International Edition

Gen d e r
equ a li t y :
its yo u r
busi n e s s

Practical advice on achieving gender equality:

Within your business;
In your value chain;
When purchasing food commodities;
When providing services and products in developing economies.
 Gender equality gives businesses the opportunity to hire
from a wider pool of talent, gain greater insights into
consumers needs, and improve the security and quality
of supply. Is your business taking it seriously?
Enlightened businesses are realising that enabling womens full
potential delivers returns. For business, equal treatment of women
and men means access to the most talented pool of workers, a more
balanced and talented board, greater appeal to the consumer base,
an enhanced corporate reputation, and even a more stable supply of
basic commodities.
Tackling gender inequality is also the right thing to do, as inequality
increases womens vulnerability to poverty and suffering.
And yet aggregate performance on gender equality in the business sector
has been poor:
Only 13 of the largest 500 corporations in the world have female CEOs.1
 omen are over-represented in precarious, low-waged, or informal
W
sectors of the economy in most countries.2
 emale food producers have less access than men to the resources
F
that are crucial for efficient food production (training, inputs, extension
services, and financial services).
Oxfam recognises that significant factors contribute to gender inequality
that are neither within the direct control of companies nor their sole
responsibility to fix. These include factors such as poor educational
provision for girls or cultural restrictions on womens freedom of
movement. However, Oxfam does not accept the myth that gender
inequality is a social and cultural phenomenon for governments to deal
with, and from which business is somehow separate.
Like every part of society, companies can seek to profit from gender
inequality, do nothing, or seek to redress it. Throughout this briefing paper,
we make the case that the responsibility of business to treat women and
men equally in its operations, and the business advantage in stepping up
on gender equality, are entirely compatible. There are strong ethical, legal,
and business imperatives for delivering far better and far faster on gender
equality throughout business operations and value chains. We also point
business to resources to get on with the task, and call on them to step up
and communicate how they are stepping up as leaders in this area.

Jeremy Hobbs
 Introduction
This Briefing for Business is intended for senior managers in
global and national companies, especially those retailing and
producing food and fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG),3
and which source goods or labour in developing countries.4
Although many companies already do much to protect human
rights in their operations and value chains, there is more that
they can and must do.

We concentrate on gender equality and

the responsibilities of business to uphold
and promote it, in recognition that business
Debunking popular myths
can have a positive impact on the lives 1. Gender inequality is a social and cultural
and status of women as well as men, while phenomenon for governments to deal with
enhancing companies own productivity and my business does not create or influence it.
reputation. Business does not operate in a vacuum. Modern markets and economic
We set out why companies should pay and corporate policies can maintain and create gender inequality every
attention to gender equality, giving compelling bit as much as culture and society do. As the latest World Development
reasons related both to womens rights and to Report observes, institutions governing markets tend to reflect the
the business case for doing so. We then show interests of those who hold more power in society.5 Within these often
how to better address gender equality within inequitable market structures, businesses can apply practices that
a business, recognising that some business enable them to benefit from inequality between the sexes. Commonplace
leaders are convinced of why they should examples include the practice of gendered job segregation, where
address this issue, but struggle with how. women are clustered in the lowest-paid sections of the workforce, or the
employment of school-aged girls, often earning less than a living wage,
The four separate areas in which business who are thus denied education.
operations most clearly interact with, and
influence, womens rights and participation in 2. If my company hires women, women
markets considered within are: are better off.
Business as a large, direct employer; The true costs and rewards to women and society from employment
depend on the conditions of that employment. Women are far more likely
Business as a key player in value chains;
than men to be in precarious and informal employment.6 This means being
Business as a purchaser of food commodities; unprotected by written contracts or employee status, without regular hours
Businessas a provider of products and or fixed incomes, and often being paid well below a living wage. This type
services in developing countries. of labour force participation carries a cost to those who undertake it
We therefore address each of these in turn, precarious work presents serious risks to an individual workers health, safety,
with recommendations for action and useful and income and the majority of those in precarious work are female.
case studies of existing company practices.

3
 The equality arguments
Debunking popular myths (contd) There are both compelling equality and
3. All profit generation and business activity efficiency arguments for tackling gender
that creates opportunities for women is good inequality in your business. Taking equality
first, women and men face different challenges
for them and for society Im contributing to
and may have different aspirations, but they
gender equality.
have the same rights and thus must have the
In the environmental arena, the tension between immediate gain and same opportunity and support to realise them.
future survival is now well understood. Businesses are aware that reducing Currently, women bear a disproportionate share
pollutants and carbon usage is critical for future economic growth. of household and domestic labour, performing
Yet in the area of gender equality, the cost of short-term, profit-driven 80 per cent of unpaid caring roles globally.8
approaches towards gender and labour is understood only by the most Women in the paid workforce and throughout
progressive. Women currently contribute significantly more to the unpaid value chains are statistically far more likely than
economy than men. A 2008 UN study of contributions by gender to men to be undertaking significant domestic
unpaid care work across six countries found that the mean time spent labour on top of paid employment. A UN survey
on unpaid care work by women is more than twice that for men. In India, on gender and care and non-care work across
the gap is greatest, with women spending almost ten times more time six countries found that for all countries, the
than men on unpaid care work. It is this type of unpaid labour that enables mean time spent on unpaid care work by
healthy, educated, and rested employees to come to work each day. women is more than twice that for men and
Concentrating women in precarious employment that endangers their that when paid and unpaid care work are
health threatens not only their own well-being but also the health of the combined, women are found to do noticeably
broader workforce. more work than men in all countries.9
While Oxfam supports a more equitable
distribution of household labour between
men and women and recognises that gender
inequality in domestic labour is not the
Gender equality is a critical component of responsibility of business alone to tackle,
social progress. It is a basic right that does business needs to recognise that it gains
essential social goods from the household.
not need economic justification. Business could not function without the largely
Evidence for Action, Gender Equality and Economic Growth, p. vii7 unpaid work required for healthy, educated
employees to come to work each day, and
the bulk of this work is performed by women.
Certain abuses of working conditions therefore
such as long working hours and obligatory,
unannounced overtime are not only wrong in
themselves, but also disproportionately affect
and disadvantage women, and conflict far more
with their greater domestic burdens.

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The equality instruments The equality status check
Gender equality is also enshrined as an Despite an increasing number of global
international human right. Most countries now instruments and legislative protections on
have legislation on equal rights for women gender equality that apply in most countries of
and men in the workplace, covering wages, the world, mens and womens conditions of
conditions, representation, and promotion, plus participation in markets, and their rewards from
fair access to livelihoods and resources. that participation, remain woefully unequal.
Our map of Inequality and Womens Work
Oxfam believes that companies should Worldwide, next page, gives a flavour of the
ensure the implementation of core human extent of inequality which remains.
rights conventions across their value chains.
International instruments provide a guide as to Oxfam recognises that significant factors
what this requires. These include the Universal contribute to gender inequality that are neither
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which within the direct control of companies nor
recognises that all human beings share the their sole responsibility to fix. These include
same equal and inalienable rights. Other crucial factors such as levels of educational provision
international instruments that guide and set for girls or cultural restrictions affecting
out the responsibilities of business include the womens freedom of movement. However,
Core Conventions of the International Labour there are ways in which corporate practice can
Organisation (ILO) and the Convention on aggravate and perpetuate gender inequality.
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Examples of this include reinforcing the practice
against Women (CEDAW). of taking girls out of school through the
provision of employment: girls are often willing
A number of legal and voluntary frameworks
to accept poorer labour employment conditions
have been developed or updated that set out
than their male counterparts. There are also
standards for business in the area of human
areas in which the moral and legal obligations
rights, each of which has implications for
of business to address inequality are clear, yet
businesses with regard to gender equality.
aggregate performance is poor. For example,
These frameworks are proof of growing
even where companies are following local laws
demand from government and society for
and international treaties that recognise and
businesses to demonstrate that they are
protect womens rights, many women work in
meeting their legal and moral obligations on
temporary, informal positions in value chains,
gender equality. More information is provided
which are invisible and not covered by laws,
on these in Annex II. In the recommendations
treaties, or codes of conduct.
that follow in the rest of this paper, Oxfam
highlights good practice that both runs
throughout these instruments and reflects the
experience of companies and gender experts
in addressing gender equality in business
operations.

The peoples of the United Nations have in the

charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human
rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person
and in the equal rights of men and women.
UDHR (1948)

5
Inequality and womens
work worldwide
Womens experience of work and the sources of their livelihoods
vary across the world. However, in all countries women face
barriers to equal rights both at work and in the home.

In the USA in 2009, 89 per cent of the S&P

1 500 (Standard and Poors stock market
index of the top 500 companies) had at least
one woman director on their board, but women
comprised on average only 16 per cent of board
directors (Spencer, 2009).
In Latin America, 50 per cent of women
2 work a 21 per cent increase in ten years,
due in part to a leap in exported goods (UN, 2009).
In flower and vegetable greenhouses in Ecuador, 1
Guatemala, and Mexico, women are the majority of
workers but are often hired repeatedly on short-
term contracts. In sectors such as fruit production,
women are typically brought in for seasonal jobs
(Raworth, 2004). 2
Colombia is the worlds second biggest
3 flower exporter, employing 110,000
workers, 65 per cent of them women (Ferm, 2008). 2
During peak times a female worker has to work up
to 80 hours a week, earning as little as $1 a day.
In Italy, Spain, and Portugal, women spend 3
4 three to four times the amount of time on
domestic work than men (UN, 2009). 2

In Kenya, women own half of all small and

5 medium enterprises, but these experience A study in Nagpur, India showed that 62 per
less growth than male-owned businesses, due to a 9 cent of women had experienced violence
lack of support and resources (IFC, 2009). in the past year and that 9 per cent had suffered
In 14 of the countries in the EU group of injuries serious enough to prevent them from
6 27, there is no woman CEO in any of the working in a job, in the household, or both, for an
top 50 publicly quoted companies (Bettio and average of seven days per incident (ICRW, 2000).
Verashchagina, 2009). In Southern Asia, 36 per cent of women
In the EU, the pay gap increases with age, level of 10 participate in the labour market. Less
educational attainment, and years of service. For than 50 per cent of these are on a payroll, and
example, it exceeds 30 per cent in the 5059 age are concentrated in informal, subcontracted,
group compared with only 7 per cent for those and home-working economies (UN, 2009). In
under 30 (EC, 2007). Bangladesh, women make up 8090 per cent of
Eastern Europe is the only region where the the textiles industry (ActionAid, 2007). Although
7 proportion of women in industry exceeds Bangladesh achieved gender parity in primary-level
20 per cent (UN, 2009). education in 2005, 30 per cent of female factory
In sub-Saharan Africa nearly 80 per cent of workers are illiterate (compared with 17 per cent
8 women workers are in vulnerable employment of men) and earn on average 21 per cent less per
(UN, 2009). In Mali, 67 per cent of women work in hour than men (Kapsos, 2009).
agriculture (ILO, 1997). Girls marry young and inherit In Asia, women spend just under 1.45 hours
only one-eighth of their husbands land, which is
11 a day preparing meals, while men spend
usually poor in quality (World Bank, 2010). just 15 minutes (UN, 2009).

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6

4
4

12

9 10

11
13
8

Gender differences in access to land, In Asia, the Philippines and Thailand both
12 credit and labour disadvantage women in
13 have comparatively high proportions of
China where firm managers prefer to sign export women among directors and chief executives,
contracts with men because women have limited with 48 and 32 per cent respectively; the Republic
access to productive assets, lack statutory rights of Korea has the lowest proportion in the region,
over land, and have less authority over family with just 3 per cent. Averaged over all occupations,
(and therefore over potential farm labour) women in the Republic of Korea earn 68 per cent
(World Bank, 2012 p 227). of what men earn (UN, 2009).

7
 The efficiency arguments There is also growing recognition that work
At the level of the global economy, the macro- conditions that threaten womens well-being
efficiency argument that gender inequality are a risk not only to women themselves,
curtails economic growth is now largely but also to the broader health of society,
uncontested. The World Banks 2012 World the workforce, and business, given the
Development Report on Gender Equality and disproportionate role that women play globally
Development10 dedicates over 400 pages to in performing essential unpaid caring work.
demonstrating how greater gender equality Initiatives being taken by companies include
enhances economic productivity, human reducing overtime, improving gender wage
development, and institutional performance, parity and status, sourcing more products from
and how gender inequality harms growth. female producers, and enabling employees and
There is also global recognition that increasing producers to achieve a comfortable balance
womens control over household income is between caring and income-earning roles.
essential for international human development, The approach has an intrinsic value, but is
with influential studies showing that women re- being adopted by enlightened businesses as
invest a higher proportion of income earned in it also brings long-term rewards by enabling a
their familys upkeep and well-being than men.11 more stable supply of commodities, access to
A similar efficiency-inspired approach is being the most talented pool of workers, enhanced
adopted by the most enlightened businesses in productivity, more balanced and talented
relation to gender equality. There is widespread boards, more appeal to the entire consumer
corporate awareness that reducing carbon base, and an enhanced corporate reputation.
use and pollutants is in the long-term interests
of business. A smaller number of leading
companies are recognising that short-term,
gender-inequitable practices harm business
sustainability and productivity, and that long-
term business interests hinge on maximising the
productive contribution that women can make.

Gender equality is smart economics [it] can have

large impacts on productivity. Women now represent
more than 40 per cent of the global labour force,
43 per cent of the agricultural workforce, and more
than half of the worlds university students. For an
economy to be functioning at its potential, womens
skills and talents should be engaged in activities that
make the best use of those abilities.
2012 World Development Report, World Bank

8
Womens growing role in the Womens roles as food
labour force producers and entrepreneurs
Women now form the majority of workers in There is a significant business case for food
many industries, and represent 40 per cent companies to invest more in supporting and
of the global labour force.12 The policies purchasing food commodities from female
and practices of business, both as a direct smallholders, as the right kind of investment in
employer and as an influencer of employment this area can have a hugely significant impact
conditions in other parts of the value chain, on rural poverty.
have a huge impact on the lives and status of
working women globally.

Yet, while non-discrimination is enshrined If women in rural areas had the same
in local and international employment laws, access to land, technology, financial
gendered job segregation can be found in most
sectors and all countries. Women in the global
services, education, and markets as men,
labour force have less stability in contracts, agricultural production could be increased
lower-skilled positions, and lower wages.13 and the number of hungry people reduced
Yet it is businesses as well as women and
by 100150 million.
society that suffer from gendered labour
segregation. Simply put, where the higher-value
FAO (2011) Closing the gender gap in agriculture
end of the labour market is closed to many
on the basis of gender, business is forced to
recruit from a smaller and more restricted pool Agricultural production depends heavily on
of talent, which reduces productivity. Moreover, womens labour. Women are responsible for the
where women are concentrated in precarious majority of food production in many developing
employment, this threatens the well-being of countries, despite having restricted access
those who depend on the caring, unpaid labour to markets, land, and credit. Women now
that they provide. produce up to 80 per cent of food in some
regions.14 For example, Pakistan is the worlds
fifth largest producer of milk,15 with women
performing 6080 per cent of cattle feeding,
If women do not have caring, and milking tasks.16 Global and national
equal access to the labour food companies need to increase the security
of food supply in the face of current threats
market, then the quality to agricultural yields from climate change and
of the labour force will be a growing world population. With women
lower. If firms are not able heavily engaged in primary food production,
or willing to employ the it will be investment in women producers in
technical training, in access to inputs and land
most productive workers, ownership, and in infrastructure that offers
then output, and growth food companies a better chance of increasing
in output, will be lower supply and productivity. At the same time,
this will promote gender equality, given the
than it could be.
inequities in access to land, inputs, and crucial
Chatham House and Vivideconomics services that confront women producers and
(2010) Evidence for Action, Gender entrepreneurs in many parts of the world.17
Equality and Economic Growth, p.17
Against this broad background of existing
inequality, and arguments for improvement
based both on rights and efficiency, let us look
in turn at each of the four key areas in which
business operations most clearly interact with,
and influence, womens rights and participation
in markets, and see what responsible
businesses need to do.

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 1) Business as a large,
direct employer
Large companies could do much more to improve their
business by better representing and supporting women
employees. For example, in the EU, the gender pay gap
increases with age, level of educational attainment, and years
of service: it exceeds 30 per cent in the 5059 age group,
compared with 7 per cent for those under 30.18 The periods
in which pay gaps increase are often linked to the years when
families have young children.

The equality requirements The efficiency drivers

Companies are obliged in most countries Addressing gender equality in the labour force
where they directly employ personnel to and in the boardroom of your own company
promote the rights of women, guaranteeing enables you to attract and retain the best
that female workers enjoy equal wages, employees, increase productivity, improve
adequate working conditions, and fair career morale, reduce absenteeism, increase return
prospects. Equal pay for equal work is a human on investment in staff training and career
right, enshrined in Article 23 of the UDHR, while development, enhance your corporate image
the ILO Core Conventions enshrine the rights to and reputation, and increase innovation.20
freedom from discrimination, sexual There is also evidence on the link between
harassment and harsh treatment, and the right numbers of women in management and on the
to safe working conditions. The ILO board, and a companys financial performance.21
Constitutions Preamble also stresses the Companies with women at the top make
provision of an adequate living wage.19 better decisions, produce better products, and
The CEDAW, adopted in 1979 by the UN and retain several key business advantages over
signed by 64 countries a year later, is an more homogenous companies.22
international bill of rights for women, and
Finally, evidence suggests that commercial
dedicates a chapter to womens rights in
teams that reflect the demographic
employment.
characteristics of the market are better
positioned to respond to changing consumer
needs,23 and that products developed in this
way can better respond to the needs of the
consumer base.

10
 What a responsible business Case study 1: British Telecom (BT)
needs to do
Understand your current position: analyse and BT embraces diversity as a real means of enhancing its
report on where your company is on the issue business, including gender diversity; attracting, promoting and
of gender equality by disaggregating by gender
retaining more women through its recruitment, retention, talent
across job positions, pay, geography, and
career progression. A useful tool for analysis management, and pay policies and practices, thus gaining
and presentation is offered in the third competitive advantage by securing a more talented workforce.
generation of the Global Reporting Initiatives BT monitors pay equality and has pay structures in place
Sustainability Reporting Guidelines.24 to ensure that employees who provide equal value receive
Ensurethat you understand why gender equal pay. The reward structures in place ensure that, for all
differences exist, and put in place a remedial roles, salaries are based on the skills required by the role.
plan. Recruit actively for diversity and to find BTs flexible and remote working policies enable employees
skilled women, and offer training, mentoring, to deliver to customers while also fulfilling responsibilities to
and career development. Report publicly on
their family and wider community. BT provides employees with
your progress against this plan.
access to a wide variety of information and services through
FollowILO conventions and local laws its Family and You portal. The portal identifies a range of
whichever give greatest protection to women
critical life stages and the provisions made by BT and others
and men. Take responsibility for understanding
how gender discrimination manifests itself in to support employees. For example, new parents are linked
the countries where you operate by talking to to guidance about Childcare Vouchers, and employees who
trade union bodies, womens groups, and become Carers are linked to the BT Carers Network. BTs
ministries of labour. Womens Network provides support for women, to enable
Pay
a living wage. This applies to all them to get into management or hold senior management
employees, both female and male, but women positions. In BT, 99 per cent of new mothers return to work
tend to be concentrated in the lowest-paid after maternity leave. BT regularly compares its practices and
sections of the workforce. approaches to those of other organisations by benchmarking;
Practice
a policy of equal pay, benefits, and in the UK, BT is currently in the Top 10 employers for
promotion for women and men. Opportunity Now (Gender) and Working Families (working
Sign
up to the seven Womens Empowerment parents, carers, and work life balance). The company also
Principles of UNIFEM and the Global Compact, received a 2011 listing in The Times Top 50 Employers for
implement these within your business, and Women.
demonstrate through public reporting how your
business is living up to them. See Annex II for
more information.
Enableand support women who wish to
participate in working groups and trade unions.
Ensure
confidential and accessible means for
workers to report exploitation and abuse
without fear of recrimination.
Practice
parent-friendly policies, e.g. flexible
working, parental leave, child-care support.
Promote
a healthy work/life balance, allowing
women and men to complete assigned work in
reasonable hours.
Lobbyfor pro-women, pro-poor policies at
national and international levels.

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 2) Business as a key
player in value chains
Companies sourcing goods and services from other
companies in global value chains25 must make more
effort to ensure that workers who produce the goods and
services that they purchase enjoy the same rights as those
they directly employ. Gendered job segregation whereby
women are over-represented in precarious, low-waged, or
informal sectors of the economy is commonplace in most
countries within value chains.26 Examples of this include
the preponderance of women in low-paid and low-status
positions in Bangladeshs ready-made garments industry
and the female worker/male supervisor pattern common in
horticulture in sub-Saharan Africa.

The equality requirements What a responsible business

The recognition that companies have a duty to needs to do27
improve gender equality within their supply Driving gender equality improvements within
chains has grown significantly in the past ten supplier companies is more challenging than
years. However, women and girls still on where business is a direct employer. However,
average earn less while working in more there are many levers that a responsible
precarious jobs, and struggle to balance caring business can pull:
for family with earning a decent income.
Ensure that all parties in your value chain
They thus have fewer opportunities than men
to work themselves out of poverty. follow ILO conventions and local laws
whichever give greatest protection. Ensure
The efficiency drivers that you understand the local context and
how gender discrimination manifests itself by
Being aware of the real conditions in your value
talking to local authorities (e.g. trade union
chain, and engaging in a constructive dialogue
bodies, womens groups, and ministries of
that drives continual improvement in gender
labour). Discrimination is not always obvious:
equity, greatly reduces a companys risk of
in some industries, for example, women will
sudden reputational damage. Consumer and
be allocated to less fertile orchards, different
media interest in supply chain conditions is
piece rates or plucking rates will apply,
growing as the world becomes smaller and
women will only be issued temporary
more interconnected. Adopting an honest,
employment contracts, or sites may practice
longer-term relationship with your supply base,
enforced pregnancy testing when recruiting.
rewarding suppliers who best meet your gender
Ensure that you understand the recruitment,
equality and human rights standards and buyers
payment, and supervision systems used, and
who source product from the best suppliers, will
how and where discrimination and sexual
result in higher standards throughout your chain,
harassment are liable to occur.
longer-term commercial relationships, and a
more stable business model.

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 Ensurethat you fully understand and map your
Case study 2: MAS Holdings
supply chain to understand where hidden
informal parts of production or services are
being contracted out to vulnerable, informal While gendered labour segregation can all too often be a
sectors of the workforce who are highly likely feature of womens participation in garment manufacturing,
to be women. Work with local womens groups, enlightened companies have taken strides to address this.
NGOs, and trade union bodies who understand MAS Holdings, a textile supplier in Sri Lanka, realised that its
the local context.28 Commit to working with women workers were leaving as they married or had children,
these sectors to improve conditions.
creating a talent shortage. The company polled its workers
Ensure that you are aware where your value to see what would help them stay at work. Nursery facilities,
chain operates in countries or industries where IT and English language education, and career development
there is a high percentage of female migrant
training have all led to lower staff turnover and a bigger pool
labour, and treat this as a red flag demanding
that labour conditions experienced by this of future managers. Despite competition from other suppliers
section of the workforce are expertly audited, with cheaper costs, a commitment to womens rights and
and immediately remedied where necessary. empowerment has won MAS contracts with companies such
Where migrant workers are overwhelmingly as Victorias Secret, Gap, Nike, Adidas, and Marks & Spencer.
female, they face a greater likelihood of MAS has stayed ahead of the curve by investing in its female
discrimination, sexual harassment, and poor
workforce, and is seeing its commitment pay off.
wages, presenting a threat to your companys
reputation.
Ensure Employ local staff, including women, in ethical
that the price paid to your suppliers
enables a living wage to be paid to their and compliance positions in your company
employees. Workers are frequently forced to rather than parachuting in head office staff
work overtime to supplement sub-standard they will better understand likely areas of
wages that are well below living wage rates. gender inequality in the value chain, and have
better knowledge of which product processes
Useyour power as a purchaser of goods and women are traditionally involved in.
services to drive better practice in the value
Financially
reward buyers who source from
chain. For example, require your suppliers to
implement programmes of action on equality suppliers that best meet ethical requirements,
issues as a condition of contract. such as those who demonstrate equal
treatment of men and women. Use balanced
Educatesuppliers about the business benefits scorecard systems with buyers, or other
of doing all this, e.g. reduced staff turnover, mechanisms that monitor the criteria that
retention of women workers, increased buyers use to select suppliers.
productivity, and better access to workers.
Ensure
that lead times given for orders do not
Sourcefrom countries that respect rights to prevent suppliers from upholding workers rights.
Freedom of Association (FoA) and give legal Educate buyers and technical managers on the
force to them. Legally respected bargaining consequences of changing order specifications at
and negotiating power is crucial for the most short notice. Where the time demanded to effect
disempowered workers to improve their pay changes is very tight, employees frequently have
and labour conditions. Ensure that any new to do compulsory overtime.
sourcing is from countries where the right to
Ensurethat your suppliers collect gender-
FoA is respected.
disaggregated data to monitor current supply
Engage with, support, and learn from efforts to chain improvement programmes, and use these
improve or provide alternatives to social audits. to feed into your own gender data reporting.
Centres of expertise on this include the Ethical
Encouragesuppliers to increase the ratio of
Trading Initiative,29 the Fair Wear Foundation,
and national trade union centres. Social audits permanent to temporary jobs and to ensure
are poor at picking up gender discrimination that women have the same opportunities as
and sexual harassment issues; however, until men to be in permanent employment.
better regarded alternatives are developed,
choose social auditors with an established
reputation and expertise, who can ensure
worker anonymity during the process and
protect workers from reprisal.

13
 Supportsuppliers to improve their HR practices,
Case study 3: The Body Shop
encouraging better relations between
management and staff, and rewarding better
Women have always been central to The Body Shops suppliers with more business and longer
Community Fair Trade sourcing programme. Working with contracts. Reward suppliers with preferential
over 25,000 farmers worldwide, five of the companys partners purchasing agreements that can demonstrate
are women-led smallholder associations, which sustain more gender equity across their companies and
and harvest the lands natural resources to produce raw implement best practice in maternity and
paternity rights, benefits, and child-care facilities.
materials for The Body Shop. The associations also develop
social projects that directly benefit members families and Assome of the most enlightened retailers and
communities. These include projects such as building schools brands have done including Adidas, the
Co-operative, Levi Strauss and Co., and Nike
and health care centres in rural villages and educating the
Inc. release the names and addresses of your
women members on the importance of financial security, such suppliers and the social audit reports of their
as saving accounts. The women producing The Body Shops sites. Enabling this degree of transparency in
raw materials are also encouraged to trade at local markets your supply chain is very best practice, and
and use organic practices. This means that the women are enables independent groups to verify the
able to grow their own businesses and develop their own conditions for women workers in your chain.

communities, while The Body Shop maintains a quality and

reliable supply base.

14
3) Business as a purchaser
of food commodities
Women in all regions have less access to resources than
men. For those developing countries for which data are
available, women account for only 1020 per cent of land
owners.30 Female food producers also have less access than
men to the other resources necessary for efficient food
production, such as training, inputs, financial services, and
extension services. Private extension services are playing
an increasing role in some countries, but severe gender bias
exists throughout extension services globally.31

The equality requirements supply base, i.e. to ensure that they source
Women make up a growing percentage of the from female producers as much as they do
global agricultural labour force. The UN Food from men. However, there are clear moral
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) estimates imperatives to ensure that women and men are
that in the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa rewarded equally for the food that companies
women produce 80 per cent of all basic purchase from them in the value chain.
foodstuffs. They account for at least half of The efficiency drivers
employees of export-oriented agriculture in
There are also compelling business cases for
many parts of sub-Saharan Africa and Latin
purchasing more from women smallholders, and
America.32 However, women face unequal
for providing better inputs and training. Global
access to essential inputs, land ownership, and and national food companies need to guarantee
services such as credit and extension all of a stable food supply in the face of rising demand
which are crucial for successful farming. from a growing world population, volatile
Women are also under-represented in workers markets, and current threats to agricultural
groups, committees, and co-operatives. yields. Women, who form the majority of the
When women are part of such groups, the agricultural producer base in many parts of the
leaders and decision-makers tend to be men.33 world, are critical to enabling food companies to
In Ethiopia, only 2 per cent of women, as increase that security of supply. Evidence shows
opposed to 13 per cent of men, are members that enabling women to have equal access to
of agricultural co-operatives, and men are five inputs, services, and land improves yields.35
times more likely than women to hold a It also shows that female smallholders often pay
leadership position within a co-operative.34 greater attention than men to crop quality and
There is no legislation compelling companies to that productivity tends to increase as a result of
practice non-discrimination in their purchasing increasing their access to technical training.36

Case study 4: Kraft Foods

Kraft Foods has identified the need to invest in smallholders, especially

women, to guarantee access to high-quality cocoa beans, because its core
cocoa supply bases are largely smallholder-based. Kraft recognises that
investing in women smallholders is a key part of ensuring a sustainable
smallholder-based supply chain. The Cadbury Cocoa Partnership
programme in Ghana focuses on increasing the viability of smallholders in
cocoa farming, working in partnership with government and NGOs CARE
International, World Vision Ghana, and VSO. One of the core themes of the
programme is womens empowerment.

15
 Case study 5: Finlays

The FRICH (Food Retail Industry Challenge Fund) project is supporting tea
company Finlays outgrowers in Kenya to set up five new co-operatives. To
ensure that female as well as male outgrowers can join the co-operatives
in their own name, the project bases membership eligibility on the grower
having been assigned land where they have control over the produce: formal
land titles are not necessary (which is important as most African women do
not own land). Moreover, as women producers are often registered under
their husbands names even when the husband is not involved in farming,
the project insists that, in such cases, the woman must be registered as the
member. Finally, to ensure that women (and youth) are represented in the
co-operatives governance structures, quotas have been established at the
various management levels: for example, each buying centre must elect one
older man, one older woman, one young man, and one young woman to form
its committee.

Introduce
targets for womens representation
What a responsible business
on boards of contract farming schemes, and
needs to do37
reward co-operatives that meet these targets
Ensure
that prices paid for products enable with more commercial contracts.
growers to receive a living wage.
Increase
active participation and leadership of
Ensurethat more women benefit from technical women in smallholder and co-operative groups
training, extension services, and production from which you source.
inputs provided by your company for
example, by recruiting female as well as male Support
and promote womens rights, including
extension staff, and by making training equal property rights, equality in decision-
methods appropriate for women. making, and equal rights to work and leisure,
and freedom of association.
Ensure
that membership criteria for contract
farming schemes and smallholder supplier Actively source from womens smallholder
groups offer equal opportunities for women. groups.

Recent research commissioned by the

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation shows
that by increasing womens participation
in smallholder sourcing programmes,
many international food companies can
improve crop productivity and quality, grow
the smallholder supply base, and improve
access to high-value markets.
M.K. Chan (2010)

16
 4) B
 usiness as a provider
of services and products
in developing economies
Increasingly, companies are recognising the potential of
previously untapped and less affluent markets in developing
countries, and are looking to women both as potential sales
agents and as distributors of products to reach these markets.
They are also looking at women themselves as an untapped
customer base, as women tend to acquire goods and services
on behalf of the entire household. This trend described as
selling to the bottom of the pyramid involves the design of
products such as micro-credit or micro-insurance financial
products, mobile phone banking facilities, smokeless stoves,
or simply medicines and cosmetics in smaller pack sizes, that
are seen to fit the needs of poor groups.

The equality requirements Wherebottom of the pyramid products are

Where companies are direct employers for designed with female markets in mind, ensure
example, of female distribution agents in that products are genuinely meeting the needs
developing countries, all legal obligations to of women consumers. Companies should keep
protect the rights of workers apply, themselves abreast of current debates around
guaranteeing equal wages, adequate working the development of products and sales models
conditions, and fair career prospects, as set being trialled in developing countries and use
out in Section 1. well-regarded social impact assessment
frameworks38 to assess the social and gender
The efficiency drivers impact of products intended for bottom of the
pyramid markets.
Bottom of the pyramid products and services
enable companies to identify new markets and, Companies that understand the different needs
at best, get genuinely essential services to of women and men at different levels of society
those who have previously been disregarded as make more appropriate products to meet
unprofitable by commercial markets. They can consumer demand. Companies therefore need
open up completely new business avenues for to ensure a balance of women and men in their
companies. product development and marketing teams.
They also need to perform market testing with
What a responsible business female consumers, larger sections of the
needs to do community, and local NGOs, who will have a
Where you are a direct employer, follow ILO picture of social needs in their market area.
conventions and local laws whichever give
greatest protection. In the case of mobile
distribution agents, the safety of distributors is
a primary concern: women travelling alone for
business are exposed to risks that companies
have a duty to minimise. Ensure that all workers
in your value chains are safe in their day-to-day
operations. This may require providing mobile
telephones for reporting on their location, or
providing security coverage where they are
selling to homes.

17
 Case study 6: Vodafone

Poor access to cash, savings, and insurance are problems faced by many
poor women in Africa. In Kenya, Vodafone has launched M-PESA, a mobile
phone banking facility, which allows people to make payments, send
money to relatives, transfer cash, and repay loans. Recent reports cite
evidence that mobile banking, crucial in rural areas with few resources,
allows women to control their own money, increases the scope for
entrepreneurship, and reduces the strain of travelling to their male relatives
often in the city for money, saving journeys that can take up to a week.
The service reaches nine million Kenyans, and expansion into India, South
Africa, Tanzania, and Afghanistan is rapidly progressing. As Vodafones
former CEO, Arun Sarin, explained, M-PESA is not a charity. Its actually
good business and good for society. If we can help improve the quality
of life for millions of people, there is no better thing that a company like
Vodafone can do.

Conclusion
As well as there being strong ethical and legal imperatives
for promoting gender equality within your business and
value chains, this briefing shows that there are also
compelling business case arguments for supporting
greater gender equality, including increased productivity,
staff retention, wider talent pools for recruitment, and
greater security of product supply. Ensuring that your
business and its operations are non-discriminatory and
uphold the rights of women and men is a clear business
responsibility. Significant resources have been developed to
assist businesses in this task (see Annex II). It is business
responsibility to get on with the task, and to communicate
what and how much they are doing, openly and publicly.

16
18
Annex I: Further reading
UN Womens Empowerment Principles (2010) M.K. Chan (2010) Improving Opportunities
Eight principles connected to the Global for Women in Smallholder-based Supply
Compact that focus on womens rights in Chains: Business case and practical
business operations. guidance for international food companies
www.unifem.org/attachments/products/ Published from research funded by the Bill
WomensEmpowermentPrinciples_en.pdf & Melinda Gates Foundation, this document
For the list of CEO signatories and statements, sets out the business case, evidence, and a
as of November 2010, see: series of concrete steps that international food
www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/issues_doc/ companies can take to increase sourcing from
human_rights/WEPs_CEO_Statement_of_ female smallholders.
Support_Signatories.pdf www.gatesfoundation.org/learning/
Documents/gender-value-chain-guide.pdf
Embedding Gender in Sustainability
Reporting A Practitioners Guide: A GRI L. Mayoux and G. Mackie (2007) Making
Reporting Resource (2009) the Strongest Links: A Practical Guide to
Specific guidelines for collecting and reporting Mainstreaming Gender Analysis in Value
on gender-disaggregated data in specific parts Chain Development
of the value chain, such as in the community, Offers examples of frameworks, best practice,
the supply chain, and the company. summary checklists, and recommendations for
www.globalreporting.org/CurrentPriorities/ adapting the frameworks to different sectors.
G31Developments/GenderandReporting www.ilo.org/empent/Whatwedo/Publications/
lang--en/docName--WCMS_106538/index.htm
Oxfam (2010) Briefings for Business 5:
Better Jobs in Better Supply Chains Chatham House and Vivid Economics (2010)
Sets out two key labour issues based on Evidence for Action: Gender Equality and
Oxfams current analysis, and two business Economic Growth
behaviours that hinder rather than help. Consolidates the empirical evidence for gender
www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/private_ equality and economic growth and indicates
sector/better-jobs-better-supply-chains.html how working on gender equality also boosts
the likelihood of achieving the Millennium
Oxfam (2010) Briefings for Business 6: Development Goals.
Think Big, Go Small www.chathamhouse.org.uk/publications/
Report on adapting business models to papers/view/-/id/952/
incorporate smallholders into supply chains.
www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/private_ ILO (2006) GET Ahead for Women in
sector/think-big-go-small.html Enterprise Training Package and Resource Kit
The GET Ahead training package focuses on
Oxfam (2004) Trading Away Our Rights: developing womens confidence, creating a
Women Working in Global Supply Chains business mind, managing people and risks,
Detailed report on gender and trade, with more and grasping opportunities in the business
information on the situations and problems environment.
faced by women in supply chains. www.ilo.org/public/english/region/asro/
www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/trade/ bangkok/library/pub4c.htm
downloads/trading_rights.pdf
Ethical Trading Initiative website
Arguably the leading multi-stakeholder initiative
concentrating on working conditions in supply
chains. Contains plenty of resources, case
studies, and information about joining the ETI.
www.ethicaltrade.org

19
 ILO (2007) A Manual For Gender Audit Oxfam Australia (2009) Women,
Facilitators: The ILO Participatory Gender Communities and Mining: The gender
Audit Methodology impacts of mining and the role of gender
Provides practical guidance and tools on how to impact assessment
conduct a gender audit within your organisation, This guide assists companies to incorporate
which will allow you to assess the degree to gender analysis into community assessment
which gender equality is being institutionalised. and planning tools, including social baseline
The manual is based on training materials used studies, social impact assessments and risk
to train facilitators in the ILO. analysis, community mapping exercises, and
www.ilo.org/dyn/gender/docs/RES/536/ monitoring and evaluation. These tools are
F932374742/web%20gender%20manual.pdf particularly relevant to the extractives sector,
but would also be helpful for other large-scale
The Goldman Sachs 10,000 Women Initiative
infrastructure projects, such as agribusiness
10,000 Women operates through a network
and hydropower.
of more than 70 academic and non-profit
www.oxfam.org.au/resources/filestore/
partners to develop locally relevant coursework
originals/OAus-MiningAndGender-1209.pdf
for students, and to improve the quality and
capacity of business education. Oxfam Novib (2009) Balanced Trees Bear
www2.goldmansachs.com/ Richer Fruits Adding value to the coffee
citizenship/10000women/index.html value chain, womens empowerment in
Western Uganda
Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing
This video documentary provides practical
and Organizing (WIEGO)
insights into how women and men at various
This organisation has developed statistics
levels in the coffee value chain in Uganda
to paint a picture of the informal economy
address gender issues for pro-poor wealth
throughout the world and presents findings by
creation and value chain upgrading.
country, sector, and gender.
www.youtube.com/
www.wiego.org
watch?v=2ZWgm6ZYMUU; and
Gender at Work (2010) Implementing www.youtube.com/watch?v=HcyGLZ8e1M0
Gender Equality Policies and Practices in
Key Demands from Women Workers
Private Sector Companies
Aims to guide concrete action by companies in
A study focusing on developing countries;
the African horticulture sector.
includes Gender Equality Tools for Projects/
women-ww.org/index.php/horticulture-
Portfolio Companies.
project/horticulture-six-key-demands
www.genderatwork.org/sites/genderatwork.
org/files/resources/Implementing_Gender_ The Dutch Agri-ProFocus Partnership
Equality..._Private_Sector-FINAL.pdf Initiative
Provides practical tools to work on gender
World Economic Forum (2010) The
in value chains, knowledge brokering, and a
Corporate Gender Gap Report 2010
network of knowledge institutes, development
Statistics and information, including survey
practitioners, and companies linked with a forum.
questions, which can serve as a useful tool
http://genderinvaluechains.ning.com
from which companies can design their own
effective measures for reducing gender gaps.
www.weforum.org/pdf/gendergap/
corporate2010.pdf

The Gender Principles website

Features hundreds of searchable resources on
all areas concerning gender and the private
sector, as well as practical standards, toolkits,
and a self-assessment tool.
www.genderprinciples.org/index.php

20
Annex II: Legal and
voluntary frameworks
on equality
UNIFEM Womens Empowerment Principles Global Reporting Initiative
The Womens Empowerment Principles were The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)
adopted in March 2010 as a joint initiative produces one of the worlds most widely
by UNIFEM and the UN Global Compact to used frameworks for sustainability reporting,
showcase best practice on womens rights and combining economic, environmental, and
gender equality in private sector operations. social performance. The framework has
Since their launch, CEOs of over 100 leading been developed with input from civil society,
companies have signed up to the Principles. academia, labour, accounting, investors,
See: www.unifem.org/partnerships/womens_ and governments. The third generation of
empowerment_principles GRIs sustainability reporting guidelines were
launched in 2006, and these indicators
OECD Guidelines for Multinational
demand gender-disaggregated data from
Enterprises
businesses by indicator.
The OECD Guidelines for Multinational
See: www.globalreporting.org/Home
Enterprises are recommendations made by 42
governments covering all major areas of business UN Global Compact
ethics, including the steps that multinational Established by then UN Secretary-General
companies must take to obey the law and Kofi Annan in 2000, the UN Global Compact
observe internationally recognised standards. is a United Nations initiative to encourage
The Guidelines provide voluntary principles for businesses worldwide to adopt socially
business conduct consistent with applicable laws responsible policies and to report on their
and internationally recognised standards. The implementation. The Global Compact is a
OECD Guidelines are generally supported by principle-based framework for businesses,
multinational enterprises, and corporate codes endorsing ten principles in the areas of human
of conduct often refer to them. Commentators rights, labour, the environment, and anti-
see these as the most important international corruption. The Global Compact is the worlds
mechanism seeking to set standards of largest corporate citizenship initiative, but is not
behaviour for international corporations and a regulatory instrument, and critics point to its
point out that, unlike the ILO Core Conventions, lack of monitoring and enforcement provisions.
the OECD Guidelines are targeted specifically See: www.unglobalcompact.org
at corporations rather than governments, and
are more comprehensive in coverage than the
UN Global Compact or the ILOs Tri-partite
Declaration on Multinational Enterprises
(www.ergonassociates.net/?p=98&option=com_
wordpress&Itemid=161). On 26 May 2011, an
update of the Guidelines was released. The
biggest change was the inclusion of the concept
of due diligence.
Also, previously it was unclear whether the
Guidelines extended into the vast network of
supply and distribution chains that multinationals
rely on. Now it is clear that they do. See:
www.oecd.org/dataoecd/43/29/48004323.pdf

21
 ILO Core Conventions UN Guiding Principles on Business and
The core conventions of the International Human Rights (2011) and the UN Protect,
Labour Organisation (ILO) are those adopted Respect, Remedy Framework (2008)
at its 86th International Labour Conference In March 2011, the Human Rights Council
in 1998 in the Declaration on Fundamental of the United Nations adopted the Guiding
Principles and Rights at Work. This declaration Principles on Business and Human Rights.
identified four principles as being core or These are principles by which the UN Protect,
fundamental, meaning that all ILO member Respect and Remedy Framework developed
states have an obligation to work towards in 2008 under the leadership of John
them. These fundamental rights concern: Ruggie, the UN Secretary-Generals Special
freedom of association and collective Representative for business and human rights
bargaining, discrimination, forced labour, and can be implemented. The Protect, Respect,
child labour. The ILO Conventions, which Remedy framework rests on three pillars:
embody the fundamental principles, have now
1T
 he states duty to protect against human
been ratified by most member states. These
rights abuses by third parties, including
core conventions form the constituent parts of
business;
most codes of conduct and inform the codes
2C
 orporate responsibility to respect human
adopted by multi-stakeholder organisations,
rights, demanding that businesses act with
such as the Ethical Trading Initiative.
due diligence to avoid infringing the rights of
See: www.ilo.org/global/lang--en/index.htm
others;
ILO Decent Work Agenda 3G
 reater access by victims to effective remedy
The ILO has adopted the Decent Work of human rights abuses.
Agenda (DWA) in the last decade. This builds
The framework has been endorsed by
on the fundamental workers rights enshrined
individual governments, business enterprises
in the ILO Core Conventions, but extends
and associations, civil society and workers
the provisions of these by also encouraging
organisations, national human rights
employers and governments to work together
institutions, and investors. It has been drawn
to provide employees with skills training and
on by the OECD and ISO in developing their
lifelong learning opportunities, flexible hours,
own initiatives. As observers note, a key point
job security, increased labour market access,
to make about the Framework is that it does
and better work-life balance. In this, the DWA
not establish any new legal obligations on
goes significantly further than the ILO Core
companies or States The core rights which
Conventions, and calls for better legislation and
are being supported through the framework
practice from both business and states in the
are those found in a range of international
areas above, which are of central importance
instruments what the guiding principles seek
to women, due to their reduced access to skills
to do is provide guidance on how respective
and training, and the disproportionate domestic
parties should operationalise the Protect,
burden they carry. See: www.ilo.org/global/
Respect, Remedy Framework.
about-the-ilo/decent-work-agenda/lang--en/
www.ergonassociates.net/blog/?p=7
index.htm
The principles developed in 2011 include
the integration of business responsibilities in
relation to gender.
The Guiding Principles developed in 2011 offer
practical, road-tested recommendations for
implementing the framework. They apply to all
states and business enterprises (transnational
and others), regardless of size, sector, location,
ownership, and structure, and apply both to
companies own operations and to their supply
chains. See: www.business-humanrights.org/
SpecialRepPortal/Home/Protect-Respect-
Remedy-Framework/GuidingPrinciples

22
Notes
1 
UN (2010) The Worlds Women 2010: Trends and New York: Catalyst; Catalyst (2007) The Bottom All recommendations for this section are from M.K.
37 

Statistics, Department of Economic and Social Line: Corporate Performance and Womens Chan (2010), ibid.
Affairs. New York: United Nations. Representation on Boards, New York: Catalyst; R.B. The most renowned social impact assessment
38 
2
Business for Social Responsibility (2006) Womens Adams and D. Ferreira (2004) Gender Diversity in the framework is arguably the Bottom of Pyramid
General and Reproductive Health in Global Supply Boardroom, ECGI Working Paper Series in Finance, Social Impact Assessment Framework developed
Chains, www.bsr.org/reports/BSR_Womens- Paper No. 58/2004; D.A. Carter, B.J. Simkins, and by Ted London at the University of Michigan.
Reproductive-Health-Report.pdf W.G. Simpson (2003) Corporate Governance, For an outline of this model, see www.gtz.
Board Diversity, and Firm Value, Financial Review, de/de/dokumente/en-konferenz-innovative-
3
FMCG are retail goods that are generally replaced or 38, 33-53; K. Campbell and A. Minguez-Vera
fully used up within a short period, loosely defined. geschaeftsmodelle-base-of-the-pyramid-research-
(2008) Gender Diversity in the Boardroom and initiative-2008.pdf. For details on how technology
4
This paper focuses on companies retailing and Firm Financial Performance, Journal of Business company Movirtu is applying this to its own product
producing FMCGs. Oxfams guidance on gender Ethics, Volume 83 (3), pp.435-451; D.A. Carter, research, see www.movirtu.com/internalnewsre-
impact assessment for companies working in the F. DSouza, B.J. Simkins, and G. Simpson (2007) direct/item/87-wdi-collaboration-press-release
extractive sector is contained in Oxfam Australia The Diversity of Corporate Board Committees and
(2009) Women, Communities and Mining: The Financial Performance, Oklahoma State University, References for Womens Work Worldwide p.8:
gender impacts of mining and the role of gender Working Paper; N.L. Erhardt, J.D. Werbel, and C.B. ActionAid (2007) Who Pays? How British Supermarkets
impact assessment, www.oxfam.org.au/resources/ Shrader (2003) Board of Director Diversity and Firm are keeping women workers in poverty, London:
filestore/originals/OAus-MiningAndGender-1209.pdf Financial Performance, Corporate Governance: An ActionAid International UK.
5 
World Bank (2011) 2012 World Development International Review, Volume 11(2), pp. 89-154; K.M.
Ellis and P.Y. Keys (2003) Stock Returns and the F. Bettio and A. Verashchagina (2009) Gender
Report: Gender Equality and Development, p.18, Segregation in the Labour Market: Root causes,
http://go.worldbank.org/CQCTMSFI40 Promotion of Workforce Diversity, Working Paper,
University of Delaware. implications and policy responses in the EU, Brussels:
6 
Oxfam (2004) Trading Away Our Rights, European Commission, Directorate-General for
http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/
22 
Catalyst (2002) Making Change: A Business Case Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities.
download?Id=431590 for Diversity. New York: Catalyst.
European Commission (EC) (2007) Tackling the Pay
7
J. Ward, B. Lee, S. Baptist and H. Jackson
23
Ibid. Gap between Women and Men, http://europa.eu/
(2010) Evidence for Action: Gender Equality 24 
See www.globalreporting.org/ReportingFramework/ legislation_summaries/employment_and_social_policy/
and Economic Growth. Chatham House and G31Guidelines/ for indicator frameworks for equality_between_men_and_women/c10161_en.htm
Vivideconomics. measuring and reporting on gender equality in the N. Ferm (2008) Non-traditional agricultural export
8
ILO (2009) Global Employment Trends for Women. workforce. industries: conditions for women workers in Colombia
Geneva: United Nations. 25 
For more general information on supply chains, see and Peru, Gender & Development 16(1): 13-26
9
D. Budlender (2008) The Statistical Evidence on Oxfam (2010) International Better Jobs in Better ICRW (2000) Domestic Violence in India: Part 3,
Care and Non-Care Work across Six Countries, Supply Chains, op. cit. A Summary Report of a Multi-Site Household Survey,
United Nations Research Institute for Social 26 
Business for Social Responsibility (2006) Womens International Centre for Research on Women and The
Development (UNRISD). See also The Economist General and Reproductive Health in Global Supply Centre for Development and Population Activities.
(2011) Asias Lonely Hearts, 2026 August, for Chains, www.bsr.org/reports/BSR_Womens- IFC (2009) Growth Orientated Women Enterprise,
recent statistics on the disproportionate balance of Reproductive-Health-Report.pdf www.ifc.org/ifcext/africa.nsf/Content/GOWE_Home
non-care work by gender in Japan. 27 
For general advice on value chains, see Oxfam ILO (1997) Economically Active Population, 19502010,
10
World Bank (2011) 2012 World Development International (2010) Better Jobs in Better Supply Fourth Edition, diskette database. Geneva: United
Report: Gender Equality and Development, p.xx, Chains, op. cit. Nations.
p.3, http://go.worldbank.org/CQCTMSFI40 28 
For detailed advice on how to map and track informal S. Kapsos (2008) The Gender Wage Gap in
11
World Bank Group Private Sector Leaders Forum labour in complex supply chains, see the Ethical Bangladesh, ILO Asia-Pacific Series. Geneva: ILO.
Announces New Measures, http://go.worldbank. Trading Initiatives Homeworker Guidelines:
org/70FOHWDL50 www.ethicaltrade.org/in-action/projects/ P. Ngai (2004) Women workers and precarious
homeworkers-project/guidelines employment in Shenzhen Special Economic Zone,
12
World Bank (2012) 2012 World Development China, Gender & Development (12)2: 29-36.
Report, Main Messages, p.i, http:// 29 
See Getting Smarter at Auditing: Tackling the
siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/ growing crisis in ethical trade auditing: K. Raworth (2004) Trading Away Our Rights: Women
Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210- www.ethicaltrade.org/resources/key-eti-resources/ working in global supply chains, p.76. Oxford: Oxfam.
1315936245355/Main-Message-English.pdf getting-smarter-at-auditing Spencer Stuart (2009) The 2009 Spencer Stuart Board
13
Oxfam International (2010) Better Jobs in Better 30 
Oxfam (2011) Growing a Better Future: Food justice Index, http://content.spencerstuart.com/sswebsite/pdf/
Supply Chains, Briefings for Business 5, p.4, in a resource-constrained world, p.33, lib/SSBI2009.pdf
http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/ www.oxfam.org/en/grow/reports UN (2009) 2009 World Survey on the Role of Women
better-jobs-in-better-supply-chains-114001 31 
An FAO study of 97 countries found that just 15 per in Development: Womens Control over Economic
14
FAO (2010) Women and Sustainable Food Security. cent of agricultural extension personnel are female, Resources and Access to Financial Resources,
www.fao.org/SD/FSdirect/FBdirect/FSP001.htm which greatly reduces the likelihood that services including Microfinance. New York: United Nations.
and information will reach female producers, and World Bank (2009) Swimming Against the Tide: How
15
U.E. Zia (2009) Pakistan: A Dairy Sector at a
thus reduces their productivity, see FAO (2011) The developing countries are coping with the global crisis,
Crossroads, in FAO (2009) Smallholder Dairy
State of Food and Agriculture: Women in Agriculture: background paper prepared by World Bank staff, 1314
Development: Lessons Learned in Asia, pp.76-85.
Closing the Gender Gap for Development, March 2009, www.un.org/ga/president/63/PDFs/
Bangkok: FAO.
p.32, www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e03.pdf WorldBankreport.pdf
16
FAO (1998) Rural Women and Food Security: 32 
FAO (2011) op cit. p20 World Bank (2010) Women, Business & The Law:
Current Information and Perspectives. Rome: United
Nations.
33 
R. Gawaya (2008) Investing in women farmers to Measuring Legal Gender Parity for Entrepreneurs and
eliminate food insecurity in southern Africa: policy- Workers in 128 Economies. Washington DC: The
17 
For details on such inequities, see: World Bank.
related research from Mozambique, Gender &
www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/52011/icode
Development, 16(1): 147-159.
18
European Commission (2007) Tackling the pay 34 
World Bank Group (2010) Gender and Governance Authors: This briefing paper was written by
gap between women and men, http://europa.eu/ in Rural Services: Insights from India, Ghana and Lauren McCarthy, Liz Kirk (Oxfam GB), and Dr Kate
legislation_summaries/employment_and_social_ Ethiopia, Washington, DC: The World Bank. Grosser (Nottingham University Business School),
policy/equality_between_men_and_women/c10161_ with support from Ines Smyth, Thalia Kidder, Gerry
en.htm
35 
In Zambia, enabling women to invest in agriculture
in the same way as men for example, through Boyle, and Penny Fowler (all of Oxfam GB). We
19
ILO Constitution, www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/ enabling equal access to high-quality fertiliser has gratefully acknowledge helpful comments from Joyce
iloconst.htm increased overall outputs by an estimated 15 per Kortland, Serena Lillywhite, Daisy Gardener, Franziska
20 
G. Pellegrino, S. DAmato, and A. Weisberg (2011) cent (Gates Foundation, Gender Portfolio White Humberts, Steph Burgos, Jodie Thorpe, and Rachel
The Gender Dividend: Making the Business Paper, 14 November 2008, p.7). Wilshaw.
Case for Investing in Women, London: Deloitte, 36 
M.K. Chan (2010) Executive Summary: Improving
www.deloitte.com/assets/Dcom-Greece/dttl_ps_ Opportunities for Women in Smallholder-based
genderdividend_130111.pdf Supply Chains: Business case and practical
21 
See Catalyst (2004) The Bottom Line: Connecting guidance for international food companies, Bill &
Corporate Performance and Gender Diversity, Melinda Gates Foundation.

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