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Textbook for Class X
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Foreword
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The National Curriculum Framework, 2005, recommends that children’s life at school
must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from
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the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a
gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed
on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also
attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between
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different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in
the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy
on Education (1986).
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The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers
will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue
imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and
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freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed
on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination
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is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as
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These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual
calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching.
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The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this
textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than
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a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem
of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages
with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
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The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space
to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and
activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
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the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this
book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in Science and
Mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisors for this book, Professor
P. Sinclair of IGNOU, New Delhi and Professor G.P. Dikshit (Retd.) of Lucknow
University, Lucknow for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
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appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human
Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and
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Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation
committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to
undertake further revision and refinement.
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Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
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15 November 2006
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Preface
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Through the years, from the time of the Kothari Commission, there have been
several committees looking at ways of making the school curriculum meaningful
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and enjoyable for the learners. Based on the understanding developed over the
years, a National Curriculum Framework (NCF) was finalised in 2005. As part of
this exercise, a National Focus Group on Teaching of Mathematics was formed. Its
report, which came in 2005, highlighted a constructivist approach to the teaching
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and learning of mathematics.
The essence of this approach is that children already know, and do some
mathematics very naturally in their surroundings, before they even join school. The
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syllabus, teaching approach, textbooks etc., should build on this knowledge in a way
that allows children to enjoy mathematics, and to realise that mathematics is more
about a way of reasoning than about mechanically applying formulae and algorithms.
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The students and teachers need to perceive mathematics as something natural and
linked to the world around us. While teaching mathematics, the focus should be on
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helping children to develop the ability to particularise and generalise, to solve and
pose meaningful problems, to look for patterns and relationships, and to apply the
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logical thinking behind mathematical proof. And, all this in an environment that the
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to realise in the present textbook. More specifically, while creating the textbook, the
following broad guidelines have been kept in mind.
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z The matter needs to be linked to what the child has studied before, and to
her experiences.
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z The language used in the book, including that for ‘word problems’, must be
clear, simple and unambiguous.
z Concepts/processes should be introduced through situations from the
children’s environment.
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z For each concept/process give several examples and exercises, but not of
the same kind. This ensures that the children use the concept/process again
and again, but in varying contexts. Here ‘several’ should be within reason,
not overloading the child.
z Encourage the children to see, and come out with, diverse solutions to
problems.
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z Whenever possible, more than one proof is to be given.
z Proofs and solutions need to be used as vehicles for helping the learner
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develop a clear and logical way of expressing her arguments.
z All geometric constructions should be accompanied by an analysis of the
construction and a proof for the steps taken to do the required construction.
Accordingly, the children would be trained to do the same while doing
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constructions.
z Add such small anecdotes, pictures, cartoons and historical remarks at
several places which the children would find interesting.
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z Include optional exercises for the more interested learners. These would
not be tested in the examinations.
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Give answers to all exercises, and solutions/hints for those that the children
may require.
z Whenever possible, propagate constitutional values.
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As you will see while studying this textbook, these points have been kept in mind
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by the Textbook Development Committee. The book has particularly been created
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with the view to giving children space to explore mathematics and develop the abilities
to reason mathematically. Further, two special appendices have been given — Proofs
in Mathematics, and Mathematical Modelling. These are placed in the book for
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interested students to study, and are only optional reading at present. These topics
may be considered for inclusion in the main syllabi in due course of time.
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As in the past, this textbook is also a team effort. However, what is unusual
about the team this time is that teachers from different kinds of schools have been
an integral part at each stage of the development. We are also assuming that teachers
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PARVIN SINCLAIR
G.P. D IKSHIT
Chief Advisors
Textbook Development Committee
Textbook Development Committee
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CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP IN S CIENCE AND M ATHEMATICS
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J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter-University Centre for Astronomy & Astrophysics
(IUCAA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISORS
P. Sinclair, Professor, School of Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
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G.P. Dikshit, Professor (Retd.), Lucknow University, Lucknow
CHIEF COORDINATOR
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Hukum Singh, Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
M EMBERS
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Anjali Lal, PGT, DAV Public School, Sector-14, Gurgaon
A.K. Wazalwar, Associate Professor, DESM, NCERT
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Rama Balaji, TGT, K.V., MEG & Centre, St. John’s Road, Bangalore
S. Jagdeeshan, Teacher and Member, Governing Council, Centre for Learning, Bangalore
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The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following
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participants of the Textbook Review Workshop:
Mala Mani, TGT, Amity International School, Sector-44, Noida; Meera
Mahadevan, TGT, Atomic Energy Central School, No. 4, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai;
Rashmi Rana, TGT, D.A.V. Public School, Pushpanjali Enclave, Pitampura, Delhi;
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Mohammad Qasim, TGT, Anglo Arabic Senior Secondary School, Ajmeri Gate, Delhi;
S.C. Rauto, TGT, Central School for Tibetans, Happy Valley, Mussoorie; Rakesh
Kaushik, TGT, Sainik School, Kunjpura, Karnal; Ashok Kumar Gupta, TGT, Jawahar
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Navodaya Vidyalaya, Dudhnoi, Distt. Goalpara; Sankar Misra, TGT, Demonstration
Multipurpose School, RIE, Bhubaneswar; Uaday Singh, Lecturer, Department of
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Mathematics, B.H.U., Varanasi; B.R. Handa, Emeritus Professor, IIT, New Delhi;
Monika Singh, Lecturer, Sri Ram College (University of Delhi), Lajpat Nagar,
New Delhi; G. Sri Hari Babu, TGT, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Sirpur, Kagaz
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Nagar, Adilabad; Ajay Kumar Singh, TGT, Ramjas Sr. Secondary School No. 3,
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Station; Purnendu Kumar Barik, Copy Editor; Naresh Kumar and Nargis Islam,
D.T.P. Operators; Yogita Sharma, Proof Reader.
The Contribution of APC-Office, administration of DESM, Publication
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Foreword iii
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Preface v
1. Real Numbers 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Euclid’s Division Lemma 2
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1.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 7
1.4 Revisiting Irrational Numbers 11
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1.5 Revisiting Rational Numbers and Their Decimal Expansions 15
1.6 Summary 18
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2. Polynomials 20
2.1 Introduction 20
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5. Arithmetic Progressions 93
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5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Arithmetic Progressions 95
5.3 nth Term of an AP 100
5.4 Sum of First n Terms of an AP 107
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5.5 Summary 116
6. Triangles 117
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6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Similar Figures 118
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6.3 Similarity of Triangles 123
6.4 Criteria for Similarity of Triangles 129
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10. Circles 206
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10.1 Introduction 206
10.2 Tangent to a Circle 207
10.3 Number of Tangents from a Point on a Circle 209
10.4 Summary 215
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11. Constructions 216
11.1 Introduction 216
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11.2 Division of a Line Segment 216
11.3 Construction of Tangents to a Circle 220
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11.4 Summary 222
12. Areas Related to Circles 223
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15. Probability 295
15.1 Introduction 295
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15.2 Probability — A Theoretical Approach 296
15.3 Summary 312
Appendix A1 : Proofs in Mathematics 313
A1.1 Introduction 313
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A1.2 Mathematical Statements Revisited 313
A1.3 Deductive Reasoning 316
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A1.4 Conjectures, Theorems, Proofs and Mathematical Reasoning 318
A1.5 Negation of a Statement 323
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A1.6 Converse of a Statement 326
A1.7 Proof by Contradiction 329
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REAL NUMBERS 1
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1.1 Introduction
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In Class IX, you began your exploration of the world of real numbers and encountered
irrational numbers. We continue our discussion on real numbers in this chapter. We
begin with two very important properties of positive integers in Sections 1.2 and 1.3,
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namely the Euclid’s division algorithm and the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
Euclid’s division algorithm, as the name suggests, has to do with divisibility of
integers. Stated simply, it says any positive integer a can be divided by another positive
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integer b in such a way that it leaves a remainder r that is smaller than b. Many of you
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probably recognise this as the usual long division process. Although this result is quite
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easy to state and understand, it has many applications related to the divisibility properties
of integers. We touch upon a few of them, and use it mainly to compute the HCF of
two positive integers.
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can be expressed as a product of primes in a unique way —this important fact is the
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. Again, while it is a result that is easy to state and
understand, it has some very deep and significant applications in the field of mathematics.
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We use the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic for two main applications. First, we
use it to prove the irrationality of many of the numbers you studied in Class IX, such as
2 , 3 and 5 . Second, we apply this theorem to explore when exactly the decimal
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expansion of a rational number, say q ( q ≠ 0) , is terminating and when it is non-
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fight, he pulled the basket with eggs and dashed it on the floor. The eggs broke.
The trader requested the Panchayat to ask the idler to pay for the broken eggs.
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The Panchayat asked the trader how many eggs were broken. He gave the
following response:
If counted in pairs, one will remain;
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If counted in threes, two will remain;
If counted in fours, three will remain;
If counted in fives, four will remain;
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If counted in sixes, five will remain;
If counted in sevens, nothing will remain;
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My basket cannot accomodate more than 150 eggs.
So, how many eggs were there? Let us try and solve the puzzle. Let the number
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of eggs be a. Then working backwards, we see that a is less than or equal to 150:
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If counted in sevens, nothing will remain, which translates to a = 7p + 0, for
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number w.
If counted in fours, three will remain. It translates to a = 4s + 3, for some natural
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number s.
If counted in threes, two will remain. It translates to a = 3t + 2, for some natural
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number t.
If counted in pairs, one will remain. It translates to a = 2 u + 1, for some natural
number u.
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That is, in each case, we have a and a positive integer b (in our example,
b takes values 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2, respectively) which divides a and leaves a remainder
r (in our case, r is 0, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively), that is smaller than b. The
* This is modified form of a puzzle given in ‘Numeracy Counts!’ by A. Rampal, and others.
R EAL NUMBERS 3
moment we write down such equations we are using Euclid’s division lemma,
which is given in Theorem 1.1.
Getting back to our puzzle, do you have any idea how you will solve it? Yes! You
must look for the multiples of 7 which satisfy all the conditions. By trial and error
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(using the concept of LCM), you will find he had 119 eggs.
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In order to get a feel for what Euclid’s division lemma is, consider the following
pairs of integers:
17, 6; 5, 12; 20, 4
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Like we did in the example, we can write the following relations for each such
pair:
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17 = 6 × 2 + 5 (6 goes into 17 twice and leaves a remainder 5)
5 = 12 × 0 + 5 (This relation holds since 12 is larger than 5)
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20 = 4 × 5 + 0 (Here 4 goes into 20 five-times and leaves no remainder)
That is, for each pair of positive integers a and b, we have found whole numbers
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integers a and b?
(i) 10, 3; (ii) 4, 19; (iii) 81, 3
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Did you notice that q and r are unique? These are the only integers satisfying the
conditions a = bq + r, where 0 ≤ r < b. You may have also realised that this is nothing
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but a restatement of the long division process you have been doing all these years, and
that the integers q and r are called the quotient and remainder, respectively.
A formal statement of this result is as follows :
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of the 9th century Persian mathematician
al-Khwarizmi. In fact, even the word ‘algebra’
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is derived from a book, he wrote, called Hisab
al-jabr w’al-muqabala.
A lemma is a proven statement used for Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi
proving another statement.
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(A.D. 780 – 850)
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and b is the largest positive integer d that divides both a and b.
Let us see how the algorithm works, through an example first. Suppose we need
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to find the HCF of the integers 455 and 42. We start with the larger integer, that is,
455. Then we use Euclid’s lemma to get
455 = 42 × 10 + 35
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Now consider the divisor 42 and the remainder 35, and apply the division lemma
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to get
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42 = 35 × 1 + 7
Now consider the divisor 35 and the remainder 7, and apply the division lemma
to get
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35 = 7 × 5 + 0
Notice that the remainder has become zero, and we cannot proceed any further.
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We claim that the HCF of 455 and 42 is the divisor at this stage, i.e., 7. You can easily
verify this by listing all the factors of 455 and 42. Why does this method work? It
works because of the following result.
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Step 1 : Apply Euclid’s division lemma, to c and d. So, we find whole numbers, q and
r such that c = dq + r, 0 ≤ r < d.
Step 2 : If r = 0, d is the HCF of c and d. If r ≠ 0, apply the division lemma to d and r.
Step 3 : Continue the process till the remainder is zero. The divisor at this stage will
be the required HCF.
R EAL NUMBERS 5
This algorithm works because HCF (c, d) = HCF (d, r) where the symbol
HCF (c, d) denotes the HCF of c and d, etc.
Example 1 : Use Euclid’s algorithm to find the HCF of 4052 and 12576.
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Solution :
Step 1 : Since 12576 > 4052, we apply the division lemma to 12576 and 4052, to get
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12576 = 4052 × 3 + 420
Step 2 : Since the remainder 420 ≠ 0, we apply the division lemma to 4052 and 420, to
get
4052 = 420 × 9 + 272
Step 3 : We consider the new divisor 420 and the new remainder 272, and apply the
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division lemma to get
420 = 272 × 1 + 148
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We consider the new divisor 272 and the new remainder 148, and apply the division
lemma to get
272 = 148 × 1 + 124
We consider the new divisor 148 and the new remainder 124, and apply the division
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lemma to get
148 = 124 × 1 + 24
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We consider the new divisor 124 and the new remainder 24, and apply the division
lemma to get
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124 = 24 × 5 + 4
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We consider the new divisor 24 and the new remainder 4, and apply the division
lemma to get
24 = 4 × 6 + 0
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The remainder has now become zero, so our procedure stops. Since the divisor at this
stage is 4, the HCF of 12576 and 4052 is 4.
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Notice that 4 = HCF (24, 4) = HCF (124, 24) = HCF (148, 124) =
HCF (272, 148) = HCF (420, 272) = HCF (4052, 420) = HCF (12576, 4052).
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Euclid’s division algorithm is not only useful for calculating the HCF of very
large numbers, but also because it is one of the earliest examples of an algorithm that
a computer had been programmed to carry out.
Remarks :
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1. Euclid’s division lemma and algorithm are so closely interlinked that people often
call former as the division algorithm also.
2. Although Euclid’s Division Algorithm is stated for only positive integers, it can be
extended for all integers except zero, i.e., b ≠ 0. However, we shall not discuss this
aspect here.
6 MATHEMATICS
Example 2 : Show that every positive even integer is of the form 2q, and that every
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positive odd integer is of the form 2q + 1, where q is some integer.
Solution : Let a be any positive integer and b = 2. Then, by Euclid’s algorithm,
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a = 2q + r, for some integer q ≥ 0, and r = 0 or r = 1, because 0 ≤ r < 2. So,
a = 2q or 2q + 1.
If a is of the form 2q, then a is an even integer. Also, a positive integer can be
either even or odd. Therefore, any positive odd integer is of the form 2q + 1.
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Example 3 : Show that any positive odd integer is of the form 4q + 1 or 4q + 3, where
q is some integer.
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Solution : Let us start with taking a, where a is a positive odd integer. We apply the
division algorithm with a and b = 4.
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Since 0 ≤ r < 4, the possible remainders are 0, 1, 2 and 3.
That is, a can be 4q, or 4q + 1, or 4q + 2, or 4q + 3, where q is the quotient.
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However, since a is odd, a cannot be 4q or 4q + 2 (since they are both divisible by 2).
Therefore, any odd integer is of the form 4q + 1 or 4q + 3.
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Example 4 : A sweetseller has 420 kaju barfis and 130 badam barfis. She wants to
stack them in such a way that each stack has the same number, and they take up the
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least area of the tray. What is the number of that can be placed in each stack for this
purpose?
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Solution : This can be done by trial and error. But to do it systematically, we find
HCF (420, 130). Then this number will give the maximum number of barfis in each
stack and the number of stacks will then be the least. The area of the tray that is used
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130 = 30 × 4 + 10
30 = 10 × 3 + 0
So, the HCF of 420 and 130 is 10.
Therefore, the sweetseller can make stacks of 10 for both kinds of barfi.
R EAL NUMBERS 7
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Use Euclid’s division algorithm to find the HCF of :
(i) 135 and 225 (ii) 196 and 38220 (iii) 867 and 255
2. Show that any positive odd integer is of the form 6q + 1, or 6q + 3, or 6q + 5, where q is
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some integer.
3. An army contingent of 616 members is to march behind an army band of 32 members in
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a parade. The two groups are to march in the same number of columns. What is the
maximum number of columns in which they can march?
4. Use Euclid’s division lemma to show that the square of any positive integer is either of
the form 3m or 3m + 1 for some integer m.
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[Hint : Let x be any positive integer then it is of the form 3q, 3q + 1 or 3q + 2. Now square
each of these and show that they can be rewritten in the form 3m or 3m + 1.]
5. Use Euclid’s division lemma to show that the cube of any positive integer is of the form
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9m, 9m + 1 or 9m + 8.
Now, let us try and look at natural numbers from the other direction. That is, can any
natural number be obtained by multiplying prime numbers? Let us see.
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2 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 10626 2 3 × 3 × 73 = 8232
2 2 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 21252
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and so on.
Now, let us suppose your collection of primes includes all the possible primes.
What is your guess about the size of this collection? Does it contain only a finite
number of integers, or infinitely many? Infact, there are infinitely many primes. So, if
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we combine all these primes in all possible ways, we will get an infinite collection of
numbers, all the primes and all possible products of primes. The question is – can we
produce all the composite numbers this way? What do you think? Do you think that
there may be a composite number which is not the product of powers of primes?
Before we answer this, let us factorise positive integers, that is, do the opposite of
what we have done so far.
8 MATHEMATICS
We are going to use the factor tree with which you are all familiar. Let us take
some large number, say, 32760, and factorise it as shown :
32760
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2 16380
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2 8190
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2 4095
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3 1365
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3 455
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5 91
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7 13
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you have to check that 3803 and 3607 are primes! (Try it out for several other natural
numbers yourself.) This leads us to a conjecture that every composite number can be
written as the product of powers of primes. In fact, this statement is true, and is called
the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic because of its basic crucial importance
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was given by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his Disquisitiones
Arithmeticae.
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Carl Friedrich Gauss is often referred to as the ‘Prince of
Mathematicians’ and is considered one of the three
greatest mathematicians of all time, along with Archimedes
and Newton. He has made fundamental contributions to Carl Friedrich Gauss
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both mathematics and science. (1777 – 1855)
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The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic says that every composite number
can be factorised as a product of primes. Actually it says more. It says that given
any composite number it can be factorised as a product of prime numbers in a
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‘unique’ way, except for the order in which the primes occur. That is, given any
composite number there is one and only one way to write it as a product of primes,
as long as we are not particular about the order in which the primes occur. So, for
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following form:
The prime factorisation of a natural number is unique, except for the order
of its factors.
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≤ . . . ≤ pn. If we combine the same primes, we will get powers of primes. For example,
32760 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 = 23 × 32 × 5 × 7 × 13
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Once we have decided that the order will be ascending, then the way the number
is factorised, is unique.
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic has many applications, both within
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not possible because 4n = (2)2n; so the only prime in the factorisation of 4n is 2. So, the
uniqueness of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic guarantees that there are no
other primes in the factorisation of 4n. So, there is no natural number n for which 4 n
ends with the digit zero.
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You have already learnt how to find the HCF and LCM of two positive integers
using the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic in earlier classes, without realising it!
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This method is also called the prime factorisation method. Let us recall this method
through an example.
Example 6 : Find the LCM and HCF of 6 and 20 by the prime factorisation method.
6 = 21 × 31 and 20 = 2 × 2 × 5 = 22 × 51.
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Solution : We have :
You can find HCF(6, 20) = 2 and LCM(6, 20) = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 60, as done in your
earlier classes.
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Note that HCF(6, 20) = 21 = Product of the smallest power of each common
prime factor in the numbers.
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LCM (6, 20) = 22 × 3 1 × 51 = Product of the greatest power of each prime factor,
involved in the numbers.
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From the example above, you might have noticed that HCF(6, 20) × LCM(6, 20)
= 6 × 20. In fact, we can verify that for any two positive integers a and b,
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HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b) = a × b. We can use this result to find the LCM of two
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positive integers, if we have already found the HCF of the two positive integers.
Example 7 : Find the HCF of 96 and 404 by the prime factorisation method. Hence,
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96 = 25 × 3, 404 = 2 2 × 101
Therefore, the HCF of these two integers is 22 = 4.
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96 × 404 96 × 404
Also, LCM (96, 404) = = = 9696
HCF(96, 404) 4
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Example 8 : Find the HCF and LCM of 6, 72 and 120, using the prime factorisation
method.
Solution : We have :
6 = 2 × 3, 72 = 2 3 × 32, 120 = 2 3 × 3 × 5
Here, 21 and 31 are the smallest powers of the common factors 2 and 3, respectively.
R EAL NUMBERS 11
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So, LCM (6, 72, 120) = 23 × 32 × 51 = 360
Remark : Notice, 6 × 72 × 120 ≠ HCF (6, 72, 120) × LCM (6, 72, 120). So, the
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product of three numbers is not equal to the product of their HCF and LCM.
EXERCISE 1.2
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1. Express each number as a product of its prime factors:
(i) 140 (ii) 156 (iii) 3825 (iv) 5005 (v) 7429
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2. Find the LCM and HCF of the following pairs of integers and verify that LCM × HCF =
product of the two numbers.
(i) 26 and 91 (ii) 510 and 92 (iii) 336 and 54
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3. Find the LCM and HCF of the following integers by applying the prime factorisation
method.
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5. Check whether 6n can end with the digit 0 for any natural number n.
6. Explain why 7 × 11 × 13 + 13 and 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 + 5 are composite numbers.
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7. There is a circular path around a sports field. Sonia takes 18 minutes to drive one round
of the field, while Ravi takes 12 minutes for the same. Suppose they both start at the
same point and at the same time, and go in the same direction. After how many minutes
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In Class IX, you were introduced to irrational numbers and many of their properties.
You studied about their existence and how the rationals and the irrationals together
made up the real numbers. You even studied how to locate irrationals on the number
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line. However, we did not prove that they were irrationals. In this section, we will
prove that 2 , 3 , 5 and, in general, p is irrational, where p is a prime. One of
the theorems, we use in our proof, is the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
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Recall, a number ‘s’ is called irrational if it cannot be written in the form ,
q
where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. Some examples of irrational numbers, with
12 MATHEMATICS
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proof is based on the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
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Theorem 1.3 : Let p be a prime number. If p divides a2, then p divides a, where
a is a positive integer.
*Proof : Let the prime factorisation of a be as follows :
is
a = p 1p 2 . . . p n, where p 1,p2, . . ., p n are primes, not necessarily distinct.
Therefore, a 2 = ( p1 p 2 . . . pn)( p 1 p 2 . . . p n) = p21 p22 . . . p2n.
bl
Now, we are given that p divides a 2. Therefore, from the Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic, it follows that p is one of the prime factors of a2. However, using the
uniqueness part of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, we realise that the only
pu
prime factors of a2 are p1, p 2, . . ., p n. So p is one of p 1, p2 , . . ., p n.
Now, since a = p1 p2 . . . pn , p divides a.
be T
a
factor to get 2 = , where a and b are coprime.
b
So, b 2 = a.
©
d
But this contradicts the fact that a and b have no common factors other than 1.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 2 is rational.
he
So, we conclude that 2 is irrational.
is
Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 3 is rational.
a
That is, we can find integers a and b (≠ 0) such that ⋅ 3 =
bl
b
Suppose a and b have a common factor other than 1, then we can divide by the
common factor, and assume that a and b are coprime.
pu
So, b 3 = a ⋅
Squaring on both sides, and rearranging, we get 3b2 = a2.
be T
This means that b 2 is divisible by 3, and so b is also divisible by 3 (using Theorem 1.3
with p = 3).
C
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 3 is rational.
So, we conclude that 3 is irrational.
In Class IX, we mentioned that :
©
d
b
a
Therefore, 5 − = 3 ⋅
he
b
a 5b − a
Rearranging this equation, we get 3 = 5 – = ⋅
b b
a
Since a and b are integers, we get 5 – is rational, and so 3 is rational.
is
b
But this contradicts the fact that 3 is irrational.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 5 – 3 is
bl
rational.
a
Since 3, a and b are integers, is rational, and so 2 is rational.
3b
C
EXERCISE 1.3
d
q
p
decimal expansion of is terminating and when it is non-terminating repeating
q
he
(or recurring). We do so by considering several examples.
Let us consider the following rational numbers :
(i) 0.375 (ii) 0.104 (iii) 0.0875 (iv) 23.3408.
is
375 375 104 104
Now (i) 0.375 = = (ii) 0.104 = =
1000 10 3 1000 10 3
bl
875 875 233408 233408
(iii) 0.0875 = = 4 (iv) 23.3408 = =
10000 10 10000 10 4
As one would expect, they can all be expressed as rational numbers whose
pu
denominators are powers of 10. Let us try and cancel the common factors between
the numerator and denominator and see what we get :
be T
375 3 × 53 3 104 13 × 23 13
(i) 0.375 = = 3 = 3 (ii) 0.104 = = =
re
103
2 ×5 3
2 10 3 2 3 × 53 53
o R
Do you see any pattern? It appears that, we have converted a real number
p
whose decimal expansion terminates into a rational number of the form , where p
C
q
and q are coprime, and the prime factorisation of the denominator (that is, q) has only
powers of 2, or powers of 5, or both. We should expect the denominator to look like
no N
rational number whose denominator is a power of 10. Also the only prime factors of 10
are 2 and 5. So, cancelling out the common factors between the numerator and the
p
denominator, we find that this real number is a rational number of the form , where
q
the prime factorisation of q is of the form 2n5 m, and n, m are some non-negative integers.
Let us write our result formally:
16 MATHEMATICS
d
You are probably wondering what happens the other way round in Theorem 1.5.
p
he
That is, if we have a rational number of the form , and the prime factorisation of q
q p
is of the form 2n5 m, where n, m are non negative integers, then does have a
q
terminating decimal expansion?
is
Let us see if there is some obvious reason why this is true. You will surely agree
a
that any rational number of the form , where b is a power of 10, will have a terminating
b
decimal expansion. So it seems to make sense to convert a rational number of the
bl
p a
form , where q is of the form 2n5 m , to an equivalent rational number of the form ,
q b
pu
where b is a power of 10. Let us go back to our examples above and work backwards.
3 3 3 × 53 375
= 3 = 3 = 3 = 0.375
be T
(i)
8 2 2 ×5 3
10
re
13 13 13 × 23 104
o R
(ii) = = = = 0.104
125 53 23 × 53 103
7 7 7 × 53 875
tt E
(iii) = 4 = 4 = 4 = 0.0875
80 2 × 5 2 × 5 4
10
(iv) = = = = 23.3408
625 54 2 4 × 54 10 4
no N
So, these examples show us how we can convert a rational number of the form
p , where q is of the form 2 n5 m, to an equivalent rational number of the form a ,
q b
where b is a power of 10. Therefore, the decimal expansion of such a rational number
©
d
1 28
textbook, namely, . Here, remainders are 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1, 3, 20
7
14
he
2, 6, 4, 5, 1, . . . and divisor is 7. 60
Notice that the denominator here, i.e., 7 is clearly not of 56
the form 2 n5m . Therefore, from Theorems 1.5 and 1.6, we 40
35
is
1
know that will not have a terminating decimal expansion. 50
7 49
Hence, 0 will not show up as a remainder (Why?), and the 10
bl
remainders will start repeating after a certain stage. So, we 7
will have a block of digits, namely, 142857, repeating in the
30
1
quotient of .
pu
7 1
What we have seen, in the case of , is true for any rational number not covered
7
be T
q
of q is not of the form 2n5 m, where n, m are non-negative integers. Then, x has a
decimal expansion which is non-terminating repeating (recurring).
tt E
From the discussion above, we can conclude that the decimal expansion of
every rational number is either terminating or non-terminating repeating.
C
EXERCISE 1.4
no N
1. Without actually performing the long division, state whether the following rational
numbers will have a terminating decimal expansion or a non-terminating repeating decimal
expansion:
13 17 64 15
©
35 77
(ix) (x)
50 210
18 MATHEMATICS
2. Write down the decimal expansions of those rational numbers in Question 1 above
which have terminating decimal expansions.
3. The following real numbers have decimal expansions as given below. In each case,
decide whether they are rational or not. If they are rational, and of the form p , what can
q
d
you say about the prime factors of q?
(i) 43.123456789 (ii) 0.120120012000120000. . . (iii) 43.123456789
he
1.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. Euclid’s division lemma :
is
Given positive integers a and b, there exist whole numbers q and r satisfying a = bq + r,
0 ≤ r < b.
bl
2. Euclid’s division algorithm : This is based on Euclid’s division lemma. According to this,
the HCF of any two positive integers a and b, with a > b, is obtained as follows:
Step 1 : Apply the division lemma to find q and r where a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b.
pu
Step 2 : If r = 0, the HCF is b. If r ≠ 0, apply Euclid’s lemma to b and r.
be T
Step 3 : Continue the process till the remainder is zero. The divisor at this stage will be
HCF (a, b). Also, HCF(a, b) = HCF(b, r).
re
o R
q
2n5m, where n, m are non-negative integers.
7. Let x = p be a rational number, such that the prime factorisation of q is of the form 2n5m,
q
©
where n, m are non-negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which terminates.
p
8. Let x = be a rational number, such that the prime factorisation of q is not of the form
q
2n 5m , where n, m are non-negative integers. Then x has a decimal expansion which is
non-terminating repeating (recurring).
R EAL NUMBERS 19
d
HCF ( p, q, r) × LCM (p, q, r) ≠ p × q × r, where p, q, r are positive integers
(see Example 8). However, the following results hold good for three numbers
he
p, q and r :
p ⋅q ⋅r ⋅HCF(p , q, r )
LCM (p, q, r) =
HCF( p , q) ⋅ HCF( q ,r ) ⋅ HCF( p, r )
is
p ⋅q ⋅r ⋅ LCM(p, q, r )
HCF (p, q, r) =
LCM( p, q) ⋅ LCM(q, r ) ⋅ LCM( p , r )
bl
pu
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
no N
©
20 MATHEMATICS
d
he
POLYNOMIALS 2
is
2.1 Introduction
bl
In Class IX, you have studied polynomials in one variable and their degrees. Recall
that if p(x) is a polynomial in x, the highest power of x in p(x) is called the degree of
pu
the polynomial p(x). For example, 4x + 2 is a polynomial in the variable x of
degree 1, 2y2 – 3y + 4 is a polynomial in the variable y of degree 2, 5x3 – 4x2 + x – 2
be T
3 4
is a polynomial in the variable x of degree 3 and 7u6 – u + 4 u 2 + u − 8 is a polynomial
2
re
o R
1 1
in the variable u of degree 6. Expressions like , x +2, etc., are
x−1 x + 2x + 3
2
not polynomials.
tt E
2
3 x + 5, y + 2 , x − , 3z + 4, u + 1 , etc., are all linear polynomials. Polynomials
11 3
such as 2x + 5 – x2, x3 + 1, etc., are not linear polynomials.
no N
u 2 1
y2 – 2, 2 − x2 + 3 x, − 2u2 + 5, 5v2 − v, 4z 2 + are some examples of
3 3 7
quadratic polynomials (whose coefficients are real numbers). More generally, any
quadratic polynomial in x is of the form ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b, c are real numbers
and a ≠ 0. A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial. Some examples of
a cubic polynomial are 2 – x3, x3, 2 x 3 , 3 – x2 + x3 , 3x3 – 2x2 + x – 1. In fact, the most
general form of a cubic polynomial is
ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d,
d
where, a, b, c, d are real numbers and a ≠ 0.
Now consider the polynomial p(x) = x2 – 3x – 4. Then, putting x = 2 in the
he
polynomial, we get p(2) = 22 – 3 × 2 – 4 = – 6. The value ‘– 6’, obtained by replacing
x by 2 in x2 – 3x – 4, is the value of x2 – 3x – 4 at x = 2. Similarly, p(0) is the value of
p(x) at x = 0, which is – 4.
If p(x) is a polynomial in x, and if k is any real number, then the value obtained by
is
replacing x by k in p(x), is called the value of p(x) at x = k, and is denoted by p(k).
What is the value of p(x) = x2 –3x – 4 at x = –1? We have :
bl
p(–1) = (–1) 2 –{3 × (–1)} – 4 = 0
Also, note that p(4) = 4 2 – (3 × 4) – 4 = 0.
As p(–1) = 0 and p(4) = 0, –1 and 4 are called the zeroes of the quadratic
pu
polynomial x2 – 3x – 4. More generally, a real number k is said to be a zero of a
polynomial p(x), if p(k) = 0.
be T
You have already studied in Class IX, how to find the zeroes of a linear
polynomial. For example, if k is a zero of p(x) = 2x + 3, then p(k) = 0 gives us
re
o R
3
2k + 3 = 0, i.e., k = − ⋅
2
−b
In general, if k is a zero of p(x) = ax + b, then p(k) = ak + b = 0, i.e., k = ⋅
tt E
a
−b − (Constant term)
So, the zero of the linear polynomial ax + b is = .
a Coefficient of x
C
Thus, the zero of a linear polynomial is related to its coefficients. Does this
happen in the case of other polynomials too? For example, are the zeroes of a quadratic
no N
Consider first a linear polynomial ax + b, a ≠ 0. You have studied in Class IX that the
graph of y = ax + b is a straight line. For example, the graph of y = 2x + 3 is a straight
line passing through the points (– 2, –1) and (2, 7).
d
x –2 2
y = 2x + 3 –1 7
he
From Fig. 2.1, you can see
that the graph of y = 2x + 3
is
intersects the x - axis mid-way
between x = –1 and x = – 2,
bl
3
⎝ 2 ⎠
You also know that the zero of
pu
3
2x + 3 is − . Thus, the zero of
2
be T
⎛ −b ⎞
C
straight line which intersects the x-axis at exactly one point, namely, ⎜ , 0 ⎟ .
⎝ a ⎠
Therefore, the linear polynomial ax + b, a ≠ 0, has exactly one zero, namely, the
no N
* Plotting of graphs of quadratic or cubic polynomials is not meant to be done by the students,
nor is to be evaluated.
Table 2.1
x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = x2 – 3x – 4 6 0 –4 –6 –6 –4 0 6
d
If we locate the points listed
he
above on a graph paper and draw
the graph, it will actually look like
the one given in Fig. 2.2.
is
In fact, for any quadratic
polynomial ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, the
graph of the corresponding
bl
equation y = ax 2 + bx + c has one
of the two shapes either open
upwards like or open
pu
downwards like depending on
whether a > 0 or a < 0. (These
be T
This fact is true for any quadratic polynomial, i.e., the zeroes of a quadratic
polynomial ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, are precisely the x -coordinates of the points where the
parabola representing y = ax 2 + bx + c intersects the x-axis.
From our observation earlier about the shape of the graph of y = ax 2 + bx + c, the
following three cases can happen:
Case (i) : Here, the graph cuts x-axis at two distinct points A and A′.
The x-coordinates of A and A′ are the two zeroes of the quadratic polynomial
2
ax + bx + c in this case (see Fig. 2.3).
d
he
is
bl
pu
Fig. 2.3
be T
Case (ii) : Here, the graph cuts the x-axis at exactly one point, i.e., at two coincident
points. So, the two points A and A′ of Case (i) coincide here to become one point A
re
Fig. 2.4
The x -coordinate of A is the only zero for the quadratic polynomial ax 2 + bx + c
in this case.
Case (iii) : Here, the graph is either completely above the x -axis or completely below
the x -axis. So, it does not cut the x - axis at any point (see Fig. 2.5).
d
he
is
bl
pu
be T
Fig. 2.5
re
So, you can see geometrically that a quadratic polynomial can have either two
distinct zeroes or two equal zeroes (i.e., one zero), or no zero. This also means that a
tt E
polynomial to be? Let us find out. Consider the cubic polynomial x3 – 4x. To see what
the graph of y = x3 – 4x looks like, let us list a few values of y corresponding to a few
values for x as shown in Table 2.2.
no N
Table 2.2
x –2 –1 0 1 2
©
y = x3 – 4x 0 3 0 –3 0
Locating the points of the table on a graph paper and drawing the graph, we see
that the graph of y = x3 – 4x actually looks like the one given in Fig. 2.6.
d
x -coordinates of the only points
where the graph of y = x3 – 4x
he
intersects the x -axis. Since the curve
meets the x - axis in only these 3
points, their x -coordinates are the
is
only zeroes of the polynomial.
Let us take a few more
examples. Consider the cubic
bl
polynomials x3 and x3 – x2. We draw
the graphs of y = x3 and y = x3 – x2
pu
in Fig. 2.7 and Fig. 2.8 respectively.
Fig. 2.6
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
no N
©
Note that 0 is the only zero of the polynomial x3. Also, from Fig. 2.7, you can see
that 0 is the x - coordinate of the only point where the graph of y = x3 intersects the
x -axis. Similarly, since x3 – x2 = x2 (x – 1), 0 and 1 are the only zeroes of the polynomial
x3 – x2 . Also, from Fig. 2.8, these values are the x - coordinates of the only points
d
where the graph of y = x3 – x2 intersects the x-axis.
From the examples above, we see that there are at most 3 zeroes for any cubic
he
polynomial. In other words, any polynomial of degree 3 can have at most three zeroes.
Remark : In general, given a polynomial p(x) of degree n, the graph of y = p(x)
intersects the x- axis at atmost n points. Therefore, a polynomial p(x) of degree n has
at most n zeroes.
is
Example 1 : Look at the graphs in Fig. 2.9 given below. Each is the graph of y = p(x),
where p(x) is a polynomial. For each of the graphs, find the number of zeroes of p(x).
bl
pu
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
no N
Fig. 2.9
©
Solution :
(i) The number of zeroes is 1 as the graph intersects the x- axis at one point only.
(ii) The number of zeroes is 2 as the graph intersects the x -axis at two points.
(iii) The number of zeroes is 3. (Why?)
d
EXERCISE 2.1
he
1. The graphs of y = p(x) are given in Fig. 2.10 below, for some polynomials p(x). Find the
number of zeroes of p(x), in each case.
is
bl
pu
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
Fig. 2.10
You have already seen that zero of a linear polynomial ax + b is − b . We will now try
a
to answer the question raised in Section 2.1 regarding the relationship between zeroes
and coefficients of a quadratic polynomial. For this, let us take a quadratic polynomial,
©
say p(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 6. In Class IX, you have learnt how to factorise quadratic
polynomials by splitting the middle term. So, here we need to split the middle term
‘– 8x’ as a sum of two terms, whose product is 6 × 2x2 = 12x2. So, we write
2x2 – 8x + 6 = 2x2 – 6x – 2x + 6 = 2x(x – 3) – 2(x – 3)
= (2x – 2)(x – 3) = 2(x – 1)(x – 3)
− (−8) −(Coefficient of x)
Sum of its zeroes = 1+ 3 = 4 =
=
Coefficient of x 2
d
2
6 Constant term
Product of its zeroes = 1 × 3 = 3 = =
he
2 Coefficient of x 2
Let us take one more quadratic polynomial, say, p(x) = 3x2 + 5x – 2. By the
method of splitting the middle term,
3x2 + 5x – 2 = 3x2 + 6x – x – 2 = 3x(x + 2) –1(x + 2)
is
= (3x – 1)(x + 2)
Hence, the value of 3x2 + 5x – 2 is zero when either 3x – 1 = 0 or x + 2 = 0, i.e.,
bl
1 1
when x = or x = –2. So, the zeroes of 3x2 + 5x – 2 are and – 2. Observe that :
3 3
pu
1 − 5 − (Coefficient of x)
Sum of its zeroes = + ( − 2) = =
3 3 Coefficient of x 2
be T
1 −2 Constant term
× ( − 2) = =
re
Product of its zeroes =
3 3 Coefficient of x 2
o R
In general, if α* and β* are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
a ≠ 0, then you know that x – α and x – β are the factors of p(x). Therefore,
tt E
c
αβ =
a
* α,β are Greek letters pronounced as ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’ respectively. We will use later one
more letter ‘γ’ pronounced as ‘gamma’.
b − (Coefficient of x)
i.e., sum of zeroes = α + β = − = ,
a Coefficient of x2
d
c Constant term
product of zeroes = αβ = = .
a Coefficient of x2
he
Let us consider some examples.
Example 2 : Find the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x2 + 7x + 10, and verify the
relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients.
is
Solution : We have
x2 + 7x + 10 = (x + 2)(x + 5)
bl
So, the value of x2 + 7x + 10 is zero when x + 2 = 0 or x + 5 = 0, i.e., when x = – 2 or
x = –5. Therefore, the zeroes of x2 + 7x + 10 are – 2 and – 5. Now,
−(7) – (Coefficient of x )
pu
sum of zeroes = – 2 + (– 5) = – (7) = = ,
1 Coefficient of x 2
be T
10 Constant term
product of zeroes = (− 2) × (− 5) = 10 = = ⋅
1 Coefficient of x2
re
o R
Example 3 : Find the zeroes of the polynomial x2 – 3 and verify the relationship
between the zeroes and the coefficients.
tt E
Solution : Recall the identity a 2 – b 2 = (a – b)(a + b). Using it, we can write:
(
x2 – 3 = x − 3 x + 3 )( )
C
− (Coefficient of x) ,
sum of zeroes = 3− 3= 0 =
Coefficient of x 2
Example 4 : Find a quadratic polynomial, the sum and product of whose zeroes are
– 3 and 2, respectively.
Solution : Let the quadratic polynomial be ax2 + bx + c, and its zeroes be α and β.
We have
d
−b ,
α+β= –3=
he
a
c.
and αβ = 2 =
a
is
If a = 1, then b = 3 and c = 2.
So, one quadratic polynomial which fits the given conditions is x2 + 3x + 2.
bl
You can check that any other quadratic polynomial that fits these conditions will
be of the form k(x2 + 3x + 2), where k is real.
Let us now look at cubic polynomials. Do you think a similar relation holds
pu
between the zeroes of a cubic polynomial and its coefficients?
Let us consider p(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 – 14x + 8.
be T
1
You can check that p(x) = 0 for x = 4, – 2, ⋅ Since p(x) can have atmost three
re
2
o R
2 2 2 Coefficient of x 3
1 −8 – Constant term
product of the zeroes = 4 × (−2) × = −4 = = .
C
2 2 Coefficient of x3
However, there is one more relationship here. Consider the sum of the products
no N
{4 × (− 2)} + ⎧⎨ (− 2) ×
1 ⎫ ⎧1 ⎫
⎬ + ⎨ × 4⎬
⎩ 2⎭ ⎩2 ⎭
©
−14 Coefficient of x
= – 8− 1+ 2 = −7 = = .
2 Coefficient of x3
In general, it can be proved that if α, β, γ are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial
ax + bx2 + cx + d, then
3
–b
α +β + γ =
,
a
c
αβ + βγ + γα = ,
a
d
–d
α β γ = .
a
he
Let us consider an example.
1
Example 5* : Verify that 3, –1, − are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial
is
3
p(x) = 3x3 – 5x2 – 11x – 3, and then verify the relationship between the zeroes and the
coefficients.
bl
Solution : Comparing the given polynomial with ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d, we get
a = 3, b = – 5, c = –11, d = – 3. Further
pu
p(3) = 3 × 33 – (5 × 32) – (11 × 3) – 3 = 81 – 45 – 33 – 3 = 0,
p(–1) = 3 × (–1)3 – 5 × (–1)2 – 11 × (–1) – 3 = –3 – 5 + 11 – 3 = 0,
be T
3 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
p ⎜ − ⎟ = 3 × ⎜ − ⎟ − 5 × ⎜ − ⎟ − 11 × ⎜ − ⎟ − 3 ,
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
re
o R
1 5 11 2 2
= – − + −3= – + =0
9 9 3 3 3
tt E
1
Therefore, 3, –1 and − are the zeroes of 3x3 – 5x2 – 11x – 3.
3
1
C
α + β + γ = 3 + ( −1) + ⎜ − ⎟ = 2 − = = =
⎝ ⎠3 3 3 3 a
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 −11 c ,
αβ + β γ +γ α = 3 × ( −1) + ( −1) × ⎜ − ⎟ + ⎜− ⎟× 3 = −3 + −1= =
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
©
3 3 a
⎛ 1⎞ − ( −3) − d .
αβγ = 3 × ( −1) × ⎜ − ⎟ = 1 = =
⎝ 3⎠ 3 a
EXERCISE 2.2
1. Find the zeroes of the following quadratic polynomials and verify the relationship between
the zeroes and the coefficients.
(i) x2 – 2x – 8 (ii) 4s2 – 4s + 1 (iii) 6x 2 – 3 – 7x
d
(iv) 4u2 + 8u (v) t2 – 15 (vi) 3x 2 – x – 4
he
2. Find a quadratic polynomial each with the given numbers as the sum and product of its
zeroes respectively.
1, 1
(i) −1 (ii) 2 , (iii) 0, 5
4 3
is
1, 1
(iv) 1, 1 (v) − (vi) 4, 1
4 4
bl
You know that a cubic polynomial has at most three zeroes. However, if you are given
only one zero, can you find the other two? For this, let us consider the cubic polynomial
pu
x3 – 3x2 – x + 3. If we tell you that one of its zeroes is 1, then you know that x – 1 is
a factor of x3 – 3x2 – x + 3. So, you can divide x3 – 3x2 – x + 3 by x – 1, as you have
learnt in Class IX, to get the quotient x2 – 2x – 3.
be T
Next, you could get the factors of x2 – 2x – 3, by splitting the middle term, as
re
(x + 1)(x – 3). This would give you
o R
x3 – 3x2 – x + 3 = (x – 1)(x2 – 2x – 3)
= (x – 1)(x + 1)(x – 3)
tt E
So, all the three zeroes of the cubic polynomial are now known to you as
1, – 1, 3.
C
Let us discuss the method of dividing one polynomial by another in some detail.
Before noting the steps formally, consider an example.
no N
d
of their degrees. Recall that arranging the terms 2
in this order is called writing the polynomials in –5 x – x + 5
–5x2 – 10 x – 5
he
standard form. In this example, the dividend is
+ + +
already in standard form, and the divisor, in
9x + 10
standard form, is x2 + 2x + 1.
Step 1 : To obtain the first term of the quotient, divide the highest degree term of the
is
dividend (i.e., 3x3) by the highest degree term of the divisor (i.e., x2). This is 3x. Then
carry out the division process. What remains is – 5x2 – x + 5.
bl
Step 2 : Now, to obtain the second term of the quotient, divide the highest degree term
of the new dividend (i.e., –5x2) by the highest degree term of the divisor (i.e., x2). This
gives –5. Again carry out the division process with – 5x2 – x + 5.
pu
Step 3 : What remains is 9x + 10. Now, the degree of 9x + 10 is less than the degree
of the divisor x2 + 2x + 1. So, we cannot continue the division any further.
be T
= 3x3 + x2 + 2x + 5
Here again, we see that
tt E
If p(x) and g(x) are any two polynomials with g(x) ≠ 0, then we can find
polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
p(x) = g(x) × q(x) + r(x),
©
d
So, dividend = –x3 + 3x 2 – 3x + 5 and 2
2 x – 2x + 5
divisor = –x2 + x – 1. 2
2x – 2 x + 2
he
– + –
Division process is shown on the right side.
3
We stop here since degree (3) = 0 < 2 = degree (–x2 + x – 1).
So, quotient = x – 2, remainder = 3.
is
Now,
Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
bl
= (–x2 + x – 1) (x – 2) + 3
= –x3 + x2 – x + 2x2 – 2x + 2 + 3
= –x3 + 3x2 – 3x + 5
pu
= Dividend
In this way, the division algorithm is verified.
be T
Example 9 : Find all the zeroes of 2x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 2, if you know that two of
re
o R
2x2 – 3 x + 1
2
x –2 4 3
2 x – 3x – 3 x + 6x – 2
2
2x4
First term of quotient is = 2x2
2 x4 – 4 x2 x2
no N
– +
3 2
– 3x + x + 6 x – 2 −3 x3
3 Second term of quotient is = − 3x
– 3x + 6x x2
©
+ –
2
x –2 x2
2 Third term of quotient is =1
x –2 x2
– +
0
Now, by splitting –3x, we factorise 2x2 – 3x + 1 as (2x – 1)(x – 1). So, its zeroes
1
are given by x = and x = 1. Therefore, the zeroes of the given polynomial are
d
2
1
2 , − 2, , and 1.
he
2
EXERCISE 2.3
is
1. Divide the polynomial p(x) by the polynomial g(x) and find the quotient and remainder
in each of the following :
(i) p(x) = x 3 – 3x2 + 5x – 3, g(x) = x 2 – 2
bl
(ii) p(x) = x 4 – 3x2 + 4x + 5, g(x) = x 2 + 1 – x
(iii) p(x) = x 4 – 5x + 6, g(x) = 2 – x2
pu
2. Check whether the first polynomial is a factor of the second polynomial by dividing the
second polynomial by the first polynomial:
(i) t2 – 3, 2t4 + 3t3 – 2t2 – 9t – 12
be T
(ii) x 2 + 3x + 1, 3x4 + 5x 3 – 7x 2 + 2x + 2
re
(iii) x 3 – 3x + 1, x 5 – 4x3 + x2 + 3x + 1
o R
5 5
and – ⋅
3. Obtain all other zeroes of 3x4 + 6x 3 – 2x 2 – 10x – 5, if two of its zeroes are
3 3
4. On dividing x3 – 3x 2 + x + 2 by a polynomial g(x), the quotient and remainder were x – 2
tt E
and
(i) deg p(x) = deg q(x) (ii) deg q(x) = deg r(x) (iii) deg r(x) = 0
no N
1,
(i) 2x3 + x2 – 5x + 2; 1, – 2 (ii) x3 – 4x 2 + 5x – 2; 2, 1, 1
2
2. Find a cubic polynomial with the sum, sum of the product of its zeroes taken two at a
time, and the product of its zeroes as 2, –7, –14 respectively.
*These exercises are not from the examination point of view.
4. If two zeroes of the polynomial x4 – 6x3 – 26x2 + 138x – 35 are 2 ± 3 , find other zeroes.
d
the remainder comes out to be x + a, find k and a.
2.5 Summary
he
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. Polynomials of degrees 1, 2 and 3 are called linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials
respectively.
2. A quadratic polynomial in x with real coefficients is of the form ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b, c
is
are real numbers with a ≠ 0.
3. The zeroes of a polynomial p(x) are precisely the x-coordinates of the points, where the
bl
graph of y = p(x) intersects the x -axis.
4. A quadratic polynomial can have at most 2 zeroes and a cubic polynomial can have
at most 3 zeroes.
pu
5. If α and β are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c, then
b c
α +β = − , αβ =
be T
.
a a
re
6. If α, β, γ are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then
o R
−b ,
α +β + γ =
a
tt E
c,
αβ + β γ + γ α =
a
C
−d .
and αβ γ =
a
no N
7. The division algorithm states that given any polynomial p(x) and any non-zero
polynomial g(x), there are polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
p(x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x),
©
d
PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
he
IN TWO VARIABLES 3
is
3.1 Introduction
bl
You must have come across situations like the one given below :
Akhila went to a fair in her village. She wanted to enjoy rides on the Giant Wheel
and play Hoopla (a game in which you throw a ring on the items kept in a stall, and if
pu
the ring covers any object completely, you get it). The number of times she played
Hoopla is half the number of rides she had on the Giant Wheel. If each ride costs
be T
Rs 3, and a game of Hoopla costs Rs 4, how would you find out the number of rides
she had and how many times she played Hoopla, provided she spent Rs 20.
re
o R
May be you will try it by considering different cases. If she has one ride, is it
possible? Is it possible to have two rides? And so on. Or you may use the knowledge
of Class IX, to represent such situations as linear equations in two variables.
tt E
C
no N
©
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 39
d
y= x (1)
2
3x + 4y = 20 (2)
he
Can we find the solutions of this pair of equations? There are several ways of
finding these, which we will study in this chapter.
is
Recall, from Class IX, that the following are examples of linear equations in two
variables:
bl
2x + 3y = 5
x – 2y – 3 = 0
pu
and x – 0y = 2, i.e., x = 2
You also know that an equation which can be put in the form ax + by + c = 0,
where a, b and c are real numbers, and a and b are not both zero, is called a linear
be T
equation in two variables x and y. (We often denote the condition a and b are not both
re
zero by a 2 + b2 ≠ 0). You have also studied that a solution of such an equation is a
o R
pair of values, one for x and the other for y, which makes the two sides of the
equation equal.
tt E
For example, let us substitute x = 1 and y = 1 in the left hand side (LHS) of the
equation 2x + 3y = 5. Then
C
In fact, this is true for any linear equation, that is, each solution (x, y) of a
linear equation in two variables, ax + by + c = 0, corresponds to a point on the
line representing the equation, and vice versa.
Now, consider Equations (1) and (2) given above. These equations, taken
d
together, represent the information we have about Akhila at the fair.
These two linear equations are in the same two variables x and y. Equations
he
like these are called a pair of linear equations in two variables.
Let us see what such pairs look like algebraically.
The general form for a pair of linear equations in two variables x and y is
is
a 1x + b 1 y + c1 = 0
and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0,
bl
where a 1, b 1, c1, a2, b2, c2 are all real numbers and a12 + b 12 ≠ 0, a22 + b 22 ≠ 0.
Some examples of pair of linear equations in two variables are:
pu
2x + 3y – 7 = 0 and 9x – 2y + 8 = 0
5x = y and –7x + 2y + 3 = 0
be T
x + y = 7 and 17 = y
re
Do you know, what do they look like geometrically?
o R
Recall, that you have studied in Class IX that the geometrical (i.e., graphical)
representation of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line. Can you now
tt E
suggest what a pair of linear equations in two variables will look like, geometrically?
There will be two straight lines, both to be considered together.
C
You have also studied in Class IX that given two lines in a plane, only one of the
following three possibilities can happen:
no N
d
he
Fig. 3.1
is
Both ways of representing a pair of linear equations go hand-in-hand — the
algebraic and the geometric ways. Let us consider some examples.
bl
Example 1 : Let us take the example given in Section 3.1. Akhila goes to a fair with
Rs 20 and wants to have rides on the Giant Wheel and play Hoopla. Represent this
situation algebraically and graphically (geometrically).
pu
Solution : The pair of equations formed is :
1
be T
y= x
2
re
i.e., x – 2y = 0 (1)
o R
3x + 4y = 20 (2)
Let us represent these equations graphically. For this, we need at least two
tt E
Table 3.1
C
20
x 0 2 x 0 4
3
no N
x 20 − 3x
y= 0 1 y= 5 0 2
2 4
©
(i) (ii)
Recall from Class IX that there are infinitely many solutions of each linear
equation. So each of you can choose any two values, which may not be the ones we
have chosen. Can you guess why we have chosen x = 0 in the first equation and in the
second equation? When one of the variables is zero, the equation reduces to a linear
42 MATHEMATICS
equation in one variable, which can be solved easily. For instance, putting x = 0 in
Equation (2), we get 4y = 20, i.e., y = 5. Similarly, putting y = 0 in Equation (2), we get
20 20
3x = 20, i.e., x = . But as is
3 3
d
not an integer, it will not be easy to
plot exactly on the graph paper. So,
he
we choose y = 2 which gives x = 4,
an integral value.
is
and P(0, 5), Q(4, 2), corresponding
to the solutions in Table 3.1. Now
bl
draw the lines AB and PQ,
representing the equations
pu
x – 2y = 0 and 3x + 4y = 20, as
shown in Fig. 3.2.
be T
Fig. 3.2
re
In Fig. 3.2, observe that the two lines representing the two equations are
o R
intersecting at the point (4, 2). We shall discuss what this means in the next section.
tt E
Example 2 : Romila went to a stationery shop and purchased 2 pencils and 3 erasers
for Rs 9. Her friend Sonali saw the new variety of pencils and erasers with Romila,
C
and she also bought 4 pencils and 6 erasers of the same kind for Rs 18. Represent this
situation algebraically and graphically.
no N
Solution : Let us denote the cost of 1 pencil by Rs x and one eraser by Rs y. Then the
algebraic representation is given by the following equations:
©
2x + 3y = 9 (1)
4x + 6y = 18 (2)
To obtain the equivalent geometric representation, we find two points on the line
representing each equation. That is, we find two solutions of each equation.
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 43
d
9 − 2x 18 − 4 x
y= 3 0 y= 3 1
3 6
he
(i) (ii)
We plot these points in a graph
paper and draw the lines. We find that
is
both the lines coincide (see Fig. 3.3).
This is so, because, both the
equations are equivalent, i.e., one can
bl
be derived from the other.
x + 2y – 4 = 0 (1)
2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (2)
C
x 0 4 x 0 6
4− x 12 − 2 x
©
y= 2 0 y= 3 0
2 4
(i) (ii)
To represent the equations graphically, we plot the points R(0, 2) and S(4, 0), to
get the line RS and the points P(0, 3) and Q(6, 0) to get the line PQ.
44 MATHEMATICS
d
situations which can be represented
he
by a pair of linear equations. We
have seen their algebraic and
geometric representations. In the
next few sections, we will discuss
is
how these representations can be
used to look for solutions of the pair
of linear equations.
bl
Fig. 3.4
EXERCISE 3.1
pu
1. Aftab tells his daughter, “Seven years ago, I was seven times as old as you were then.
Also, three years from now, I shall be three times as old as you will be.” (Isn’t this
be T
bat and 3 more balls of the same kind for Rs 1300. Represent this situation algebraically
and geometrically.
3. The cost of 2 kg of apples and 1kg of grapes on a day was found to be Rs 160. After a
tt E
month, the cost of 4 kg of apples and 2 kg of grapes is Rs 300. Represent the situation
algebraically and geometrically.
C
linear equations as two lines. You have also seen that the lines may intersect, or may
be parallel, or may coincide. Can we solve them in each case? And if so, how? We
shall try and answer these questions from the geometrical point of view in this section.
©
point (4, 2) lies on the lines represented by both the equations x – 2y = 0 and
3x + 4y = 20. And this is the only common point.
Let us verify algebraically that x = 4, y = 2 is a solution of the given
pair of equations. Substituting the values of x and y in each equation, we get
d
4 – 2 × 2 = 0 and 3(4) + 4(2) = 20. So, we have verified that x = 4, y = 2 is a
solution of both the equations. Since (4, 2) is the only common point on both
he
the lines, there is one and only one solution for this pair of linear equations
in two variables.
Thus, the number of rides Akhila had on Giant Wheel is 4 and the number
of times she played Hoopla is 2.
is
z In the situation of Example 2, can you find the cost of each pencil and each
eraser?
bl
In Fig. 3.3, the situation is geometrically shown by a pair of coincident
lines. The solutions of the equations are given by the common points.
pu
Are there any common points on these lines? From the graph, we observe
that every point on the line is a common solution to both the equations. So, the
equations 2x + 3y = 9 and 4x + 6y = 18 have infinitely many solutions. This
be T
equivalent. From the graph, we see that any point on the line gives us a possible
cost of each pencil and eraser. For instance, each pencil and eraser can cost
Rs 3 and Re 1 respectively. Or, each pencil can cost Rs 3.75 and eraser can cost
tt E
equivalent has infinitely many distinct common solutions. Such a pair is called a
dependent pair of linear equations in two variables. Note that a dependent pair of
linear equations is always consistent.
We can now summarise the behaviour of lines representing a pair of linear equations
in two variables and the existence of solutions as follows:
46 MATHEMATICS
(i) the lines may intersect in a single point. In this case, the pair of equations
has a unique solution (consistent pair of equations).
(ii) the lines may be parallel. In this case, the equations have no solution
(inconsistent pair of equations).
d
(iii) the lines may be coincident. In this case, the equations have infinitely many
solutions [dependent (consistent) pair of equations].
he
Let us now go back to the pairs of linear equations formed in Examples 1, 2, and
3, and note down what kind of pair they are geometrically.
(i) x – 2y = 0 and 3x + 4y – 20 = 0 (The lines intersect)
is
(ii) 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 and 4x + 6y – 18 = 0 (The lines coincide)
(iii) x + 2y – 4 = 0 and 2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (The lines are parallel)
a1 , b1 c
bl
Let us now write down, and compare, the values of and 1 in all the
a2 b2 c2
three examples. Here, a1 , b 1, c1 and a2 , b 2, c2 denote the coefficents of equations
pu
given in the general form in Section 3.2.
Table 3.4
be T
a1 b1 c1
Sl Pair of lines Compare the Graphical Algebraic
re
a2 b2 c2
o R
1 −2 0 a1 b1
≠
tt E
2 3 −9 a1 b c
= 1 = 1 Coincident
2. 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 Infinitely
4 6 −18 a2 b2 c2
lines many solutions
no N
4x + 6y – 18 = 0
1 2 −4 a1 b1
=
c
≠ 1 Parallel lines No solution
3. x + 2y – 4 = 0
2 4 −12 a2 b2 c2
©
2x + 4y – 12 = 0
From the table above, you can observe that if the lines represented by the equation
a 1x + b 1y + c1 = 0
and a 2x + b 2y + c2 = 0
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 47
a1 b1
are (i) intersecting, then ≠ ⋅
a2 b2
a b c
(ii) coincident, then 1 = 1 = 1 ⋅
d
a2 b2 c2
a b c
(iii) parallel, then 1 = 1 ≠ 1 ⋅
he
a2 b2 c2
In fact, the converse is also true for any pair of lines. You can verify them by
considering some more examples by yourself.
Let us now consider some more examples to illustrate it.
is
Example 4 : Check graphically whether the pair of equations
x + 3y = 6 (1)
bl
and 2x – 3y = 12 (2)
is consistent. If so, solve them graphically.
pu
Solution : Let us draw the graphs of the Equations (1) and (2). For this, we find two
solutions of each of the equations, which are given in Table 3.5
be T
Table 3.5
re
o R
x 0 6 x 0 3
6− x 2 x − 12
y= 2 0 y= –4 –2
tt E
3 3
Example 5 : Graphically, find whether the following pair of equations has no solution,
unique solution or infinitely many solutions:
5x – 8y + 1 = 0 (1)
24 3
d
3x – y + =0 (2)
5 5
5
Solution : Multiplying Equation (2) by , we get
he
3
5x – 8y + 1 = 0
But, this is the same as Equation (1). Hence the lines represented by Equations (1)
and (2) are coincident. Therefore, Equations (1) and (2) have infinitely many solutions.
is
Plot few points on the graph and verify it yourself.
Example 6 : Champa went to a ‘Sale’ to purchase some pants and skirts. When her
bl
friends asked her how many of each she had bought, she answered, “The number of
skirts is two less than twice the number of pants purchased. Also, the number of skirts
is four less than four times the number of pants purchased”. Help her friends to find
pu
how many pants and skirts Champa bought.
Solution : Let us denote the number of pants by x and the number of skirts by y. Then
be T
and y = 4x – 4 (2)
Table 3.6
no N
x 2 0
y = 2x – 2 2 –2
©
x 0 1
y = 4x – 4 –4 0
Fig. 3.6
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 49
Plot the points and draw the lines passing through them to represent the equations,
as shown in Fig. 3.6.
The two lines intersect at the point (1, 0). So, x = 1, y = 0 is the required solution
of the pair of linear equations, i.e., the number of pants she purchased is 1 and she did
d
not buy any skirt.
he
Verify the answer by checking whether it satisfies the conditions of the given
problem.
EXERCISE 3.2
is
1. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems, and find their solutions
graphically.
bl
(i) 10 students of Class X took part in a Mathematics quiz. If the number of girls is 4
more than the number of boys, find the number of boys and girls who took part in
the quiz.
pu
(ii) 5 pencils and 7 pens together cost Rs 50, whereas 7 pencils and 5 pens together
cost Rs 46. Find the cost of one pencil and that of one pen.
a1 , b1 c
be T
2. On comparing the ratios and 1 , find out whether the lines representing the
a2 b2 c2
re
following pairs of linear equations intersect at a point, are parallel or coincident:
o R
(i) 5x – 4y + 8 = 0 (ii) 9x + 3y + 12 = 0
7x + 6y – 9 = 0 18x + 6y + 24 = 0
tt E
(iii) 6x – 3y + 10 = 0
2x – y + 9 = 0
C
a1 , b1 c
3. On comparing the ratios and 1 , find out whether the following pair of linear
a2 b c2
2
no N
4
(v) x + 2 y = 8 ; 2x + 3y = 12
3
4. Which of the following pairs of linear equations are consistent/inconsistent? If
consistent, obtain the solution graphically:
50 MATHEMATICS
(i) x + y = 5, 2x + 2y = 10
(ii) x – y = 8, 3x – 3y = 16
(iii) 2x + y – 6 = 0, 4x – 2y – 4 = 0
(iv) 2x – 2y – 2 = 0, 4x – 4y – 5 = 0
d
5. Half the perimeter of a rectangular garden, whose length is 4 m more than its width, is
36 m. Find the dimensions of the garden.
he
6. Given the linear equation 2x + 3y – 8 = 0, write another linear equation in two variables
such that the geometrical representation of the pair so formed is:
(i) intersecting lines (ii) parallel lines
(iii) coincident lines
is
7. Draw the graphs of the equations x – y + 1 = 0 and 3x + 2y – 12 = 0. Determine the
coordinates of the vertices of the triangle formed by these lines and the x-axis, and
bl
shade the triangular region.
⎛4 1 ⎞
(–1.75, 3.3), ⎜ , ⎟ , etc. There is every possibility of making mistakes while reading
⎝13 19 ⎠
such coordinates. Is there any alternative method of finding the solution? There are
tt E
some examples.
Example 7 : Solve the following pair of equations by substitution method:
no N
7x – 15y = 2 (1)
x + 2y = 3 (2)
©
Solution :
Step 1 : We pick either of the equations and write one variable in terms of the other.
Let us consider the Equation (2) :
x + 2y = 3
and write it as x = 3 – 2y (3)
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 51
d
i.e., – 29y = –19
19
Therefore, y=
he
29
Step 3 : Substituting this value of y in Equation (3), we get
⎛ 19 ⎞ 49
x = 3 – 2⎜ ⎟ =
is
⎝ 29 ⎠ 29
49 19
Therefore, the solution is x = ,y = .
29 29
bl
49 19
Verification : Substituting x = and y = , you can verify that both the Equations
29 29
(1) and (2) are satisfied.
pu
To understand the substitution method more clearly, let us consider it stepwise:
be T
Step 1 : Find the value of one variable, say y in terms of the other variable, i.e., x from
either equation, whichever is convenient.
re
o R
Step 2 : Substitute this value of y in the other equation, and reduce it to an equation in
one variable, i.e., in terms of x, which can be solved. Sometimes, as in Examples 9 and
10 below, you can get statements with no variable. If this statement is true, you can
tt E
conclude that the pair of linear equations has infinitely many solutions. If the statement
is false, then the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
C
Step 3 : Substitute the value of x (or y) obtained in Step 2 in the equation used in
Step 1 to obtain the value of the other variable.
no N
d
i.e., 4t = 48, which gives t = 12.
Putting this value of t in Equation (2), we get
he
s = 3 (12) + 6 = 42
So, Aftab and his daughter are 42 and 12 years old, respectively.
Verify this answer by checking if it satisfies the conditions of the given problems.
is
Example 9 : Let us consider Example 2 in Section 3.3, i.e., the cost of 2 pencils and
3 erasers is Rs 9 and the cost of 4 pencils and 6 erasers is Rs 18. Find the cost of each
bl
pencil and each eraser.
Solution : The pair of linear equations formed were:
2x + 3y = 9 (1)
pu
4x + 6y = 18 (2)
We first express the value of x in terms of y from the equation 2x + 3y = 9, to get
be T
9 − 3y
re
x= (3)
o R
2
Now we substitute this value of x in Equation (2), to get
tt E
4(9 − 3 y)
+ 6y = 18
2
C
i.e., 18 – 6y + 6y = 18
i.e., 18 = 18
no N
This statement is true for all values of y. However, we do not get a specific value
of y as a solution. Therefore, we cannot obtain a specific value of x. This situation has
arisen bcause both the given equations are the same. Therefore, Equations (1) and (2)
©
have infinitely many solutions. Observe that we have obtained the same solution
graphically also. (Refer to Fig. 3.3, Section 3.2.) We cannot find a unique cost of a
pencil and an eraser, because there are many common solutions, to the given situation.
Example 10 : Let us consider the Example 3 of Section 3.2. Will the rails cross each
other?
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 53
d
x = 4 – 2y
Now, we substitute this value of x in Equation (2) to get
he
2(4 – 2y) + 4y – 12 = 0
i.e., 8 – 12 = 0
i.e., –4= 0
is
which is a false statement.
Therefore, the equations do not have a common solution. So, the two rails will not
cross each other.
EXERCISE 3.3
bl
pu
1. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the substitution method.
(i) x + y = 14 (ii) s – t = 3
be T
s t
x–y = 4 + =6
re
3 2
o R
3x 5y
(v) 2 x+ 3 y = 0 (vi) − = −2
2 3
C
x y 13
3x− 8 y=0 + =
3 2 6
2. Solve 2x + 3y = 11 and 2x – 4y = – 24 and hence find the value of ‘m’ for which
no N
y = mx + 3.
3. Form the pair of linear equations for the following problems and find their solution by
substitution method.
(i) The difference between two numbers is 26 and one number is three times the other.
©
Find them.
(ii) The larger of two supplementary angles exceeds the smaller by 18 degrees. Find
them.
(iii) The coach of a cricket team buys 7 bats and 6 balls for Rs 3800. Later, she buys 3
bats and 5 balls for Rs 1750. Find the cost of each bat and each ball.
54 MATHEMATICS
(iv) The taxi charges in a city consist of a fixed charge together with the charge for the
distance covered. For a distance of 10 km, the charge paid is Rs 105 and for a
journey of 15 km, the charge paid is Rs 155. What are the fixed charges and the
charge per km? How much does a person have to pay for travelling a distance of
25 km?
d
9
(v) A fraction becomes , if 2 is added to both the numerator and the denominator.
11 5
If, 3 is added to both the numerator and the denominator it becomes . Find the
he
6
fraction.
(vi) Five years hence, the age of Jacob will be three times that of his son. Five years
ago, Jacob’s age was seven times that of his son. What are their present ages?
is
3.4.2 Elimination Method
Now let us consider another method of eliminating (i.e., removing) one variable. This
bl
is sometimes more convenient than the substitution method. Let us see how this method
works.
pu
Example 11 : The ratio of incomes of two persons is 9 : 7 and the ratio of their
expenditures is 4 : 3. If each of them manages to save Rs 2000 per month, find their
monthly incomes.
be T
Solution : Let us denote the incomes of the two person by Rs 9x and Rs 7x and their
re
expenditures by Rs 4y and Rs 3y respectively. Then the equations formed in the
o R
situation is given by :
9x – 4y = 2000 (1)
tt E
Step 2 : Subtract Equation (3) from Equation (4) to eliminate y, because the coefficients
of y are the same. So, we get
(28x – 27x) – (12y – 12y) = 8000 – 6000
©
i.e., x = 2000
Step 3 : Substituting this value of x in (1), we get
9(2000) – 4y = 2000
i.e., y = 4000
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 55
So, the solution of the equations is x = 2000, y = 4000. Therefore, the monthly incomes
of the persons are Rs 18,000 and Rs 14,000, respectively.
Verification : 18000 : 14000 = 9 : 7. Also, the ratio of their expenditures =
18000 – 2000 : 14000 – 2000 = 16000 : 12000 = 4 : 3
d
Remarks :
he
1. The method used in solving the example above is called the elimination method,
because we eliminate one variable first, to get a linear equation in one variable.
In the example above, we eliminated y. We could also have eliminated x. Try
doing it that way.
is
2. You could also have used the substitution, or graphical method, to solve this
problem. Try doing so, and see which method is more convenient.
Let us now note down these steps in the elimination method :
bl
Step 1 : First multiply both the equations by some suitable non-zero constants to make
the coefficients of one variable (either x or y) numerically equal.
pu
Step 2 : Then add or subtract one equation from the other so that one variable gets
eliminated. If you get an equation in one variable, go to Step 3.
be T
Step 4 : Substitute this value of x (or y) in either of the original equations to get the
value of the other variable.
C
Example 12 : Use elimination method to find all possible solutions of the following
no N
Solution :
d
Example 13 : The sum of a two-digit number and the number obtained by reversing
he
the digits is 66. If the digits of the number differ by 2, find the number. How many such
numbers are there?
Solution : Let the ten’s and the unit’s digits in the first number be x and y, respectively.
So, the first number may be written as 10 x + y in the expanded form (for example,
is
56 = 10(5) + 6).
When the digits are reversed, x becomes the unit’s digit and y becomes the ten’s
digit. This number, in the expanded notation is 10y + x (for example, when 56 is
bl
reversed, we get 65 = 10(6) + 5).
According to the given condition.
pu
(10x + y) + (10y + x) = 66
i.e., 11(x + y) = 66
be T
i.e., x+ y= 6 (1)
We are also given that the digits differ by 2, therefore,
re
o R
either x– y= 2 (2)
or y– x= 2 (3)
tt E
EXERCISE 3.4
©
1. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the elimination method and the substitution
method :
(i) x + y = 5 and 2x – 3y = 4 (ii) 3x + 4y = 10 and 2x – 2y = 2
x 2y y
(iii) 3x – 5y – 4 = 0 and 9x = 2y + 7 (iv) + = − 1 and x − = 3
2 3 3
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 57
2. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems, and find their solutions
(if they exist) by the elimination method :
(i) If we add 1 to the numerator and subtract 1 from the denominator, a fraction reduces
1
d
to 1. It becomes if we only add 1 to the denominator. What is the fraction?
2
(ii) Five years ago, Nuri was thrice as old as Sonu. Ten years later, Nuri will be twice as
he
old as Sonu. How old are Nuri and Sonu?
(iii) The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 9. Also, nine times this number is
twice the number obtained by reversing the order of the digits. Find the number.
(iv) Meena went to a bank to withdraw Rs 2000. She asked the cashier to give her
is
Rs 50 and Rs 100 notes only. Meena got 25 notes in all. Find how many notes of
Rs 50 and Rs 100 she received.
(v) A lending library has a fixed charge for the first three days and an additional charge
bl
for each day thereafter. Saritha paid Rs 27 for a book kept for seven days, while
Susy paid Rs 21 for the book she kept for five days. Find the fixed charge and the
charge for each extra day.
pu
3.4.3 Cross - Multiplication Method
be T
So far, you have learnt how to solve a pair of linear equations in two variables by
graphical, substitution and elimination methods. Here, we introduce one more algebraic
re
method to solve a pair of linear equations which for many reasons is a very useful
o R
method of solving these equations. Before we proceed further, let us consider the
following situation.
tt E
The cost of 5 oranges and 3 apples is Rs 35 and the cost of 2 oranges and 4
apples is Rs 28. Let us find the cost of an orange and an apple.
C
– [(4)(–35) − (3)(−28)]
Therefore, x=
(5)(4) − (3)(2)
d
i.e., x= (5)
(5)(4) − (2)(3)
If Equations (1) and (2) are written as a 1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a 2x + b 2y + c2 = 0,
he
then we have
a 1 = 5, b 1 = 3, c1 = –35, a2 = 2, b 2 = 4, c2 = –28.
b1c2 − b2 c1
Then Equation (5) can be written as x = ,
is
a1b2 − a 2 b1
c1a2 − c2a1
bl
Similarly, you can get y=
a1b2 − a2b1
By simplyfing Equation (5), we get
−84 + 140
pu
x= =4
20 − 6
(−35)(2) − (5)(−28) −70 + 140
be T
Similarly, y= = =5
20 − 6 14
re
o R
Let us now see how this method works for any pair of linear equations in two
variables of the form
a 1x + b 1y + c1 = 0 (1)
no N
and a 2x + b 2y + c2 = 0 (2)
To obtain the values of x and y as shown above, we follow the following steps:
©
d
Step 3 : Substituting this value of x in (1) or (2), we get
c1a2 − c2 a1
he
y= (6)
a1b2 − a2b1
Now, two cases arise :
a b
Case 1 : a1b 2 – a2b 1 ≠ 0. In this case 1 ≠ 1 . Then the pair of linear equations has
is
a2 b2
a unique solution.
a b
Case 2 : a 1b2 – a 2b1 = 0. If we write 1 = 1 = k , then a 1 = k a2, b1 = k b2.
bl
a2 b2
Substituting the values of a 1 and b1 in the Equation (1), we get
k (a 2x + b 2 y) + c1 = 0. (7)
pu
It can be observed that the Equations (7) and (2) can both be satisfied only if
c1
be T
c1 = k c 2, i.e., = k.
c2
re
o R
If c1 = k c2, any solution of Equation (2) will satisfy the Equation (1), and vice
a1 b1 c1
versa. So, if = = = k , then there are infinitely many solutions to the pair of
tt E
a2 b2 c2
linear equations given by (1) and (2).
If c1 ≠ k c2, then any solution of Equation (1) will not satisfy Equation (2) and vice
C
a b c
(ii) When 1 = 1 = 1 , there are infinitely many solutions.
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
(iii) When = ≠ , there is no solution.
a2 b2 c2
60 MATHEMATICS
Note that you can write the solution given by Equations (5) and (6) in the
following form :
x y 1
= = (8)
b1c2 − b2 c1 c1a 2 − c2 a1 a1b2 − a 2b1
d
In remembering the above result, the following diagram may be helpful to
he
you :
x y 1
b1 c1 a1 b1
is
b2 c2 a2 b2
The arrows between the two numbers indicate that they are to be multiplied and
bl
the second product is to be subtracted from the first.
For solving a pair of linear equations by this method, we will follow the following
steps :
pu
Step 1 : Write the given equations in the form (1) and (2).
Step 2 : Taking the help of the diagram above, write Equations as given in (8).
be T
Step 2 above gives you an indication of why this method is called the
cross-multiplication method.
3 tickets to Yeshwanthpur, the total cost is Rs 46; but if we buy 3 tickets to Malleswaram
and 5 tickets to Yeshwanthpur the total cost is Rs 74. Find the fares from the bus stand
C
given below.
x y 1
3 – 46 2 3
5 – 74 3 5
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 61
x y 1
Then = =
(3) (−74) − (5) (−46) (−46)(3) − (−74)(2) (2)(5) − (3)(3)
x y 1
i.e., = =
−222 + 230 − + −9
d
138 148 10
x y 1
i.e., = =
he
8 10 1
x 1 y 1
i.e., = and =
8 1 10 1
i.e., x= 8 and y = 10
is
Hence, the fare from the bus stand in Bangalore to Malleswaram is Rs 8 and the fare
to Yeshwanthpur is Rs 10.
bl
Verification : You can check from the problem that the solution we have got is correct.
Example 15 : For which values of p does the pair of equations given below has unique
pu
solution?
4x + py + 8 = 0
2x + 2y + 2 = 0
be T
Solution : Here a 1 = 4, a 2 = 2, b1 = p, b2 = 2.
re
a1 b
o R
2 2
i.e., p ≠ 4
Therefore, for all values of p, except 4, the given pair of equations will have a unique
C
solution.
Example 16 : For what values of k will the following pair of linear equations have
no N
a1 k , b1 3 , c1 k − 3
Solution : Here, = = =
a 2 12 b 2 k c2 k
a1 b1 c1
For a pair of linear equations to have infinitely many solutions : = =
a2 b2 c2
62 MATHEMATICS
k 3 k−3
So, we need = =
12 k k
k 3
or, =
d
12 k
which gives k2 = 36, i.e., k = ± 6.
he
3 k − 3
Also, =
k k
gives 3k = k2 – 3k, i.e., 6k = k2, which means k = 0 or k = 6.
Therefore, the value of k, that satisfies both the conditions, is k = 6. For this value, the
is
pair of linear equations has infinitely many solutions.
EXERCISE 3.5
bl
1. Which of the following pairs of linear equations has unique solution, no solution, or
infinitely many solutions. In case there is a unique solution, find it by using cross
pu
multiplication method.
(i) x – 3y – 3 = 0 (ii) 2x + y = 5
be T
3x – 9y – 2 = 0 3x + 2y = 8
re
(iii) 3x – 5y = 20 (iv) x – 3y – 7 = 0
o R
6x – 10y = 40 3x – 3y – 15 = 0
2. (i) For which values of a and b does the following pair of linear equations have an
tt E
(a – b) x + (a + b) y = 3a + b – 2
(ii) For which value of k will the following pair of linear equations have no solution?
no N
3x + y = 1
(2k – 1) x + ( k – 1) y = 2k + 1
3. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the substitution and cross-multiplication
©
methods :
8x + 5y = 9
3x + 2y = 4
4. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems and find their solutions (if
they exist) by any algebraic method :
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 63
(i) A part of monthly hostel charges is fixed and the remaining depends on the
number of days one has taken food in the mess. When a student A takes food for
20 days she has to pay Rs 1000 as hostel charges whereas a student B, who takes
food for 26 days, pays Rs 1180 as hostel charges. Find the fixed charges and the
d
cost of food per day.
1 1
he
(ii) A fraction becomes when 1 is subtracted from the numerator and it becomes
3 4
when 8 is added to its denominator. Find the fraction.
(iii) Yash scored 40 marks in a test, getting 3 marks for each right answer and losing 1
mark for each wrong answer. Had 4 marks been awarded for each correct answer
is
and 2 marks been deducted for each incorrect answer, then Yash would have
scored 50 marks. How many questions were there in the test?
(iv) Places A and B are 100 km apart on a highway. One car starts from A and another
bl
from B at the same time. If the cars travel in the same direction at different speeds,
they meet in 5 hours. If they travel towards each other, they meet in 1 hour. What
are the speeds of the two cars?
pu
(v) The area of a rectangle gets reduced by 9 square units, if its length is reduced by
5 units and breadth is increased by 3 units. If we increase the length by 3 units and
the breadth by 2 units, the area increases by 67 square units. Find the dimensions
be T
of the rectangle.
re
o R
5 4
− = –2
x y
Solution : Let us write the given pair of equations as
©
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛1⎞
2 ⎜ ⎟ + 3 ⎜ ⎟ = 13 (1)
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ y⎠
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞
5⎜ ⎟ – 4⎜ ⎟ = – 2 (2)
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ y⎠
64 MATHEMATICS
d
2p + 3q = 13 (3)
5p – 4q = – 2 (4)
he
So, we have expressed the equations as a pair of linear equations. Now, you can use
any method to solve these equations, and get p = 2, q = 3.
1 1
You know that p = and q = ⋅
is
x y
Substitute the values of p and q to get
bl
1 1 1 1
= 2, i.e., x = and = 3, i.e., y = .
x 2 y 3
pu
1 1
Verification : By substituting x = and y = in the given equations, we find that
2 3
both the equations are satisfied.
be T
re
Example 18 : Solve the following pair of equations by reducing them to a pair of
o R
linear equations :
5 1
+ =2
x −1 y − 2
tt E
6 3
− =1
x −1 y − 2
C
1 1
Solution : Let us put x − 1 = p and y − 2 = q . Then the given equations
no N
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
5⎜ ⎟+ =2 (1)
⎝ x − 1⎠ y − 2
©
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
6⎜ ⎟− 3⎜ ⎟ =1 (2)
⎝ x −1 ⎠ ⎝ y − 2⎠
can be written as : 5p + q = 2 (3)
6p – 3q = 1 (4)
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 65
Equations (3) and (4) form a pair of linear equations in the general form. Now,
1 1
you can use any method to solve these equations. We get p = and q = ⋅
3 3
1
Now, substituting for p, we have
x −1
d
1 1
= ,
he
x −1 3
i.e., x – 1 = 3, i.e., x = 4.
1
Similarly, substituting for q, we get
y−2
is
1 1
=
y−2 3
bl
i.e., 3 = y – 2, i.e., y = 5
Hence, x = 4, y = 5 is the required solution of the given pair of equations.
Verification : Substitute x = 4 and y = 5 in (1) and (2) to check whether they are
pu
satisfied.
Example 19 : A boat goes 30 km
be T
40 km upstream and 55 km
down-stream. Determine the speed
of the stream and that of the boat in
tt E
still water.
Solution : Let the speed of the boat
C
= (x + y) km/h,
and the speed of the boat upstream = (x – y) km/h
distance
©
Also, time =
speed
In the first case, when the boat goes 30 km upstream, let the time taken, in hour,
be t 1. Then
30
t1 =
x− y
66 MATHEMATICS
d
30 44
+ = 10 (1)
x− y x+ y
he
In the second case, in 13 hours it can go 40 km upstream and 55 km downstream. We
get the equation
40 55
+ = 13 (2)
x− y x+ y
is
1 1
Put = u a nd =v (3)
x−y x+ y
bl
On substituting these values in Equations (1) and (2), we get the pair of linear
equations:
pu
30u + 44v = 10 or 30u + 44v – 10 = 0 (4)
40u + 55v = 13 or 40u + 55v – 13 = 0 (5)
be T
u v 1
i.e., = =
−22 −10 −110
tt E
1 1
i.e., u= , v=
5 11
C
x− y 5
i.e., x – y = 5 and x + y = 11 (6)
Adding these equations, we get
2x = 16
©
i.e., x= 8
Subtracting the equations in (6), we get
2y = 6
i.e., y= 3
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 67
Hence, the speed of the boat in still water is 8 km/h and the speed of the stream
is 3 km/h.
Verification : Verify that the solution satisfies the conditions of the problem.
d
EXERCISE 3.6
he
1. Solve the following pairs of equations by reducing them to a pair of linear equations:
1 1 2 3
(i) 2x + 3 y = 2 (ii) + =2
x y
4 9
is
1 1 13
+ = − = −1
3x 2y 6 x y
4 5 1
bl
(iii) + 3 y = 14 (iv) x − 1 + y − 2 = 2
x
3 6 3
− 4 y = 23 − =1
pu
x x− 1 y − 2
7x − 2 y
(v) =5 (vi) 6x + 3y = 6xy
be T
xy
8x + 7y
re
= 15
o R
2x + 4y = 5xy
xy
10 2 1 1 3
(vii) + =4 (viii) + =
x+ y x− y 3x + y 3x − y
tt E
15 5 1 1 −1
− = −2 − =
C
x+ y x− y 2(3x + y ) 2(3x − y ) 8
2. Formulate the following problems as a pair of equations, and hence find their solutions:
no N
(i) Ritu can row downstream 20 km in 2 hours, and upstream 4 km in 2 hours. Find her
speed of rowing in still water and the speed of the current.
(ii) 2 women and 5 men can together finish an embroidery work in 4 days, while 3
women and 6 men can finish it in 3 days. Find the time taken by 1 woman alone to
©
d
2. One says, “Give me a hundred, friend ! I shall then become twice as rich as you”. The
other replies, “If you give me ten, I shall be six times as rich as you”. Tell me what is the
he
amount of their (respective) capital? [From the Bijaganita of Bhaskara II]
[Hint : x + 100 = 2(y – 100), y + 10 = 6(x – 10)].
3. A train covered a certain distance at a uniform speed. If the train would have been
10 km/h faster, it would have taken 2 hours less than the scheduled time. And, if the train
were slower by 10 km/h; it would have taken 3 hours more than the scheduled time. Find
is
the distance covered by the train.
4. The students of a class are made to stand in rows. If 3 students are extra in a row, there
would be 1 row less. If 3 students are less in a row, there would be 2 rows more. Find the
bl
number of students in the class.
5. In a Δ ABC, ∠ C = 3 ∠ B = 2 (∠ A + ∠ B). Find the three angles.
6. Draw the graphs of the equations 5x – y = 5 and 3x – y = 3. Determine the co-ordinates of
pu
the vertices of the triangle formed by these lines and the y axis.
7. Solve the following pair of linear equations:
be T
(i) px + qy = p – q (ii) ax + by = c
re
qx – py = p + q bx + ay = 1 + c
o R
x y
(iii) − =0 (iv) (a – b)x + (a + b) y = a2 – 2 ab – b2
a b
tt E
ax + by = a2 + b2. (a + b)(x + y) = a2 + b2
(v) 152x – 378y = – 74
C
Fig. 3.7
* These exercises are not from the examination point of view.
P AIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 69
3.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. Two linear equations in the same two variables are called a pair of linear equations in two
variables. The most general form of a pair of linear equations is
d
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
he
where a1, a2, b1, b2, c1, c2 are real numbers, such that a12 + b12 ≠ 0, a22 + b22 ≠ 0.
2. A pair of linear equations in two variables can be represented, and solved, by the:
(i) graphical method
is
(ii) algebraic method
3. Graphical Method :
bl
The graph of a pair of linear equations in two variables is represented by two lines.
(i) If the lines intersect at a point, then that point gives the unique solution of the two
equations. In this case, the pair of equations is consistent .
pu
(ii) If the lines coincide, then there are infinitely many solutions — each point on the
line being a solution. In this case, the pair of equations is dependent (consistent).
(iii) If the lines are parallel, then the pair of equations has no solution. In this case, the
be T
a2 b1
a1 b1 c1
(ii) = ≠ : In this case, the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
a2 b2 c2
©
a1 b1 c1
(iii) = = : In this case, the pair of linear equations is dependent and consistent.
a2 b2 c2
6. There are several situations which can be mathematically represented by two equations
that are not linear to start with. But we alter them so that they are reduced to a pair of
linear equations.
70 MATHEMATICS
d
he
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 4
is
4.1 Introduction
bl
In Chapter 2, you have studied different types of polynomials. One type was the
quadratic polynomial of the form ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0. When we equate this polynomial
to zero, we get a quadratic equation. Quadratic equations come up when we deal with
pu
many real-life situations. For instance, suppose a
charity trust decides to build a prayer hall having
a carpet area of 300 square metres with its length
be T
2
Therefore, 2x + x – 300 = 0
So, the breadth of the hall should satisfy the equation 2x2 + x – 300 = 0 which is a
no N
quadratic equation.
Many people believe that Babylonians were the first to solve quadratic equations.
For instance, they knew how to find two positive numbers with a given positive sum
©
and a given positive product, and this problem is equivalent to solving a quadratic
equation of the form x 2 – px + q = 0. Greek mathematician Euclid developed a
geometrical approach for finding out lengths which, in our present day terminology,
are solutions of quadratic equations. Solving of quadratic equations, in general form, is
often credited to ancient Indian mathematicians. In fact, Brahmagupta (A.D.598–665)
gave an explicit formula to solve a quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx = c. Later,
Sridharacharya (A.D. 1025) derived a formula, now known as the quadratic formula,
(as quoted by Bhaskara II) for solving a quadratic equation by the method of completing
the square. An Arab mathematician Al-Khwarizmi (about A.D. 800) also studied
quadratic equations of different types. Abraham bar Hiyya Ha-Nasi, in his book
d
‘Liber embadorum’ published in Europe in A.D. 1145 gave complete solutions of
different quadratic equations.
he
In this chapter, you will study quadratic equations, and various ways of finding
their roots. You will also see some applications of quadratic equations in daily life
situations.
is
A quadratic equation in the variable x is an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where
a, b, c are real numbers, a ≠ 0. For example, 2x2 + x – 300 = 0 is a quadratic equation.
bl
Similarly, 2x2 – 3x + 1 = 0, 4x – 3x2 + 2 = 0 and 1 – x2 + 300 = 0 are also quadratic
equations.
In fact, any equation of the form p(x) = 0, where p(x) is a polynomial of degree
pu
2, is a quadratic equation. But when we write the terms of p(x) in descending order of
their degrees, then we get the standard form of the equation. That is, ax 2 + bx + c = 0,
a ≠ 0 is called the standard form of a quadratic equation.
be T
(i) John and Jivanti together have 45 marbles. Both of them lost 5 marbles each, and
the product of the number of marbles they now have is 124. We would like to find
out how many marbles they had to start with.
C
(ii) A cottage industry produces a certain number of toys in a day. The cost of
production of each toy (in rupees) was found to be 55 minus the number of toys
no N
d
So, – x2 + 45x – 200 = 124 (Given that product = 124)
2
i.e., – x + 45x – 324 = 0
he
i.e., x2 – 45x + 324 = 0
Therefore, the number of marbles John had, satisfies the quadratic equation
x2 – 45x + 324 = 0
is
which is the required representation of the problem mathematically.
(ii) Let the number of toys produced on that day be x.
Therefore, the cost of production (in rupees) of each toy that day = 55 – x
bl
So, the total cost of production (in rupees) that day = x (55 – x)
Therefore, x (55 – x) = 750
pu
i.e., 55x – x2 = 750
i.e., – x2 + 55x – 750 = 0
be T
x2 – 55x + 750 = 0
which is the required representation of the problem mathematically.
tt E
(ii) x(x + 1) + 8 = (x + 2) (x – 2)
Solution :
(i) LHS = (x – 2)2 + 1 = x2 – 4x + 4 + 1 = x2 – 4x + 5
x2 – 4x + 5 = 2x – 3
i.e., x2 – 6x + 8 = 0
It is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Therefore, the given equation is a quadratic equation.
d
Therefore, the given equation is not a quadratic equation.
he
(iii) Here, LHS = x (2x + 3) = 2x2 + 3x
So, x (2x + 3) = x2 + 1 can be rewritten as
2x2 + 3x = x2 + 1
Therefore, we get x2 + 3x – 1 = 0
is
It is of the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
So, the given equation is a quadratic equation.
bl
(iv) Here, LHS = (x + 2)3 = x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
Therefore, (x + 2)3 = x3 – 4 can be rewritten as
x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8 = x3 – 4
pu
i.e., 6x2 + 12x + 12 = 0 or, x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
It is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
be T
degree 3) and not a quadratic equation. But it turns out to be a quadratic equation. As
you can see, often we need to simplify the given equation before deciding whether it
is quadratic or not.
C
EXERCISE 4.1
no N
(ii) The product of two consecutive positive integers is 306. We need to find the
integers.
(iii) Rohan’s mother is 26 years older than him. The product of their ages (in years)
3 years from now will be 360. We would like to find Rohan’s present age.
d
(iv) A train travels a distance of 480 km at a uniform speed. If the speed had been
8 km/h less, then it would have taken 3 hours more to cover the same distance. We
he
need to find the speed of the train.
is
We say that 1 is a root of the quadratic equation 2x2 – 3x + 1 = 0. This also means that
1 is a zero of the quadratic polynomial 2x2 – 3x + 1.
bl
In general, a real number α is called a root of the quadratic equation
ax + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 if a α2 + bα + c = 0. We also say that x = α is a solution of
2
the quadratic equation, or that α satisfies the quadratic equation. Note that the
pu
zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c and the roots of the quadratic
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are the same.
You have observed, in Chapter 2, that a quadratic polynomial can have at most
be T
two zeroes. So, any quadratic equation can have atmost two roots.
re
You have learnt in Class IX, how to factorise quadratic polynomials by splitting
o R
their middle terms. We shall use this knowledge for finding the roots of a quadratic
equation. Let us see how.
tt E
d
Solution : We have
6x2 – x – 2 = 6x2 + 3x – 4x – 2
he
= 3x (2x + 1) – 2 (2x + 1)
= (3x – 2)(2x + 1)
The roots of 6x2 – x – 2 = 0 are the values of x for which (3x – 2)(2x + 1) = 0
is
Therefore, 3x – 2 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0,
2 1
or x = −
bl
i.e., x=
3 2
2 1
Therefore, the roots of 6x2 – x – 2 = 0 are and – .
pu
3 2
2 1
We verify the roots, by checking that and − satisfy 6x2 – x – 2 = 0.
be T
3 2
re
Example 5 : Find the roots of the quadratic equation 3x 2 − 2 6 x + 2 = 0 .
o R
Solution : 3x 2 − 2 6 x + 2 = 3x 2 − 6 x − 6 x + 2
( ) ( )
tt E
= 3x 3x− 2 − 2 3x − 2
= ( 3x − 2 )( 3x− 2 )
C
So, the roots of the equation are the values of x for which
no N
( 3 x − 2) ( )
3x − 2 = 0
2
Now, 3 x − 2 = 0 for x = .
©
3
So, this root is repeated twice, one for each repeated factor 3x − 2 .
2 2.
Therefore, the roots of 3x 2 − 2 6x + 2 = 0 are ,
3 3
Example 6 : Find the dimensions of the prayer hall discussed in Section 4.1.
Solution : In Section 4.1, we found that if the breadth of the hall is x m, then x
satisfies the equation 2x2 + x – 300 = 0. Applying the factorisation method, we write
this equation as
d
2x2 – 24x + 25x – 300 = 0
2x (x – 12) + 25 (x – 12) = 0
he
i.e., (x – 12)(2x + 25) = 0
So, the roots of the given equation are x = 12 or x = – 12.5. Since x is the breadth
of the hall, it cannot be negative.
is
Thus, the breadth of the hall is 12 m. Its length = 2x + 1 = 25 m.
EXERCISE 4.2
bl
1. Find the roots of the following quadratic equations by factorisation:
on a particular day that the cost of production of each article (in rupees) was 3 more than
twice the number of articles produced on that day. If the total cost of production on that
day was Rs 90, find the number of articles produced and the cost of each article.
no N
Therefore, (x – 2)(x + 4) = 2x + 1
i.e., x2 + 2x – 8 = 2x + 1
i.e., x2 – 9 = 0
d
So, Sunita’s present age satisfies the quadratic equation x2 – 9 = 0.
We can write this as x2 = 9. Taking square roots, we get x = 3 or x = – 3. Since
he
the age is a positive number, x = 3.
So, Sunita’s present age is 3 years.
Now consider the quadratic equation (x + 2)2 – 9 = 0. To solve it, we can write
it as (x + 2)2 = 9. Taking square roots, we get x + 2 = 3 or x + 2 = – 3.
is
Therefore, x=1 or x = –5
So, the roots of the equation (x + 2) 2 – 9 = 0 are 1 and – 5.
bl
In both the examples above, the term containing x is completely inside a square,
and we found the roots easily by taking the square roots. But, what happens if we are
asked to solve the equation x2 + 4x – 5 = 0? We would probably apply factorisation to
pu
do so, unless we realise (somehow!) that x2 + 4x – 5 = (x + 2)2 – 9.
So, solving x2 + 4x – 5 = 0 is equivalent to solving (x + 2) 2 – 9 = 0, which we have
be T
seen is very quick to do. In fact, we can convert any quadratic equation to the form
(x + a)2 – b2 = 0 and then we can easily find its roots. Let us see if this is possible.
re
Fig. 4.2
d
= x2 + 2x + 2x
= (x + 2) x + 2 × x
he
= (x + 2) x + 2 × x + 2 × 2 – 2 × 2
= (x + 2) x + (x + 2) × 2 – 2 × 2
= (x + 2) (x + 2) – 22
is
= (x + 2)2 – 4
So, x2 + 4x – 5 = (x + 2)2 – 4 – 5 = (x + 2)2 – 9
So, x2 + 4x – 5 = 0 can be written as (x + 2)2 – 9 = 0 by this process of completing
bl
the square. This is known as the method of completing the square.
In brief, this can be shown as follows:
pu
2 2 2
⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛4 ⎞ ⎛ 4⎞
x + 4x = ⎜ x + ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ x + ⎟ − 4
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
be T
2
⎛ 4⎞
⎜x + ⎟ − 4− 5 = 0
⎝ 2⎠
tt E
i.e., (x + 2)2 – 9 = 0
Consider now the equation 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0. Note that the coefficient of x2 is not
C
9x2 – 15x + 6 = 0
no N
5
Now, 9x2 – 15x + 6 = (3 x) 2 − 2 × 3x × +6
2
©
2 2
5 ⎛5 ⎞ ⎛ 5⎞
= (3 x) − 2 × 3 x × +⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ +6
2
2 ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
2 2
⎛ 5 ⎞ 25 ⎛ 5⎞ 1
= ⎜ 3x − ⎟ − + 6 = ⎜ 3x − ⎟ −
⎝ 2⎠ 4 ⎝ 2⎠ 4
d
2
⎛ 5⎞ 1
i.e., ⎜ 3x − ⎟ =
⎝ 2⎠ 4
he
2
⎛ 5⎞ 1
So, the solutions of 9x2 – 15x + 6 = 0 are the same as those of ⎜ 3 x − ⎟ = .
⎝ 2⎠ 4
is
5 1 5 1
i.e., 3x – = or 3x − = −
2 2 2 2
bl
5 1
(We can also write this as 3x − = ± , where ‘±’ denotes ‘plus minus’.)
2 2
pu
5 1 5 1
Thus, 3x = + or 3x = −
2 2 2 2
be T
5 1 5 1
So, x= + or x = −
re
6 6 6 6
o R
4
Therefore, x = 1 or x =
6
tt E
2
i.e., x = 1 or x =
3
C
2.
Therefore, the roots of the given equation are 1 and
3
no N
5 2
x2 − x+ = 0
3 3
2 2
5 2 ⎧ 1 ⎛ 5 ⎞ ⎫ ⎧ 1 ⎛ 5 ⎞⎫ 2
Now, x – x + = ⎨ x − ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ − ⎨ ⎜ ⎟⎬ +
2
3 3 ⎩ 2 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎭ ⎩ 2 ⎝ 3 ⎠⎭ 3
2
⎛ 5⎞ 2 25
= ⎜x− ⎟ + −
⎝ 6⎠ 3 36
2 2 2
⎛ 5⎞ 1 ⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
d
= ⎜x− ⎟ − = ⎜x − ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠ 36 ⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ 6⎠
he
2 2
So, the solutions of 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0 are the same as those of ⎛⎜ x − 5 ⎞⎟ − ⎜⎛ 1 ⎟⎞ = 0 ,
⎝ 6⎠ ⎝6 ⎠
5 1 5 1 5 1 2
= ± , i.e., x = + = 1 and x = − = .
is
which are x –
6 6 6 6 6 6 3
Let us consider some examples to illustrate the above process.
bl
Example 7 : Solve the equation given in Example 3 by the method of completing the
square.
pu
5 3
Solution : The equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 is the same as x 2 − x + = 0.
2 2
be T
2 2 2
5 3 ⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞ 3 ⎛ 5⎞ 1
Now, x2 − x + = ⎜ x − ⎟ −⎜ ⎟ + = ⎜ x− ⎟ −
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 16
re
2 2
o R
2
⎛ 5⎞ 1
Therefore, 2x – 5x + 3 = 0 can be written as ⎜ x − ⎟ − = 0 .
2
⎝ 4 ⎠ 16
tt E
So, the roots of the equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 are exactly the same as those of
C
2 2 2
⎛ 5⎞ 1 ⎛ 5⎞ 1 ⎛ 5⎞ 1
⎜ x − ⎟ − = 0 . Now, ⎜x− ⎟ − =0 is the same as ⎜ x − ⎟ =
⎝ 4 ⎠ 16 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 16 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 16
no N
5 1
Therefore, x− = ±
4 4
5 1
i.e., x= ±
©
4 4
5 1 5 1
i.e., x= + or x = −
4 4 4 4
3
i.e., x= or x = 1
2
3
Therefore, the solutions of the equations are x = and 1.
2
Let us verify our solutions.
d
2
3 ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛3 ⎞
Putting x = in 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0, we get 2 ⎜ ⎟ – 5 ⎜ ⎟ + 3 = 0 , which is
2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
he
correct. Similarly, you can verify that x = 1 also satisfies the given equation.
In Example 7, we divided the equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 throughout by 2 to get
5 3
x2 – x + = 0 to make the first term a perfect square and then completed the
is
2 2
square. Instead, we can multiply throughout by 2 to make the first term as 4x2 = (2x) 2
and then complete the square.
bl
This method is illustrated in the next example.
Example 8 : Find the roots of the equation 5x2 – 6x – 2 = 0 by the method of completing
pu
the square.
Solution : Multiplying the equation throughout by 5, we get
be T
25x2 – 30x – 10 = 0
re
This is the same as
o R
(5x) 2 – 2 × (5x) × 3 + 3 2 – 32 – 10 = 0
i.e., (5x – 3)2 – 9 – 10 = 0
tt E
i.e., 5x – 3 = ± 19
no N
i.e., 5x = 3 ± 19
3 ± 19
So, x=
5
©
3 + 19 3 − 19
Therefore, the roots are and .
5 5
3 + 19 3 − 19
Verify that the roots are and .
5 5
d
2 2
3 ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛3 ⎞
(2x) + 2 × (2x) × + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + 5 = 0
2
4 ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝4 ⎠
he
2
⎛ 3⎞ 9
i.e., ⎜ 2x + ⎟ − +5 = 0
⎝ 4 ⎠ 16
is
2
⎛ 3⎞ 71
i.e., ⎜ 2x + ⎟ + =0
⎝ 4 ⎠ 16
−71
bl
2
⎛ 3⎞
i.e., ⎜2 x + ⎟ = <0
pu
⎝ 4⎠ 6
2
⎛ 3⎞
But ⎜ 2 x + ⎟ cannot be negative for any real value of x (Why?). So, there is
be T
⎝ 4⎠
re
no real value of x satisfying the given equation. Therefore, the given equation has no
o R
real roots.
Now, you have seen several examples of the use of the method of completing
the square. So, let us give this method in general.
tt E
a, we get
a a
2 2
⎛ b ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞ c
no N
b 2 − 4ac
2
⎛ b ⎞
i.e., ⎜x+ ⎟ − =0
©
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a2
So, the roots of the given equation are the same as those of
b 2 − 4 ac b 2 − 4 ac
2 2
⎛ b ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞
⎜ x + ⎟ − = 0, i.e., those of ⎜ x + ⎟ = (1)
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a 2 ⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a 2
x+
b ± b 2 − 4 ac
=
2a 2a
d
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Therefore, x=
he
2a
−b + b 2 − 4 ac −b − b 2 − 4 ac
So, the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are and , if
2a 2a
is
b 2 – 4ac ≥ 0. If b 2 – 4ac < 0, the equation will have no real roots. (Why?)
Thus, if b 2 – 4ac ≥ 0, then the roots of the quadratic equation
bl
– b ± b 2 – 4ac
ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by
2a
pu
This formula for finding the roots of a quadratic equation is known as the
quadratic formula.
be T
Let us consider some examples for illustrating the use of the quadratic formula.
re
Solution : Let the breadth of the plot be x metres. Then the length is (2x + 1) metres.
Then we are given that x(2x + 1) = 528, i.e., 2x2 + x – 528 = 0.
tt E
−1 ± 1 + 4(2)(528) −1 ± 4225 −1 ± 65
x= = =
no N
4 4 4
64 – 66
i.e., x= or x =
4 4
©
33
i.e., x = 16 or x= −
2
Since x cannot be negative, being a dimension, the breadth of the plot is
16 metres and hence, the length of the plot is 33m.
You should verify that these values satisfy the conditions of the problem.
Example 11 : Find two consecutive odd positive integers, sum of whose squares
is 290.
Solution : Let the smaller of the two consecutive odd positive integers be x. Then, the
second integer will be x + 2. According to the question,
d
x2 + (x + 2)2 = 290
he
i.e., x2 + x2 + 4x + 4 = 290
i.e., 2x2 + 4x – 286 = 0
i.e., x2 + 2x – 143 = 0
is
which is a quadratic equation in x.
Using the quadratic formula, we get
bl
−2 ± 4 + 572 −2 ± 576 −2 ± 24
x= = =
2 2 2
pu
i.e., x = 11 or x = – 13
But x is given to be an odd positive integer. Therefore, x ≠ – 13, x = 11.
be T
been made in the shape of an isosceles triangle with its base as the breadth of the
rectangular park and of altitude 12 m (see Fig. 4.3). Find its length and breadth.
Solution : Let the breadth of the rectangular park be x m.
C
3 ± 25 3 ±5
x= = = 4 or – 1
2 2
But x ≠ – 1 (Why?). Therefore, x = 4.
d
So, the breadth of the park = 4m and its length will be 7m.
he
Verification : Area of rectangular park = 28 m2,
area of triangular park = 24 m2 = (28 – 4) m2
Example 13 : Find the roots of the following quadratic equations, if they exist, using
is
the quadratic formula:
bl
Solution :
(i) 3x2 – 5x + 2 = 0. Here, a = 3, b = – 5, c = 2. So, b 2 – 4ac = 25 – 24 = 1 > 0.
pu
5 ± 1 5 ±1 2
Therefore, x = = , i.e., x = 1 or x =
6 6 3
be T
2
So, the roots are and 1.
re
3
o R
Since the square of a real number cannot be negative, therefore b 2 − 4ac will
not have any real value.
C
So, b 2 – 4ac = 8 – 8 = 0
©
2 2± 0 2 1 .
Therefore, x = = ± 0 , i.e., x =
4 2 2
1 1 .
So, the roots are ,
2 2
1 1 1
(i) x + = 3, x ≠ 0 (ii) − = 3, x ≠ 0, 2
x x x −2
d
Solution :
he
(i) x + = 3 . Multiplying throughout by x, we get
x
x2 + 1 = 3x
i.e., x2 – 3x + 1 = 0, which is a quadratic equation.
is
Here, a = 1, b = – 3, c = 1
So, b 2 – 4ac = 9 – 4 = 5 > 0
bl
3± 5
Therefore, x= (Why?)
2
pu
3+ 5 3− 5
So, the roots are and .
2 2
be T
re
1 1
(ii) − = 3, x ≠ 0, 2 .
o R
x x−2
(x – 2) – x = 3x (x – 2)
C
= 3x2 – 6x
no N
6 ± 12 6 ± 2 3 3 ± 3
Therefore, x= = = .
6 6 3
3+ 3 3− 3
So, the roots are and .
3 3
Example 15 : A motor boat whose speed is 18 km/h in still water takes 1 hour more
to go 24 km upstream than to return downstream to the same spot. Find the speed of
the stream.
Solution : Let the speed of the stream be x km/h.
d
Therefore, the speed of the boat upstream = (18 – x) km/h and the speed of the boat
downstream = (18 + x) km/h.
he
distance 24
The time taken to go upstream = = hours.
speed 18 − x
24
is
Similarly, the time taken to go downstream = hours.
18 + x
According to the question,
bl
24 24
− = 1
18 − x 18 + x
pu
i.e., 24(18 + x) – 24(18 – x) = (18 – x) (18 + x)
be T
− 48 ± 60
= = 6 or – 54
2
C
Since x is the speed of the stream, it cannot be negative. So, we ignore the root
x = – 54. Therefore, x = 6 gives the speed of the stream as 6 km/h.
no N
EXERCISE 4.3
1. Find the roots of the following quadratic equations, if they exist, by the method of
©
d
1.
now is Find his present age.
he
3
5. In a class test, the sum of Shefali’s marks in Mathematics and English is 30. Had she got
2 marks more in Mathematics and 3 marks less in English, the product of their marks
would have been 210. Find her marks in the two subjects.
is
6. The diagonal of a rectangular field is 60 metres more than the shorter side. If the longer
side is 30 metres more than the shorter side, find the sides of the field.
7. The difference of squares of two numbers is 180. The square of the smaller number is 8
bl
times the larger number. Find the two numbers.
8. A train travels 360 km at a uniform speed. If the speed had been 5 km/h more, it would
have taken 1 hour less for the same journey. Find the speed of the train.
pu
3
9. Two water taps together can fill a tank in 9 hours. The tap of larger diameter takes 10
8
be T
hours less than the smaller one to fill the tank separately. Find the time in which each tap
can separately fill the tank.
re
10. An express train takes 1 hour less than a passenger train to travel 132 km between
o R
Mysore and Bangalore (without taking into consideration the time they stop at
intermediate stations). If the average speed of the express train is 11km/h more than that
of the passenger train, find the average speed of the two trains.
tt E
11. Sum of the areas of two squares is 468 m2. If the difference of their perimeters is 24 m,
find the sides of the two squares.
C
are given by
– b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
©
b b 2 − 4 ac
If b – 4ac > 0, we get two distinct real roots −
2
+ and
2a 2a
b b 2 − 4 ac
− – .
2a 2a
b b b
If b 2 – 4ac = 0, then x = − ± 0 , i.e., x = − or – ⋅
2a 2a 2a
−b
⋅
d
So, the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are both
2a
Therefore, we say that the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has two equal
he
real roots in this case.
If b2 – 4ac < 0, then there is no real number whose square is b2 – 4ac. Therefore,
there are no real roots for the given quadratic equation in this case.
is
Since b2 – 4ac determines whether the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
real roots or not, b 2 – 4ac is called the discriminant of this quadratic equation.
So, a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
bl
(i) two distinct real roots, if b 2 – 4ac > 0,
(ii) two equal real roots, if b2 – 4ac = 0,
pu
(iii) no real roots, if b 2 – 4ac < 0.
Let us consider some examples.
be T
d
i.e., x2 + 14x + 49 + x2 = 169
he
i.e., 2x2 + 14x – 120 = 0
So, the distance ‘x’ of the pole from gate B satisfies the equation
x2 + 7x – 60 = 0
So, it would be possible to place the pole if this equation has real roots. To see if this
is
is so or not, let us consider its discriminant. The discriminant is
b2 – 4ac = 72 – 4 × 1 × (– 60) = 289 > 0.
bl
So, the given quadratic equation has two real roots, and it is possible to erect the
pole on the boundary of the park.
Solving the quadratic equation x2 + 7x – 60 = 0, by the quadratic formula, we get
pu
−7 ± 289 −7 ± 17
x= =
be T
2 2
Therefore, x = 5 or – 12.
re
o R
Since x is the distance between the pole and the gate B, it must be positive.
Therefore, x = – 12 will have to be ignored. So, x = 5.
tt E
Thus, the pole has to be erected on the boundary of the park at a distance of 5m
from the gate B and 12m from the gate A.
C
1
Example 18 : Find the discriminant of the equation 3x2 – 2x + = 0 and hence find
3
the nature of its roots. Find them, if they are real.
no N
1
Solution : Here a = 3, b = – 2 and c = .
3
1
©
−b , −b , 2 2 1 1
The roots are i.e., , , i.e., , .
2a 2a 6 6 3 3
EXERCISE 4.4
1. Find the nature of the roots of the following quadratic equations. If the real roots exist,
find them:
d
(i) 2x2 – 3x + 5 = 0 (ii) 3x2 – 4 3 x + 4 = 0
(iii) 2x2 – 6x + 3 = 0
he
2. Find the values of k for each of the following quadratic equations, so that they have two
equal roots.
(i) 2x2 + kx + 3 = 0 (ii) kx (x – 2) + 6 = 0
3. Is it possible to design a rectangular mango grove whose length is twice its breadth,
is
and the area is 800 m2? If so, find its length and breadth.
4. Is the following situation possible? If so, determine their present ages.
bl
The sum of the ages of two friends is 20 years. Four years ago, the product of their ages
in years was 48.
5. Is it possible to design a rectangular park of perimeter 80 m and area 400 m2? If so, find
pu
its length and breadth.
4.6 Summary
be T
numbers and a ≠ 0.
2. A real number α is said to be a root of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, if
tt E
aα2 + bα + c = 0. The zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax 2 + bx + c and the roots of the
quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are the same.
3. If we can factorise ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, into a product of two linear factors, then the roots
C
of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be found by equating each factor to zero.
4. A quadratic equation can also be solved by the method of completing the square.
no N
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
, provided b2 – 4ac ≥ 0.
2a
©
d
equations formed (see Examples 11, 13, 19 of Chapter 3 and
Examples 10, 11, 12 of Chapter 4).
he
is
bl
pu
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
no N
©
d
he
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 5
is
5.1 Introduction
bl
You must have observed that in nature, many things follow a certain pattern, such as
the petals of a sunflower, the holes of a honeycomb, the grains on a maize cob, the
spirals on a pineapple and on a pine cone etc.
pu
We now look for some patterns which occur in our day-to-day life. Some such
examples are :
be T
5
(iii) In a savings scheme, the amount becomes times of itself after every 3 years.
4
The maturity amount (in Rs) of an investment of Rs 8000 after 3, 6, 9 and 12
years will be, respectively :
10000, 12500, 15625, 19531.25
(iv) The number of unit squares in squares with side 1, 2, 3, . . . units (see Fig. 5.2)
are, respectively
1 2, 2 2, 32, . . . .
d
he
is
Fig. 5.2
bl
(v) Shakila put Rs 100 into her daughter’s money box when she was one year old
and increased the amount by Rs 50 every year. The amounts of money (in Rs) in
the box on the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, . . . birthday were
pu
100, 150, 200, 250, . . ., respectively.
(vi) A pair of rabbits are too young to produce in their first month. In the second, and
be T
every subsequent month, they produce a new pair. Each new pair of rabbits
re
produce a new pair in their second month and in every subsequent month (see
o R
Fig. 5.3). Assuming no rabbit dies, the number of pairs of rabbits at the start of
the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., 6th month, respectively are :
tt E
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
C
no N
©
Fig. 5.3
In the examples above, we observe some patterns. In some, we find that the
succeeding terms are obtained by adding a fixed number, in other by multiplying
with a fixed number, in another we find that they are squares of consecutive
numbers, and so on.
d
In this chapter, we shall discuss one of these patterns in which succeeding terms
are obtained by adding a fixed number to the preceding terms. We shall also see how
he
to find their nth terms and the sum of n consecutive terms, and use this knowledge in
solving some daily life problems.
is
Consider the following lists of numbers :
(i) 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
(ii) 100, 70, 40, 10, . . .
bl
(iii) – 3, –2, –1, 0, . . .
(iv) 3, 3, 3, 3, . . .
pu
(v) –1.0, –1.5, –2.0, –2.5, . . .
Each of the numbers in the list is called a term.
be T
Given a term, can you write the next term in each of the lists above? If so, how
re
will you write it? Perhaps by following a pattern or rule. Let us observe and write the
o R
rule.
In (i), each term is 1 more than the term preceding it.
In (ii), each term is 30 less than the term preceding it.
tt E
d
(a) The heights ( in cm ) of some students of a school standing in a queue in the
morning assembly are 147 , 148, 149, . . ., 157.
he
(b) The minimum temperatures ( in degree celsius ) recorded for a week in the
month of January in a city, arranged in ascending order are
– 3.1, – 3.0, – 2.9, – 2.8, – 2.7, – 2.6, – 2.5
is
(c) The balance money ( in Rs ) after paying 5 % of the total loan of Rs 1000 every
month is 950, 900, 850, 800, . . ., 50.
bl
(d) The cash prizes ( in Rs ) given by a school to the toppers of Classes I to XII are,
respectively, 200, 250, 300, 350, . . ., 750.
(e) The total savings (in Rs) after every month for 10 months when Rs 50 are saved
pu
each month are 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500.
It is left as an exercise for you to explain why each of the lists above is an AP.
be T
represents an arithmetic progression where a is the first term and d the common
difference. This is called the general form of an AP.
tt E
Note that in examples (a) to (e) above, there are only a finite number of terms.
Such an AP is called a finite AP. Also note that each of these Arithmetic Progressions
(APs) has a last term. The APs in examples (i) to (v) in this section, are not finite APs
C
and so they are called infinite Arithmetic Progressions. Such APs do not have a
last term.
Now, to know about an AP, what is the minimum information that you need? Is it
no N
enough to know the first term? Or, is it enough to know only the common difference?
You will find that you will need to know both – the first term a and the common
difference d.
©
For instance if the first term a is 6 and the common difference d is 3, then
the AP is
6, 9,12, 15, . . .
and if a is 6 and d is – 3, then the AP is
6, 3, 0, –3, . . .
Similarly, when
a = – 7, d = – 2, the AP is – 7, – 9, – 11, – 13, . . .
a = 1.0, d = 0.1, the AP is 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, . . .
d
1 1 1
a = 0, d=1 , the AP is 0, 1 , 3, 4 , 6, . . .
2 2 2
he
a = 2, d = 0, the AP is 2, 2, 2, 2, . . .
So, if you know what a and d are, you can list the AP. What about the other way
round? That is, if you are given a list of numbers can you say that it is an AP and then
find a and d? Since a is the first term, it can easily be written. We know that in an AP,
is
every succeeding term is obtained by adding d to the preceding term. So, d found by
subtracting any term from its succeeding term, i.e., the term which immediately follows
bl
it should be same for an AP.
For example, for the list of numbers :
6, 9, 12, 15, . . . ,
pu
We have a2 – a 1 = 9 – 6 = 3,
a3 – a2 = 12 – 9 = 3,
be T
a4 – a3 = 15 – 12 = 3
re
Here the difference of any two consecutive terms in each case is 3. So, the
o R
a2 – a 1 = 3 – 6 = – 3
a3 – a2 = 0 – 3 = – 3
C
a4 – a3 = –3 – 0 = –3
Similarly this is also an AP whose first term is 6 and the common difference
is –3.
no N
where ak + 1 and ak are the ( k + 1)th and the kth terms respectively.
To obtain d in a given AP, we need not find all of a 2 – a1, a 3 – a 2, a 4 – a 3, . . . .
It is enough to find only one of them.
Consider the list of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, . . . . By looking at it, you can tell that the
difference between any two consecutive terms is not the same. So, this is not an AP.
d
3 1 1 3
Example 1 : For the AP : , ,– ,– , . . ., write the first term a and the
he
2 2 2 2
common difference d.
3 1 3
Solution : Here, a= ,d= – = – 1.
2 2 2
is
Remember that we can find d using any two consecutive terms, once we know that
the numbers are in AP.
bl
Example 2 : Which of the following list of numbers form an AP? If they form an AP,
write the next two terms :
pu
(i) 4, 10, 16, 22, . . . (ii) 1, – 1, – 3, – 5, . . .
(iii) – 2, 2, – 2, 2, – 2, . . . (iv) 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, . . .
be T
a 4 – a3 = 22 – 16 = 6
i.e., a k + 1 – a k is the same every time.
tt E
So, the given list of numbers forms an AP with the common difference d = 6.
The next two terms are: 22 + 6 = 28 and 28 + 6 = 34.
C
(ii) a 2 – a 1 = – 1 – 1 = – 2
a 3 – a 2 = – 3 – ( –1 ) = – 3 + 1 = – 2
a 4 – a3 = – 5 – ( –3 ) = – 5 + 3 = – 2
no N
(iv) a2 – a 1 = 1 – 1 = 0
a3 – a 2 = 1 – 1 = 0
a4 – a 3 = 2 – 1 = 1
Here, a 2 – a1 = a 3 – a 2 ≠ a4 – a3.
d
So, the given list of numbers does not form an AP.
he
EXERCISE 5.1
1. In which of the following situations, does the list of numbers involved make an arithmetic
progression, and why?
(i) The taxi fare after each km when the fare is Rs 15 for the first km and Rs 8 for each
is
additional km.
1
(ii) The amount of air present in a cylinder when a vacuum pump removes of the
4
bl
air remaining in the cylinder at a time.
(iii) The cost of digging a well after every metre of digging, when it costs Rs 150 for
the first metre and rises by Rs 50 for each subsequent metre.
pu
(iv) The amount of money in the account every year, when Rs 10000 is deposited at
compound interest at 8 % per annum.
2. Write first four terms of the AP, when the first term a and the common difference d are
be T
given as follows:
re
(i) a = 10, d = 10 (ii) a = –2, d = 0
o R
1
(iii) a = 4, d=–3 (iv) a = – 1, d =
2
(v) a = – 1.25, d = – 0.25
tt E
3. For the following APs, write the first term and the common difference:
(i) 3, 1, – 1, – 3, . . . (ii) – 5, – 1, 3, 7, . . .
C
1 , 5 , 9 , 13 ,
(iii) ... (iv) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, 3.9, . . .
3 3 3 3
no N
4. Which of the following are APs ? If they form an AP, find the common difference d and
write three more terms.
2 2
(iii) – 1.2, – 3.2, – 5.2, – 7.2, . . . (iv) – 10, – 6, – 2, 2, . . .
d
(xv) 12, 52, 72, 73, . . .
he
5.3 nth Term of an AP
Let us consider the situation again, given in Section 5.1 in which Reena applied for a
job and got selected. She has been offered the job with a starting monthly salary of
Rs 8000, with an annual increment of Rs 500. What would be her monthly salary for
is
the fifth year?
To answer this, let us first see what her monthly salary for the second year
would be.
bl
It would be Rs (8000 + 500) = Rs 8500. In the same way, we can find the monthly
salary for the 3rd, 4th and 5th year by adding Rs 500 to the salary of the previous year.
pu
So, the salary for the 3rd year = Rs (8500 + 500)
= Rs (8000 + 500 + 500)
= Rs (8000 + 2 × 500)
be T
= Rs 9000
o R
= Rs (8000 + 3 × 500)
= Rs [8000 + (4 – 1) × 500] (for the 4th year)
C
= Rs 9500
Salary for the 5th year = Rs (9500 + 500)
no N
= Rs (8000+500+500+500 + 500)
= Rs (8000 + 4 × 500)
= Rs [8000 + (5 – 1) × 500] (for the 5th year)
©
= Rs 10000
Observe that we are getting a list of numbers
8000, 8500, 9000, 9500, 10000, . . .
These numbers are in AP. (Why?)
Now, looking at the pattern formed above, can you find her monthly salary for
the 6th year? The 15th year? And, assuming that she will still be working in the job,
what about the monthly salary for the 25th year? You would calculate this by adding
Rs 500 each time to the salary of the previous year to give the answer. Can we make
d
this process shorter? Let us see. You may have already got some idea from the way
we have obtained the salaries above.
he
Salary for the 15th year
= Salary for the 14th year + Rs 500
is
= Rs ⎢8000 +
⎥ + Rs 500
⎣ 13 times ⎦
bl
= Rs [8000 + 14 × 500]
= Rs [8000 + (15 – 1) × 500] = Rs 15000
pu
i.e., First salary + (15 – 1) × Annual increment.
In the same way, her monthly salary for the 25th year would be
be T
difference is d.
Then,
the second term a 2 = a + d = a + (2 – 1) d
no N
........
........
Looking at the pattern, we can say that the nth term a n = a + (n – 1) d.
So, the nth term a n of the AP with first term a and common difference d is
given by a n = a + (n – 1) d.
a n is also called the general term of the AP. If there are m terms in the AP, then
a m represents the last term which is sometimes also denoted by l.
Let us consider some examples.
d
Example 3 : Find the 10th term of the AP : 2, 7, 12, . . .
Solution : Here, a = 2, d=7–2=5 and n = 10.
he
We have a n = a + (n – 1) d
So, a 10 = 2 + (10 – 1) × 5 = 2 + 45 = 47
Therefore, the 10th term of the given AP is 47.
is
Example 4 : Which term of the AP : 21, 18, 15, . . . is – 81? Also, is any term 0? Give
reason for your answer.
bl
Solution : Here, a = 21, d = 18 – 21 = – 3 and a n = – 81, and we have to find n.
As a n = a + ( n – 1) d,
pu
we have – 81 = 21 + (n – 1)(– 3)
– 81 = 24 – 3n
be T
– 105 = – 3n
re
So, n = 35
o R
21 + (n – 1) (–3) = 0,
i.e., 3(n – 1) = 21
C
i.e., n= 8
So, the eighth term is 0.
no N
Example 5 : Determine the AP whose 3rd term is 5 and the 7th term is 9.
Solution : We have
a 3 = a + (3 – 1) d = a + 2d = 5 (1)
©
and a 7 = a + (7 – 1) d = a + 6d = 9 (2)
Solving the pair of linear equations (1) and (2), we get
a = 3, d = 1
Hence, the required AP is 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . .
Example 6 : Check whether 301 is a term of the list of numbers 5, 11, 17, 23, . . .
Solution : We have :
a 2 – a1 = 11 – 5 = 6, a 3 – a 2 = 17 – 11 = 6, a 4 – a3 = 23 – 17 = 6
d
As a k + 1 – a k is the same for k = 1, 2, 3, etc., the given list of numbers is an AP.
Now, a=5 and d = 6.
he
Let 301 be a term, say, the nth term of the this AP.
We know that
a n = a + (n – 1) d
is
So, 301 = 5 + (n – 1) × 6
i.e., 301 = 6n – 1
bl
302 151
So, n= =
6 3
But n should be a positive integer (Why?). So, 301 is not a term of the given list of
pu
numbers.
As a n = a + (n – 1) d,
we have 99 = 12 + (n – 1) × 3
C
i.e., 87 = (n – 1) × 3
87
no N
i.e., n–1= = 29
3
i.e., n = 29 + 1 = 30
So, there are 30 two-digit numbers divisible by 3.
©
Example 8 : Find the 11th term from the last term (towards the first term) of the
AP : 10, 7, 4, . . ., – 62.
Solution : Here, a = 10, d = 7 – 10 = – 3, l = – 62,
where l = a + (n – 1) d
To find the 11th term from the last term, we will find the total number of terms in
the AP.
So, – 62 = 10 + (n – 1)(–3)
i.e., – 72 = (n – 1)(–3)
d
i.e., n – 1 = 24
he
or n = 25
So, there are 25 terms in the given AP.
The 11th term from the last term will be the 15th term. (Note that it will not be
the 14th term. Why?)
is
So, a 15 = 10 + (15 – 1)(–3) = 10 – 42 = – 32
i.e., the 11th term from the last term is – 32.
bl
Alternative Solution :
If we write the given AP in the reverse order, then a = – 62 and d = 3 (Why?)
pu
So, the question now becomes finding the 11th term with these a and d.
So, a 11 = – 62 + (11 – 1) × 3 = – 62 + 30 = – 32
be T
So, the 11th term, which is now the required term, is – 32.
re
Example 9 : A sum of Rs 1000 is invested at 8% simple interest per year. Calculate
o R
the interest at the end of each year. Do these interests form an AP? If so, find the
interest at the end of 30 years making use of this fact.
tt E
P ×R × T
Simple Interest =
C
100
1000 ×8 ×1
So, the interest at the end of the 1st year = Rs = Rs 80
100
no N
1000 × 8 × 2
The interest at the end of the 2nd year = Rs = Rs 160
100
1000 × 8 ×3
©
It is an AP as the difference between the consecutive terms in the list is 80, i.e.,
d = 80. Also, a = 80.
So, to find the interest at the end of 30 years, we shall find a30 .
d
Now, a 30 = a + (30 – 1) d = 80 + 29 × 80 = 2400
So, the interest at the end of 30 years will be Rs 2400.
he
Example 10 : In a flower bed, there are 23 rose plants in the first row, 21 in the
second, 19 in the third, and so on. There are 5 rose plants in the last row. How many
rows are there in the flower bed?
is
Solution : The number of rose plants in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., rows are :
23, 21, 19, . . ., 5
bl
It forms an AP (Why?). Let the number of rows in the flower bed be n.
Then a = 23, d = 21 – 23 = – 2, an = 5
As, a n = a + (n – 1) d
pu
We have, 5 = 23 + (n – 1)(– 2)
i.e., – 18 = (n – 1)(– 2)
be T
i.e., n = 10
re
o R
EXERCISE 5.2
tt E
1. Fill in the blanks in the following table, given that a is the first term, d the common
difference and an the nth term of the AP:
C
a d n an
no N
(i) 7 3 8 ...
(ii) – 18 ... 10 0
©
(iii) ... –3 18 –5
(iv) – 18.9 2.5 ... 3.6
(v) 3.5 0 105 ...
d
2
1
(A) 28 (B) 22 (C) –38 (D) – 48
he
2
3. In the following APs, find the missing terms in the boxes :
(i) 2, , 26
is
(ii) , 13, , 3
1
9
bl
(iii) 5, , ,
2
(iv) – 4, , , , , 6
pu
(v) , 38, , , , – 22
be T
1
(i) 7, 13, 19, . . . , 205 (ii) 18, 15
, 13, . . . , – 47
2
6. Check whether – 150 is a term of the AP : 11, 8, 5, 2 . . .
tt E
7. Find the 31st term of an AP whose 11th term is 38 and the 16th term is 73.
8. An AP consists of 50 terms of which 3rd term is 12 and the last term is 106. Find the 29th
C
term.
9. If the 3rd and the 9th terms of an AP are 4 and – 8 respectively, which term of this AP is
zero?
no N
10. The 17th term of an AP exceeds its 10th term by 7. Find the common difference.
11. Which term of the AP : 3, 15, 27, 39, . . . will be 132 more than its 54th term?
12. Two APs have the same common difference. The difference between their 100th terms is
©
17. Find the 20th term from the last term of the AP : 3, 8, 13, . . ., 253.
18. The sum of the 4th and 8th terms of an AP is 24 and the sum of the 6th and 10th terms is
44. Find the first three terms of the AP.
19. Subba Rao started work in 1995 at an annual salary of Rs 5000 and received an increment
d
of Rs 200 each year. In which year did his income reach Rs 7000?
20. Ramkali saved Rs 5 in the first week of a year and then increased her weekly savings by
he
Rs 1.75. If in the nth week, her weekly savings become Rs 20.75, find n.
is
given in Section 5.1 in which Shakila
put Rs 100 into her daughter’s money
box when she was one year old,
bl
Rs 150 on her second birthday,
Rs 200 on her third birthday and will
continue in the same way. How much
pu
money will be collected in the money
box by the time her daughter is 21
years old?
be T
Here, the amount of money (in Rs) put in the money box on her first, second,
re
third, fourth . . . birthday were respectively 100, 150, 200, 250, . . . till her 21st birthday.
o R
To find the total amount in the money box on her 21st birthday, we will have to write
each of the 21 numbers in the list above and then add them up. Don’t you think it
would be a tedious and time consuming process? Can we make the process shorter?
tt E
This would be possible if we can find a method for getting this sum. Let us see.
We consider the problem given to Gauss (about whom you read in
C
Chapter 1), to solve when he was just 10 years old. He was asked to find the sum of
the positive integers from 1 to 100. He immediately replied that the sum is 5050. Can
you guess how did he do? He wrote :
no N
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 99 + 100
And then, reversed the numbers to write
S = 100 + 99 + . . . + 3 + 2 + 1
©
We will now use the same technique to find the sum of the first n terms of an AP :
a, a + d, a + 2d, . . .
The nth term of this AP is a + (n – 1) d. Let S denote the sum of the first n terms
of the AP. We have
d
S = a + (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) + . . . + [a + (n – 1) d ] (1)
he
Rewriting the terms in reverse order, we have
S = [a + (n – 1) d ] + [a + (n – 2) d ] + . . . + (a + d ) + a (2)
On adding (1) and (2), term-wise. we get
is
2S =
n times
bl
or, 2S = n [2a + (n – 1) d ] (Since, there are n terms)
n
or, S= [2a + (n – 1) d ]
pu
2
So, the sum of the first n terms of an AP is given by
be T
n
S= [2a + (n – 1) d ]
2
re
o R
n
We can also write this as S= [a + a + (n – 1) d ]
2
tt E
n
i.e., S= (a + a n ) (3)
2
C
Now, if there are only n terms in an AP, then a n = l, the last term.
From (3), we see that
n
no N
S= (a + l ) (4)
2
This form of the result is useful when the first and the last terms of an AP are
given and the common difference is not given.
©
Now we return to the question that was posed to us in the beginning. The amount
of money (in Rs) in the money box of Shakila’s daughter on 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th birthday,
. . ., were 100, 150, 200, 250, . . ., respectively.
This is an AP. We have to find the total money collected on her 21st birthday, i.e.,
the sum of the first 21 terms of this AP.
d
21 21
we have S= [2 ×100 + (21 − 1) × 50] = [ 200 + 1000]
2 2
he
21
= × 1200 = 12600
2
So, the amount of money collected on her 21st birthday is Rs 12600.
is
Hasn’t the use of the formula made it much easier to solve the problem?
We also use Sn in place of S to denote the sum of first n terms of the AP. We
bl
write S20 to denote the sum of the first 20 terms of an AP. The formula for the sum of
the first n terms involves four quantities S, a, d and n. If we know any three of them,
we can find the fourth.
pu
Remark : The nth term of an AP is the difference of the sum to first n terms and the
sum to first (n – 1) terms of it, i.e., a n = Sn – Sn – 1.
be T
n
S = [ 2a + (n − 1) d ]
2
C
22
Therefore, S = [16 + 21 (−5)] = 11(16 – 105) = 11(–89) = – 979
2
So, the sum of the first 22 terms of the AP is – 979.
no N
Example 12 : If the sum of the first 14 terms of an AP is 1050 and its first term is 10,
find the 20th term.
©
d
Example 13 : How many terms of the AP : 24, 21, 18, . . . must be taken so that their
sum is 78?
he
Solution : Here, a = 24, d = 21 – 24 = –3, Sn = 78. We need to find n.
n
We know that Sn = [ 2a + (n − 1)d ]
2
n n
78 = [ 48 + (n −1)(−3)] = [51− 3n]
is
So,
2 2
or 3n 2 – 51n + 156 = 0
bl
or n 2 – 17n + 52 = 0
or (n – 4)(n – 13) = 0
pu
or n = 4 or 13
Both values of n are admissible. So, the number of terms is either 4 or 13.
be T
Remarks :
re
1. In this case, the sum of the first 4 terms = the sum of the first 13 terms = 78.
o R
2. Two answers are possible because the sum of the terms from 5th to 13th will be
zero. This is because a is positive and d is negative, so that some terms will be
tt E
positive and some others negative, and will cancel out each other.
(i) the first 1000 positive integers (ii) the first n positive integers
Solution :
no N
n (1 + n) n (n + 1)
Therefore, Sn = or Sn =
2 2
So, the sum of first n positive integers is given by
d
n(n + 1)
Sn =
2
he
Example 15 : Find the sum of first 24 terms of the list of numbers whose nth term is
given by
a n = 3 + 2n
is
Solution :
As an = 3 + 2n,
bl
so, a1 = 3 + 2 = 5
a2 = 3 + 2 × 2 = 7
pu a3 = 3 + 2 × 3 = 9
#
be T
24
Therefore, S24 = [ 2 × 5 + (24 − 1) × 2] = 12 [10 + 46] = 672
2
C
sets in the seventh year. Assuming that the production increases uniformly by a fixed
number every year, find :
(i) the production in the 1st year (ii) the production in the 10th year
©
or, a + 2d = 600
and a + 6d = 700
Solving these equations, we get d = 25 and a = 550.
d
Therefore, production of TV sets in the first year is 550.
(ii) Now a 10 = a + 9d = 550 + 9 × 25 = 775
he
So, production of TV sets in the 10th year is 775.
7
(iii) Also, S7 = [2 × 550 + (7 − 1) × 25]
2
is
7
= [1100 + 150 ] = 4375
2
bl
Thus, the total production of TV sets in first 7 years is 4375.
pu
EXERCISE 5.3
1. Find the sum of the following APs:
be T
(iv) 1 , 1 , 1 , . . ., to 11 terms.
re
(iii) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, . . ., to 100 terms.
o R
15 12 10
2. Find the sums given below :
1
(i) 7 + 10 + 14 + . . . + 84 (ii) 34 + 32 + 30 + . . . + 10
tt E
2
(iii) –5 + (–8) + (–11) + . . . + (–230)
C
3. In an AP:
(i) given a = 5, d = 3, an = 50, find n and Sn.
(ii) given a = 7, a13 = 35, find d and S13.
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4. How many terms of the AP : 9, 17, 25, . . . must be taken to give a sum of 636?
5. The first term of an AP is 5, the last term is 45 and the sum is 400. Find the number of terms
and the common difference.
6. The first and the last terms of an AP are 17 and 350 respectively. If the common difference
d
is 9, how many terms are there and what is their sum?
7. Find the sum of first 22 terms of an AP in which d = 7 and 22nd term is 149.
he
8. Find the sum of first 51 terms of an AP whose second and third terms are 14 and 18
respectively.
9. If the sum of first 7 terms of an AP is 49 and that of 17 terms is 289, find the sum of
first n terms.
is
10. Show that a1, a2, . . ., an, . . . form an AP where an is defined as below :
(i) an = 3 + 4n (ii) an = 9 – 5n
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Also find the sum of the first 15 terms in each case.
11. If the sum of the first n terms of an AP is 4n – n2, what is the first term (that is S1)? What
is the sum of first two terms? What is the second term? Similarly, find the 3rd, the 10th and
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the nth terms.
12. Find the sum of the first 40 positive integers divisible by 6.
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15. A contract on construction job specifies a penalty for delay of completion beyond a
certain date as follows: Rs 200 for the first day, Rs 250 for the second day, Rs 300 for the
third day, etc., the penalty for each succeeding day being Rs 50 more than for the
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preceding day. How much money the contractor has to pay as penalty, if he has delayed
the work by 30 days?
16. A sum of Rs 700 is to be used to give seven cash prizes to students of a school for their
C
overall academic performance. If each prize is Rs 20 less than its preceding prize, find the
value of each of the prizes.
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17. In a school, students thought of planting trees in and around the school to reduce air
pollution. It was decided that the number of trees, that each section of each class will
plant, will be the same as the class, in which they are studying, e.g., a section of Class I
will plant 1 tree, a section of Class II will plant 2 trees and so on till Class XII. There are
©
three sections of each class. How many trees will be planted by the students?
18. A spiral is made up of successive semicircles, with centres alternately at A and B,
starting with centre a t A, of radii 0.5 cm, 1.0 cm, 1.5 cm, 2.0 cm, . . . as shown in
Fig. 5.4. What is the total length of such a spiral made up of thirteen consecutive
22
semicircles? (Take π = )
7
d
he
Fig. 5.4
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[Hint : Length of successive semicircles is l1, l2, l3, l4, . . . with centres at A, B, A, B, . . .,
respectively.]
bl
19. 200 logs are stacked in the following manner: 20 logs in the bottom row, 19 in the next row,
18 in the row next to it and so on (see Fig. 5.5). In how many rows are the 200 logs placed
and how many logs are in the top row?
pu
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Fig. 5.5
20. In a potato race, a bucket is placed at the starting point, which is 5 m from the first potato,
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and the other potatoes are placed 3 m apart in a straight line. There are ten potatoes in the
line (see Fig. 5.6).
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Fig. 5.6
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A competitor starts from the bucket, picks up the nearest potato, runs back with it, drops
it in the bucket, runs back to pick up the next potato, runs to the bucket to drop it in, and
she continues in the same way until all the potatoes are in the bucket. What is the total
distance the competitor has to run?
[Hint : To pick up the first potato and the second potato, the total distance (in metres)
run by a competitor is 2 × 5 + 2 × (5 + 3)]
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2. The sum of the third and the seventh terms
of an AP is 6 and their product is 8. Find
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the sum of first sixteen terms of the AP.
3. A ladder has rungs 25 cm apart.
(see Fig. 5.7). The rungs decrease
uniformly in length from 45 cm at the
is
bottom to 25 cm at the top. If the top and
1
the bottom rungs are 2 m apart, what is
2
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the length of the wood required for the
rungs?
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[Hint : Number of rungs = 250 + 1 ] Fig. 5.7
25
4. The houses of a row are numbered consecutively from 1 to 49. Show that there is a value
be T
of x such that the sum of the numbers of the houses preceding the house numbered x is
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equal to the sum of the numbers of the houses following it. Find this value of x.
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[Hint : S x – 1 = S49 – S x]
5. A small terrace at a football ground comprises of 15 steps each of which is 50 m long and
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Fig. 5.8
* These exercises are not from the examination point of view.
5.5 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. An arithmetic progression (AP) is a list of numbers in which each term is obtained by
adding a fixed number d to the preceding term, except the first term. The fixed number d
d
is called the common difference.
The general form of an AP is a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
he
2. A given list of numbers a1, a2, a3, . . . is an AP, if the differences a2 – a1, a3 – a 2,
a4 – a3, . . ., give the same value, i.e., if ak + 1 – ak is the same for different values of k.
3. In an AP with first term a and common difference d, the nth term (or the general term) is
given by an = a + (n – 1) d.
is
4. The sum of the first n terms of an AP is given by :
n
[ 2a + ( n − 1) d ]
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S=
2
5. If l is the last term of the finite AP, say the nth term, then the sum of all terms of the AP
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is given by :
n
S= ( a + l)
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2
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a+c
If a, b, c are in AP, then b = and b is called the arithmetic
2
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mean of a and c.
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d
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TRIANGLES 6
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6.1 Introduction
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You are familiar with triangles and many of their properties from your earlier classes.
In Class IX, you have studied congruence of triangles in detail. Recall that two figures
are said to be congruent, if they have the same shape and the same size. In this
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chapter, we shall study about those figures which have the same shape but not necessarily
the same size. Two figures having the same shape (and not necessarily the same size)
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are called similar figures. In particular, we shall discuss the similarity of triangles and
apply this knowledge in giving a simple proof of Pythagoras Theorem learnt earlier.
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Can you guess how heights of mountains (say Mount Everest) or distances of
some long distant objects (say moon) have been found out? Do you think these have
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C
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been measured directly with the help of a measuring tape? In fact, all these heights
and distances have been found out using the idea of indirect measurements, which is
based on the principle of similarity of figures (see Example 7, Q.15 of Exercise 6.3
and also Chapters 8 and 9 of this book).
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6.2 Similar Figures
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In Class IX, you have seen that all circles with the same radii are congruent, all
squares with the same side lengths are congruent and all equilateral triangles with the
same side lengths are congruent.
Now consider any two (or more)
is
circles [see Fig. 6.1 (i)]. Are they
congruent? Since all of them do not
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have the same radius, they are not
congruent to each other. Note that
some are congruent and some are not,
pu
but all of them have the same shape.
So they all are, what we call, similar.
Two similar figures have the same
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What can you say about the two quadrilaterals ABCD and PQRS
(see Fig 6.2)?Are they similar? These figures appear to be similar but we cannot be
certain about it.Therefore, we must have some definition of similarity of figures and
based on this definition some rules to decide whether the two given figures are similar
d
or not. For this, let us look at the photographs given in Fig. 6.3:
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is
Fig. 6.3
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You will at once say that they are the photographs of the same monument
(Taj Mahal) but are in different sizes. Would you say that the three photographs are
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similar? Yes,they are.
What can you say about the two photographs of the same size of the same
person one at the age of 10 years and the other at the age of 40 years? Are these
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photographs similar? These photographs are of the same size but certainly they are
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not of the same shape. So, they are not similar.
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What does the photographer do when she prints photographs of different sizes
from the same negative? You must have heard about the stamp size, passport size and
postcard size photographs. She generally takes a photograph on a small size film, say
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of 35mm size and then enlarges it into a bigger size, say 45mm (or 55mm). Thus, if we
consider any line segment in the smaller photograph (figure), its corresponding line
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45 ⎛ 55 ⎞
segment in the bigger photograph (figure) will be ⎜ or ⎟ of that of the line segment.
35 ⎝ 35 ⎠
This really means that every line segment of the smaller photograph is enlarged
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(increased) in the ratio 35:45 (or 35:55). It can also be said that every line segment
of the bigger photograph is reduced (decreased) in the ratio 45:35 (or 55:35). Further,
if you consider inclinations (or angles) between any pair of corresponding line segments
©
in the two photographs of different sizes, you shall see that these inclinations(or angles)
are always equal. This is the essence of the similarity of two figures and in particular
of two polygons. We say that:
Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (i) their
corresponding angles are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the
same ratio (or proportion).
Note that the same ratio of the corresponding sides is referred to as the scale
factor (or the Representative Fraction) for the polygons. You must have heard that
world maps (i.e., global maps) and blue prints for the construction of a building are
prepared using a suitable scale factor and observing certain conventions.
d
In order to understand similarity of figures more clearly, let us perform the following
activity:
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Activity 1 : Place a lighted bulb at a
point O on the ceiling and directly below
it a table in your classroom. Let us cut a
polygon, say a quadrilateral ABCD, from
is
a plane cardboard and place this
cardboard parallel to the ground between
the lighted bulb and the table. Then a
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shadow of ABCD is cast on the table.
Mark the outline of this shadow as
A′B′C′D′ (see Fig.6.4).
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Note that the quadrilateral A′B′C′D′ is
an enlargement (or magnification) of the
be T
Fig. 6.4
A′ lies on ray OA, B′ lies on ray OB, C′
lies on OC and D′ lies on OD. Thus, quadrilaterals A′B′C′D′ and ABCD are of the
same shape but of different sizes.
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Here, you can also note that vertex A′ corresponds to vertex A, vertex B′
corresponds to vertex B, vertex C′ corresponds to vertex C and vertex D′ corresponds
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AB BC CD DA .
(ii) = = =
A′ B′ B′C ′ C′ D′ D′ A′
This again emphasises that two polygons of the same number of sides are
similar, if (i) all the corresponding angles are equal and (ii) all the corresponding
sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
From the above, you can easily say that quadrilaterals ABCD and PQRS of
Fig. 6.5 are similar.
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he
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Fig. 6.5
bl
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Remark : You can verify that if one polygon is similar to another polygon and this
second polygon is similar to a third polygon, then the first polygon is similar to the third
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polygon.
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You may note that in the two quadrilaterals (a square and a rectangle) of
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Fig. 6.6, corresponding angles are equal, but their corresponding sides are not in the
same ratio.
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C
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Fig. 6.6
So, the two quadrilaterals are not similar. Similarly, you may note that in the two
quadrilaterals (a square and a rhombus) of Fig. 6.7, corresponding sides are in the
same ratio, but their corresponding angles are not equal. Again, the two polygons
(quadrilaterals) are not similar.
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Fig. 6.7
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Thus, either of the above two conditions (i) and (ii) of similarity of two
polygons is not sufficient for them to be similar.
EXERCISE 6.1
bl
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1. Fill in the blanks using the correct word given in brackets :
(i) All circles are . (congruent, similar)
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(iv) Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (a) their corresponding
angles are and (b) their corresponding sides are . (equal,
proportional)
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Fig. 6.8
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Two triangles are similiar, if
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(i) their corresponding angles are equal and
(ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
Note that if corresponding angles of two
triangles are equal, then they are known as
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equiangular triangles. A famous Greek
mathematician Thales gave an important truth relating
to two equiangular triangles which is as follows:
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The ratio of any two corresponding sides in
two equiangular triangles is always the same.
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It is believed that he had used a result called
the Basic Proportionality Theorem (now known as
the Thales Theorem) for the same. Thales
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Fig. 6.9
AD 3
your constructions that = ? Measure AE and
DB 2
AE AE 3
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EC. What about ? Observe that is also equal to . Thus, you can see that
EC EC 2
AD AE
in Δ ABC, DE || BC and = . Is it a coincidence? No, it is due to the following
DB EC
theorem (known as the Basic Proportionality Theorem):
Theorem 6.1 : If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the
other two sides in distinct points, the other two sides are divided in the same
ratio.
Proof : We are given a triangle ABC in which a line
d
parallel to side BC intersects other two sides AB and
AC at D and E respectively (see Fig. 6.10).
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AD AE
We need to prove that = .
DB EC
Let us join BE and CD and then draw DM ⊥ AC and
is
EN ⊥ AB. Fig. 6.10
1 1
Now, area of Δ ADE (= base × height) = AD × EN.
bl
2 2
Recall from Class IX, that area of Δ ADE is denoted as ar(ADE).
pu
1
So, ar(ADE) = AD × EN
2
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1
Similarly, ar(BDE) = DB × EN,
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2
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1 1
ar(ADE) = AE × DM and ar(DEC) = EC × DM.
2 2
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1
ar(ADE) AD × EN
C
2 AD
Therefore, = = (1)
a r(BDE ) 1
DB × EN DB
2
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1
AE × DM
ar(ADE ) 2 AE
and = = (2)
ar(DEC) 1
EC × DM EC
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2
Note that Δ BDE and DEC are on the same base DE and between the same parallels
BC and DE.
So, ar(BDE) = ar(DEC) (3)
AD AE
=
DB EC
d
Is the converse of this theorem also true (For the meaning of converse, see
Appendix 1)? To examine this, let us perform the following activity:
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Activity 3 : Draw an angle XAY on your
notebook and on ray AX, mark points B1 , B2 ,
B3 , B4 and B such that AB 1 = B1B2 = B2 B3 =
B3 B4 = B4B.
is
Similarly, on ray AY, mark points
C1 , C2, C3, C4 and C such that AC 1 = C1 C2 =
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C2 C3 = C3 C4 = C4 C. Then join B1C 1 and BC
(see Fig. 6.11).
Fig. 6.11
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AB1 AC1 1
Note that = (Each equal to )
B1 B C1 C 4
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You can also see that lines B1C 1 and BC are parallel to each other, i.e.,
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B1C 1 || BC (1)
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Similarly, by joining B2C2, B3C 3 and B4 C4, you can see that:
AB2 AC2 ⎛ 2 ⎞
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AB3 AC3 ⎛ 3 ⎞
= ⎜ = ⎟ and B 3C3 || BC (3)
B3 B C 3C ⎝ 2 ⎠
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AB4 AC4 ⎛ 4 ⎞
= ⎜ = ⎟ and B4C 4 || BC (4)
B 4B C 4C ⎝ 1 ⎠
From (1), (2), (3) and (4), it can be observed that if a line divides two sides of a
©
triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the third side.
You can repeat this activity by drawing any angle XAY of different measure and
taking any number of equal parts on arms AX and AY . Each time, you will arrive at
the same result. Thus, we obtain the following theorem, which is the converse of
Theorem 6.1:
d
AD AE
that = and assuming that DE is not parallel
DB EC
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to BC (see Fig. 6.12).
If DE is not parallel to BC, draw a line DE′
parallel to BC. Fig. 6.12
is
AD AE′
So, = (Why ?)
DB E′C
bl
AE AE′
Therefore, = (Why ?)
EC E′C
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Adding 1 to both sides of above, you can see that E and E′ must coincide.
(Why ?)
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Let us take some examples to illustrate the use of the above theorems.
AD AE
and is parallel to BC, prove that = (see Fig. 6.13).
AB AC
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Solution : DE || BC (Given)
AD AE
C
or, =
AD AE
DB EC
or, +1 = +1
AD AE
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AB AC
or, =
AD AE
AD AE
So, =
AB AC Fig. 6.13
d
(see Fig. 6.14). Show that .
ED FC
Solution : Let us join AC to intersect EF at G
he
(see Fig. 6.15). Fig. 6.14
AB || DC and EF || AB (Given)
So, EF || DC (Lines parallel to the same line are
is
parallel to each other)
Now, in Δ ADC,
bl
EG || DC (As EF || DC)
AE AG
So, = (Theorem 6.1) (1)
ED
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Similarly, from Δ CAB,
Fig. 6.15
be T
CG CF
=
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AG BF
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AG BF
i.e., = (2)
GC FC
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=
ED FC
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PS PT
Example 3 : In Fig. 6.16, = and ∠ PST =
SQ TR
∠ PRQ. Prove that PQR is an isosceles triangle.
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PS PT
Solution : It is given that = ⋅ Fig. 6.16
SQ TR
So, ST || QR (Theorem 6.2)
Therefore, ∠ PST = ∠ PQR (Corresponding angles) (1)
d
Therefore, PQ = PR (Sides opposite the equal angles)
i.e., PQR is an isosceles triangle.
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EXERCISE 6.2
1. In Fig. 6.17, (i) and (ii), DE || BC. Find EC in (i) and AD in (ii).
is
bl
pu
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Fig. 6.17
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d
Show that BC || QR.
7. Using Theorem 6.1, prove that a line drawn through
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the mid-point of one side of a triangle parallel to
another side bisects the third side. (Recall that you Fig. 6.20
have proved it in Class IX).
8. Using Theorem 6.2, prove that the line joining the
mid-points of any two sides of a triangle is parallel
is
to the third side. (Recall that you have done it in
Class IX).
9. ABCD is a trapezium in which AB || DC and its
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diagonals intersect each other at the point O. Show
AO CO
that = ⋅ Fig. 6.21
pu
BO DO
10. The diagonals of a quadrilateral ABCD intersect each other at the point O such that
be T
AO CO
= ⋅ Show that ABCD is a trapezium.
BO DO
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angles are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
That is, in Δ ABC and Δ DEF, if
C
(i) ∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ E, ∠ C = ∠ F and
AB BC CA ,
= =
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(ii) then the two triangles are similar (see Fig. 6.22).
DE EF FD
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Fig. 6.22
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‘is congruent to’ in Class IX.
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It must be noted that as done in the case of congruency of two triangles, the
similarity of two triangles should also be expressed symbolically, using correct
correspondence of their vertices. For example, for the triangles ABC and DEF of
Fig. 6.22, we cannot write Δ ABC ~ Δ EDF or Δ ABC ~ Δ FED. However, we
can write Δ BAC ~ Δ EDF.
is
Now a natural question arises : For checking the similarity of two triangles, say
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ABC and DEF, should we always look for all the equality relations of their corresponding
angles (∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ E, ∠ C = ∠ F) and all the equality relations of the ratios
⎛ AB BC CA ⎞
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of their corresponding sides ⎜ = = ⎟ ? Let us examine. You may recall that
⎝ DE EF FD ⎠
in Class IX, you have obtained some criteria for congruency of two triangles involving
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only three pairs of corresponding parts (or elements) of the two triangles. Here also,
let us make an attempt to arrive at certain criteria for similarity of two triangles involving
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relationship between less number of pairs of corresponding parts of the two triangles,
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instead of all the six pairs of corresponding parts. For this, let us perform the following
activity:
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Activity 4 : Draw two line segments BC and EF of two different lengths, say 3 cm
and 5 cm respectively. Then, at the points B and C respectively, construct angles PBC
C
and QCB of some measures, say, 60° and 40°. Also, at the points E and F, construct
angles REF and SFE of 60° and 40° respectively (see Fig. 6.23).
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Fig. 6.23
Let rays BP and CQ intersect each other at A and rays ER and FS intersect
each other at D. In the two triangles ABC and DEF, you can see that
∠ B = ∠ E, ∠ C = ∠ F and ∠ A = ∠ D. That is, corresponding angles of these two
triangles are equal. What can you say about their corresponding sides ? Note that
d
BC 3 AB CA
= = 0.6. What about and ? On measuring AB, DE, CA and FD, you
EF 5 DE FD
AB CA
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will find that and are also equal to 0.6 (or nearly equal to 0.6, if there is some
DE FD
AB BC CA
error in the measurement). Thus, = = ⋅ You can repeat this activity by
DE EF FD
constructing several pairs of triangles having their corresponding angles equal. Every
is
time, you will find that their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
This activity leads us to the following criterion for similarity of two triangles.
Theorem 6.3 : If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then their
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corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion) and hence the two
triangles are similar.
pu
This criterion is referred to as the AAA
(Angle–Angle–Angle) criterion of
similarity of two triangles.
be T
∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ E and ∠ C = ∠ F
(see Fig. 6.24) Fig. 6.24
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This gives
DP DQ
Therefore, = (Why?)
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PE QF
AB AC
i.e., = (Why?)
DE DF
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AB BC AB BC AC
Similarly, = and so = = .
DE EF DE EF DF
Remark : If two angles of a triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another
triangle, then by the angle sum property of a triangle their third angles will also be
equal. Therefore, AAA similarity criterion can also be stated as follows:
If two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another
triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
This may be referred to as the AA similarity criterion for two triangles.
You have seen above that if the three angles of one triangle are respectively
d
equal to the three angles of another triangle, then their corresponding sides are
proportional (i.e., in the same ratio). What about the converse of this statement? Is the
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converse true? In other words, if the sides of a triangle are respectively proportional to
the sides of another triangle, is it true that their corresponding angles are equal? Let us
examine it through an activity :
is
Activity 5 : Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB = 3 cm, BC = 6 cm,
CA = 8 cm, DE = 4.5 cm, EF = 9 cm and FD = 12 cm (see Fig. 6.25).
bl
pu
be T
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Fig. 6.25
o R
AB BC CA 2
So, you have : = = (each equal to )
DE EF FD 3
tt E
You can repeat this activity by drawing several such triangles (having their sides
in the same ratio). Everytime you shall see that their corresponding angles are equal.
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angles are equal and hence the two triangles are similiar.
This criterion is referred to as the SSS (Side–Side–Side) similarity criterion for
two triangles.
This theorem can be proved by taking two triangles ABC and DEF such that
AB BC CA
= = (< 1) (see Fig. 6.26):
DE EF FD
d
he
Fig. 6.26
is
Cut DP = AB and DQ = AC and join PQ.
DP DQ
bl
It can be seen that = and PQ || EF (How?)
PE QF
So, ∠P=∠ E and ∠ Q = ∠ F.
pu
DP DQ PQ
Therefore, = =
DE DF EF
be T
DP DQ BC
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So, = = (Why?)
DE DF EF
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So, BC = PQ (Why?)
Δ ABC ≅ Δ DPQ
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Thus, (Why ?)
So, ∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ E and ∠C=∠ F (How ?)
C
Remark : You may recall that either of the two conditions namely, (i) corresponding
angles are equal and (ii) corresponding sides are in the same ratio is not sufficient for
two polygons to be similar. However, on the basis of Theorems 6.3 and 6.4, you can
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now say that in case of similarity of the two triangles, it is not necessary to check both
the conditions as one condition implies the other.
Let us now recall the various criteria for congruency of two triangles learnt in
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Class IX. You may observe that SSS similarity criterion can be compared with the SSS
congruency criterion.This suggests us to look for a similarity criterion comparable to
SAS congruency criterion of triangles. For this, let us perform an activity.
Activity 6 : Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB = 2 cm, ∠ A = 50°,
AC = 4 cm, DE = 3 cm, ∠ D = 50° and DF = 6 cm (see Fig.6.27).
d
he
Fig. 6.27
AB AC 2
(each equal to ) and ∠ A (included
is
Here, you may observe that =
DE DF 3
between the sides AB and AC) = ∠ D (included between the sides DE and DF). That
is, one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and sides including
bl
these angles are in the same ratio (i.e., proportion). Now let us measure ∠ B, ∠ C,
∠ E and ∠ F.
You will find that ∠ B = ∠ E and ∠ C = ∠ F. That is, ∠ A = ∠ D, ∠ B = ∠ E and
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∠ C = ∠ F. So, by AAA similarity criterion, Δ ABC ~ Δ DEF. You may repeat this
activity by drawing several pairs of such triangles with one angle of a triangle equal to
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one angle of another triangle and the sides including these angles are proportional.
Everytime, you will find that the triangles are similar. It is due to the following criterion
re
o R
of similarity of triangles:
Theorem 6.5 : If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of the other
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triangle and the sides including these angles are proportional, then the two
triangles are similar.
This criterion is referred to as
C
AB AC
= (< 1) and ∠ A = ∠ D
DE DF
(see Fig. 6.28). Cut DP = AB, DQ Fig. 6.28
= AC and join PQ.
d
We now take some examples to illustrate the use of these criteria.
he
is
Fig. 6.29
bl
pu
Solution : PQ || RS (Given)
So, ∠P= ∠S (Alternate angles)
be T
and ∠Q= ∠R
re
Also, ∠ POQ = ∠ SOR (Vertically opposite angles)
o R
Fig. 6.30
Solution : In Δ ABC and Δ PQR,
AB 3.8 1 , BC 6 1 CA 3 3 1
= = = = and = =
RQ 7.6 2 QP 12 2 PR 6 3 2
AB BC CA
d
That is, = =
RQ QP PR
he
So, Δ ABC ~ Δ RQP (SSS similarity)
is
= 180° – 80° – 60° = 40°
So, ∠ P = 40°
bl
Example 6 : In Fig. 6.31,
OA . OB = OC . OD.
pu
Show that ∠ A = ∠ C and ∠ B = ∠ D.
Solution : OA . OB = OC . OD (Given)
be T
OA OD Fig. 6.31
So, = (1)
re
OC OB
o R
So, ∠ A = ∠ C and ∠ D = ∠ B
(Corresponding angles of similar triangles)
C
d
vertical to the ground)
and ∠E= ∠ E (Same angle)
he
So, Δ ABE ~ Δ CDE (AA similarity criterion)
BE AB
Therefore, =
DE CD
is
4.8 + x 3.6 90
i.e., = (90 cm = m = 0.9 m)
bl
x 0.9 100
i.e., 4.8 + x = 4x
i.e., 3x = 4.8
pu
i.e., x = 1.6
So, the shadow of the girl after walking for 4 seconds is 1.6 m long.
be T
CM AB
(ii) =
RN PQ
C
AB BC CA
So, = = (1)
PQ QR RP
©
AM CA
i.e., = (3)
PN RP
Also, ∠ MAC = ∠ NPR [From (2)] (4)
d
So, from (3) and (4),
Δ AMC ~ Δ PNR (SAS similarity) (5)
he
CM CA
(ii) From (5), = (6)
RN RP
CA AB
is
But = [From (1)] (7)
RP PQ
CM AB
bl
Therefore, = [From (6) and (7)] (8)
RN PQ
AB BC
pu
(iii) Again, = [From (1)]
PQ QR
CM BC
be T
CM AB 2 BM
Also, = =
RN PQ 2 QN
tt E
CM BM
i.e., = (10)
RN QN
C
CM BC BM
i.e., = = [From (9) and (10)]
RN QR QN
no N
EXERCISE 6.3
1. State which pairs of triangles in Fig. 6.34 are similar. Write the similarity criterion used by
you for answering the question and also write the pairs of similar triangles in the symbolic
form :
d
he
is
bl
pu
be T
re
o R
tt E
Fig. 6.34
C
∠ OAB.
OA OB
triangles, show that = ⋅
OC OD
QR QT
4. In Fig. 6.36, = and ∠ 1 = ∠ 2. Show
QS PR
that Δ PQS ~ Δ TQR.
d
5. S and T are points on sides PR and QR of
Δ PQR such that ∠ P = ∠ RTS. Show that
Δ RPQ ~ Δ RTS.
he
Fig. 6.36
is
7. In Fig. 6.38, altitudes AD and CE of Δ ABC
intersect each other at the point P. Show
that:
bl
(i) Δ AEP ~ Δ CDP
(ii) Δ ABD ~ Δ CBE
pu
(iii) Δ AEP ~ Δ ADB
(iv) Δ PDC ~ Δ BEC Fig. 6.37
be T
CA BC Fig. 6.38
(ii) =
PA MP
no N
CD AC
(i) =
GH FG
(ii) Δ DCB ~ Δ HGE
(iii) Δ DCA ~ Δ HGF Fig. 6.39
d
12. Sides AB and BC and median AD of a
triangle ABC are respectively propor-
tional to sides PQ and QR and median
he
PM of Δ PQR (see Fig. 6.41). Show that Fig. 6.40
Δ ABC ~ Δ PQR.
13. D is a point on the side BC of a triangle
ABC such that ∠ ADC = ∠ BAC. Show
is
that CA2 = CB.CD.
14. Sides AB and AC and median AD of a
triangle ABC are respectively
bl
proportional to sides PQ and PR and
median PM of another triangle PQR. Fig. 6.41
Show that Δ ABC ~ Δ PQR.
pu
15. A vertical pole of length 6 m casts a shadow 4 m long on the ground and at the same time
a tower casts a shadow 28 m long. Find the height of the tower.
be T
16. If AD and PM are medians of triangles ABC and PQR, respectively where
AB AD
Δ ABC ~ Δ PQR, prove that PQ = PM ⋅
re
o R
You have learnt that in two similar triangles, the ratio of their corresponding sides is
the same. Do you think there is any relationship between the ratio of their areas and
C
the ratio of the corresponding sides? You know that area is measured in square units.
So, you may expect that this ratio is the square of the ratio of their corresponding
sides. This is indeed true and we shall prove it in the next theorem.
no N
2 2 2
ar (ABC) ⎛ AB ⎞ ⎛ BC ⎞ ⎛ CA ⎞
= =⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ RP ⎟ ⋅
ar (PQR) ⎜⎝ PQ ⎟⎠
We need to prove that
⎝ QR ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
For finding the areas of the two triangles, we draw altitudes AM and PN of the
d
triangles.
1
he
Now, ar (ABC) = BC × AM
2
1
and ar (PQR) = QR × PN
2
is
1
ar (ABC) × BC × AM BC × AM
So, 2
= 1 = (1)
ar (PQR) QR × PN
× QR × PN
bl
2
Now, in Δ ABM and Δ PQN,
pu
∠B= ∠ Q (As Δ ABC ~ Δ PQR)
and ∠M= ∠ N (Each is of 90°)
be T
Therefore, = PQ (2)
PN
Also, Δ ABC ~ Δ PQR (Given)
tt E
AB BC CA
So, = = (3)
PQ QR RP
C
ar (ABC) AB AM
Therefore, = × [From (1) and (3)]
ar (PQR) PQ PN
no N
AB AB
= × [From (2)]
PQ PQ
2
⎛ AB ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
©
⎝ PQ ⎠
Now using (3), we get
2 2 2
ar (ABC) ⎛ AB ⎞ ⎛ BC ⎞ ⎛ CA ⎞
= =
ar (PQR) = ⎜⎝ PQ ⎟⎠ ⎜ QR ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎜ RP ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Let us take an example to illustrate the use of this theorem.
d
AX
areas. Find the ratio ⋅
AB
he
Fig. 6.43
Solution : We have XY || AC (Given)
∠ BXY = ∠ A and ∠ BYX = ∠ C
is
So, (Corresponding angles)
Therefore, Δ ABC ~ Δ XBY (AA similarity criterion)
bl
2
ar (ABC) ⎛ AB ⎞
So, ar (XBY) = ⎜⎝ XB ⎟⎠ (Theorem 6.6) (1)
pu
Also, ar (ABC) = 2 ar (XBY) (Given)
ar (ABC) 2
So, ar (XBY) = 1 (2)
be T
2
⎛ AB ⎞ 2 AB 2
⎜ ⎟ = , i.e., XB = 1
⎝ XB ⎠ 1
tt E
XB 1
or, =
AB 2
C
XB 1
or, 1– = 1–
AB 2
no N
AB – XB 2 −1 AX 2 −1 2− 2
or, = , i.e., = = .
AB 2 AB 2 2
©
EXERCISE 6.4
1. Let Δ ABC ~ Δ DEF and their areas be, respectively, 64 cm2 and 121 cm2. If EF =
15.4 cm, find BC.
2. Diagonals of a trapezium ABCD with AB || DC intersect each other at the point O.
If AB = 2 CD, find the ratio of the areas of triangles AOB and COD.
d
4. If the areas of two similar triangles are equal, prove
he
that they are congruent. Fig. 6.44
5. D, E and F are respectively the mid-points of sides AB, BC and CA of Δ ABC. Find the
ratio of the areas of Δ DEF and Δ ABC.
6. Prove that the ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio
is
of their corresponding medians.
7. Prove that the area of an equilateral triangle described on one side of a square is equal
to half the area of the equilateral triangle described on one of its diagonals.
bl
Tick the correct answer and justify :
8. ABC and BDE are two equilateral triangles such that D is the mid-point of BC. Ratio of
pu
the areas of triangles ABC and BDE is
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 (C) 4 : 1 (D) 1 : 4
9. Sides of two similar triangles are in the ratio 4 : 9. Areas of these triangles are in the ratio
be T
problems. You have also seen a proof of this theorem in Class IX. Now, we shall prove
this theorem using the concept of similarity of
C
Fig. 6.45
You may note that in Δ ADB and Δ ABC
∠ A= ∠ A
and ∠ ADB = ∠ ABC (Why?)
So, Δ ADB ~ Δ ABC (How?) (1)
Similarly, Δ BDC ~ Δ ABC (How?) (2)
So, from (1) and (2), triangles on both sides of the perpendicular BD are similar
to the whole triangle ABC.
Also, since Δ ADB ~ Δ ABC
and Δ BDC ~ Δ ABC
d
So, Δ ADB ~ Δ BDC (From Remark in Section 6.2)
he
The above discussion leads to the following theorem :
is
the perpendicular are similar to the whole triangle
and to each other.
bl
Let us now apply this theorem in proving the
Pythagoras Theorem:
pu
Pythagoras
(569 – 479 B.C.)
be T
Theorem 6.8 : In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the
re
sum of the squares of the other two sides.
o R
AB AC Fig. 6.46
or, AD . AC = AB 2 (1)
Also,
CD BC
So, =
BC AC
or, CD . AC = BC 2 (2)
d
or, AC . AC = AB 2 + BC2
or, AC 2 = AB 2 + BC2
he
The above theorem was earlier given by an ancient Indian mathematician
Baudhayan (about 800 B.C.) in the following form :
The diagonal of a rectangle produces by itself the same area as produced
by its both sides (i.e., length and breadth).
is
For this reason, this theorem is sometimes also referred to as the Baudhayan
Theorem.
bl
What about the converse of the Pythagoras Theorem? You have already verified,
in the earlier classes, that this is also true. We now prove it in the form of a theorem.
pu
Theorem 6.9 : In a triangle, if square of one side is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides, then the angle opposite the first side is a right
angle.
be T
Fig. 6.47
©
d
BC = QR (By construction)
he
AC = PR [Proved in (3) above]
So, Δ ABC ≅ Δ PQR (SSS congruence)
Therefore, ∠B= ∠Q (CPCT)
But ∠Q= 90° (By construction)
is
So, ∠ B = 90°
Note : Also see Appendix 1 for another proof of this theorem.
bl
Let us now take some examples to illustrate the use of these theorems.
Solution :
(Theorem 6.7)
re
o R
AC AD
So, = Fig. 6.48
AB AC
tt E
or, AC 2 = AB . AD (1)
BC BD
So, =
BA BC
no N
2 = AB ⋅ AD AD
AC
Example 11 : A ladder is placed against a wall such that its foot is at a distance
of 2.5 m from the wall and its top reaches a window 6 m above the ground. Find the
length of the ladder.
d
From Pythagoras Theorem, we have:
AB 2 = BC2 + CA 2
he
= (2.5) 2 + (6)2
= 42.25
So, AB = 6.5
is
Thus, length of the ladder is 6.5 m.
bl
Example 12 : In Fig. 6.50, if AD ⊥ BC, prove that Fig. 6.49
AB2 + CD2 = BD2 + AC2.
Solution : From Δ ADC, we have
pu
AC 2 = AD2 + CD2
(Pythagoras Theorem) (1)
be T
AB 2 = AD2 + BD2
o R
2
⎛ AC ⎞
⎟ + AB (L is the mid-point of AC)
2
or, BL = ⎜
2
⎝ 2 ⎠
AC2
d
or, BL2 = + AB 2
4
he
or, 4 BL2 = AC2 + 4 AB 2 (2)
From Δ CMA,
CM2 = AC2 + AM2
is
2
⎛ AB ⎞
or, CM = AC + ⎜
2
⎟ (M is the mid-point of AB)
2
⎝ 2 ⎠
bl
AB2
or, CM2 = AC2 +
4
pu
or 4 CM2 = 4 AC2 + AB2 (3)
Adding (2) and (3), we have
be T
Fig. 6.52
Now, PQ || BC
Therefore, PQ ⊥ AB and PQ ⊥ DC (∠ B = 90° and ∠ C = 90°)
©
d
OC 2 = OQ2 + CQ2 (3)
and from Δ OAP, we have
he
OA2 = AP 2 + OP2 (4)
Adding (1) and (2),
OB 2 + OD2 = BP 2 + OP2 + OQ2 + DQ2
is
= CQ 2 + OP2 + OQ2 + AP2
(As BP = CQ and DQ = AP)
= CQ 2 + OQ2 + OP2 + AP2
bl
= OC 2 + OA2 [From (3) and (4)]
pu
EXERCISE 6.5
1. Sides of triangles are given below. Determine which of them are right triangles.
be T
(i) AB2 = BC . BD
(ii) AC2 = BC . DC
Fig. 6.53
(iii) AD2 = BD . CD
4. ABC is an isosceles triangle right angled at C. Prove that AB2 = 2AC2.
©
5. ABC is an isosceles triangle with AC = BC. If AB2 = 2 AC2, prove that ABC is a right
triangle.
6. ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 2a. Find each of its altitudes.
7. Prove that the sum of the squares of the sides of a rhombus is equal to the sum of the
squares of its diagonals.
d
9. A ladder 10 m long reaches a window 8 m above the
ground. Find the distance of the foot of the ladder
he
from base of the wall.
10. A guy wire attached to a vertical pole of height 18 m
is 24 m long and has a stake attached to the other
Fig. 6.54
end. How far from the base of the pole should the
is
stake be driven so that the wire will be taut?
11. An aeroplane leaves an airport and flies due north at a speed of 1000 km per hour. At the
bl
same time, another aeroplane leaves the same airport and flies due west at a speed of
1
1200 km per hour. How far apart will be the two planes after 1 hours?
2
pu
12. Two poles of heights 6 m and 11 m stand on a
plane ground. If the distance between the feet
of the poles is 12 m, find the distance between
be T
their tops.
re
13. D and E are points on the sides CA and CB
o R
1
15. In an equilateral triangle ABC, D is a point on side BC such that BD = BC. Prove that
3
no N
9 AD2 = 7 AB2.
16. In an equilateral triangle, prove that three times the square of one side is equal to four
times the square of one of its altitudes.
17. Tick the correct answer and justify : In Δ ABC, AB = 6 3 cm, AC = 12 cm and BC = 6 cm.
©
The angle B is :
(A) 120° (B) 60°
(C) 90° (D) 45°
d
he
is
Fig. 6.56 Fig. 6.57
bl
2. In Fig. 6.57, D is a point on hypotenuse AC of Δ ABC, such that BD ⊥ AC, DM ⊥ BC and
DN ⊥ AB. Prove that :
(i) DM2 = DN . MC (ii) DN 2 = DM . AN
pu
3. In Fig. 6.58, ABC is a triangle in which ∠ ABC > 90° and AD ⊥ CB produced. Prove that
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 + 2 BC . BD.
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
(i) AC = AD + BC . DM + ⎜
2 2
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Fig. 6.60
* These exercises are not from examination point of view.
2
⎛ BC ⎞ 1
(ii) AB = AD – BC . DM + ⎜
2 2
⎟ (iii) AC2 + AB2 = 2 AD2 + BC2
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
6. Prove that the sum of the squares of the diagonals of parallelogram is equal to the sum
d
of the squares of its sides.
7. In Fig. 6.61, two chords AB and CD intersect each other at the point P. Prove that :
he
(i) Δ APC ~ Δ DPB (ii) AP . PB = CP . DP
is
bl
pu
Fig. 6.61 Fig. 6.62
8. In Fig. 6.62, two chords AB and CD of a circle intersect each other at the point P
be T
BD AB
such that = ⋅ Prove that AD is the
CD AC
C
bisector of ∠ BAC.
Fig. 6.63
10. Nazima is fly fishing in a stream. The tip of
no N
6.7 Summary
In this chapter you have studied the following points :
1. Two figures having the same shape but not necessarily the same size are called similar
figures.
d
2. All the congruent figures are similar but the converse is not true.
3. Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (i) their corresponding angles
he
are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (i.e., proportion).
4. If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in
distinct points, then the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.
5. If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the
is
third side.
6. If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then their corresponding sides are in
the same ratio and hence the two triangles are similar (AAA similarity criterion).
bl
7. If in two triangles, two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the two angles of
the other triangle, then the two triangles are similar (AA similarity criterion).
8. If in two triangles, corresponding sides are in the same ratio, then their corresponding
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angles are equal and hence the triangles are similar (SSS similarity criterion).
9. If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and the sides including
these angles are in the same ratio (proportional), then the triangles are similar
be T
corresponding sides.
o R
11. If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle to the
hypotenuse, then the triangles on both sides of the perpendicular are similar to the
tt E
13. If in a triangle, square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides, then the angle opposite the first side is a right angle.
no N
d
he
COORDINATE GEOMETRY 7
is
7.1 Introduction
bl
In Class IX, you have studied that to locate the position of a point on a plane, we
require a pair of coordinate axes. The distance of a point from the y-axis is called its
x-coordinate, or abscissa. The distance of a point from the x-axis is called its
pu
y-coordinate, or ordinate. The coordinates of a point on the x-axis are of the form
(x, 0), and of a point on the y-axis are of the form (0, y).
be T
Here is a play for you. Draw a set of a pair of perpendicular axes on a graph
paper. Now plot the following points and join them as directed: Join the point A(4, 8) to
re
o R
Now join S(4, 5), T(4.5, 4) and U(5, 5) to form a triangle. Lastly join S to the points
(0, 5) and (0, 6) and join U to the points (9, 5) and (9, 6). What picture have you got?
C
Also, you have seen that a linear equation in two variables of the form
ax + by + c = 0, (a, b are not simultaneously zero), when represented graphically,
gives a straight line. Further, in Chapter 2, you have seen the graph of
no N
d
the distance from town A to town B without
actually measuring it. Let us see. This situation
he
can be represented graphically as shown in
Fig. 7.1. You may use the Pythagoras Theorem
to calculate this distance.
Now, suppose two points lie on the x-axis. Fig. 7.1
is
Can we find the distance between them? For
instance, consider two points A(4, 0) and B(6, 0)
bl
in Fig. 7.2. The points A and B lie on the x-axis.
From the figure you can see that OA = 4
units and OB = 6 units.
pu
Therefore, the distance of B from A, i.e.,
AB = OB – OA = 6 – 4 = 2 units.
be T
Next, can you find the distance of A from C (in Fig. 7.2)? Since OA = 4 units and
OC = 3 units, the distance of A from C, i.e., AC = 32 + 42 = 5 units. Similarly, you can
no N
In Fig. 7.3, the points P(4, 6) and Q(6, 8) lie in the first quadrant. How do we use
Pythagoras theorem to find the distance between them? Let us draw PR and QS
perpendicular to the x-axis from P and Q respectively. Also, draw a perpendicular
from P on QS to meet QS at T. Then the coordinates of R and S are (4, 0) and (6, 0),
respectively. So, RS = 2 units. Also, QS = 8 units and TS = PR = 6 units.
d
PQ2 = PT2 + QT2
= 22 + 22 = 8
he
So, PQ = 2 2 units
How will we find the distance between two
points in two different quadrants?
is
Consider the points P(6, 4) and Q(–5, –3)
(see Fig. 7.4). Draw QS perpendicular to the
bl
x-axis. Also draw a perpendicular PT from the
Fig. 7.3
point P on QS (extended) to meet y-axis at the
point R.
pu
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
no N
Fig. 7.4
©
d
T (see Fig. 7.5).
Then, OR = x1, OS = x2. So, RS = x2 – x1 = PT.
he
Also, SQ = y2, ST = PR = y1. So, QT = y2 – y1.
Now, applying the Pythagoras theorem in Δ PTQ, we get
PQ2 = PT2 + QT2
Fig. 7.5
is
= (x2 – x1) 2 + (y2 – y1 )2
Therefore, PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2
bl
Note that since distance is always non-negative, we take only the positive square
root. So, the distance between the points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is
pu
PQ = ( x2 – x 1 ) + ( y2 – y1 ) ,
2 2
Remarks :
re
o R
1. In particular, the distance of a point P(x, y) from the origin O(0, 0) is given by
OP = x2 + y 2 .
tt E
Example 1 : Do the points (3, 2), (–2, –3) and (2, 3) form a triangle? If so, name the
type of triangle formed.
Solution : Let us apply the distance formula to find the distances PQ, QR and PR,
no N
where P(3, 2), Q(–2, –3) and R(2, 3) are the given points. We have
PQ = (3 + 2) 2 + (2 + 3) 2 = 5 2 + 5 2 = 50 = 7.07 (approx.)
©
Also, PQ2 + PR2 = QR2, by the converse of Pythagoras theorem, we have ∠ P = 90°.
Therefore, PQR is a right triangle.
Example 2 : Show that the points (1, 7), (4, 2), (–1, –1) and (– 4, 4) are the vertices
d
of a square.
Solution : Let A(1, 7), B(4, 2), C(–1, –1) and D(– 4, 4) be the given points. One way
he
of showing that ABCD is a square is to use the property that all its sides should be
equal and both its digonals should also be equal. Now,
AB = (1 – 4) 2 + (7 − 2)2 = 9 + 25 = 34
BC = (4 + 1) 2 + (2 + 1) 2 = 25 + 9 = 34
is
CD = (–1 + 4) 2 + (–1 – 4) 2 = 9 + 25 = 34
bl
DA = (1 + 4) 2 + (7 – 4) 2 = 25 + 9 = 34
AC = (1 + 1) 2 + (7 + 1)2 = 4 + 64 = 68
pu
BD = (4 + 4) 2 + (2 − 4) 2 = 64 + 4 = 68
be T
is a square.
Example 3 : Fig. 7.6 shows the
arrangement of desks in a
©
AB = (6 − 3) 2 + (4 − 1) 2 = 9 + 9 = 18 = 3 2
BC = (8 – 6) 2 + (6 – 4) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2
d
AC = (8 – 3) 2 + (6 – 1)2 = 25 + 25 = 50 = 5 2
he
Since, AB + BC = 3 2 + 2 2 = 5 2 = AC, we can say that the points A, B and C
are collinear. Therefore, they are seated in a line.
Example 4 : Find a relation between x and y such that the point (x , y) is equidistant
is
from the points (7, 1) and (3, 5).
Solution : Let P(x, y) be equidistant from the points A(7, 1) and B(3, 5).
bl
We are given that AP = BP. So, AP2 = BP2
i.e., (x – 7)2 + (y – 1)2 = (x – 3) 2 + (y – 5) 2
pu
i.e., x2 – 14x + 49 + y2 – 2y + 1 = x2 – 6x + 9 + y2 – 10y + 25
i.e., x– y= 2
be T
d
BP = (– 4 – 0)2 + (3 – 9)2 = 16 + 36 = 52
Note : Using the remark above, we see that (0, 9) is the intersection of the y-axis and
he
the perpendicular bisector of AB.
EXERCISE 7.1
is
1. Find the distance between the following pairs of points :
(i) (2, 3), (4, 1) (ii) (– 5, 7), (– 1, 3) (iii) (a, b), (– a, – b)
2. Find the distance between the points (0, 0) and (36, 15). Can you now find the distance
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between the two towns A and B discussed in Section 7.2.
3. Determine if the points (1, 5), (2, 3) and (– 2, – 11) are collinear.
pu
4. Check whether (5, – 2), (6, 4) and (7, – 2) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
5. In a classroom, 4 friends are
be T
9. If Q(0, 1) is equidistant from P(5, –3) and R(x, 6), find the values of x. Also find the
distances QR and PR.
10. Find a relation between x and y such that the point (x, y) is equidistant from the point
(3, 6) and (– 3, 4).
d
7.3 Section Formula
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Let us recall the situation in Section 7.2.
Suppose a telephone company wants to
position a relay tower at P between A and B
is such a way that the distance of the tower
is
from B is twice its distance from A. If P lies
on AB, it will divide AB in the ratio 1 : 2
(see Fig. 7.9). If we take A as the origin O,
bl
and 1 km as one unit on both the axis, the
coordinates of B will be (36, 15). In order to
know the position of the tower, we must know Fig. 7.9
pu
the coordinates of P. How do we find these
coordinates?
Let the coordinates of P be (x, y). Draw perpendiculars from P and B to the
be T
OD OP 1 PD OP 1
Therefore , = = , and = =
PC PB 2 BC PB 2
tt E
x 1 y 1
So, = and = ⋅
36 − x 2 15 − y 2
C
d
Therefore, = = (1)
BP PC BC
Now, AQ = RS = OS – OR = x – x1
he
PC = ST = OT – OS = x2 – x
PQ = PS – QS = PS – AR = y – y1
BC = BT– CT = BT – PS = y2 – y
is
Substituting these values in (1), we get
m1 x − x1 y − y1
= =
bl
m2 x2 − x y2 − y
m1 x − x1 m1 x2 + m 2 x1
Taking = , we get x =
m2 x2 − x m1 + m2
pu
m1 y − y1 m y + m2 y1
Similarly, taking = , we get y = 1 2
m2 y2 − y m1 + m2
be T
So, the coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining the
re
points A(x1, y1 ) and B(x2, y2 ), internally, in the ratio m1 : m2 are
o R
⎛ m1x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ (2)
⎝ m1 + m2 m1 + m2 ⎠
tt E
⎛ kx2 + x1 , ky2 + y1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⋅
⎝ k +1 k+ 1 ⎠
Special Case : The mid-point of a line segment divides the line segment in the ratio
©
1 : 1. Therefore, the coordinates of the mid-point P of the join of the points A(x1, y1 )
and B(x2, y2 ) is
⎛ 1 ⋅ x1 + 1 ⋅ x2 , 1 ⋅ y1 + 1 ⋅ y2 ⎞ ⎛ x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1+1 1+1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠.
Let us solve a few examples based on the section formula.
Example 6 : Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining
the points (4, – 3) and (8, 5) in the ratio 3 : 1 internally.
Solution : Let P(x, y) be the required point. Using the section formula, we get
d
x= =7, y= =3
3 +1 3+1
he
Therefore, (7, 3) is the required point.
Example 7 : In what ratio does the point (– 4, 6) divide the line segment joining the
points A(– 6, 10) and B(3, – 8)?
is
Solution : Let (– 4, 6) divide AB internally in the ratio m1 : m2 . Using the section
formula, we get
bl
⎛ 3m1 − 6 m2 – 8m1 + 10 m2 ⎞
(– 4, 6) = ⎜ , ⎟ (1)
⎝ m1 + m2 m1 + m2 ⎠
pu
Recall that if (x, y) = (a, b) then x = a and y = b.
3 m1 − 6 m2 − 8m1 + 10 m2
So, –4= and 6 =
be T
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
re
3m1 − 6m2
o R
i.e., m1 : m2 = 2 : 7
You should verify that the ratio satisfies the y-coordinate also.
no N
m1
−8 + 10
−8m1 + 10 m2 m2
Now, = (Dividing throughout by m2 )
m1 + m2 m1
+1
m2
©
2
−8 × + 10
7 =6
= 2
+1
7
Therefore, the point (– 4, 6) divides the line segment joining the points A(– 6, 10) and
B(3, – 8) in the ratio 2 : 7.
m1
Alternatively : The ratio m1 : m2 can also be written as :1, or k : 1. Let (– 4, 6)
d
m2
divide AB internally in the ratio k : 1. Using the section formula, we get
he
⎛ 3k − 6 , −8 k + 10 ⎞
(– 4, 6) = ⎜ ⎟ (2)
⎝ k+1 k +1 ⎠
3k − 6
is
So, –4=
k +1
bl
i.e., – 4k – 4 = 3k – 6
i.e., 7k = 2
i.e., k:1= 2:7
pu
You can check for the y-coordinate also.
So, the point (– 4, 6) divides the line segment joining the points A(– 6, 10) and
be T
Example 8 : Find the coordinates of the points of trisection (i.e., points dividing in
tt E
three equal parts) of the line segment joining the points A(2, – 2) and B(– 7, 4).
Solution : Let P and Q be the points of
C
trisection of AB i.e., AP = PQ = QB
(see Fig. 7.11). Fig. 7.11
no N
⎝ 1+2 1+ 2 ⎠
Now, Q also divides AB internally in the ratio 2 : 1. So, the coordinates of Q are
Therefore, the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment joining A and
B are (–1, 0) and (– 4, 2).
Note : We could also have obtained Q by noting that it is the mid-point of PB. So, we
could have obtained its coordinates using the mid-point formula.
d
Example 9 : Find the ratio in which the y-axis divides the line segment joining the
he
points (5, – 6) and (–1, – 4). Also find the point of intersection.
Solution : Let the ratio be k : 1. Then by the section formula, the coordinates of the
⎛ − k + 5 , −4 k − 6 ⎞
point which divides AB in the ratio k : 1 are ⎜ ⎟⋅
is
⎝ k +1 k +1 ⎠
This point lies on the y-axis, and we know that on the y-axis the abscissa is 0.
bl
−k + 5
Therefore, =0
k +1
pu
So, k=5
That is, the ratio is 5 : 1. Putting the value of k = 5, we get the point of intersection as
be T
⎛ −13 ⎞
⎜ 0, ⎟.
re
⎝ 3 ⎠
o R
Example 10 : If the points A(6, 1), B(8, 2), C(9, 4) and D(p, 3) are the vertices of a
tt E
⎛6 + 9, 1 + 4 ⎞ ⎛8 + p, 2 + 3⎞
no N
i.e., ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎛ 15 , 5 ⎞ ⎛8 + p, 5 ⎞
i.e., ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
©
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 2 2⎠
15 8+p
so, =
2 2
i.e., p= 7
EXERCISE 7.2
1. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the join of (–1, 7) and (4, –3) in the
ratio 2 : 3.
2. Find the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment joining (4, –1)
d
and (–2, –3).
3. To conduct Sports Day activities, in
he
your rectangular shaped school
ground ABCD, lines have been
drawn with chalk powder at a
distance of 1m each. 100 flower pots
is
have been placed at a distance of 1m
from each other along AD, as shown
1
in Fig. 7.12. Niharika runs th the
bl
4
distance AD on the 2nd line and
pu 1
posts a green flag. Preet runs th
5
the distance AD on the eighth line
be T
4. Find the ratio in which the line segment joining the points (– 3, 10) and (6, – 8) is divided
by (– 1, 6).
C
5. Find the ratio in which the line segment joining A(1, – 5) and B(– 4, 5) is divided by the
x-axis. Also find the coordinates of the point of division.
6. If (1, 2), (4, y), (x, 6) and (3, 5) are the vertices of a parallelogram taken in order, find
no N
x and y.
7. Find the coordinates of a point A, where AB is the diameter of a circle whose centre is
(2, – 3) and B is (1, 4).
8. If A and B are (– 2, – 2) and (2, – 4), respectively, find the coordinates of P such that
©
3
AP = AB and P lies on the line segment AB.
7
9. Find the coordinates of the points which divide the line segment joining A(– 2, 2) and
B(2, 8) into four equal parts.
10. Find the area of a rhombus if its vertices are (3, 0), (4, 5), (– 1, 4) and (– 2, – 1) taken in
1
order. [Hint : Area of a rhombus = (product of its diagonals)]
2
d
× base × altitude
Area of a triangle =
2
he
In Class IX, you have also studied Heron’s formula to find the area of a triangle.
Now, if the coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are given, can you find its area?
Well, you could find the lengths of the
three sides using the distance formula and
then use Heron’s formula. But this could
is
be tedious, particularly if the lengths of
the sides are irrational numbers. Let us
bl
see if there is an easier way out.
Let ABC be any triangle whose
vertices are A(x 1, y 1), B(x2 , y2 ) and
pu
C(x 3 , y3 ). Draw AP, BQ and CR
perpendiculars from A, B and C,
respectively, to the x-axis. Clearly ABQP,
be T
Fig. 7.13
Now, from Fig. 7.13, it is clear that
area of Δ ABC = area of trapezium ABQP + area of trapezium APRC
tt E
1
= [ x1 ( y2 – y3 ) + x2 ( y3 – y1 ) + x3 ( y1 – y2 ) ]
2
Thus, the area of Δ ABC is the numerical value of the expression
1
⎡ x1 ( y2 − y3 ) + x2 ( y3 − y1 ) + x3 ( y1 − y2 ⎤⎦
2⎣
Let us consider a few examples in which we make use of this formula.
Example 11 : Find the area of a triangle whose vertices are (1, –1), (– 4, 6) and
(–3, –5).
Solution : The area of the triangle formed by the vertices A(1, –1), B(– 4, 6) and
C (–3, –5), by using the formula above, is given by
d
1
[1 (6 + 5) + (−4) (−5 + 1) + (−3) (−1 − 6)]
2
he
1
= (11 + 16 + 21) = 24
2
So, the area of the triangle is 24 square units.
is
Example 12 : Find the area of a triangle formed by the points A(5, 2), B(4, 7) and
C (7, – 4).
bl
Solution : The area of the triangle formed by the vertices A(5, 2), B(4, 7) and
C (7, – 4) is given by
1
[5 (7 + 4) + 4 (− 4 − 2) + 7 (2 − 7) ]
pu
2
1 −4
(55 − 24 − 35) = = −2
be T
=
2 2
re
Since area is a measure, which cannot be negative, we will take the numerical value
o R
1
[−1.5(−2 − 4) + 6(4 − 3) + (−3) (3 + 2)]
2
no N
1
= (9 + 6 − 15) = 0
2
Can we have a triangle of area 0 square units? What does this mean?
©
If the area of a triangle is 0 square units, then its vertices will be collinear.
Example 14 : Find the value of k if the points A(2, 3), B(4, k) and C(6, –3) are
collinear.
Solution : Since the given points are collinear, the area of the triangle formed by them
must be 0, i.e.,
1
[2(k + 3) + 4 (−3 − 3) + 6(3 − k)] = 0
2
1
i.e., ( − 4k ) = 0
2
d
Therefore, k=0
Let us verify our answer.
he
1
area of Δ ABC = [2(0 + 3) + 4 (− 3 − 3) + 6 (3 − 0)] = 0
2
Example 15 : If A(–5, 7), B(– 4, –5), C(–1, –6) and D(4, 5) are the vertices of a
quadrilateral, find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD.
is
Solution : By joining B to D, you will get two triangles ABD and BCD.
1
the area of Δ ABD = [ −5( − 5 − 5) + ( −4) (5 − 7) + 4 (7 + 5) ]
bl
Now
2
1 106
= (50 + 8 + 48) = = 53 square units
2 2
pu
1
Also, the area of Δ BCD = [ −4( − 6 − 5) – 1(5 + 5) + 4( −5 + 6) ]
2
be T
1
= (44 − 10 + 4) = 19 square units
re
2
o R
EXERCISE 7.3
C
2. In each of the following find the value of ‘k’, for which the points are collinear.
(i) (7, –2), (5, 1), (3, k) (ii) (8, 1), (k, – 4), (2, –5)
3. Find the area of the triangle formed by joining the mid-points of the sides of the triangle
whose vertices are (0, –1), (2, 1) and (0, 3). Find the ratio of this area to the area of the
©
given triangle.
4. Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices, taken in order, are (– 4, – 2), (– 3, – 5),
(3, – 2) and (2, 3).
5. You have studied in Class IX, (Chapter 9, Example 3), that a median of a triangle divides
it into two triangles of equal areas. Verify this result for Δ ABC whose vertices are
A(4, – 6), B(3, –2) and C(5, 2).
d
3. Find the centre of a circle passing through the points (6, – 6), (3, – 7) and (3, 3).
he
4. The two opposite vertices of a square are (–1, 2) and (3, 2). Find the coordinates of the
other two vertices.
5. The Class X students of a
secondary school in
Krishinagar have been allotted
is
a rectangular plot of land for
their gardening activity.
Sapling of Gulmohar are
bl
planted on the boundary at a
distance of 1m from each other.
There is a triangular grassy
pu
lawn in the plot as shown in
the Fig. 7.14. The students are
to sow seeds of flowering
Fig. 7.14
be T
(i) Taking A as origin, find the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle.
(ii) What will be the coordinates of the vertices of Δ PQR if C is the origin?
Also calculate the areas of the triangles in these cases. What do you observe?
tt E
6. The vertices of a Δ ABC are A(4, 6), B(1, 5) and C(7, 2). A line is drawn to intersect sides
AD AE 1
AB and AC at D and E respectively, such that = = ⋅ Calculate the area of the
C
AB AC 4
Δ ADE and compare it with the area of Δ ABC. (Recall Theorem 6.2 and Theorem 6.6).
7. Let A (4, 2), B(6, 5) and C(1, 4) be the vertices of Δ ABC.
no N
(i) The median from A meets BC at D. Find the coordinates of the point D.
(ii) Find the coordinates of the point P on AD such that AP : PD = 2 : 1
(iii) Find the coordinates of points Q and R on medians BE and CF respectively such
©
that BQ : QE = 2 : 1 and CR : RF = 2 : 1.
(iv) What do yo observe?
[Note : The point which is common to all the three medians is called the centroid
and this point divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1.]
(v) If A(x1, y 1), B(x 2, y2) and C(x3, y 3) are the vertices of Δ ABC, find the coordinates of
the centroid of the triangle.
8. ABCD is a rectangle formed by the points A(–1, –1), B(– 1, 4), C(5, 4) and D(5, – 1). P, Q,
R and S are the mid-points of AB, BC, CD and DA respectively. Is the quadrilateral
PQRS a square? a rectangle? or a rhombus? Justify your answer.
d
7.5 Summary
he
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
is
3. The coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining the
points A(x 1 , y 1) and B(x 2 , y 2) internally in the ratio m1 : m2 are
bl
⎛ m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y 2 + m2 y1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⋅
⎝ m1 + m2 m1 + m2 ⎠
4. The mid-point of the line segment joining the points P(x1 , y1) and Q(x2, y2) is
pu
⎛ x1 + x2 , y1 + y 2 ⎞
⎜ 2 2 ⎟⎠
.
⎝
be T
5. The area of the triangle formed by the points (x1, y1), (x2 , y2 ) and (x3, y3) is the
numerical value of the expression
re
o R
1
[ x ( y − y 3 ) + x2 ( y 3 − y1 ) + x3 ( y1 − y 2 ) ] .
2 1 2
tt E
m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1
x= y=
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
©
d
INTRODUCTION TO
he
TRIGONOMETRY 8
is
There is perhaps nothing which so occupies the
middle position of mathematics as trigonometry.
bl
– J.F. Herbart (1890)
8.1 Introduction
pu
You have already studied about triangles, and in particular, right triangles, in your
earlier classes. Let us take some examples from our surroundings where right triangles
can be imagined to be formed. For instance :
be T
d
rushes out of the house to look at the
balloon.Now when the girl had spotted
the balloon intially it was at point A.
he
When both the mother and daughter
came out to see it, it had already
travelled to another point B. Can you
find the altitude of B from the ground? Fig. 8.3
is
In all the situations given above, the distances or heights can be found by using
some mathematical techniques, which come under a branch of mathematics called
bl
‘trigonometry’. The word ‘trigonometry’ is derived from the Greek words ‘tri’
(meaning three), ‘gon’ (meaning sides) and ‘metron’ (meaning measure). In fact,
trigonometry is the study of relationships between the sides and angles of a triangle.
pu
The earliest known work on trigonometry was recorded in Egypt and Babylon. Early
astronomers used it to find out the distances of the stars and planets from the Earth.
Even today, most of the technologically advanced methods used in Engineering and
be T
respect to its acute angles, called trigonometric ratios of the angle. We will restrict
our discussion to acute angles only. However, these ratios can be extended to other
angles also. We will also define the trigonometric ratios for angles of measure 0° and
tt E
90°. We will calculate trigonometric ratios for some specific angles and establish
some identities involving these ratios, called trigonometric identities.
C
d
your earlier classes. We now define certain ratios
involving the sides of a right triangle, and call
he
them trigonometric ratios.
The trigonometric ratios of the angle A
in right triangle ABC (see Fig. 8.4) are defined
as follows :
is
side opposite to angle A BC Fig. 8.5
sine of ∠ A = =
hypotenuse AC
bl
side adjacent to angle A AB
cosine of ∠ A = =
hypotenuse AC
pu
side opposite to angle A BC
tangent of ∠ A = =
side adjacent to angle A AB
be T
1 hypotenuse AC
cosecant of ∠ A = = =
re
sine of ∠ A side opposite to angle A BC
o R
1 hypotenuse AC
secant of ∠ A = = =
cosine of ∠ A side adjacent to angle A AB
tt E
The ratios defined above are abbreviated as sin A, cos A, tan A, cosec A, sec A
and cot A respectively. Note that the ratios cosec A, sec A and cot A are respectively,
no N
AB AB cos A sin A
AC
So, the trigonometric ratios of an acute angle in a right triangle express the
relationship between the angle and the length of its sides.
Why don’t you try to define the trigonometric ratios for angle C in the right
triangle? (See Fig. 8.5)
d
jiva in due course. When the Aryabhatiyam was
translated into Arabic, the word jiva was retained as
he
it is. The word jiva was translated into sinus, which
means curve, when the Arabic version was translated
into Latin. Soon the word sinus, also used as sine,
became common in mathematical texts throughout
is
Europe. An English Professor of astronomy Edmund
Gunter (1581–1626), first used the abbreviated Aryabhata
notation ‘sin’. A.D. 476 – 550
bl
The origin of the terms ‘cosine’ and ‘tangent’ was much later. The cosine function
arose from the need to compute the sine of the complementary angle. Aryabhatta
called it kotijya. The name cosinus originated with Edmund Gunter. In 1674, the
pu
English Mathematician Sir Jonas Moore first used the abbreviated notation ‘cos’.
be T
Chapter 6, recall the AA similarity criterion. Using the criterion, you will see that the
triangles PAM and CAB are similar. Therefore, by the property of similar triangles,
the corresponding sides of the triangles are proportional.
AM AP MP
So, we have = = ⋅
AB AC BC
MP BC
From this, we find = = sin A .
AP AC
AM AB MP BC
Similarly, = = cos A, = = tan A and so on.
AP AC AM AB
d
This shows that the trigonometric ratios of angle A in Δ PAM not differ from
those of angle A in Δ CAB.
he
In the same way, you should check that the value of sin A (and also of other
trigonometric ratios) remains the same in Δ QAN also.
From our observations, it is now clear that the values of the trigonometric
is
ratios of an angle do not vary with the lengths of the sides of the triangle, if
the angle remains the same.
Note : For the sake of convenience, we may write sin2A, cos2A, etc., in place of
bl
(sin A)2 , (cos A)2, etc., respectively. But cosec A = (sin A)–1 ≠ sin–1 A (it is called sine
inverse A). sin–1 A has a different meaning, which will be discussed in higher classes.
Similar conventions hold for the other trigonometric ratios as well. Sometimes, the
pu
Greek letter θ (theta) is also used to denote an angle.
We have defined six trigonometric ratios of an acute angle. If we know any one
be T
3
BC 1
then this means that = , i.e., the
AC 3
tt E
Remark : Since the hypotenuse is the longest side in a right triangle, the value of
sin A or cos A is always less than 1 (or, in particular, equal to 1).
Let us consider some examples.
d
4
Example 1 : Given tan A = , find the other
3
he
trigonometric ratios of the angle A.
Solution : Let us first draw a right Δ ABC
(see Fig 8.8).
BC 4
= .
is
Now, we know that tan A =
AB 3
Therefore, if BC = 4k, then AB = 3k, where k is a
bl
positive number.
Fig. 8.8
Now, by using the Pythagoras Theorem, we have
pu AC2 = AB2 + BC2 = (4k) 2 + (3k) 2 = 25k2
So, AC = 5k
be T
Now, we can write all the trigonometric ratios using their definitions.
BC 4k 4
re
sin A = = =
o R
AC 5k 5
AB 3k 3
cos A = = =
AC 5k 5
tt E
1 3 1 5 1 5
Therefore, cot A = = , cosec A = = and sec A = = ⋅
tan A 4 sin A 4 cos A 3
C
AC PR
Then =
AB PQ
AC AB
= k , say
d
Therefore, = (1)
PR PQ
Now, using Pythagoras theorem,
he
BC = AB 2 − AC2
and QR = PQ2 – PR 2
is
BC AB2 − AC 2 k 2 PQ2 − k 2 PR 2 k PQ2 − PR 2
So, = = = =k (2)
QR PQ 2 − PR 2 PQ2 − PR 2 PQ 2 − PR 2
bl
From (1) and (2), we have
AC AB BC
= =
pu
PR PQ QR
Then, by using Theorem 6.4, Δ ACB ~ Δ PRQ and therefore, ∠ B = ∠ Q.
be T
AC 20 , BC 21
So, sin θ = = cos θ = = ⋅
©
AB 29 AB 29
202 + 212 400 + 441
2 2
⎛ 20 ⎞ ⎛ 21 ⎞
Now, (i) cos2θ + sin2θ = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = = = 1,
⎝ 29 ⎠ ⎝ 29 ⎠ 29 2 841
(21 + 20) (21 − 20)
2 2
⎛ 21 ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞ 41
and (ii) cos2 θ – sin2 θ = ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ = = .
⎝ 29 ⎠ ⎝ 29 ⎠
2
29 841
d
BC
Solution : In Δ ABC, tan A = = 1 (see Fig 8.11)
AB
he
i.e., BC = AB
Fig. 8.11
Let AB = BC = k, where k is a positive number.
is
Now, AC = AB 2 + BC 2
bl
= (k )2 + (k )2 = k 2
BC 1 AB 1
pu
Therefore, sin A = = and cos A = =
AC 2 AC 2
be T
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
So, 2 sin A cos A = 2 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 1, which is the required value.
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
re
o R
i.e., PQ = 24 cm and OQ = 1 + PQ = 25 cm
Fig. 8.12
7 24
So, sin Q = and cos Q = ⋅
25 25
EXERCISE 8.1
1. In Δ ABC, right-angled at B, AB = 24 cm, BC = 7 cm. Determine :
(i) sin A, cos A
d
(ii) sin C, cos C
2. In Fig. 8.13, find tan P – cot R.
he
3 ,
3. If sin A = calculate cos A and tan A.
4
4. Given 15 cot A = 8, find sin A and sec A.
13 ,
is
5. Given sec θ = calculate all other trigonometric ratios. Fig. 8.13
12
6. If ∠ A and ∠ B are acute angles such that cos A = cos B, then show that ∠ A = ∠ B.
bl
7 (1 + sin θ)(1 − sin θ) ,
7. If cot θ = , evaluate : (i) (ii) cot 2 θ
8 (1 + cos θ)(1 − cos θ)
pu
1 − tan 2 A
8. If 3 cot A = 4, check whether 2 = cos2 A – sin2A or not.
1 + tan A
1 ,
be T
11. State whether the following are true or false. Justify your answer.
C
d
So, BC = AB (Why?)
Now, Suppose BC = AB = a.
he
Fig. 8.14
Then by Pythagoras Theorem, AC2 = AB 2 + BC2 = a 2 + a2 = 2a2,
and, therefore, AC = a 2 ⋅
is
Using the definitions of the trigonometric ratios, we have :
bl
hypotenuse AC a 2 2
tan 45° = = = =1
side adjacent to angle 45° AB a
re
o R
1 1 1
Also, cosec 45° = = 2 , sec 45° = = 2 , cot 45° = = 1.
sin 45° cos 45° tan 45 °
tt E
∠ A = ∠ B = ∠ C = 60°.
Draw the perpendicular AD from A to the side BC
(see Fig. 8.15).
Now Δ ABD ≅ Δ ACD (Why?) Fig. 8.15
©
Therefore, BD = DC
and ∠ BAD = ∠ CAD (CPCT)
Now observe that:
Δ ABD is a right triangle, right -angled at D with ∠ BAD = 30° and ∠ ABD = 60°
(see Fig. 8.15).
As you know, for finding the trigonometric ratios, we need to know the lengths of the
sides of the triangle. So, let us suppose that AB = 2a.
1
Then, BC = a
BD =
d
2
and AD2 = AB2 – BD2 = (2a) 2 – (a) 2 = 3a 2,
he
Therefore, AD = a 3
Now, we have :
BD a 1 AD a 3 3
sin 30° = = = , cos 30° = = =
is
AB 2 a 2 AB 2a 2
BD a 1
tan 30° = = = .
AD a 3 3
bl
1 1 2
Also, cosec 30° = = 2, sec 30° = =
sin 30 ° cos 30 ° 3
pu
1
cot 30° = = 3.
tan 30°
be T
Similarly,
AD a 3 3 1
= =
re
sin 60° = , cos 60° = , tan 60° = 3 ,
AB 2a 2 2
o R
2 , 1
cosec 60° = sec 60° = 2 and cot 60° = ⋅
3 3
tt E
Fig. 8.17
When ∠ A is very close to 0°, BC gets very close to 0 and so the value of
BC
sin A = is very close to 0. Also, when ∠ A is very close to 0°, AC is nearly the
AC
AB
d
same as AB and so the value of cos A = is very close to 1.
AC
he
This helps us to see how we can define the values of sin A and cos A when
A = 0°. We define : sin 0° = 0 and cos 0° = 1.
Using these, we have :
is
sin 0° 1 ,
tan 0° = = 0, cot 0° = which is not defined. (Why?)
cos 0° tan 0°
bl
1 1 ,
sec 0° = = 1 and cosec 0° = which is again not defined.(Why?)
cos 0° sin 0°
Now, let us see what happens to the trigonometric ratios of ∠ A, when it is made
pu
larger and larger in Δ ABC till it becomes 90°. As ∠ A gets larger and larger, ∠ C gets
smaller and smaller. Therefore, as in the case above, the length of the side AB goes on
be T
decreasing. The point A gets closer to point B. Finally when ∠ A is very close to 90°,
∠ C becomes very close to 0° and the side AC almost coincides with side BC
re
o R
Fig. 8.18
no N
When ∠ C is very close to 0°, ∠ A is very close to 90°, side AC is nearly the
same as side BC, and so sin A is very close to 1. Also when ∠ A is very close to 90°,
∠ C is very close to 0°, and the side AB is nearly zero, so cos A is very close to 0.
©
Table 8.1
d
1 3
sin A 0 1
2 2 2
he
3 1 1
cos A 1 0
2 2 2
is
tan A 0 1 3 Not defined
3
bl
2
cosec A Not defined 2 2 1
3
pu
2
sec A 1 2 2 Not defined
3
be T
1
cot A Not defined 3 1 0
3
re
o R
Remark : From the table above you can observe that as ∠ A increases from 0° to
90°, sin A increases from 0 to 1 and cos A decreases from 1 to 0.
tt E
Let us illustrate the use of the values in the table above through some examples.
AB
= tan C
BC
5 1
i.e., = tan 30° =
BC 3
which gives BC = 5 3 cm
AB
sin 30° = (Why?)
AC
d
1 5
i.e., =
2 AC
he
i.e., AC = 10 cm
Note that alternatively we could have used Pythagoras theorem to determine the third
side in the example above,
is
i.e., AC = AB 2 + BC 2 = 5 2 + (5 3) 2 cm = 10cm.
bl
Example 7 : In Δ PQR, right -angled at
Q (see Fig. 8.20), PQ = 3 cm and PR = 6 cm.
Determine ∠ QPR and ∠ PRQ.
pu
Solution : Given PQ = 3 cm and PR = 6 cm.
PQ
be T
Therefore, = sin R
PR
re
Fig. 8.20
o R
3 1
or sin R = =
6 2
tt E
You may note that if one of the sides and any other part (either an acute angle or any
side) of a right triangle is known, the remaining sides and angles of the triangle can be
no N
determined.
1 1
Example 8 : If sin (A – B) = , cos (A + B) = , 0° < A + B ≤ 90°, A > B, find A
2 2
and B.
©
1
Solution : Since, sin (A – B) = , therefore, A – B = 30° (Why?) (1)
2
1
Also, since cos (A + B) = , therefore, A + B = 60° (Why?) (2)
2
Solving (1) and (2), we get : A = 45° and B = 15°.
EXERCISE 8.2
1. Evaluate the following :
(i) sin 60° cos 30° + sin 30° cos 60° (ii) 2 tan2 45° + cos 2 30° – sin 2 60°
d
cos 45° sin 30° + tan 45° – cosec 60°
(iii) sec 30° + cosec 30° (iv)
sec 30° + cos 60° + cot 45°
he
5 cos2 60° + 4 sec 2 30° − tan2 45°
(v)
sin 30° + cos 30°
2 2
2 tan 30°
is
(i) =
1 + tan2 30°
(A) sin 60° (B) cos 60° (C) tan 60° (D) sin 30°
bl
1 − tan2 45°
(ii) =
1 + tan2 45°
pu
(A) tan 90° (B) 1 (C) sin 45° (D) 0
(iii) sin 2A = 2 sin A is true when A =
be T
1 − tan 2 30°
(A) cos 60° (B) sin 60° (C) tan 60° (D) sin 30°
tt E
1
3. If tan (A + B) = 3 and tan (A – B) =; 0° < A + B ≤ 90°; A > B, find A and B.
3
4. State whether the following are true or false. Justify your answer.
C
BC AB BC
sin A = cos A = tan A = ⎫
AC AC AB ⎪
⎪
d
⎬ (1)
AC AC AB ⎪
cosec A = sec A = cot A = ⎪⎭
BC AB BC
he
Now let us write the trigonometric ratios for ∠ C = 90° – ∠ A.
For convenience, we shall write 90° – A instead of 90° – ∠ A.
What would be the side opposite and the side adjacent to the angle 90° – A?
is
You will find that AB is the side opposite and BC is the side adjacent to the angle
90° – A. Therefore,
bl
AB , BC , AB
sin (90° – A) = cos (90° – A) = tan (90° – A) = ⎫
AC AC BC ⎪
⎪
⎬ (2)
pu
AC , AC , BC ⎪
cosec (90° – A) = sec (90° – A) = cot (90° – A) = ⎪
AB BC AB ⎭
be T
AB BC
o R
AB BC
Also, tan (90° – A) = = cot A , cot (90° – A) = = tan A
BC AB
C
AC AC
sec (90° – A) = = cosec A , cosec (90° – A) = = sec A
BC AB
no N
for all values of angle A lying between 0° and 90°. Check whether this holds for
A = 0° or A = 90°.
Note : tan 0° = 0 = cot 90°, sec 0° = 1 = cosec 90° and sec 90°, cosec 0°, tan 90° and
cot 0° are not defined.
Now, let us consider some examples.
tan 65°
Example 9 : Evaluate .
cot 25°
Solution : We know : cot A = tan (90° – A)
d
So, cot 25° = tan (90° – 25°) = tan 65°
he
tan 65° tan 65°
i.e., = =1
cot 25° tan 65°
Example 10 : If sin 3A = cos (A – 26°), where 3A is an acute angle, find the value of
A.
is
Solution : We are given that sin 3A = cos (A – 26°). (1)
Since sin 3A = cos (90° – 3A), we can write (1) as
bl
cos (90° – 3A) = cos (A – 26°)
Since 90° – 3A and A – 26° are both acute angles, therefore,
pu
90° – 3A = A – 26°
which gives A = 29°
be T
Example 11 : Express cot 85° + cos 75° in terms of trigonometric ratios of angles
re
between 0° and 45°.
o R
Solution : cot 85° + cos 75° = cot (90° – 5°) + cos (90° – 15°)
= tan 5° + sin 15°
tt E
EXERCISE 8.3
C
1. Evaluate :
(i) cos 72° (ii) cot 64° (iii) cos 48° – sin 42° (iv) cosec 31° – sec 59°
2. Show that :
©
⎛B+ C⎞ A
sin ⎜ ⎟ = cos ⋅
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
d
7. Express sin 67° + cos 75° in terms of trigonometric ratios of angles between 0° and 45°.
he
8.5 Trigonometric Identities
You may recall that an equation is called an identity
when it is true for all values of the variables involved.
Similarly, an equation involving trigonometric ratios
is
of an angle is called a trigonometric identity, if it is
true for all values of the angle(s) involved.
In this section, we will prove one trigonometric
bl
identity, and use it further to prove other useful
trigonometric identities. Fig. 8.22
In Δ ABC, right -angled at B (see Fig. 8.22), we have:
pu
AB2 + BC2 = AC 2 (1)
Dividing each term of (1) by AC , we get 2
be T
re
AB2 BC2 AC2
+ =
o R
i.e.,
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
i.e., (cos A)2 + (sin A)2 = 1
C
This is true for all A such that 0° ≤ A ≤ 90°. So, this is a trigonometric identity.
no N
Is this equation true for A = 0°? Yes, it is. What about A = 90°? Well, tan A and
sec A are not defined for A = 90°. So, (3) is true for all A such that 0° ≤ A < 90°.
Let us see what we get on dividing (1) by BC2. We get
d
AB2 BC 2 AC2
+ =
BC 2 BC 2 BC 2
he
2 2 2
⎛ AB ⎞ ⎛ BC ⎞ ⎛ AC ⎞
i.e., ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ BC ⎠ ⎝ BC ⎠ ⎝ BC ⎠
is
i.e., cot2 A + 1 = cosec2 A (4)
Note that cosec A and cot A are not defined for A = 0°. Therefore (4) is true for
all A such that 0° < A ≤ 90°.
bl
Using these identities, we can express each trigonometric ratio in terms of other
trigonometric ratios, i.e., if any one of the ratios is known, we can also determine the
pu
values of other trigonometric ratios.
Let us see how we can do this using these identities. Suppose we know that
be T
1
tan A = ⋅ Then, cot A = 3.
3
re
o R
1 4, 2 3
Since, sec2 A = 1 + tan2 A = 1 + = sec A = , and cos A = ⋅
3 3 3 2
tt E
3 1
Again, sin A = 1− cos 2 A = 1 − = . Therefore, cosec A = 2.
4 2
C
Example 12 : Express the ratios cos A, tan A and sec A in terms of sin A.
no N
sin A sin A 1 1
Hence, tan A = = and sec A = =
cos A 1 – sin A 2 cos A 1 − sin 2 A
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 sin A ⎞
⎜ ⎟ (1 − sin A) ⎜ + ⎟
d
LHS = sec A (1 – sin A)(sec A + tan A) =
⎝ cos A ⎠ ⎝ cos A cos A ⎠
(1 − sin A) (1 + sin A) 1 − sin 2 A
he
= =
cos2 A cos2 A
cos 2 A
= = 1 = RHS
cos 2 A
is
cot A – cos A cosec A – 1
Example 14 : Prove that =
cot A + cos A cosec A + 1
bl
cos A
− cos A
cot A – cos A sin A
pu
Solution : LHS = =
cot A + cos A cos A
+ cos A
sin A
be T
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
cos A ⎜ −1⎟ ⎜ − 1⎟
re
= = RHS
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ cosec A + 1
cos A ⎜ + 1⎟ ⎜ + 1⎟
⎝ sin A ⎠ ⎝ sin A ⎠
tt E
sin θ − cos θ + 1 1
Example 15 : Prove that = , using the identity
C
Solution : Since we will apply the identity involving sec θ and tan θ, let us first
convert the LHS (of the identity we need to prove) in terms of sec θ and tan θ by
dividing numerator and denominator by cos θ.
©
– 1 − tan θ + sec θ
d
=
(tan θ − sec θ + 1) (tan θ − sec θ)
he
–1 1
= = ,
tan θ − sec θ sec θ − tan θ
which is the RHS of the identity, we are required to prove.
is
EXERCISE 8.4
bl
1. Express the trigonometric ratios sin A, sec A and tan A in terms of cot A.
2. Write all the other trigonometric ratios of ∠ A in terms of sec A.
pu
3. Evaluate :
1 + tan 2 A
(iv) =
1 + cot 2 A
©
tan θ cot θ
(iii) 1− cot θ + 1 − tan θ = 1 + sec θ cosec θ
d
(iv) [Hint : Simplify LHS and RHS separately]
sec A 1 – cos A
co s A – s in A + 1
(v) = cosec A + cot A, using the identity cosec2 A = 1 + cot2 A.
he
cos A + sin A – 1
1 + sin A sin θ − 2 sin3 θ
(vi) = sec A + tan A (vii) = tan θ
2 cos θ − cos θ
3
1 – sin A
is
(viii) (sin A + cosec A)2 + (cos A + sec A)2 = 7 + tan2 A + cot2 A
1
(ix) (cosec A – sin A) (sec A – cos A) = tan A + cot A
bl
[Hint : Simplify LHS and RHS separately]
2
⎛1 + tan 2 A ⎞ ⎛ 1 − tan A ⎞
(x) ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = tan2 A
pu
2
⎝ 1 + cot A ⎠ ⎝ 1 – cot A ⎠
8.6 Summary
be T
1 1 1 , sin A
2. cosec A = ; sec A = ; tan A = tan A = .
sin A cos A cot A cos A
3. If one of the trigonometric ratios of an acute angle is known, the remaining trigonometric
no N
d
SOME APPLICATIONS OF
he
TRIGONOMETRY 9
is
9.1 Introduction
bl
In the previous chapter, you have studied about trigonometric ratios. In this chapter,
you will be studying about some ways in which trigonometry is used in the life around
you. Trigonometry is one of the most ancient subjects studied by scholars all over the
pu
world. As we have said in Chapter 8, trigonometry was invented because its need
arose in astronomy. Since then the astronomers have used it, for instance, to calculate
be T
distances from the Earth to the planets and stars. Trigonometry is also used in geography
and in navigation. The knowledge of trigonometry is used to construct maps, determine
re
the position of an island in relation to the longitudes and latitudes.
o R
In this chapter, we will see how trigonometry is used for finding the heights and
distances of various objects, without actually measuring them.
d
Let us consider Fig. 8.1 of prvious chapter, which is redrawn below in Fig. 9.1.
he
is
bl
pu
Fig. 9.1
be T
In this figure, the line AC drawn from the eye of the student to the top of the
re
minar is called the line of sight. The student is looking at the top of the minar. The
o R
angle BAC, so formed by the line of sight with the horizontal, is called the angle of
elevation of the top of the minar from the eye of the student.
Thus, the line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point
tt E
in the object viewed by the observer. The angle of elevation of the point viewed is
the angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when the point being viewed is
C
above the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we raise our head to look at the object
(see Fig. 9.2).
no N
©
Fig. 9.2
S OME A PPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY 197
Now, consider the situation given in Fig. 8.2. The girl sitting on the balcony is
looking down at a flower pot placed on a stair of the temple. In this case, the line of
sight is below the horizontal level. The angle so formed by the line of sight with the
horizontal is called the angle of depression.
d
Thus, the angle of depression of a point on the object being viewed is the angle
formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when the point is below the horizontal
he
level, i.e., the case when we lower our head to look at the point being viewed
(see Fig. 9.3).
is
bl
pu
Fig. 9.3
be T
Now, you may identify the lines of sight, and the angles so formed in Fig. 8.3.
re
o R
the following:
(i) the distance DE at which the student is standing from the foot of the minar
C
Assuming that the above three conditions are known, how can we determine the
height of the minar?
In the figure, CD = CB + BD. Here, BD = AE, which is the height of the student.
©
BC AB ,
Therefore, tan A = or cot A = which on solving would give us BC.
AB BC
By adding AE to BC, you will get the height of the minar.
d
Now let us explain the process, we have just discussed, by solving some problems.
he
Example 1 : A tower stands vertically on the ground. From a point on the ground,
which is 15 m away from the foot of the tower, the angle of elevation of the top of the
tower is found to be 60°. Find the height of the tower.
Solution : First let us draw a simple diagram to
is
represent the problem (see Fig. 9.4). Here AB
represents the tower, CB is the distance of the point
from the tower and ∠ ACB is the angle of elevation.
bl
We need to determine the height of the tower, i.e.,
AB. Also, ACB is a triangle, right -angled at B.
To solve the problem, we choose the trigonometric
pu
ratio tan 60° (or cot 60°), as the ratio involves AB
and BC.
be T
AB
Now, tan 60° =
re
BC
o R
AB Fig. 9.4
i.e., 3 =
15
tt E
i.e., AB = 15 3
C
Solution : In Fig. 9.5, the electrician is required to reach the point B on the pole AD.
So, BD = AD – AB = (5 – 1.3)m = 3.7 m.
Here, BC represents the ladder. We need to find its length, i.e., the hypotenuse of the
right triangle BDC.
d
Now, can you think which trigonometic ratio should we consider?
he
It should be sin 60°.
BD 3.7 3
So, = sin 60° or =
BC BC 2
is
3.7 × 2
Therefore, BC = = 4.28 m (approx.)
3
bl
i.e., the length of the ladder should be 4.28 m.
DC 1
Now, = cot 60° =
pu
BD 3
3.7
be T
Therefore, she should place the foot of the ladder at a distance of 2.14 m from the
pole.
tt E
AE
Now, tan 45° =
DE
AE
d
i.e., 1=
28.5
Therefore, AE = 28.5
he
So the height of the chimney (AB) = (28.5 + 1.5) m = 30 m.
Example 4 : From a point P on the ground the angle of elevation of the top of a 10 m
tall building is 30°. A flag is hoisted at the top of the building and the angle of elevation
is
of the top of the flagstaff from P is 45°. Find the length of the flagstaff and the
distance of the building from the point P. (You may take 3 = 1.732)
bl
Solution : In Fig. 9.7, AB denotes the height of the building, BD the flagstaff and P
the given point. Note that there are two right triangles PAB and PAD. We are required
pu
to find the length of the flagstaff, i.e., DB and the distance of the building from the
point P, i.e., PA.
Since, we know the height of the building AB, we
be T
AB
We have tan 30° =
AP
tt E
1 10
i.e., =
3 AP
C
Therefore, AP = 10 3
Fig. 9.7
no N
AD 10 + x
Now, in right Δ PAD, tan 45° = =
AP 10 3
10 + x
Therefore, 1=
10 3
S OME A PPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY 201
i.e., x = 10 ( )
3 − 1 = 7.32
d
Example 5 : The shadow of a tower standing
on a level ground is found to be 40 m longer
he
when the Sun’s altitude is 30° than when it is
60°. Find the height of the tower.
Solution : In Fig. 9.8, AB is the tower and
BC is the length of the shadow when the
is
Sun’s altitude is 60°, i.e., the angle of
elevation of the top of the tower from the tip
of the shadow is 60° and DB is the length of
bl
the shadow, when the angle of elevation is Fig. 9.8
30°.
AB
In Δ ABC, tan 60° =
BC
h
tt E
or, 3 = x (1)
AB
In Δ ABD,
C
tan 30° =
BD
1 h
i.e., = (2)
no N
3 x + 40
From (1), we have h= x 3
( )
Putting this value in (2), we get x 3 3 = x + 40, i.e., 3x = x + 40
©
i.e., x = 20
Example 6 : The angles of depression of the top and the bottom of an 8 m tall building
from the top of a multi-storeyed building are 30° and 45°, respectively. Find the height
of the multi-storeyed building and the distance between the two buildings.
Solution : In Fig. 9.9, PC denotes the multi-
d
storyed building and AB denotes the 8 m tall
building. We are interested to determine the
he
height of the multi-storeyed building, i.e., PC
and the distance between the two buildings,
i.e., AC.
Look at the figure carefully. Observe that
is
PB is a transversal to the parallel lines PQ
and BD. Therefore, ∠ QPB and ∠ PBD are
alternate angles, and so are equal.
bl
So ∠ PBD = 30°. Similarly, ∠ PAC = 45°. Fig. 9.9
In right Δ PBD, we have
pu
PD 1
= tan 30° = or BD = PD 3
BD 3
be T
PC
o R
= tan 45° = 1
AC
i.e., PC = AC
tt E
8 8 ( )
3+ 1
= 4 ( 3 + 1) m.
no N
=
( )( )
This gives PD =
3 −1 3 +1 3−1
d
a point on the bridge at a height
of 3 m, i.e., DP = 3 m. We are
interested to determine the width Fig. 9.10
he
of the river, which is the length
of the side AB of the Δ APB.
Now, AB = AD + DB
is
In right Δ APD, ∠ A = 30°.
PD
So, tan 30° =
bl
AD
1 3
i.e., = or AD = 3 3 m
pu
3 AD
Also, in right Δ PBD, ∠ B = 45°. So, BD = PD = 3 m.
be T
Now, AB = BD + AD = 3 + 3 3 = 3 (1 + 3 ) m.
re
( )
o R
EXERCISE 9.1
1. A circus artist is climbing a 20 m long rope, which is
C
the foot of the tree to the point where the top Fig. 9.11
touches the ground is 8 m. Find the height of the
tree.
3. A contractor plans to install two slides for the children to play in a park. For the children
below the age of 5 years, she prefers to have a slide whose top is at a height of 1.5 m, and
204 MATHEMATICS
is inclined at an angle of 30° to the ground, whereas for elder children, she wants to have
a steep slide at a height of 3m, and inclined at an angle of 60° to the ground. What
should be the length of the slide in each case?
4. The angle of elevation of the top of a tower from a point on the ground, which is 30 m
d
away from the foot of the tower, is 30°. Find the height of the tower.
5. A kite is flying at a height of 60 m above the ground. The string attached to the kite is
he
temporarily tied to a point on the ground. The inclination of the string with the ground
is 60°. Find the length of the string, assuming that there is no slack in the string.
6. A 1.5 m tall boy is standing at some distance from a 30 m tall building. The angle of
elevation from his eyes to the top of the building increases from 30° to 60° as he walks
towards the building. Find the distance he walked towards the building.
is
7. From a point on the ground, the angles of elevation of the bottom and the top of a
transmission tower fixed at the top of a 20 m high building are 45° and 60° respectively.
Find the height of the tower.
bl
8. A statue, 1.6 m tall, stands on the top of a pedestal. From a point on the ground, the
angle of elevation of the top of the statue is 60° and from the same point the angle of
elevation of the top of the pedestal is 45°. Find the height of the pedestal.
pu
9. The angle of elevation of the top of a building from the foot of the tower is 30° and the
angle of elevation of the top of the tower from the foot of the building is 60°. If the tower
be T
which is 80 m wide. From a point between them on the road, the angles of elevation of
the top of the poles are 60° and 30°, respectively. Find the height of the poles and the
distances of the point from the poles.
tt E
the canal.
12. From the top of a 7 m high building, the angle of elevation of the top of a cable tower is
60° and the angle of depression of its foot is 45°. Determine the height of the tower.
13. As observed from the top of a 75 m high lighthouse from the sea-level, the angles of
depression of two ships are 30° and 45°. If one ship is exactly behind the other on the
same side of the lighthouse, find the distance between the two ships.
S OME A PPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY 205
d
the eyes of the girl at any instant is
60°. After some time, the angle of
he
elevation reduces to 30° (see Fig. 9.13).
Find the distance travelled by the
balloon during the interval. Fig. 9.13
is
15. A straight highway leads to the foot of a tower. A man standing at the top of the tower
observes a car at an angle of depression of 30°, which is approaching the foot of the
tower with a uniform speed. Six seconds later, the angle of depression of the car is found
bl
to be 60°. Find the time taken by the car to reach the foot of the tower from this point.
16. The angles of elevation of the top of a tower from two points at a distance of 4 m and
9 m from the base of the tower and in the same straight line with it are complementary.
pu
Prove that the height of the tower is 6 m.
9.3 Summary
be T
1. (i) The line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point in the
object viewed by the observer.
(ii) The angle of elevation of an object viewed, is the angle formed by the line of sight
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with the horizontal when it is above the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we raise
our head to look at the object.
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(iii) The angle of depression of an object viewed, is the angle formed by the line of sight
with the horizontal when it is below the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we lower
our head to look at the object.
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2. The height or length of an object or the distance between two distant objects can be
determined with the help of trigonometric ratios.
©
206 MATHEMATICS
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CIRCLES 10
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10.1 Introduction
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You have studied in Class IX that a circle is a collection of all points in a plane
which are at a constant distance (radius) from a fixed point (centre). You have
also studied various terms related to a circle like chord, segment, sector, arc etc.
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Let us now examine the different situations that can arise when a circle and a line
are given in a plane.
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So, let us consider a circle and a line PQ. There can be three possibilities given
in Fig. 10.1 below:
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Fig. 10.1
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In Fig. 10.1 (i), the line PQ and the circle have no common point. In this case,
PQ is called a non-intersecting line with respect to the circle. In Fig. 10.1 (ii), there
are two common points A and B that the line PQ and the circle have. In this case, we
call the line PQ a secant of the circle. In Fig. 10.1 (iii), there is only one point A which
is common to the line PQ and the circle. In this case, the line is called a tangent to the
circle.
You might have seen a pulley fitted over a well which is used
in taking out water from the well. Look at Fig. 10.2. Here the rope
on both sides of the pulley, if considered as a ray, is like a tangent
to the circle representing the pulley.
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Is there any position of the line with respect to the circle
other than the types given above? You can see that there cannot
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be any other type of position of the line with respect to the circle.
Fig. 10.2
In this chapter, we will study about the existence of the tangents
to a circle and also study some of their properties.
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In the previous section, you have seen that a tangent* to a circle is a line that
intersects the circle at only one point.
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To understand the existence of the tangent to a circle at a point, let us perform
the following activities:
Activity 1 : Take a circular wire and attach a straight wire AB at a point P of the
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circular wire so that it can rotate about the point P in a plane. Put the system on a table
and gently rotate the wire AB about the point P to get different positions of the straight
wire [see Fig. 10.3(i)].
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with the point P in the position A′B′ of A′′B′′. Again note, what happens if ‘AB’ is
rotated rightwards about P? The common point R3 gradually comes nearer and nearer
to P and ultimately coincides with P. So, what we see is:
The tangent to a circle is a special case of the secant, when the two end
points of its corresponding chord coincide.
*The word ‘tangent’ comes from the Latin word ‘tangere’, which means to touch and was
introduced by the Danish mathematician Thomas Fineke in 1583.
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the chord cut by the lines will gradually
decrease, i.e., the two points of intersection of
the line and the circle are coming closer and
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closer [see Fig. 10.3(ii)]. In one case, it
becomes zero on one side of the secant and in
another case, it becomes zero on the other side
of the secant. See the positions P′Q′ and P′′Q′′
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of the secant in Fig. 10.3 (ii). These are the
tangents to the circle parallel to the given secant
PQ. This also helps you to see that there cannot Fig. 10.3 (ii)
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be more than two tangents parallel to a given
secant.
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This activity also establishes, what you must have observed, while doing
Activity 1, namely, a tangent is the secant when both of the end points of the
corresponding chord coincide.
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The common point of the tangent and the circle is called the point of contact
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[the point A in Fig. 10.1 (iii)]and the tangent is said to touch the circle at the
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common point.
Now look around you. Have you seen a bicycle
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circle). Therefore, OQ is longer than the radius
OP of the circle. That is,
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OQ > OP.
Since this happens for every point on the
line XY except the point P, OP is the
shortest of all the distances of the point O to the
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points of XY. So OP is perpendicular to XY.
(as shown in Theorem A1.7.) Fig. 10.5
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Remarks :
1. By theorem above, we can also conclude that at any point on a circle there can be
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one and only one tangent.
2. The line containing the radius through the point of contact is also sometimes called
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EXERCISE 10.1
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4. Draw a circle and two lines parallel to a given line such that one is a tangent and the
other, a secant to the circle.
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two points. So, it is not possible to draw any
tangent to a circle through a point inside it
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[see Fig. 10.6 (i)].
Next take a point P on the circle and draw
tangents through this point. You have already (i)
observed that there is only one tangent to the
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circle at such a point [see Fig. 10.6 (ii)].
Finally, take a point P outside the circle and
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try to draw tangents to the circle from this point.
What do you observe? You will find that you
can draw exactly two tangents to the circle
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through this point [see Fig. 10.6 (iii)].
We can summarise these facts as follows:
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PQ, PR on the circle from P (see Fig. 10.7). We
are required to prove that PQ = PR.
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For this, we join OP, OQ and OR. Then
∠ OQP and ∠ ORP are right angles, because
these are angles between the radii and tangents,
and according to Theorem 10.1 they are right Fig. 10.7
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angles. Now in right triangles OQP and ORP,
OQ = OR (Radii of the same circle)
OP = OP (Common)
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Therefore, Δ OQP ≅ Δ ORP (RHS)
This gives PQ = PR (CPCT)
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Remarks :
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1. The theorem can also be proved by using the Pythagoras Theorem as follows:
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PQ2 = OP2 – OQ2 = OP2 – OR 2 = PR2 (As OQ = OR)
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i.e., the centre lies on the bisector of the angle between the two tangents.
Let us take some examples.
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Now AB is a chord of the circle C1 and OP ⊥ AB. Therefore, OP is the bisector of the
chord AB, as the perpendicular from the centre bisects the chord,
i.e., AP = BP
Example 2 : Two tangents TP and TQ are drawn
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to a circle with centre O from an external point T.
Prove that ∠ PTQ = 2 ∠ OPQ.
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Solution : We are given a circle with centre O,
an external point T and two tangents TP and TQ
to the circle, where P, Q are the points of contact
(see Fig. 10.9). We need to prove that
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∠ PTQ = 2 ∠ OPQ Fig. 10.9
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Let ∠ PTQ = θ
⎛ 1 ⎞
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1 1
θ = ∠ PTQ
=
2 2
∠ PTQ = 2 ∠ OPQ
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This gives
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TP RP TP 4 20
This gives = , i.e., = or TP = cm.
PO RO 5 3 3
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Note : TP can also be found by using the Pythagoras Theorem, as follows:
Let TP = x and TR = y. Then
x2 = y2 + 16 (Taking right Δ PRT) (1)
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x + 5 = (y + 3)
2 2 2 (Taking right Δ OPT) (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), we get
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32 16
25 = 6y – 7 or y = =
6 3
2
⎛ 16 ⎞ 16 16 × 25
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Therefore, x = ⎜ ⎟ + 16 = (16 + 9) =
2
[From (1)]
⎝3 ⎠ 9 9
20
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or x=
3
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EXERCISE 10.2
In Q.1 to 3, choose the correct option and give justification.
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1. From a point Q, the length of the tangent to a circle is 24 cm and the distance of Q from
the centre is 25 cm. The radius of the circle is
C
(A) 7 cm (B) 12 cm
(C) 15 cm (D) 24.5 cm
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4. Prove that the tangents drawn at the ends of a diameter of a circle are parallel.
5. Prove that the perpendicular at the point of contact to the tangent to a circle passes
through the centre.
6. The length of a tangent from a point A at distance 5 cm from the centre of the circle is 4
d
cm. Find the radius of the circle.
7. Two concentric circles are of radii 5 cm and 3 cm. Find the length of the chord of the
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larger circle which touches the smaller circle.
8. A quadrilateral ABCD is drawn to circumscribe a circle (see Fig. 10.12). Prove that
AB + CD = AD + BC
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9. In Fig. 10.13, XY and X′Y′ are two parallel tangents to a circle with centre O and
another tangent AB with point of contact C intersecting XY at A and X′Y′ at B. Prove
that ∠ AOB = 90°.
tt E
10. Prove that the angle between the two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle
is supplementary to the angle subtended by the line-segment joining the points of
contact at the centre.
C
10.4 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. The meaning of a tangent to a circle.
2. The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.
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3. The lengths of the two tangents from an external point to a circle are equal.
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C
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CONSTRUCTIONS 11
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11.1 Introduction
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In Class IX, you have done certain constructions using a straight edge (ruler) and a
compass, e.g., bisecting an angle, drawing the perpendicular bisector of a line segment,
some constructions of triangles etc. and also gave their justifications. In this chapter,
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we shall study some more constructions by using the knowledge of the earlier
constructions. You would also be expected to give the mathematical reasoning behind
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Suppose a line segment is given and you have to divide it in a given ratio, say 3 : 2. You
may do it by measuring the length and then marking a point on it that divides it in the
given ratio. But suppose you do not have any way of measuring it precisely, how
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would you find the point? We give below two ways for finding such a point.
Construction 11.1 : To divide a line segment in a given ratio.
C
Given a line segment AB, we want to divide it in the ratio m : n, where both m and
n are positive integers. To help you to understand it, we shall take m = 3 and n = 2.
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Steps of Construction :
1. Draw any ray AX, making an acute angle with AB.
2. Locate 5 (= m + n) points A1, A2, A 3, A4 and
©
A5 on AX so that AA 1 = A1 A2 = A2 A3 = A3 A4
= A4 A5.
3. Join BA5.
4. Through the point A3 (m = 3), draw a line
parallel to A5 B (by making an angle equal to
∠ AA5B) at A3 intersecting AB at the point C
(see Fig. 11.1). Then, AC : CB = 3 : 2. Fig. 11.1
AA3 AC
= (By the Basic Proportionality Theorem)
d
A3A5 CB
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AA3 3 AC 3 .
By construction, = ⋅ Therefore, =
A3A5 2 CB 2
This shows that C divides AB in the ratio 3 : 2.
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Alternative Method
Steps of Construction :
1. Draw any ray AX making an acute angle with AB. Fig. 11.2
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2. Draw a ray BY parallel to AX by making ∠ ABY equal to ∠ BAX.
3. Locate the points A1, A 2, A3 (m = 3) on AX and B1, B 2 (n = 2) on BY such that
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AA1 = A1A2 = A2A3 = BB 1 = B1B 2.
4. Join A3 B2. Let it intersect AB at a point C (see Fig. 11.2).
Then AC : CB = 3 : 2.
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AA3 AC
Then = .
BB 2 BC
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AA3 3 , AC 3
Since by construction, = therefore, = ⋅
BB2 2 BC 2
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In fact, the methods given above work for dividing the line segment in any ratio.
We now use the idea of the construction above for constructing a triangle similar
to a given triangle whose sides are in a given ratio with the corresponding sides of the
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given triangle.
Construction 11.2 : To construct a triangle similar to a given triangle as per
given scale factor.
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Example 1 : Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle ABC with its sides equal
3 3
to of the corresponding sides of the triangle ABC (i.e., of scale factor ).
4 4
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Solution : Given a triangle ABC, we are required to construct another triangle whose
3
sides are of the corresponding sides of the triangle ABC.
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4
Steps of Construction :
1. Draw any ray BX making an acute angle
with BC on the side opposite to the vertex
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A.
3
2. Locate 4 (the greater of 3 and 4 in )
4
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points B 1, B2, B3 and B4 on BX so that
BB1 = B1 B2 = B2 B3 = B3B 4.
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3. Join B 4C and draw a line through B3 (the
3rd point, 3 being smaller of 3 and 4 in
3
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Let us now see how this construction gives the required triangle.
BC′ 3
C
By Construction 11.1, = ⋅
C′C 1
BC BC ′ + C′C C′C BC′
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1 4 3
Therefore, = =1+ = 1 + = , i.e., = .
BC′ BC′ BC′ 3 3 BC 4
Also C′A′ is parallel to CA. Therefore, Δ A′BC′ ~ Δ ABC. (Why ?)
©
Solution : Given a triangle ABC, we are required to construct a triangle whose sides
5
are of the corresponding sides of Δ ABC.
3
d
Steps of Construction :
1. Draw any ray BX making an acute angle with BC on the side opposite to the
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vertex A.
5
2. Locate 5 points (the greater of 5 and 3 in ) B1 , B2 , B3, B4 and B5 on BX so that
3
BB1 = B1B2 = B2 B3 = B3B 4 = B4B 5.
is
5
3. Join B3(the 3rd point, 3 being smaller of 3 and 5 in ) to C and draw a line through
3
B5 parallel to B3C, intersecting the extended line segment BC at C′.
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4. Draw a line through C′ parallel to CA
intersecting the extended line segment BA at
A′ (see Fig. 11.4).
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Then A′BC′ is the required triangle.
For justification of the construction, note that
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AB AC BC
Therefore, = = ⋅
A′B A′C′ BC′
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BC BB 3 3 ,
But, = =
BC′ BB5 5
C
Fig. 11.4
BC 3 AB AC BC 3
Remark : In Examples 1 and 2, you could take a ray making an acute angle with AB
or AC and proceed similarly.
©
EXERCISE 11.1
In each of the following, give the justification of the construction also:
1. Draw a line segment of length 7.6 cm and divide it in the ratio 5 : 8. Measure the two
parts.
2. Construct a triangle of sides 4 cm, 5 cm and 6 cm and then a triangle similar to it whose
2
sides are of the corresponding sides of the first triangle.
3
3. Construct a triangle with sides 5 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm and then another triangle whose
d
7
sides are of the corresponding sides of the first triangle.
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5
4. Construct an isosceles triangle whose base is 8 cm and altitude 4 cm and then another
1
triangle whose sides are 1 times the corresponding sides of the isosceles triangle.
2
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5. Draw a triangle ABC with side BC = 6 cm, AB = 5 cm and ∠ ABC = 60°. Then construct
3
a triangle whose sides are of the corresponding sides of the triangle ABC.
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4
6. Draw a triangle ABC with side BC = 7 cm, ∠ B = 45°, ∠ A = 105°. Then, construct a
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triangle whose sides are times the corresponding sides of Δ ABC.
3
7. Draw a right triangle in which the sides (other than hypotenuse) are of lengths 4 cm and
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3 cm. Then construct another triangle whose sides are 5 times the corresponding sides
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3
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You have already studied in the previous chapter that if a point lies inside a circle,
there cannot be a tangent to the circle through this point. However, if a point lies on the
C
circle, then there is only one tangent to the circle at this point and it is perpendicular to
the radius through this point. Therefore, if you want to draw a tangent at a point of a
circle, simply draw the radius through this point and draw a line perpendicular to this
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radius through this point and this will be the required tangent at the point.
You have also seen that if the point lies outside the circle, there will be two
tangents to the circle from this point.
©
Construction 11.3 : To construct the tangents to a circle from a point outside it.
We are given a circle with centre O and a point P outside it. We have to construct
the two tangents from P to the circle.
Steps of Construction:
1. Join PO and bisect it. Let M be the mid-
point of PO.
2. Taking M as centre and MO as radius, draw
d
a circle. Let it intersect the given circle at
the points Q and R.
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3. Join PQ and PR.
Then PQ and PR are the required two
tangents (see Fig. 11.5).
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Now let us see how this construction works.
Join OQ. Then ∠ PQO is an angle in the
semicircle and, therefore, Fig. 11.5
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∠ PQO = 90°
Can we say that PQ ⊥ OQ?
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Since, OQ is a radius of the given circle, PQ has to be a tangent to the circle. Similarly,
PR is also a tangent to the circle.
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Note : If centre of the circle is not given, you may locate its centre first by taking any
re
two non-parallel chords and then finding the point of intersection of their perpendicular
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EXERCISE 11.2
In each of the following, give also the justification of the construction:
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1. Draw a circle of radius 6 cm. From a point 10 cm away from its centre, construct the pair
of tangents to the circle and measure their lengths.
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points P and Q.
4. Draw a pair of tangents to a circle of radius 5 cm which are inclined to each other at an
angle of 60°.
5. Draw a line segment AB of length 8 cm. Taking A as centre, draw a circle of radius 4 cm
and taking B as centre, draw another circle of radius 3 cm. Construct tangents to each
circle from the centre of the other circle.
d
of tangents from this point to the circle.
11.4 Summary
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In this chapter, you have learnt how to do the following constructions:
1. To divide a line segment in a given ratio.
2. To construct a triangle similar to a given triangle as per a given scale factor which
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may be less than 1 or greater than 1.
3. To construct the pair of tangents from an external point to a circle.
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A NOTE TO THE READER
Construction of a quadrilateral (or a polygon) similar to a given quadrilateral
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(or a polygon) with a given scale factor can also be done following the
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similar steps as used in Examples 1 and 2 of Construction 11.2.
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C
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©
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12
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AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES
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12.1 Introduction
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You are already familiar with some methods of finding perimeters and areas of simple
plane figures such as rectangles, squares, parallelograms, triangles an d circles from
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your earlier classes. Many objects that we come across in our daily life are related to
the circular shape in some form or the other. Cycle whee ls, wheel barrow (thela),
dartboard, round cake, papad, drain cover, various designs, bangles, brooches, circular
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paths, washers, flower beds, etc. are some examples of such objects (see Fig. 12.1).
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So, the problem of finding perimeters and areas related to circular figures is of great
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practical importance. In this chapter, we shall begin our discussion with a review of
the concepts of perimeter (circumference) and area of a circle and apply this knowledge
in finding the areas of two special ‘parts’ o f a circular region (or briefly of a circle)
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known as sector and segment. We shall also see how to find the a reas of some
combinations of plane figures involving circles or their parts.
C
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Design
Wheel
©
barrow
Washer Cake
Wheel
Fig. 12.1
224 MATHEM ATICS
d
is denoted by th e Greek letter p (read as ‘pi’). In other words,
he
circumference
= p
diameter
or, circumference = p × diameter
= p × 2r (where r is the radius of the circle)
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= 2pr
T he great Indian mathematician Aryabhatta (A.D. 476 – 550) gave an approximate
bl
62832
value of p. He stat ed that p = , which is nearly equal to 3.1416. It is also
20000
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interesting to note that using an identity of the great mathematical genius Srinivas
Ramanujan (1887–1920) of India, mathema ticians have been able to calculate the
value of p correct to millio n places of decimals. As you know from Chapter 1 of
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Class IX, p is an irrational number and its decimal expansion is non-terminating and
non-recurring (non-repeating). However, for practical purposes, we generally take
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22
the value of p as or 3.14, approximately..
7
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You may also recall that area of a circle is pr2, where r is the radius of the circle.
Recall that yo u have verified it in Class VII, by cutting a circle in to a number of
sectors and rearranging them as shown in Fig. 12.2.
C
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Fig 12.2
AREAS R ELATED TO C IRCLES 225
1
You can see that the shape in Fig. 12.2 (ii) is nearly a rectangle of length ´ 2 p r
2
1
and breadth r. T his sugge sts that the area of th e circle = × 2pr × r = pr2. Let us
2
recall the concepts learnt in earlier classes, through an example.
d
Example 1 : T he cost of fencin g a circular field at the rate of Rs 24 per metre is
he
Rs 5280. T he field is to be ploughed at the rate of Rs 0.50 per m 2. Find th e cost of
22
ploughing the field (Take p = ).
7 Total cost 5280
Solution : Length of the fence (in metres) = = = 220
Rate 24
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So, circumference of the field = 220 m
T herefore, if r metres is the radius of the field, then
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2pr = 220
22
or, 2× × r = 220
7 220 × 7
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or, r= = 35
2 × 22
i.e., radius of the field is 35 m.
22
area of the field = pr2 =
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T herefore, × 35 × 35 m 2 = 22 × 5 × 35 m 2
7
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Now, cost of ploughing 1 m 2 of the field = Rs 0.50
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EXERCIS E 12.1
22
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4. The wheels of a car are of diam eter 80 cm each. How many complete revol utions does
each wheel make in 10 minutes when the car is travelli ng at a speed of 66 k m per hour?
5. Tick the correct answer in the following and justify your choice : If the perimeter and the
area of a circle are numeri cally equal, then the radius of the circle is
d
(A) 2 units (B) p units (C) 4 units (D) 7 units
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You have already com e across the terms sector and
segment of a circle in your ea rlier classes. Recall
that the portion (or part) of the circular region enclosed
is
by two radii and the corresponding ar c is called a
sector of the circle and the p ortion (or part) of the
circular region enclosed between a c hord and the
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corresponding ar c is called a segment of the circle.
T hus, in Fig. 12.4, sha ded region OAPB is a sector
Fig. 12.4
of the circle with centre O. Ð AOB is c alled the
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angle of the sector. Note that in this figure, unshaded region OAQB is also a sector of
t he circ le. Fo r o bv ious r ea son s, OAP B is c alled t h e m in or sec to r a n d
OAQB is ca lled the major sector. You can also see that angle of the ma jor sector is
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360° – Ð AOB.
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Now, look at Fig. 12.5 in which AB is a chord
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major segment.
Re mark : When we write ‘segment’ and ‘sector’
we will mean the ‘minor segment’ an d the ‘minor Fig. 12.5
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d
sec to r = pr 2
So , wh en t he degr ee m ea sure of t he a ngle a t t he c en tr e is 1, a re a of t he
he
pr 2
se ct or = ×
360
T herefore, when the degree measure of the angle at the centre is q, area of the
pr 2 q
is
sector = ´q = ´ pr 2 .
360 360
T hus, we obta in the following relation (or formula) for area of a sector of a
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circle:
q
Are a of the se ctor of angle q = ´ pr 2 ,
360
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where r is the radius of the circle and q the angle of the sector in degrees.
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q
= ´ pr 2 – area of D OAB
360
Note : From Fig. 12.6 and Fig. 12.7 respectively, you can observe that :
Area of the major sector OAQB = pr2 – Area of the m inor sector OAPB
and Area of m ajor segment AQB = pr2 – Area of the m inor segment APB
228 MATHEM ATICS
Let us now take some examples to understand these concepts (or results).
d
O
Solution : Given sector is OAPB (see Fig. 12.8).
he
q
Area of th e sector = ´ pr 2
360
30 A P B
= ´ 3.14 ´ 4 ´ 4 cm2
360 Fig. 12.8
is
12.56
= cm2 = 4.19 cm2 (approx.)
3
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Area of the corresponding major sector
(360 – q)
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Alte rnative ly, area of the major sector = ´ pr 2
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360
æ 360 - 30 ö
÷ ´ 3.14 ´ 16 cm
2
= ç
tt E
è 360 ø
330
= ´ 3.14 ´ 16cm 2 = 46.05 cm 2
C
360
= 46.1 cm 2 (approx.)
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22
Ð AOB = 120 °. (Use p = )
7
Fig. 12.9
AREAS R ELATED TO C IRCLES 229
d
360 7
For finding t he area of D OAB, draw OM ^ AB as shown in Fig. 12.10.
he
Note that OA = OB. T herefore, by RHS congruence, D AMO @ D BMO.
1
So, M is the mid- point of AB and Ð AOM = Ð BOM = ´ 120° = 60° .
2
is
Let OM = x cm
OM
So, from D OMA,
bl
= cos 60°
OA
x 1 æ 1ö
or, = ç cos 60° = ÷ Fig. 12.10
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21 2 è 2ø
21
or, x=
be T
2
21
re
So, OM = cm
o R
2
AM 3
Also, = sin 60° =
OA 2
tt E
21 3
So, AM = cm
2
C
2 ´ 21 3
T herefore, AB = 2 AM = cm = 21 3 cm
2
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1 1 21
So, area of D OAB = AB × OM = ´ 21 3 ´ cm 2
2 2 2
441
= 3 cm 2 (3)
4
©
æ 441 ö
T herefore, area of the segment AYB = ç 462 - 3 ÷ cm 2 [From (1), (2) and (3)]
è 4 ø
21
= (88 – 21 3) cm 2
4
230 MATHEM ATICS
EXERCIS E 12.2
22
Unless stated otherwise, use p = .
7
d
1. Find the area of a sector of a circle with radius 6 cm if angle of the sector is 60°.
2. Find the area of a quadrant of a ci rcle whose circumferen ce is 22 cm.
he
3. The length of the minute hand of a clock is 14 cm. F ind the area swept by the minute
hand in 5 minutes.
4. A chord of a circle of radius 10 cm subtends a right ang le at the centre. Find the area of
the corresponding : (i) minor segment (ii) major sector. (Use p = 3.14)
is
5. In a circle of radius 21 cm, an arc subtends an ang le of 60° at the cen tre. Find:
(i) the leng th of the arc (ii) area of the sector formed by the arc
bl
(iii) area of the segment form ed by the correspon ding chord
6. A chord of a circle of radius 15 cm subtends an angle of 60° at the centre. Fi nd the areas
of the corresponding minor and major segments of t he circle.
pu
(Use p = 3.14 and 3 = 1.73)
7. A chord of a circle of radius 12 cm subtends an
be T
Fig. 12.12
AREAS R ELATED TO C IRCLES 231
d
11. A car has two wipers which do not overlap. Each
wiper has a blade of length 25 cm sweeping through
he
an angle of 11 5°. Find the total area cl eaned at each
sweep of t he blades. Fig. 12.13
12. To warn ships for underwater rocks, a lighthouse
spreads a red coloured light over a sector of angle
is
80° to a distance of 16.5 km. Find the area of the sea
over which the ships are warn ed. (Use p = 3.14)
bl
13. A round table cover has s ix equal designs as shown
in Fig. 12.14. Ifthe radius of the cover is 28 cm, find
the cost of maki ng the des ign s at the rate of
pu
Rs 0.35 per cm2. (Use 3 = 1.7)
14. Tick the correct answer in the following : Fig. 12.14
Area of a sect or of angle p (in degrees ) of a circle with radius R is
be T
p p p p
re
(A) ´ 2 pR (B) ´ pR2 (C) ´ 2p R (D) ´ 2p R 2
o R
So far, we have calculated the areas of different figures separately. Let us now try to
calculate the areas of some combinations of plane figures. We come across these
C
types of figure s in our daily life and also in the form of various inter esting designs.
Flower beds, drain covers, window designs, designs on table covers, are some of such
no N
examples. We illustrate the process of calculating areas of these figures through some
examples.
d
or, 2x2 = 56 × 56
or, x2 = 28 × 56 (2)
he
90 1
Now, area of sec tor OAB = ´ p x2 = ´ p x 2
360 4
1 22
´ ´ 28 ´ 56 m2
is
= [From (2)] (3)
4 7
1
bl
Also, area of D OAB = ´ 56 ´ 56 m2 (Ð AOB = 90°) (4)
4
æ 1 22 1 ö
pu
So, area of flower bed AB = ç ´ ´ 28 ´ 56 - ´ 56 ´ 56 ÷ m2
è4 7 4 ø
[From (3) and (4)]
be T
1 æ 22 ö
= ´ 28 ´ 56 ç - 2÷ m2
re
4 è 7 ø
o R
1 8
= ´ 28 ´ 56 ´ m 2 (5)
4 7
tt E
= (6)
4 7
æ 1 8
total area = ç 56 ´ 56 + ´ 28 ´ 56 ´
no N
T herefore,
è 4 7
1 8ö
+ ´ 28 ´ 56 ´ ÷ m 2 [From (1), (5) and (6)]
4 7ø
©
æ 2 2ö 2
= 28 ´ 56 ç 2 + + ÷ m
è 7 7ø
18 2
= 28 ´ 56 ´ m = 4032 m 2
7
AREAS R ELATED TO C IRCLES 233
d
æ 90 22 90 22
= ç ´ ´ 28 ´ 56 + ´ ´ 28 ´ 56
è 360 7 360 7
he
1 1 ö
+ ´ 56 ´ 56 + ´ 56 ´ 56 ÷ m2
4 4 ø
is
1 æ 22 22 ö
= ´ 28 ´ 56 ç + + 2 + 2 ÷ m2
4 è 7 7 ø
bl
7 ´ 56
= (22 + 22 + 14 + 14) m2
7
pu
= 56 × 72 m 2 = 4032 m 2
= 14 × 14 cm 2 = 196 cm 2
14
tt E
7 Fig. 12.16
So, radius of ea ch circle = cm
2
no N
22 7 7
So, area of one circle = pr2 = ´ ´ cm 2
7 2 2
154 77
cm = cm 2
©
=
4 2
77 2
T herefore, area of the f our circles = 4 ´ cm = 154 cm 2
2
Hence, area of the sh aded region = (196 – 154) cm 2 = 42 cm 2.
234 MATHEM ATICS
Example 6 : Find the area of the shaded design in Fig. 12.17, where ABCD is a
square of side 10 cm and semicircles ar e drawn with each side of the square as
diameter. (Use p = 3.14)
d
he
is
Fig. 12.17 Fig. 12.18
bl
Solution : Let us mark the four unshaded regions as I, II, III and IV (see Fig. 12.18).
Area of I + Area of III
pu
= Area of ABCD – Areas of two semicircles of eac h of radius 5 cm
æ 2ö
be T
1
= ç10 ´ 10 – 2 ´ ´ p ´ 5 ÷ cm = (100 – 3.14 × 25) cm 2
2
è 2 ø
re
o R
So, area of the sha ded design = Area of ABCD – Area of (I + II + III + IV)
= (100 – 2 × 21.5) cm 2 = (100 – 43) cm 2 = 57 cm 2
C
EXERCIS E 12.3
no N
22
Unless stated otherwise, use p = ×
7
1. Find the area of the shaded region in Fig. 12.19, if
©
Fig. 12.19
AREAS R ELATED TO C IRCLES 235
2. Find the area of the shaded region in Fig. 12.20, if radii of the two concentric circles with
centre O are 7 cm and 14 cm respectively and Ð AOC = 40°.
d
he
is
Fig. 12.20 Fig. 12.21
3. Find the area of the shaded region in Fig. 12.21, if ABCD is a square of side 14 cm and
APD and BPC are semicircles.
bl
4. Find the area of the shaded region in Fig. 12.22, where a circular arc of radi us 6 cm has
been drawn with vertex O of an equilateral triangl e OAB of side 12 cm as centre.
pu
O
be T
6 cm
re
o R
tt E
A B
12 cm
Fig. 12.22 Fig. 12.23
C
Fig. 12.24
236 MATHEM ATICS
d
he
Fig. 12.25
is
8. Fig. 12.26 depicts a racing t rack whose left and right ends are sem icircular.
bl
pu
be T
Fig. 12.26
re
The distance between the two inner parallel line
o R
Fig. 12.28
AREAS R ELATED TO C IRCLES 237
11. On a s quare handk erchief, nin e circular desi gns each of radius 7 cm are made
(see Fig. 12.29). Find the area of the remaining portion of the han dkerchief.
d
he
is
Fig. 12.29 Fig. 12.30
12. In Fig. 12.30, OACB is a quadrant of a circle with centre O and radius 3.5 cm. If OD = 2 cm,
bl
find the area of the
(i) quadrant OACB, (ii) shaded region.
13. In Fig. 12.31, a square OABC is inscribed in a quadrant OPBQ. If OA = 20 cm, find the
pu
area of t he shaded region . (Use p = 3.14)
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
14. AB and CD are respectively arcs of two concentric circles of radii 21 cm and 7 cm and
centre O (see Fig. 12.32). If Ð AOB = 30°, find the area of the shaded region.
15. In Fig. 12.33, ABC is a quadrant of a circle of
radius 14 cm and a semicircle is drawn with BC
©
Fig. 12.33
238 MATHEM ATICS
d
he
Fig. 12.34
12.5 Summary
is
In this chapter, you have st udied the followin g points :
1. Circumference of a circle = 2 p r.
bl
2. Area of a circle = p r2.
3. Length of an arc of a sector of a circle with radius r and ang le with degree m easure q is
q
pu
´ 2p r×
360
q
be T
4. Area of a sector of a circle with radius r and angle with degrees measure q is ´ p r 2×
360
re
Fig. 13.1
In our day-to-day life, we come across a number of solids made up of combinations
of two or more of the basic solids as shown above.
You must have seen a truck with a
container fitted on its back (see Fig. 13.2),
carrying oil or water from one place to
another. Is it in the shape of any of the four
basic solids mentioned above? You may
guess that it is made of a cylinder with two
hemispheres as its ends.
Fig. 13.2
Fig. 13.4
If we consider the surface of the newly formed object, we would be able to see
only the curved surfaces of the two hemispheres and the curved surface of the cylinder.
So, the total surface area of the new solid is the sum of the curved surface
areas of each of the individual parts. This gives,
TSA of new solid = CSA of one hemisphere + CSA of cylinder
+ CSA of other hemisphere
where TSA, CSA stand for ‘Total Surface Area’ and ‘Curved Surface Area’
respectively.
Let us now consider another situation. Suppose we are making a toy by putting
together a hemisphere and a cone. Let us see the steps that we would be going
through.
First, we would take a cone and a hemisphere and bring their flat faces together.
Here, of course, we would take the base radius of the cone equal to the radius of the
hemisphere, for the toy is to have a smooth surface. So, the steps would be as shown
in Fig. 13.5.
Fig. 13.5
At the end of our trial, we have got ourselves a nice round-bottomed toy. Now if
we want to find how much paint we would require to colour the surface of this toy,
what would we need to know? We would need to know the surface area of the toy,
which consists of the CSA of the hemisphere and the CSA of the cone.
So, we can say:
Total surface area of the toy = CSA of hemisphere + CSA of cone
Now, let us consider some examples.
22 3.5 3.5
= 2 × × × 2
cm
7 2 2
Also, the height of the cone = height of the top – height (radius) of the hemispherical part
3.5
= 5 − cm = 3.25 cm
2
2
3.5
So, the slant height of the cone (l ) = r + h = + (3.25) cm = 3.7 cm (approx.)
2 2 2
2
22 3.5
Therefore, CSA of cone = πrl = × × 3.7 cm 2
7 2
This gives the surface area of the top as
22 3.5 3.5 22 3.5
= 2 × × × cm + × × 3.7 cm 2
2
7 2 2 7 2
22 3.5 11
= × ( 3.5 + 3.7 ) cm2 = × (3.5 + 3.7) cm 2 = 39.6 cm2 (approx.)
7 2 2
You may note that ‘total surface area of the top’ is not the sum of the total
surface areas of the cone and hemisphere.
l= r 2 + h2 = 2.52 + 62 cm = 6.5 cm
Here, the conical portion has its circular base resting on the base of the cylinder, but
the base of the cone is larger than the base of the cylinder. So, a part of the base of the
cone (a ring) is to be painted.
So, the area to be painted orange = CSA of the cone + base area of the cone
– base area of the cylinder
= πrl + πr2 – π(r′)2
= π[(2.5 × 6.5) + (2.5)2 – (1.5)2] cm2
= π[20.25] cm2 = 3.14 × 20.25 cm2
= 63.585 cm2
Now, the area to be painted yellow = CSA of the cylinder
+ area of one base of the cylinder
= 2πr′h′ + π(r′)2
= πr′ (2h′ + r′)
= (3.14 × 1.5) (2 × 20 + 1.5) cm2
= 4.71 × 41.5 cm2
= 195.465 cm2
EXERCISE 13.1
22
Unless stated otherwise, take π = ⋅
7
1. 2 cubes each of volume 64 cm3 are joined end to end. Find the surface area of the
resulting cuboid.
2. A vessel is in the form of a hollow hemisphere mounted by a hollow cylinder. The
diameter of the hemisphere is 14 cm and the total height of the vessel is 13 cm. Find the
inner surface area of the vessel.
3. A toy is in the form of a cone of radius 3.5 cm mounted on a hemisphere of same radius.
The total height of the toy is 15.5 cm. Find the total surface area of the toy.
4. A cubical block of side 7 cm is surmounted by a hemisphere. What is the greatest
diameter the hemisphere can have? Find the surface area of the solid.
5. A hemispherical depression is cut out from one face of a cubical wooden block such
that the diameter l of the hemisphere is equal to the edge of the cube. Determine the
surface area of the remaining solid.
6. A medicine capsule is in the shape of a
cylinder with two hemispheres stuck to each
of its ends (see Fig. 13.10). The length of
the entire capsule is 14 mm and the diameter
of the capsule is 5 mm. Find its surface area. Fig. 13.10
7. A tent is in the shape of a cylinder surmounted by a conical top. If the height and
diameter of the cylindrical part are 2.1 m and 4 m respectively, and the slant height of the
top is 2.8 m, find the area of the canvas used for making the tent. Also, find the cost of
the canvas of the tent at the rate of Rs 500 per m2. (Note that the base of the tent will not
be covered with canvas.)
8. From a solid cylinder whose height is 2.4 cm and diameter 1.4 cm, a conical cavity of the
same height and same diameter is hollowed out. Find the total surface area of the
remaining solid to the nearest cm2.
9. A wooden article was made by scooping
out a hemisphere from each end of a solid
cylinder, as shown in Fig. 13.11. If the
height of the cylinder is 10 cm, and its
base is of radius 3.5 cm, find the total
surface area of the article.
Solution : The volume of air inside the shed (when there are no people or machinery)
is given by the volume of air inside the cuboid and inside the half cylinder, taken
together.
Now, the length, breadth and height of the cuboid are 15 m, 7 m and 8 m, respectively.
Also, the diameter of the half cylinder is 7 m and its height is 15 m.
1
So, the required volume = volume of the cuboid + volume of the cylinder
2
1 22 7 7
= 15 × 7 × 8 + × × × × 15 m3 = 1128.75 m 3
2 7 2 2
Next, the total space occupied by the machinery = 300 m3
And the total space occupied by the workers = 20 × 0.08 m3 = 1.6 m3
Therefore, the volume of the air, when there are machinery and workers
= 1128.75 – (300.00 + 1.60) = 827.15 m 3
Example 6 : A juice seller was serving his
customers using glasses as shown in Fig. 13.13.
The inner diameter of the cylindrical glass was
5 cm, but the bottom of the glass had a
hemispherical raised portion which reduced the
capacity of the glass. If the height of a glass
was 10 cm, find the apparent capacity of the
glass and its actual capacity. (Use π = 3.14.) Fig. 13.13
Solution : Since the inner diameter of the glass = 5 cm and height = 10 cm,
the apparent capacity of the glass = πr 2 h
= 3.14 × 2.5 × 2.5 × 10 cm3 = 196.25 cm3
But the actual capacity of the glass is less by the volume of the hemisphere at the
base of the glass.
2 3 2
πr = × 3.14 × 2.5 × 2.5 × 2.5 cm = 32.71 cm3
3
i.e., it is less by
3 3
So, the actual capacity of the glass = apparent capacity of glass – volume of the
hemisphere
= (196.25 – 32.71) cm3
= 163.54 cm3
EXERCISE 13.2
22
Unless stated otherwise, take π = .
7
1 . A solid is in the shape of a cone standing on a hemisphere with both their radii being
equal to 1 cm and the height of the cone is equal to its radius. Find the volume of the solid
in terms of π.
2. Rachel, an engineering student, was asked to make a model shaped like a cylinder with
two cones attached at its two ends by using a thin aluminium sheet. The diameter of the
model is 3 cm and its length is 12 cm. If each cone has a height of 2 cm, find the volume
of air contained in the model that Rachel made. (Assume the outer and inner dimensions
of the model to be nearly the same.)
Fig. 13.17
How are they made? If you want a candle of any special shape, you will have to
heat the wax in a metal container till it becomes completely liquid. Then you will have to
pour it into another container which has the special shape that you want. For example,
take a candle in the shape of a solid cylinder, melt it and pour whole of the molten wax
into another container shaped like a rabbit. On cooling, you will obtain a candle in the
shape of the rabbit. The volume of the new candle will be the same as the volume of
the earlier candle. This is what we
have to remember when we come
across objects which are converted
from one shape to another, or when
a liquid which originally filled one
container of a particular shape is
poured into another container of a
different shape or size, as you see in Fig. 13.18
Fig 13.18.
To understand what has been discussed, let us consider some examples.
Example 9 : Selvi’s house has an overhead tank in the shape of a cylinder. This
is filled by pumping water from a sump (an underground tank) which is in the
shape of a cuboid. The sump has dimensions 1.57 m × 1.44 m × 95cm. The
overhead tank has its radius 60 cm and height 95 cm. Find the height of the water
left in the sump after the overhead tank has been completely filled with water
from the sump which had been full. Compare the capacity of the tank with that of
the sump. (Use π = 3.14)
Solution : The volume of water in the overhead tank equals the volume of the water
removed from the sump.
Now, the volume of water in the overhead tank (cylinder) = πr2h
= 3.14 × 0.6 × 0.6 × 0.95 m3
The volume of water in the sump when full = l × b × h = 1.57 × 1.44 × 0.95 m3
The volume of water left in the sump after filling the tank
= [(1.57 × 1.44 × 0.95) – (3.14 × 0.6 × 0.6 × 0.95)] m3 = (1.57 × 0.6 × 0.6 × 0.95 × 2) m3
volume of water left in the sump
So, the height of the water left in the sump =
l×b
1.57 × 0.6 × 0.6 × 0.95 × 2
= m
1.57 × 1.44
= 0.475 m = 47.5 cm
3
Solution : Radius of the hemispherical tank = m
2
3
2 22 3 99 3
Volume of the tank = × × m3 = m
3 7 2 14
1 99 3 99
So, the volume of the water to be emptied = × m = × 1000 litres
2 14 28
99000
= litres
28
25 99000
Since, litres of water is emptied in 1 second, litres of water will be emptied
7 28
99000 7
in × seconds, i.e., in 16.5 minutes.
28 25
EXERCISE 13.3
22
Take π = , unless stated otherwise.
7
1. A metallic sphere of radius 4.2 cm is melted and recast into the shape of a cylinder of
radius 6 cm. Find the height of the cylinder.
2. Metallic spheres of radii 6 cm, 8 cm and 10 cm, respectively, are melted to form a single
solid sphere. Find the radius of the resulting sphere.
3. A 20 m deep well with diameter 7 m is dug and the earth from digging is evenly spread out
to form a platform 22 m by 14 m. Find the height of the platform.
4. A well of diameter 3 m is dug 14 m deep. The earth taken out of it has been spread evenly
all around it in the shape of a circular ring of width 4 m to form an embankment. Find the
height of the embankment.
5. A container shaped like a right circular cylinder having diameter 12 cm and height 15 cm
is full of ice cream. The ice cream is to be filled into cones of height 12 cm and diameter
6 cm, having a hemispherical shape on the top. Find the number of such cones which can
be filled with ice cream.
6. How many silver coins, 1.75 cm in diameter and of thickness 2 mm, must be melted to form
a cuboid of dimensions 5.5 cm × 10 cm × 3.5 cm?
7. A cylindrical bucket, 32 cm high and with radius of base 18 cm, is filled with sand. This
bucket is emptied on the ground and a conical heap of sand is formed. If the height of the
conical heap is 24 cm, find the radius and slant height of the heap.
8. Water in a canal, 6 m wide and 1.5 m deep, is flowing with a speed of 10 km/h. How much
area will it irrigate in 30 minutes, if 8 cm of standing water is needed?
9. A farmer connects a pipe of internal diameter 20 cm from a canal into a cylindrical tank in
her field, which is 10 m in diameter and 2 m deep. If water flows through the pipe at the
rate of 3 km/h, in how much time will the tank be filled?
Fig. 13.20
*‘Frustum’ is a latin word meaning ‘piece cut off’, and its plural is ‘frusta’.
How can we find the surface area and volume of a frustum of a cone? Let
us explain it through an example.
h1 28 4
= = (2)
h2 7 1
From (1) and (2), we get h2 = 15 and h1 = 60.
Now, the volume of the frustum
= volume of the cone OAB – volume of the cone OCD
1 22 1 22
= ⋅ ⋅ (28)2 ⋅ (60) − ⋅ ⋅ (7)2 ⋅ (15) cm3 = 48510 cm3
3 7 3 7
The respective slant height l2 and l1 of the cones OCD and OAB are given
by
l2 = (7) 2 + (15) 2 = 16.55 cm (approx.)
22 22 2 2
= 5461.5 cm2 + (28)2 cm 2 + (7) cm
7 7
= 5461.5 cm2 + 2464 cm2 + 154 cm2 = 8079.5 cm2.
Let h be the height, l the slant height and r1 and r2 the radii of the ends
(r1 > r2) of the frustum of a cone. Then we can directly find the volume, the
curved surace area and the total surface area of frustum by using the formulae
given below :
1
(i) Volume of the frustum of the cone = πh(r12 + r22 + r1r2 ) .
3
(ii) the curved surface area of the frustum of the cone = π(r1 + r2)l
where l = h 2 + (r1 − r2 )2 .
(iii) Total surface area of the frustum of the cone = πl (r1 + r2) + πr12 + πr22,
where l = h 2 + (r1 − r2 )2 .
These formulae can be derived using the idea of similarity of triangles but we
shall not be doing derivations here.
Let us solve Example 12, using these formulae :
h 2 + ( r1 − r2 ) =
2
(ii) We have l= (45) 2 + (28 − 7) 2 cm
22
= π(r1 + r2) l = (28 + 7) (49.65) = 5461.5 cm2
7
(iii) Total curved surface area of the frustum
= π ( r1 + r2 ) l + πr1 + πr2
2 2
22 22 2
= 5461.5 + (28) 2 + (7) cm2 = 8079.5 cm2
7 7
Let us apply these formulae in some examples.
where r1 is the radius of the larger base and r2 is the radius of the smaller base.
1 22 35 2 30 2 35 30 3
= 3 × 7 × 14 2 + 2 + 2 × 2 cm = 11641.7 cm3.
It is given that 1 cm3 of molasses has mass 1.2g. So, the mass of the molasses that can
be poured into each mould = (11641.7 × 1.2) g
The area of metallic sheet used = curved surface area of frustum of cone
+ area of circular base
+ curved surface area of cylinder
22
= (1240.4 + 156.25 + 150) cm 2
7
= 4860.9 cm2
Now, the volume of water that the bucket can hold (also, known as the capacity
of the bucket)
π×h
= × (r12 + r22 + r1r2 )
3
22 34
= × × [(22.5) 2 + (12.5) 2 + 22.5 × 12.5] cm3
7 3
22 34
= × × 943.75 = 33615.48 cm3
7 3
= 33.62 litres (approx.)
EXERCISE 13.4
22
Use π = unless stated otherwise.
7
1. A drinking glass is in the shape of a frustum of a
cone of height 14 cm. The diameters of its two
circular ends are 4 cm and 2 cm. Find the capacity of
the glass.
2. The slant height of a frustum of a cone is 4 cm and
the perimeters (circumference) of its circular ends
are 18 cm and 6 cm. Find the curved surface area of
the frustum.
3. A fez, the cap used by the Turks, is shaped like the
frustum of a cone (see Fig. 13.24). If its radius on the
open side is 10 cm, radius at the upper base is 4 cm
and its slant height is 15 cm, find the area of material Fig. 13.24
used for making it.
4. A container, opened from the top and made up of a metal sheet, is in the form of a
frustum of a cone of height 16 cm with radii of its lower and upper ends as 8 cm and 20
cm, respectively. Find the cost of the milk which can completely fill the container, at the
rate of Rs 20 per litre. Also find the cost of metal sheet used to make the container, if it
costs Rs 8 per 100 cm2. (Take π = 3.14)
5. A metallic right circular cone 20 cm high and whose vertical angle is 60° is cut into two
parts at the middle of its height by a plane parallel to its base. If the frustum so obtained
1
be drawn into a wire of diameter cm, find the length of the wire.
16
13.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. To determine the surface area of an object formed by combining any two of the basic
solids, namely, cuboid, cone, cylinder, sphere and hemisphere.
2. To find the volume of objects formed by combining any two of a cuboid, cone, cylinder,
sphere and hemisphere.
3. Given a right circular cone, which is sliced through by a plane parallel to its base, when
the smaller conical portion is removed, the resulting solid is called a Frustum of a Right
Circular Cone.
4. The formulae involving the frustum of a cone are:
h2 + ( r1 − r2 ) .
2
(ii) Curved surface area of a frustum of a cone = πl(r1 + r2) where l =
(iii) Total surface area of frustum of a cone = πl(r1 + r2) + π(r12 + r22) where
h = vertical height of the frustum, l = slant height of the frustum
r1 and r2 are radii of the two bases (ends) of the frustum.
d
14
he
STATISTICS
is
There are lies, damned lies and statistics.
— by Disra eli
bl
14.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have studied the classification of given data into ungrouped as well as
pu
grouped frequency distributions. You have also learnt to represent the data pictorially
in the form of various graphs such as bar graphs, histograms (including those of varying
widths) and frequency polygons. In fact, you went a step further by studying certain
be T
numerical repr esentatives of the ungroup ed data, also called measures of central
tendency, namely, mean, median and mode. In this chapter, we shall extend the study
re
o R
of these three measures, i.e., mean, median and mode from ungrouped data to that of
grouped data. We shall also discuss the concept of cumulativ e frequency, the
cumulative frequency distribution and howto draw cumulative frequency curves, called
tt E
ogiv es.
T he mean (or average) of observations, as we know, is the sum of the values of all the
observations divided by the total number of observations. From Class IX, recall that if
x1, x2,. . ., xn are observa tions with respective f requencies f1, f2, . . ., fn, then this
no N
åfx
i =1
i i
x = n
åf
i= 1
i
d
S fi xi
which , more br iefly, is written as x = , if it is understood that i varies from
S fi
he
1 t o n.
Let us apply this formula to find the mean in the following example.
is
Mathematics pa per consisting of 100 mark s are presented in table below. Find the
mean of the marks obtained by the students.
Marks obtaine d 10 20 36 40 50 56 60 70 72 80 88 92 95
bl
(x i )
Numbe r of 1 1 3 4 3 2 4 4 1 1 2 3 1
pu
stude nt ( fi )
Solution: Recall that to find the mean marks, we require the product of each xi with
be T
the corresponding frequency fi . So, let us put them in a column as shown in Table 14.1.
re
o R
Table 14.1
10 1 10
20 1 20
C
. 36 3 108
40 4 160
50 3 150
no N
56 2 112
60 4 240
70 4 280
72 1 72
©
80 1 80
88 2 176
92 3 276
95 1 95
S f i xi 1779
Now, x= = = 59.3
S fi 30
d
In most of our real life situations, data is usually so large that to make a meaningful
study it needs to be condensed as grouped data. So, we need to convert given ungrouped
he
data into grouped data and devise some method to find its mean.
Let us convert the ungrouped data of Example 1 into grouped data by forming
class-intervals of width, say 15. Remember that, while allocating frequencies to each
is
class-interval, students falling in any upper class-limit would be considered in the next
class, e.g., 4 students who have obtained 40 marks would be considered in the class-
interval 40-55 and not in 25-40. With this convention in our mind, let us form a grouped
bl
frequency distribution table (see Table 14.2).
Table 14.2
pu
Class inte rval 10 - 25 25 - 40 40 - 55 55 - 70 70 - 85 85 - 100
be T
Numbe r of students 2 3 7 6 6 6
re
o R
Now, for each class-interval, we require a point which would serve as the
representative of the whole class. It is assume d that the frequency of each class-
tt E
interval is centred a round its mid-point. So the mid-point (or class mark) of each
class can be chosen to represent the observations falling in the class. Recall that we
C
find the mid-point of a class (or its class mark) by finding the average of its upper and
lower limits. That is,
no N
With reference to Table 14.2, for the class 10 -25, the class mark is , i.e.,
2
17.5. Similarly, we can find the class marks of the remaining class intervals. We put
them in Table 14.3. T hese class marks serve as our xi ’s. Now, in gen eral, for the ith
class interval, we h ave the frequency fi corresponding to the class mark xi . We can
now proceed to compute the mean in the same manner as in Example 1.
S TATISTICS 263
Table 14.3
10 - 25 2 17.5 35.0
d
25 - 40 3 32.5 97.5
40 - 55 7 47.5 332.5
he
55 - 70 6 62.5 375.0
70 - 85 6 77.5 465.0
85 - 100 6 92.5 555.0
is
Total S fi = 30 S fi xi = 1860.0
T he sum of the values in t he last column gives us S fi xi . So, the mean x of the
bl
given data is given by
Sf i xi 1860.0
x = = = 62
S fi 30
pu
T his new method of finding the mean is known as the Dire ct Me thod.
We observe that Tables 14.1 and 14.3 are using the same data and employing the
be T
same formula for the calculation of the me an but the results obtained are different.
re
Can you think why this is so, and which one is more accurate? T he difference in the
o R
two values is because of the mid-point assumption in Table 14.3, 59.3 being the exact
mean, while 62 an approximate mean.
Sometimes when the numerical values of xi and fi are large, finding the product
tt E
of xi and fi becomes tedious and time consuming. So, for such situations, let us think of
a method of reducing these calculations.
C
We can do nothing with the fi ’s, but we can change each xi to a smaller number
so that our calculations become easy. How do we do this? What about subtracting a
no N
fixed number from each of these xi ’s? Let us try this method.
T he first step is to choose one among the xi’s as the assumed mean, and denote
it by ‘a’. Also, to furt her reduce our calculation work , we may take ‘a’ to be that xi
which lies in t he centre of x1, x2, . . ., xn. So, we ca n choose a = 47.5 or a = 62.5. Let
©
us choose a = 47.5.
T he next step is to find the difference d i between a and each of the xi’s, that is,
the de viation of ‘a’ from each of the xi ’s.
i.e., d i = xi – a = xi – 47.5
264 MATHEM ATICS
T he third step is to find the product of d i with the corresponding fi, and take the sum
of all the fi d i ’s. T he calculations are shown in Table 14.4.
Table 14.4
d
Class inte rval Numbe r of Class mark d i = x i – 47.5 fi d i
stude nts ( fi ) (x i )
he
10 - 25 2 17.5 –30 –60
25 - 40 3 32.5 –15 –45
40 - 55 7 47.5 0 0
is
55 - 70 6 62.5 15 90
70 - 85 6 77.5 30 180
85 - 100 6 92.5 45 270
bl
Total Sfi = 30 Sfi d i = 435
pu
Sfi d i
So, from Table 14.4, the mean of the deviations, d = .
Sf i
be T
Sfi d i
d =
tt E
Mean of deviations,
Sf i
Sfi ( xi - a )
C
So, d =
S fi
Sf x Sf a
= i i - i
no N
Sfi S fi
S fi
= x-a
S fi
©
= x-a
So, x =a+ d
Sf i di
i.e., x = a+
S fi
S TATISTICS 265
435
x = 47.5 + = 47.5 + 14.5 = 62 .
30
d
T herefore, the mean of the marks obtained by the students is 62.
T he method discussed above is called the Assume d Me an Me thod.
he
Activity 1 : From the Table 14.3 find the mean by taking each of xi (i.e., 17.5, 32.5,
and so on) as ‘a’. What do you observe? You will find that the me an determined in
each case is the sam e, i.e., 62. (Why ?)
is
So, we can say that the value of the mean obtained does not depend on the
choice of ‘a’.
Observe that in Table 14.4, the values in Column 4 are all multiples of 15. So, if
bl
we divide the values in the entire Column 4 by 15, we would get smaller numbers to
multiply with fi . (Here, 15 is the class size of each class interval.)
pu
xi - a
So, let u i = , where a is the assum ed mean and h is the class size.
h
be T
Table 14.5
xi – a
Class inte rval fi xi di = xi – a ui = fi u i
tt E
10 - 25 2 17.5 –30 –2 –4
C
25 - 40 3 32.5 –15 –1 –3
40 - 55 7 47.5 0 0 0
no N
55 - 70 6 62.5 15 1 6
70 - 85 6 77.5 30 2 12
85 - 100 6 92.5 45 3 18
Sfi = 30 Sfi u i = 29
©
Total
Sfi ui
Let u =
Sfi
Here, again let us find the relation between u and x .
266 MATHEM ATICS
xi - a
We have, ui =
h
( xi - a )
Sfi
d
h 1 é S fi xi - a Sf i ù
T herefore, u = = ê ú
S fi h ë Sf i û
he
1 é S fi xi Sf ù
= ê - a iú
h ë S fi S fi û
is
1
= [ x - a]
h
hu = x - a
bl
So,
i.e., x = a + hu
pu
æ S fi ui ö
So, x = a + hç ÷
è S fi ø
be T
Now, substituting the values of a, h, Sfi u i and Sfi from Table 1 4.5, we get
re
æ 29 ö
o R
x = 47.5 + 15 ´ ç ÷
è 30 ø
= 47.5 + 14.5 = 62
tt E
We note that :
l the step-deviation method will be convenient to apply if all the d i ’s have a
no N
common factor.
l T he mean obtained by all the three methods is the same.
l T he assumed mean m ethod and step-deviation method ar e just simplified
©
d
Pe rce ntage of 15 - 25 25 - 35 35 - 45 45 - 55 55 - 65 65 - 75 75 - 85
he
female teachers
Numbe r of 6 11 7 4 4 2 1
State s/U.T.
is
Source : Seventh All Ind ia School Education Survey con ducted by NCERT
Solution : Let us find the class marks, xi , of each class, and p ut them in a column
bl
(see Table 14.6):
Table 14.6
pu
Perce ntage of fe male Numbe r of xi
be T
15 - 25 6 20
25 - 35 11 30
tt E
35 - 45 7 40
C
45 - 55 4 50
55 - 65 4 60
no N
65 - 75 2 70
75 - 85 1 80
©
x i - 50
Here we take a = 50, h = 10, then d i = xi – 50 and ui = .
10
Table 14.7
d
te ache rs ( fi )
he
25 - 35 11 30 –20 –2 330 –220 –22
35 - 45 7 40 –10 –1 280 –70 –7
45 - 55 4 50 0 0 200 0 0
is
55 - 65 4 60 10 1 240 40 4
65 - 75 2 70 20 2 140 40 4
75 - 85 1 80 30 3 80 30 3
bl
Total 35 1390 –360 –36
pu
From the table above, we obtain Sfi = 35, Sfi xi = 1390,
Sfi d i = – 360, Sfi u i = –36.
be T
S fi xi 1390
Using the direct method, x = = = 39.71
re
S fi 35
o R
S fi d i ( -360)
tt E
x = a+ = 50 + = 39.71
Sfi 35
Using the step-deviation method,
C
æ S fi u i ö æ – 36 ö
x = a+ç ÷ ´ h = 50 + ç ÷ ´ 10 = 39.71
è S fi ø
no N
è 35 ø
T herefore, the mean percentage of female teachers in the primary schools of
rural areas is 39.71.
Re mark : T he result obtained by all the three methods is the same. So the choice of
©
d
Numbe r of 20 - 60 60 - 100 100 - 150 150 - 250 250 - 350 350 - 450
wicke ts
he
Numbe r of 7 5 16 12 2 3
bowlers
Solution : Here, the class size varies, and the xi , s are large. Let us still apply the step-
is
deviation method with a = 200 and h = 20. T hen, we obtain the data as in Table 14.8.
Table 14.8
bl
di
Numbe r of Numbe r of xi d i = xi – 200 ui = ui fi
20
pu
wicke ts bowlers
taken ( fi )
be T
20 - 60 7 40 –160 –8 –56
re
60 - 100 5 80 –120 –6 –30
o R
Total 45 –106
no N
-106 æ -106 ö
So, u = × T herefore, x = 200 + 20 ç ÷ = 200 – 47.11 = 152.89.
45 è 45 ø
©
T his tells us that, on an average, the number of wickets taken by these 45 bowlers
in one-day cricket is 152.89.
Now, let us see how well you can apply the concepts discussed in this section!
270 MATHEM ATICS
Activity 2 :
Divide the students of your class into three groups and ask each group to do one of the
following activities.
1. Collect the marks obtained by all the students of your class in Mathematics in the
d
latest examination conducted by your school. Form a grouped frequency distribution
of the data obtained.
he
2. Collect the daily maximum temperatures recorded for a period of 30 days in your
city. Present this data as a grouped frequency table.
3. Measure the heights of all the students of your class (in cm) and form a grouped
frequency distribution table of this data.
is
After all the group s have collected the data and formed grouped frequency
distribution tables, the groups should find the mean in each case by the method which
bl
they find appropriate.
EXERCIS E 14.1
pu
1. A survey was conducted by a group of students as a part of their environmen t awareness
programme, in which they collected the following data regarding the number of plants in
be T
Number of houses 1 2 1 5 6 2 3
tt E
Which method did you use for finding the mean, and why?
2. Consider t he following distri bution of daily wages of 50 workers of a factory.
C
Daily wages (in Rs) 100 - 120 120 - 140 140 - 160 160 - 180 180 - 200
Number of workers 12 14 8 6 10
no N
Find the mean daily wages of the workers of the factory by using an appropriate method.
3. The followi ng distribution shows the daily pocket allowance of children of a locality.
The mean pocket allowance is Rs 18. Find the missing frequency f.
©
Daily pocket 11 - 13 13 - 15 15 - 17 17 - 19 19 - 21 21 - 23 23 - 25
allowance (in Rs)
Number of children 7 6 9 13 f 5 4
S TATISTICS 271
4. Thirty women were examined in a hospital by a doctor and the number of heart beats per
minute were recorded and summari sed as follows. Find the mean heart beats per minute
for these women, choosing a suitable method.
d
per minute
he
Number of women 2 4 3 8 7 4 2
5. In a retail market, fruit vendo rs were selling mango es kept in packing boxes. These
boxes cont ained varying number of mangoes. The fol lowing was the distribution of
mangoes according to the number of boxes.
is
Number of mangoes 50 - 52 53 - 55 56 - 58 59 - 61 62 - 64
bl
Number of boxes 15 110 135 115 25
Find the mean number of mangoes kept in a packing box. Which method of finding
the mean did you choose?
pu
6. The table below shows the daily expenditure on food of 25 households in a locality.
be T
Daily expenditure 100 - 150 150 - 200 200 - 250 250 - 300 300 - 350
(in Rs)
re
o R
Number of 4 5 12 2 2
households
tt E
0.00 - 0.04 4
0.04 - 0.08 9
0.08 - 0.12 9
©
0.12 - 0.16 2
0.16 - 0.20 4
0.20 - 0.24 2
8. A class teacher has the following absentee record of 40 students of a class for the whole
term. Find the mean number of days a student was absent.
Number of 0- 6 6 - 10 10 - 14 14 - 20 20 - 28 28 - 38 38 - 40
days
d
Number of 11 10 7 4 4 3 1
students
he
9. The followi ng table gives the lit eracy rate (in percen tage) of 35 cities. Fi nd the mean
literacy rate.
is
45 - 55 55 - 65 65 - 75 75 - 85 85 - 95
Number of cities 3 10 11 8 3
bl
pu
Recall from Class IX, a mode is that value among the observations which occurs most
often, that is, the value of the observation having the maximum frequency. Further, we
be T
discussed finding the mode of ungrouped data. Here, we shall discuss ways of obtaining
a mode of grouped dat a. It is possible that more than one value may have the same
re
o R
Let us first recall how we found the mode for ungrouped data through the following
example.
C
Numbe r of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
wicke ts
Numbe r of 1 1 3 2 1 1 1
matche s
S TATISTICS 273
Clearly, 2 is the number of wickets taken by the bowler in the maximum number
(i.e., 3) of matches. So, the mode of this data is 2.
In a grouped frequency distribution, it is not possible to determine the mode by
looking at th e frequencies. Here, we ca n only locate a class wit h the maximum
d
frequency, called the modal class. T he mode is a value inside the modal class, and is
given by the formula:
he
æ f1 - f0 ö
Mode = l + ç ÷´ h
è 2 f1 - f 0 - f 2 ø
whe re l = lower limit of the modal class,
is
h = size of the class interval (assum ing all class sizes to be equal),
f1 = frequency of the modal class,
bl
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class,
f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.
pu
Let us consider the following examples to illustrate the use of this formula.
Family siz e 1- 3 3- 5 5- 7 7- 9 9 - 11
tt E
Numbe r of 7 8 2 2 1
families
C
æ f1 - f0 ö
Mode = l + ç ÷´ h
è 2 f1 - f 0 - f 2 ø
æ 8-7 ö
d
2
= 3+ç ÷ ´ 2 = 3 + = 3.286
è 2 ´ 8 - 7 - 2ø 7
he
T herefore, the mode of the data above is 3.286.
is
interpret the mode and the mean.
Solution : Refer to Table 14.3 of Example 1. Since the maximum number of students
bl
(i.e., 7) have got marks in the interval 40 - 55, the modal class is 40 - 55. T herefore,
the lower limit ( l ) of the modal class = 40,
the class size ( h) = 15,
pu
the frequency ( f1 ) of modal class = 7,
the frequency ( f0 ) of the class precedin g the modal class = 3,
be T
ø
æ 7-3 ö
Mode = 40 + ç ÷ ´ 15 = 52
C
we get
è 14 - 6 - 3 ø
So, the mode marks is 52.
no N
Now, from Example 1, you know that the mean marks is 62.
So, the maximum number of students obtained 52 marks, while on an average a
student obtained 62 marks.
©
Re marks :
1. In Example 6, the mode is less than the mean. But for some other problems it may
be equal or more than the mean also.
2. It depends upon the demand of the situation whether we are interested in finding the
average marks obtained by the students or the average of the marks obtained by most
S TATISTICS 275
of the students. In the first situation, the mean is required and in the second situation,
the mode is required.
Activity 3 : Continuing with the same groups as formed in Activity 2 and the situations
assigned to the groups. Ask each group to find the mode of the data. T hey should also
d
compare this with the mean, and interpret the meaning of both.
Re mark : T he mode can also be calculated for grouped data with unequal class sizes.
he
However, we shall no t be discussing it.
EXERCIS E 14.2
is
1. The followi ng table shows the ages of the patients admi tted in a hospital during a year:
bl
Number of patients 6 11 21 23 14 5
Find the mode and the mean of t he data given above. Compare and interpret the two
pu
measures of cen tral tendency.
2. The followi ng data gives the information on the observed lifetimes (in hours) of 225
electrical components :
be T
Frequency 10 35 52 61 38 29
tt E
1000 - 1500 24
1500 - 2000 40
2000 - 2500 33
©
2500 - 3000 28
3000 - 3500 30
3500 - 4000 22
4000 - 4500 16
4500 - 5000 7
276 MATHEM ATICS
4. The following dist ribu tion gi ves the stat e-wi se t eacher-st uden t ratio in high er
secondary s chools of In dia. Fin d the mode and m ean of t his data. In terpret the two
measures.
d
15 - 20 3
he
20 - 25 8
25 - 30 9
30 - 35 10
35 - 40 3
is
40 - 45 0
45 - 50 0
bl
50 - 55 2
5. The given distribution shows the number of runs scored by some top bats men of the
pu
world in one-day international cricket matches.
3000 - 4000 4
re
4000 - 5000 18
o R
5000 - 6000 9
6000 - 7000 7
tt E
7000 - 8000 6
8000 - 9000 3
C
9000 - 10000 1
10000 - 11000 1
no N
6. A stud ent noted the nu mber of cars pas sin g through a spot on a road for 100
peri ods each of 3 minut es and summarised i t in t he table giv en below. Fin d the mode
©
of the data :
Number of cars 0 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50 50 - 60 60 - 70 70 - 80
Frequency 7 14 13 12 20 11 15 8
S TATISTICS 277
d
æn + 1ö
ascending order. T hen, if n is odd, the median is the ç ÷ th observation. And, if n
è 2 ø
he
n æn ö
is even, then the median will be the average of the th and the ç + 1 ÷ th observations.
2 è 2 ø
is
Suppose, we have to find the median of the following da ta, which gives the
marks, out of 50, obtained by 100 students in a test :
bl
Marks obtaine d 20 29 28 33 42 38 43 25
Numbe r of students 6 28 24 15 2 4 1 20
pu
First, we arrange the marks in ascending order and prepare a frequency table as
be T
follows :
Table 14.9
re
o R
20 6
C
25 20
28 24
no N
29 28
33 15
38 4
©
42 2
43 1
Total 100
278 MATHEM ATICS
Here n = 100, which is even. T he median will be the average of the n th and the
2
æn ö
ç 2 + 1 ÷ th observations, i.e., t he 50th an d 51st observations. To find these
è ø
d
observations, we proceed as follows:
Table 14.10
he
Marks obtaine d Numbe r of students
20 6
is
upto 25 6 + 20 = 26
upto 28 26 + 24 = 50
bl
upto 29 50 + 28 = 78
upto 33 78 + 15 = 93
pu
upto 38 93 + 4 = 97
upto 42 97 + 2 = 99
be T
upto 43 99 + 1 = 100
re
Now we add another column depicting this information to the frequency table
o R
Table 14.11
tt E
20 6 6
25 20 26
no N
28 24 50
29 28 78
©
33 15 93
38 4 97
42 2 99
43 1 100
S TATISTICS 279
d
28 + 29
So, Median = = 28.5
2
he
Re mark : T he part of Table 14.11 consisting Column 1 and Column 3 is known as
Cumulative Frequency Table. T he median marks 28.5 conveys the information that
about 50% students obtained marks less than 28.5 and another 50% students obtained
marks more than 28.5.
is
Now, let us see howto obtain the median of grouped data, through the following
situation.
bl
Consider a grouped frequency distribution of marks obtained, out of 100, by 53
students, in a certain examination, as follows:
pu
Table 14.12
10 - 20 3
20 - 30 4
tt E
30 - 40 3
C
40 - 50 3
50 - 60 4
no N
60 - 70 7
70 - 80 9
80 - 90 7
©
90 - 100 8
How many students have scored less than 20 marks? Observe that the number
of students wh o have scored less than 20 include the number of students who have
scored marks f rom 0 - 10 as well as the number of students who hav e scored marks
from 10 - 20. So, the total number of students with marks less than 20 is 5 + 3, i.e., 8.
d
We say that the cumulative frequency of the class 10 -20 is 8.
Similarly, we can compute the cumulative frequencies of the other classes, i.e.,
he
the number of students with marks less than 30, less than 40, . . ., less than 100. We
give them in Table 14.13 given below:
Table 14.13
is
Marks obtaine d Numbe r of students
(Cumulative frequency)
bl
Less than 10 5
Less than 20 5+3=8
pu
Less than 30 8 + 4 = 12
Less than 40 12 + 3 = 15
be T
Less than 50 15 + 3 = 18
re
Less than 60 18 + 4 = 22
o R
Less than 70 22 + 7 = 29
Less than 80 29 + 9 = 38
tt E
Less than 90 38 + 7 = 45
Less than 100 45 + 8 = 53
C
class intervals.
We can similarly make the table for th e number of students with scores, more
than or equal to 0, more than or equal to 10, more than or equal to 20, and so on. From
©
Table 14.12, we observe that all 53 students have scored marks more than or equal to
0. Since there are 5 students scoring marks in the interval 0 - 10, this means that there
are 53 – 5 = 4 8 students getting more tha n or equal to 10 marks. Con tinuing in the
same manner, we get the number of students scoring 20 or above as 48 – 3 = 45, 30 or
above as 45 – 4 = 41, and so on, as shown in Table 14.14.
S TATISTICS 281
Table 14.14
d
More than or equal to 0 53
More than or equal to 10 53 – 5 = 48
he
More than or equal to 20 48 – 3 = 45
More than or equal to 30 45 – 4 = 41
More than or equal to 40 41 – 3 = 38
More than or equal to 50 38 – 3 = 35
is
More than or equal to 60 35 – 4 = 31
More than or equal to 70 31 – 7 = 24
More than or equal to 80 24 – 9 = 15
bl
More than or equal to 90 15 – 7 = 8
Table 14.15
0 - 10 5 5
C
10 - 20 3 8
20 - 30 4 12
30 - 40 3 15
no N
40 - 50 3 18
50 - 60 4 22
60 - 70 7 29
©
70 - 80 9 38
80 - 90 7 45
90 - 100 8 53
Now in a grouped da ta, we may not be able to find the middle observation by
looking at the cumulative frequencies as the middle observation will be some value in
282 MATHEM ATICS
a class interval. It is, therefore, necessary to find the value inside a class that divides
the whole distribution into two halves. But which class should this be?
n
To find this c lass, we find the cumulative frequencies of all the classes and .
2
d
We now locate the class whose cumulative frequency is greater than (and nearest to)
n n
he
× T his is called the median class. In the distribution above, n = 53. So, = 26.5.
2 2
Now 60 – 70 is the class whose cumulative frequency 29 is greater than (and nearest
n
to) , i.e., 26.5.
is
2
T herefore, 60 – 70 is the me dian class.
bl
After finding the median class, we use the following formula for calculating the
median.
æn ö
ç 2 - cf ÷
pu
Median = l + ç ÷ ´ h,
çç f ÷÷
be T
è ø
l = lower limit of median class,
re
whe re
o R
n = number of observations,
cf = cumulative frequency of class preceding the median class,
tt E
n
Substituting the values = 26.5, l = 60, cf = 22, f = 7, h = 10
2
no N
45
= 60 +
7
= 66.4
So, about half the students have scored marks less than 66.4, and the other half have
scored marks more than 66.4.
S TATISTICS 283
Example 7 : A survey regarding the heights (in cm) of 51 girls of Class X of a school
was conducted and the following data was obtained:
d
Less than 140 4
he
Less than 145 11
Less than 150 29
Less than 155 40
is
Less than 160 46
Less than 165 51
bl
Find the median height.
Solution : To calculate the median height, we need to find the class intervals and their
pu
corresponding frequencies.
T he given distribution being of the less than type, 140, 145, 150, . . ., 165 give the
be T
upper limits of the corresponding class intervals. So, the classes should be below 140,
140 - 145, 145 - 150, . . ., 160 - 165. Observe that from the given distribution, we find
re
that there are 4 girls with height less than 140, i.e., the frequency of class interval
o R
below 140 is 4 . Now, there are 11 girls with heights less than 145 an d 4 girls with
height less th an 140. T herefore, the num ber of girls with height in the interval
140 - 145 is 1 1 – 4 = 7. Similarly, the fr equency of 145 - 150 is 29 – 11 = 18, for
tt E
150 - 155, it is 40 – 29 = 11, and so on. So, our frequency distribution table with the
given cumulative frequencies becomes:
C
Table 14.16
Below 140 4 4
140 - 145 7 11
©
145 - 150 18 29
150 - 155 11 40
155 - 160 6 46
160 - 165 5 51
284 MATHEM ATICS
n 51
Now n = 51. So, = = 25.5 . T his observation lies in the class 145 - 150. T hen,
2 2
l (the lower limit) = 145,
d
cf (the cumulative frequency of the class preceding 145 - 150) = 11,
f (the frequency of the median class 145 - 150) = 18,
he
h (the class size) = 5.
æn ö
ç 2 - cf ÷
Using the formula, Median = l + ç ÷ ´ h , we have
is
ç f ÷
è ø
bl
æ 25.5 - 11 ö
Median = 145 + ç ÷´5
è 18 ø
pu
72.5
= 145 + = 149.03.
18
be T
0 - 100 2
100 - 200 5
no N
200 - 300 x
300 - 400 12
400 - 500 17
©
500 - 600 20
600 - 700 y
700 - 800 9
800 - 900 7
900 - 1000 4
S TATISTICS 285
Solution :
0 - 100 2 2
d
100 - 200 5 7
200 - 300 x 7+x
he
300 - 400 12 19 + x
400 - 500 17 36 + x
500 - 600 20 56 + x
is
600 - 700 y 56 + x + y
700 - 800 9 65 + x + y
bl
800 - 900 7 72 + x + y
900 - 1000 4 76 + x + y
pu
It is given that n = 100
So, 76 + x + y = 100, i.e., x + y = 24 (1)
be T
æn ö
ç - cf ÷
tt E
æ 50 - 36 - x ö
525 = 500 + ç ÷ ´ 100
no N
è 20 ø
i.e., 525 – 500 = (14 – x) × 5
i.e., 25 = 70 – 5x
©
i.e., 5x = 70 – 25 = 45
So, x= 9
T herefore, from (1), we get 9 + y = 24
i.e., y = 15
286 MATHEM ATICS
Now, that you have studied about all the three measures of central tendency, let
us discuss which me asure would be be st suite d for a particular require me nt.
T he mean is the most frequently used measure of central tendency because it
d
takes into account all the observations, and lies between the extremes, i.e., the largest
and the smallest observations of the entire data. It also enables us to compare two or
he
more distributions. For example, by comparing the average (mean) results of students
of different schools of a particular examination, we can conclude which school has a
better performance.
is
However, extreme values in the data affect the mean. For example, the mean of
classes having frequencies more or less the same is a good representative of the data.
But, if one class has frequency, say 2, and the five others have frequency 20, 25, 20,
bl
21, 18, then the mean will certainly not reflect the way the data behaves. So, in such
cases, the mean is not a good representative of the data.
pu
In problems where individual observations are not important, and we wish to find
out a ‘typical’ observation, the median is more appropriate, e.g., finding the typical
be T
productivity r ate of workers, average wage in a country, etc. T hese are situations
re
where extreme values may be there. So, rather than the mean, we take the median as
o R
item, the mode is the best choice, e.g., to find the most popular T.V. programme being
watched, the c onsumer item in greatest demand, the colour of the v ehicle used by
C
Re marks :
no N
EXERCIS E 14.3
1. The followi ng frequency distribu tion gives the monthly consumption of electricity of
68 consumers of a locality. Fin d the median, mean and mode of the data and compare
them.
d
Monthly consumption (in units) Number of consumers
he
65 - 85 4
85 - 105 5
is
105 - 125 13
125 - 145 20
bl
145 - 165 14
165 - 185 8
pu
185 - 205 4
be T
2. If the median of the distribution given below i s 28.5, find the v alues of x and y.
re
0 - 10 5
tt E
10 - 20 x
20 - 30 20
C
30 - 40 15
no N
40 - 50 y
50 - 60 5
Total 60
©
3. A life insurance agent found the following data for di stribution of ages of 100 policy
holders. Calculate the median age, if policies are giv en only to persons having age 18
years onwards but less than 60 year.
288 MATHEM ATICS
Below 20 2
Below 25 6
d
Below 30 24
he
Below 35 45
Below 40 78
is
Below 45 89
Below 50 92
bl
Below 55 98
Below 60 100
pu
4. The lengths of 40 leaves of a plant are measured correct to the nearest mill imetre, and
be T
118 - 126 3
tt E
127 - 135 5
136 - 144 9
C
145 - 153 12
no N
154 - 162 5
163 - 171 4
172 - 180 2
©
5. The following table gives the distribution of the life time of 400 neon lamps :
d
1500 - 2000 14
2000 - 2500 56
he
2500 - 3000 60
3000 - 3500 86
3500 - 4000 74
is
4000 - 4500 62
4500 - 5000 48
bl
Find the median life time of a lamp.
6. 100 surnames were randomly picked up from a local telephone directory and the
pu
frequency distribution of the num ber of letters in the English alphabets in t he surnames
was obtained as follows:
Number of letters 1 -4 4 -7 7 - 10 10 - 13 13 - 16 16 - 19
be T
re
Number of surnames 6 30 40 16 4 4
o R
Determine the median number of letters in the surnames. Find the mean number of
letters in t he surnames? Also, fin d the modal size of the surnames.
tt E
7. The distribution below gives the weights of 30 students of a class. Find the median
weight of the students.
C
Number of students
no N
2 3 8 6 6 3 2
As we all know, pictures speak better than words.A graphical representation helps us
in understanding given data at a glance. In Class IX, we have represented the data
through bar graphs, histograms and frequency polygons. Let us no w represent a
cumulative frequency distribution graphically.
For example, let us co nsider the c umulative fre quency distr ibutio n give n in
Table 14.13.
290 MATHEM ATICS
d
the upper limits of the class intervals on
the horizon tal axis (x-axis) and their
corresponding cumulative frequencies
he
on the vertical axis (y-axis), choosing a
convenient scale. T he scale may not be
the same on both th e axis. Let us now o
plot the points co rresponding to the
is
ordered pairs give n by (upper limit,
corresponding cumulative frequency), Fig. 14.1
i.e., (10, 5), (20, 8), (30, 12), (40, 15),
bl
(50, 18), (60, 22), (70, 29), (80, 38), (90, 45), (100, 53) on a graph paper and join them
by a free hand smooth curve. T he curve we ge t is called a cumulative fre que ncy
curve , or an ogive (of the less than type). (See Fig. 14.1)
pu
T he term ‘ogive’ is pr onounced as ‘o jeev’ and is derived from th e word oge e .
be T
An ogee is a shape consistin g of a con cave arc f lowin g int o a c onvex arc, so
forming an S-sh aped curv e with ver tical ends. In arch itecture, the ogee shape
re
is one of the ch aracterist ics of the 14th and 1 5th centur y Gothic styles.
o R
Next , again we c onside r the c umulat ive fr equency distr ibutio n give n in
tt E
Table 14.14 and draw its ogive (of the more than type).
Recall that, here 0 , 10, 20, . . ., 90
are the lower limits of the respective class
C
d
One o bv io us way is to loc at e
he
n 53
= = 26.5 on t h e y- a x is
2 2
(see Fig. 14.3). Fro m this point, draw a
line parallel to the x-axis cutting the curve
is
at a po int. Fro m this po int, dra w a
perpendicular to the x-axis. T he point of o
intersection of this perpendicular with the
bl
x-axis determines the median of the data
(see Fig. 14.3). Fig. 14.3
pu
An ot her way of o bta in ing t he
median is the following :
be T
d
the horizontal axis, and the cumulative
frequency along the vertical axes. T hen,
he
we plot the points (5, 30), (10, 28), (15, 16),
(20, 14), (25, 10), (30, 7) and (35, 3). We
join these points with a smooth curve to
get the ‘more than’ ogive, as shown in
is
Fig. 14.5.
No w, le t us obta in th e cla sses, t he ir
frequencies and the cumulative frequency Fig. 14.5
bl
from the table above.
Table 14.17
pu
Classe s 5 - 10 10 - 15 15 - 20 20 - 25 25 - 30 30 - 35 35 - 40
be T
No. of shops 2 12 2 4 3 4 3
re
Cumulative 2 14 16 20 23 27 30
o R
freque ncy
(10, 2), (15, 14), (20, 16), (25, 20), (30, 23),
(35, 27), (40, 30) on the same axes as in
Fig. 14.5 to get the ‘less than’ ogive, as
C
EXERCIS E 14.4
1. The following distribution gi ves the daily incom e of 50 workers of a factory.
Daily income (in Rs) 100 - 120 120 - 140 140 - 160 160 - 180 180 - 200
d
Number of workers 12 14 8 6 10
he
Convert the distribution above t o a less than type cumulative frequency di stribution,
and draw i ts ogive.
2. During the medical check-up of 35 students of a class , their weights were recorded as
follows:
is
Weight (in kg) Number of students
bl
Less t han 38 0
Less t han 40 3
Less t han 42 5
pu
Less t han 44 9
Less t han 46 14
be T
Less t han 48 28
re
Less t han 50 32
o R
Less t han 52 35
Draw a les s than type ogive for the given data. Hen ce obtain the median weight from
tt E
Production yield 50 - 55 55 - 60 60 - 65 65 - 70 70 - 75 75 - 80
(in kg/ha)
no N
Number of farms 2 8 12 24 38 16
Change the distribution to a more than type dist ribution, and draw its ogive.
©
14.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have st udied the followin g points:
1. The mean for grouped data can be found by :
Sfi xi
(i) the direct method : x =
Sf i
294 MATHEM ATICS
Sf i d i
(ii) the assumed mean method : x = a +
Sf i
æ Sf u ö
(iii) the step deviat ion method : x = a + ç i i ÷ ´ h ,
è Sf i ø
d
with the ass umption that the frequ ency of a class is cen tred at its mid-point, called its
he
class mark.
2. The mode for grouped data can be found by using the formula:
æ f1 - f0 ö
Mode = l + ç ÷´h
è 2 f1 - f0 - f2 ø
is
where symbols have their usual meanings.
3. The cumulat ive frequency of a class is the frequency obtained by adding the frequencies
bl
of all the classes preceding the given class.
4. The median for grouped data is formed by using the formula:
pu
æn ö
ç 2 - cf ÷
Median = l + ç ÷ ´ h,
çç f ÷÷
be T
è ø
re
o R
6. The median of grouped data can be obtained graphical ly as the x-coordinate of the point
of intersect ion of the two ogives for this data.
C
no N
d
15
he
PROBABILITY
is
The theory of pro babilities and the theory of erro rs now constitute
a formidable bod y of great mathematical intere st and of great
bl
practical importance.
– R.S. Woodward
pu
15.1 Introduction
be T
In Class IX, you have studied about experimental (or empirical) probabilities of events
which were based on the results of actual experiments. We discussed an experiment
re
o R
of tossing a coin 1000 times in which the frequencies of the outcomes were as follows:
Head : 455 Tail : 545
tt E
455
Based on this experiment, the empirical probability of a head is , i.e., 0.455 and
1000
that of getting a tail is 0.545. (Also see Example 1, Chapter 15 of Class IX Mathematics
C
Textbook.) Note that these probabilities are based on the results of an actual experiment
of tossing a coin 1000 times. For this reason, they are called experimental or empirical
probabilities. In fact, experim ental probabilities are based on the results of actual
no N
In Class IX, you tossed a coin many times and noted the number of times it turned up
heads (or tails) (refer to Activities 1 and 2 of Chapter 15). You also noted that as the
number of tosses of the coin increased, the experimental probability of getting a head
1
(or tail) ca me closer and closer to the number × Not only you, but many other
2
296 MATHEM ATICS
persons from different parts of the world have done this kind of experiment and recorded
the number of heads that turned up.
For example, the eighteenth century French naturalist Comte de Buffon tossed a
coin 4040 times and got 2048 heads. The experimental probabilility of getting a head,
d
in this case, was 2048 , i.e., 0.507. J.E. Kerrich, from Britain, recorded 5067 heads in
he
4040
10000 tosses of a coin. T he experimental probability of getting a head, in this case,
5067
was = 0.5067 . Statistician Karl Pearson spent some more time, making 24000
10000
is
tosses of a coin. He got 12012 heads, and thus, the experimental probability of a head
obtained by him was 0.5005.
bl
Now, suppose we ask, ‘What will the experimental probability of a head be if the
experiment is carried on upto, say, one million times? Or 10 million times? And so on?’
You would intuitively feel that as the number of tosses increa ses, the experimental
pu
probability of a head (or a tail) seems to be settling down around the number 0.5 , i.e.,
1
be T
the theoretical (also called classical) probability of an event, and discuss simple problems
based on this concept.
tt E
that there is no reason for it to come down more often on one side than the other.
We call this property of the coin as being ‘unbiased’. By the phrase ‘random toss’,
we mean that the coin is allowe d to fall freely without any bias or interference.
©
We know, in advance, that the coin can only land in one of two possible ways —
either head up or tail up (we dismiss the possibility of its ‘landing’ on its edge, which
may be possible, for example, if it falls on sand). We can reasonably assume that each
outcome, head or tail, is as likely to occur as the other. We refer to this by saying that
the outcomes head and tail, are equally likely.
P ROBABILITY 297
For ano ther exa mple of equa lly like ly o utco mes, sup pose we thro w a die
onc e. For us, a die will always mean a f air die. Wha t are the possible outcom es?
T hey are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Each numbe r has t he same possibility of showing up . So
the eq ually likely outcome s of thr owin g a die are 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
d
Are the outcomes of every experiment equally likely? Let us see.
Suppose that a bag contains 4 red balls and 1 blue ball, and you draw a ball
he
without looking into the bag. What are the outcomes? Are the outcomes — a red ball
and a blue ball equally likely? Since there are 4 red balls and only one blue ball, you
would agree that you are more likely to get a red ball than a blue ball. So, the outcomes
(a red ball or a blue ball) are not equally likely. However, the outcome of drawing a
is
ball of any colour from the bag is equally likely. So, all experiments do not necessarily
have equally likely outcomes.
However, in this chapter, from now on, we will assume that all the e xperime nts
bl
have equally like ly outcomes.
In Class IX, we def ined the expe rimental or empirical pro bability P(E ) of an
pu
event E as
Number of trials in which the event happened
P(E) =
be T
experiments. But how about repeating the experiment of launching a satellite in order
to compute the empirical probability of its failure during launching, or the repetition of
the phenomenon of an earthquake to compute the empirical probability of a multi-
C
where we assume that the outcomes of the ex periment are equally likely.
We will briefly refer to theoretical probability as probability.
T his definition of probability was given by Pierre Simon Laplace in 1795.
d
Probability theory had its origin in the 16th century when
an Italian physician and mathematician J.Cardan wrote the
he
first book on the subject, The Book on Games of Chance.
Since its inception, the study of probability has attracted
the attention of great mathematicians. James Bernoulli
(1 654 – 1 705) , A. de Mo ivr e (1 667 – 1 754 ), a nd
Pierre Simon Laplace are among those who made significant
is
contributions to this field. Laplace’s Theorie Analytique
des Probab ilités, 1812, is considered to be the greatest
bl
contribution by a single person to the theory of probability. Pierre Simon Laplace
In recent years, probability has been used extensively in (1749 – 1827)
many areas such as biology, economics, genetics, physics,
pu
sociology etc.
Let us find the probability for some of the events associated with experiments
be T
Example 1 : Find the probability of getting a head when a coin is tossed once. Also
o R
is two — Head (H) and Tail (T ). Let E be the event ‘getting a head’. T he number of
outcomes favourable to E, (i.e., of getting a head) is 1. T herefore,
C
Example 2 : A bag contains a red ball, a blue ball and a yellow ball, all the balls being
of the same size. Kritika takes out a ball from the bag without looking into it. What is
the probability that she takes out the
(i) yellowball? (ii) red ball? (iii) blue ball?
P ROBABILITY 299
Solution : Kritika takes out a ball from the bag without looking into it. So, it is equally
likely that she takes out any one of them.
Let Y be the event ‘the ball taken out is yellow’, B be the event ‘the ball taken
out is blue’, and R be the event ‘the ball taken out is red’.
d
Now, the number of possible outcomes = 3.
(i) T he number of outcomes favourable to the event Y = 1.
he
1
So, P(Y) =
3
1 1
and (iii) P(B) = ×
is
Similarly, (ii) P(R) =
3 3
Re marks :
bl
1. An event having only one outcome of the experime nt is called an elementary
event. In Example 1, both the events E and F are elementary ev ents. Similarly, in
Example 2, all the three events, Y, B and R are elementary events.
pu
2. In Example 1, we note that : P(E) + P(F) = 1
In Example 2, we note that : P(Y) + P(R) + P(B) = 1
be T
Observe that the sum of the probabilities of all the e le mentary e ve nts of
an e xperime nt is 1. T his is true in general also.
re
o R
Example 3 : Suppose we throw a die once. (i) What is the probability of getting a
number greater than 4 ? (ii) What is the probability of getting a number less than or
tt E
equal to 4 ?
Solution : (i) Here, let E be the event ‘getting a number greater than 4’. T he number
of possible outcomes is six : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, and the outcomes favourable to E are 5
C
Are the events E and F in the example above elementary events? No, they are
not because the event E has 2 outcomes and the event F has 4 outcomes.
Re marks : From Example 1, we note that
1 1
d
P(E) + P(F) = + =1 (1)
2 2
he
where E is the event ‘getting a head’ and F is the event ‘getting a tail’.
From (i) and (ii) of Example 3, we also get
1 2
P(E) + P(F) = + =1 (2)
is
3 3
where E is the event ‘getting a number >4’ and F is the event ‘getting a number £ 4’.
Note that gett ing a number not greater than 4 is same a s getting a number less
bl
than or equal to 4, and vice versa.
In (1) and (2) above, is F not the same as ‘not E’? Yes, it is. We denote the event
pu
‘not E’ by E .
So, P(E) + P(not E) = 1
be T
P( E ) = 1 – P(E)
T he event E , representing ‘not E’, is called the comple me nt of the event E.
tt E
Before proceeding further, let us try to find the answers to the following questions:
(i) What is the probability of getting a number 8 in a single throw of a die?
no N
(ii) What is the probability of getting a number less than 7 in a single throw of a die?
Le t us answe r (i) :
We know that there are only six possible outcomes in a single throw of a die. T hese
©
d
will always get a number less than 7 wh en it is thrown once. So, the number of
favourable outcomes is the same as the number of all possible outcomes, which is 6.
he
6
T herefore, P(E) = P(getting a number less than 7) = =1
6
So, the probability of an event which is sure (or certain) to occur is 1. Such an event
is
is called a sure e ve nt or a ce rtain e ve nt.
Note : From the definition of the probability P(E), we see that the numerator (number
of outcomes favourable to the event E) is always less than or equal to the denominator
bl
(the number of all possible outcomes). T herefore,
0 £ P(E) £ 1
pu
Now, let us take an example related to playing cards. Have you seen a deck of
playing cards? It consists of 52 cards which are divided into 4 suits of 13 cards each—
be T
spades (♠), hearts (♥ ), diamonds (♦ ) and clubs (♣). Clubs and spa des are of black
colour, while hearts and diamonds are of r ed colour. T he cards in each suit are ace,
re
king, queen, jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2. Kings, queens and jacks are called face
o R
cards.
Example 4 : One card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Calculate the
tt E
(i) T here are 4 aces in a deck. Let E be the event ‘the card is an ace’.
T he number of outcomes favourable to E = 4
T he number of possible outcomes = 52 (Why ?)
©
4 1
T herefore, P(E) = =
52 13
(ii) Let F be the event ‘car d drawn is not an ace’.
T he number of outcomes favourable to the event F = 52 – 4 = 48 (Why?)
302 MATHEM ATICS
d
Re mark : Note that F is nothing but E . T herefore, we can a lso calculate P(F) as
1 12
he
follows: P (F) = P( E ) = 1 – P(E) = 1 - = ×
13 13
Example 5 : Two players, Sangeeta and Reshma, play a tennis m atch. It is known
that the probability of Sangeeta winning the match is 0.62. What is the probability of
is
Reshma winning the match?
Solution : Let S and R denote the events that Sangeeta wins the match and Reshma
bl
wins the match, respectively.
T he probability of Sangeeta’s winning = P(S) = 0.62 (given)
pu
T he probability of Reshma’s winning = P(R) = 1 – P(S)
[As the events R and S are complementary]
be T
= 1 – 0.62 = 0.38
re
Example 6 : Savita and Hamida are friends. What is the probability that both will
o R
have (i) different birthdays? (ii) the same birthday? (ignoring a leap year).
Solution : Out of the two friends, one girl, say, Savita’s birthday can be any day of the
tt E
year. Now, Hamida’s birthday can also be any day of 365 days in the year.
We assume that these 365 outcomes are equally likely.
C
(i) If Hamida’s birthday is different from Savita’s, the number of favourable outcomes
for her birthday is 365 – 1 = 364
364
no N
364
= 1- [Using P( E ) = 1 – P(E)]
365
1
=
365
P ROBABILITY 303
Example 7 : T here are 40 students in Class X of a school of whom 25 are girls and 15
are boys. T he class teacher has to select one student as a class repre sentative. She
writes the nam e of each student on a separ ate card, the cards being identical. T hen
she puts cards in a bag and stirs them thoroughly. She then dr aws one card from the
d
bag. What is the probability that the name written on the card is the name of (i) a girl?
(ii) a boy?
he
Solution : T here are 40 students, and only one name card has to be chosen.
(i) T he number of all possible outcomes is 40
T he number of outcomes favourable for a card with the name of a girl = 25 (Why?)
25 5
is
T herefore, P (card with name of a girl) = P(Girl) = =
40 8
(ii) T he number of outcomes favourable for a card with the name of a boy = 15 (Why?)
bl
15 3
T herefore, P(card with name of a boy) = P(Boy) = =
40 8
pu
Note : We can also determine P(Boy), by taking
5 3
P(Boy) = 1 – P(not Boy) = 1 – P(Girl) = 1 - =
be T
8 8
re
Example 8 : A box contains 3 blue, 2 white, and 4 red marbles. If a marble is drawn
o R
Solution : Saying that a marble is drawn at random is a short way of saying that all the
marbles are equally likely to be drawn. T herefore, the
C
9
3 1 4
Similarly, (ii) P(B) = = and (iii) P(R) =
9 3 9
d
equally likely. Here (H, H) means head up on the first coin (say on Re 1) and head up
on the second coin (Rs 2). Similarly (H, T ) means head up on the first coin and tail up
he
on the second coin and so on.
T he outcomes favourable to the event E, ‘at least one head’ are (H, H), (H, T )
and (T, H). (Why?)
So, the number of outcomes favourable to E is 3.
is
3
T herefore, P(E) =
4
bl
3
i.e., the probability that Harpreet gets at least one head is ×
4
Note : You can also find P(E) as follows:
pu
1 3 æ 1ö
P (E) = 1 – P(E) = 1 – = ç Since P(E) = P(no head) = ÷
4 4 è 4ø
be T
Did you observe that in all the examples discussed so far, the number of possible
re
outcomes in each experiment was finite? If not, check it now.
o R
T here are many experiments in which the outcome is any number between two
given numbers, or in which the outcome is every point within a circle or rectangle, etc.
tt E
Can you now co unt the number of all possible outcomes? As you know, this is not
possible since there are infinitely many numbers between two given numbers, or there
are infinitely many points within a circle. So, the definition of (theoretical) probability
C
which you have learnt so far cannot be applied in the present form. What is the way
out? To answer this, let us consider the following example :
Example 10* : In a musical cha ir game, the person playing th e music has been
no N
advised to stop playing the music at any time within 2 minutes after she starts playing.
What is the probability that the music will stop within the first half-minute after starting?
Solution : Here the possible outcomes are all the numbers between 0 and 2. T his is
©
Fig. 15.1
Let E be the event that ‘the music is stopped within the first half-minute’.
1
T he outcomes favourable to E are points on the number line from 0 to .
2
1 1
d
T he distance from 0 to 2 is 2, while the distance from 0 to is .
2 2
Since all the outcomes are equally likely, we can argue that, of the total distance
he
1
of 2, the distance favourable to the event E is .
2
1
is
Distance favourable to the event E 2=1
So, P(E) = =
Total distance in which outcomes can lie 2 4
bl
Can we now extend the idea of Example 10 for finding the probability as the ratio of
the favourable area to the total area?
pu
Example 11* : A missing helicop ter is reported to have crashed somewhere in the
rectangular region shown in Fig. 15.2. What is the probability that it crashed inside the
lake shown in the figure?
be T
re
o R
tt E
C
no N
Fig. 15.2
©
d
Example 12 : A carton consists of 100 shirts of which 88 are good, 8 have minor
defects and 4 have major defects. Jimmy, a trader, will only accept the shirts which
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are good, but Sujatha, another trader, will only reject the shirts wh ich have major
defects. One shirt is drawn at random from the carton. What is the probability that
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(ii) it is acceptable to Sujatha?
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Solution : One shirt is drawn at random from the carton of 100 shirts. T herefore,
there are 100 equally likely outcomes.
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(i) T he number of outcomes favourable (i.e., acceptable) to Jimmy = 88 (Why?)
88
= 0.88
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96
So, P (shirt is accep table to Sujatha) = = 0.96
100
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Example 13 : Two dice, one blue and one grey, are thrown at the same time. Write
down all the possible outcomes. What is the probability that the sum of the two numbers
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Solution : When the blue die shows ‘1’, the grey die could sh ow any one of the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. T he same is true when the blue die shows ‘2’, ‘3’, ‘4’, ‘5’ or
‘6’. T he possible outcomes of the experiment are listed in the table below; the first
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number in each ordered pair is the number appearing on the blue die and the second
number is that on the grey die.
P ROBABILITY 307
6 5
1 2 3 4 5 6
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1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
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2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
4
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
6 5
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
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5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
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Fig. 15.3
Note that the pair (1, 4) is different from (4, 1). (Why?)
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So, the number of possible outcomes = 6 × 6 = 36.
(i) T he outcomes favourable to the event ‘the sum of the two numbers is 8’ denoted
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by E, are: (2, 6), (3, 5), (4, 4), (5, 3), (6, 2) (see Fig. 15.3)
re
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36
(ii) As you can see from Fig. 15.3, there is no outcome favourable to the event F,
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36
(iii) As you can see from Fig. 15.3, all the outcomes are favourable to the event G,
‘sum of two numbers £ 12’.
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36
So, P(G) = =1
36
308 MATHEM ATICS
EXERCIS E 15.1
1. Complete the foll owing statements:
(i) Probability of an event E + Probability of the event ‘not E’ = .
(ii) The probability of an even t that cannot happen is . Such an event is
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called .
(iii) The probability of an event t hat is certain to happen is . Such an event
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is cal led .
(iv) The sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of an exp eriment is
.
(v) The probability of an event i s greater than or equal to and less than or
is
equal to .
2. Which of the following experiments have equally likely outcomes? Explain.
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(i) A driver att empts to start a car. The car starts or does not start.
(ii) A player attempts to shoot a basketball. She/he shoots or misses the shot.
(iii) A trial is made to answer a t rue-false question. The answer is right or wrong.
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(iv) A baby is born. It is a boy or a girl.
3. Why is toss ing a coin considered to be a fair way of deciding which team should get the
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2
(A) (B) –1.5 (C) 15% (D) 0.7
3
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looking int o the bag. What is the probability that she takes out
(i) an orange flavoured candy?
(ii) a lemon flav oured candy?
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7. It is given that in a group of 3 students, the probabi lity of 2 students not having the
same birthd ay is 0.992. What is the probability that the 2 students hav e the same
birthday?
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8. A bag contains 3 red balls and 5 black balls. A ball is drawn at random from the bag.
What is the probability that the ball drawn is (i) red ? (ii) not red?
9. A box contains 5 red marbles, 8 white marbles and 4 green marbles. One marble is taken
out of the box at random. What is the probability that the marble taken out will be
(i) red ? (ii) white ? (iii) not green?
P ROBABILITY 309
10. A piggy ban k contains hundred 50 p coins, fifty Re 1 coins, twenty Rs 2 coins and ten
Rs 5 coins. If it is equally likely that one of the coins will fall out when the bank is turned
upside down, what is the probability that the coin (i) will be a 50 p coin ? (ii) will not be
a Rs 5 coin?
11. Gopi buys a fish from a shop for his aquarium. The
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shopkeeper t akes out one fish at random from a
tank containi ng 5 male fish and 8 fem ale fish (see
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Fig. 15.4). What is the probability that the fish taken
out is a m ale fish?
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1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (see Fig. 15.5 ), and these are equally
likely outcomes. What is the probability that it will
point at 8 1
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(i) 8 ? 7 2
(ii) an odd number? 6 3
(iii) a number greater than 2? 5 4
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(iv) a number less than 9?
Fig. 15.5
13. A die is thrown once. Find the probability of getting
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(i) a prime number; (ii) a number lying between 2 and 6; (iii) an odd number.
14. One card is drawn from a well-shu ffled deck of 52 cards . Find the probability of getting
re
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(i) a king of red colour (ii) a face card (iii) a red face card
(iv) the jack of hearts (v) a spade (vi) the queen of diamonds
15. Five cards — the ten, jack, queen, king and ace of diam onds, are well-shuffled with their
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(ii) If the queen is drawn and put aside, what is the probability that the s econd card
picked up is (a) an ace? (b) a queen?
16. 12 defectiv e pens are accidentall y mixed with 132 good ones. It is not possi ble to just
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look at a pen and tell whether or not it is defective. One pen is taken out at random from
this lot. Determine the probability that the pen taken out is a good one.
17. (i) A lot of 20 bulbs contain 4 defective ones. One bulb is drawn at random from the lot.
What is t he probability that this bulb is defective?
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(ii) Sup pose the bulb drawn in (i ) is not defective and i s not repl aced. Now one bulb
is drawn at random from the rest. What is the probabi lity that this bulb is n ot
defect ive ?
18. A box contains 90 discs which are numbered from 1 to 90. If one disc is drawn at random
from the box, find the probabili ty that it bears (i) a two-digit number (ii ) a perfect
square number (iii) a number divisible by 5.
310 MATHEM ATICS
19. A child has a die whose six faces show the letters as given below:
A B C D E A
The die is t hrown once. What is the probability of getting (i) A? (ii) D?
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20*. Suppose you drop a die at random on the rectangular region shown in Fig. 15.6. What is
the probability that it will land inside the circle with diameter 1m?
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3m
2m
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Fig. 15.6
21. A lot consi sts of 144 ball pens of which 20 are defect ive and the others are good. Nuri
will buy a pen i f it is good, but will not buy if it is defective. The shopk eeper draws one
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pen at rand om and gives it to her. What is the probability that
(i) She will buy it ?
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Event :
‘Sum on 2 dice’ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
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1 5 1
Probability
36 36 36
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(ii) A student argues that ‘there are 11 possible outcomes 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and
1
12. Therefore, each ofthem has a probability . Do you agree with this argument?
11
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25. Which of the following arguments are correct and whi ch are not correct? Give reasons
for your answer.
(i) If two coins are tossed sim ultaneously there are three possible outcomes — two
heads, two t ails or one of each. T herefore, for each of these outcomes, the
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1
probability is ×
3
(ii) If a die is thrown, there are two possible outcomes — an odd number or an even
he
1
number. Therefore, the probabili ty of getting an odd number is .
2
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1. Two customers Shyam and Ekta are visiting a particular shop in the same week (Tuesday
to Saturday). Each is equally likely to visit the shop on any day as on another day. What
is the probability that both wi ll visit the shop on (i) the same day? (ii) consecutive
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days? (i ii) different days?
2. A die is nu mbered in such a way t hat its faces show the numbers 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 6. It is
thrown two times and the total score in two throws i s noted. Complete the following
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table which gives a few values of the total score on the two throws:
Number in first throw
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+ 1 2 2 3 3 6
Number in second throw
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1 2 3 3 4 4 7
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2 3 4 4 5 5 8
2 5
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3
3 5 9
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6 7 8 8 9 9 12
4. A box cont ains 12 balls out of which x are black. If one ball is drawn at random from the
box, what is the probability that it will be a black ball?
If 6 more black balls are put in the box, the probabili ty of drawing a black ball is now
double of what it was before. Find x.
5. A jar contains 24 marbles, some are green and others are blue. If a marble is drawn at
2
random from the jar, the probability that it is green is × Find the number of blue balls
3
in the jar.
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15.3 Summary
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In this chapter, you have st udied the followin g points :
1. The difference between experi mental probability and theoretical probability.
2. The theoret ical (classical) probability of an event E, written as P(E), is defined as
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Number of outcomes favourable to E
P (E) =
Number of all possible outcomes of the experiment
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where we assume that the outcomes of the exp eriment are equall y likely.
3. The probability of a sure ev ent (or certain ev ent) is 1.
4. The probabi lity of an impossible event is 0.
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5. The probability of an event E is a number P(E) such that
0 £ P (E) £ 1
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6. An event having only one outcome is called an elementary event. The sum of the
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probabiliti es of all the elementary events of an experiment is 1.
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7. For any event E, P (E) + P ( E ) = 1, where E stands for ‘n ot E’. E and E are called
complementary events.
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in c re a sin g we m ay e x p ec t t h e e x p e r im e n t a l a n d th e o r e tic a l
pr obabilitie s to be ne ar ly th e sam e.
P ROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 313
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PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS A1
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A1.1 Introduction
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The ability to reason and think clearly is extremely useful in our daily life. For example,
suppose a politician tells you, ‘If you are interested in a clean government, then you
should vote for me.’ What he actually wants you to believe is that if you do not vote for
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him, then you may not get a clean government. Similarly, if an advertisement tells you,
‘The intelligent wear XYZ shoes’, what the company wants you to conclude is that if
you do not wear XYZ shoes, then you are not intelligent enough. You can yourself
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observe that both the above statements may mislead the general public. So, if we
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understand the process of reasoning correctly, we do not fall into such traps
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unknowingly.
The correct use of reasoning is at the core of mathematics, especially in constructing
proofs. In Class IX, you were introduced to the idea of proofs, and you actually proved
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in the proof, or from a theorem proved earlier, or an axiom, or the hypotheses. The
main tool, we use in constructing a proof, is the process of deductive reasoning.
We start the study of this chapter with a review of what a mathematical statement
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is. Then, we proceed to sharpen our skills in deductive reasoning using several examples.
We shall also deal with the concept of negation and finding the negation of a given
statement. Then, we discuss what it means to find the converse of a given statement.
Finally, we review the ingredients of a proof learnt in Class IX by analysing the proofs
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of several theorems. Here, we also discuss the idea of proof by contradiction, which
you have come across in Class IX and many other chapters of this book.
Cricket World Cup Final?’is a question, not a statement. ‘Go and finish your homework’
is an order, not a statement. ‘What a fantastic goal!’ is an exclamation, not a statement.
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• always false
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• ambiguous
In Class IX, you have also studied that in mathematics, a statement is
acceptable only if it is either always true or always false. So, ambiguous sentences
are not considered as mathematical statements.
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Let us review our understanding with a few examples.
Example 1 : State whether the following statements are always true, always false or
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ambiguous. Justify your answers.
(i) The Sun orbits the Earth.
(ii) Vehicles have four wheels.
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(iii) The speed of light is approximately 3 × 105 km/s.
(iv) A road to Kolkata will be closed from November to March.
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(i) This statement is always false, since astronomers have established that the Earth
orbits the Sun.
(ii) This statement is ambiguous, because we cannot decide if it is always true or
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always false. This depends on what the vehicle is — vehicles can have 2, 3, 4, 6,
10, etc., wheels.
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to.
(v) This statement is always true, since every human being has to die some time.
Example 2 : State whether the following statements are true or false, and justify your
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answers.
(i) All equilateral triangles are isosceles.
(ii) Some isosceles triangles are equilateral.
(iii) All isosceles triangles are equilateral.
(iv) Some rational numbers are integers.
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Solution :
(i) This statement is true, because equilateral triangles have equal sides, and therefore
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are isosceles.
(ii) This statement is true, because those isosceles triangles whose base angles are
60° are equilateral.
(iii) This statement is false. Give a counter-example for it.
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p
(iv) This statement is true, since rational numbers of the form , where p is an
3 q
integer and q = 1, are integers (for example, 3 = ).
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1 p
(v) This statement is true, because rational numbers of the form , p, q are integers
3 q
and q does not divide p, are not integers (for example, ).
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2
(vi) This statement is the same as saying ‘there is an integer which is not a rational
number’. This is false, because all integers are rational numbers.
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(vii) This statement is false. As you know, between any two rational numbers r and s
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r +s
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(i) This statement is false, because, for example, x = 3 < 4 does not satisfy 2x > 8.
(ii) This statement is false, because, for example, x = 3.5 < 4 does not satisfy 2x < 6.
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Solution :
(i) If the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal, then it is a rectangle.
(ii) A line joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side.
(iii) p is irrational for all primes p.
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(iv) All quadratic equations have at most two real roots.
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Remark : There can be other ways of restating the statements above. For instance,
(iii) can also be restated as ‘ p is irrational for all positive integers p which are not a
perfect square’.
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EXERCISE A1.1
1. State whether the following statements are always true, always false or ambiguous.
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Justify your answers.
2. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify your answers.
(i) All hexagons are polygons. (ii) Some polygons are pentagons.
(iii) Not all even numbers are divisible by 2. (iv) Some real numbers are irrational.
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used to deduce conclusions from given statements that we assume to be true. The
given statements are called ‘premises’ or ‘hypotheses’. We begin with some examples.
Example 5 : Given that Bijapur is in the state of Karnataka, and suppose Shabana
lives in Bijapur. In which state does Shabana live?
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Solution : Here we have two premises:
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(i) Bijapur is in the state of Karnataka (ii) Shabana lives in Bijapur
From these premises, we deduce that Shabana lives in the state of Karnataka.
Example 6 : Given that all mathematics textbooks are interesting, and suppose you
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are reading a mathematics textbook. What can we conclude about the textbook you
are reading?
Solution : Using the two premises (or hypotheses), we can deduce that you are
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reading an interesting textbook.
Example 7 : Given that y = – 6x + 5, and suppose x = 3. What is y?
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Solution : Given the two hypotheses, we get y = – 6 (3) + 5 = – 13.
BC?
Solution : We are given that ABCD is a parallelogram.
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So, we deduce that all the properties that hold for a Fig. A1.1
parallelogram hold for ABCD. Therefore, in particular,
the property that ‘the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal to each other’, holds.
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Since we know AD = 5 cm, we can deduce that BC = 5 cm. Similarly, we deduce that
DC = 7 cm.
Remark : In this example, we have seen how we will often need to find out and use
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Example 9 : Given that p is irrational for all primes p, and suppose that 19423 is a
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trueness or falsity of the hypotheses. However, it must also be noted that if we start
with an incorrect premise (or hypothesis), we may arrive at a wrong conclusion.
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EXERCISE A1.2
1. Given that all women are mortal, and suppose that A is a woman, what can we conclude
about A?
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2. Given that the product of two rational numbers is rational, and suppose a and b are
rationals, what can you conclude about ab?
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3. Given that the decimal expansion of irrational numbers is non-terminating, non-recurring,
and 17 is irrational, what can we conclude about the decimal expansion
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of 17 ?
4. Given that y = x 2 + 6 and x = – 1, what can we conclude about the value of y?
5. Given that ABCD is a parallelogram and ∠ B = 80°. What can you conclude about the
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you conclude that 3721 is an irrational number? Is your conclusion correct? Why or
why not?
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1 1
2 2
d
3 4
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4 8
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6
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Some of you might have come up with a formula predicting the number of regions
given the number of points. From Class IX, you may remember that this intelligent
guess is called a ‘conjecture’.
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Suppose your conjecture is that given ‘n’ points on a circle, there are 2n – 1
mutually exclusive regions, created by joining the points with all possible lines. This
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seems an extremely sensible guess, and one can check that if n = 5, we do get 16
regions. So, having verified this formula for 5 points, are you satisfied that for any n
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points there are 2n – 1 regions? If so, how would you respond, if someone asked you,
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how you can be sure about this for n = 25, say? To deal with such questions, you
would need a proof which shows beyond doubt that this result is true, or a counter-
example to show that this result fails for some ‘n’. Actually, if you are patient and try
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it out for n = 6, you will find that there are 31 regions, and for n = 7 there are 57
regions. So, n = 6, is a counter-example to the conjecture above. This demonstrates
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the power of a counter-example. You may recall that in the Class IX we discussed
that to disprove a statement, it is enough to come up with a single counter-
example.
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You may have noticed that we insisted on a proof regarding the number
of regions in spite of verifying the result for n = 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Let us consider
a few more examples. You are familiar with the following result (given in Chapter 5):
2
result for n = 1, 2, 3, and so on, because there may be some ‘n’ for which this result is
not true (just as in the example above, the result failed for n = 6). What we need is a
proof which establishes its truth beyond doubt. You shall learn a proof for the same in
higher classes.
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figures, measuring the lengths of the respective
tangents, and verifying for yourselves that the result
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was true in each case. Fig. A1.3
Do you remember what did the proof consist of ? It consisted of a sequence of
statements (called valid arguments), each following from the earlier statements in
the proof, or from previously proved (and known) results independent from the result
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to be proved, or from axioms, or from definitions, or from the assumptions you had
made. And you concluded your proof with the statement PQ = PR, i.e., the statement
you wanted to prove. This is the way any proof is constructed.
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We shall now look at some examples and theorems and analyse their proofs to
help us in getting a better understanding of how they are constructed.
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We begin by using the so-called ‘direct’ or ‘deductive’ method of proof. In this
method, we make several statements. Each is based on previous statements. If
each statement is logically correct (i.e., a valid argument), it leads to a logically correct
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conclusion.
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Example 10 : The sum of two rational numbers is a rational number.
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Solution :
m p
2. Let x = , n ≠ 0 and y = , q ≠ 0 Apply the definition of
n q
rationals.
where m, n, p and q are integers.
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nq ≠ 0. integers.
mq + np
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6. Therefore, x + y = is a rational Using the definition of a
number nq rational number.
Remark : Note that, each statement in the proof above is based on a previously
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established fact, or definition.
Example 11 : Every prime number greater than 3 is of the form 6k + 1 or 6k + 5,
where k is some integer.
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Solution :
S.No.
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6k + 3, 6k + 4, or 6k + 5, where k is
an integer.
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sides, then the angle opposite the first side
is a right angle.
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Proof : Fig. A1.4
S.No. Statements Analysis
1. Let ΔABC satisfy the hypothesis Since we are proving a
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AC2 = AB2 + BC2. statement about such a
triangle, we begin by taking
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this.
2. Construct line BD perpendicular to This is the intuitive step we
AB, such that BD = BC, and join A to D. have talked about that we
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often need to take for
proving theorems.
By construction, ΔABD is a right
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ΔABC ≅ ΔABD.
Remark : Each of the results above has been proved by a sequence of steps, all
linked together. Their order is important. Each step in the proof follows from previous
steps and earlier known results. (Also see Theorem 6.9.)
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EXERCISE A1.3
In each of the following questions, we ask you to prove a statement. List all the steps in each
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proof, and give the reason for each step.
1. Prove that the sum of two consecutive odd numbers is divisible by 4.
2. Take two consecutive odd numbers. Find the sum of their squares, and then add 6 to the
result. Prove that the new number is always divisible by 8.
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3. If p ≥ 5 is a prime number, show that p2 + 2 is divisible by 3.
[Hint: Use Example 11].
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4. Let x and y be rational numbers. Show that xy is a rational number.
5. If a and b are positive integers, then you know that a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b, where q is a whole
number. Prove that HCF (a, b) = HCF (b, r).
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[Hint : Let HCF (b, r) = h. So, b = k 1h and r = k 2h, where k 1 and k 2 are coprime.]
6. A line parallel to side BC of a triangle ABC, intersects AB and AC at D and E respectively.
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Prove that AD = AE ⋅
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DB EC
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would like to introduce some notation, which will make it easy for us to understand
these concepts. To start with, let us look at a statement as a single unit, and give it a
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name. For example, we can denote the statement ‘It rained in Delhi on 1 September
2005’ by p. We can also write this by
p: It rained in Delhi on 1 September 2005.
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s: 2 + 2 = 4.
t: Triangle ABC is equilateral.
This notation now helps us to discuss properties of statements, and also to see
how we can combine them. In the beginning we will be working with what we call
‘simple’ statements, and will then move onto ‘compound’ statements.
Now consider the following table in which we make a new statement from each
of the given statements.
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p: It rained in Delhi on ~p: It is false that it rained in Delhi
1 September 2005 on 1 September 2005.
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q: All teachers are female. ~ q: It is false that all teachers are
female.
r: Mike’s dog has a black tail. ~r: It is false that Mike’s dog has a
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black tail.
s: 2 + 2 = 4. ~s: It is false that 2 + 2 = 4.
t: Triangle ABC is equilateral. ~t: It is false that triangle ABC is
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equilateral.
Each new statement in the table is a negation of the corresponding old statement.
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That is, ~p, ~q, ~r, ~s and ~t are negations of the statements p, q, r, s and t, respectively.
Here, ~p is read as ‘not p’. The statement ~p negates the assertion that the statement
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p makes. Notice that in our usual talk we would simply mean ~p as ‘It did not rain in
Delhi on 1 September 2005.’ However, we need to be careful while doing so. You
re
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might think that one can obtain the negation of a statement by simply inserting the
word ‘not’ in the given statement at a suitable place. While this works in the case of
p, the difficulty comes when we have a statement that begins with ‘all’. Consider, for
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example, the statement q: All teachers are female. We said the negation of this statement
is ~q: It is false that all teachers are female. This is the same as the statement ‘There
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are some teachers who are males.’ Now let us see what happens if we simply insert
‘not’ in q. We obtain the statement: ‘All teachers are not female’, or we can obtain the
statement: ‘Not all teachers are female.’ The first statement can confuse people. It
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could imply (if we lay emphasis on the word ‘All’) that all teachers are male! This is
certainly not the negation of q. However, the second statement gives the meaning of
~q, i.e., that there is at least one teacher who is not a female. So, be careful when
writing the negation of a statement!
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So, how do we decide that we have the correct negation? We use the following
criterion.
Let p be a statement and ~p its negation. Then ~p is false whenever p is
true, and ~p is true whenever p is false.
For example, if it is true that Mike’s dog has a black tail, then it is false that
Mike’s dog does not have a black tail. If it is false that ‘Mike’s dog has a black tail’,
then it is true that ‘Mike’s dog does not have a black tail’.
Similarly, the negations for the statements s and t are:
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s: 2 + 2 = 4; negation, ~s: 2 + 2 ≠ 4.
t: Triangle ABC is equilateral; negation, ~t: Triangle ABC is not equilateral.
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Now, what is ~(~s)? It would be 2 + 2 = 4, which is s. And what is ~(~t)? This
would be ‘the triangle ABC is equilateral’, i.e., t. In fact, for any statement p, ~(~p)
is p.
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Example 12 : State the negations for the following statements:
(i) Mike’s dog does not have a black tail.
(ii) All irrational numbers are real numbers.
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(iii) 2 is irrational.
(iv) Some rational numbers are integers.
(v) Not all teachers are males.
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(vi) Some horses are not brown.
(vii) There is no real number x, such that x2 = – 1.
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Solution :
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(i) It is false that Mike’s dog does not have a black tail, i.e., Mike’s dog has a black
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tail.
(ii) It is false that all irrational numbers are real numbers, i.e., some (at least one)
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irrational numbers are not real numbers. One can also write this as, ‘Not all
irrational numbers are real numbers.’
(iii) It is false that 2 is irrational, i.e., 2 is not irrational.
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(iv) It is false that some rational numbers are integers, i.e., no rational number is an
integer.
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(v) It is false that not all teachers are males, i.e., all teachers are males.
(vi) It is false that some horses are not brown, i.e., all horses are brown.
(vii) It is false that there is no real number x, such that x2 = – 1, i.e., there is at least
one real number x, such that x2 = – 1.
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Remark : From the above discussion, you may arrive at the following Working Rule
for obtaining the negation of a statement :
(i) First write the statement with a ‘not’.
(ii) If there is any confusion, make suitable modification , specially in the statements
involving ‘All’ or ‘Some’.
EXERCISE A1.4
1. State the negations for the following statements :
(i) Man is mortal. (ii) Line l is parallel to line m.
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(iii) This chapter has many exercises. (iv) All integers are rational numbers.
(v) Some prime numbers are odd. (vi) No student is lazy.
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(vii) Some cats are not black.
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2. In each of the following questions, there are two statements. State if the second is the
negation of the first or not.
(i) Mumtaz is hungry. (ii) Some cats are black.
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Mumtaz is not hungry. Some cats are brown.
(iii) All elephants are huge. (iv) All fire engines are red.
pu One elephant is not huge. All fire engines are not red.
(v) No man is a cow.
Some men are cows.
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We now investigate the notion of the converse of a statement. For this, we need the
notion of a ‘compound’ statement, that is, a statement which is a combination of one or
more ‘simple’ statements. There are many ways of creating compound statements,
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but we will focus on those that are created by connecting two simple statements with
the use of the words ‘if’ and ‘then’. For example, the statement ‘If it is raining, then it
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Using our previous notation we can say: If p, then q. We can also say ‘p implies
q’, and denote it by p ⇒ q.
Now, supose you have the statement ‘If the water tank is black, then it contains
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potable water.’ This is of the form p ⇒ q, where the hypothesis is p (the water tank
is black) and the conclusion is q (the tank contains potable water). Suppose we
interchange the hypothesis and the conclusion, what do we get? We get q ⇒ p, i.e., if
the water in the tank is potable, then the tank must be black. This statement is called
the converse of the statement p ⇒ q.
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(i) If Jamila is riding a bicycle, then 17 August falls on a Sunday.
(ii) If 17 August is a Sunday, then Jamila is riding a bicycle.
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(iii) If Pauline is angry, then her face turns red.
(iv) If a person has a degree in education, then she is allowed to teach.
(v) If a person has a viral infection, then he runs a high temperature.
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(vi) If Ahmad is in Mumbai, then he is in India.
(vii) If triangle ABC is equilateral, then all its interior angles are equal.
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(viii) If x is an irrational number, then the decimal expansion of x is non-terminating
non-recurring.
(ix) If x – a is a factor of the polynomial p(x), then p(a) = 0.
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Solution : Each statement above is of the form p ⇒ q. So, to find the converse, we
first identify p and q, and then write q ⇒ p.
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(i) p: Jamila is riding a bicycle, and q: 17 August falls on a Sunday. Therefore, the
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converse is: If 17 August falls on a Sunday, then Jamila is riding a bicycle.
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(ii) This is the converse of (i). Therefore, its converse is the statement given in
(i) above.
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Notice that we have simply written the converse of each of the statements
above without worrying if they are true or false. For example, consider the following
statement: If Ahmad is in Mumbai, then he is in India. This statement is true. Now
consider the converse: If Ahmad is in India, then he is in Mumbai. This need not be
true always – he could be in any other part of India.
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decide whether the converse is true or false.
(i) If n is an even integer, then 2n + 1 is an odd integer.
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(ii) If the decimal expansion of a real number is terminating, then the number is
rational.
(iii) If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then each pair of corresponding
angles is equal.
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(iv) If each pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is equal, then the quadrilateral is
a parallelogram.
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(v) If two triangles are congruent, then their corresponding angles are equal.
Solution :
(i) The converse is ‘If 2n + 1 is an odd integer, then n is an even integer.’ This is a
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false statement (for example, 15 = 2(7) + 1, and 7 is odd).
(ii) ‘If a real number is rational, then its decimal expansion is terminating’, is the
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converse. This is a false statement, because a rational number can also have a
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non-terminating recurring decimal expansion.
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(iii) The converse is ‘If a transversal intersects two lines in such a way that each
pair of corresponding angles are equal, then the two lines are parallel.’ We have
assumed, by Axiom 6.4 of your Class IX textbook, that this statement is true.
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(iv) ‘If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then each pair of its opposite sides is equal’,
is the converse. This is true (Theorem 8.1, Class IX).
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(v) ‘If the corresponding angles in two triangles are equal, then they are congruent’,
is the converse. This statement is false. We leave it to you to find suitable counter-
examples.
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EXERCISE A1.5
1. Write the converses of the following statements.
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2. Write the converses of the following statements. Also, decide in each case whether the
converse is true or false.
(i) If triangle ABC is isosceles, then its base angles are equal.
(ii) If an integer is odd, then its square is an odd integer.
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(iii) If x 2 = 1, then x = 1.
(iv) If ABCD is a parallelogram, then AC and BD bisect each other.
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(v) If a, b and c, are whole numbers, then a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.
(vi) If x and y are two odd numbers, then x + y is an even number.
(vii) If vertices of a parallelogram lie on a circle, then it is a rectangle.
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A1.7 Proof by Contradiction
So far, in all our examples, we used direct arguments to establish the truth of the
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results. We now explore ‘indirect’ arguments, in particular, a very powerful tool in
mathematics known as ‘proof by contradiction’. We have already used this method in
Chapter 1 to establish the irrationality of several numbers and also in other chapters to
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prove some theorems. Here, we do several more examples to illustrate the idea.
Before we proceed, let us explain what a contradiction is. In mathematics, a
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contradiction occurs when we get a statement p such that p is true and ~p, its negation,
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is also true. For example,
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a
p: x = , where a and b are coprime.
b
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How does proof by contradiction work? Let us see this through a specific example.
Suppose we are given the following :
All women are mortal. A is a woman. Prove that A is mortal.
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Even though this is a rather easy example, let us see how we can prove this by
contradiction.
z Let us assume that we want to establish the truth of a statement p (here we
want to show that p : ‘A is mortal’ is true).
z So, we begin by assuming that the statement is not true, that is, we assume that
the negation of p is true (i.e., A is not mortal).
z We then proceed to carry out a series of logical deductions based on the truth of
the negation of p. (Since A is not mortal, we have a counter-example to the
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statement ‘All women are mortal.’ Hence, it is false that all women are mortal.)
z If this leads to a contradiction, then the contradiction arises because of our faulty
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assumption that p is not true. (We have a contradiction, since we have shown
that the statement ‘All women are mortal’ and its negation, ‘Not all women are
mortal’ is true at the same time. This contradiction arose, because we assumed
that A is not mortal.)
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z Therefore, our assumption is wrong, i.e., p has to be true. (So, A is mortal.)
Let us now look at examples from mathematics.
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Example 15 : The product of a non-zero rational number and an irrational number is
irrational.
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Solution :
Statements Analysis/Comment
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m
Let r = , where m, n are integers and m ≠ 0,
n
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p
Then rx = , q ≠ 0, where p and q are integers. This follow from the
q
previous statement and the
definition of a rational
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number.
p
Rearranging the equation rx = , q ≠ 0, and
q
m p np
using the fact that r = , we get x = = .
n rq mq
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This is a contradiction, because we have shown x This is what we were looking
to be rational, but by our hypothesis, we have x for — a contradiction.
is irrational.
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The contradiction has arisen because of the faulty Logical deduction.
assumption that rx is rational. Therefore, rx
is irrational.
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We now prove Example 11, but this time using proof by contradiction. The proof
is given below:
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Statements Analysis/Comment
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Let us assume that the statement is note true. As we saw earlier, this is the
starting point for an argument
using ‘proof by contradiction’.
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So we suppose that there exists a prime number This is the negation of the
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p > 3, which is not of the form 6n + 1 or 6n + 5, statement in the result.
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Remark : The example of the proof above shows you, yet again, that there can be
several ways of proving a result.
Theorem A1.2 : Out of all the line segments, drawn from a point to points of a
line not passing through the point, the smallest is the perpendicular to the line.
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Proof :
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Fig. A1.5
Statements Analysis/Comment
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Let XY be the given line, P a point not lying on XY Since we have to prove that
and PM, PA1 , PA2, . . . etc., be the line segments out of all PM, PA1, PA2 , . . .
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drawn from P to the points of the line XY, out of etc., the smallest is perpendi-
which PM is the smallest (see Fig. A1.5). cular to XY, we start by
taking these line segments.
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contradiction.
PN is the smallest of all the line segments PM, Side of right triangle is less
PA1, PA2, . . . etc., which means PN < PM. than the hypotenuse and
known property of numbers.
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EXERCISE A1.6
1. Suppose a + b = c + d, and a < c. Use proof by contradiction to show b > d.
2. Let r be a rational number and x be an irrational number. Use proof by contradiction to
show that r + x is an irrational number.
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3. Use proof by contradiction to prove that if for an integer a, a2 is even, then so is a.
[Hint : Assume a is not even, that is, it is of the form 2n + 1, for some integer n, and then
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proceed.]
4. Use proof by contradiction to prove that if for an integer a, a2 is divisible by 3, then a is
divisible by 3.
5. Use proof by contradiction to show that there is no value of n for which 6n ends with the
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digit zero.
6. Prove by contradiction that two distinct lines in a plane cannot intersect in more than
one point.
A1.8 Summary
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In this Appendix, you have studied the following points :
1. Different ingredients of a proof and other related concepts learnt in Class IX.
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4. Proof by contradiction.
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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING A2
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A2.1 Introduction
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z An adult human body contains approximately 1,50,000 km of arteries and veins
that carry blood.
z The human heart pumps 5 to 6 litres of blood in the body every 60 seconds.
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z The temperature at the surface of the Sun is about 6,000° C.
Have you ever wondered how our scientists and mathematicians could possibly
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have estimated these results? Did they pull out the veins and arteries from some adult
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dead bodies and measure them? Did they drain out the blood to arrive at these results?
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Did they travel to the Sun with a thermometer to get the temperature of the Sun?
Surely not. Then how did they get these figures?
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mathematical model of a problem, and using it to analyse and solve the problem.
So, in mathematical modelling, we take a real-world problem and convert it to an
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equivalent mathematical problem. We then solve the mathematical problem, and interpret
its solution in the situation of the real-world problem. And then, it is important to see
that the solution, we have obtained, ‘makes sense’, which is the stage of validating the
model. Some examples, where mathematical modelling is of great importance, are:
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(viii) Estimating the number of leaves in a tree.
(ix) Estimating the ppm of different pollutants in the atmosphere of a city.
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(x) Estimating the effect of pollutants on the environment.
(xi) Estimating the temperature on the Sun’s surface.
In this chapter we shall revisit the process of mathematical modelling, and take
examples from the world around us to illustrate this. In Section A2.2 we take you
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through all the stages of building a model. In Section A2.3, we discuss a variety of
examples. In Section A2.4, we look at reasons for the importance of mathematical
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modelling.
A point to remember is that here we aim to make you aware of an important way
in which mathematics helps to solve real-world problems. However, you need to know
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some more mathematics to really appreciate the power of mathematical modelling. In
higher classes some examples giving this flavour will be found.
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an insight into the process and the steps involved in it? Let us quickly revisit the main
steps in mathematical modelling.
Step 1 (Understanding the problem) : Define the real problem, and if working in a
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team, discuss the issues that you wish to understand. Simplify by making assumptions
and ignoring certain factors so that the problem is manageable.
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For example, suppose our problem is to estimate the number of fishes in a lake. It is
not possible to capture each of these fishes and count them. We could possibly capture
a sample and from it try and estimate the total number of fishes in the lake.
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z define variables
For example, having taken a sample, as stated in Step 1, how do we estimate the
entire population? We would have to then mark the sampled fishes, allow them to mix
with the remaining ones in the lake, again draw a sample from the lake, and see how
many of the previously marked ones are present in the new sample. Then, using ratio
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and proportion, we can come up with an estimate of the total population. For instance,
let us take a sample of 20 fishes from the lake and mark them, and then release them
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in the same lake, so as to mix with the remaining fishes. We then take another sample
(say 50), from the mixed population and see how many are marked. So, we gather our
data and analyse it.
One major assumption we are making is that the marked fishes mix uniformly
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with the remaining fishes, and the sample we take is a good representative of the
entire population.
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Step 3 (Solving the mathematical problem) : The simplified mathematical problem
developed in Step 2 is then solved using various mathematical techniques.
For instance, suppose in the second sample in the example in Step 2, 5 fishes are
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5 , 1
marked. So, i.e., , of the population is marked. If this is typical of the whole
50 10
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1
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population, then th of the population = 20.
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10
So, the whole population = 20 × 10 = 200.
Step 4 (Interpreting the solution) : The solution obtained in the previous step
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is now looked at, in the context of the real-life situation that we had started with in
Step 1.
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For instance, our solution in the problem in Step 3 gives us the population of
fishes as 200.
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Step 5 (Validating the model) : We go back to the original situation and see if the
results of the mathematical work make sense. If so, we use the model until new
information becomes available or assumptions change.
Sometimes, because of the simplification assumptions we make, we may lose
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essential aspects of the real problem while giving its mathematical description. In
such cases, the solution could very often be off the mark, and not make sense in the
real situation. If this happens, we reconsider the assumptions made in Step 1 and
revise them to be more realistic, possibly by including some factors which were not
considered earlier.
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population.
Another way of visualising the process of mathematical modelling is shown
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in Fig. A2.1.
Real-life problem
Simplify
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Describe the problem
in mathematical terms
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Solve the
Change problem
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assumptions
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Interpret the
solution in the
real-life situation
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suitable
situation?
Fig. A2.1
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Modellers look for a balance between simplification (for ease of solution) and
accuracy. They hope to approximate reality closely enough to make some progress.
The best outcome is to be able to predict what will happen, or estimate an outcome,
with reasonable accuracy. Remember that different assumptions we use for simplifying
the problem can lead to different models. So, there are no perfect models. There are
good ones and yet better ones.
EXERCISE A2.1
1. Consider the following situation.
A problem dating back to the early 13th century, posed by Leonardo Fibonacci asks
how many rabbits you would have if you started with just two and let them reproduce.
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Assume that a pair of rabbits produces a pair of offspring each month and that each
pair of rabbits produces their first offspring at the age of 2 months. Month by month
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the number of pairs of rabbits is given by the sum of the rabbits in the two preceding
months, except for the 0th and the 1st months.
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0 1
1 1
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2 2
3 3
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4 5
5 8
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6 13
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7 21
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8 34
9 55
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10 89
11 144
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12 233
13 377
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14 610
15 987
16 1597
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Example 1 (Rolling of a pair of dice) : Suppose your teacher challenges you to the
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following guessing game: She would throw a pair of dice. Before that you need to
guess the sum of the numbers that show up on the dice. For every correct answer, you
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get two points and for every wrong guess you lose two points. What numbers would
be the best guess?
Solution :
Step 1 (Understanding the problem) : You need to know a few numbers which
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have higher chances of showing up.
Step 2 (Mathematical description) : In mathematical terms, the problem translates
to finding out the probabilities of the various possible sums of numbers that the dice
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could show.
We can model the situation very simply by representing a roll of the dice as a random
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choice of one of the following thirty six pairs of numbers.
(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
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Step 3 (Solving the mathematical problem) : Summing the numbers in each pair
above, we find that possible sums are 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. We have to find
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the probability for each of them, assuming all 36 pairs are equally likely.
We do this in the following table.
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Sum 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
Probability
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
Observe that the chance of getting a sum of a seven is 1/6, which is larger than the
chances of getting other numbers as sums.
Step 4 (Interpreting the solution) : Since the probability of getting the sum 7 is the
highest, you should repeatedly guess the number seven.
Step 5 (Validating the model) : Toss a pair of dice a large number of times and
prepare a relative frequency table. Compare the relative frequencies with the
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corresponding probabilities. If these are not close, then possibly the dice are biased.
Then, we could obtain data to evaluate the number towards which the bias is.
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Before going to the next example, you may need some background.
Not having the money you want when you need it, is a common experience for
many people. Whether it is having enough money for buying essentials for daily living,
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or for buying comforts, we always require money. To enable the customers with limited
funds to purchase goods like scooters, refrigerators, televisions, cars, etc., a scheme
known as an instalment scheme (or plan) is introduced by traders.
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Sometimes a trader introduces an instalment scheme as a marketing strategy to
allure customers to purchase these articles. Under the instalment scheme, the customer
is not required to make full payment of the article at the time of buying it. She/he is
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allowed to pay a part of it at the time of purchase, and the rest can be paid in instalments,
which could be monthly, quarterly, half-yearly, or even yearly. Of course, the buyer
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will have to pay more in the instalment plan, because the seller is going to charge some
interest on account of the payment made at a later date (called deferred payment).
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payment of the article at the time it is purchased. Cash down payment is the amount
which a customer has to pay as part payment of the price of an article at the time of
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purchase.
Remark : If the instalment scheme is such that the remaining payment is completely
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made within one year of the purchase of the article, then simple interest is charged on
the deferred payment.
In the past, charging interest on borrowed money was often considered evil, and,
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in particular, was long prohibited. One way people got around the law against
paying interest was to borrow in one currency and repay in another, the interest
being disguised in the exchange rate.
Example 2 : Juhi wants to buy a bicycle. She goes to the market and finds that the
bicycle she likes is available for Rs 1800. Juhi has Rs 600 with her. So, she tells the
shopkeeper that she would not be able to buy it. The shopkeeper, after a bit of
calculation, makes the following offer. He tells Juhi that she could take the bicycle by
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making a payment of Rs 600 cash down and the remaining money could be made in
two monthly instalments of Rs 610 each. Juhi has two options one is to go for instalment
scheme or to make cash payment by taking loan from a bank which is available at the
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rate of 10% per annum simple interest. Which option is more economical to her?
Solution :
Step 1 (Understanding the problem) : What Juhi needs to determine is whether
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she should take the offer made by the shopkeeper or not. For this, she should know the
two rates of interest—one charged in the instalment scheme and the other charged
by the bank (i.e., 10%).
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Step 2 (Mathematical description) : In order to accept or reject the scheme, she
needs to determine the interest that the shopkeeper is charging in comparison to the
bank. Observe that since the entire money shall be paid in less than a year, simple
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interest shall be charged.
We know that the cash price of the bicycle = Rs 1800.
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= Rs 1200.
Let r % per annum be the rate of interest charged by the shopkeeper.
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1790 × r × 1
= 20
100 × 12
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20 × 1200
or r= = 13.14 (approx.)
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1790
Step 4 (Interpreting the solution) : The rate of interest charged in the instalment
scheme = 13.14 %.
The rate of interest charged by the bank = 10%
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So, she should prefer to borrow the money from the bank to buy the bicycle which is
more economical.
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Step 5 (Validating the model) : This stage in this case is not of much importance
here as the numbers are fixed. However, if the formalities for taking loan from the
bank such as cost of stamp paper, etc., which make the effective interest rate more
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than what it is the instalment scheme, then she may change her opinion.
Remark : Interest rate modelling is still at its early stages and validation is still a
problem of financial markets. In case, different interest rates are incorporated in fixing
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EXERCISE A2.2
In each of the problems below, show the dif ferent stages of mathematical modelling for solving
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the problems.
1. An ornithologist wants to estimate the number of parrots in a large field. She uses a net
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to catch some, and catches 32 parrots, which she rings and sets free. The following
week she manages to net 40 parrots, of which 8 are ringed.
(i) What fraction of her second catch is
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ringed?
(ii) Find an estimate of the total number
of parrots in the field.
2. Suppose the adjoining figure represents
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3. A T.V. can be purchased for Rs 24000 cash or for Rs 8000 cashdown payment and six
monthly instalments of Rs 2800 each. Ali goes to market to buy a T.V., and he has
Rs 8000 with him. He has now two options. One is to buy TV under instalment
scheme or to make cash payment by taking loan from some financial society. The
society charges simple interest at the rate of 18% per annum simple interest. Which
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option is better for Ali?
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A2.4 Why is Mathematical Modelling Important?
As we have seen in the examples, mathematical modelling is an interdisciplinary subject.
Mathematicians and specialists in other fields share their knowledge and expertise to
improve existing products, develop better ones, or predict the behaviour of certain
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products.
There are, of course, many specific reasons for the importance of modelling, but
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most are related in some ways to the following :
z To gain understanding. If we have a mathematical model which reflects the
essential behaviour of a real-world system of interest, we can understand that
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system better through an analysis of the model. Furthermore, in the process of
building the model we find out which factors are most important in the system,
and how the different aspects of the system are related.
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experiment directly with the system. For example, in weather prediction, to study
drug efficacy in humans, finding an optimum design of a nuclear reactor, and so
on.
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Most often, forecasters use the past data to predict the future. They first analyse
the data in order to identify a pattern that can describe it. Then this data and
pattern is extended into the future in order to prepare a forecast. This basic
strategy is employed in most forecasting techniques, and is based on the assumption
that the pattern that has been identified will continue in the future also.
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vote for their party. Based on their predictions, they may want to decide on the
campaign strategy. Exit polls have been used widely to predict the number of
seats, a party is expected to get in elections.
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EXERCISE A2.3
1. Based upon the data of the past five years, try and forecast the average percentage of
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marks in Mathematics that your school would obtain in the Class X board examination
at the end of the year.
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A2.5 Summary
In this Appendix, you have studied the following points :
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1. A mathematical model is a mathematical description of a real-life situation. Mathematical
modelling is the process of creating a mathematical model, solving it and using it to
understand the real-life problem.
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2. The various steps involved in modelling are : understanding the problem, formulating
the mathematical model, solving it, interpreting it in the real-life situation, and, most
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APPENDIX 1
ANSWERS/HINTS
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EXERCISE 1.1
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1. (i) 45 (ii) 196 (iii) 51
2. An integer can be of the form 6q, 6q + 1, 6q + 2, 6q + 3, 6q + 4 or 6q + 5.
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3. 8 columns
4. An integer can be of the form 3q, 3q + 1 or 3q + 2. Square all of these integers.
5. An integer can be of the form 9q, 9q + 1, 9q + 2, 9 q + 3, . . ., or 9q + 8.
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EXERCISE 1.2
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2. (i) LCM = 182; HCF = 13 (ii) LCM = 23460; HCF = 2 (iii) LCM = 3024; HCF = 6
3. (i) LCM = 420; HCF = 3 (ii) LCM = 11339; HCF = 1 (iii) LCM = 1800; HCF = 1
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4. 22338 7. 36 minutes
EXERCISE 1.4
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EXERCISE 2.1
1. (i) No zeroes (ii) 1 (iii) 3 (iv) 2 (v) 4 (vi) 3
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EXERCISE 2.2
1 1
1. (i) –2, 4 (ii) , (iii) − 1 , 3
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2 2 3 2
4
(iv) –2, 0 (v) − 15, 15 (vi) –1,
3
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2. (i) 4x2 – x – 4 (ii) 3x 2 − 3 2 x + 1 (iii) x 2 + 5
(iv) x2 – x + 1 (v) 4x 2 + x + 1 (vi) x 2 – 4x + 1
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EXERCISE 2.3
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2. x 3 – 2x2 – 7x + 14 3. a = 1, b = ± 2
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4. – 5, 7 5. k = 5 and a = –5
EXERCISE 3.1
1. Algebraically the two situations can be represented as follows:
x – 7y + 42 = 0; x – 3y – 6 = 0, where x and y are respectively the present ages of Aftab and
his daughter. To represent the situations graphically, you can draw the graphs of these
two linear equations.
2. Algebraically the two situations can be represented as follows:
x + 2y = 1300; x + 3y = 1300, where x and y are respectively the costs (in Rs) of a bat and
d
a ball. To represent the situations graphically, you can draw the graphs of these two
linear equations.
he
3. Algebraically the two situations can be represented as follows:
2x + y = 160; 4x + 2y = 300, where x and y are respectively the prices (in Rs per kg) of apples
and grapes. To represent the situations graphically, you can draw the graphs of these
two linear equations.
is
EXERCISE 3.2
1. (i) Required pair of linear equations is
bl
x + y = 10; x – y = 4, where x is the number of girls and y is the number of boys.
To solve graphically draw the graphs of these equations on the same axes on graph
pu
paper.
Girls = 7, Boys = 3.
(ii) Required pair of linear equations is
be T
5x + 7y = 50; 7x + 5y = 46, where x and y represent the cost (in Rs) of a pencil and of
re
a pen respectively.
o R
To solve graphically, draw the graphs of these equations on the same axes on graph
paper.
tt E
The solution of (i) above, is given by y = 5 – x, where x can take any value, i.e., there are
infinitely many solutions.
The solution of (iii) above is x = 2, y = 2, i.e., unique solution.
©
EXERCISE 3.3
1. (i) x = 9, y = 5 (ii) s = 9, t = 6 (iii) y = 3x – 3,
where x can take any value, i.e., infinitely many solutions.
d
(iv) x = 2, y = 3 (v) x = 0, y = 0 (vi) x = 2, y = 3
2. x = –2, y = 5; m = –1
he
3. (i) x – y = 26, x = 3y, where x and y are two numbers (x > y); x = 39, y = 13.
(ii) x – y = 18, x + y = 180, where x and y are the measures of the two angles in degrees;
x = 99, y = 81.
(iii) 7x + 6 y = 3800, 3x + 5y = 1750, where x and y are the costs (in Rs) of one bat and one
is
ball respectively; x = 500, y = 50.
(iv) x + 10y = 105, x + 15y = 155, where x is the fixed charge (in Rs) and y is the charge (in
Rs per km); x =5, y = 10; Rs 255.
bl
(v) 11x – 9y + 4 = 0, 6x – 5y + 3 = 0, where x and y are numerator and denominator of the
7
fraction; ( x = 7, y = 9).
pu
9
(vi) x – 3y – 10 = 0, x – 7y + 30 = 0, where x and y are the ages in years of Jacob and his
son; x = 40, y = 10.
be T
re
EXERCISE 3.4
o R
19 6 9 5
1. (i) x = , y= (ii) x = 2, y = 1 (iii) x = ,y = −
5 5 13 13
tt E
(iv) x = 2, y = –3
2. (i) x – y + 2 = 0, 2x – y – 1 = 0, where x and y are the numerator and denominator of the
C
3
fraction; ⋅
5
no N
(ii) x – 3y + 10 = 0, x – 2y – 10 = 0, where x and y are the ages (in years) of Nuri and Sonu
respectively. Age of Nuri (x) = 50, Age of Sonu (y) = 20.
(iii) x + y = 9, 8x – y = 0, where x and y are respectively the tens and units digits of the
number; 18.
©
(iv) x + 2y = 40, x + y = 25, where x and y are respectively the number of Rs 50 and Rs 100
notes; x = 10, y = 15.
(v) x + 4y = 27, x + 2y = 21, where x is the fixed charge (in Rs) and y is the additional
charge (in Rs) per day; x = 15, y = 3.
EXERCISE 3.5
1. (i) No solution (ii) Unique solution; x = 2, y = 1
(iii) Infinitely many solutions (iv) Unique solution; x = 4, y = –1
d
2. (i) a = 5, b = 1 (ii) k = 2 3. x = –2, y = 5
4. (i) x + 20y = 1000, x + 26 y = 1180, where x is the fixed charges (in Rs) and y is the
he
charges (in Rs) for food per day; x = 400, y = 30.
(ii) 3x – y – 3 = 0, 4x – y – 8 = 0, where x and y are the numerator and denominator of the
5
fraction; ⋅
12
(iii) 3x – y = 40, 2x – y = 25, where x and y are the number of right answers and wrong
is
answers respectively; 20.
(iv) u – v = 20, u + v = 100, where u and v are the speeds (in km/h) of the two cars; u = 60,
bl
v = 40.
(v) 3x – 5y – 6 = 0, 2x + 3y – 61 = 0, where x and y are respectively the length and breadth
(in units) of the rectangle; length (x) = 17, breadth (y) = 9.
pu
EXERCISE 3.6
be T
1,
1. (i) x = 1 , y = 1 (ii) x = 4, y = 9 (iii) x = y= –2
2 3 5
re
(vii) x = 3, y = 2 (viii) x = 1, y = 1
2. (i) u + v = 10, u – v = 2, where u and v are respectively speeds (in km/h) of rowing and
tt E
current; u = 6, v = 4.
2 5 1, 3 6 1,
(ii) + = + = where n and m are the number of days taken by 1 woman
C
n m 4 n m 3
and 1 man to finish the embroidery work; n = 18, m = 36.
60 240 100 200 25 ,
(iii) + = 4, + = where u and v are respectively the speeds
no N
u v u v 6
(in km/h) of the train and bus; u = 60, v = 80.
1. Age of Ani is 19 years and age of Biju is 16 years or age of Ani 21 years and age of Biju
24 years.
2. Rs 40, Rs 170. Let the money with the first person (in Rs) be x and the money with the
second person (in Rs) be y.
x + 100 = 2(y – 100), y + 10 = 6 (x – 10)
c ( a − b) − b , c (a − b) + a
7. (i) x = 1, y = – 1 (ii) x = y=
a −b a 2 − b2
d
2 2
2ab
(iii) x = a, y = b (iv) x = a + b, y = − (v) x = 2, y = 1
he
a+b
8. ∠ A = 120°, ∠ B = 70°, ∠ C = 60°, ∠ D = 110°
EXERCISE 4.1
is
1. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) No (iv) Yes
(v) Yes (vi) No (vii) No (viii) Yes
bl
2
2. (i) 2x + x – 528 = 0, where x is breadth (in metres) of the plot.
(ii) x2 + x – 306 = 0, where x is the smaller integer.
pu
(iii) x2 + 32x – 273 = 0, where x (in years) is the present age of Rohan.
(iv) u2 – 8u – 1280 = 0, where u (in km/h) is the speed of the train.
be T
EXERCISE 4.2
re
o R
3 5 ,
1. (i) – 2, 5 (ii) – 2, (iii) − − 2
2 2
tt E
1, 1 1 , 1
(iv) (v)
4 4 10 10
C
EXERCISE 4.3
−1 − 33 , −1 + 33
©
1,
1. (i) 3 (ii) (iii) − 3 , − 3
2 4 4 2 2
(iv) Do not exist
3 − 13 , 3 + 13
2. Same as 1 3. (i) (ii) 1, 2 4. 7 years
2 2
d
10. Speed of the passenger train = 33 km/h, speed of express train = 44 km/h
he
11. 18 m, 12 m
EXERCISE 4.4
3± 3
(ii) Equal roots; 2 , 2
is
1. (i) Real roots do not exist (iii) Distinct roots;
3 3 2
2. (i) k = ± 2 6 (ii) k = 6
bl
3. Yes. 40 m, 20 m 4. No 5. Yes. 20 m, 20 m
EXERCISE 5.1
pu
1. (i) Yes. 15, 23, 31, . . . forms an AP as each succeeding term is obtained by adding 8 in
its preceding term.
be T
2
3V , ⎛ 3 ⎞
(ii) No. Volumes are V, ⎜ ⎟ V, " (iii) Yes. 150, 200, 250, . . . form an AP.
4 ⎝4⎠
re
o R
2 3
⎛ 8 ⎞, ⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 8 ⎞
(iv) No. Amounts are 10000 ⎜1 + ⎟ 10000 ⎜1 + 100 ⎟ , 10000 ⎜1 + 100 ⎟ , "
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
tt E
2 2
3. (i) a = 3, d = – 2 (ii) a = – 5, d = 4
no N
1, 4
(iii) a = d = (iv) a = 0.6, d = 1.1
3 3
1 9
4. (i) No (ii) Yes. d = ; 4, , 5
2 2
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1 1 1
(vii) Yes. d = – 4; – 16, – 20, – 24 (viii) Yes. d = 0; − , − , −
2 2 2
d
EXERCISE 5.2
he
1. (i) an = 28 (ii) d = 2 (iii) a = 46 (iv) n = 10 (v) an = 3.5
2. (i) C (ii) B
is
(iv) – 2 , 0 , 2 , 4 (v) 53 , 23 , 8 , –7
4. 16th term 5. (i) 34 (ii) 27
bl
6. No 7. 178 8. 64
9. 5th term 10. 1 11. 65th term
pu
12. 100 13. 128 14. 60
15. 13 16. 4, 10, 16, 22, . . .
be T
EXERCISE 5.3
tt E
33
1. (i) 245 (ii) –180 (iii) 5505 (iv)
20
C
1
2. (i) 1046 (ii) 286 (iii) – 8930
2
no N
7,
3. (i) n = 16, Sn = 440 (ii) d = S = 273 (iii) a = 4, S12 = 246
3 13
35 , 85
(v) a = − a9 =
©
54
(vii) n = 6, d = (viii) n = 7, a = – 8 (ix) d = 6
5
(x) a = 4
n
4. 12. By putting a = 9, d = 8, S = 636 in the formula S = [2a + ( n − 1) d ], we get a quadratic
2
53
equation 4n2 + 5n – 636 = 0. On solving, we get n = − , 12 . Out of these two roots only
4
d
one root 12 is admissible.
he
5. n = 16, d = 6. n = 38, S = 6973 7. Sum = 1661
3
8. S51 = 5610 9. n2 10. (i) S15 = 525 (ii) S15 = – 465
11. S1 = 3, S2 = 4; a2 = S2 – S 1 = 1; S3 = 3, a3 = S 3 – S2 = –1,
is
a10 = S10 – S9 = – 15; an = Sn – Sn – 1 = 5 – 2n.
12. 4920 13. 960 14. 625 15. Rs 27750
16. Values of the prizes (in Rs) are 160, 140, 120, 100, 80, 60, 40.
bl
17. 234 18. 143 cm
19. 16 rows, 5 logs are placed in the top row. By putting S = 200, a = 20, d = –1 in the formula
pu
n
S = [2a + ( n − 1) d ], we get, 41n – n2 = 400. On solving, n = 16, 25. Therefore, the
2
number of rows is either 16 or 25. a25 = a + 24 d = – 4
be T
i.e., number of logs in 25th row is – 4 which is not possible. Therefore n = 25 is not
possible. For n = 16, a16 = 5. Therefore, there are 16 rows and 5 logs placed in the top
re
row.
o R
20. 370 m
tt E
3
4. 35 5. 750 m
EXERCISE 6.1
no N
EXERCISE 6.2
1. (i) 2 cm (ii) 2.4 cm
2. (i) No (ii) Yes (iiii) Yes
9. Through O, draw a line parallel to DC, intersecting AD and BC at E and F respectively.
EXERCISE 6.3
1. (i) Yes. AAA, Δ ABC ~ Δ PQR (ii) Yes. SSS, Δ ABC ~ Δ QRP
(iii) No (iv) Yes. SAS, Δ MNL ~ Δ QPR
(v) No (vi) Yes. AA, Δ DEF ~ Δ PQR
d
2. 55°, 55°, 55°
he
14. Produce AD to a point E such that AD = DE and produce PM to a point N such that
PM = MN. Join EC and NR.
15. 42 m
EXERCISE 6.4
is
1. 11.2 cm 2. 4 : 1 5. 1 : 4 8. C 9. D
bl
EXERCISE 6.5
1. (i) Yes, 25 cm (ii) No (iii) No (iv) Yes, 13 cm
pu
6. a 3 9. 6 m 10. 6 7 m 11. 300 61km
12. 13 m 17. C
be T
EXERCISE 7.1
C
7. (– 7, 0) 8. – 9, 3 9. ± 4, QR = 41, PR = 82 , 9 2
10. 3x + y – 5 = 0
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EXERCISE 7.2
⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 7⎞
1. (1, 3) 2. ⎜ 2, − ⎟ ; ⎜ 0, − ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
5. 1: 1 ; ⎛⎜ − 3 , 0 ⎞⎟ 6. x = 6, y = 3 7. (3, – 10)
⎝ 2 ⎠
d
8. ⎛⎜ − 2 , − 20 ⎞⎟ 9. ⎛⎜ − 1, 7 ⎞⎟ , (0, 5), ⎛⎜1, 13 ⎞⎟ 10. 24 sq. units
he
⎝ 7 7 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
EXERCISE 7.3
is
21
1. (i) sq. units (ii) 32 sq. units 2. (i) k = 4 (ii) k = 3
2
3. 1 sq. unit; 1 : 4 4. 28 sq. units
bl
EXERCISE 7.4 (Optional)*
pu
1. 2 : 9 2. x + 3y – 7 = 0 3. (3, – 2) 4. (1, 0), (1, 4 )
5. (i) (4, 6), (3, 2), (6, 5); taking AD and AB as coordinate axes
9
be T
(ii) (12, 2), (13, 6), (10, 3); taking CB and CD as coordinate axes. sq. units,
2
9
re
sq. units; areas are the same in both the cases.
o R
6. 15 sq. units; 1 : 16
32
tt E
⎛7 9⎞ ⎛ 11 11 ⎞
7. (i) D ⎜ , ⎟ (ii) P ⎜ , ⎟
⎝2 2⎠ ⎝3 3 ⎠
C
⎛ x + x2 + x 3 , y1 + y 2 + y 3 ⎞
(v) ⎜ 1 ⎟ 8. Rhombus
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
EXERCISE 8.1
©
7, 3 15 , 17
2. 0 3. cos A = tan A = 4. sin A = sec A =
4 7 17 8
5 12 , 5 12 , 13
5. sin θ = , cos θ = tan θ = , cot θ = cosec θ =
13 13 12 5 5
49 49
7. (i) (ii) 8. Yes
d
64 64
12 , 5 , 12
he
9. (i) 1 (ii) 0 10. sin P = cos P = tan P =
13 13 5
11. (i) False (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False (v) False
EXERCISE 8.2
is
3 2 − 6 43 − 24 3 67
1. (i) 1 (ii) 2 (iii) (iv) (v)
bl
8 11 12
2. (i) A (ii) D (iii) A (iv) C 3. ∠ A = 45°, ∠ B = 15°
4. (i) False (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False (v) True
pu
EXERCISE 8.3
be T
EXERCISE 8.4
tt E
1 1 , 1 + cot2 A
1. sin A = , tan A = secA =
1 + cot2 A cot A cot A
C
sec 2 A – 1 , 1 ,
2. sin A = cos A = tan A = sec 2 A – 1
no N
sec A sec A
1 , cosecA = sec A
cot A =
2
sec A – 1 sec2 A – 1
©
EXERCISE 9.1
1. 10 m 2. 8 3 m 3. 3m, 2 3 m 4. 10 3m
5. 40 3m 6. 19 3 m 7. 20 ( )
3 −1 m 8. 0.8 ( 3 +1 m)
9. 16 2 m
3
10. 20 3m, 20m, 60m 11. 10 3 m, 10 m 12. 7 ( 3 +1 m)
d
13. 75( 3 −1)m 14. 58 3 m 15. 3 seconds
he
EXERCISE 10.1
1. Infinitely many
2. (i) One (ii) Secant (iii) Two (iv) Point of contact 3. D
is
EXERCISE 10.2
bl
1. A 2. B 3. A 6. 3 cm
7. 8 cm 12. AB = 15 cm, AC = 13 cm
pu
EXERCISE 12.1
be T
1. 28 cm 2. 10 cm
3. Gold : 346.5 cm ; Red : 1039.5 cm2; Blue : 1732.5 cm2; Black : 2425.5 cm2; White : 3118.5 cm2.
2
re
o R
4. 4375 5. A
EXERCISE 12.2
tt E
132 2 77 154 2
1. cm 2. cm 2 3. cm
7 8 3
C
4
22275 158125 2
10. cm 2 11. cm 12. 189.97 km2
28 126
13. Rs 162.68 14. D
EXERCISE 12.3
4523 2 154 2
1. cm 2. cm 3. 42 cm2
28 3
d
⎛ 22528 ⎞
4. ⎛⎜ 660 + 36 3 ⎞⎟ cm2 5. 68 cm 2 6. ⎜ − 768 3 ⎟ cm2
⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠
he
7
is
77 49
12. (i) cm2 (ii) cm2 13. 228 cm 2
8 8
bl
256
14. 308 cm 2 15. 98 cm2 16. cm2
3 7
pu
EXERCISE 13.1
be T
EXERCISE 13.2
1. π cm3
no N
2. 66 cm3. Volume of the air inside the model = Volume of air inside (cone + cylinder + cone)
⎛1 1 ⎞
= ⎜ π r2 h1 + π r 2h2 + π r 2 h1 ⎟ , where r is the radius of the cone and the cylinder, h1 is
⎝3 3 ⎠
the height (length) of the cone and h2 is the height (length) of the cylinder.
©
1
Required Volume = π r 2 ( h1 + 3 h2 + h1 ) .
3
3. 338 cm3 4. 523.53 cm3 5. 100 6. 892.26 kg
3 3
7. 1.131 m (approx.) 8. Not correct. Correct answer is 346.51 cm .
EXERCISE 13.3
1. 2.74 cm 2. 12 cm 3. 2.5 m
4. 1.125 m 5. 10 6. 400
d
7. 36cm; 12 13 cm 8. 562500 m2 or 56.25 hectares. 9. 100 minutes
EXERCISE 13.4
he
2 2
1. 102 cm3 2. 48 cm2 3. 710 cm 2
3 7
4. Cost of milk is Rs 209 and cost of metal sheet is Rs 156.75. 5. 7964.4 m
is
EXERCISE 13.5 (Optional)*
bl
1. 1256 cm; 788g (approx) 2. 30.14 cm3; 52.75 cm2
4
3. 1792 5. 782 cm 2
pu
7
EXERCISE 14.1
be T
1. 8.1 plants. We have used direct method because numerical values of x i and fi are small.
re
2. Rs 145.20 3. f = 20 4. 75.9
o R
EXERCISE 14.2
1. Mode = 36.8 years, Mean = 35.37 years. Maximum number of patients admitted in the
C
hospital are of the age 36.8 years (approx.), while on an average the age of a patient
admitted to the hospital is 35.37 years.
2. 65.625 hours
no N
EXERCISE 14.3
1. Median = 137 units, Mean = 137.05 units, Mode = 135.76 units.
The three measures are approximately the same in this case.
d
EXERCISE 14.4
he
1.
Daily income (in Rs) Cumulative
frequency
is
Less than 120 12
Less than 140 26 Draw ogive by plotting the points :
bl
Less than 160 34 (120, 12), (140, 26), (160, 34),
Less than 180 40 (180, 40) and (200, 50)
Less than 200 50
pu
2. Draw the ogive by plotting the points : (38, 0), (40, 3), (42, 5), (44, 9), (46, 14), (48, 28),
be T
(50, 32) and (52, 35). Here n = 17.5. Locate the point on the ogive whose ordinate is 17.5.
re
2
o R
3.
tt E
Now, draw the ogive by plotting the points : (50, 100), (55, 98), (60, 90), (65, 78), (70, 54)
and (75, 16).
EXERCISE 15.1
1. (i) 1 (ii) 0, impossible event (iii) 1, sure or certain event
(iv) 1 (v) 0, 1
d
2. The experiments (iii) and (iv) have equally likely outcomes.
3. When we toss a coin, the outcomes head and tail are equally likely. So, the result of an
he
individual coin toss is completely unpredictable.
4. B 5. 0.95 6. (i) 0 (ii) 1
3 5
7. 0.008 8. (i) (ii)
8 8
is
5 8 13 5 17
9. (i) (ii) (iii) 10. (i) (ii)
17 17 17 9 18
bl
5 1 1 3
11. 12. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 1
13 8 2 4
pu
1 1 1
13. (i) (ii) (iii)
2 2 2
be T
1 3 3 1 1 1
re
14. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
o R
26 13 26 52 4 52
1 1 11
15. (i) (ii) (a) (b) 0 16.
tt E
5 4 12
1 15 9 1 1
C
1 1 π 31 5
no N
22. (i)
Sum on 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
©
2 dice
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
Probability
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
3
23. ; Possible outcomes are : HHH, TTT, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH. Here, THH
4
means tail in the first toss, head on the second toss and head on the third toss and so on.
d
25 11
24. (i) (ii)
36 36
he
25. (i) Incorrect. We can classify the outcomes like this but they are not then ‘equally
likely’. Reason is that ‘one of each’ can result in two ways — from a head on first
coin and tail on the second coin or from a tail on the first coin and head on the
second coin. This makes it twicely as likely as two heads (or two tails).
is
(ii) Correct. The two outcomes considered in the question are equally likely.
bl
8
1. (i) 1 (ii) (iii) 4
5 25 5
pu
2. 1 2 2 3 3 6
be T
1 2 3 3 4 4 7
re
2 3 4 4 5 5 8
o R
2 3 4 4 5 5 8
tt E
3 4 5 5 6 6 9
3 4 5 5 6 6 9
C
6 7 8 8 9 9 12
1 1 5
no N
EXERCISE A1.1
1. (i) Ambiguous (ii) True (iii) True (iv) Ambiguous
(v) Ambiguous
2. (i) True (ii) True (iii) False (iv) True (v) True
3. Only (ii) is true.
4. (i) If a > 0 and a2 > b2, then a > b.
(ii) If xy > 0 and x2 = y2, then x = y.
d
(iii) If (x + y)2 = x 2 + y 2 and y ≠ 0, then x = 0.
he
(iv) The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
EXERCISE A1.2
1. A is mortal 2. ab is rational
is
3. Decimal expansion of 17 is non-terminating non-recurring.
4. y = 7 5. ∠ A = 100°, ∠ C = 100°, ∠ D = 180°
bl
6. PQRS is a rectangle.
7. Yes, because of the premise. No, because 3721 = 61 which is not irrational. Since the
pu
premise was wrong, the conclusion is false.
be T
EXERCISE A1.3
1. Take two consecutive odd numbers as 2n + 1 and 2n + 3 for some integer n.
re
o R
EXERCISE A1.4
1. (i) Man is not mortal.
tt E
EXERCISE A1.5
1. (i) If Sharan sweats a lot, then it is hot in Tokyo.
(ii) If Shalini’s stomach grumbles, then she is hungry.
d
(iii) If Jaswant can get a degree, then she has a scholarship.
(iv) If a plant is alive, then it has flowers.
he
(v) If an animal has a tail, then it is a cat.
2. (i) If the base angles of triangle ABC are equal, then it is isosceles. True.
(ii) If the square of an integer is odd, then the integer is odd. True.
(iii) If x = 1, then x2 = 1. True.
is
(iv) If AC and BD bisect each other, then ABCD is a parallelogram. True.
(v) If a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c, then a, b and c are whole numbers. False.
bl
(vi) If x + y is an even number, then x and y are odd. False.
(vii) If a parallelogram is a rectangle, its vertices lie on a circle. True.
pu
EXERCISE A1.6
1. Suppose to the contrary b ≤ d.
be T
EXERCISE A2.2
tt E
1
1. (i) (ii) 160
5
C
2. Take 1 cm2 area and count the number of dots in it. Total number of trees will be the
product of this number and the area (in cm2).
no N
EXERCISE A2.3
©