Understanding Solar Energy

Teacher Page

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves

Student Objective
The student:

will be able to determine the voltage,

current and power using Ohms
formula of a given PV module

given the efficiency, irradiance and

the power (watt) rating of a module,
will be able to determine the size of
the array necessary to produce given
amounts of power

given an I-V curve, will be able to

determine the modules maximum
power point

will be able to explain how an I-V

curve is generated.
Materials:

laboratory manual

key word list

photovoltaic module, any size (3V,

.3A panel is used in examples)

insolation meter (solar meter)

multimeter (2 per group)

technical specifications for module

being used including voltage,
amperage, open circuit voltage, short
circuit amperage and maximum
power rating

variable resistor (rheostat), with

current rating greater than short
circuit current for module

wires with alligator clips (4 per

group)

thermometer

tape

graph paper

ruler

Florida Solar Energy Center

Key Words:
active area efficiency
ampere (amp)
circuit
current
direct current (DC)
efficiency
insolation meter
I-V curve
load
maximum power current (Imp)
maximum power point (Pmp)
maximum power voltage (Vmp)
module
multipurpose meter
ohms
Ohms Law
open circuit voltage (Voc)
power (DC)
short circuit current (Isc)
solar irradiance
solar noon
total area efficiency
variable resistor (rheostat)
voltage

Time:
1- 2 class periods

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves / Page 1

Procedure (prior to class)

1.
Look up your local latitude if you are unfamiliar with it.
2.
Familiarize yourself with the multimeter that the students will be using. When measuring
amperage a load must be used unless you are using a fused multimeter.
3.
Make sure that the power rating of the variable resistor (rheostat) exceeds the maximum
power rating of the module and that the resistance (ohms) falls withing 20% of the
maximum power point resistance (R = V/I). For the 3V panel use a 3 watt, 100 ohm
rheostat.
Procedure (during class time)
1.
Lead a discussion on what the students may already know about solar energy in general
and photovoltaics in particular. Points to cover should include:

the distinction between solar thermal (using solar energy to heat something) and
photovoltaics (turning solar energy directly into electricity)

current uses of photovoltaics that the students might be familiar with (i.e. highway
call boxes, road signs and billboards, signal buoys, satellites, as well as
calculators, watches and radios).
2.
If this is the first time the class has worked with electricity, lead a discussion of what they
already know about basic electrical circuits. Points to cover should include:

the circular nature of a circuit

DC electricity is a flow of electrons from the positive to the negative

difference between AC (alternating current) which is the standard electrical

current carried through utility lines in the U.S., and DC (direct current) which is
produced by photovoltaic devices and batteries

amperage (amp) is the measure of the rate of flow

voltage (volt) is the measure of the force of the push through the circuit.
3.
Students should work in teams of 3 - 5 per team. Pass out materials. If you are using the
3V PV panels, remind students that the panels are fragile and may be broken if bent
4.
If this if the first time the class has used a multimeter, explain its basic function and use.
5.
Students should complete the activities in the Laboratory Manual.

Related Reading

Photovoltaics: Design and Installation Manual by Solar Energy International (New

Society Publishers, 2004)
Solar Energy International (SEI) is a non-profit that trains adults and youth in renewable
energy and environmental building technologies. This manual is well-suited for those
who have some electrical experience, and students in high school tech prep-level courses.
The book contains an overview of photovoltaic electricity and a detailed description of
PV system components, including PV modules, batteries, controllers and inverters. It
also includes chapters on sizing photovoltiac systems, analyzing sites and installing PV
systems.

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves / Page 2

Internet Sites
http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/solar_electricity/basics/index.htm
Florida Solar Energy Centers photovoltaic fundamentals page explains the basics of
photovoltaic cells including their manufacture, the components of systems, as well as the
pros and cons of photovoltaic power.
http://www.mathconnect.com/ENGINEERING-Formula.htm
Common electrical formulas and conversions
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/animations.html
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network (ERIN) page sponsored by the
Department of Energy. Animation of how a photovoltaic cell works.
http://www.nmsea.org/Curriculum/Primer/from_oil_wells_to_solar_cells.htm
New Mexico Solar Energy Associations From Oil Wells to Solar Cells: A Renewable
Energy Primer. Contains an overview of renewable energy including benefits, costs and
obstacles to implementation. Also includes a good introduction to solar energy
technology.
http://www.nmsea.org/Curriculum/7_12/PV/explore_pv.htm
New Mexico Solar Energy Association. A basic explanation of how a photovoltaic cell
produces electricity.

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves / Page 3

Understanding Solar Energy

Answer Key

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves

Laboratory Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

7.
8.
9.
10.

11.
12.
13.
14.

15.

Answers will vary, but should be fairly consistent between groups.

Answers will vary, but students should show a knowledge of how to apply Ohms law to
calculate the power values.
Students readings will probably be lower than published module specifications. This is
mainly due to environmental factors and not using the optimum tilt angle.
Answers will vary, but students should show evidence that they are considering real
world conditions (such as weather) to be mitigating factors.
Data readings will vary, but should show some consistency between groups. There still
will probably be a variance between groups however, since the students havent yet
learned about tilt angles, and may not be using the optimum angle.
Answers will vary, but students I-V curves should follow the typical shape, and be
labeled and titled correctly. The x- axis is voltage, y-axis is current, and graph intervals
should be even. The title of the graph should include the irradiance level and
temperature.
Answers will vary but should come from the appropriate points on the graph. Students
should be able to find the maximum power point from their graphs.
Students readings will probably be lower than published module specifications.
Answers will vary, but students should show evidence that they are considering real
world conditions (such as weather) to be mitigating factors.
Students should mention weather and the intensity of sunlight. They may also realize that
tilt angle can cause discrepancies in the data. More data points could also increase the
reliability of the data.
Answers will vary, but students should show proper use of the formula for efficiency.
Students readings will probably be lower than published module efficiency.
Students should realize that an increase in values for either the irradience level or the
power output in the equation will mean a higher efficiency value.
With an efficiency rating, insolation data for a given area and a desired power output, the
size of the array necessary for that load can be determined. Conversely, if the size of the
array, the irradiance and the efficiency are known, the maximum power point can be
determined.
Answers should include loss to heat. They may also include loss in the transmission of
the electricity (resistance in the circuit), reflection off the module, as well as light hitting
areas that do not have photovoltaic materials.

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves / Page 4

Problem Set
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Insolation meter
1000 watts
5 amps
Answers b (current at open circuit), and c (voltage at short circuit) will both have a value
of zero.
d (20 m2)
No
There are an infinite number of operating (load) points along an I-V curve.

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves / Page 5

Understanding Solar Energy

Florida Sunshine Standards

Benchmarks

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves

Benchmark MA.B.1.4.2 - The student uses concrete and graphic models to derive formulas for
finding rate.
Benchmark MA.B.2.4.2 - The student solves real-world problems involving rated measures.
Benchmark MA.B.4.4.2 - The student selects and uses appropriate instruments, technology and
techniques to measure quantities in order to achieve specified degrees of accuracy in a problem
situation.
Benchmark MA.D.1.4.1 - The students describes, analyzes, and generalizes relationships,
patterns, and functions using words, symbols, variables, tables, and graphs.
Benchmark MA.D.1.4.2 - The student determines the impact when changing parameters of
given functions.
Benchmark MA.E.1.4.1 - The student interprets data that has been collected, organized and
displayed in charts, tables, and plots.
Benchmark SC.B.1.4.4 - The student knows that as electrical charges oscillate, they create timevarying electric and magnetic fields that propagate away from the source as an electromagnetic
wave.
Benchmark SC.B.1.4.5 - The student knows that each source of energy presents advantages and
disadvantages to its use in society.
Benchmark SC.B.1.4.6 - The student knows that the first law of thermodynamics relates the
transfer of energy to the work done and the heat transferred.
Benchmark SC.B.1.4.7 - The student knows that the total amount of usable energy always
decreases, even though the total amount of energy is conserved in any transfer.
Benchmark SC.H.1.4.1 - The student knows that investigations are conducted to explore new
phenomena, to check on previous results, to test how well a theory predicts, and to compare
different theories.

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves / Page 6

Understanding Solar Energy

Key Words/Definitions

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves

active area efficiency - the ratio of maximum electrical power output compared to the light
power incident on only the area of the device that is exposed or active semiconductor material
ampere (amp) - a unit of electrical current or rate of flow of electrons. One volt across one ohm
of resistance causes a current flow of one ampere. One ampere is equal to 6.25 x 1018 electrons
per second passing a given point in a circuit.
circuit - the circular path of an electrical current, including the source and any loads or devices
powered by it
direct current (DC) - a one way flow of electric current - from positive to negative
efficiency - the ratio of output of a device compared to the input to the device
insolation meter - a device to measure the amount of solar irradiance. Also called a
pyranometer.
I-V curve - the plot of electrical output (voltage and current) characteristics of a photovoltaic
cell or module at a particular temperature and irradiance
load - any device or appliance that is using power in an electrical circuit
maximum power current (Imp) - the amount of current of a given device at its maximum power
point
maximum power point (Pmp) - the point where the product of current and voltage is at
maximum power
maximum power voltage (Vmp) - the voltage value of a given device at its maximum power
point
module - a number of photovoltaic cells electrically wired together, usually in a sealed unit for
handling and assembling into panels and arrays
multipurpose meter - an instrument to measure electrical output in amps and volts and
resistance in ohms
ohms - the unit of electrical resistance of a circuit in which a potential difference of one volt
Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves / Page 7

produces a current of one ampere

Ohms Law - the current in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage across the circuit, and
inversely proportional to the total resistance of the circuit
V=IxR
I=V/R
R=V/I
By substituting the equation for power (P = V x I), variations in Ohms law can also be
expressed as follows:
P = I2 x R
P = V2/R
open circuit voltage (Voc) - the maximum voltage produced from a device, corresponding to
zero current flow
power (DC) - in DC circuits, power is given by the product of the voltage and current
P=VxI
(where P is the power in watts)
short circuit current (Isc) - the maximum current produced by a device, corresponding to zero
voltage
solar irradiance - the measure of the power density of sunlight. Expressed in watts per square
meter. The solar constant for earth is the irradiance received by the earth from the sun, 1367
W/m2, at the top of the atmosphere and .1000 w/m2 after passing perpendicularly through the
atmosphere.
solar noon - the time of day when the sun is at its highest point in the sky. At this time in the
northern hemisphere, the suns shadow will point directly north.
total area efficiency - the ratio of maximum electrical power output compared to the total light
power incident on the entire device
variable resistor - a device that provides a variable amount of resistance (impedance to flow) in
a circuit, thereby acting as a load in the circuit
voltage - a measure of the force or push given the electrons in an electrical circuit; a measure
of electric potential. One volt produces one amp of current when acting against a resistance of
one ohm.

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves / Page 8

Understanding Solar Energy

Laboratory Manual

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves

In this investigation we are going to look at some of the general characteristics of a photovoltaic
module, and learn how to plot and read a current-voltage (I-V) curve, the most important
performance descriptor for a photovoltaic device.
Solar Irradiance
1.

Determine the amount of solar irradiance (W/m2) using an insolation meter (also called a
pyranometer). Make sure you face the meter directly at the sun, and move it around
slightly to find the direction that gives you the highest reading. Record this below.

Date

Time

Location (latitude)

Daylight Savings Time?

yes

no
W/m2

Irradiance reading

Power Output
2.

Determine the DC voltage and current of your solar module. Connect the multipurpose
meter to your module and record your readings in the chart below, taking three sets of
data and calculating the average of the readings.
Irradiance (W/m2)

Voltage
(V)

Current
(Amps)

Power
(Watts)

Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average
To find the power output of the module, calculate the power (measured in watts), using a
variation of Ohms Law:
Power (w) = Volts (v) x Amps (a)
3.

Analyze your results. How did your results for volts, amps and power compare to the
modules specifications?

4.

What do you think could have accounted for this difference?

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves / Page 9

I-V Curve
The current-voltage (I-V) characteristic is the basic descriptor of photovoltaic device
performance. This is plotted on a graph with voltage on the x axis and current on the y axis,
while keeping irradiance and temperature levels constant. A typical I-V curve is shown below.

The I-V curve represents an infinite number of current-voltage operating points, the specific
operating point being determined by the electrical load (device or appliance) connected to the PV
system. These current-voltage operating points are plotted between the short-circuit current
point (Isc) where the device produces maximum current and zero voltage and the open-circuit
voltage point (Voc) where the device produces maximum voltage and zero current. The point at
which a PV device delivers its maximum power output and operates at its highest efficiency is
referred to as its maximum power point (Pmp). The voltage and current values at the maximum
power point are referred to as the maximum power voltage (Vmp) and the maximum power current
(Imp), respectively.
5.

Collect I-V curve data for your module.

For best results, data for I-V curves should be collected under clear skies, within two
hours of solar noon. Solar cell temperature should be allowed to stabilize before being
measured; allow five minutes between taking your panel outside and data collection
During the test, the I-V curve data points should be taken as quickly as practical to
minimize the effect of a change in irradiance level.

Using the small PV module, variable resistor (rheostat) and wires with alligator
clips, assemble the test circuit as shown on the top of the next page, leaving the
positive lead to the PV module disconnected. Be sure your multimeter is set
correctly for the measurement you wish to obtain. Ask your instructor to check
your circuit before continuing.

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power O utput & I-V Curves / Page 10

Determine the beginning amount of solar irradiance using an insolation meter and
record this below.
Face the PV module toward the sun. Tape a thermometer on the edge of the
module, being careful not to cover any of the photovoltaic cells, and record the
beginning module temperature.
Connect the positive lead from the module to the multimeter.
Adjust the variable resistor to zero ohms (voltage reading should be zero), and
record the short-circuit current, Isc, in the data table.
Locate Voc for your module and calculate the value that is 1/4 of it.
Increase the resistance until you obtain approximately this voltage reading.
Record the current and voltage readings.
Increase the resistance to approximately 1/2 and then 2/3 of the Voc, recording the
current and voltage readings for each.
From this point on (2/3 of Voc), make much smaller increases in the resistance
each time so that you will have enough data points to plot the curve accurately
(Hint: When the voltage drops rapidly, take smaller incremental measurements).
Continue to record the current and voltage readings (adding more lines to the table
as needed), until the maximum resistance setting or zero current is reached.
Disconnect the resistor from the test circuit (current becomes zero). Record the
open-circuit voltage, Voc.
Record the ending irradiance reading and the ending temperature reading.
Irradiance (W/m2)

Cell Temperature (oC)

Current (Amps)

Power (Watts)

Initial Measurement
Final Measurement
Average
Voltage (Volts)
0

Voc =

Florida Solar Energy Center

Isc =

Photovoltaic Power O utput & I-V Curves / Page 11

6.

Using the data you collected, plot a power curve which shows power as a function of
voltage. Make sure to label both axis. Then plot your I-V curve on graph paper. Make
sure to label both axis, and title your graph. Your title should include your average
irradiance and temperature readings. Typical graphs for a 3V panel are illustrated below:

Power curve

I-V curve

Label the maximum power point, the point on the I-V curve where the power (the product
of current and voltage) is the highest. An easy way to find the maximum power point is
to first locate the Vmp (maximum power point) on the power curve. This will be the xaxis value of the maximum power point on your I-V curve.
7.

Determine the power, voltage, and current at the maximum power point.
Pmp =

Vmp =

Imp =

8.

Analyze your results. How did your I-V curve compare to the modules I-V curve
supplied by the manufacturer? If you dont have an I-V curve for your module, how did
your I-V curve compare to the Isc, Voc, Isc, Vmp and Pmp of your modules specifications?

9.

What do you think could have accounted for this difference?

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power O utput & I-V Curves / Page 12

10.

How could you improve the reliability of this experiment?

Efficiency
One common measure of the quality of a solar cell or module is its efficiency. In general,
efficiency is defined as the ratio of output from a device compared to the input to the device.
However, two different efficiencies are often quoted in photovoltaic literature. Total area
efficiency is the ratio of maximum electrical power output compared to the total solar energy
incident on the entire cell or module (area x irradiance); whereas aperture or active area
efficiency usually refers to a single cell and only includes the active semiconductor area of the
cell. Light incident on shaded areas like interconnect wires, gridlines and frame area are not
included. Obviously, for a device with interconnected cells the active area efficiency is higher
than the total area efficiency.
11.

Calculate the total area efficiency for your module for the specific trial above:

Measure your module. Figure area in square meters

Calculate the efficiency using the formula:

efficiency

Pmp (maximum power point)

area

Efficiency of module

average irradience

12.

Analyze your results. How did your efficiency compare to the modules rated efficiency?

13.

What conditions would increase the observed efficiency of the module?

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power O utput & I-V Curves / Page 13

14.

What are the benefits of knowing the efficiency of your solar panel or module?

15.

What do you think happens to the solar energy that is not directly converted to electricity?
(Remember, according to the law of conservation of energy, all of the energy can be
accounted for). List all the possible ways that energy could be lost or never utilized in
this transfer.

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power O utput & I-V Curves / Page 14

Understanding Solar Energy

Problems

Photovoltaic Power Output & I-V Curves

1.

Name a device that is used to measure solar irradiance.

2.

A photovoltaic array produces 50 volts and 20 amps. What is its power output in watts?

3.

A photovoltaic panel produces 200 watts at 40 volts. What is its current (amperage)
output?

4.

Circle the letter of all the terms that will always have a value of zero.
a.
voltage at open circuit
b.
current at open circuit
c.
voltage at short circuit
d.
current at short circuit

5.

You are planning a photovoltaic system installation with typical modules that convert
sunlight to DC electrical energy at 10% efficiency. Assuming that losses from
interconnecting wires, gridlines and frames are negligible, approximately how much roof
surface area will be required for a PV array rated at 2000 watts DC under peak sunlight
conditions (1000 W/m2 irradiance)?
a.
1 m2
b.
5 m2
c.
10 m2
d.
20 m2
e.
50 m2

6.

Can Imp ever be greater than Isc?

7.

For a given current-voltage (I-V) characteristic, how many possible operating points
(loads) are there?

Florida Solar Energy Center

Photovoltaic Power O utput & I-V Curves / Page 15