorus EP additives are required
to provide the load-carrying capacity necessary to lubricate hypoid differentials.
Crown wheel
Axis of pinion set below

Pinion
the centre of the crown
wheel
Figure 7.6: A hypoid gear
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Maintenance 7
Differential oils are usually classified using the rating GL1 GL6. However, as
with gearbox oil, the manufacturers specifications should always be observed when
topping up or replacing the differential oil.
Cutting fluid
Cutting fluid is the fluid used in conjunction with machining processes such as
lathe work or milling. It is usually a compound of water-soluble oil and water.
A wide range of cutting fluid products is available but most have a very low viscosity
(below SAE 20). The fluid has a milky white appearance and is applied directly to
the workpiece by means of a movable spout. The cutting fluid is recycled as a pump
circulates it from the machines splash tray and sump back to the spout.
Figure 7.7: Applying cutting fluid to a vertical milling cutter
Advantages of cutting fluid

The use of cutting fluids has many advantages:
The workpiece and cutting tool are kept cool.
The life of the cutting tool is prolonged.
A better finish is imparted to the workpiece.
Cuttings are washed away, keeping the cutting tool free of debris.
The machine is protected because the cutting process is eased.
The machine operator is protected from very fine metal chips and dust.
Productivity is increased because the cutting process is faster.
The soluble oil prevents corrosion.
The application of cutting fluid

Cutting fluids should be applied to the cutting tool in order for them to reach all the
areas that needing cooling and lubricating. Care should be taken not to cause the
fluid to splash. This can occur, for example, if the stream of cutting fluid runs onto
the chuck of a centre lathe. Splashes of soluble oil on the floor of the workshop are
slippery and should be cleaned up immediately. Often sawdust is used to absorb
spilt cutting fluid. Industrial degreasers can also be used when cleaning spills.
133
Maintenance of cutting fluid

The following guidelines should always be followed for safe and effective work with
cutting fluid:
Avoid contamination of the cutting fluid by draining and regularly replacing it.
Always clean the machines splash tray of metal cuttings after use.
Regularly wipe cutting-fluid splashes off machine parts (only when the machine
is stationary).
Ensure that the sump is topped up from time to time and check that there is
sufficient flow of cutting fluid to the cutting tool.
Grease
When selecting grease for various components (such as wheel bearings), one must
use the grease products which meet the requirements of the original equipment
manufacturer (OEM). OEM specifications for grease normally include viscosity
at operating or ambient temperature, additive requirements and base oil type.
Viscosity is, however, one of the most important aspects to consider; equally
important is the velocity of the bearing or component involved. There are very
sophisticated calculations, tables and graphs to determine the correct viscosity
for use at a range of operating temperatures. Other factors to be considered in
the selection of the most appropriate grease are operating temperature, special
environmental considerations for different environmental conditions (e.g. salt water
in boat trailer wheel hubs), etc. However, all greases have a very high viscosity
compared to motor oil.
Assessment 3
1. Classify the viscosity of each of the following types of lubricants and state why
you think they have that viscosity.
a. Transmission oil
b. Engine oil
c. Differential oil
d. Cutting fluid
e. Grease
Belt and chain drives and clutches

Belts, chains and clutches are all components which transfer rotary motion. The
friction experienced by these components causes wear and tear. Because of this, the
components need to be adjusted or replaced periodically.
Maintenance of belt drives

Belts tend to stretch with prolonged use. They will need to be tightened periodically
and checked for correct alignment.
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Maintenance 7
Figure 7.8: Incorrectly aligned pulleys
Incorrectly aligned pulleys will drastically shorten the life of belts because of the
extra wear that is placed on them. When machines are serviced, it is important to
check the pulleys for alignment and adjust them to achieve the correct tension.
When belts become too worn, they should be replaced.
Replacement of belt drives
Once belts have worn out, they must be removed and replaced with new belts. It
is extremely important to ensure that the machine is switched off and locked out.
Locking out means that the machines start switch cannot be activated because it has
been physically locked. It is therefore impossible to start the machine without the
knowledge of the servicing technician. This should be done to prevent accidents.
Once the machine and work area have been secured, the tension on the belt must
be released. This may involve loosening an adjusting screw or releasing the belt
tensioner. The belt can then be removed and replaced with a new belt of the correct
type and length. The belt can then be re-tensioned and aligned to ensure maximum
service life.
Maintenance of chain drives

Chain drives are much stronger than belt drives and have a much longer service
life. Like gear drives, they also provide positive traction when transferring rotary
motion. To maintain optimal service life, a chain drive also needs to be tensioned
correctly. This is achieved, in some cases, by using a spring-loaded chain tensioner.
The length of the chain can also be adjusted by adding or removing chain links.
As with belt drives, the sprockets that the chain runs on must also be correctly
aligned. Chains should be cleaned periodically and lubricated with suitable oil.
On inspection, it may be necessary to replace some of the links or the entire chain
because of wear.
Replacement of chain drives
As chains usually bear relatively high loads, they tend to stretch. A stretched chain
loses strength, generates friction, vibration, excessive noise and may ultimately
break or derail. When a chain needs to be replaced, the following should be
observed. It is extremely important to ensure that the machine is switched off and
locked out.
135
Locate the link in the chain and remove the spring retainer or cotter pins
(depending on what type of chain it is) and then remove the pin link plate. This
will break the chain and allow you to remove it. Take note that certain chain
systems must have their sprockets in alignment, such as crankshafts and camshafts
in engines. Care should be taken in these instances to ensure that the sprockets
are aligned when the new chain is installed. Failure to do so could result in very
expensive repairs later on. Select the correct length and size of replacement chain
and make sure that it is sufficiently lubricated before installion. When the new chain
has been run over the sprockets, insert the chain link and tension the chain. Never
lubricate a chain manually while it is in motion. Always check the alignment of the
chain to make sure that it is running true.
Figure 7.9: A chain drive
Maintenance of clutches
Clutches are used to couple and decouple rotating shafts. The basic principle on
which clutches operate is that two rotating surfaces are brought together until the
friction between them causes them to rotate at the same speed. The friction which
occurs on engagement and disengagement eventually wears down the fibre plate
between the plates. When this happens, this fibre plate, known as the clutch plate,
will need to be replaced. In the case of a motor vehicles clutch, the flywheel is one of
the plates against which the clutch plate presses. As a result of the friction involved,
it too wears down, resulting in grooves. These grooves will need to be removed by a
precision machining process known as skimming before a new clutch plate can be
fitted.
The only maintenance associated with the mechanical clutch actuation is to check
the distance between the release bearing and the pressure plate periodically. This
clearance is commonly called clutch pedal free-play and refers to the distance that
the pedal moves before the slack is taken from the linkage and the release bearing
begins to disengage the clutch from the flywheel.
This distance can be measured by standing a steel ruler on the floorboard and
measuring the height of the pedal in the released position. Take the slack from
the clutch linkage (depress the pedal until resistance is felt) and re-measure. The
difference between the two measurements is the amount of clutch linkage free-play
(measured at the pedal). Generally, the clearance should be approximately 20 25
mm. This clearance can be maintained by adjustment of the clutch linkage. If not,
the clutch and pressure plate should be replaced as a set.
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Maintenance 7
On systems that have hydraulically actuated clutches, the fluid level in the master
cylinder reservoir should be checked at least every 6 months or whenever a vehicle
service is performed. As with many brake master cylinder reservoirs, you normally
check the fluid level through the translucent plastic body of the reservoir. Fill to the
line in the reservoir.
NOTE: Although the level should drop slowly with clutch wear, the need to add
large amounts of fluid constantly points to the probability of a leak. If a leak
is suspected, the system should be thoroughly checked to prevent a hydraulic
system failure.
Free travel
Pedal height
Figure 7.10: Measuring clutch pedal free-play
Replacement of clutches
Note
When clutches need to be replaced, it is advisable to purchase a clutch kit. A Do not attempt
clutch kit contains the clutch plate and other components which may also need to do any clutch
to be replaced, such as the pressure plate and release bearing. Different vehicle maintenance or repair
models have very specific methods of replacing the clutch assembly. The basic work/replacement
process, however, is to remove the bell housing first. The clutch assembly can unless under the
then be dismantled and replaced with the new components. As stated earlier, it direct instruction
is advisable to skim the flywheel before installing the new clutch assembly. This and supervision of a
competent instructor/
type of maintenance should also be accompanied by checking and maintaining the
teacher.
hydraulic cylinders or mechanical systems which activate the clutch.
137
Clutch plate
Crankshaft
Diaphragm
spring
Flywheel Pressure plate
Flywheel and pressure plate Flywheel and pressure

disengaged plate engaged
Figure 7.11: A mechanical clutch assembly
Assessment 4
1. Explain how you would conduct maintenance work on a belt drive.
2. Describe the process of replacing a chain drive.
3. What is the correct method of checking the amount of clutch pedal free-play?
4. Why is it important to skim the flywheel when the clutch of a motor vehicle is
overhauled?
138
Chapter 8
Systems and control
Topic 8
Methods
Mechanical
of repair
Systems
and control
Electrical/
electronic control Hydraulics
Introduction
In Grades 10 and 11, we looked extensively at mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic and
electrical/electronic systems and at control methods and components. We also dealt
with the development of systems in use today which are based on the ingenuity
of our ancestors (indigenous knowledge). It is important to use your current
knowledge to evaluate current systems critically, and components and products
with the goal of constant innovation and development of products and systems.
We must remember that a machine which includes systems and control is designed
Did you know? to work and can be any man-made device. All machines are envisioned to save
Mechatronics effort (the force that is applied to lift or remove a load), that is, to be more efficient
is the field of study than manual (physical) labour. A machine does not constantly save us energy;
describing systems that however, energy may be used in smaller quantities spread over a longer period.
integrate mechanical
devices (mechanical
engineering), electrical Mechanical drives
and electronic circuits
(electrical engineering) Mechanical drives convey one rotary motion to another by means of belt drives,
and elements of gears, pulleys, rope drives or chain drives. The prime purpose of a mechanical
information technology system is to transmit power and motion, and the various ways in which this can be
e.g. robotic arms achieved will be investigated. Mechanical drives comprise a vast field of activities.
in a motor vehicle
They include power generation, land, marine (sea) and air transport, manufacturing
(manufacturing plant).
and fabrication plants.
Gears
Gear drives work on the principle that the turning motion of one gear may be
Did you know? transferred to another gear if the gears are mounted so that they mesh (engage).
Gears can only
mesh if they have the Gear trains (simple and compound systems) form an indispensable part of many
same module, as this power transmission systems. The most common profile used in gears is the involute
fixes the size and pitch of tooth profile. The foremost reason for embracing the involute tooth form (profile) is
the teeth. The gear teeth that the teeth are very strong, the velocity (speed) ratio between meshing (mating)
guarantee that no slip
gears is constant and the teeth can be accurately machined with modern gear-
will take place between
cutting machinery. It is important to know and remember that all gear teeth mesh
the two gears (unless the
teeth are stripped). with a rolling and sliding action which is why good lubrication (as discussed in
Chapter 7) is vital.
Assessment 1
1. Investigate how an involute curve is generated.
(Hint: Consult your Drawings teacher.)
Involute curve
Base circle
Figure 8.1: Involute curve
140
Systems and control 8
If a gear system consists of two gears, it is called a simple or singular gear train. A
driver and a driven gear are shown in Figure 8.2. If one gear turns clockwise, the
other will automatically turn anticlockwise, as shown below.
When gears rotate, the same number of teeth of each gear will pass the point of
mesh (D) in the same time. That means that for any period of time:
No of teeth on driver revs of driver = No of teeth on driven revs of driven
Simple calculations
Figure 8.2: Simple gear train
NA TA = NB TB
NA = rotational frequency (revs) of gear A
TA = number of teeth on gear A
NB = rotational frequency (revs) of gear B
TB = number of teeth on gear B
The following formulae are also true for a simple gear train:
NA DA = NB DB
DA = diameter of gear A
NB = rotational frequency (revs) of gear B
DB = diameter of gear B
Example
A gear with 32 teeth meshes with a gear of 59 teeth. Calculate the speed of the larger
gear if the smaller gear rotates at 180 r/min.
Solution:
NA TA = NB TB
TA
Thus NB = ___ NA TA = number of teeth on gear A
TB NB = rotational frequency (revs) of gear B
TB = number of teeth on gear B
NB = 32 180
59
NB = 97,627 rev/min = 1,627 rev/sec
141
If the driven is to turn in the same direction as the driver, then an idler
(intermediate) gear is used. If more than two gears are used, the formula can be
expanded as follows:
NA TA = NB TB = Nc Tc
C E
D
Driver Idler
Driven
Figure 8.3: Gear train with idler gear
Example
A gear drive consists of 3 gears; gear A with 20 teeth, turns at 100 r/sec and meshes
with an idler gear B, with 50 teeth. Gear B meshes with gear C, turns at 25 r/sec.
Calculate:
The rotational frequency (revs) of gear B.
The number of teeth on gear C
Solution:
Given:
NA = 20 teeth
TA = 100 rev/sec
NB = 50 teeth
TB = ?
Nc = ?
Tc = 25 rev/sec
a. The rotational frequency (revs) of gear B

NA TA = NB TB
100 20 = NB 50
NB = 100 20
50
NB = 40 revs/min
b. The number of teeth on gear C

NB TB = Nc Tc
40 50 = Nc 25
Nc = 40 50
25
Nc = 80 teeth
Compound gears
When a gear system consists of more than two gears (more than one pair of gears
engaged), where the intermediate shaft has two gears fixed to it, it is called a
compound gear train.
142
If the gear with TA teeth rotates at NA rev/min then, as previously discussed, the gear
with which it engages, having TB teeth will rotate at:
TA
NS = ___ NA
TS
NA rev/min
TA
NB = NC
TC
TB
ND rev/min
TD
Figure 8.4: Compound gear train
As can be seen above, the intermediate gears are mounted on the same shaft and
therefore have the same rotational frequency (turning speed), that is
NC = NB. The speed (rotational frequency) of TD can be determined as above.
TC
ND = ___ NC
TD
TA
But remember, gear B and gear C are on same shaft NC = ND = ___ NA
TD
TC TA
Therefore: ND = ___ ___ NA
(1)
TD TB
Take a close look at the directions of rotations in Figure 8.4 above. The same
reasoning can be followed for gear trains with more than one intermediate shaft.
If we consider equation (1), where NA and NC are drivers and NB and ND are driven
gears, then we can formulate the following general equation as:
Rev of final = product of number of teeth on drivers revolutions of

driven gear product of number of teeth on driven gears first gear
143
The velocity ratio (VR) of a gear train is the ratio of the speed of the first driver to
the last driven gear. For the gear train in Figure 8.4,
NA
VR = ____
ND
TC TA NA
From (1): ND = ___ ___ (1)
TD TB
TC
___ TA NA
___ = ___
TD TB ND
= VR (2)
In other words,
VR = product of teeth on driven gears

product of teeth on driving gears
= speed of first driver

speed of final driven gear
Food for thought:
Revolutions of driven = number of teeth on driver

Revolutions of driver number of teeth of driven
Example
In a compound gear train, the first driver rotates at 600 rev/min. If the velocity ratio
is 15, calculate the rotational frequency of the final driven gear.
Solution:
N1
VR = ___
Nfinal .. Equation (2)
N1
Nfinal = ___
VR
Nfinal = 600
15
Nfinal = 40 rev/min
Power transfer
We cannot discuss power if we do not understand forces and work done. In Grades
10 and 11, forces were discussed extensively. The purpose of this discussion is to
refresh your memory and also to serve as a basis for the following discussion on
power transfer.
144
A force is unseen but its effects (output) can be seen. A force may cause a body to
move, stop and change shape or direction. The SI unit for force is newton (N).
A tensile force causes an elongation of a body, whilst a compression force tends to
crush or shorten the body it acts on. The sliding-down motion in a body is called Did you know?
a shearing force. Machine components are constantly subjected to these kinds of That the SI
forces. unit commemorates
the English physicist
James P Joule (1818-
When a force moves an object over a distance, we see work done. The SI unit of 1889), famous for his
work (energy), is called the joule (symbol J). experiments on the
relationship between
The joule is defined as the work done when a force of 1 newton is exerted over a mechanical and thermal
distance of 1 metre in the direction of the force. Hence, if a force (F), in newton, is energy.
exerted over a distance (s), in metres, in the direction of the force:
Work done = Force(F) Distance(s)

= newton (N) metre (m)
= joules (J) = (Nm)
Example
A force of 10 N moves an object over a distance of 5m.
Solution:
Work done = Force (F) Distance(s)
= 10 (N) 5 (m)
= 50 Nm = 50 joules (J)
In the abovementioned example, we saw work of 50 Nm (50 joules (J)) done. No

mention was made of time taken though and it could have taken as long as a week/
month or have been as short as a second for the work to be done. If the work took
a long time to do, we say that very little power was exerted. The shorter the time
taken to do the work, the more power is required.
Power = Work done = Force(F) Distance(s) Food for thought:

Time taken Time taken
= joule Power has a specific duration (rate) as it refers
second to the amount of work done per second. Power
= J/s = watt (W) is the rate of doing work and is measured in
watt (W).
Example: A force of 10 N moves an object over a distance
of 5 m in 2 seconds. Power = work done per second
Force(F) Distance(s)
Solution: Power = Time taken in seconds
Work done = Force(F) Distance(s)
= 10 (N) 5 (m) Work done
= 50 Nm = 50 joules (J) Power = Time taken in seconds
Power = 2NT (watt)
Power = work done per second 2NT (If rotational speed be
Work done Power = 60 N revolution per minute)
Power = Time taken in seconds
= 50 Nm in 2 seconds Where: T = torque in Nm = Force radius
= 25 Nm/sec N = rotational frequency of body in rev/s
= 25 watt (watt, the unit of power,
is equal to 1 joule per second)
145
Example
A motor vehicle hauls a trailer at 75 km/h when exerting a steady pull of 800 N.
Calculate:
a) the work done in 20 minutes
b) the power required
Solution:
a) the work done in 20 minutes
Distance travelled = distance time

Distance travelled = 75 (km/h) 20/60 (h) (60 minutes in the hour)
Distance travelled = 25 km
Work done = Force Distance
Work done = 800 (N) 25 km (25 1000 m) = (km)
Work done = 20 000 000 J = 20 MJ
b) the power required

Work done in joule
Power = Time taken in seconds
20 000 000 joule
Power = 20 minutes 60 (seconds)
Power = 16 667 W = 16, 667 kW
Pulleys
Did you know?
That a pulley is The pulley block arrangements:
also called a sheave Of the machines used for lifting loads, the pulley block (also called block and
freely mounted in pulley tackle) is perhaps the most common. The pulley block which interests us consists of
blocks. A single rope is a number of pulleys.
passed over each pulley
in turn. One end is The modest arrangement of the pulley block system is shown below on the right
fastened to either the top of Figure 8.5. The single pulley serves only to reverse the direction of the pull. The
or bottom pulley block, pulling force on the rope is equal to the load (W) and the distance travelled by the
depending upon the effort to that through which the load moves at the same time. The effort (F) has to
number of pulleys. The
be greater than the load (W) to allow for friction on the pulley so that mechanical
effort is applied to the
free end of the rope and
advantage (= W / F) is less than unity. The only advantage of the single pulley
the load is attached to system is that a person, when pulling a rope downwards, is able to make use of
the lower pulley block. his own weight when exerting the pull and thus finds it easier than lifting the load
directly.
In the two-pulley system, it will be seen that the Hook

load (W) is supported by two portions of rope
so that the tension in each portion is W/2. The
tensions in the rope on either side of the top pulley Fixed block
must be equal (assuming frictionless pulley and
spindle). Standing
part Hauling
part
Falls
Movable
block
Hook
Figure 8.5: A pulley block system
146
Belt drives
A belt is used when a shaft has to be driven from a parallel shaft that is too far away
for the use of gear wheels. The illustration below shows a belt drive in which A is
the driver pulley and B the driven pulley. The transfer motion from pulley A to the
belt and again from the belt to pulley B is dependent upon friction at each area of
contact between pulley and belt.
Slack side
A F2
B
F1 Driven pulley
Tight side
Driver pulley
Figure 8.6: A belt drive
If DA and DB = diameters of pulleys A and B respectively and NA and NB = speeds in

revolutions/second of pulley A and pulley B respectively, then the linear speed of
the rim of pulley A = DA NA and the linear speed of the rim of pulley B = DB NB
If there is no slipping, the linear speed of the rim of each pulley is the same as the
speed of the belt, hence
DA NA = DB NB
speed of driver pulley A = diameter of driven pulley B

speed of driven pulley B diameter of driver pulley A
i.e. the speeds of the pulleys are inversely proportional to their diameters.
When the driving torque is applied to the driver pulley A, the side of the belt
approaching the pulley tightens and that leaving the pulley slackens. Thus, with the
driver pulley rotating clockwise, as in the illustration above, the lower side of the
belt has a larger tension than the upper side.
If F1 and F2 are the tensions on the tight and slack sides respectively on the belt,
effective force due to friction = F1 F2 and
power transmitted = net force (newton) speed of belt (metre/second)

= (F1 F2) DA NA (watt) or ( DB NB).
Did you know?
Chain drive
One of the main disadvantages of a belt is its liability to slip. This disadvantage can wheels are called
be avoided by the use of a chain drive (the chains links engage with the teeth on the sprockets.
driver and driven wheels) or by adding a belt tensioning device or jockey.
147
Example
An electric motor rotates at 1 000 rev/min. It drives a pulley with a diameter of
1 200 mm, mounted on a machine at 200 rev/min. Calculate the diameter of the
pulley on the motor.
Solution:
Peripheral speed of motor shaft = Peripheral speed of machine shaft
DA NA = DB NB
DA 1000 = 1200 200
1200 200
DA = 1000
DA = 240 mm
Example
A belt-driven pulley has a diameter of 500 mm and its speed is 300 rev/min.
The tension on the tight side of the belt is 1800 N and on the slack side is 400 N.
Calculate the power transmitted by the belt.
Solution
Effective friction force = 1800 400
= 1400 N
Linear speed of belt = 0,5 (m) 300/60 (rev /sec)

= 7,855 m/s
Power transmitted = 1400 (N) 7,85 (m/s)

= 10997 W, say, 11KW (rounded off)
Alternatively
Speed = 300/60 = 5 rev/sec

and torque = 1400 (N) 0,25 (m) = 350 Nm
Hence, we have
power transmitted = 2NT
= 2 5 (rev/s) 350 (Nm)
= 10997 W or 11KW (rounded off)
Figure 8.7: A V-belt Figure 8.8: A flat belt
148
Hydraulics
As you will recall from Grades 10 and 11, the word hydraulics is derived from the
Greek word hudro and means water.
Hydraulics refers to the transmission and control of forces and movement by means
of fluid. Fluid is used to transmit energy. Generally, mineral oil is used although a
synthetic fluid, water or oil-water emulsion can be used.
Hydrostatics means equilibrium conditions in fluids (still fluid) while

hydrodynamics means mechanics of moving fluid (flow theory). Pure hydrostatics
is the transfer of force in hydraulics. An example of hydrodynamics is the
conversion of flow energy in turbines in hydroelectric power plants.
Pressure, one of the most important measurements in hydraulics, is defined as force

per area.
Pressure = Force (F) F = Force in N
Area (A) A = Area in mm2

P = Pressure in pascal (Pa)
When a force acts on an enclosed fluid, pressure occurs in the fluid. The pressure is
related to the amount of force applied to the surface vertically and the area.
Pressure = Force
Area
The pressure acts equally and simultaneously on all sides. This is valid with the
omission of gravitational force. The gravitational force is calculated according to
the fluid level. Due to the high pressure at which a hydraulic system operates, this
fraction may be neglected.
F1 F2
S2
A1 S1 A2
Figure 8.9: Hydraulic force transmission in a hydraulic jack
Because the pressure is distributed equally on all sides, the shape of the tank is not
important. In order to operate with pressure created by an external force influence,
we use a system as shown in the illustration above.
If a force F1 is applied on area A1, a pressure is created:
F1
Pressure = ___
A1
149
The pressure affects all parts of the system and therefore also surface A2:
F2 = P A2
Thus
F1
___ F2
= ___
A1 A2
or
F2
___ A1
___
=
F1 A2

The pressure in such a system always depends on the size of the load and the
effective surface area. The pressure will always rise until it can overcome the
resistance in opposition to the movement of fluid.
If it is possible to achieve the pressure necessary to overcome the load F2 by means

of a force F1 and surface area A1, then the load F2 can be raised. The relationship
between distances S1 and S2 is opposite to that of the surfaces.
The greater the force on the piston, the higher the pressure rises. The pressure rises
only until, related to the cylinder area, it is in a position to overcome the load. If
the load remains constant, the pressure will not increase further. The pressure acts
according to the resistance which is opposed to the flow of the fluid.
If the necessary pressure has built up, the load can be moved. The speed at which
the load is moved depends on the volume of fluid fed to the cylinder.
The volume of liquid displaced by the large piston (ram) is equal to the liquid
displaced at the small piston (plunger).
Plunger Ram
d = diameter d = diameter
a = area a = area
f = force f = force
h = height h = height
v = volume v = volume
p = pressure p = pressure
Figure 8.10: A basic close-loop hydraulic system
Volume = Area of large piston (ram) height of displacement (h) = Area of small
piston (plunger) height of displacement (h)
D2h d2h
Volume = ____ = ____
4 4
150
Example
In a hydraulic press, a force of 100 N acts on the small piston which moves 90 mm.
Calculate the displacement of the large piston if the area of the small piston is 0,2 m2
and that of the large piston 1,8 m2. Find the force exerted by the large piston.
Solution
(i)
D2h
_____ d2H
= ______
4 4
1,8 10 h = 0,2 106 90
6
0,2 106 90
___________
h = 1,8 106
h = 10 mm
(ii)
F 1
F 2
____= ____
A1 A2
F1
____ = 100
____
1,8 0,2
100 1,8
F1 = 0,2
F1 = 900 N
Example
Calculate the mass in kg that can be raised by a hydraulic press with a plunger
diameter of 30 mm. The force on the plunger is 50 N while the ram diameter is
120 mm.
Solution
50 N F
Plunger Ram
30 mm 120 mm
f = F2
d2 D
50 N = F
302 1202
50 1202
F = 302
F = 800 N
151
This load must be raised against gravity
800 N Gravitational force = 9,81

Mass = 10 m/s
m/s, but for your purposes
Mass = 80 kg we use 10 m/s.
What will the pressure be in the fluid of the hydraulic press mentioned in the
example above?
f
Fluid pressure (P1) = a
50 (N)
0,032 (m)
= __________
4
= 70 735, 53 Pa
= 70,735 kPa
Is the pressure on the ram the same?
F
Fluid pressure (P2) = A
800 (N)
= _______
0,122
4
= 70 735, 53 Pa
= 70,735 kPa (Yes, the pressure is the same)
Boyles law
Boyles law, enunciated by Sir Robert Boyle, an Irish scientist, in 1661, states that the
volume of a given mass of gas at a constant temperature is inversely proportional
to the pressure; thus, if the pressure on a given mass of gas is doubled, the volume
is halved. Hence, if V is the volume and P is the pressure, then the gas remains at a
Did you know? constant temperature.
That isothermal
simply means at one Definition of Boyles law
temperature. The change
in volume is covered by The volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure on it, if
Boyles law. If P1 and V1 the temperature remains constant.
are the original pressure
and volume and P2 and The volume of a gas can be changed by altering:
V2 are the new pressure its pressure
and volume, then the its temperature
law of expansion or both its pressure and temperature.
contraction is:
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = constant If the volume is changed by altering the pressure and keeping the temperature
constant, the change is known as isothermal.
Example
The volume of a gas is 6 m3 at a pressure of 300 kPa. Calculate the volume of the gas
if the pressure is increased to 1000 kPa while the temperature remains constant.
Solution
P1 V1 = P2 V2
6 300 = 1000 V2
P1 V1
V2 = ______
P2
V2 =
6 300
152 1000
V2 = 1,8 m3
Example
A gas whose original pressure and volume were 300 kPa (kN/m2) and 0,14 m3 is
expanded until the new volume 0,7 m3 is reached while the temperature remains
constant. What will the new pressure be?
Solution
P1 V1
P1 V1 = P2 V2 OR P2 = _____
V2
300 0,14 = P2 0, 7
P1 V1
P2 = _____
V2
P2 = 300 0,14

0, 7

P2 = 60 kPa (kN/m2)
Assessment 2
1. A gas occupies a volume of 0,2 m3 at a pressure of 2,9 MPa.
Calculate the pressure, if the volume is changed to 0,12 m3 at a constant
temperature, and the volume if the pressure is changed to 5,1 MPa at a
constant temperature.
2. In an isothermal process, a mass of gas has its volume reduced from
4 100 mm3 to 2 500 mm3. If the initial pressure of the gas is150 KPa (KN/m2),
calculate the final pressure.
3. Some gas occupies a volume of 2,0 m3 in a cylinder at a pressure of 300 KPa.
A piston sliding in the cylinder compresses the gas isothermally until the
volume is 0,67 m3. If the area of the piston is 400 cm3, determine the force on
the piston when the gas is compressed.
(Hint: We learnt earlier that an isothermal process means at a constant
temperature and that Boyles law applies, i.e. P1V1 = P2V2.)
Electrical/electronic control
Basic operating principles of:
Vehicle management systems/ECU

The heart of an electronic control system is the electronic control unit (ECU). All
electronic systems use different types of sensors to supply the ECU with relevant
data. The sensor data is read by the ECU which then compares it with pre-
programmed information contained in the memory. A response is calculated and
Did you know?
the various actuators connected to the ECU are adjusted as directed. The results are The word ABS
checked and the process is repeated many times over every second. covers a variety of
electronically controlled
An ECU can be used to control the engine fuel system, ignition system and exhaust systems which are aimed
emission controls and is collectively called a (vehicle) engine management system. at offering ideal braking
Anti-lock brake systems (ABS) are controlled by an ECU and sometimes automatic in demanding situations.
transmissions too.
Electronic control can be exercised either by a central electronic unit (ECU), or

individual electronic control units can be incorporated as sub-systems to each
of the controls, such as steering, brakes, etc., where they can be used to transmit
153
information to, and receive it from, the other sub-systems. The latter generally offers
the advantages of compactness and because, provided the central computer can be
eliminated, the wiring harness can be made simpler and installation easier.
Because electric motors are amenable to electronic control, they are now being
considered for use as actuators. However, it might be more practicable to substitute
electric motors for engine-driven hydraulic pumps, the former being potentially
both lighter and more compact.
Figure 8.11: an ECU for vehicle management
Anti-lock brake systems (ABS)

The most efficient braking takes place when the wheels are revolving. Once the
brakes lock the wheels and the wheels begin to skid, braking is much less effective.
ABS systems are used on many motor vehicles, commercial vehicles and trailers.
Did you know?
That in many Anti-skid systems relieve hydraulic pressure on wheels which are about to skid.
countries anti-lock brake This action reduces the braking effort that would have caused a skid. The main
systems are known as purpose of anti-skid braking systems is to provide safer vehicle handling in difficult
anti-skid mechanisms. conditions. When the wheels are skidding, its not possible to steer the motor
vehicle correctly and a tyre that is still rolling, not sliding, on the surface will
provide a better braking performance.
ABS does not generally operate under normal braking but comes into play in poor
road surface conditions such as water, snow or ice and also during emergency stops.
Figure 8.12 shows the anti-skid mechanism on a front wheel and Figure 8.13 indicates
the rear wheel mechanism. The working operation for both wheels is identical. On
the front wheel, there is a magnetic wheel attached to the brake disc. As the wheel and
disc rotate, the magnetic wheel produces an alternating current in the sensor.
Sensor lead
Sensor lead
Caliper
Sensor
Splash shield
Brake disc with rotor

tone wheel assembly
Figure 8.12: Anti-lock brake system on the front wheel
154
Sensor
Drive ring
Brake drum Sensor lead
Figure 8.13: Anti-lock brake system on the rear wheel
Brake cylinder Modulator
Sensor
Hydraulic
Apportioning valves power
(pressure valves) source
Electronic controller
Sensor
Modulator
Figure 8.14: Anti-lock braking system (ABS) on a standard motor vehicle
The sensor is a coil of wire or a winding and the rotor carries a magnetic field
through the stator windings. This produces an alternating current (AC) in the stator
windings. In the same way, the magnetic wheel produces AC current in the sensor.
A similar action takes place in the other wheels. These AC signals from the motor
vehicle wheels are fed to the ECU.
When brakes are applied, the ECU compares the AC signals from the wheels. The
AC frequency increases with speed. As long as the AC frequency from the wheels
is about the same, normal braking is indicated. However, if the AC frequency from
any wheel shows a rapid decrease in frequency, it means that the wheel is slowing
down too fast. The wheel is starting to skid.
When the ECU senses this rapid drop of AC frequency, it signals the modulators at
the front of the motor vehicle. The hydraulic pressure from the master cylinder to
the wheel cylinders or calipers passes through these modulators. When the ECU
senses that a wheel is about to skid, it tells the modulator for that wheel to ease up.
In other words, the ECU signals the modulator to reduce the hydraulic pressure to
the brake for that wheel. When the pressure is reduced, the braking effect on that
wheel is reduced, so the skid is prevented.
155
Traction control
Traction control systems prevent the wheels from spinning if the torque transmitted
to any wheel rises above that which can be transmitted by the tyre. If one or more
wheels spin, the consequent loss of co-efficient of friction between the tyre and the
road tends to cause the vehicle to become unstable and go out of control. The sensor
for detecting the onset of the wheel spin is usually common to both the ABS and
traction control systems but, of course, for the latter function, it sends a signal of
impending wheel spin, instead of wheel lock, to the electronic control.
On receipt of such a signal, the computer orders application of the relevant brake
until the tendency to spin is nullified, and thus maintains the vehicle in a stable
condition.
Traction control systems are used in road vehicles as a safety feature in premium
high performance vehicles, which otherwise need sensitive throttle input to prevent
spinning driven wheels when accelerating in wet, icy or snowy conditions.
Traction control systems are used in racing cars for performance enhancement,
allowing maximum traction under acceleration without wheel spin. They are also
used in production motor bikes.
In off-road vehicles, traction control is used instead of, or in conjunction with,

mechanical limited slip or locking differential.
Wheel sensors
Control module
Modulator unit
Wheel sensor
Wheel sensors
Gear pulser
Brake disc
Figure 8.15: Traction control on a standard motor vehicle
Air bag control

Air bags are a passive safety feature which protect the driver and passengers in a
motor vehicle collision. Passive means that the driver and passengers in the vehicle
do not need to activate the air bags or do anything to be protected by them.
156
This is the difference between air bags and other safety features such as seat belts,
which need action like buckling up. (In fact, one of the downfalls of safety belts is
that people often dont buckle up). An air bag is a large fabric bag which fills with air
and provides protection for the head and upper body of the driver and passengers
of a motor vehicle during a collision. In head-on collisions, drivers and passengers
are thrown forward inside the vehicles. When an air bag is activated, it inflates
instantly and creates a firm barrier which counters the forward motion of the driver
or front-seat passenger.
Air bags are designed to prevent the occupants from hitting the windscreen or
dashboard of the vehicle, thereby eliminating injuries or reducing their severity. An
air bag is also known as a supplementary restraint system (SRS), or a supplementary
inflatable restraint (SIR).
Air bags are designed to work in conjunction with seat belts. However, an air bag
on its own can provide some protection for a motor vehicle occupant who is not
wearing a seat belt.
Inflator Air bag

Inflator Air bag
Crash sensor
Crash sensor activated
Nitrogen gas
Filters Air bag inflation device
Sodium azide
Igniter
Figure 8.16: Air bag control system for front seat passengers
Central locking
In addition to conventional locks, keyless-entry systems and keypads, some
motor vehicles today have a number of different ways of unlocking the motor
vehicle doors. How do motor vehicles keep track of all those different locking and
unlocking systems and exactly what happens when the motor vehicle doors unlock?
The mechanism which unlocks your motor vehicle doors is truly quite fascinating.
It has to be extremely trustworthy because it is going to lock and unlock your motor
vehicle doors tens of thousands of times over the working lifespan of your motor
vehicle.
157
Methods of unlocking motor vehicle doors:

The conventional way with a key.
By pressing the unlock button inside the motor vehicle.
By using the combination lock on the outside of the motor vehicle door.
By pulling up the knob on the inside of the motor vehicle door.
With a keyless-entry remote control.
By electronic signal from a control centre.
We will learn just whats inside your door that makes it unlock.
Conventional key Keyless-entry remote control

Door knob
Combination lock
Unlock button
Figure 8.17: Methods of unlocking motor vehicle doors
The lock/unlock switch sends power to the actuators which unlock the motor
vehicle door. But in more complicated systems that have several ways to lock and
unlock the doors, the body controller decides when to do the unlocking.
The body controller is a mini computer system in your motor vehicle. It controls a
number of the smaller functions which make your motor vehicle people-friendly
for example, it ensures the interior lights stay on until you start the motor vehicle
and it beeps at you if you have not fastened your safety belt or it beeps at you if you
leave your headlights on or you forget the keys in the ignition.
The body controller also monitors all of the possible sources of an unlock or lock
signal. It monitors a door-mounted touchpad and unlocks the doors when the
correct code is entered. It monitors a radio frequency and unlocks the doors when
it receives the correct digital code from the radio transmitter in your key fob and
also monitors the switches inside the car. When it receives a signal from any of these
sources, it provides power to the actuator which locks or unlocks the doors.
In fact, what is happening inside the motor vehicle door?
Inside a motor vehicle door

The actuator is positioned below the latch. A rod connects the actuator to the latch
and another rod connects the latch to the door knob which sticks up out of the top
of the door.
When the actuator moves the latch up, it connects the outside door handle to
the opening mechanism. When the latch is down, the outside door handle is
disconnected from the mechanism so that it cannot be opened. To unlock the door,
the body controller supplies power to the door-lock actuator for a timed interval.
158
Door knob
Door knob connecting rod

Door handle
Figure 8.18: A motor vehicle

door inside panel removed
Connecting rod for unlocking door knob
Latch
Door-lock actuator
Figure 8.19: Inside of a motor

vehicle door showing mechanism
Metal hook
Actuator body
Figure 8.20: A central-locking actuator
The actuator can move the metal hook shown in Figure 8.20 to the left or right. When
mounted in the motor vehicle, it is vertical, so the hook can move up or down. It
imitates your motions when you pull the inside door knob up or push it down.
159
Assessment 3
1. The pressure in the hydraulic fluid in a 230 mm diameter cylinder is
0,895 MPa. Calculate in newton the force exerted when the plunger moves
outwards.
2. In the figure below, the force applied to the plunger causes a force of 900 N
on the ram in a hydraulic press. The ram moves 10 mm upwards. The area
of the plunger is 0,2 m2 and the area of the ram is 1,8 m2.
Ram moves 10 mm Ram

Plunger
upwards
900 N
Plunger moves 10 mm
mm downwards S
Figure 8.21: A hydraulic system
Calculate:
2.1 The diameter of the ram in mm
2.2 The force applied on the plunger
2.3 The distance the plunger moves downward in mm
3. The volume of a gas is 8 m3 at a pressure of 600 kPa. Calculate the volume
of the gas if the temperature is increased to 2000 kPa while the temperature
remains constant.
4. A flat-belt drive consists of a 200 mm diameter driving pulley and a
100 mm diameter driven pulley. Determine the driven pulley speed if the
driving pulley rotates at 750 rev/min.
5. What is the main function of a mechanical system?
6. Complete the following sentences:
6.1 When pressure is applied to a hydraulic fluid, the liquid will
6.2. Two spur gears will only mesh when
6.3. The purpose of intermediate gears is to
7. Which precision measuring tool can be used to measure the depth of a
screw thread?
8. State four methods of unlocking motor vehicle doors.
9. Briefly explain the chief purpose of air bags as found in motor vehicles.
10. What is an ECU and what is its function?
160
Investigation 1
Investigate and write an essay on how the speed variations are obtained in the
motor vehicle gearbox below. Make reference to the components of the motor
vehicle gearbox as shown below in Figure 8.19 and use your knowledge on gears,
gear ratios and rotational frequencies.
Clutch release fork
3rd/4th
synchroniser Primary 5th speed
Ball shaft
spigot synchroniser
bearing Clutch shaft
Secondary
shaft
5th speed
3rd speed 1st speed
Clutch release 1st/2nd
bearing 4 pinion Final drive synchroniser
differential pinion 4th speed
2nd speed
Figure 8.22: Sketch of a motor vehicle gear box
Investigation 2
The diagram below depicts a hydraulic brake as in a motor vehicle. Apply all
your knowledge and understanding of linkages, pressure, rams and plungers in
hydraulics and investigate and explain in your own words how this brake system
operates.
Brake pedal
Master cylinder
Tube T Pipeline
Lever system To other wheels

Brake oil
Inner rim of
the wheel
Figure 8.23: Hydraulic brake in a motor vehicle
161
Relevant methods of repairing

Integrated electrical/mechanical systems
Electronic ignition
Electronic ignition defects are limited to component failure. Should a component
fail in most systems, the system resets itself to operate in fail-safe or limp-
home mode. This allows the driver to continue the journey with limited engine
performance.
A major disadvantage of any electronic ignition system is the need for dedicated
equipment to perform fault diagnosis. In the case of programmed engine
management systems, special equipment may be needed to reprogram the settings
for the motor vehicle.
The ABS warning light

ABS systems are equipped with a warning light. This warning light will come on
when the system is not operating. When the motor vehicle is first started, the ABS
warning light is lit up and the system runs through a self-check procedure. As the
motor vehicle drives away, the ABS warning lamp will remain on until a speed
of approximately 7 km/h is reached. If the ABS system is working correctly, the
warning light will remain off until the motor vehicle stops.
The system continually monitors itself when the motor vehicle is in motion. Should
a fault occur, the warning light will illuminate again. If this happens, the system
returns to normal braking operation and the motor vehicle should receive urgent
attention to ascertain the cause of the problem.
Fault finding
Regular maintenance and servicing backed by a sound knowledge of how your mo-
tor vehicle works and a measure of common sense help to ensure a long motor vehi-
cle life. A starting problem is one of the most likely problems that can occur at some
point in the life of a motor vehicle. It can be caused by a multitude of malfunctions,
from the battery (power supply) to a sensor. Cognisance must be taken that many
motor vehicles are of the older type and the newer models are of the electronic type,
with onboard computers, etc.
A car needs four things to run:

fuel
compression
spark
timing.
Engine turns but will not start:

Fuel tank empty.
Fuel-line fault or fuel pump.
Faulty spark-plugs.
Ignition system damp or wiring faulty.
Battery problem.
Air filter clogged.
Poor cylinder compression.
Timing belt broken.
Choke incorrectly adjusted.
162
Ignition (Spark)
Its always a good idea to change the spark-plug and see if it fixes the fault. Remove
spark plug and check for sparking. Check the spark-plug colour; this tells you how
the engine is running. If its running rich (black sooty deposits = carbon fouled),
clean the air filter. If its running lean check the exhaust and silencer; it could also
be a fuel starvation (blocked) fault in the fuel line or carburettor. When choke is on,
the mixture will be rich.
Fuel
Fuel (petrol) ages and old petrol can cause trouble. There are also bad batches from
time to time; try to dilute it with fresh fuel (petrol) or drain and replace it. Over
a long time, a petrol tank can build up rust, sludge and dirt inside. This normally
settles in the bottom of the tank.
In case of emergency, check if there is sufficient fuel in the fuel tank. Operate the
accelerating pump to see if the fuel reaches the carburettor (if fuel is injected),
loosen the supply line at carburettor and turn engine to see if pump operates. If the
pump does not supply fuel, check fuel line for loose or blocked fittings and pipes
or cracked fuel pump. If fuel does reach the carburettor (is injected), check if the
needle valve is not stuck, screen not blocked or that the float level is not wrong.
Too much fuel will also cause a motor vehicle not to start. If you have a damaged
ECU, or if your coolant temperature sensor (which may tell the computer the
coolant temperature is too low and adjust fuel accordingly) is bad, for example, it
can cause the injectors to feed too much fuel and flood the engine. There are other
factors that can cause this as well.
Vacuum leaks can cause too MUCH air. The air/fuel mixture has to be just right for
your motor vehicle to run. If a vacuum line is open or broken, it may be hard for
your motor vehicle to start.
Ignition timing
When your motor vehicle is stranded, then you will look for the following faults in
connection with the timing:
Remove the distributor cap and swing the engine.
If the rotor does not turn, you know that the following problems may exist:
The distributor shaft is broken.
The cam belt is broken.
The timing chain is broken.
The timing belt can also skip a tooth and the engine will not start either.
Power supply (battery)

Batteries are normally reliable for a number of years. However, batteries do
sometimes fail to provide sufficient voltage to operate the motor vehicle starting
system. Such failure can arise for various reasons.
Reason
If the lights or any other system have been left switched on and the battery has
discharged.
In this case, the battery is run down and a quick check of switch positions (is the
switch, e.g. light switch, still in the on position?) will reveal the most likely cause.
A hydrometer test, or a voltage check at the terminals, will confirm that the battery
has discharged. The remedy is to recharge the battery, probably by removing it and
replacing it temporarily, with a service battery.
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Reason
If the battery is no longer capable of holding a charge, or the battery is discharged
because the alternator charging rate is too low.
It would be necessary to check the battery more thoroughly. A high rate discharge
tester which tests the batterys ability to provide a high current for a short period is
very effective but it can only be used if the battery is at least 70% charged.
The state of charge of the battery can be determined by using a hydrometer. If the
specific gravity (relative density) reading shows that the battery is less than 70%
charged, the battery should be recharged at the recommended rate.
After charging and leaving time for the battery to settle and the gases to disperse,
the high rate discharge test can be applied. Many different forms of high rate
discharge testers are available and it is important to read the instructions for use
carefully.
Alternator test
Before starting with the alternator test procedure remember:
Do not run engine with a disconnected alternator lead. Note that for the test that
follows the engine is switched off and the ammeter is connected before restarting
the engine.
Do not disconnect the alternator while the engine is running.
Always disconnect the alternator and battery when using an electric welder on
the motor vehicle because failure to do so may cause damage to the alternator
electronics by stray current.
Take care not to reverse the battery connections.
With the above in mind, we can do the alternator test. As with any test, a thorough
visual check should be made first. In the case of the alternator, this will include:
Check the drive belt for tightness and condition.
Check leads and connections for tightness and condition.
Ensure that the battery is properly charged.
Check all fuses in the circuit.
Hydraulics
Fluid
It is important always to use only the type of fluid which the motor vehicle
manufacturer recommends for use in their motor vehicles. Brake fluid has a boiling
temperature of not less than 190 and a freezing temperature not higher than 40.
Throughout this range of temperatures, the viscosity or thickness of the fluid must
remain constant. It should not attack the rubber seals or corrode the metal parts.
Brake fluid is hygroscopic; this means that it absorbs water from the atmosphere.
Water in brake fluid affects its boiling and freezing temperatures which is one of the
reasons why brake fluid needs to be changed at recommended intervals.
Pressure
Oil pressure in motor vehicles without a gauge can be tested by attaching one to the
oil system. The tests and readings should be in accordance with the motor vehicle
manufacturers specifications.
Relief valves
The purpose of the relief valve is to limit the maximum pressure of the oil supplied
by the pump to the system.
164
As engine speed increases, the oil pump produces higher pressure than is required
by the engine lubricating system. The pressure relief valve is therefore fitted in
the system to remove the excess pressure and maintain it at a level appropriate for
the bearings and seals used. Therefore, the relief valve performs two important
functions:
It acts as a pressure regulator.
It acts as a safety device for the lubricating system.
The main types of pressure relief valves in use are the ball valve, the plate and the
plunger or poppet valve. Each is held in the closed position by a spring. As the oil
pressure in the oil gallery rises above the setting of the relief valve, the valve opens
against the spring pressure allowing the oil to bypass the system and return back to
the sump via the return outlet. The force on the spring determines the oil pressure
in the lubrication system.
Piston
The piston forms an integral part of the piston pump and operates on the principle
that a piston reciprocating in a bore will draw in hydraulic fluid as it is retracted and
expel it on the forward stroke.
A radial pump has the pistons arranged radially in the cylinder block while in axial
units the pistons are parallel to each other and to the axis of the cylinder block.
Piston pumps are highly efficient units available in a wide range of capacities from
very small to large.
Seals
All the joint faces, such as sump to crankcase and the moving surfaces of protruding
shafts, must be made oil-tight to prevent oil loss between the shafts and their
housings. Where the surface does not move, gaskets are used to ensure a water-,
oil- and gas-tight situation, for example, between the cylinder head and the cylinder
block seal.
Gaskets are usually made from waxed gasket paper, cork, plastic or other materials
that are resistant to heat, oil and water. Revolving shafts are sealed by spring-
loaded synthetic rubber lip seals or felt sealing rings, often in combination with oil
deflectors.
Pipes and pipe connectors

The hydraulic pressure created in the master cylinder is conveyed to the wheel
brakes through strong metal pipes, where they can be clipped firmly and securely
to the motor vehicle, and through flexible hoses where there is relative movement
between parts, e.g. axles and steered wheels and the motor vehicle frame.
Pneumatics
Vacuum
Vacuum, or the lack of air, makes possible the manufacture of a wide range of
everyday products and processes such as electric light bulbs, electronic tubes,
packing of food products, production of medicines, vitamins and the manufacture
and movement of paper, to name but a few.
With an air pump on vacuum duty, we push a volume of air from a closed vessel
and deliver it to the atmosphere. As each push takes place, an equal volume of air
is removed but at a reduced density. It is important to note that the volume at each
push is identical but the density of the air in that volume progressively decreases.
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Pressure
Pressure and volume are the most important factors in a properly functioning
pneumatic system. Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It is measured in pascal
and the unit is written as Pa. Air which fills motor vehicles tyres is a gas and obeys
the laws of gases (remember Boyles law). When you inflate a tyre, you are pressing
in more air than the tyre would like to hold. The air inside the tyre resists this
constant pressure by pushing outward on the casing of the tyre.
This outward push of the air is pressure. Air, of course, like all gases, is highly
compressible (contrary to liquids, like hydraulic fluid). Compressing more air into
the same space means that you can squeeze more air into a smaller volume, or you
can squeeze more air into the same space. You need more force to squeeze extra air
into a tyre, as the pressure within the tyre increases. The greater the force exerted,
the greater the pressure in the tyre.
Valves
Check valve
The check valve allows compressed air from the compressor into the air receiver
(tank). It is a one-way valve and thus stops air leaking back when the compressor is
stopped.
Pressure-reducing valve
This valve is also known as the safety valve. The main purpose of this valve is to
allow compressed air to escape into the atmosphere if the pressure in the air receiver
should rise above the allowed safe pressure level.
The pressure-reducing valve limits the maximum system pressure and thus prevents
system failure. Therefore, it is understandable that it is a protective device.
Directional control valve

The directional control valve pressurises and exhausts the two cylinder connections
interchangeably, to control direction and movement.
Pistons
The compressor is used to pressurise air in a pneumatic system. The most
commonly used form of compressor is the piston compressor. On the air intake
stroke, the descending piston causes air to be sucked into the chamber through
the inlet valve. When the piston starts to rise again, the trapped air forces the inlet
valve to close and so becomes compressed. When the air pressure starts to rise
sufficiently, the outlet valve opens and the trapped air flows into the compressed air
system. The cycle repeats itself.
Diaphragms
The diaphragm membrane provides for separation of the process fluid and the
compressed air power source. To perform adequately, diaphragms should be
of sufficient thickness and of appropriate material to prevent degradation or
permeation in specific process fluid applications.
Vacuum meters
Vacuum gauge (kPa)
This is the vacuum reading taken directly from a dial gauge and is usually denoted
from zero to 100 kPa. The sea-level reading for a perfect vacuum would be
101,3 kPa.
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Chapter 9
Turbines
Topic 9
Water turbines
Superchargers Steam turbines
Turbines
Turbochargers Gas turbines

Introduction
In Grade 10, the basic principles and operation of the different engines were
covered. In Grade 11, principles and operations of different pumps were explained.
In Grade 12, we will explain different types of turbines, like water, steam, gas and
superchargers, their components and the function thereof.
Types of turbines, their components and their

fuctions
Water turbines
Principle of operation
Flowing water is directed onto the blades of a turbine runner, creating a force on
the blades. Since the runner is spinning, the force acts over a distance (force acting
over a distance is the definition of work). In this way, energy is transferred from the
water flow to the turbine.
Water turbines are divided into two groups. reaction turbines and impulse turbines.
The precise shape of water turbine blades is a function of the supply pressure of
water and the type of impeller selected.
Reaction turbines
Generator
Stator
Rotor Shaft
TURBINE
Water flow
Wicket gate
Blades
Figure 9.1: Reaction turbine with a generator
Reaction turbines are acted on by water which changes pressure as it moves through
the turbine and gives up its energy. They must be encased to contain the water
pressure (or suction) or they must be fully submerged in the water flow.
Newtons third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.
Most water turbines in use are reaction turbines and are used in low (<30m/98ft)
and medium (30300m/98984ft) head applications. In reaction turbines, a
pressure drop occurs in both fixed and moving blades.
Impulse turbines
Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet pushes on the turbines
curved blades which changes the direction of the flow. The resulting change in
momentum (impulse) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the turbine is
spinning, the force acts over a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is left
with diminished energy.
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Turbines 9
Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the waters pressure (potential energy) is
converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused on the turbine. No pressure
change occurs at the turbine blades and the turbine doesnt require a housing for
operation.
Newtons second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
Impulse turbines are most often used in very high (>300m/984ft) head applications.
Power
The power available in a stream of water is:
P = = g h q
where:
P = power (J/s or watts)
= turbine efficiency
= density of water (kg/m)
g = acceleration of gravity (9,81m/s)
h = head (m). For still water, this is the difference in height between the inlet and
outlet surfaces. Moving water has an additional component added to account
for the kinetic energy of the flow. The total head equals the pressure head plus
velocity head.
q = flow rate (m/s)
Pumped storage
Some water turbines are designed for pumped storage hydroelectricity. They can
reverse flow and operate as a pump to fill a high reservoir during off-peak electrical
hours and then revert to a turbine for power generation during peak electrical
demand. This type of turbine is usually a Deriaz or Francis in design.
Efficiency
Large modern water turbines operate at mechanical efficiencies greater than 90%
(not to be confused with thermodynamic efficiency).
Types of water turbines
Figure 9.2: Types of water turbines
Figure 9.2 shows various types of water turbine runners. From left to right: Pelton
wheel, two types of Francis turbine and a Kaplan turbine.
Reaction turbines:
Francis
Kaplan, propeller, bulb, tube, Straflo
Tyson
Gorlov.
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Impulse turbines:
waterwheel
Pelton
Turgo
Michell-Banki (also known as the Crossflow or Ossberger turbine)
Jonval turbine
reverse overshot waterwheel
Archimedes screw turbine.
Design and application
Figure 9.3: Turbine application chart
Turbine selection is based mostly on the available water head and less so on the
available flow rate. In general, impulse turbines are used for high head sites and
reaction turbines are used for low head sites. Kaplan turbines with adjustable blade
pitch are well adapted to wide ranges of flow or head conditions since their peak
efficiency can be achieved over a wide range of flow conditions.
Small turbines (mostly under 10 MW) may have horizontal shafts and even fairly
large bulb-type turbines up to 100 MW or so may be horizontal. Very large Francis
and Kaplan machines usually have vertical shafts because this makes best use of
the available head and makes installation of a generator more economical. Pelton
wheels may be either vertical or horizontal shaft machines because the size of
the machine is so much less than the available head. Some impulse turbines use
multiple water jets per runner to increase specific speed and balance shaft thrust.
Typical range of heads
Hydraulic wheel turbine 0,2 < H < 4 (H = head in m)

Archimedes screw turbine 1 < H < 10
Kaplan 2 < H < 40
Francis 10 < H < 350
Pelton 50 < H < 1300
Turgo 50 < H < 250
Specific speed
The specific speed (ns) of a turbine characterises the turbines shape in a way that is
not related to its size. This allows a new turbine design to be scaled from an existing
design of known performance. The specific speed is also the main criterion for
matching a specific hydro site with the correct turbine type. The specific speed is
the speed at which the turbine turns for a particular discharge Q with the unit head,
and thereby is able to produce unit power.
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Turbines 9
Affinity laws
Affinity laws allow the output of a turbine to be predicted based on model tests. A
miniature replica of a proposed design, about 0,3 m in diameter, can be tested and
the laboratory measurements applied to the final application with high confidence.
Affinity laws are derived by requiring similitude between the test model and the
application.
Flow through the turbine is controlled either by a large valve or by wicket gates
arranged around the outside of the turbine runner. Differential head and flow can
be plotted for a number of different values of gate opening, producing a hill diagram
used to show the efficiency of the turbine at varying conditions.
Runaway speed
The runaway speed of a water turbine is its speed at full flow and with no shaft load.
The turbine will be designed to survive the mechanical forces of this speed. The
manufacturer will supply the runaway speed rating.
Maintenance
Figure 9.4: Francis turbine
Figure 9.4 shows a Francis turbine at the end of its life, showing cavitation pitting,
fatigue cracking and a catastrophic failure. Earlier repair jobs that used stainless
steel weld rods are visible.
Turbines are designed to run for decades with very little maintenance of the main
elements; overhaul intervals are in the order of several years. Maintenance of the
runners and parts exposed to water include removal, inspection and repair of worn
parts.
Normal wear and tear includes pitting from cavitation, fatigue cracking, and
abrasion from suspended solids in the water. Steel elements are repaired by welding,
usually with stainless steel rods. Damaged areas are cut or ground out, then welded
back up to their original or an improved profile. By the end of their lifetime, old
turbine runners may have a significant amount of stainless steel added this way.
Elaborate welding procedures may be used to achieve the highest quality repairs.
Other elements requiring inspection and repair during overhauls include bearings,
packing box and shaft sleeves, servomotors, cooling systems for the bearings and
generator coils, seal rings, wicket gate linkage elements and all surfaces.
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Environmental impact
Environmental impacts of reservoirs

Water turbines are generally considered a clean power producer, as the turbine
causes essentially no change to the water. They use a renewable energy source and
are designed to operate for decades. They produce significant amounts of the worlds
electrical supply.
Historically, there have also been negative consequences, mostly associated with
the dams normally required for power production. Dams alter the natural ecology
of rivers, potentially killing fish, stopping migrations and disrupting peoples
livelihoods. For example, American Indian tribes in the Pacific Northwest had
livelihoods built around salmon fishing but aggressive dam-building destroyed their
way of life. Dams also cause less obvious, but potentially serious, consequences,
including increased evaporation of water (especially in arid regions), build-up of silt
behind the dam and changes to water temperature and flow patterns. Some people
believe that it is possible to construct hydropower systems which divert fish and
other organisms away from turbine intakes without significant damage or loss of
power; historical performance of diversion structures has been poor. In the United
States, it is now illegal to block the migration of fish, for example, the endangered
great white sturgeon in North America, so fish ladders must be provided by dam
builders. The actual performance of fish ladders is often poor.
Assessment 1
1. Explain the theory of operation of a waterwheel.
2. Water turbines are divided into two groups. Name them.
3. The shape of water turbine blades is determined by two factors. Name them.
4. Explain the principle of impulse turbines.
5. Explain what is meant by pump storage.
6. Name four types of reaction turbines.
7. Name seven types of impulse turbines.
8. Define affinity laws.
9. Define runaway speed.
Steam turbines
Function
A steam turbine is a mechanical device which extracts thermal energy from
pressurised steam and converts it into useful mechanical work.
Figure 9.5: The rotor of a modern steam turbine

used in a power plant
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Turbines 9
The steam turbine has completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine
(invented by Thomas Newcomen and greatly improved by James Watt) primarily
because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Because
the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to driving an electrical Thermodynamics
generator it doesnt require a linkage mechanism to convert reciprocating motion A branch of physics that
to rotary motion. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine which obtains improved studies the effects of
thermodynamic efficiency by using multiple stages in the expansion of the steam (as changes in temperature,
opposed to one stage in the Watt engine) which results in greater efficiency. pressure and volume on
physical systems at the
macroscopic scale
History
The first steam engine, the classic Aeolipile made by Heros of Alexandria, was little
more than a toy. Another steam turbine was created by Italian Giovanni Branca,
in 1629. Anglo-Irishman Charles A. Parsons invented the modern steam turbine
in 1884. His first model was connected to a dynamo which generated 7,5 kW of
electricity. His patent was licensed and the turbine was scaled up shortly afterwards
by an American, George Westinghouse.
Many variations of steam turbine have been developed since. The de Laval turbine,
invented by Gustaf de Laval, accelerated the steam to full speed before running
it against a turbine blade. This was effective because the turbine was simpler, less
expensive and did not need to be pressure-proof. It could operate with any steam
pressure. It was, however, considerably less efficient. The Parsons turbine turned out
to be relatively easy to scale up. Within Parsons lifetime, the generating capacity of a
unit was scaled up 10 000 times.
Did you know?

Types Horsepower (or
hp) is the common unit
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes, ranging from small 1 hp (0,75 kW) of power, or, in other
units, which are rarely used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other words, the rate at which
shaft-driven equipment, to 2 million hp (1,5 million kW) turbines used to generate work is done.
electricity. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines.
Figure 9.6: A steam turbine rotor
These types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat, extraction and induction

turbines.
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Condensing turbines
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These
turbines use exhaust steam in a partially condensed state. The steam is usually
composed of more than 90% partially condensed steam, at a pressure well below
atmospheric pressure and then sent to a condenser.
Non-condensing turbines
Non-condensing (or back-pressure) turbines are most widely used for process-
steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit
the needs of the process steam pressure.
Desalination
Removing salt from Non-condensing turbines are commonly found at refineries, pulp and paper plants
seawater and desalination facilities where large amounts of low-pressure process steam are
available.
Reheat turbines
Reheat turbines are used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat
turbine, steam flow occurs in a high-pressure section of the turbine and is returned
to the boiler where additional heat is added. The steam then goes back into an
intermediate-pressure section of the turbine and continues its expansion.
Extracting turbines
Extracting-type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting turbine,
steam is released at various stages of the turbine and used for industrial processes
Did you know? or sent to boiler-feed water heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. A valve may
Desalination control extraction flows.
is also called
desalting. It involves Induction turbines
removing dissolved
salts from seawater
Induction turbines introduce low-pressure steam at an intermediate stage to
and groundwater.
produce additional power.
Desalination makes
otherwise unusable
water fit for human Casing or shaft arrangements
consumption, irrigation,
industrial applications These arrangements include single-casing, tandem-compound and cross-compound
and various other turbines. Single-casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and
purposes. Unfortunately, shaft are coupled to a generator. Tandem-compound turbines are used where two
existing desalination or more casings are directly coupled together to drive a single generator. A cross-
technology needs a lot of
compound turbine features two or more shafts which are not in line, driving two or
energy so the process is
more generators that often operate at different speeds. A cross-compound turbine is
expensive.
typically used for many large applications.
Principle of operation and design
Isentropic The ideal steam turbine uses an isentropic process or constant entropy process in
Isentropic processes which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of the
occur where the steam leaving the turbine. No steam turbine is truly isentropic, however, as most
entropy is constant steam turbines are able to convert only 20% 90% of the energy available from the
steam into useful work.
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Turbines 9
The interior of a turbine has several sets of blades (or buckets as they are
commonly referred to). One set of stationary blades is connected to the casing and
one set of rotating blades is connected to the shaft. The sets intermesh with certain
minimum clearances, with the sizes and configurations of the sets varying to use the Entropy
expansion of steam efficiently at each stage. Central to the second
law of thermodynamics;
Turbine efficiency it is a process too
complex to explain in
Impulse turbine Reaction turbine the context and scope
of this curriculum but
is a very interesting
Moving buckets study in physics should
Rotor you wish to persue
Fixed nozzle further research on
Rotor Rotating nozzle your own
Moving buckets
Stator
Fixed nozzle
Stationary
Still; not moving
Steam pressure Steam pressure
Steam velocity Steam velocity
Figure 9.7: A schematic diagram outlining the difference between impulse and reaction
turbines
To maximise turbine efficiency, the steam is expanded, so generating work, in a

number of stages. These stages are characterised by how the energy is extracted
from them and are known as impulse or reaction turbines. Most modern steam
turbines are a combination of reaction and impulse turbines. Typically, higher-
pressure sections are the impulse type and lower-pressure stages are the reaction
type.
Kinetic
Impulse turbines Relating to or
resulting from motion
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that channel the steam flow into high-speed (movement)
jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy which the rotor blades convert
into shaft rotation as the steam-jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs only
across the stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage.
Reaction turbines Convergent

Coming closer together
In a reaction turbine, the rotor blades are arranged to form convergent nozzles. This
type of turbine uses the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates through
the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes
of the stator. The steam leaves the stator as a jet which fills the entire circumference
of the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed, relative to Stator
the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor, The stationary part
with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with of the steam turbine
no net change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure encased in its housing
and temperature. This is reflected in the work performed in driving the rotor.
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Operation and maintenance

When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main steam stop-valves (after the
boiler) have a bypass line to allow superheated steam to bypass the valve slowly
and proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam turbine. A
turning gear is also engaged when there is no steam available in the turbine to rotate
the turbine slowly to ensure that even-heating takes place. This prevents uneven
RPM expansion. After rotating the turbine by the turning gear first, allowing time for
Revolutions (turns) per the rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing), the turning gear is disengaged
minute and steam is sent to the turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades,
slowly rotating the turbine at 10 to 15 RPM to warm the turbine.
Problems with turbines are now rare and maintenance requirements are relatively
low. However, an imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration which, in extreme
cases can lead to a blade freeing itself and punching through the casing. It is
essential that turbines be turned with dry steam. Water entering the steam and
being blasted onto the blades (moisture carryover) can cause rapid impingement
and erosion of the blades. This can lead to imbalance and failure. Water entering
Impingement
Coming into contact the blades is likely to destroy the thrust bearing of the turbine shaft. To prevent this,
with condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine, along
with controls and baffles in the boilers.
Speed regulation
It is essential to control a turbine with a governor as turbines need to be run
up slowly to prevent damage. Some applications (such as those that generate
alternating-current electricity) require precise speed control. Uncontrolled
acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an overspeed trip which causes the
closing of the nozzle valves controlling the flow of steam to the turbine. If those
valves fail, the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart. Turbines are
expensive to manufacture, requiring precision and special quality materials.
Direct drive
Power stations use large steam turbines which drive electric generators to produce
most of the worlds electricity. There are two types of power station: a fossil fuel
station and a nuclear power station. The turbines used for electric power generation
are directly coupled to generators. As the generators have to rotate at constant
synchronous speeds according to the frequency of the electric power system, the
Synchronous
most common speeds are 3 000 RPM for 50 Hz systems, and 3 600 RPM for 60 Hz
Existing or occurring at
the same time systems. Some large nuclear sets rotate at half those speeds and have a four-pole
generator rather than the more common two-pole generator.
Speed reduction
Steam turbines are also used in ships because they can be small and lightweight,
Reciprocating require little maintenance and have low vibration. In the past, steam turbine
Rfers to engines, such
locomotives were also tested but with limited success. A steam turbine is efficient
as internal combustion
only when operating in thousands of RPM, while the application of the power in
engines, that convert
the up-and-down propulsion applications may only be in hundreds of RPM, requiring expensive and
(reciprocating) motion precise reduction gears to be used. Although the purchase cost is high, the fuel and
of the pistons into maintenance requirements costs are much lower. Another advantage is the small
rotary motion size of a turbine when compared to a reciprocating engine of equivalent power.
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Turbines 9
Figure 9.8: The Turbinia the first steam turbine-powered ship
Assessment 2
1. Name the function of a steam turbine.
2. Which type of engine replaced the reciprocating-piston steam engine?
3. Who invented the reciprocating-piston steam engine?
4. Who invented the first steam engine and when; which country did
this person come from?
5. Research the history of the steam engine and then write a 150-word
summary of your findings.
6. Name five classifications for modern steam turbines.
7. Explain the operation and design principle of an ideal steam turbine.
8. Explain an impulse turbine.
9. Explain a reaction turbine.
10. Speed regulation is essential to turbines. How is speed controlled?
11. How is most of the worlds electricity produced?
Gas turbines
Function
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a rotary engine which extracts
energy from a flow of combustion gas. It has an upstream compressor coupled
to a downstream turbine with a combustion chamber in-between. (The term gas
turbine is sometimes used to refer only to the turbine element.)
177
Spinner
Intake turbines
Intake
Compressor turbine rotor Compression
Combustion chamber Ignition
Exhaust
Figure 9.9: A jet engine (gas turbine)
Energy is released when air is mixed with fuel and ignited in the combustor. The
resulting gases are directed over the turbines blades, spinning the turbine and
powering the compressor. The gases are finally passed through a nozzle, generating
additional thrust by accelerating the hot exhaust gases by expansion back to
atmospheric pressure.
Energy is extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air and thrust in any
combination and is used to power aircraft, trains, ships, generators and even tanks.
Theory of operation
Gas turbines are described by the Brayton cycle, in which air is compressed
isentropically, combustion occurs at constant pressure and expansion over the
turbine occurs isentropically back to the starting pressure.
In practice, friction and turbulence cause:

non-isentropic compression for a given overall pressure ratio, the compressor
delivery temperature is higher than ideal
non-isentropic expansion although the turbine-temperature drop needed to
drive the compressor is unaffected, the associated pressure ratio is greater, which
decreases the expansion available to provide useful work
pressure losses in the air intake, combustor and exhaust these losses reduce the
expansion available to provide useful work.
Figure 9.10: The idealised Brayton cycle

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Turbines 9
As with all cyclical heat engines, higher combustion temperature means greater
efficiency. The limiting factor is the ability of the steel, ceramic or other materials
that make up the engine to withstand heat and pressure. Considerable engineering
goes into keeping the turbine parts cool. Most turbines also try to recover exhaust
heat which is otherwise wasted energy. Recuperators are heat exchangers that pass
exhaust heat to the compressed air, prior to combustion. Combined cycle designs
pass waste heat to steam turbine systems. Combined heat and power
(co-generation) uses waste heat for hot water production.
Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably less complex than internal

combustion piston engines. Simple turbines usually have only one moving part: the
shaft/compressor/turbine/alternator-rotor assembly (see Figure 9.9), not counting
the fuel system.
More sophisticated turbines (such as those in jet engines) may have multiple shafts
(called spools), hundreds of turbine blades, movable stator blades and a vast system
of complex piping, combustors and heat exchangers.
Generally, the smaller the engine, the higher the rotation of the shaft(s) needed to
maintain tip speed. Tip speed is the difference between the rotational speed of the
tip of a turbine blade and the actual velocity of the steam. Tip speed determines the
maximum pressure that can be gained in the turbine, independent of the size of the
engine. Jet engines operate around 10 000RPM and micro-turbines around
100 000RPM.
Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of the design of a gas
turbine. Traditionally, they have been hydrodynamic oil bearings or oil-cooled Hydrodynamic
Describes forces acting
ball bearings. Recently, foil bearings have become common in micro-turbines and
on or exerted by fluids
auxiliary power units (APUs).
Jet engines
Figure 9.11: A gas turbine used for power production
Figure 9.11 shows a GE H-series power-generation gas turbine. This

480-megawatt unit has a rated thermal efficiency of 60% in combined cycle
configurations.
Industrial gas turbines range in size from truck-mounted mobile plants to

enormous, complex systems.
179
Simple-cycle gas turbines in the power industry require a smaller capital investment
than combined-cycle gas, coal or nuclear plants and can be designed to generate
small or large amounts of power. Also, the actual construction process can take
as little as several weeks to a few months, compared to years for baseload plants.
The other main advantage is that they can be turned on and off within minutes,
thus supplying power during increased demand. Large simple-cycle gas turbines
may produce several hundred RPM. The power turbines in the largest industrial
Baseload plants gas turbines operate at 3 000 or 3 600 RPM to match the AC-power-grid frequency
Fossil fuel plants and to avoid the need for a reduction gearbox. Such engines require specialised
building.
They can be efficient up to 60% when waste heat from the gas turbine is recovered
by a conventional steam turbine in a combined-cycle configuration. They can also
be run in a co-generation configuration where the exhaust is used for space or
water heating or to drive an absorption chiller for cooling or refrigeration. Here co-
generation can be over 90% energy-efficient.
Gas turbines for mechanical drive applications

Two-shaft gas turbines are often used to drive compression trains, for example, in
gas pumping stations or natural gas liquefaction plants. The first shaft bears the
compressor and the high-speed turbine (often referred to as gas generator), while
the second shaft bears the low-speed turbine (or power turbine). This arrangement
increases speed and power output flexibility.
Scale jet engines (micro-turbines)

Scale jet engines are also known as:
miniature gas turbines
micro-jets.
Figure 9.12: A micro-turbine
Many model engineers enjoy the challenge of re-creating todays tiny working
models. Naturally, the idea of re-creating a powerful engine, such as a jets, has
fascinated hobbyists since the first full-size engines were powered up by Hans von
Ohain and Frank Whittle, back in the 1930s.
Re-creating machines on a much smaller scale is not easy. The laws of physics
governing the behaviour of machines do not always scale up or down at the same
rate as the machines size. An automobile engine, for example, will not work if re-
produced to the size of a human hand.
With this in mind, the pioneer of modern micro-jets, Kurt Schreckling, produced
one of the worlds first micro-turbines, the FD3/67. This engine can give out 22
newtons of thrust and can be built by most mechanically minded people with basic
engineering tools, such as a metal lathe.
180
Turbines 9
Micro-turbines
Micro-turbines are becoming widespread for distributing power and for combined
heat and power applications. They range from hand-held units producing less than
a kilowatt to commercial-sized systems that produce tens or hundreds of kilowatts.
Part of their success is due to advances in electronics which allow unattended
operation and interfacing with the commercial power grid. Electronic power-
switching technology eliminates the need for the generator to be synchronised with Eliminates
the power grid. This allows, for example, the generator to be integrated with the Gets rid of
turbine shaft and to double as the starter motor.
Micro-turbine systems have many advantages over piston-engine generators, such

as higher power density (with respect to weight), extremely low emissions and few
moving parts (and sometimes just one moving part). Those micro-turbine systems
with foil bearings and air-cooling operate without oil, coolants or other hazardous
materials. However, piston-engine generators are quicker to respond to changes in
output-power requirements.
Piston-engine generators accept most commercial fuels such as natural gas,

propane, diesel and paraffin kerosene. They can also use renewable energy when
fuelled with biogas from landfills and sewage treatment plants.
Micro-turbine designs usually consist of a single-stage radial compressor, a

single-stage radial turbine and a recuperator. Recuperators are difficult to design
and manufacture because they operate under high pressure and temperature
differentials. Exhaust heat can be used for water heating, drying processes or
absorption chillers, which create cold air for air-conditioning from heat energy
instead of electric energy.
Typical micro-turbine efficiencies are from 25% to 35%. When in a combined heat-
and-power co-generation system, efficiencies of greater than 80% are commonly
achieved.
Auxiliary power units

Auxiliary power units (or APUs) are small gas turbines designed for auxiliary power
of larger machines, usually aircraft. They are well suited for supplying compressed
air for aircraft ventilation, start-up power for larger jet engines and electrical
and hydraulic power. The Perrys APUs are large electric motors that provide Manoeuvring
manoeuvring help in close waters or emergency backup if the gas turbines are not To do with movement
working.
181
Gas turbines in vehicles
Figure 9.13: Rover JET1
Gas turbines are used on ships, locomotives, helicopters and in tanks. Many
experiments have been conducted with gas turbine-powered automobiles.
In 1950, designer F. R. Bell and Chief Engineer Maurice Wilks, from British car
manufacturers Rover, unveiled the first car powered by a gas turbine engine. The
two-seater JET1 had the engine positioned behind the seats, air intake grilles on
either side of the car and exhaust outlets on the top of the tail (back). During tests,
the car reached top speeds of 140kph, at a turbine speed of 50 000RPM. The car
ran on petrol, paraffin and diesel oil but fuel-consumption problems prevented it
becoming a production car. JET1 is on display at the London Science Museum.
Coup
Rover and the British Racing Motors (BRM) Formula One team joined forces to
A car with a fixed roof,
two doors and a sloping
produce a gas turbine-powered coup. In 1963, they entered it in the 24-hour
back race at Le Mans (in France). It was driven by Graham Hill and Richie Ginther. It
averaged 173 kph and had a top speed of 229 kph.
In 1971, Lotus principal, Colin Chapman, introduced the Lotus 56B F1 car, powered
by a Pratt & Whitney gas turbine. Colin Chapman had a reputation for building
unusual championship-winning cars but had to abandon the project because of
Fictional problems with turbo lag. The fictional Batmobile is often said to be powered by a
Not based on actual gas turbine or a jet engine.
events; made up
American car manufacturer Chrysler developed several prototype gas turbine-
powered cars from the 1950s to the early 1980s. Chrysler built 50 Chrysler turbine
cars in 1963 and conducted the only consumer trial of gas turbine-powered cars.
In 1993, General Motors introduced the first commercial gas turbine-powered

hybrid vehicle as a limited production run of the EV-1.
Hybrid
Something made from A Williams International 40kW turbine drove an alternator which powered the
a combination of two battery-electric powertrain. The turbine design included a recuperator. Gas turbines
elements offer a high-powered engine in a small and light package. However, they are not as
responsive and efficient as small piston engines over the wide range of RPM and
powers needed in vehicle applications. Also, turbines have been more expensive
historically to produce than piston engines, though this is partly because piston
engines have been mass-produced in huge quantities over a long time while small
turbines are rarities. It is also worth noting that the main advantage of jets and
Naturally aspirated turbo-props for aeroplane propulsion their superior performance at high altitude
Naturally aspirated
compared to piston engines, particularly naturally aspirated ones is irrelevant
engines use a
in automobile applications. Their power-to-weight advantage is far less important.
carburettor and not fuel
injection Their use in hybrids reduces the responsiveness problem and the development of
the continuously variable transmission may also help solve this problem.
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Turbines 9
The Marine Turbine Technologies (MTT) Turbine SUPERBIKE appeared in 2000
(hence the designation of Y2K Superbike by MTT) and is the first production
motorcycle powered by a jet engine. This engine is a Rolls-Royce Allison model
250 turboshaft engine, producing about 283kW. The Superbike was speed-tested to
365 kph and apparently the test team ran out of road during the test. The Superbike
holds the Guinness World Record for the most powerful production motorcycle and
most expensive production motorcycle (with a price tag of US$185 000).
Gas turbines have been used more successfully in military tanks. In the 1950s, a
Conqueror heavy-tank was fitted with a Parsons 650-hp gas turbine. They have been
used as auxiliary power units in several other production models. Today, the Soviet/
Russian T-80 and US M1 Abrams tanks use gas-turbine engines.
Several locomotive classes have been powered by gas turbines, the most recent
being Bombardiers JetTrain.
Naval use
Gas turbines are used in many naval vessels where they are valued for their high
power-to-weight ratio and their ships resulting acceleration and ability to get
underway quickly. The first gas turbine-powered naval vessel was the Royal Navys
Frigate
Motor Gun Boat MGB 2009 (formerly MGB 509), converted in 1947. The first large A warship, usually
gas turbine-powered ships were the Royal Navys Type 81 (Tribal class) frigates, the lighter than a destroyer
first of which (HMS Ashanti) was commissioned in 1961.
The Swedish Navy produced six Spica-class torpedo-boats between 1966 and 1967,
powered by three Bristol Siddeley Proteus 1282s, each delivering 4 300 hp. They
were later joined by six upgraded Norrkping-class ships with the same engines.
With their rear torpedo tubes replaced by anti-shipping missiles, they served as
missile boats until the last was retired in 1986. The first US gas turbine-powered
ships were the US Coast Guards Hamilton-class High Endurance Cutters. The
first of these ships, the USCGC Hamilton, was commissioned in 1967. Since then,
they have powered the US Navys Perry-class frigates, Spruance-class and Arleigh
Burke-class destroyers and Ticonderoga-class guided-missile cruisers. USS Makin
Island, a modified Wasp-class amphibious assault ship, is to be the US Navys first
amphibious craft powered by gas turbines.
Three Rolls-Royce gas turbines power the 118 WallyPower, a 118-foot (36 m) super-
yacht. These engines combine to give a total of 12 356 kW, allowing the boat to
maintain speeds of 60 knots or 112 kph. Another example of commercial usage of
a gas turbine in a ship is the Stena Discovery, using the GE LM2500, a gas turbine
made by General Electric.
Amateur gas turbines

A popular hobby is to construct gas turbines from automotive turbochargers. A
combustion chamber is fabricated and plumbed between the compressor and
turbine. Several small companies manufacture small turbines and parts for the
amateur.
183
Advances in technology
Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced and research is actively producing
ever smaller gas turbines. Computer design, specifically CFD (computer fluid
dynamics software) and finite element analysis (simulation software) along with
material advances, has allowed higher compression ratios and temperatures, more
efficient combustion, better cooling of engine parts and reduced emissions. The
challenge to technology is to get a catalytic combustor running properly in order
to achieve minimal carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. Additionally, compliant
foil bearings were commercially introduced to gas turbines in the 1990s. They can
withstand over 100 000 start/stop cycles and eliminate the need for an oil system.
Assessment 3
1. Name the function of a gas turbine.
2. Research the gas turbine and then write half an A4 page on your findings.
3. Explain the theory of how gas turbines operate.
4. Compare micro-turbine systems to piston engines.
5. Write up your research on the use of gas turbines in motor vehicles from
1950.
6. Why are gas turbines used on naval vessels?
7. Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced since its inception and
continues to evolve. Do research on smaller gas turbines.
Did you know?

Turbochargers
The Indianapolis
500, also known as History
the Indy 500, is an
American car race held The turbocharger was invented by Swiss engineer Alfred Buchi who had worked on
annually since 1911. steam turbines. His patent for the internal combustion turbocharger was applied for
The race always takes in 1905. Diesel ships and locomotives with turbochargers began appearing in the
place at the Indianapolis 1920s.
Motor Speedway in
Indianapolis, Indiana,
One of the first applications of a turbocharger to a non-diesel engine was when
and draws crowds of
over 400 000. General Electric engineer Sanford Moss attached a turbo to a V12 Liberty aircraft
engine. The engine was tested at Pikes Peak in Colorado at an altitude of 4 267 m
above sea level to demonstrate that it could eliminate the power losses usually
experienced in internal combustion engines as a result of altitude.
Turbochargers were first used in production aircraft engines in the 1930s, prior
Pole position
to World War II. The purpose behind most aircraft-based applications was to
A racing term for the
increase the altitude at which an aeroplane could fly, by compensating for the lower
best position at the start
of the race atmospheric pressure present at high altitude. Aircraft such as the Lockheed P-38
Lightning, Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and B-29 Superfortress all used exhaust-
driven turbo-superchargers to increase high-altitude engine power. It is important
to note that turbo-supercharged aircraft engines actually used a gear-driven
centrifugal type supercharger in series with a turbocharger.
Shards
Sharp pieces Turbo-diesel trucks were produced in Europe and America (notably by Cummins)
after 1949. The turbocharger hit the automobile world in 1952 when Fred
Agabashian qualified for pole position at the Indianapolis 500 and led for 160 km
(100 miles) before tyre shards disabled the blower.
184
Turbines 9
The first production turbocharged car engines came from General Motors. The
A-body Oldsmobile Cutlass Jetfire and Chevrolet Corvair Monza Spyder were both
fitted with turbochargers in 1962. Both of these engines were abandoned within a
few years and GMs next turbo engine came more than ten years later.
Function
A turbocharger is a dynamic compressor in which air or gas is compressed by the
mechanical action of impellers (vaned rotors) which are spun using the kinetic
movement of air, imparting velocity and pressure to the flowing medium.
Working operation
Figure 9.14: A turbocharger
The mechanical concept of a turbocharger revolves around three main parts.

A turbine is driven by the exhaust gas from a pump, most often an internal-
combustion engine, to spin an impeller whose function is to force more air into the
pumps intake or air supply. The third basic part is a centre hub rotating assembly
which contains bearings, lubrication, cooling and a shaft that directly connects the
turbine and impeller. The shaft, bearings, impeller and turbine can rotate at speeds
of hundreds of thousands of RPM.
The lubrication system can be either a closed system or be fed from the engines
oil supply. The lubrication system may double as the cooling system or separate
coolant may be pumped through the centre housing from an outside source. Oil
lubrication and water cooling using engine oil and engine coolant are commonplace
in automotive applications.
Air filter Intake
Turbocharger
Exhaust
Figure 9.15: The position of the turbocharger in a car
185
The turbine and impeller are each contained within their own folded conical
housing on opposite sides of the centre hub-rotating assembly. These housings
collect and direct the gas flow. The size and shape can dictate some performance
Conical characteristics of the overall turbocharger. The area of the cone to radius from
A
Shaped like a cone centre hub is expressed as a ratio (AR, R , or A:R). Often, the same basic
turbocharger assembly will be available from the manufacturer with multiple
AR choices for the turbine housing and sometimes the compressor cover as well.
This allows the designer of the engine system to tailor the compromises between
performance, response and efficiency to application or preference. Both housings
resemble snail shells and thus turbochargers are sometimes referred to as snails.
Change air cooler
Compressed air flow
Turbocharger oil inlet
Engine cylinder
Turbine wheel
Compressor
Ambient air inlet Exhaust gas outlet
Compressor wheel
Oil outlet Wastegate
Figure 9.16: How a turbocharger is plumbed into a car
By spinning at a relatively high speed, the compressor turbine draws in a large volume
of air and forces it into the engine. As the turbochargers output-flow volume exceeds
the engines volumetric flow, air pressure in the intake system begins to build. The
speed at which the assembly spins is proportional to the pressure of the compressed
air and total mass of air flow being moved. Since a turbo will spin faster than is
needed, the speed must be controlled and thus it is also the property used to set the
desired compression pressure. A wastegate is the most common mechanical control
system and is often aided by an electronic boost controller.
The installation of a turbocharger is done to improve upon the size-to-output

efficiency of an engine by solving one of its cardinal limitations. A naturally
aspirated car engine uses only the downward stroke of a piston to create an area
of low pressure in order to draw air into the cylinder. Since the number of air and
fuel molecules determine the potential energy available to force the piston down
on the combustion stroke, and because of the relatively constant pressure of the
atmosphere, there is ultimately a limit to the amount of air and consequently fuel,
filling the combustion chamber.
Turbine section
Turbine housing Turbine exhaust gas outlet
Compressor housing Turbine wheel
Turbine exhaust inlet
Compressor ambient air inlet Compressor air discharge
Compressor wheel
Compressor section
Figure 9.17: The inside of a turbocharger

186
Turbines 9
This ability to fill the cylinder with air is its volumetric efficiency. Since the
turbocharger increases the pressure at the point where air is entering the cylinder
and the amount of air brought into the cylinder is largely a function of time and
pressure, more air will be drawn in as the pressure increases. The intake pressure, in
the absence of the turbocharger determined by the atmosphere, can be controllably
increased with the turbocharger.
The application of a compressor to increase pressure at the point of cylinder air

intake is often referred to as forced induction. Centrifugal superchargers operate in
the same fashion as a turbo. However, the energy to spin the compressor is taken
from the rotating output energy of the engines crankshaft as opposed to exhaust
gas. For this reason, turbochargers are ideally more efficient, since their turbines are
actually heat engines, converting some of the heat energy from the exhaust gas that
would otherwise be wasted, into useful work. Superchargers use output energy to
achieve a net gain which is at the expense of some of the engines total output.
The basics
One of the surest ways to get more power out of an engine is to increase the amount
of air and fuel that it can burn. One way to do this is to add cylinders (or make the
current cylinders bigger). Sometimes these changes may not be feasible a turbo
can be a simpler, more compact way to add power, especially for an aftermarket
accessory.
Fuel efficiency
Since a turbocharger increases the horsepower output of an engine, the engine will
also produce increased amounts of waste heat. This can be a problem when fitting
a turbocharger to a car which was not designed to cope with high-heat loads. This
extra waste heat, combined with the lower compression ratio (more specifically,
expansion ratio) of turbocharged engines, contributes to slightly lower thermal
efficiency. This has a small but direct impact on overall fuel efficiency.
Turbochargers allow an engine to burn more fuel and air by packing more into
the existing cylinders. The typical boost provided by a turbocharger is 41,3 to 55,2
kPa. Since normal atmospheric pressure is 96,52 kPa at sea level, about 50% more
air enters the engine. Therefore, you would expect to get 50% more power. Its not
perfectly efficient, so you might get 30% to 40% improvement instead.
One cause of the inefficiency is having to spin the turbine. Having a turbine in
the exhaust flow increases the restriction in the exhaust. This means that, on the
exhaust stroke, the engine has to push against a higher back-pressure. This subtracts
a little power.
Lean petrol mixture
A relatively low
Reliability concentration of petrol
vapour in air
As long as the oil supply is clean and the exhaust gas does not become overheated
because of lean mixtures or advanced spark timing on a petrol engine, a
turbocharger can be very reliable.
However, care of the unit is important. Replacing a turbo that lets go and sheds Advanced spark timing
its blades is expensive. The use of synthetic oils is recommended in turbo engines. The spark timing
Synthetic oils are designed and engineered to withstand the relatively harsh occurs before it should
conditions under which turbochargers operate.
187
After high-speed operation of the engine, it is important to let the engine run at idle
speed for one to three minutes before turning it off. For example, Saab, in its owner
manuals, recommends a period of just 30 seconds. This lets the turbo-rotating
assembly cool from the lower exhaust gas temperatures. Not doing this will also
result in the critical oil supply to the turbocharger being severed when the engine
stops while the turbine housing and exhaust manifold are still very hot. This may
lead to coking (or carbonisation) of the lubricating oil trapped in the unit, when the
heat soaks into the bearings, and later, failure of the supply of oil when the engine
is next started, causing rapid bearing wear and failure. Even small particles of burnt
oil will accumulate and lead to choking the oil supply and failure. A turbo timer is a
device designed to keep a car engine running for a pre-specified time, to allow it to
Sever
cool down. Oil coking is completely eliminated by foil bearings because they require
Cut off
no additional lubrication, therefore coking is not possible.
Figure 9.18: A turbine vane
Lag
A lag is sometimes felt by the driver of a turbocharged vehicle as a delay between
pressing the accelerator pedal and feeling the turbo kick in. This is symptomatic
of the time taken for the exhaust system driving the turbine to come to high
pressure and for the turbine rotor to overcome its rotational inertia and reach
the speed necessary to supply boost pressure. The directly-driven compressor in a
Inertia positive-displacement supercharger does not experience this problem. (Centrifugal
Newtons First Law
superchargers do not build boost at low RPMs like a positive-displacement
states: All bodies
preserve their state
supercharger will.) Conversely, at light loads or at low RPM, a turbocharger supplies
of being at rest or of less boost and the engine is more efficient than a supercharged engine.
moving uniformly
straight ahead, unless Boost
they are compelled to
change their state by Boost refers to the increase in manifold pressure that is generated by the
applied forces. In this turbocharger in the intake path or specifically intake manifold which exceeds
context, rotational normal atmospheric pressure. This is also the level of boost as shown on a pressure
inertia describes the
gauge, usually in bar, psi (pounds per square inch) and kPa. Pascals are the standard
resistance the turbines
rotor has to start
metric unit of pressure. One kilopascal (kPa) is 1 000 pascals and one pascal is 1
rotating and accelerate newton per square metre (N/m2). Boost is also referred to as pounds of boost. This
to higher speeds is representative of the extra air pressure that is achieved over that which would be
achieved without the forced induction.
188
Turbines 9
Boost pressure is limited to keeping the entire engine system, including the turbo,
inside its design operating range by controlling the wastegate which shunts the
exhaust gases away from the exhaust side turbine. In some cars, the maximum boost
depends on the fuels octane rating and is electronically regulated using a knock Shunts
sensor. Pushes
Did you know?

With air being pumped under pressure by the turbocharger into the cylinders and then being further compressed
by the piston, there is more danger of knocking. Knocking happens because as the air is compressed its temperature
increases. The temperature may increase enough to ignite the fuel before the spark-plug fires. Cars with turbochargers
often run on higher-octane fuel to avoid knock. Engine knock occurs when the compressed air/fuel mixture is ignited
too soon. This happens in the compression stroke when the piston is too far away from top dead centre. The expansion
of combusted gases and increased cylinder pressure, due to the upward movement of the piston, results in a very high
compression ratio and hence excess pressure on the engine components which causes a knocking effect. If the boost
pressure is really high, the compression ratio of the engine may have to be reduced to avoid knocking.
Types of supercharger
Eaton supercharger
Figure 9.19: The Eaton supercharger, a modified Roots supercharger
There are three types of supercharger: Roots, twin screw and centrifugal. The main
difference is how they move air to the intake manifold of the engine. Roots and
twin-screw superchargers use different types of meshing lobes and a centrifugal
supercharger uses an impeller which draws air in. Although all these designs
provide a boost, they differ considerably in efficiency. Each type of supercharger is
available in different sizes, depending on whether you just want to give your car a
boost or compete in a race.
189
The Roots supercharger

The Roots supercharger is the oldest design. Philander and Francis Roots patented
the design in 1860 as a machine that would help ventilate mine shafts. In 1900,
Gottleib Daimler included a Roots supercharger in a car engine.
Fill side
Inlet
Outlet
Discharge side
Figure 9.20: A Roots supercharger
Figure 9.21: A 1942 Ford pick-up with a Roots supercharger
As the meshing lobes spin, air trapped in the pockets between the lobes is carried
between the fill side and the discharge side. Large quantities of air move into the
intake manifold and stack up to create positive pressure. For this reason, Roots
superchargers are really nothing more than air blowers and the term blower is
often used to describe all superchargers.
Roots superchargers are usually large and sit on top of the engine. They are popular
in muscle cars and hotrods because they stick out of the bonnet of the car.
However, they are the least efficient supercharger for two reasons: they add more
weight to the vehicle and they move air in discrete bursts instead of in a smooth and
continuous flow.
190
Turbines 9
The twin-screw supercharger
A twin-screw supercharger operates by pulling air through a pair of meshing lobes
that resemble a set of worm gears. Like the Roots supercharger, the air inside a
twin-screw supercharger is trapped in pockets created by the rotor lobes. A twin-
screw supercharger compresses the air inside the rotor housing. This is because the
rotors have a conical taper which means the air pockets decrease in size as air moves
from the fill side to the discharge side. As the air pockets shrink, the air is squeezed
into a smaller space.
Figure 9.22: A twin-screw supercharger
This makes the twin-screw superchargers more efficient but they cost more because
the screw-type rotors require more precision in the manufacturing process. Did you know?
Volkswagen has
recently released a
Centrifugal supercharger Twincharger engine
in a Golf GT. The
Any of these superchargers can be added to a vehicle as an after-market Twincharger comes with
enhancement. Several companies offer kits which come with all of the parts both a supercharger
necessary to install a supercharger as a do-it-yourself project. In the world of funny and a turbocharger.
cars and fuel racers, such customisation is an integral part of the sport. Several auto At low RPM, the
manufacturers also include superchargers in their production models. supercharger blasts
air into the cylinders
to enhance low-end
Centrifugal superchargers are the most efficient and the most common of all forced-
torque. At high RPM,
induction systems. They are small, lightweight and are attached to the front of the when exhaust gases
engine instead of the top. They also make a distinctive whine as the engine revs up have been produced
a quality that may turn heads on the street. in sufficient quantity,
the turbocharger kicks
A centrifugal supercharger powers an impeller, a device similar to a rotor, at very in to increase top-end
high speeds to draw air into a small compressor housing quickly. An impeller is performance. The GT,
similar to a rotor. Impeller speeds can reach 50 000 to 60 000 RPM. As the air is which is available only
drawn in at the hub of the impeller, centrifugal force causes it to radiate outward. in Europe, reaches
The air leaves the impeller at high speed but low pressure. A diffuser a set of 100 kph in 7,9 seconds.
stationary vanes which surround the impeller converts the high-speed, low- It can also reach 219
pressure air to low-speed, high-pressure air. Air molecules slow down when they hit kph while still delivering
16,64 km per litre.
the vanes, which reduces the velocity of the airflow and increases pressure.
Figure 9.23: A centrifugal supercharger

191
Supercharger advantages and disadvantages

The biggest advantage of having a supercharger is the increased horsepower. A
supercharger attached to an otherwise normal car or truck will make it behave like a
vehicle with a larger, more-powerful engine.
What if a motorist is trying to decide between a supercharger and a turbocharger?

This question is hotly debated by auto engineers and car enthusiasts but, in general,
superchargers have some advantages over turbochargers.
Superchargers do not suffer lag a word used to describe the time between
the driver pressing down on the accelerator and the engines response.
Turbochargers result in lag because it takes a few moments before the exhaust
gases reach a velocity which is sufficient to drive the impeller/turbine.
Superchargers have no lag time because they are driven directly by the
crankshaft.
Certain superchargers are more efficient at lower RPM while others are more
efficient at higher RPM. Roots and twin-screw superchargers, for example,
provide more power at lower RPM. Centrifugal superchargers which become
more efficient as the impeller spins faster, provide more power at higher RPM.
Installing a turbocharger requires extensive modification of the exhaust system
but superchargers can be bolted to the top or side of the engine. This makes
them cheaper to install and easier to service and maintain.
No special shutdown procedure is required with superchargers. Because they
are not lubricated by engine oil, they can be shut down normally. Turbochargers
must idle for about 30 seconds or so prior to shutdown so the lubricating oil
has a chance to cool down. With that said, a good warm-up is important for
superchargers as they work most efficiently at normal operating temperatures.
Superchargers are common additions to the internal-combustion engines of

aeroplanes. This makes sense when you consider that aeroplanes spend most
of their time at high altitudes where significantly less oxygen is available for
combustion. With the introduction of superchargers, aeroplanes were able to fly
higher without losing engine performance. In general, superchargers offer a few
advantages over turbochargers.
Assessment 4
1. Research the history of the turbocharger and write a summary of your
findings.
2. Name the function of the turbocharger.
3. Explain the working operation of a turbocharger.
4. What impact does a turbocharger have on fuel efficiency?
5. Explain what is meant by the following:
(a) lag
(b) boost.
6. Name three types of supercharger.
7. Explain the operation of the following:
(a) twin-screw supercharger
(b) centrifugal supercharger.
8. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of a supercharger.
0003
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Mechanical Guide PDF

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Grade 12

First published 2007

How to use this book............................................................................................................................................................................................................ iv

Outline of the curriculum

Calculation of stress, Concepts of stress,

Did you know?

Pause for thought

Explanation of the key words

Message from the authors

We wish you well for your studies this year.

Occupational Health and Safety Act 1993 (OHSA)

The Act also refers to the following:

Extracts from the Occupational Health and Safety Act

It is important to protect yourself by wearing the appropriate protective clothing.

Figure 1.1: Basic personal protective wear

Figure 1.2: Angle grinder

Perspex shield Head

Tool rest Wheel guard

Figure 1.3: Bench grinder

Mounting of grinding wheels

The following steps are advised:

Other safety measures are:

Figure 1.4: A surface grinder

Remember the following safety precautions when using surface grinders:

Motor and gearbox

Figure 1.5: A drill press

Observe the following safety precautions when using a drill press:

Portable electric drilling machine

Figure 1.6: Portable drilling machine

Power saw switch

Figure 1.7: A power saw

Observe the following precautions when using a power saw:

Figure 1.8: A centre lathe

Arbor support Arbor

Handwheel Power-feed unit

Figure 1.9: A milling machine

Resist the habit of leaning on machinery. This dangerous, automatic practice

Switch Blade safety mechanism

Figure 1.10: An electrical guillotine

Figure 1.11: A manual guillotine

Where the opening at the point of operation of a pair of shears or a guillotine is

Figure 1.12: A hydraulic press

Observe the following safety precautions when using a hydraulic press:

Joining (arc, spot, gas)

Figure 1.13: Spot welding machine

Safety rules to observe when working with a spot welder

Parallel hose clips

Torch mounted flashback arresters

Figure 1.14: Oxy-acetylene welding plant

Where hot work involving welding, cutting, brazing or soldering operations

Handling gas cylinders

Figure 1.15: Oxy-acetylene cylinders

No portable gas container should be used, filled, handled, modified, repaired or

Cylinder testing register

The following are the requirements for cylinder testing:

Location: Record of inspections and tests

The following form is used by inspection authorities when testing cylinders.

Items Checked Remarks

I certify that this Vessel Hydraulic pressure test Y/N