Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound and silence,

which exist in time. The common elements of music are pitch (which governs
melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter,
and articulation), dynamics (loudness and softness), and the sonic qualities of
timbre and texture (which are sometimes termed the "color" of a musical
sound). Different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or
omit some of these elements. Music is performed with a vast range of
instruments and vocal techniques ranging from singing to rapping; there are
solely instrumental pieces, solely vocal pieces (such as songs without
instrumental accompaniment) and pieces that combine singing and
instruments. The word derives from Greek (mousike; "art of the
Muses").[1] In its most general form, the activities describing music as an art
form include the production of works of music (songs, tunes, symphonies, and
so on), the criticism of music, the study of the history of music, and the
aesthetic examination of music. Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers
defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as
harmonies. Common sayings such as "the harmony of the spheres" and "it is
music to my ears" point to the notion that music is often ordered and
pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought
that any sound can be music, saying, for example, "There is no noise, only
sound."[2]

The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary
according to culture and social context. Indeed, throughout history, some new
forms or styles of music have been criticized as "not being music", including
Beethoven's Grosse Fuge string quartet in 1825,[3] early jazz in the beginning
of the 1900s[4] and hardcore punk in the 1980s.[5] There are many types of
music, including popular music, traditional music, art music, music written for
religious ceremonies and work songs such as chanteys. Music ranges from
strictly organized compositionssuch as Classical music symphonies from the
1700s and 1800s, through to spontaneously played improvisational music
such as jazz, and avant-garde styles of chance-based contemporary music
from the 20th and 21st centuries.

Music can be divided into genres (e.g., country music) and genres can be
further divided into subgenres (e.g., country blues and pop country are two of
the many country subgenres), although the dividing lines and relationships
between music genres are often subtle, sometimes open to personal
interpretation, and occasionally controversial. For example, it can be hard to
draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal. Within
the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an
auditory art. Music may be played or sung and heard live at a rock concert or
orchestra performance, heard live as part of a dramatic work (a music theater
show or opera), or it may be recorded and listened to on a radio, MP3 player,
CD player, Smartphone or as film score or TV show.

In many cultures, music is an important part of people's way of life, as it plays

a key role in religious rituals, rite of passage ceremonies (e.g., graduation and
marriage), social activities (e.g., dancing) and cultural activities ranging from
amateur karaoke singing to playing in an amateur funk band or singing in a
community choir. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing
cello in a youth orchestra, or working as a professional musician or singer.
The music industry includes the individuals who create new songs and
musical pieces (such as songwriters and composers), individuals who perform
music (which include orchestra, jazz band and rock band musicians, singers
and conductors), individuals who record music (music producers and sound
engineers), individuals who organize concert tours, and individuals who sell
recordings and sheet music and scores to customers.

Contents [hide]

1 Etymology

2 As a form of art or entertainment

2.1 Composition

2.2 Notation

2.3 Improvisation

2.4 Theory

3 Elements of music

3.1 Rudimentary elements of music

3.2 Perceptual elements of music

3.3 Analysis of musical styles

3.4 Description of elements of music

3.4.1 Pitch and melody

3.4.2 Harmony and chords

3.4.3 Rhythm

3.4.4 Texture

3.4.5 Timbre or "tone color"

3.4.6 Expression

3.4.7 Form

4 History

4.1 Prehistoric eras

4.2 Ancient Egypt

4.3 Asian cultures

4.4 References in the Bible

4.5 Antiquity

4.6 Ancient Greece

4.7 Middle Ages

4.8 Renaissance

4.9 Baroque

4.10 Classicism

4.11 Romanticism

4.12 20th- and 21st-century music

5 Performance

5.1 Oral and aural tradition

5.2 Ornamentation

6 Philosophy and aesthetics

7 Psychology

7.1 Cognitive neuroscience of music

7.2 Cognitive musicology

7.3 Psychoacoustics
7.4 Evolutionary musicology

7.5 Culture in music cognition

8 Sociological aspects

8.1 Role of women

9 Media and technology

9.1 Internet

10 Business

10.1 Intellectual property laws

11 Education

11.1 Non-professional

11.2 Professional training

11.2.1Undergraduate

11.2.2Graduate

11.2.3Musicology

11.2.4Music theory

11.2.5Zoomusicology

11.2.6Ethnomusicology

12 Music therapy

13 See also

14 References

15 Further reading

16 External links

Etymology

In Greek mythology, the nine muses were the inspiration for many creative
endeavors, including the arts.

The word derives from Greek (mousike; "art of the Muses").[1] In

Greek mythology, the nine muses were the goddesses who inspired literature,
science, and the arts and who were the source of the knowledge embodied in
the poetry, song-lyrics, and myths in the Greek culture. According to the
Online Etymological Dictionary, the term "music" is derived from "mid-13c.,
musike, from Old French musique (12c.) and directly from Latin musica "the
art of music," also including poetry (also [the] source of Spanish musica,
Italian musica, Old High German mosica, German Musik, Dutch muziek,
Danish musik)." This is derived from the "...Greek mousike (techne) "(art) of
the Muses," from fem. of mousikos "pertaining to the Muses," from Mousa
"Muse" (see muse (n.)). Modern spelling [dates] from [the] 1630s. In classical
Greece, [the term "music" refers to] any art in which the Muses presided, but
especially music and lyric poetry."[6]

As a form of art or entertainment

Jean-Gabriel Ferlan (fr) performing at a 2008 concert at the collge-lyce

Saint-Franois Xavier

Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic
pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product
for the marketplace. When music was only available through sheet music
scores, such as during the Classical and Romantic eras, music lovers would
buy the sheet music of their favourite pieces and songs so that they could
perform them at home on the piano. With the advent of sound recording,
records of popular songs, rather than sheet music became the dominant way
that music lovers would enjoy their favourite songs. With the advent of home
tape recorders in the 1980s and digital music in the 1990s, music lovers
could make tapes or playlists of their favourite songs and take them with
them on a portable cassette player or MP3 player. Some music lovers create
mix tapes of their favorite songs, which serve as a "self-portrait, a gesture of
friendship, prescription for an ideal party... [and] an environment consisting
solely of what is most ardently loved."[7]

Amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure,
and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians are employed by a
range of institutions and organisations, including armed forces (in marching
bands, concert bands and popular music groups), churches and synagogues,
symphony orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music
schools. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session
musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings. There
are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning
amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians. In community
settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in
a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community
orchestras.

A distinction is often made between music performed for a live audience and
music that is performed in a studio so that it can be recorded and distributed
through the music retail system or the broadcasting system. However, there
are also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also
recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in both classical
music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live
concerts are prized by music lovers. In the jam band scene, live, improvised
jam sessions are preferred to studio recordings.

Composition

Main article: Musical composition

People composing music in 2013 using electronic keyboards and computers.

French Baroque music composer Michel Richard Delalande (16571726), pen

in hand.

"Composition" is the act or practice of creating a song, an instrumental music

piece, a work with both singing and instruments, or another type of music. In
many cultures, including Western classical music, the act of composing also
includes the creation of music notation, such as a sheet music "score", which
is then performed by the composer or by other singers or musicians. In
popular music and traditional music, the act of composing, which is typically
called songwriting, may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song,
called the lead sheet, which sets out the melody, lyrics and chord
progression. In classical music, the composer typically orchestrates her own
compositions, but in musical theatre and in pop music, songwriters may hire
an arranger to do the orchestration. In some cases, a songwriter may not use
notation at all, and instead compose the song in her mind and then play or
record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by
influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in
classical music.
Even when music is notated relatively precisely, as in classical music, there
are many decisions that a performer has to make, because notation does not
specify all of the elements of music precisely. The process of deciding how to
perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed
"interpretation". Different performers' interpretations of the same work of
music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the
playing or singing style or phrasing of the melodies. Composers and
songwriters who present their own music are interpreting their songs, just as
much as those who perform the music of others. The standard body of
choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred
to as performance practice, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean
the individual choices of a performer.[citation needed]

Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single
author, this is not always the case. A work of music can have multiple
composers, which often occurs in popular music when a band collaborates to
write a song, or in musical theatre, when one person writes the melodies, a
second person writes the lyrics, and a third person orchestrates the songs. In
some styles of music, such as the blues, a composer/songwriter may create,
perform and record new songs or pieces without ever writing them down in
music notation. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images,
or computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician
should create musical sounds. Examples range from avant-garde music that
uses graphic notation, to text compositions such as Aus den sieben Tagen, to
computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes
heavy use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music, and is
associated with contemporary composers active in the 20th century, such as
John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold Lutosawski. A more commonly
known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in
a breeze.

The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of

methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of
composition is broad enough the creation of popular music and traditional
music songs and instrumental pieces and to include spontaneously
improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African percussionists
such as Ewe drummers.
Notation

Main article: Musical notation

Sheet music is written representation of music. This is a homorhythmic (i.e.,

hymn-style) arrangement of a traditional piece entitled "Adeste Fideles", in
standard two-staff format for mixed voices. About this sound Play (helpinfo)

In the 2000s, music notation typically means the written expression of music
notes and rhythms on paper using symbols. When music is written down, the
pitches and rhythm of the music, such as the notes of a melody, are notated.
Music notation also often provides instructions on how to perform the music.
For example, the sheet music for a song may state that the song is a "slow
blues" or a "fast swing", which indicates the tempo and the genre. To read
music notation, a person must have an understanding of music theory,
harmony and the performance practice associated with a particular song or
piece's genre.

Written notation varies with style and period of music. In the 2000s, notated
music is produced as sheet music or, for individuals with computer
scorewriter programs, as an image on a computer screen. In ancient times,
music notation was put onto stone or clay tablets. To perform music from
notation, a singer or instrumentalist requires an understanding of the
rhythmic and pitch elements embodied in the symbols and the performance
practice that is associated with a piece of music or a genre. In genres
requiring musical improvisation, the performer often plays from music where
only the chord changes and form of the song are written, requiring the
performer to have a great understanding of the music's structure, harmony
and the styles of a particular genre (e.g., jazz or country music).

In Western art music, the most common types of written notation are scores,
which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are
the music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music,
jazz, and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which
notates the melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the
music. Fake books are also used in jazz; they may consist of lead sheets or
simply chord charts, which permit rhythm section members to improvise an
accompaniment part to jazz songs. Scores and parts are also used in popular
music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as jazz "big bands." In
popular music, guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated
in tablature (often abbreviated as "tab"), which indicates the location of the
notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass
fingerboard. Tabulature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for
the lute, a stringed, fretted instrument.

Improvisation

Main article: Musical improvisation

Musical improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music, often within (or

based on) a pre-existing harmonic framework or chord progression.
Improvisation is the act of instantaneous composition by performers, where
compositional techniques are employed with or without preparation.
Improvisation is a major part of some types of music, such as blues, jazz, and
jazz fusion, in which instrumental performers improvise solos, melody lines
and accompaniment parts. In the Western art music tradition, improvisation
was an important skill during the Baroque era and during the Classical era. In
the Baroque era, performers improvised ornaments and basso continuo
keyboard players improvised chord voicings based on figured bass notation.
In the Classical era, solo performers and singers improvised virtuoso
cadenzas during concerts. However, in the 20th and early 21st century, as
"common practice" Western art music performance became institutionalized
in symphony orchestras, opera houses and ballets, improvisation has played
a smaller role. At the same time, some modern composers have increasingly
included improvisation in their creative work. In Indian classical music,
improvisation is a core component and an essential criterion of performances.

Theory

Main article: Music theory

Music theory encompasses the nature and mechanics of music. It often

involves identifying patterns that govern composers' techniques and
examining the language and notation of music. In a grand sense, music
theory distills and analyzes the parameters or elements of music rhythm,
harmony (harmonic function), melody, structure, form, and texture. Broadly,
music theory may include any statement, belief, or conception of or about
music.[8] People who study these properties are known as music theorists.
Some have applied acoustics, human physiology, and psychology to the
explanation of how and why music is perceived.
Elements of music

Main article: Aspect of music

Music has many different fundamentals or elements. Depending on the

definition of "element" being used, these can include: pitch, beat or pulse,
tempo, rhythm, melody, harmony, texture, style, allocation of voices, timbre
or color, dynamics, expression, articulation, form and structure. The elements
of music feature prominently in the music curriculums of Australia, UK and
USA. All three curriculums identify pitch, dynamics, timbre and texture as
elements, but the other identified elements of music are far from universally
agreed. Below is a list of the three official versions of the "elements of
music":

Australia: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics and expression, rhythm, form and
structure.[9]

UK: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, duration, tempo, structure.[10]

USA: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, rhythm, form, harmony,

style/articulation.[11]

In relation to the UK curriculum, in 2013 the term: "appropriate musical

notations" was added to their list of elements and the title of the list was
changed from the "elements of music" to the "inter-related dimensions of
music". The inter-related dimensions of music are listed as: pitch, duration,
dynamics, tempo, timbre, texture, structure and appropriate musical
notations.[12]

The phrase "the elements of music" is used in a number of different contexts.

The two most common contexts can be differentiated by describing them as
the "rudimentary elements of music" and the "perceptual elements of music".

Rudimentary elements of music

In the 1800s, the phrase "the elements of music" and the phrase "the
rudiments of music" were used interchangeably.[13][14] The elements
described in these documents refer to aspects of music that are needed in
order to become a musician, Recent writers such as Estrella [15] seem to be
using the phrase "elements of music" in a similar manner. A definition which
most accurately reflects this usage is: "the rudimentary principles of an art,
science, etc.: the elements of grammar."[16] The UK's curriculum switch to
the "inter-related dimensions of music" seems to be a move back to using the
rudimentary elements of music.

Perceptual elements of music

Since the emergence of the study of psychoacoustics in the 1930s, most lists
of elements of music have related more to how we hear music than how we
learn to play it or study it. C.E. Seashore, in his book Psychology of Music,[17]
identified four "psychological attributes of sound". These were: "pitch,
loudness, time, and timbre" (p. 3). He did not call them the "elements of
music" but referred to them as "elemental components" (p. 2). Nonetheless
these elemental components link precisely with four of the most common
musical elements: "Pitch" and "timbre" match exactly, "loudness" links with
dynamics and "time" links with the time-based elements of rhythm, duration
and tempo. This usage of the phrase "the elements of music" links more
closely with Webster's New 20th Century Dictionary definition of an element
as: "a substance which cannot be divided into a simpler form by known
methods"[18] and educational institutions' lists of elements align with this list
as well.

Writers of lists of "rudimentary elements of music" vary their lists depending

on their personal priorities. However, in relation to the perceptual elements of
music, it should be possible to identify a list of discrete elements which can
be independently manipulated to achieve an intended musical effect. It
seems at this stage that there is still research to be done in this area.

Analysis of musical styles

Funk places most of its emphasis on rhythm and groove, with entire songs
based around a vamp on a single chord. Pictured are the influential funk
musicians George Clinton and Parliament Funkadelic in 2006.

Some styles of music place an emphasis on certain of these fundamentals,

while others place less emphasis on certain elements. To give one example,
while Bebop-era jazz makes use of very complex chords, including altered
dominants and challenging chord progressions, with chords changing two or
more times per bar and keys changing several times in a tune, funk places
most of its emphasis on rhythm and groove, with entire songs based around a
vamp on a single chord. While Romantic era classical music from the mid- to
late-1800s makes great use of dramatic changes of dynamics, from
whispering pianissimo sections to thunderous fortissimo sections, some entire
Baroque dance suites for harpsichord from the early 1700s may use a single
dynamic. To give another example, while some art music pieces, such as
symphonies are very long, some pop songs are just a few minutes long.

Description of elements of music

Pitch and melody

Pitch is an aspect of a sound that we can hear, reflecting whether one

musical sound, note or tone is "higher" or "lower" than another musical
sound, note or tone. We can talk about the highness or lowness of pitch in the
more general sense, such as the way a listener hears a piercingly high piccolo
note or whistling tone as higher in pitch than a deep thump of a bass drum.
We also talk about pitch in the precise sense associated with musical
melodies, basslines and chords. Precise pitch can only be determined in
sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish
from noise. For example, it is much easier for listeners to discern the pitch of
a single note played on a piano than to try to discern the pitch of a crash
cymbal that is struck.

The melody to the traditional song "Pop Goes the Weasel" About this sound
Play (helpinfo)

A melody (also called a "tune") is a series of pitches (notes) sounding in

succession (one after the other), often in a rising and falling pattern. The
notes of a melody are typically created using pitch systems such as scales or
modes. Melodies also often contain notes from the chords used in the song.
The melodies in simple folk songs and traditional songs may use only the
notes of a single scale, the scale associated with the tonic note or key of a
given song. For example, a folk song in the key of C (also referred to as C
major) may have a melody that uses only the notes of the C major scale (the
individual notes C, D, E, F, G, A, B and C; these are the "white notes" on a
piano keyboard. On the other hand, Bebop-era jazz from the 1940s and
contemporary music from the 20th and 21st centuries may use melodies with
many chromatic notes (i.e., notes in addition to the notes of the major scale;
on a piano, a chromatic scale would include all the notes on the keyboard,
including the "white notes" and "black notes" and unusual scales, such as the
whole tone scale (a whole tone scale in the key of C would contain the notes
C, D, E, F, G and A). A low, deep musical line played by bass instruments
such as double bass, electric bass or tuba is called a bassline.

Harmony and chords

When musicians play three or more different notes at the same time, this
creates a chord. In Western music, including classical music, pop music, rock
music and many related styles, the most common chords are triads three
notes usually played at the same time. The most commonly used chords are
the major chord and the minor chord. An example of a major chord is the
three pitches C, E and G. An example of a minor chord is the three pitches A,
C and E. (Pictured is a guitar player performing a chord on a guitar).

Harmony refers to the "vertical" sounds of pitches in music, which means

pitches that are played or sung together at the same time to create a chord.
Usually this means the notes are played at the same time, although harmony
may also be implied by a melody that outlines a harmonic structure (i.e., by
using melody notes that are played one after the other, outlining the notes of
a chord). In music written using the system of major-minor tonality ("keys"),
which includes most classical music written from 1600 to 1900 and most
Western pop, rock and traditional music, the key of a piece determines the
scale used, which centres around the "home note" or tonic of the key. Simple
classical pieces and many pop and traditional music songs are written so that
all the music is in a single key. More complex Classical, pop and traditional
music songs and pieces may have two keys (and in some cases three or more
keys). Classical music from the Romantic era (written from about 18201900)
often contains multiple keys, as does jazz, especially Bebop jazz from the
1940s, in which the key or "home note" of a song may change every four bars
or even every two bars.

Rhythm

Rhythm is the arrangement of sounds and silences in time. Meter animates

time in regular pulse groupings, called measures or bars, which in Western
classical, popular and traditional music often group notes in sets of two (e.g.,
2/4 time), three (e.g., 3/4 time, also known as Waltz time, or 3/8 time), or four
(e.g., 4/4 time). Meters are made easier to hear because songs and pieces
often (but not always) place an emphasis on the first beat of each grouping.
Notable exceptions exist, such as the backbeat used in much Western pop
and rock, in which a song that uses a measure that consists of four beats
(called 4/4 time or common time) will have accents on beats two and four,
which are typically performed by the drummer on the snare drum, a loud and
distinctive-sounding percussion instrument. In pop and rock, the rhythm parts
of a song are played by the rhythm section, which includes chord-playing
instruments (e.g., electric guitar, acoustic guitar, piano, or other keyboard
instruments), a bass instrument (typically electric bass or for some styles
such as jazz and bluegrass, double bass) and a drum kit player.

Texture

Musical texture is the overall sound of a piece of music or song. The texture
of a piece or sing is determined by how the melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic
materials are combined in a composition, thus determining the overall nature
of the sound in a piece. Texture is often described in regard to the density, or
thickness, and range, or width, between lowest and highest pitches, in
relative terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the
number of voices, or parts, and the relationship between these voices (see
common types below). For example, a thick texture contains many 'layers' of
instruments. One of these layers could be a string section, or another brass.
The thickness also is affected by the amount and the richness of the
instruments. Texture is commonly described according to the number of and
relationship between parts or lines of music:

monophony: a single melody (or "tune") with neither instrumental

accompaniment nor a harmony part. A mother singing a lullaby to her baby
would be an example.

heterophony: two or more instruments or singers playing/singing the same

melody, but with each performer slightly varying the rhythm or speed of the
melody or adding different ornaments to the melody. Two bluegrass fiddlers
playing the same traditional fiddle tune together will typically each vary the
melody a bit and each add different ornaments.

polyphony: multiple independent melody lines that interweave together,

which are sung or played at the same time. Choral music written in the
Renaissance music era was typically written in this style. A round, which is a
song such as "Row, Row, Row Your Boat", which different groups of singers all
start to sing at a different time, is a simple example of polyphony.

homophony: a clear melody supported by chordal accompaniment. Most

Western popular music songs from the 19th century onward are written in
this texture.
Music that contains a large number of independent parts (e.g., a double
concerto accompanied by 100 orchestral instruments with many interweaving
melodic lines) is generally said to have a "thicker" or "denser" texture than a
work with few parts (e.g., a solo flute melody accompanied by a single cello).

Timbre or "tone color"

Timbre, sometimes called "color" or "tone color" is the quality or sound of a

voice or instrument.[19] Timbre is what makes a particular musical sound
different from another, even when they have the same pitch and loudness.
For example, a 440 Hz A note sounds different when it is played on oboe,
piano, violin or electric guitar. Even if different players of the same
instrument play the same note, their notes might sound different due to
differences in instrumental technique (e.g., different embouchures), different
types of accessories (e.g., mouthpieces for brass players, reeds for oboe and
bassoon players) or strings made out of different materials for string players
(e.g., gut strings versus steel strings). Even two instrumentalists playing the
same note on the same instrument (one after the other) may sound different
due to different ways of playing the instrument (e.g., two string players might
hold the bow differently).

The physical characteristics of sound that determine the perception of timbre

include the spectrum, envelope and overtones of a note or musical sound. For
electric instruments developed in the 20th century, such as electric guitar,
electric bass and electric piano, the performer can also change the tone by
adjusting equalizer controls, tone controls on the instrument, and by using
electronic effects units such as distortion pedals. The tone of the electric
Hammond organ is controlled by adjusting drawbars.

Expression

Singers add expression to the melodies they sing using many methods,
including changing the tone of their singing, adding vibrato to certain notes,
or emphasizing important words in the lyrics.

Expressive qualities are those elements in music that create change in music
without changing the main pitches or substantially changing the rhythms of
the melody and its accompaniment. Performers, including singers and
instrumentalists, can add musical expression to a song or piece by adding
phrasing, by adding effects such as vibrato (with voice and some
instruments, such as guitar, violin, brass instruments and woodwinds),
dynamics (the loudness or softness of piece or a section of it), tempo
fluctuations (e.g., ritardando or accelerando, which are, respectively slowing
down and speeding up the tempo), by adding pauses or fermatas on a
cadence, and by changing the articulation of the notes (e.g., making notes
more pronounced or accented, by making notes more legato, which means
smoothly connected, or by making notes shorter).

Form

Sheet music notation for the chorus (refrain) of the Christmas song "Jingle
Bells" About this sound Play (helpinfo)

In music, form describes how the overall structure or plan of a song or piece
of music,[20] and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into
sections.[21] In the early 20th century, Tin Pan Alley songs and Broadway
musical songs were often in AABA 32 bar form, in which the A sections
repeated the same eight bar melody and the B section provided a contrasting
melody and/or harmony for 8 bars. From the 1960s onward, Western pop and
rock songs are often in verse-chorus form, which is based around a sequence
of verse and chorus ("refrain") sections, with new lyrics for most verses and
repeating lyrics for the choruses. Popular music often makes use of strophic
form, sometimes in conjunction with the twelve bar blues.[citation needed]

In the tenth edition of The Oxford Companion to Music, Percy Scholes defines
musical form as "a series of strategies designed to find a successful mean
between the opposite extremes of unrelieved repetition and unrelieved
alteration."[22] Examples of common forms of Western music include the
fugue, the invention, sonata-allegro, canon, strophic, theme and variations,
and rondo. Scholes states that European classical music had only six stand-
alone forms: simple binary, simple ternary, compound binary, rondo, air with
variations, and fugue (although musicologist Alfred Mann emphasized that
the fugue is primarily a method of composition that has sometimes taken on
certain structural conventions.[23])

Where a piece cannot readily be broken down into sectional units (though it
might borrow some form from a poem, story or programme), it is said to be
through-composed. Such is often the case with a fantasia, prelude, rhapsody,
etude (or study), symphonic poem, Bagatelle, impromptu, etc.[citation
needed] Professor Charles Keil classified forms and formal detail as
"sectional, developmental, or variational."[24]

Sectional form

This form is built from a sequence of clear-cut units[25] that may be referred
to by letters but also often have generic names such as introduction and
coda, exposition, development and recapitulation, verse, chorus or refrain,
and bridge. Introductions and codas, when they are no more than that, are
frequently excluded from formal analysis. All such units may typically be
eight measures long. Sectional forms include:

Strophic form

Main article: Strophic form

This form is defined by its "unrelieved repetition" (AAAA...).

Medley

Medley, potpourri is the extreme opposite, that of "unrelieved variation": it is

simply an indefinite sequence of self-contained sections (ABCD...), sometimes
with repeats (AABBCCDD...). Examples include orchestral overtures, which
are sometimes no more than a string of the best tunes of the musical theatre
show or opera to come.

Binary form

Main article: Binary form

Binary form in major and minor keys. Each section must be at least three
phrases long.[26]

This form uses two sections (AB...), each often repeated (AABB...). In 18th-
century Western classical music, "simple binary" form was often used for
dances and carried with it the convention that the two sections should be in
different musical keys but same rhythm, duration and tone. The alternation of
two tunes gives enough variety to permit a dance to be extended for as long
as desired.

Ternary form

Main article: Ternary form

This form has three parts. In Western classical music a simple ternary form
has a third section that is a recapitulation of the first (ABA). Often, the first
section is repeated (AABA). This approach was popular in the 18th-century
operatic aria,[citation needed] and was called da capo (i.e. "repeat from the
top") form. Later, it gave rise to the 32-bar song, with the B section then
often referred to as the "middle eight". A song has more need than a dance of
a self-contained form with a beginning and an end of course.

Rondo form

Main article: Rondo form

This form has a recurring theme alternating with different (usually

contrasting) sections called "episodes". It may be asymmetrical (ABACADAEA)
or symmetrical (ABACABA). A recurring section, especially the main theme, is
sometimes more thoroughly varied, or else one episode may be a
"development" of it. A similar arrangement is the ritornello form of the
Baroque concerto grosso. Arch form (ABCBA) resembles a symmetrical rondo
without intermediate repetitions of the main theme. It is normally used in a
round.

Variational form

Main article: Variation (music)

Variational forms are those in which variation is an important formative

element.

Theme and Variations: a theme, which in itself can be of any shorter form
(binary, ternary, etc.), forms the only "section" and is repeated indefinitely
(as in strophic form) but is varied each time (A,B,A,F,Z,A), so as to make a
sort of sectional chain form. An important variant of this, much used in 17th-
century British music and in the Passacaglia and Chaconne, was that of the
ground bass - a repeating bass theme or basso ostinato over and around
which the rest of the structure unfolds, often, but not always, spinning
polyphonic or contrapuntal threads, or improvising divisions and descants.
This is said by Scholes (1977) to be the form par excellence of
unaccompanied or accompanied solo instrumental music. The Rondo is often
found with sections varied (AA1BA2CA3BA4) or (ABA1CA2B1A).

Developmental form

Main article: Musical development

Developmental forms are built directly from smaller units, such as motifs. A
well-known Classical piece with a motif is Beethoven's fifth symphony, which
starts with three short repeated notes and then a long note. In Classical
pieces that are based on motifs, the motif is usually combined, varied and
worked out in different ways, perhaps having a symmetrical or arch-like
underpinning and a progressive development from beginning to end. By far
the most important developmental form in Western classical music is Sonata
form. This form, also known as sonata form, first movement form, compound
binary, ternary and a variety of other names,[example needed] developed
from the binary-formed dance movement described above but is almost
always cast in a greater ternary form having the nominal subdivisions of
Exposition, Development and Recapitulation. Usually, but not always, the "A"
parts (Exposition and Recapitulation, respectively) may be subdivided into
two or three themes or theme groups which are taken asunder and
recombined to form the "B" part (the development) - thus e. g. (AabB[dev. of
a and/or b]A1ab1+coda). This developmental form is generally confined to
certain sections of the piece, as to the middle section of the first movement
of a sonata, though 19th-century composers such as Berlioz, Liszt and
Wagner made valiant efforts to derive large-scale works purely or mainly from
the motif.

History

Further information: History of music

Prehistoric eras

Main article: Prehistoric music

A bone flute which is over 41,000 years old.

Prehistoric music can only be theorized based on findings from paleolithic

archaeology sites. Flutes are often discovered, carved from bones in which
lateral holes have been pierced; these are thought to have been blown at one
end like the Japanese shakuhachi. The Divje Babe flute, carved from a cave
bear femur, is thought to be at least 40,000 years old. Instruments such as
the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments, such as the
Ravanahatha, have been recovered from the Indus Valley Civilization
archaeological sites.[27] India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the
worldreferences to Indian classical music (marga) are found in the Vedas,
ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition.[28] The earliest and largest
collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China and dates
back to between 7000 and 6600 BC.[29] The Hurrian song, found on clay
tablets that date back to approximately 1400 BC, is the oldest surviving
notated work of music.

Ancient Egypt

Main article: Music of Egypt

Musicians of Amun, Tomb of Nakht, 18th Dynasty, Western Thebes

The ancient Egyptians credited one of their gods, Thoth, with the invention of
music, with Osiris in turn used as part of his effort to civilize the world. The
earliest material and representational evidence of Egyptian musical
instruments dates to the Predynastic period, but the evidence is more
securely attested in the Old Kingdom when harps, flutes and double clarinets
were played.[30] Percussion instruments, lyres and lutes were added to
orchestras by the Middle Kingdom. Cymbals[31] frequently accompanied
music and dance, much as they still do in Egypt today. Egyptian folk music,
including the traditional Sufi dhikr rituals, are the closest contemporary music
genre to ancient Egyptian music, having preserved many of its features,
rhythms and instruments.[32][33]

Asian cultures

Indian women dressed in regional attire playing a variety of musical

instruments popular in different parts of India

Gangubai Hangal

Durga
See also: Music of Iran, Music of Afghanistan, Music of Tajikistan, Music of Sri
Lanka, and Music of Uzbekistan

Indian classical music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world.[34]
The Indus Valley civilization has sculptures that show dance[35] and old
musical instruments, like the seven holed flute. Various types of stringed
instruments and drums have been recovered from Harappa and Mohenjo
Daro by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.[36] The Rigveda
has elements of present Indian music, with a musical notation to denote the
metre and the mode of chanting.[37] Indian classical music (marga) is
monophonic, and based on a single melody line or raga rhythmically
organized through talas. Silappadhikaram by Ilango Adigal provides
information about how new scales can be formed by modal shifting of the
tonic from an existing scale.[38] Hindustani music was influenced by the
Persian performance practices of the Afghan Mughals. Carnatic music,
popular in the southern states, is largely devotional; the majority of the songs
are addressed to the Hindu deities. There are also many songs emphasising
love and other social issues.

Asian music covers the music cultures of Arabia, Central Asia, East Asia,
South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Chinese classical music, the traditional art or
court music of China, has a history stretching over around three thousand
years. It has its own unique systems of musical notation, as well as musical
tuning and pitch, musical instruments and styles or musical genres. Chinese
music is pentatonic-diatonic, having a scale of twelve notes to an octave (5 +
7 = 12) as does European-influenced music. Persian music is the music of
Persia and Persian language countries: musiqi, the science and art of music,
and muzik, the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983).

References in the Bible

Main article: History of music in the biblical period

"David with his harp" Paris Psalter,

c. 960, Constantinople

Music and theatre scholars studying the history and anthropology of Semitic
and early Judeo-Christian culture have discovered common links in theatrical
and musical activity between the classical cultures of the Hebrews and those
of later Greeks and Romans. The common area of performance is found in a
"social phenomenon called litany," a form of prayer consisting of a series of
invocations or supplications. The Journal of Religion and Theatre notes that
among the earliest forms of litany, "Hebrew litany was accompanied by a rich
musical tradition:"[39]

"While Genesis 4.21 identifies Jubal as the "father of all such as handle the
harp and pipe," the Pentateuch is nearly silent about the practice and
instruction of music in the early life of Israel. Then, in I Samuel 10 and the
texts that follow, a curious thing happens. "One finds in the biblical text,"
writes Alfred Sendrey, "a sudden and unexplained upsurge of large choirs and
orchestras, consisting of thoroughly organized and trained musical groups,
which would be virtually inconceivable without lengthy, methodical
preparation." This has led some scholars to believe that the prophet Samuel
was the patriarch of a school, which taught not only prophets and holy men,
but also sacred-rite musicians. This public music school, perhaps the earliest
in recorded history, was not restricted to a priestly classwhich is how the
shepherd boy David appears on the scene as a minstrel to King Saul."[39]

Antiquity

Major ancient Western cultures have had a major influence on the

development of music. The history of music in Western cultures can be traced
back to Ancient Greek times. Ancient Greek society produced the first
Western philosophers, some of whom wrote theories about music. Music was
an important part of Ancient Greek culture, and in turn, influenced the
Ancient Roman culture.

Ancient Greece

Music was an important part of social and cultural life in Ancient Greece.
Musicians and singers played a prominent role in Greek theater.[40] Mixed-
gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration, and spiritual
ceremonies.[41] Instruments included the double-reed aulos and a plucked
string instrument, the lyre, principally the special kind called a kithara. Music
was an important part of education, and boys were taught music starting at
age six. Greek musical literacy created a flowering of music development.
Greek music theory included the Greek musical modes, that eventually
became the basis for Western religious and classical music. Later, influences
from the Roman Empire, Eastern Europe, and the Byzantine Empire changed
Greek music. The Seikilos epitaph is the oldest surviving example of a
complete musical composition, including musical notation, from anywhere in
the world.

The first work written on the subject of music theory is Harmonika Stoicheia.
[42]

Middle Ages

Lonin or Protin

Breves dies hominis

Musical notation from a Catholic Missal, c. 13101320

The medieval era (476 to 1400), which took place during the Middle Ages,
started with the introduction of monophonic (single melodic line) chanting
into Roman Catholic Church services. Musical notation was used since Ancient
times in Greek culture, but in the Middle Ages, notation was first introduced
by the Catholic church so that the chant melodies could be written down, to
facilitate the use of the same melodies for religious music across the entire
Catholic empire. The only European Medieval repertory that has been found
in written form from before 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong chant
of the Roman Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called
Gregorian chant. Alongside these traditions of sacred and church music there
existed a vibrant tradition of secular song (non-religious songs). Examples of
composers from this period are Lonin, Protin and Guillaume de Machaut.

Renaissance

T.L. de Victoria

Amicus meus

Allegory of Music, by Filippino Lippi

Renaissance music (c. 1400 to 1600) was more focused on secular (non-
religious) themes, such as courtly love. Around 1450, the printing press was
invented, which made printed sheet music much less expensive and easier to
mass-produce (prior to the invention of the printing press, all notated music
was hand-copied). The increased availability of sheet music helped to spread
musical styles more quickly and across a larger area. Musicians and singers
often worked for the church, courts and towns. Church choirs grew in size,
and the church remained an important patron of music. By the middle of the
15th century, composers wrote richly polyphonic sacred music, in which
different melody lines were interwoven simultaneously. Prominent composers
from this era include Guillaume Dufay, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina,
Thomas Morley, and Orlande de Lassus. As musical activity shifted from the
church to the aristocratic courts, kings, queens and princes competed for the
finest composers. Many leading important composers came from the
Netherlands, Belgium, and northern France. They are called the Franco-
Flemish composers. They held important positions throughout Europe,
especially in Italy. Other countries with vibrant musical activity included
Germany, England, and Spain.

Baroque

J.S. Bach

Toccata and Fugue

The Baroque era of music took place from 1600 to 1750, as the Baroque
artistic style flourished across Europe; and during this time, music expanded
in its range and complexity. Baroque music began when the first operas
(dramatic solo vocal music accompanied by orchestra) were written. During
the Baroque era, polyphonic contrapuntal music, in which multiple,
simultaneous independent melody lines were used, remained important
(counterpoint was important in the vocal music of the Medieval era). German
Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings, brass, and
woodwinds, as well as for choirs and keyboard instruments such as pipe
organ, harpsichord, and clavichord. During this period several major music
forms were defined that lasted into later periods when they were expanded
and evolved further, including the fugue, the invention, the sonata, and the
concerto.[43] The late Baroque style was polyphonically complex and richly
ornamented. Important composers from the Baroque era include Johann
Sebastian Bach, George Frideric Handel, Georg Philipp Telemann and Vivaldi.
Classicism

W.A. Mozart

Symphony 40 g-moll

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (seated at the keyboard) was a child prodigy

virtuoso performer on the piano and violin. Even before he became a
celebrated composer, he was widely known as a gifted performer and
improviser.

The music of the Classical period (1730 to 1820) aimed to imitate what were
seen as the key elements of the art and philosophy of Ancient Greece and
Rome: the ideals of balance, proportion and disciplined expression. (Note: the
music from the Classical period should not be confused with Classical music
in general, a term which refers to Western art music from the 5th century to
the 2000s, which includes the Classical period as one of a number of periods).
Music from the Classical period has a lighter, clearer and considerably simpler
texture than the Baroque music which preceded it. The main style was
homophony,[44] where a prominent melody and a subordinate chordal
accompaniment part are clearly distinct. Classical instrumental melodies
tended to be almost voicelike and singable. New genres were developed, and
the fortepiano, the forerunner to the modern piano, replaced the Baroque era
harpsichord and pipe organ as the main keyboard instrument.

Importance was given to instrumental music. It was dominated by further

development of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the
sonata, the concerto, and the symphony. Others main kinds were the trio,
string quartet, serenade and divertimento. The sonata was the most
important and developed form. Although Baroque composers also wrote
sonatas, the Classical style of sonata is completely distinct. All of the main
instrumental forms of the Classical era, from string quartets to symphonies
and concertos, were based on the structure of the sonata. The instruments
used chamber music and orchestra became more standardized. In place of
the basso continuo group of the Baroque era, which consisted of harpsichord,
organ or lute along with a number of bass instruments selected at the
discretion of the group leader (e.g., viol, cello, theorbo, serpent), Classical
chamber groups used specified, standardized instruments (e.g., a string
quartet would be performed by two violins, a viola and a cello). The Baroque
era improvised chord-playing of the continuo keyboardist or lute player was
gradually phased out between 1750 and 1800.

One of the most important changes made in the Classical period was the
development of public concerts. The aristocracy still played a significant role
in the sponsorship of concerts and compositions, but it was now possible for
composers to survive without being permanent employees of queens or
princes. The increasing popularity of classical music led to a growth in the
number and types of orchestras. The expansion of orchestral concerts
necessitated the building of large public performance spaces. Symphonic
music including symphonies, musical accompaniment to ballet and mixed
vocal/instrumental genres such as opera and oratorio became more popular.

The best known composers of Classicism are Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach,
Christoph Willibald Gluck, Johann Christian Bach, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert. Beethoven and
Schubert are also considered to be composers in the later part of the
Classical era, as it began to move towards Romanticism.

Romanticism

The piano was the centrepiece of social activity for middle-class urbanites in
the 19th century (Moritz von Schwind, 1868). The man at the piano is
composer Franz Schubert.

R. Wagner

Die Walkre

Romantic music (c. 1810 to 1900) from the 19th century had many elements
in common with the Romantic styles in literature and painting of the era.
Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement was
characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as
glorification of all the past and nature. Romantic music expanded beyond the
rigid styles and forms of the Classical era into more passionate, dramatic
expressive pieces and songs. Romantic composers such as Wagner and
Brahms attempted to increase emotional expression and power in their music
to describe deeper truths or human feelings. With symphonic tone poems,
composers tried to tell stories and evoke images or landscapes using
instrumental music. Some composers promoted nationalistic pride with
patriotic orchestral music inspired by folk music. The emotional and
expressive qualities of music came to take precedence over tradition.

Romantic composers grew in idiosyncrasy, and went further in the syncretism

of exploring different art-forms in a musical context, (such as literature),
history (historical figures and legends), or nature itself. Romantic love or
longing was a prevalent theme in many works composed during this period.
In some cases the formal structures from the classical period continued to be
used (e.g., the sonata form used in string quartets and symphonies), but
these forms were expanded and altered. In many cases, new approaches
were explored for existing genres, forms, and functions. Also, new forms were
created that were deemed better suited to the new subject matter.
Composers continued to develop opera and ballet music, exploring new styles
and themes.[40]

In the years after 1800, the music developed by Ludwig van Beethoven and
Franz Schubert introduced a more dramatic, expressive style. In Beethoven's
case, short motifs, developed organically, came to replace melody as the
most significant compositional unit (an example is the distinctive four note
figure used in his Fifth Symphony). Later Romantic composers such as Pyotr
Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Antonn Dvok, and Gustav Mahler used more unusual
chords and more dissonance to create dramatic tension. They generated
complex and often much longer musical works. During the late Romantic
period, composers explored dramatic chromatic alterations of tonality, such
as extended chords and altered chords, which created new sound "colours".
The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the orchestra,
and the industrial revolution helped to create better instruments, creating a
more powerful sound. Public concerts became an important part of well-to-do
urban society. It also saw a new diversity in theatre music, including operetta,
and musical comedy and other forms of musical theatre.[40]

20th- and 21st-century music

Main article: 20th-century music

A jazz group consisting of double bassist Reggie Workman, tenor saxophone

player Pharoah Sanders, and drummer Idris Muhammad, performing in 1978
In the 19th century, one of the key ways that new compositions became
known to the public was by the sales of sheet music, which middle class
amateur music lovers would perform at home on their piano or other common
instruments, such as violin. With 20th-century music, the invention of new
electric technologies such as radio broadcasting and the mass market
availability of gramophone records meant that sound recordings of songs and
pieces heard by listeners (either on the radio or on their record player)
became the main way to learn about new songs and pieces. There was a vast
increase in music listening as the radio gained popularity and phonographs
were used to replay and distribute music, because whereas in the 19th
century, the focus on sheet music restricted access to new music to the
middle class and upper class people who could read music and who owned
pianos and instruments. In the 20th century, anyone with a radio or record
player could hear operas, symphonies and big bands right in their own living
room. This allowed lower-income people, who would never be able to afford
an opera or symphony concert ticket to hear this music. It also meant that
people could hear music from different parts of the country, or even different
parts of the world, even if they could not afford to travel to these locations.
This helped to spread musical styles.

The focus of art music in the 20th century was characterized by exploration
of new rhythms, styles, and sounds. The horrors of World War I influenced
many of the arts, including music, and some composers began exploring
darker, harsher sounds. Traditional music styles such as jazz and folk music
were used by composers as a source of ideas for classical music. Igor
Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and John Cage were all influential composers
in 20th-century art music. The invention of sound recording and the ability to
edit music gave rise to new subgenre of classical music, including the
acousmatic[45] and Musique concrte schools of electronic composition.
Sound recording was also a major influence on the development of popular
music genres, because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be widely
distributed. The introduction of the multitrack recording system had a major
influence on rock music, because it could do much more than record a band's
performance. Using a multitrack system, a band and their music producer
could overdub many layers of instrument tracks and vocals, creating new
sounds that would not be possible in a live performance.

Jazz evolve