Testing of Hypothesis - One Sample

9
Hypothesis Testing
Business Statistics:
Communicating with Numbers, 2e
By Sanjiv Jaggia and Alison Kelly
8/31/2016
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright 2016 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chapter 9 Learning Objectives (LOs)
LO 9.1 Define the null hypothesis and the alternative
hypothesis.
LO 9.2 Distinguish between Type I and Type II
errors.
LO 9.3 Conduct a hypothesis test using the p-value
approach.
LO 9.4 Conduct a hypothesis test using the critical
value approach.
LO 9.5 Differentiate between the test statistics for the
population mean.
LO 9.6 Specify the test statistic for the population
proportion.
BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly
9-2
Introductory Case:
Undergraduate Study Habits
Are todays college students studying hard or
hardly studying?
A recent study asserts that over the past five
decades the number of hours that the average
college student studies each week has been
steadily dropping (The Boston Globe, July 4, 2010).
In 1961, students invested 24 hours per week in
their academic pursuits, whereas todays students
study an average of 14 hours per week.

9-3
Introductory Case:
Undergraduate Study Habits
As dean of a large university in California, Susan Knight
wonders if the study trend is reflective of students at her
university.
Susan randomly selected 35 students to ask about their
average study time per week. Using these results, Susan
wants to
1. Determine if the mean study time of students at her
university is below the 1961 national average of 24 hours
per week.
2. Determine if the mean study time of students at her
university differs from todays national average of 14
hours per week.
9-4
Terms - Definition
A hypothesis is a statement or assertion or assumption or
claim or belief about the state of nature (about the true value
of an unknown population parameter):
The accused is innocent

= 100
p=0.9
Daily sales at a Store is normally distributed
Advertising expenditure is a predictor of sales
Employee empowerment and customer satisfaction are
independent
1 2 0

9-5
Terms-Definition
A Hypothesis Test is a statistical procedure

that involves formulating a hypothesis and
using sample data to decide on the validity of
the hypothesis (to support or not to support)

9-6
9.1 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing
LO 9.1 Define the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.
Hypothesis tests resolve conflicts between two

competing opinions (hypotheses).
In a hypothesis test, define
H0, the null hypothesis, the presumed default state
of nature or status quo.
HA, the alternative hypothesis, a contradiction of
the default state of nature or status quo.
LO 9.1 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

9-7
In statistics we use sample information to make
inferences regarding the unknown population
parameters of interest.
We conduct hypothesis tests to determine if sample
evidence contradicts H0.
On the basis of sample information, we either
Reject the null hypothesis
Sample evidence is inconsistent with H0.
Do not reject the null hypothesis
Sample evidence is not inconsistent with H0.
We do not have enough evidence to accept H0.
9-8
Defining the Null Hypothesis and Alternative
Hypothesis
General guidelines:
Null hypothesis, H0, states the status quo.
Alternative hypothesis, HA, states whatever we
wish to establish (i.e., contests the status quo).
Use the following signs in hypothesis tests
H0 = > < specify the status quo,

HA < > contradict H0.
Note that H0 always contains the equality.
9-9
One-Tailed versus Two-Tailed Hypothesis Tests
Two-Tailed Test
Reject H0 on either side of the hypothesized value of
the population parameter.
For example:
H0: = 0 versus HA: 0
H0: p = p0 versus HA: p p0
The symbol in HA indicates that both tail areas of
the distribution will be used to make the decision
regarding the rejection of H0.

9-10
One-Tailed versus Two-Tailed Hypothesis Tests
One-Tailed Test
Reject H0 only on one side of the hypothesized value
of the population parameter.
For example:
H0: < 0 versus HA: > 0 (right-tail test)
H0: > 0 versus HA: < 0 (left-tail test)
Note that the inequality in HA determines which tail
area will be used to make the decision regarding the
rejection of H0.

9-11
Three Steps to Formulate Hypotheses
1. Identify the relevant population parameter of interest
(e.g., or p).
2. Determine whether it is a one- or a two-tailed test.
3. Include some form of the equality sign in H0 and use
HA to establish a claim.
H0 HA Test Type
= Two-tail
> < One-tail, Left-tail
< > One-tail, Right-tail
9-12
Example: A trade group predicts that back-to-school
spending will average $606.40 per family this year. A
different economic model is needed if the prediction is
wrong.
1. Parameter of interest is since we are interested in the
average back-to-school spending.
2. Since we want to determine if the population mean differs
from $606.4 (i.e, ), it is a two-tail test.
3. H0: = 606.4
HA: 606.4

9-13
Example: A television research analyst wishes to test a
claim that more than 50% of the households will tune in
for a TV episode. Specify the null and the alternative
hypotheses to test the claim.
1. Parameter of interest is p since we are interested in
the proportion of households.
2. Since the analyst wants to determine whether p >
0.50, it is a one-tail test.
3. H0: p < 0.50
HA: p > 0.50

9-14
Example
Suppose a bank knows that their customers are
waiting in line an average of 10.2 minutes during
the lunch hour. The branch manager has decided
to add an additional teller during the 12-2 p.m.
period and wishes to test the hypothesis that the
average wait has decreased due to the additional
teller. Set up the null and alternative hypothesis
for the bank manager.
H0: = 10.2
H1: < 10.2

9-15
LO 9.2 Distinguish between Type I and Type II errors.
Type I and Type II Errors

Type I Error: Committed when we reject H0 when H0
is actually true.
Occurs with probability . is chosen a priori.
Type II Error: Committed when we do not reject H0
and H0 is actually false.
Occurs with probability . Power of the test = 1 .
For a given sample size n, a decrease in will
increase and vice versa.

9-16
This table illustrates the decisions that may
be made when hypothesis testing:
Correct Decisions:
Reject H0 when H0 is false.
Do not reject H0 when H0 is true.
Incorrect Decisions:
Reject H0 when H0 is true (Type I Error).
Do not reject H0 when H0 is false (Type II Error).
9-17
Example: Consider the following competing
hypotheses that relate to the court of law.
H0: An accused person is innocent

HA: An accused person is guilty
Consequences of Type I and Type II errors:
Type I error: Conclude that the accused is guilty
when in reality, she is innocent.
Type II error: Conclude that the accused is innocent
when in reality, she is guilty.
Problems 7

9-18
9.2 Hypothesis Test of the Population
Mean When Is Known
LO 9.3 Conduct a hypothesis test using the p-value approach.
Hypothesis testing enables us to determine whether the

sample evidence is inconsistent with what is
hypothesized under the null hypothesis (H0).
Basic principle: First assume that H0 is true and
then determine if sample evidence contradicts this
assumption.
Two approaches to hypothesis testing:
The p-value approach.
The critical value approach.

9-19
Mean When Is Known
The p-value Approach
The value of the test statistic for the hypothesis test of
the population mean when the population standard
deviation is known is computed as
x 0
z
n
where 0 is the hypothesized mean value.
p-value: the likelihood of obtaining a sample mean
that is at least as extreme as the one derived from the
given sample, under the assumption that the null
hypothesis is true.
9-20
Mean When Is Known
Under the assumption that = 0, the p-value is the likelihood
of observing a sample mean that is at least as extreme as the
one derived from the given sample.
The calculation of the p-value depends on the specification of
the alternative hypothesis:
Decision rule: Reject H0 if p-value < .

9-21
Mean When Is Known
Determining the p-value depending on the
specification of the competing hypotheses.
Reject H0 if p-value <

9-22
Mean When Is Known
Four Step Procedure Using The p-value Approach
Step 1. Specify the null and the alternative
hypotheses.
Step 2. Specify the test statistic and compute its value.
Step 3. Calculate the p-value.
Step 4. State the conclusion and interpret the results.

9-23
Mean When Is Known
Example: The p-value Approach
Consider the following: n 25, x 71, 9
Step 1. State the hypotheses: H0 : 67
H A : 67
Thus, 0 = 67
Step 2. Given that the population is normally
distributed with a known standard deviation,
= 9, we compute the value of the test statistic as
x 0 71 67
z 2.22
n 9 25

9-24
Mean When Is Known
Unstandardized Normal Distribution: x = 71 m0 = 67
Standardized Normal Distribution: z = 2.22 m=0
Step 3. Now compute the p-value:
Note that since HA: > 67,
this is a right-tail test.
Thus,
P ( X 71) P (Z 2.22)
1 0.9868
0.0132
p-value = 0.0132
or 1.32%

9-25
Mean When Is Known
p-value = 0.0132 or 1.32%
Typically, before implementing a hypothesis test, we
choose a value for = 0.01, 0.05, or 0.1 and reject H0
when the p-value < .
Lets say, before conducting the study, we chose a =
0.05.
Step 4. Since p-value = 0.0132 < = 0.05, we reject H0
and conclude that the sample data support the
alternative claim that > 67.
9-26
Mean When Is Known
Example: The p-value Approach Using Excel

9-27
Mean When Is Known
LO 9.4 Conduct a hypothesis test using the critical value approach.
The Critical Value Approach

Rejection region: a region of values such that if the
test statistic falls into this region, then we reject H0.
The location of this region is determined
by HA.
Critical value: a point that separates the rejection
region from the nonrejection region.

9-28
Mean When Is Known
The critical value approach specifies a region such that if the
value of the test statistic falls into the region, the null
hypothesis is rejected.
The critical value depends on the alternative hypothesis.
Decision Rule: Reject H0 if:

z > z for a right-tailed test
z < z for a left-tailed test
z > z /2 or z < z /2 for a two-tailed test
9-29
Mean When Is Known
Determining the critical value(s) depending on the
specification of the competing hypotheses.
Reject H0 if
z > za/2 or z < za/2
Reject H0 if z < za Reject H0 if z > za

9-30
Mean When Is Known
Four Step Procedure Using the Critical Value
Approach
Step 1. Specify the null and the alternative
hypotheses.
Step 2. Specify the test statistic and compute its value.
Step 3. Find the critical value or values.

9-31
Mean When Is Known
Example:
Consider the following: n 25, x 71, 9
H A : 67
Thus, 0 = 67
Step 2. Given that the population is normally
distributed with a known standard deviation,
= 9, we compute the value of the test statistic as
x 0 71 67
z 2.22
n 9 25

9-32
Mean When Is Known
Example: The Critical Value Approach
Step 3. Based on HA, this is a
right-tail test and for z 2.22
= 0.05, the critical value
is z = z0.05 = 1.645.
Excel can find z :

9-33
Mean When Is Known
Step 4. Reject H0 if z > 1.645.
Since z = 2.22 > z = 1.645, the test statistic falls in
the rejection region. Therefore, we reject H0 and
conclude that the
sample data support the
alternative claim > 67. z= 2.22
falls in the
rejection
This conclusion is the region.
same as that from the

p-value approach.
9-34
Mean When Is Known
If z falls in the rejection region, then the p-value must
be less than .
If z does not fall in the
rejection region, then the
p-value must be greater
than .

9-35
Mean When Is Known
Confidence Intervals and Two-Tailed Hypothesis
Tests
Given the significance level a, we can use the sample
data to construct a 100(1 )% confidence interval
for the population mean .
Decision Rule
Reject H0 if the confidence interval does not contain the
value of the hypothesized mean 0.
Do not reject H0 if the confidence interval does contain
the value of the hypothesized mean 0.
9-36
Mean When Is Known
Implementing a Two-Tailed Test Using a Confidence
Interval
The general specification for a 100(1 )% confidence interval
of the population mean when the population standard
deviation is known is computed as
x za /2 nor x za /2 n , x za /2 n

Decision rule: Reject H0 if 0 x za /2 n
or if 0 x za /2 n

9-37
Mean When Is Known
Example: Recall that a research analyst wishes to
determine if average back-to-school spending
differs from $606.40.
Out of 30 randomly drawn households from a normally
distributed population, the standard deviation is $65 and
sample mean is $622.85.
Step 1. H0: = 606.4, HA: 606.4
Step 2. z = 1.39
Step 3. Based on HA, this
is a two-tail test and for
a = 0.05, the critical value
is z/2 = z0.025 = 1.96.
9-38
Mean When Is Unknown
LO 9.5 Differentiate between the test statistics for the population mean.
Test Statistic for When is Unknown

When the population standard deviation is
unknown, the test statistic for testing the
population mean is assumed to follow the
tdf distribution with (n 1) degrees of
freedom (df).
x
The value of tdf is computed as: t df
0
s n

9-39
Example
Consider the following: n 35, x 16.37, s 7.22
H A : 24
Thus, 0 = 24
Step 2. Because n = 35 (i.e, n > 30), we can assume
that the sample mean is normally distributed and thus
compute the value of the test statistic as
x - m0 16.37 - 24
t34 = = = -6.25
s n 7.22 35

9-40
n 35, x 16.37, s 7.22, t34 6.25
na
H0: > 24, HA: < 24
Step 3. Based on HA,
this is a left-tail test.
For = 0.05 and
n 1 = 34 df, the
critical value is
t,df = t0.05,34 = 1.691
(1.691 due to symmetry).

9-41

Reject H0 if t34 < t0.05,34 = 1.691.
Since t34 = 6.25 is less than t0.05,34 = 1.691,
we reject H0 and conclude that the sample data
support the alternative claim that < 24.
You can use Excel to look up t values:

9-42
Case
In the introductory case to this chapter , the dean at a large
university in California wonders if students at her university study
less than the 1961 national average of 24 hours per week. She
randomly selects 35 students and asks their average study time
per week (in hours).From their responses(see Table 9.1), she
calculates a sample mean of 16.37 hours and a sample standard
deviation of 7.22 hours.
a. Specify the competing hypothesis to test the deans concern.

b. At the 5% significance level, specify the critical value(s).
c. Calculate the value of the test statistic.
d. What is the conclusion to the hypothesis test?

9-43
Case
As the introductory case to this chapter mentions,
recent research finds that todays undergraduate
study an average of 14 hours per week. Using the
sample data from Table 9.1, the dean would also like
to test if the mean study time of students at her
university differs from todays national average of 14
hours per week.
a. Formulate the completing hypothesis for this test .
b. Calculate the value of the test statistic.
c. Approximate the p-value.
d. At the 5% significance level ,what is the
conclusion to this test?

9-44
na 35, x 16.37, s 7.22
n
Step 1. H0: = 14, HA: 14
Step 2. Compute the value of the test statistic as:
x - m0 16.37 - 14
t34 = = = 1.94
s n 7.22 35
Step 3. Compute the p-value.
Since t34=1.94 > 0, the p-value for a two-tailed test is 2P(T34 >
t,34). Referencing the tdf table for df = 34, we find that the
exact probability P(T34 > 1.94) cannot be determined.

9-45
Step 3. Compute the p-value (continued).
Look up t34 = 1.94 in the t-table to find the p-value.
Note that t34 = 1.94 lies between 1.691 and 2.032.

Thus, 0.025 < P(T34 > 1.94) < 0.05.
However, because this is a two-tail test, we multiply by two
to get 0.05 < p-value < 0.10.

9-46
0.05 < p-value < 0.10
= 0.05.
Since the p-value satisfies 0.05 < p-value < 0.10, it must be
greater than = 0.05.
Thus, we do not reject H0 and conclude that the mean study
time of students at the university is not statistically different
from todays national average of 14 hours per week.

9-47
0.05 < p-value < 0.10
= 0.05.
Since the p-value satisfies 0.05 < p-value < 0.10, it must be
greater than = 0.05.
Thus, we do not reject H0 and conclude that the mean study
time of students at the university is not statistically different
from todays national average of 14 hours per week.

9-48
Example: The p-value Approach Using Excel (which
CAN calculate the exact p-value)

9-49
9.4 Hypothesis Test of the Population Proportion
TestLOStatistic fortestp.statistic for the population proportion.

9.6 Specify the
P can be approximated by a normal distribution if np

> 5 and n(1 p) > 5.
Test statistic for the hypothesis test of the population
proportion p is assumed to follow the z distribution:
where p x n
p p0
z and p0 is the hypothesized
p0 1 p0 n value of the population
proportion.

9-50
Proportion
Example:
na 180, x 67, p0 0.4
Step 1. H0: p > 0.4, HA: p < 0.4
Step 2. Compute the value of the test statistic.
First verify that the sample is large enough:
np0 67 0.4 26.8 5
n(1 p0 ) 67 0.6 40.2 5
Compute the test statistic using p = 67/180 = 0.3722:
p p0 0.3722 0.4
z 0.76
p0 1 p0 n 0.4 1 0.4 180

9-51
Proportion
Example:
Step 3. Compute the p-value.
Based on HA: p < 0.4, this is a left-tailed test.
Compute the p-value as:
P(Z < z) = P(Z < 0.76) = 0.2236.
Let the significance
level = 0.10.

9-52
Proportion
Example:
p-value = 0.2236 > a = 0.10.
Do not reject H0: p > 0.4 and conclude
HA: p < 0.4.
Thus, the magazines claim that fewer than 40% of
households in the United States have changed their
lifestyles because of escalating gas prices is not
justified by the sample data.

9-53
Problem
A popular weekly magazine asserts that fewer than
40% of households in the United States have
changed their lifestyles because of escalating gas
prices. A recent survey of 180 households finds that
67 households have made lifestyle changes due to
escalating gas prices.
a. Specify the competing hypotheses to test the
magazines claim.
b. Calculate the value of the test statistic and the
corresponding p-value
c. At a 10% level of significance, what is the
conclusion to the test?

9-54
Problem
The manager of a small convenience store does not want her
customers standing in line for too long prior to a purchase. In particular,
she is willing to hire an employee for another cash register if the
average wait time of the customers is more than five minutes. She
randomly observes the wait time (in minutes) of customers during the
day as:
3.5 5.8 7.2 1.9 6.8 8.1 5.4
a. Set up the null and the alternative hypotheses to determine if the manager
needs to hire another employee.
b. Calculate the value of the test statistic. What assumption regarding the
population is necessary to implement this step?
c. Use the critical value approach to decide whether the manager needs to
hire another employee at =0.10.
d. Repeat the above analysis with the p-value approach.

9-55
Proportion
Example Using Excel

9-56
Significance test for
population proportion

9-57
Assumptions :
Sample size should be large
Hypotheses:
H 0 : p p0 H 0 : p p0 H 0 : p p0
H 1 : p p0 H 0 : p p0 H 0 : p p0
Test Statistic: sample proportion=

p
By CLT,
p (1 p )
p N p,

n
p0
p
z obs ~ N (0,1)
p0 (1 p0 )
n

9-58
Critical Region :
Right tail : {zobs za }

Left tail : {zobs za }
Two tail : {zobs za / 2 or z za / 2 }

9-59
population mean (when is
known)

9-60
Assumptions :
Random sample is drawn from a population (normal distribution)
with mean and sd
Sample size should be large (small)
Population sd is known
Hypotheses:
H 0 : 0 H 0 : 0 H 0 : 0
H1 : 0 H 0 : 0 H 0 : 0
Test Statistic: sample mean = x

By CLT,
2
x (~) N , n

x 0
z obs ~ N (0,1), under H 0

n
9-61
Critical Region :
Right tail : {zobs za }

Left tail : {zobs za }
Two tail : {zobs za / 2 or z za / 2 }

9-62
population mean (when is
unknown)
small sample

9-63
Assumptions :
random sample is drawn from normal distribution with mean
and sd
Population sd is unknown
Hypotheses:
H 0 : 0 H 0 : 0 H 0 : 0
H1 : 0 H 0 : 0 H 0 : 0
Test Statistic: sample mean= x

needs to be estimated. Unbiased estimator of is
n
1
s ' i
n 1 i 1
( x x ) 2

9-64
x 0
t obs '
~ t n 1 , under H 0
s
n

9-65
Critical Region :
Right tail : {tobs ta ;n 1}

Left tail : {tobs ta ;n 1}
Two tail : {tobs ta / 2;n 1 or tobs ta / 2;n 1}

9-66

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9

By Sanjiv Jaggia and Alison Kelly

BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

The accused is innocent

BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

A Hypothesis Test is a statistical procedure

BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

Hypothesis tests resolve conflicts between two

LO 9.1 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

H0 = > < specify the status quo,

LO 9.1 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.1 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.1 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.1 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

Type I and Type II Errors

LO 9.2 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.2 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

Hypothesis testing enables us to determine whether the

LO 9.3 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

Decision rule: Reject H0 if p-value < .

Reject H0 if p-value <

LO 9.3 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.3 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.3 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.3 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.3 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

The Critical Value Approach

LO 9.4 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

Decision Rule: Reject H0 if:

LO 9.4 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.4 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.3 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.4 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

This conclusion is the region.

same as that from the

LO 9.4 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

Decision rule: Reject H0 if 0 x za /2 n

LO 9.4 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

Test Statistic for When is Unknown

LO 9.5 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.5 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.5 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

Example: The Critical Value Approach

LO 9.5 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

a. Specify the competing hypothesis to test the deans concern.

BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.5 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

Note that t34 = 1.94 lies between 1.691 and 2.032.

LO 9.5 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.5 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.5 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.5 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

TestLOStatistic fortestp.statistic for the population proportion.

P can be approximated by a normal distribution if np

LO 9.6 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.6 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly

LO 9.6 BUSINESS STATISTICS | Jaggia, Kelly