Voltage Classes

for Electric Mobility

German Electrical and Electronic Manufacturers Association

Voltage Casses for Electric Mobility
Published by:
ZVEI - German Electrical and Electronic
Manufacturers Association
Centre of Excellence Electric Mobility
Lyoner Strae 9
60528 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Telephone: +49 69 6302-276
Fax: +49 69 6302-407
Email: [email protected]
www.zvei.org
Responsible:
Hans-Martin Fischer
Compilation:
Layla Dorn
In Collaboration with:
ZVEI-Task Force Voltage Classes:
Bertrandt
Delphi Deutschland
Heraeus Materials Technology
Infineon Technologies
Leopold Kostal
Lenze Schmidhauser
Leoni Kabel
Robert Bosch
Schweizer Electronic
Tyco Electronics AMP
Webasto SE
ZF Friedrichshafen
December 2013
Although every effort has been made to ensure that the infor-
mation contained in this document is accurate, no legal res-
ponsibility is assumed for any errors, omissions or misleading
statements in its content.
1 Target Group and Objectives
Electric mobility is a dynamic field of deve-
lopment. New technologies stand alongside
traditionally reliable approaches to electrical
engineering and electronics and the systems
which connect them to standard internal com-
bustion engine technology.

This document provides an overview of the

current state of technology and standardi-
sation of the relevant voltage classes. It is
intended for professionals and interested sta-
keholders in development, technology, pro-
duction and repair service dealing with pow-
ertrain electrification. ZVEI working groups
and members involved in component-specific
activities in some vehicle areas are also given
the opportunity to expand their knowledge
from an overall system perspective.

3
Index

1 Target Group and Objectives 3

2 Editorial 6

3 Technical Introduction 8

4 New 48 V Low-Voltage Level 11

5 High Voltage 11
5.1 Definition of High-Voltage 12

6 Connection to Charging Infrastructure 13

7 Interactions between Different Voltage Levels 14

8 Batteries 16

9 Charging Voltages 18
9.1 AC Charging Voltages 18
9.2 Charging Voltage for DC Fast Charging 18

10 Impact on Component Costs 20

10.1 Improved Performance with Higher Voltages 20

11 Power Electronics 21

12 Contactors 22

13 Energy Distribution 22

14 HV Connectors 24
14.1 Safety Interlock Connectors 26

15 Charge Controller and DC/DC Converter 26

16 Electric Machine Voltages 27

17 Thermal Management 28
18 Rules, Norms and Standardisation 29

19 Safety: Risk Potential Associated with HV Voltage 29

19.1 Effects of Electric Current on the Human Body 29
19.2 Electric Safety in Companies 30
19.3 Protection Concept 31
19.4 Protective Measures 31
19.4.1 Equipotential Bonding 32
19.4.2 Protective Functions 32
19.4.3 Optional Protective Functions 33

20 Life Time 33

21 Outstanding Issues 37
21.1 Further Optimisation Parameters 37

22 Outlook and Summary 37

23 Appendix 38
23.1 Semidonductor Materials for
PCB Packaging and Assembly 38
23.1.1 New Solder Alloys 38
23.1.2 Diffusion Soldering 39
23.1.3 Silver Sintering 40
23.1.4 Bonding Wires and Bonding Ribbons 41
23.1.5 Tensile Strength 41
23.1.6 Chip, Substrate and Leadframe Surface Finishes 41

24 List of Abbreviations 42

25 Further Reading 43
2 Editorial
A look into the history of the automobile Commission also envisages a target of zero
shows that many of the first non-horse-drawn emissions for European city and town centres
carriages were fitted with an electric drive. The in the future. This requires the use of vehic-
fact that history was shaped by internal com- les that can be driven exclusively by electrical
bustion engines in the following decades can power, at least for shorter distances.
be attributed to the extensive development So much for the renaissance of the electric
efforts that helped overcome the engines ini- vehicle!
tial susceptibility to breakdowns and awkward
handling, making it a practical solution for Until recently, the majority of hybrid drives
long distances. Following intensive research came from Asia. Market-driven competition
and development in the field of electric mobi- paved the way for this technology to be adop-
lity, we now know that this innovative tech- ted in vehicles inside and outside Europe.
nology not only addresses environmental con- This resulted in an engineering boom that
cerns, it also significantly increases driving coincided with the availability of high-voltage
dynamics and driving pleasure. This suggests components already used for military and
that powertrain electrification will continue to aerospace applications, by industry and for
increase and attract the interest of a growing traction systems (tramways and trains, etc.).
number of buyers. But these components far exceeded auto-
motive requirements and did not match the
Renewed interest in e-mobility or hybrid tech- prices envisaged by the carmakers. Although
nology and hence electric drives has its these components were initially installed in
origins in eco-political objectives. The int- early non-Asian hybrid vehicles, they have
roduction of all-wheel drive hybrid vehicles been gradually replaced by more suitable
demonstrated that significant speed values components that had first to be specified,
and hence impressive acceleration values can developed and manufactured.
be achieved with two different drive techno-
logies (thermal motor plus electric machine) Today, a wide variety of high-voltage com-
working in parallel. This provided the impe- ponents is available that meet the technical
tus that was needed to develop e-mobility to requirements at prices that seem to be accep-
its current stage. Any marketing expert knows table to the automotive industry. Hybrid dri-
that if you make driving more fun, you will ves are thus likely to become more attractive
attract more buyers; a sales argument which in terms of pricing in addition to their dyna-
tips the balance even in the face of possible mic driving benefits.
additional costs.

The 2015 CO2 emission targets set by the

European Commission under the Kyoto Pro-
tocol are virtually impossible to meet with
traditional internal combustion engine tech-
nology. Moreover, non-compliance will result
in fines if the average CO2 emissions of a
manufacturers fleet exceed its limit values.
Hybrid technology can help address this risk
since it enables CO2 emissions to be reduced
by 1020 percent on average based on the
New European Driving Cycle. The European

6
 In view of the evolving hybrid mechanisation Traditional 12/24 volt level for all current
of passenger and commercial vehicles it can vehicle and convenience features
be assumed that the architectures illustrated 48 volt level for one to five kW consumer
below with the options currently available (see installations and application in mild hyb-
fig. 13) will be used in the majority of vehic- rids for boost and energy recuperation
les in the near future. functions up to max. 12 kW (green)
High-voltage level for hybrid and
electric vehicles for boost function,
energy recuperation and electric dri-
ving greater than 12 kW (red/orange)

Fig. 1: 14 V 48 V basic architecture

Source: Delphi Deutschland

Fig. 2: 24 V HV E/E system, commercial hybrid vehicle

Source: Delphi Deutschland

7
 Fig. 3: 14 V 48 V HV E/E system, hybrid vehicle

Source: Delphi Deutschland

The following pages focus on the current sta-

tus of the different voltage levels and their
use in passenger and commercial vehicles.
The technical impact of the components used
in hybrid vehicles is also analysed in detail in
this document, although voltage levels within
the e-mobility infrastructure are not covered.

3 Technical Introduction
In view of the dedicated efforts of the auto- Whilst voltages in excess of 12/24 V have
motive industry to implement powertrain previously been reserved for industrial and
electrification, the question arises as to household applications, the voltages required
whether the necessary applications are for the electric drive power in passenger and
technically feasible, given the voltage levels commercial vehicles are several hundred volts
that will be needed. higher.

8
Fig. 4: Engine and battery current system voltage

Source: Lenze Schmidhauser

Moreover, functions that are currently mecha- hed voltage levels, there is currently no valid
nically powered in thermal drive systems must standard available for voltage ranges greater
be electrically operated in the future, decou- than 60 V DC in vehicles.
pled from rotational speed and torque and
hence from the state and behaviour of the
internal combustion engine (if present). While
the VDE has standardised almost all establis-

Fig. 5: Voltages in the 12/24 volt on-board system

Source: ZVEI

9
Fig. 6: Voltages in the 48 on-board system A holistic approach must be taken to the selec-
tion of (cost) optimal voltage since it cannot
Contact protection be satisfactorily resolved from the perspective
60 V U48sh protect of components alone.
58 V U48r
Overvoltage range
54 V U48 max. high limited
Upper operating range with performance limitations
52 V U48 max. unlimited While electrical drive components in indus-
trial applications are designed with expensive
48 V U48n
Operating range spare capacity/redundancy reserves in terms
without performance limitations of their installation space and continuous
load, this is not an option for the cost-aware
36 V U48 min. unlimited and high-volume car manufacturing industry.
The electrical architectures and their physical
Lower operating range
with performance limitations implementation are currently adapted to suit
individual vehicle requirements. Standardi-
24 V U48 max. low limited
Undervoltage range sation will help to optimise costs, but it will
20 V U48sto protect
take some time before the automotive indus-
try agrees on standard structures and compo-
Source: Delphi Deutschland
nents based on practical experience.
State of the art
Common voltage levels of 12/24 volt are still It is clear that high voltages are required to
used for supplying most of the vehicle and transport power in the 100 kW range that
convenience features and will continue to do keep the current values within reasonable
so in the future. limits during the actual transfer process.

The choice of voltage levels for the different Electrical power transmissions of this size
electric and hybrid drives is determined by for stationary or mobile applications such as
the relevant application within the electrical trains or forklifts have been operated and
powertrain, resulting in great variation and maintained by trained electro-technical per-
individuality. sonnel to date. However, lay persons gain
access to this technology when it is transfer-
The electrical architectures and their physical red to passenger cars. Therefore it is necessary
implementation are also adapted to the rele- to ensure they are protected from accidental
vant requirements of the powertrain. Standar- contact with dangerous voltages. This applies
dising them would make a genuine difference to normal vehicle operation and maintenance.
in terms of costs. Even in the event of an accident, safety must
be ensured. This subject will be discussed in
Higher voltages and hence lower currents detail later.
provide cost benefits primarily in terms of
energy distribution (connectors, cable cross-
sectional areas, etc.). Lower voltages are prefe-
rably used for battery technology due to lower
costs since the number of cell connections can
be reduced, making battery management less
complex.

10
4 New 48 V Low-Voltage Level
It is already evident today that a third voltage low voltage limit (lower than 30 V AC, lower
level of 48 V will become established in addi- than 60 V DC), which seems to render obso-
tion to the 12/24 V and high-voltage levels. lete extensive personal safety measures such
This new level is intended to supply electrical as contact protection, equipotential equalisa-
components of more than 3 kW power, such tion and insulation control. However, monito-
as the start-stop feature (boost and energy ring contacts are envisaged for connectors to
recuperation), air conditioning compressors, prevent what is known as hot plugging.
electrical heaters, pumps, steering drives and
no doubt several other features (audio, etc.)
in the future. Fig. 7: Electrical heater

In terms of technology, the 48 V voltage level

reflects the key points developed for the 42 V
standardisation at the turn of the millennium.
This is to be welcomed from todays perspec-
tive since the findings at the time can be
largely adopted while staying below the VDE
Source: Webasto Thermo & Comfort

5 High Voltage
Electrical powertrain performances of more While battery voltages of up to 400 V are envi-
than 12 kW are now reserved for the high- saged for passenger car hybrid technology,
voltage range, whereby the voltage level voltages of up to 850 V are planned for com-
required is based on the currents to be mercial vehicles. These voltages lie within the
transmitted of approx. 250 A. voltage class B. The high-voltage level is max.
60 < U 1500 V DC, 30 < U 1000 V AC rms.

Table 1a: Vehicle types and power categories considered

E-mobility performance class overview for passenger vehicles

Mild Hybrid Full Hybrid/Plug-in EV (Batt/RE/FC) Unit
12 V 48 V HV mid Power Small car Medium car Sports car
max. EM motor-based 4 12 20 60 100 60 100 180 kW
Power
max. EM motor-based 50 150 150 200 300 200 300 500 Nm
Speed
DC voltage max. 15 60 200 400 450 400 400 450/800 V
(generator-
based) )
min. 12 36 120 300 250 300 300 300/600 V
(motor-based)
max. current DC 333 333 167 200 400 200 333 550/280 A
AC 350 500 500 600 800 250 450 1000/500 A
3 1 1 1 1 1015 bis 20
Speed/crankshaft speed ratio
k/min k/min
or max. EM speed

2 2 2 2 2.5 1.5 1.5 2

Power ratio max./duration

Source: ZVEI
11
Table 1b: Vehicle types and power categories considered

E-mobility performance class overview for commercial vehicles/buses

Mild Hybrid Plug-in EV/RE/FC
(up to approx. 40% internal combustion engine power) Hybrid Unit
< 7.5 t 7.512 t > 12 t Bus (18 t) 7.512 t < 7.5 t 7.512 t Bus (18 t)
max. EM motor-based 50 65 120 120 90 100 120 2x 120 kW
Power
max. EM motor-based 350 450 1000 1000 500 350 450 2x 500 Nm
Speed
DC voltage max. 400 420 420/800 420/800 420 420 420 800 V
(generator-
based) )
min. 280 300 300/600 300/600 300 300 300 600 V
(motor-based)
max. current DC 180 220 400/200 400/200 300 330 400 400 A
AC 300 350 450/250 450/250 450 450 450 2x 250 A
1 1 1 11.6 1 10 k/min 10 k/min
Speed/crankshaft speed ratio 10 k/min
or max. EM speed

1.5 1.5 2 2 1.8 2 2 2

Power ratio max./duration

Remarks Apparently Apparently Axis with

no longer no longer 2 EM
pursued pursued

Source: ZVEI

5.1 Definition of High Voltage

In the automotive industry, high-voltage between low and high voltage. In this way, lay
refers to voltages above 60 V. The classifica- persons can easily recognise the increased risk
tion of voltages in extra-low, low, medium, associated with higher voltage. This is why the
high and extra-high voltage has its origins rated voltage of all energy distribution com-
in plant and building services engineering, ponents is colour-coded orange specifying live
which is particularly evident in the detailed components.
description of earthing and isolation condi-
tions. Whilst this differentiation is helpful for
industrial applications, when specifying vehicle
voltage classes it is more useful to distinguish

12
6 Connection to Charging Infrastructure
Low voltage standards also apply to the entire This would therefore suggest that a vehicles
charging infrastructure of e-vehicles and in HV system is always galvanically isolated from
line with an agreement between IEC and ISO the power supply system. This is generally
of 2011 during the charging process to all referred to as IT (isolated terra) system. The
electric circuits in a vehicle that are galvani- vehicle chassis is earthed during charging via
cally connected to the charging infrastructure the infrastructure in line with IEC protection
[9]. This kind of electrical isolation is only class 1.
available in vehicles fitted with on-board char-
gers with galvanic isolation or in the case of Only if both poles of an electric voltage
inductive charging systems. No galvanic iso- source/poles are touched simultaneously, does
lation is required for vehicles using DC char- this result in an electric shock. In contrast to
ging. Consequently electrical isolation must installation and building technology, isolation
be ensured by grid-side charging stations. monitors can be used in vehicles to identify
and eliminate potential risks when the first
fault occurs before a second fault enables
both poles to be touched.

Table 2: Voltage levels

Voltage levels in the automotive sector

Pro- Name Upper Upper Applicable Other common Contact Remarks

tection limit limit standard names protection
class AC Veff DC V
III Functional 25 60 No No special protection to ensure safe
Extra Low research FELV isolation from other electric circuits with
Voltage result higher voltages
III
PELV 25 60 IEC 50178 without If equipotential bonding is required
PELV
Protective between the electric circuits to prevent
Extra sparking e.g. in boiler plants with explosi-
Low voltage ve gases as well as for HiFi systems
Saftey Extra 25 60 IEC 61140 without Compared to extra-low voltage, special
III SELV
Low voltage protection required against electric
circuits with higher voltages, e.g. safety
transformers
III Extra- 25 60 IEC 60449 without
ELV
Low voltage
III Extra- 50 120 IEC 60449 with
Source: ZVEI ELV
Low voltage
II Low voltage 1000 1500 EN 50110 doubleIn the automotive industry, the term
high voltage has become established for
this voltage class. It emphasizes the fact
that unlike e.g. the 12/24 V class, this
protection class is dangerous for people
if no additional protective measures are
provided.
I Medium approx. country- clearance Specially trained staff, regulations with
voltage 36000 specific required national focus
0, I country- clearance Specially trained staff, regulations with
High voltage > 36000
specific required national focus
Source: ZVEI

13
7 Interactions between Different
Voltage Levels
The different voltage levels used in vehicles different LV voltage levels, galvanic isolation
must be able to operate separately from one is imperative between HV and LV system(s).
another, independently and simultaneously. Maximum protection can be provided by spa-
Standard fusing procedures must be used for tial separation of the circuits to ensure as few
the individual voltage levels to ensure cable physical contact points as possible, which eli-
and short-circuit protection. This can be achie- minates the risk of a short circuit almost enti-
ved with safety fuses or electronic protection rely.
processes. In the event of faults occurring
between two different voltage levels, careful It is recommended that HV cables and con-
consideration must be given to the design of nectors be colour-coded orange to provide a
protective circuits and detection systems and visual warning.
additional measures put in place if required.
Whilst it is advisable to galvanically separate

Table 3: Voltage levels in passenger vehicles

Voltage levels in passenger vehicles

Components Mild Hybrid Full Hybrid/Plug-in EV (Batt/RE/FC)
12 V 48 V HV mid Power Small car Medium car Sports car
Drive and charging
components
Electric motor 12 36 120 300 250 300 300 300/600
(rated voltage)
Inverter DC/AC 15 60 200 400 420 400 400 420/800

Voltage converter DC/DC -- 6012 20012 40012 45012 40012 40012 800/42012

Charger AC/DC -- -- -- -- 230/420 230/400 230/400 230/450/800

Battery 15 60 200 400 420 400 400 420/800

Sub-component power

Compressor 12 36 120 300 250 300 300 300/600

Heater 36 36 36/120 36/300 36/250 36/300 36/300 36/300
Electric pumps 12 36 12 12 12 12 12 12
Steering 12 36 12 12 12 12 12 12
Energy transfer
components
(Trad. on-board system) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Power distributor 12 60 200 400 420 400 400 420/800
Cable 12 60 200 400 420 400 400 420/800
Connector 12 60 200 400 420 400 400 420/800
Isolating elements 12 60 200 400 420 400 400 420/800
Relays/contactors 12 60 200 400 420 400 400 420/800

14
g Continuation

Components Mild Hybrid Full Hybrid/Plug-in EV (Batt/RE/FC)

12 V 48 V HV mid Power Small car Medium car Sports car

Integrated components

Power semiconductor 75 75 250 650 650 650 650 650/1.200

Capacitors 16.5 66 220 440 462 440 440 460/880
Resistors 16.5 66 220 440 462 440 440 460/880
Inductors 16.5 66 220 440 462 440 440 460/880
Relays/contactors 16.5 66 220 440 462 440 440 460/880
Fuses 16.5 66 220 440 462 440 440 460/880
Current sensors 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Position sensors 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Temperature sensors 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Source: ZVEI

Table 4: Voltage levels in commercial vehicles

E-mobility voltage level overview for commercial vehicles. buses
Components Mild Hybrid Plug-in EV/RE/FC
(up to approx. 40% internal combustion engine power) Hybrid
< 7.5 t 7.512 t > 12 t Bus (18 t) 7.512 t < 7.5 t 7.512 t Bus (18 t)
Drive and charging
components
Electric motor 280 300 300/600 300/600 300 300 400 600
(rated voltage)
Inverter 420 420 420/800 420/800 420 420 420 800
(DC/AC-Wandler)
Voltage converter DC/DC 400-12 400-24 420/800-24 420/800-24 420-24 420-12 800-24 800-24

Charger AC/DC -- -- -- -- 3x400/420 3x400/420 400/420 3x400/800

Battery 420 420 420/800 420/800 420 420 420 400/800

Sub-component power

Compressor 420 420 420/800 420/800 420 420 420 800

Heater 12/48 24 24 800-24 24 12 24 800-24
12/48 24 24 24 12 24 24
Electric pumps 420/800-24

Steering hydraulic hydraulic hydraulic hydraulic hydraulic (420-12) (420-12) (800-24)

(electro-hydraulic)
Source: ZVEI Continue Page 16 g

15
g Continuation

Components Mild Hybrid Plug-in EV/RE/FC

(up to approx. 40% internal combustion engine power) Hybrid
< 7.5 t 7.512 t > 12 t Bus (18 t) 7.512 t < 7.5 t 7.512 t Bus (18 t)
Energy transfer
components
(Trad. on-board system) 12 24 24 24 24 12 24 24
Power distributor 420 420 420/800 420/800 420 420 420 800
Cable 420 420 420/800 420/800 420 420 420 800
Connector 420 420 420/800 420/800 420 420 420 800
Isolating elements 420 420 420/800 420/800 420 420 420 800
Relays/contactors 420 420 420/800 420/800 420 420 420 800

Integrated components

Power semiconductor 650 650 650/1200 650/1200 650 650 650 1200
Capacitors 450 450 450/880 450/880 450 450 450 880
Resistors 450 450 450/880 450/880 450 450 450 880
Inductors/motor coils 450 450 450/880 450/880 450 450 450 880
Relays/contactors 450 450 450/880 450/880 450 450 450 880
Fuses 450 450 450/880 450/880 450 450 450 880
Current sensors 12 24 24 24 24 12 24 24
Position sensors 12 24 24 24 24 12 24 24
Temperature sensors 12 24 24 24 24 12 24 24
Source: ZVEI

8 Batteries
A short overview of battery technology is pro- The most common type of battery used for
vided at this point, For more detailed infor- electric and hybrid vehicles are lithium-ion
mation, please refer to the book by Dr. Reiner batteries (Li-ion, LiB). The main driver for the
Korthauer on lithium-ion batteries (Hand- use of Li-ion batteries is their considerably
buch Lithium-Ionen-Batterien) published by higher energy density (Wh/kg) compared to
Springer. lead-acid storage cells, which is essential for
delivering adequate ranges in everyday elec-
Lead-acid accumulators have been used to tric driving. However, the price of these sto-
store electrical energy in conventional vehic- rage media is also significantly higher. This is
les for many decades. They have a nominal due to the costs of manufacturing the battery
voltage of 12 V to 14 V (passenger cars) or cells and the need for electronic and thermal
24 V (commercial vehicles). management to make them suitable for use in
automotive applications.

16
The energy volume (battery capacity) required the number of charge and discharge cycles.
by vehicles is largely determined by the tar- The choice of electrolyte and separator is also
get electric driving range, the vehicle weight very important.
and dynamic behaviour (acceleration capabi-
lity, braking with or without regeneration). A Cells come in different formats, typically:
distinction is made between all-electric cars cylindrical, prismatic or pouch.
(BEVs) and hybrid-driven vehicles (HEVs). Alt-
hough the battery capacity in most all-electric The cell voltages of Li-ion batteries range
cars ranges between 16 kWh and 25 kWh, it from 3 V to 4 V, which means that a great
can sometimes be significantly higher. number of cells must be connected in series
for a total battery voltage of e.g. 300 V. In
The electric range of hybrid vehicles is usually electrical terms, a battery consists of the bat-
very limited, which is why batteries with sig- tery cells, the block monitoring, the so-called
nificantly lower capacity, mostly in the single- battery management system and safety dis-
digit kWh range, are used. connect elements that must ensure the dis-
connection of the vehicles battery terminals.
Batteries can also be differentiated in terms of A mechanical disconnection option must also
cell optimisation. The cells of all-electric BEVs be provided for HV batteries to enable service
are mainly energy-optimised whereas HEVs or maintenance work or in the event of an
use performance-optimised cells. accident.

Key criteria for battery design: The block monitoring balances the cells level
Gravimetric energy (Wh/kg) of energy ensuring maximum charging or
Volumetric energy (Wh/l) discharging of the cells. When assembled in
Peak performance (W/kg) a series configuration, the weakest cell deter-
Cold start performance (W/kg) mines when the charging or discharging pro-
Price (euro/kWh) cess is stopped. The charging process stops
when the weakest cell is full or, in the event of
The specifications for battery life, quality and discharging, empty, even if the other cells still
safety are also essential requirements that had some reserves. This is where cell balan-
must be met. cing comes in to enable best possible char-
ging and discharging of the other cells. There
Architecture and Functionality are two main options for this: active and pas-
Battery cells are mechanically arranged in a sive balancing. Active cell balancing actively
block consisting of several individual cells. moves energy from one cell to the other, while
Several of these blocks then form a battery. passive balancing converts excess energy into
The total battery voltage is the voltage of an heat.
individual cells multiplied by the number of
cells in series. The battery management system (BMS) cont-
rols the charging and discharging process of
The cell voltage is determined by the cathode battery cells, i.e. it determines when and how
and anode materials used. The choice of elec- much current can be provided by the battery
trode material depends on the requirements and hence used.
concerning temperature stability, electric
capacity, charge and discharge currents and

17
 Li-ion batteries have a limited temperature The BMS controls communication between
range compared to the vehicle operating the battery sub-modules and other control
temperature range. Low temperatures impair units such as the charging station, the DC/DC
the charging and discharging of energy. High converter and, of course, the inverter. It also
temperatures accelerate cell ageing. The BMS determines the battery key performance data
must therefore provide sufficiently cooling (state of charge, depth of discharge, state of
and heating to ensure that battery tempe- health) that are also provided to other elect-
ratures stay within the suitable temperature ronic control units.
range.

9 Charging Voltages
9.1 AC Charging Voltages

EU standard: 230 V AC single-phase 3.3 kW peak charging capacity

400 V AC three phase 22 kW peak charging capacity
Outside the EU: 110 V AC single-phase 3.3 kW peak charging capacity

9.2 Charging Voltage for DC Fast Charging

The battery voltage must be connected and charging current) must be exchanged between
adjusted to the relevant grid voltages to the vehicle (battery) and charging station. The
enable charging of electric vehicles. This task vehicle controls the charging process during
is performed by battery chargers built into this communication exchange, while the
modern electric vehicles. charging station controls current and voltage
supply.
Direct current fast charging is used today
to speed up the charging process of electric
vehicles. The charging station is directly con-
nected to the vehicle battery. No on-board
charger is required for this charging method.
However, the charging stations must be able
to adapt to the batterys voltage level and
the key performance data required for char-
ging (charging state, charging voltage, max.

18
 The CHAdeMO interface is the incumbent European car manufacturers have adopted the
standard originally developed by TEPCO in combo type 2 charging interface that sup-
Japan. Technical data: 500 V, 125 A. In the- ports the combined charging system develo-
ory, it takes approx. 20 minutes to almost fully ped specifically for this purpose. This interface
charge a 20 kWh battery. Some 1000 stations enables both AC and DC charging. The majo-
have now been installed in Japan. Several rity of European OEMs have agreed to use this
Asian vehicles are already equipped with this interface for all electric vehicles from 2017.
interface.
It is designed for voltages up to 850 V and
currents up to 200 A.

Table 5: Drive unit concepts

Type of electrification Parallel hybrid Power-split HEV

Sp2 Sp3

48 V 300 V AC 600 V AC 1000 V AC

Characteristic
450 V DC 900 V DC 1500 V DC
Power (approx.) up to 20 kW up to 50 kW 150 kW
Cooling fan Air Water Water Water
Enclosure design open closed closed closed

Plastic and new

Cover design Sheet steel, die-cast aluminium, etc. (crash safety)
materials permitted
COD, Pilot Line not required required required required
Contact protection none required required required
Terminal connections open (crash protection) closed closed closed
e.g. IP6K7
Required for DC (e.g. for
Corrosion protection
integrated PE on EM)

Automotive industry Additional measure regarding insulation resistance

Winding technology
standards can be used (thickness, interphase isolation, clearances )

Number of turns
increase with voltage
(winding)

Interphase insolation non required recommended mandatory mandatory

Test voltage 500 V 2x Unenn + 1000 V 2x Unenn + 1000 V 2x Unenn + 1000 V

EMC critical with increasing voltage

Sheet stack Iron core (laminations) largely synergetic between the different voltage levels
Source: ZVEI

19
10 Impact on Component Costs
The complete system consisting of energy
storage system, e-machine and power electro-
nics must be considered as a whole to ensure
optimal pricing. Cost drivers may vary depen-
ding on the component.

Fig. 8: Component Costs

Source: ZF Friedrichshafen

10.1 Improved Performance with

Higher Voltages
The electrical performance can be increased Since the current level cannot be increased
by using higher current or voltage rates. The above 250 A due to physical limitations,
use of higher current rates to improve perfor- improved performance in passenger/commer-
mance is determined by the system design, cial vehicles can be achieved with higher vol-
because higher current flows require the inter- tage rates.
nal and external pin contacts (power modules
and connectors) and cabling to have greater A detailed description of the individual com-
cross-sectional areas. ponents is provided in the following chapters.

20
11 Power Electronics
Power inverters and DC/DC converters use The higher the DC voltage selected, the lower
semiconductors as periodically operating swit- the current flow required for the same power
ches to minimise losses when changing the output, thus enabling maximum power trans-
output voltage. In this way, DC and AC voltage fer at peak voltage. Reducing the DC voltage
states can be produced and the torque and proportionally reduces the transmittable
speed of electric machines or the DC output power and increases the costs per kW.
voltage of a converter controlled.
Power electronic components use capacitors
The switching process itself and the current to to buffer the reactive power. Designed as elec-
be switched generate thermal losses that must trolytic or film capacitors, they are available
be dissipated via cooling surfaces. The higher in finely graduated increments for different
the ambient temperature and electrical cur- DC voltages and can therefore be optimised
rent, the larger the surfaces required for the and procured even in modest quantities.
chips. However, the semiconductors and cir-
cuit concepts deployed differ in terms of their The same applies to printed circuit boards
current-related on-state power and switching and the internal circuiting of an inverters
losses. The use of high-frequency switching power components: higher voltages reduce
can reduce passive inductive components costs because the necessary currents can be
especially in power converters. High-speed reduced. Special attention must be paid to the
electric machines also benefit from increased maximum currents occurring in printed circuit
switching frequencies since motor losses and board, especially in the semiconductors them-
noise emissions can be reduced. selves, because their fine structures reach
the maximum permissible temperatures after
The currently available semiconductors such only a short time (0.1-10 s). Unlike motors,
as IGBTs and MOSFETs or SiC diodes have connectors and cables, power semiconductors
been developed and optimised for statio- must be designed for permanent load at the
nary and on-grid applications. IGBTs gene- required maximum currents to achieve sub-
rally used for 200 V applications and above stantial cost savings by reducing maximum
have a blocking voltage of 600 V and 1200 current.
V, which makes them suitable for use in all
global power transmission systems. The trans- To minimise total losses and EMC interferen-
mission systems can be divided into two main ces, inverters and DC/DC converters must be
voltage classes: single-phase 220 V 240 V designed with intelligent circuitry concepts.
level and three-phase 380 V 440 V level.
The resulting voltage amplitudes can lead to
said IGBT blocking voltages. Due to technical
limitations, voltage reserves prevent full utili-
sation of these semiconductors up to the blo-
cking voltage limit. It would appear that they
are suitable for maximum DC voltages of 420
V and 800 V (see table 3, page 14 and table
4, page 15).

21
12 Contactors
High-voltage waveform and current rates have Contactors also provide short-circuit protec-
a substantial impact on the costs associated tion within chemical energy storage systems
with electromechanical components, such as and must therefore ensure that direct currents
connectors and contactors. are reliably switched off in the event of a short
circuit. The breaking capacities of load con-
The technical requirement for contactors is tactors occurring in this case are determined
that it must be possible to switch live com- by the current-voltage product in the event
ponents if necessary (galvanic isolation). Key of load breaking and may have several 100
characteristics are the current carrying capa- kW. Therefore the operating conditions for the
bility, maximum voltage and making/breaking switching elements of contactors must ensure
capacity under the maximum possible load maximum arc suppression. This can be achie-
conditions. ved with a vacuum or with special gas fillings
and additionally with magnetic blowouts near
Precharge relays that charge the DC-link capa- the switching contacts, which physically move
citors of the power electronics via a resistor the arc away from the contacts. These techni-
are often used to reduce current peaks during cal measures significantly increase costs.
the activation process. Only then are the main
contactors sequentially switched within a set
time interval.

13 Power Distribution
Cables
The key requirement for a vehicles HV system Significantly less powerful ancillary compo-
is the safe transfer of electrical energy. Special nents such as air-conditioning compressors,
HV cables, usually shielded, are used for this auxiliary heaters and the integration of on-
purpose. This is necessary for electromagnetic board charging units and vehicle inlets for
interference and compatibility reasons. Unlike plug-in vehicles are often supplied with multi-
the HF antenna technology, the shield is con- core shielded cables with cross-sectional areas
tacted on both sides and connected to the between 2.5 mm and 6 mm. The figure
ground potential. Single-core shielded cables below shows the general design of the HV
are primarily used within the powertrain cables deployed.
i.e. the two-phase connection of the HV bat-
tery to the power distributor and from there
the three-phase connection of one or seve-
ral electric motors. Common cross-sectional
areas range between 16 mm and 70 mm.

22
Fig. 9: Diagram of Single and Multi-Core Shielded HV Cables

Conductor Conductor
Primary insulation Primary insulation
Braided shield Intersheath
Film insulation Braided shield
Outer jacket Film insulation
Outer jacket

Source: Leoni Kabel

The main design criteria for the cables to be

used are voltage level, electric-current-indu-
ced heat generation and ambient tempera-
ture. For the purposes of creating a national
standard, the voltage classes 2 and 3 have
been defined in LV 216-2 according to the
table below.

Table 6: Voltage classes

AC DC
Voltage classes
Ueff (Urms) Upeak Udc

Low voltage 1 (A(*)) 30 V 42 V 60 V

High voltage 2 600 V 849 V 900 V
High voltage 3 (B(*)) 1000 V 1414 V 1500 V

This table was compiled on the basis of ISO 6469-3.

ISO 6722-1 specifies voltage class 2 with 600 V AC and 600 V DC and does not consider voltage class 3.
ISO 6469-3 groups voltage classes 2 and 3 in class B.

(*) Voltage class specification acc. to ISO 6469-3

Upeak Peak voltage
Ueff (Urms) Root mean square (RMS)
Source: Entwurf LV 216-2 draft: 5 May 2013: Screened high-voltage sheathed cables for motor vehicles and their electrical drives

23
 The geometry for shielded HV cables has been The stress in HV cables caused by continuously
specified for each voltage level irrespective of high current rates is often far more significant.
the material. This was necessary to ensure uni- Power loss in a cable increases quadratically
form and compatible design of the geometric with the current across the cable length and
interface to HV connectors. hence causes intrinsic heating of the connec-
ting components. In combination with high
Compared to voltage class 2, higher wall ambient temperatures, e.g. inside the engine
thicknesses have been defined for the primary compartment or when routed along the
insulation of 1000 V C/1500 V DC cables. exhaust gas system of hybrid vehicles, high
temperatures are quickly reached inside HV
Consequently, the cables outer diameter has cables. This call for the use of temperature-
also increased. This means that more material resistant materials for the primary insulation
is required which eventually leads to higher and cable sheath and greater cross-sectional
costs. Given the great band width of voltage areas of the conductor usually made of cop-
class 2, however, it easily covers the majority per. Both measures can be regarded as the
of current applications, which means that the main cost drivers for HV cables. Aluminium is
voltage level of HV cables has little impact on often used as an alternative to copper conduc-
costs. tors to reduce weight and cost.

In summary it can be concluded that high cur-

rent rates combined with rising ambient tem-
perature are the key cost drivers for HV cables.

14 HV Connectors
If the various product requirements had not signal contact (HVIL), EMC requirement for
been bundled, there would be a vast range of 10 A permanent current load via shield.
different HV connector products available for LV 215-1 also classifies HV connectors into
vehicle HV systems. These requirements have different power categories based on cable
therefore been defined in LV 215-1 [1] by wor- cross-section and current-carrying capability.
king group 4.3.3 of the German automobile Many of these product requirements have a
manufacturers. This approach has resulted in major impact on the design of HV connectors
the standardisation of HV connectors for use and have so far not been used in this combi-
with different vehicle components. More than nation [1-6].
50 product requirements have been specified
to enable their use under as many applica-
tion conditions as possible, e.g. max. opera-
ting voltage 850 V, electric shock protection
according to IPX2B (VDE probe), leading

24
The configuration of the socket outlet and Fig. 10: Three-phase plug
charging path of battery and plug-in vehicles
is unusual in terms of the standardised design.
The on-board charger usually disconnects the
on-board HV circuit from the supply system.

Charging Socket Outlet

Charging plugs and sockets are standardised
in IEC 62196-1/-2 [6, 7] and classified into
three types. All types must withstand 10000
mating cycles under specified pollution con-
ditions. The maximum ambient temperature
during charging must not exceed 50C. To
pass the glow-wire test, special additives are
required for the socket outlet that adversely
affect the processing of the material and its Source: Tyco Electronics AMP

mechanical properties. This is not required for

connectors in the vehicles HV system. The three-phase plug (see fig. 10) connects
the type 2 socket outlet with the on-board
The maximum voltage for the type 2 socket charger and hence the vehicle HV system with
outlet has been specified at 500 V AC. This the power supply network (see fig. 11).
design enables the transmission of up to 70
A single-phase current or 63 A three-phase
current.

Fig. 11: Type 2 charging interface Fig. 12: Combo charging interface

Source: Tyco Electronics AMP Source: Delphi Deutschland

25
 14.1 Safety Interlock Connectors
Fig. 13: HV connectors with A holistic system approach must be selec-
safety interlock ted to further optimize future HV connectors
and terminals for the vehicle HV system. This
approach does not consider connectors as
isolated connecting elements between com-
ponents but includes them in the overall sys-
tem design. Current derating curves in line
with LV 214-1 [8] provide laboratory values
that only give an indication of the current
carrying capability under real vehicle condi-
tions. Advanced system approaches permit,
for example, smaller cable cross-sections and
hence weight and cost reductions in the ove-
rall system.
Source: Leopold Kostal

Some of the many different high-voltage Fig. 14: Electric vehicle

connectors use a safety interlock feature to portable charging cordset
prevent unmating during load. The reason
behind this is the time required by the power
electronics capacitors to reach a safe voltage
level. The connectors feature an interlock that
ensures contacts can only be touched after
a defined time delay. This requirement is no
longer demanded by the current LV 215-1.

Source: Delphi Deutschland

15 Charge Controller and DC/DC Converter

Battery charging devices, commonly referred As illustrated in figure 2 and 3, several vol-
to as charge controllers, are used to convert tage levels exist within a vehicle that are
alternating current supplied from the main connected to bi-directional DC/DC converters.
power grid to the direct current required by These converters and the charge controllers
the battery. These can be built into the vehicle often require some kind of connection to the
for up to 7 kW or installed externally in the cooling system in addition to the actual instal-
case of higher power supplies due to their lar- lation space. To reduce cooling requirements
ger dimensions and weight. and consequently installation space and ins-
tallation limitations, highly efficient circuitry
More advanced versions are planned that sup- concepts will have to be developed over the
port billing from public charging points. next few years.

26
 Fig. 15: Battery charger

Source: Leopold Kostal

16 Electric Machine Voltages

Hybrid and electric vehicles are operated with e-machine depending on the motors
three-phase or multi-phase synchronous or mounting design. Conversely, it is possi-
asynchronous or reluctance machines that ble to use a smaller machine for the same
are adapted to the automotive environmental performance requirements if the trans-
conditions (humidity, temperature, mounting mission ratio is increased.
design, vibrations, pollution, etc.). The fol-
lowing physical principles must be observed By varying the number of turns, electric
for all e-machines: machines are adapted to the nominal speed
The motors nominal speed determines its and nominal voltage that can amount to 75%
nominal voltage or conversely, the faster maximum of the (minimum) battery voltage.
the machine is required to turn, the hig- Traction motors can be designed to ena-
her must be the inverters control voltage. ble operation in the field weakening range
The motor torque is determined by the by drawing reactive power. In this range,
current rate. This is why the maximum e-machines behave like an ideal transmission
starting torque is limited by the maxi- by supplying constant power while reducing
mum inverter current. torque with higher speed. Separately excited
Increasing the speed while simultane- synchronous motors can weaken the field by
ously increasing the voltage may incre- reducing the field current without additional
ase the mechanical performance of an application of reactive current.

27
 When the field weakening range is increased, E-machines can be adjusted to any supply vol-
the nominal point of the e-machine shifts to tage by changing the number of turns, pro-
the lower speed range, while the number of vided that the wires do not become too thin.
turns increases and the current required by However, there is a tendency to use higher
the inverter for the necessary starting torque voltages for e-machines to reduce the cross-
reduces. sections of the connecting components and
achieve higher speed rates.
Fig. 16: Inverter and DC/DC converter for
commercial vehicles

Source: Lenze Schmidhauser

17 Thermal Management
When designing the service life of power elec- Electric drive cost drivers
tronics, sufficient account must be taken not The main cost drivers of electric mobility
only of electrical and mechanical stress, but can be found in the field of energy storage.
also of thermal stress and especially com- Present-day battery technologies do not allow
bined thermal-mechanical stress resulting modest and comparable ranges at acceptable
from interactions between performance and price premiums. In this context, it is not the
environmental conditions. voltage level that serves as the cost driver but
rather the available battery technologies.
There are only two solutions available that
ensure appropriate design of components and On the whole it can be said that in addition to
system for the intended life time: the energy storage costs, overall costs are also
Operative system with cooling fluid to influenced by the technical implementation of
actively dissipate heat losses stationary HV components in the automotive
Use of robust materials and technolo- environment. However, it is also important to
gies for sub-assembly components which consider safety aspects and overall efficiency
allow for all inherent temperature-related over and above driving cycles. In terms of
material properties. energy consumption costs, special attention
should be given to partial load efficiency.

28
18 Rules, Norms and Standardisation
Numerous standards apply to electric mobi- As part of the activities of the German National
lity, including those generated specifically Platform for Electromobility (NPE), the DKE
for electric mobility applications. Examples (German Commission for Electrical, Electronic
include the standards for type 2 plug and and Information Technologies of DIN and VDE)
socket systems and for electric cables in road has developed a standardisation roadmap and
vehicles for voltages above 60 V. There are provided an overview of the relevant stan-
many other electrical engineering standards dards in the annex of the roadmap. The ZVEIs
that have not been specifically developed for technical working group on standardisation
electric mobility but are relevant due to their maintains this list and updates it with infor-
general nature. These include safety stan- mation relevant to electric mobility activities.
dards and standards relating to installation, This additional information includes detailed
for instance. descriptions of the relevant standards content
and status.

19 Safety: Risk Potential Associated

with HV Voltages
The prevention of health risks among people Potential risks are:
involved in the development, manufacture, Electric energy
maintenance or use of products for the HV Accidental arcs
voltage range has top priority. Electric current flowing through the body
(electric shock)
Electromagnetic fields affecting e.g.
pacemakers
Interactions between electric energy and
other media

19.1 Effects of Electric Current on

the Human Body

Electric current can cause many reactions Physiological Effect

in the human body, the severity of which The nervous system is affected, resulting in
depends on the amount of electrical current muscle spasms that may prevent the victim
and the length of time the current passes from releasing the electrified object, ventricu-
through the body. lar fibrillation and cardiac arrest.

29
Thermal effect
The current flow causes burns on the entry and The symptoms may only be recognizable after
exit points and coagulation of protein in the a certain time has passed which is why a doc-
body. tor should be consulted even in the event of a
minor accident with HV voltage.
Chemical effect
The current can cause electrolytic degradation Safeguards must be put in place to prevent
of cells or cellular components which may the potential risks associated with HV voltage
lead to poisoning of the body. and the resulting damage to humans and
animals.

19.2 Electric Safety in Companies

The potential risks outlined above call for spe- Although DIN VDE 1000-100 and DIN VDE
cial safeguards in manufacturing and indus- 0105-100 are not legal norms, they are of an
trial companies involved in electric mobility, equally mandatory nature since they are re-
especially with regard to occupational health garded as good engineering practice. By com-
and safety. plying with these rules, employers meet their
occupational health and safety obligations,
Companies that up until now have been which creates legal certainty for the compa-
dealing exclusively with low voltages (12 V, nies.
24 V, 42 V automotive products) must adapt
their safety requirements to meet high-volta- Workplace and process risk assessments must
ge conditions. be conducted for all high voltage areas, e.g.
laboratories, production facilities and work-
To ensure the appropriate level of protection, shops. Working and operating procedures
it is necessary to observe DIN VDE 1000-100 are then developed on the basis of these as-
and DIN VDE 0105-100 requirements detai- sessments, often resulting in the alteration,
ling the provisions of paragraph 3, section 2 conversion or extension of laboratory and
and paragraph 13 of the German Occupatio- workshop stations or workplaces to ensure
nal Health and Safety Act (Arbeitsschutzge- compliance with electrical safety require-
setz) and paragraph A3 of the Occupational ments. Further measured that can be taken
Health and Safety Regulations of the German to increase electrical safety include special
trade associations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche marking of high-voltage workplaces and ac-
Vorschrift fr Sicherheit und Gesundheit bei cess restrictions for unauthorized personnel,
der Arbeit) and to provide a sufficient num- as well as routine training for employees.
ber of electrically skilled persons and other
persons trained to perform defined electrical
tasks. The standards presume a chain of res-
ponsibility.

30
Fig. 17: Organisational structure of electrically skilled persons
responsibilities and skills

vEFK organisational structure

gvEFK
xxxx

nvEFK nvEFK nvEFK

Development Test/Prototyping Manufacturing
vvvvv aaaaa wwww

nvEFK EuP
Development I Prototypng
xxxxx ppppp

nvEFK EFK
Development II Prototypng
zzzzz ttttt

nvEFK EuP
ANVL Development testbench Endurance testing
kkkkkk mmmm

gvEFK: Electrically skilled person with overall responsibility

nvEFK: Electrically skilled person with secondary responsbilitiy
ANVL: Nominated person in control of an electrical installation
EuP: Electrically instructed person

Source: ZVEI

19.3 Protection Concept

Double protection measures, i.e. protec-
tion against direct and indirect contact (ISO
6469-3) are required for protection class B
appliances (60 V DC < voltage < 1500 V DC).
The concept includes basic protection against
direct contact and equipotential bonding
against indirect contact. In addition, double
or reinforced insulation may be applied.

19.4 Protective Measures

These include design measures that Key to the design of contact protection for
are required for live components to pro- high-voltage appliances are:
vide complete finger safety to IP2xB or appropriate insulation selected from solid
personal protection against contact with insulation material of < 100 /V DC or >
tool to IP3xD 500 /V AC insulation resistance values
impede contact with live parts adequate clearance between live parts
require tools to open locks and enclosures and metallic enclosures
correct dimensioning of creepage dis-
tance and air gap

31
19.4.1 Equipotential Bonding

Equipotential bonding employed for pro- sion. The efficiency of the protective measures
tection against indirect contact requires is verified by measuring the insulation resis-
low-impedance connection of HV appliances tance and applying a test voltage.
with metallic enclosures in the vehicle. The
total resistance of the connections must be This must be performed for all high-voltage
< 100 m. components!

Electrical isolation of an appliances high- It is also necessary to mark all high-voltage

voltage and low-voltage areas is another ele- appliances (lightning symbol in yellow tri-
ment that completes the protective measures. angle) in compliance with the relevant stan-
The potential-free high-voltage system must dards.
be galvanically isolated from the low-voltage
system. This is achieved by using components
suitable for signal, data and energy transmis-

19.4.2 Protective Functions

Overcurrent protection must be provided in The system design must ensure that the HV
HV appliances. Energy storage and power components are voltage-proof according to
electronics must reliably interrupt possible ISO 6469 currently common practice:
short-circuit currents. Contact with voltages The design of the system must ensure that the
above 60 V DC when opening the contacts electric strength of high-voltage components
must be reliably prevented. complies with ISO 6469. Exceptions for inver-
ters are currently being discussed.
Components that are disconnected from the
vehicle HV system must dissipate the energy
stored in the component by means of passive
discharging and reduce the voltage level to
below 60 V DC within the time specified by
the OEM.

32
 19.4.3 Optional Protective Functions

Insulation monitoring is an optional protec- The detection of an open high-voltage circuit

tive function that is not used for each high- is another optional protective feature. An HV
voltage component but considered for the interlock prevents the opening of an energised
high-voltage system. The insulation resistance HV circuit by signalling the HV circuit opening
of the high-voltage systems, AD and DC sys- to the central control unit (battery control
tem, is monitored against vehicle values. In unit) via a leading low-voltage signal contact
the event of an incipient insulation fault, the in the connector. The central control unit swit-
vehicles alert system informs the driver of the ches off the HV system and stops the energy
fault and requests a service check. supply before opening the HV contacts.

Insulation monitoring devices currently used

sporadically will inevitably become an integral
part of power electronics or battery manage-
ment systems and hence their performance.

20 Life time
Compared with components used in conven- While the charging system of a conventional
tional vehicles, those used in electric vehic- vehicle is expected to operate for approxi-
les also require changes to power electronics mately 8000 hours, the on-board charging
which have an impact on their life time. These systems in electric vehicles are continuously
changes are due partly to the increased ope- active when the vehicles are hooked up.
rating time of individual systems and partly According to current estimates, they operate
to load differences with the HV components for approximately 30000 hours. The charging
used. unit is expected to operate on standby for a
further 60000 hours.
As far as operating time is concerned, the
most important differences concern the char-
ging system and the battery management sys-
tem (BMS).

Table 7: Life time restrictions

Stationary Vehicle
commercial passenger
vehicle/bus vehicle
Life time 10 15 15 Years
(calender-based)
Operating hours 30000 60000 8000 h
Tmin -40 -25 -25 C
Tmax 70 85 85120 C

T 110 110 110145 K
Vibration none 210 g, 210 g,
sometimes up to 30 sometimes up to 30
Source: ZVEI

33
The battery management system is required to The fundamental differences between the
permanently monitor the status of the battery. power electronics load of electric vehicles and
An operating time of 80000 hours is assu- conventional vehicles is explained below.
med for battery monitoring purposes. Unlike
the power electronics used in the electrical Fuel is put into the tanks of conventional
drive, it can be assumed that those used in vehicles, combusted along with oxygen in
the BMS will operate at a reduced temperature the engine and converted to mechanical and
range. This system is helped by the fact that, thermal energy. This is a chemical-thermal-
on account of its electro-chemical properties, mechanical energy transfer mechanism. The
the temperature of the battery must be con- vehicle electronics here play only a secondary
trolled, which significantly restricts the ope- role of optimising the operating conditions. In
rating temperature range of the entire system electric vehicles, the electrical energy comes
encompassing battery and battery manage- from the battery and is converted into mecha-
ment system. nical energy in the electric motor. This is an
electric-mechanical energy transfer mecha-
Commercial vehicles have operating times of nism. The entire volume of energy flows
at least 50000 hours. Consequently the requi- via electric actuators. The power electronics
rements for the powertrain, including the required to achieve this are therefore of an
battery, in lorries and buses are significantly entirely different magnitude.
higher than for passenger vehicles, whilst the
requirements for the battery management Life time considerations must therefore take
and charging system are more or less the account of these new, re-dimensioned power
same. However, the load profiles of commer- components and their specific packaging and
cial vehicles are very different from those of assembly technology (e.g. thermal require-
passenger vehicles; the maximum continuous ments with respect to powerful vibrations).
engine power is higher and they run at maxi-
mum output for substantially longer periods;
these factors too must be taken into account.

Fig. 18: Comparison of power categories

Source: Infineon Technologies

34
Apart from failures which arise in connection Fig. 19: Power components/modules and power categories of
with voltage (flashing/arcing due to insuffici- power electronics
ent clearance and creepage distances) and
electricity, special consideration is to be given
to specific failure mechanisms caused by
thermal loading as described in the Thermal
Management section.

As far as failure mechanisms in power semi-

conductors are concerned, as already indica-
ted, it is particularly important to consider
composite materials made from different
metals, metal alloys, ceramics for insulation,
silicon used in the actual circuit breaker etc.
If one considers the different expansion coef-
ficients it soon becomes clear that the tempe-
rature changes arising from power loss when
Source: Infineon Technologies
switching the semiconductor components and
from the electrical resistance of the materials
can result in considerable thermo-mechanical
stresses within the composite material. Fig. 20: Causes of failure in power modules

Whether and to what extent this will result

in failures depends largely on the thermo-
mechanical stress exerted on the components
and the packaging and assembly technology.

Consequently maximum temperature and load

cycle limits are set. These in turn depend on
the drive profile and cooling characteristics of
the system.

Source: Infineon Technologies

35
Fig. 21: From drive profile to thermo-mechanical stress Limited installation spaces in vehicles mean
in power electronics that electronics operate at comparatively high
temperatures, which presents a major chal-
lenge for the life time of the large electrolytic
capacitors in charge controllers. Furthermore,
strong vibrations expose them to a further
high load which must be overcome by faste-
ning the capacitor body to its own housing
and mounting the housing on the board, since
encapsulating or glueing the capacitors after
installation should be avoided on grounds of
costs.

An understanding of the failure mechanisms,

the requirement profile and the system design
is essential in order to make life time pre-
dictions. This is nothing new. The difference
Source: Infineon Technologies
here, however, is the novel combination of
in-car power components. Although these
components are already used in train electri-
Fig. 22: Model to predict life time cal drives and on large production lines, for
example, the requirement profiles for these
Electrical Mission Power Loss Module Electrical Module
applications are transferable to vehicles only
Profile Model Charakteristics Thermal Model Cooling Conditions
to a limited extent. Furthermore, the vehicle
+
+ industry has different requirements in terms
Power Losses Temperature
Computation Computation of unit numbers and costs, which in turn affect
+ system design.
Temperature Profile
IGBT/Diode/Solder/NTC Climatic Conditions
Complex interactions between load pro-
+
file, system design and failure mechanisms
Computation of AT
(active, passive) make it very difficult to accurately predict
+ life time. However, statements about life
Life Time Model
time are an inherent part of the develop-
ment process. Thus modelling software which
Life Time Prediction Customer Input Required
takes into account input variables for specific
vehicle models is used to perform the task of
Source: Infineon Technologies
life time predicting. This is the only way to
obtain reliable predictions about life time.

36
21 Outstanding Issues
21.1 Further Optimisation Parameters
Up until now, electrical components have
not been designed for optimised minimum
construction volume and weight. In vehicles,
however, such minimal dimensions are indis-
pensable. In the coming years, development
work must therefore focus on size optimisa-
tion measures to enable us to retain our inter-
national competitiveness.

22 Outlook and Summary

Future mobility (road transport) will be deter- and the issues they raise: providing appropri-
mined by electrical drive concepts, be it hyb- ate expertise and meeting the training needs
rids of all types or all-electric cars. In conjunc- of our experts. The Technical Working Groups
tion with this, new voltage levels beyond the of the ZVEI Electromobility Competence
current 12/24 V will be adopted in our vehic- Centre will play an active role in this process.
les. Electric power transmission plays a vital
role throughout the entire system in hybrid, Furthermore, the automotive industry will
fuel cell and battery-powered vehicles. Widely have to work with energy companies and char-
varying requirements are placed on HV com- ging point providers, since electromobility
ponents, depending on the system design. requires the generation and provision of elec-
trical energy, be it within the necessary inf-
Today, all sectors of vehicle development rastructure (grids) or using bidirectional sto-
place strong emphasis on the controllability of rage concepts (super grids). Further research
these innovations. Realistically, all the neces- is clearly needed in this area. Electromobility
sary technologies are already available the has an exciting future ahead and will occupy
task now is to integrate these into the auto- our engineers for many years to come as they
motive environment safely and reliably. This endeavour to create a future world in which
is an evolutionary process which will improve we can manage without fossil fuels.
with every application and ultimately provide
the necessary degree of component standardi-
sation which in turn will also reduce product
costs.

Nevertheless, the automotive environment

will have to adapt to the new conditions in
terms of development and manufacturing, as
well as operation and service. It is clear that
there is still some work to be done with regard
to our approach to dealing with electric drives

37
23 Appendix
23.1 Semiconductor Materials for Packaging
and Assembly Technology
The impact and importance of materials incre- The use of new semiconductor materials such
ases as power density, switching frequencies as SiC or GaN further increases the require-
and reliability requirements increase. Stan- ments for PCB packaging and assembly ma-
dard power electronics modules primarily use terials. These semiconductors enable signifi-
solder joints with lead-free SnAg (previously cantly higher switching frequencies, reduced
also known as SnPb/Ag) or wire bonding with switching losses and higher power densities
thick aluminium wires for PCB packaging and while working reliably at considerably higher
assembly. These materials and the correspon- barrier layer temperatures. Due to its excel-
ding process are well-established and have lent thermal conductivity, SiC is also suitable
been used successfully for many years. for higher voltage classes and power densities.

However, PCB packaging and assembly ma- All these reasons fuel the need for optimised
terials are reaching their limits as a result of materials with improved mechanical, thermal
increasingly higher power density and opera- and electrical properties.
ting temperatures (150C, 175C and higher)
and the demand for improved power cycle and
long-term reliability (more than 15 years for
automotive applications). Substantial tempe-
rature differences, e.g. during a cold start in
the winter, pose another challenge to power
cycle reliability.

23.1.1 New Solder Alloys

A wide variety of projects have focused on Examples include special alloys such as the
improving the thermal cycling reliability and 6-element system SnAgCuBiSbNi (also refer-
high-temperature properties of solder alloys, red to as InnoLot according to the project)
especially in view of the transition to lead-free and the HT1 alloy (SnAgCuIn + crystal modi-
soldering processes. The main challenge en- fier). The melting point of these two new al-
countered in these studies was to achieve the loys is similar to SnAg solder and they support
intended high-temperature properties of the improved thermal cycling and high-tempe-
solder joints while keeping the soldering tem- rature properties. Consequently, the maxi-
perature low enough (stress on components, mum permissible operating temperature can
base substrates, etc.). Simply increasing the be slightly increased for module-level power
melting point does not achieve the desired electronics and their power cycle reliability
outcome. moderately improved.

38
23.1.2 Diffusion Soldering

The high-temperature properties can be sig- For thicker layers, a base material, e.g. copper,
nificantly improved with isothermal solidifica- is added to the diffusion solder. The molten
tion of the solder (diffusion soldering). solder diffuses into the base material until the
entire solder gap has solidified isothermally.
Conventional solder connections show a eu-
tectic zone in the centre of the solder joint and The solder must be kept molten during diffu-
the isothermally solidified intermetallic zones sion soldering processes until the solder gap
towards the metal. The eutectic zone of tradi- has completely solidified due to diffusion. This
tional solders determines the thermomecha- liquid phase is significantly longer than du-
nical properties. Its melting point with SnAg ring standard soldering processes, especially
solder is 221C and with SnPb solder 183C. for thick layers. Premature interruption of the
diffusion soldering process would result in a
However, during diffusion soldering (thin lay- residual eutectic zone and adversely affect the
ers of less than 10m), the solder (e.g. SnCu, mechanical properties. The main challenge
melting point 227C) completely solidifies for thicker layers is to achieve a homogenous,
isothermally into the intermetallic phase. void-free solder joint.
These intermetallic phases have a significantly
higher melting point than the traditional sol-
der itself: Cu3Sn phases 676 C and Cu6Sn5
phases 415 C. Special DCB substrates of low
surface roughness must be used for thin lay-
ers; a standard DCB substrate has a surface
roughness of approx. 20 m.

39
23.1.3 Silver sintering

Low-temperature silver sintering significantly The sintering process differs from the solder
improves the high-temperature properties process:
and the power cycle reliability in particular. Soldering: the application of heat (230
250C for SnAg solder) causes the solder
The thermal and electric conductivity of the to melt, diffusion processes occur in the
silver sinter layer and the temperature resis- adjacent metal and intermetallic phases
tance (Ag melts at 961C whereas SnAg solder are formed. Vacuum soldering helps to
melts at 221C) are considerable higher. minimise the formation of voids. Flux
residue is washed off after the soldering
In addition, the use of sinter paste supports process.
thermal conductivity values of 200 W/mk and Sinter paste: the application of heat
above. (530 MPa, subject to the IGBT/diode
surface) causes the silver particles to com-
pact due to diffusions processes. Pressure
sintering helps reduce the porosity espe-
cially of semiconductors that have a large
surface. No extra cleaning is required
after the sintering process.
Sintering adhesive: the application of
heat hardens the adhesive and the silver
particles are sintered. In this case, neither
pressure nor cleaning after the hardening
is required.

The sinter adhesive combines the benefits of

fusion bonding of Ag sinter pastes and the
high adhesion forces of Ag conductive adhesi-
ves in a paste system. Since sinter adhesive is
more flexible compared to solder, it can bet-
ter compensate the thermomechanical stress
created by the differences in the CTE of the
substrate and the semiconductor. This can be
particularly relevant for larger semiconduc-
tors. The sinter adhesive has a lower thermal
and electric conductivity than sinter paste.
Operating temperatures of up to 200C seem
to be manageable with sinter adhesives.

Sintered paste connections have remained

thermomechanically reliable even at extreme-
ly high temperatures such as 300C.

40
23.1.4 Bonding Wires and Bonding Ribbons

Improved temperature resistance and power While power cycling reliability can be some-
cycling reliability, e.g. with sintering, also what improved using aluminium ribbons,
requires optimisation of the bonding wire substantial improvement can be achieved with
connection. Ultrasonic wedge bonding is a Cu wires and ribbons. The thermal conducti-
standard process using aluminium wire up to vity of copper is considerably higher than that
500 m thick. of aluminium.

23.1.5 Tensile Strength

Typical Bonding Strength ( 300 m) Aluminium-coated bonding wires and ribbons

Increased bonding forces are required for with a copper core provide a compromise:
copper due to its higher tensile strength and The aluminium coating makes these bon-
hardness. ding wires much easier to process than
pure Cu wires.
The copper core improves the thermal,
electrical and mechanical properties and
hence the power cycling reliability com-
pared to pure AI wires.

23.1.6 Chip, Substrate and Leadframe Surface Finishes

The use of new materials such as silver sin-

ter paste or Cu bonding wires also means that
the surface finishes of the semiconductors,
substrates and leadframes must be adapted
to these processes. Sinter pastes are currently
used primarily on Ag, Au and Pd surfaces. As
part of the ProPower project, new functional
surfaces based on copper and the relevant
pastes are also being developed.

41
24 List of Abbreviations

AC Alternating Current
ASC Active Chassis Control
Batt Battery
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
BMS Battery Management System
CHAdeMO Multi-brand electric interface of a battery management system for electric cars developed in Japan
(charge de move)
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DC Direct Current
E/E Electric/Electronics
EM Electric Motor
EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility
EPS Electric Power Steering
EV/BEV Electric Vehicle / Battery Electric Vehicle
FC Fuel Cell
WSD Windshield defroster
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle
HV High Voltage
HVIL High Voltage Interlock Loop
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IGBT Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
IT Isolated Terra
IPX2B Electric Shock Protection Standard
ISG Integrated Starter Generator
ISO International Organisation of Standardisation
kW Kilowatt
kWh Kilowatt hour
PE Power electronics
LV Low Voltage
LV 216 Delivery specification (of OEMs) 216
M Electric machine (motor)
M/G Motor/Generator
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
Nm Newton Metre
NPE National Platform Electromobility
RE Range Extender
RMS Root Mean Square
SiC diode Schottky diode has no p-n junction (interface between two types of semiconductor material), but a metal-
semiconductor junction (barrier)
TF Task Force
vEFK Electrically skilled person responsible
CTE Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Wh/kg Watt hours per kilogram, energy density per weight
Wh/l Watt hours per volume, energy volume, energy density per volume
V Volt

42
25 Further Reading
ProPower research project Compact [1] LV 215-1: Electric/electronic requirements
electronic modules with high power for for HV connectors, September 2011
e-mobility, funded by the BMBF, ref. 523 [2] IEC 60529 (DIN 40050-9): Degrees of
Novel silver contact material for appli- protection provided by enclosures
cations on DCB, Yvonne Lwer, Thomas (IP Code), October 1991
Krebs, Susanne Duch, Sebastian Fritz- [3] IEC 60664-1: Insulation coordination for
sche, Wolfgang Schmitt, Muriel Thomas, equipment within low-voltage systems,
PCIM 2012 January 2008
Study on sinter technology connections [4] ISO 6469-3: Electrically propelled road
(Sinter Kontaktierung mit Sintertechno- vehicles Safety specification Part 3:
logien) by Wolfgang Schmitt, Sebastian Protection of persons against electric
Fritzsche, 2013 shock, November 2010
[5] LV 216-2: Screened high-voltage shea-
thed cables for motor vehicles and their
electrical drives, June 2011
[6] IEC 62196-1: Plugs, socket-outlets,
vehicle couplers and vehicle inlets
Conductive charging of electric vehicles
Part 1: General requirements,
October 2011
[7] IEC 62196-2: Plugs, socket-outlets,
vehicle couplers and vehicle inlets
Conductive charging of electric vehicles
Part 2: Dimensional interchangeability
requirements for pin and contact tube
accessories, May 2010
[8] LV 214-1: Vehicle connectors
Test specification, March 2010
[9] http://www.iso.org/iso/mou_ev.pdf

43
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