AluminaTechnologyRoadmap Update FINAL May 2006

International Aluminium Institute
Alumina Technology Roadmap
Bauxite
&
Alumina
B
Committee
May 2006
Coordinated by AMIRA International
Table of Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................................................................ i
Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 2 Alumina Industry Research and Technology Needs .........................................................................3
Chapter 3 Implementing the Roadmap Initiatives ..............................................................................................7
Chapter 4 Moving Forward ...............................................................................................................................11
Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................................13
Appendix A Priority R&D Needs .......................................................................................................................15
Appendix B R&D Areas ....................................................................................................................................29
Appendix C The IAI Bauxite & Alumina Committee .........................................................................................43
Appendix D List of Acronyms ...........................................................................................................................45
Preface
he first edition of this Alumina Technology

Roadmap was published in November 2001,
following an industry-wide workshop held in
May that year and coordinated by AMIRA
International. The workshop and the Roadmap
publication,
facilitated
by
Energetics,
Incorporated, USA, resulted from collaboration
between the Aluminum Association Inc., U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Industrial
Technologies
(DOE/OIT),
the
Australian
Department of Industry, Science and Resources
and the then nine alumina companies directly
involved.
Experience over the past four years in

implementing the outcomes of the original
Alumina Technology Roadmap clearly points to
the need to review its contents and produce an
update. This will ensure the document does
communicate the future needs of the industry,
focus the efforts of diverse groups such as public
research laboratories, supplier companies and the
universities on critical issues, and align the
interests of all stakeholders.
Prior to 2001 the DOE/OIT had been instrumental

in developments assisting the aluminium industry,
following the industrys production of a vision for
its future and technology roadmaps to achieve
that vision. In addition to a generic roadmap, the
industry developed roadmaps related to inert
anodes and advanced smelter technology, the
use of aluminium in automotive markets, the
handling and treatment of bauxite residue, and the
use of advanced ceramics to improve aluminium
production and processing. The 2001 alumina
roadmap represented the last significant portion of
the production chain to be addressed.
Roadmaps should be living documents that
periodically need updating as technology
developments change industry sectors in different
ways. Hence the Aluminum Association re-issued
an updated Aluminum Industry Technology
Roadmap in February 2003, following publication
of the original Roadmap in 1997.
ii
1 Introduction
he alumina industry continues to face similar

issues as most other global commodity
producers:
social
and
environmental
reporting, the challenge of sustainable
operations, the image of a green industry, and
competition from substitute materials. Individually
each producer is addressing these challenges.
However, some challenges are best dealt with by
an industry sector above and beyond the direct
competitive environment. One key outcome of a
technology roadmap is identifying these
collaborative areas and the steps that must be
taken to achieve the industry-wide goals.
In producing the original Alumina Technology
Roadmap the essential first step was the
development of critical technology goals to which
the industry should aspire. These ambitious goals
establish the long-term vision and encompass the
challenges for alumina as a commodity energy
efficiency, safety, environmental performance,
sustainability issues, and customer expectations
as well as the product challenges of quality,
consistency, and performance. The goals reflect
the industrys acknowledgment of the growing
impact of environmental and social issues on
business
practices.
Improving
overall
performance on environment, health, and safety,
for example, will push the industry beyond current
best practice and enhance its long-term
competitiveness. The specific industry strategic
goals for the year 2020 in the original Roadmap
are shown in Exhibit 1.
These strategic goals are just as valid today as

they were four years ago.
The initial Roadmap outlined a comprehensive
long-term research and development plan that
defined the industrys collective future and
established a clear pathway forward. It
emphasized twelve high-priority R&D needs (refer
to Appendix A) deemed most significant in
addressing the strategic goals. Both continuous
improvement through incremental changes as well
as significant advances through innovative step
changes are essential if the industry is going to
respond effectively to the challenges in the years
to come.
Exhibit 1. Alumina Technology Roadmap Strategic Goals

The Commodity Challenge
Through the application of technology
Reduce operating costs of existing plants by 3% per annum

Achieve substantial energy efficiency gains against a benchmark of reducing total energy consumption to
25% below current bauxite specific best practice
Target capital costs of new plants at <US$500/annual tonne and falling, with major expansion at half this
cost, achieved within a framework of return on investment before tax of greater than 18%
Contribute to improvement of overall performance on environment, health and safety to worlds best
practice and consistent with global sustainable development principles
Produce a product that meets all of our customers current and future needs
This indicates a need to improve over a 5 to 20 year period, with 3 year intermediate goals, through
Increasing yield by 20% above current bauxite specific best practice

Reducing DSP caustic consumption to 30 kg/tonne Al2O3 and reducing other losses (excluding to
product) to best practice
Achieving a simple capable process by significantly reducing process variability (3 sigma of <5%) through
elimination of the effects of scaling and blockages, by more reliable equipment, better materials, process
automation, and advanced control
Reducing total energy consumption through improved methods of calcination, cogeneration and process
improvements
Developing and applying combustion and power generation technology from which waste heat sources
can be used for production of alumina, capable of operating at a power generation to alumina ratio that is
not significantly less than that for the benchmark of best present technology operated on natural gas,
unaffected by bauxite digestion temperature or energy source, other than its net calorific value
Developing capable processes to achieve a significant reduction and recycling of all other inputs and
outputs including water, odours, VOCs, mercury, oxalates, etc.
Focussing on opportunities with synergistic industries such as caustic soda and power generation
Developing methods to achieve a 1,000-year ecologically sustainable storage of red mud and other solid
wastes in existing storages, and make substantial progress in storage for later reuse as well as achieve
substantial progress in the reuse of the red mud
The Product Challenge
Improving consistency of alumina with 3 sigma limits of less than half of the present levels, with emphasis
on dust, particle toughness after dry scrubbing, and impurities including sodium and silica
Developing, in conjunction with the aluminium industry, sufficiently good delivery systems such that
adequate dispersion is obtained at the cell, thus allowing the alumina to readily dissolve in conventional
and modified reduction cells in the temperature range 840-900C and potentially as low as 750C.
2 Alumina Industry
Research and
Technology Needs
he original roadmap identified six major

themes encompassing the highest-priority
research and development needs identified
by the industry, as shown in Exhibit 2. These
themes were:
z
z
z
z
z
z
Bayer process chemistry and

alternatives,
resource utilization,
energy efficiency,
process and knowledge
management,
residue treatment and reuse, and
safety/human exposure.
Appendix A highlights the twelve priority R&D

needs for the alumina refining industry. The
details shown include:
z
z
the likely partners to be involved in each

research effort
the technical and economic risk of developing
the technology and the potential payoff if
successful
the time frame for usable results to be
developed, given that research could begin
almost
immediately
with
no
funding
constraints
z
z
z
the key challenges that the R&D activity

would address
a list of some of the technical elements that
should be considered during project scoping
the potential impacts of the successful
technology on the five main industry goals
operating
cost;
capital
cost;
energy
consumption; environment, safety, and health;
and product quality.
Following the highest priority needs is a

discussion of thirteen R&D areas (Appendix B)
that encompass all of the additional research
needs identified by the industry. Some of the
items are related to those in the priority R&D list
but are sufficiently unique to warrant separate
mention. As with the priority R&D needs, the key
challenges for each R&D area are noted. The
individual research needs are organized by the
time frame in which results could reasonably be
anticipated: near term (1 to 3 years), mid term (3
to 7 years), and long term (>7 years).
Strategic Goal Legend
Exhibit 2. Relationship Between Priority R&D Needs and Major Roadmap Themes
Priority R&D
Need
Bayer Process
Chemistry and
Alternatives
Alternative
Methods to
Accelerate
Precipitation
Rates
Bauxite Residue:
Cost-Effective
Inerting and
Alternative Uses
Conversion of
Monohydrate
Bauxite to a More
Beneficial State
Direct Reduction
of Bauxite or
Other Aluminium
Materials
Full Automation/
Improved Control
Strategies
Impurity
Removal: Bauxite
and Bauxite
Beneficiation
Impurity
Removal: Bayer
Liquor
Knowledge
Management and
Best Practices
Benchmarking
Major Reduction
in Caustic
Consumption
Scale
Management
Technical
Solutions for
Refinery
Releases
Waste Heat
Recovery
Resource
Utilization
Major Themes
Energy
Process and
Efficiency
Knowledge
Management
Safety/Human
Exposure
9
9
Residue
Treatment
and Reuse
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
3 Implementing the
Roadmap Initiatives
o progress implementation of the Alumina

Technology Roadmap outcomes the industry
established
an
Alumina
Roadmap
Committee (ARC). The ARC was comprised
of key industry representatives, all at the upper
technical management echelons of their
companies.
The Terms of Reference for the ARC were to:
Advance initiatives from the Technology

Roadmap.
Identify appropriate subgroups to sponsor
research projects and other initiatives and
monitor their progress.
Establish and maintain an ongoing review of
the
long-term
goals
of
technology
development for the alumina industry.
Monitor & enhance the alumina research
infrastructure to facilitate delivery of leading
edge pre-competitive research and suitably
trained personnel for the industry.
Inform key decision-makers within companies
and governments to ensure adequate
understanding of the priorities in alumina
technology development and commitment to
necessary research funding.
Engender a long-term perspective for
research needs and delivered outcomes.
Leverage industry research funds with
successful
applications
to
relevant
government funding programs.
Provide a concerted technical focus for

dealings with suppliers (chemical, equipment,
engineering) to the industry.
Act in a referral role in dealings with the
industry associations on technical issues.
Provide an appropriate framework for
discussion of the future technology goals of
the alumina industry and wide dissemination
of information.
The Activities of the ARC were as follows:

-
The Committee meets on average twice a

year, via face-to-face, teleconference or
videoconference means. These meetings
should, where possible, be organised around
a major industry meeting, such as the Annual
TMS meeting and the Alumina Quality
Workshop.
The chairmanship of the Committee should be
decided by the members on an annual basis.
Relevant government representatives will be
kept informed of the Committees business by
receiving minutes of the meetings.
Research providers and consultants will be
involved by invitation to consider specific
topics at meetings.
The Committee may commission reviews on
specific topics from time to time.
The wider industry meetings (TMS, AQW,
etc.) should be used as a vehicle for the
information and review process.
7
AMIRA International will act as the secretariat

in the planning, facilitation and reporting of
meetings.
The ARC has put considerable effort into ranking

the Priority R&D Needs in order to initiate specific
collaborative research projects that would engage
a broad range of industry companies. The first
step was to seek feedback on the 12 Areas and
then summarise as High Importance vs. Low
Importance. Exhibit 3 provides an overview of the
responses. The top six topics were then taken and
templates developed to define the problem.
These six areas were:
Scale Management
A Quantum Leap in Precipitation Yield
while meeting Future Product Quality
Reduce the Potential for Environmental
Impacts from Bauxite Residue Storage
Impurity Removal Bauxite Beneficiation
Impurity Removal Bayer Liquor
Refinery Releases to Air.
Further detailed discussion across the industry

focussed attention on three key areas to actively
develop collaborative projects:
Alumina dusting in smelters and alumina

transportation (flowability, segregation,
breakdown)
Bauxite residue
Air emissions.
Subsequently
Worley
Engineering
(Daniel
Thomas) was contracted to develop detailed
scopes for these collaborative projects. The
industry agreed at a Workshop in April 2003 to
pursue the Air Emissions topic via an Australian
Industry Air Emissions Forum under the aegis of
the Australian Aluminium Council.
The Alumina Dusting topic progressed to AMIRA
Project P791 as a six-month Scoping Study which
concluded in October 2004. The Alumina
Transportation topic is in abeyance.
The Bauxite Residue topic was further developed
into a series of discrete projects: four Foundation
projects, to be supported by all companies
involved in the Roadmap implementation, and a
series of optional projects to follow, building on
the key information developed in the Foundation
projects. Exhibit 4 describes the suite of Residue
projects in more detail. All four Foundation
projects are currently underway and will conclude
during 2006.
Exhibit 3. Ranking of Twelve Priority R&D Needs

Priority
1 - ALMOST ALL SAW AS IMPORTANT
1.1
Scale Management
1.2
Technical solutions for refinery releases
2.5-3.1
Impurity Removal
2 HIGH BY SOME & LOW BY OTHERS
2.1
Alternative method to accelerate precipitation rates
2.2
Bauxite Residue cost effective inerting and alternate uses
2.3
Conversion of monohydrate bauxite to a more beneficial state
2.4
Major reduction in caustic consumption
2.5
Impurity removal Bauxite & Bauxite beneficiation

3 - SOME INTEREST
3.1
Impurity Removal: Bayer Liquor
3.2
Knowledge management & Best Practice Benchmarking
3.3
Waste Heat recovery

4 LITTLE INTEREST
4.1
Full Automation/Improved Control Strategies
4.2
Direct Reduction of Bauxite and Other Al materials
Exhibit 4. Summary of Bauxite Residue Projects

Project
Number
1.1
2.1
AMIRA
No.
P772
P942
2.2
P928
2.3
P943
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.1
4.2
4.3
5.1
Project Title
Measure of Sustainability Improvement
Fundamental properties of Residue
Radionuclides
Leachability
Ecotoxicity
Residue Treatment Reactivity of Solid
Alkalinity
Residue Treatment Long-Term
Stability of Treated Residue
Residue Treatment In-situ Treatment
Re-use of Residue Targeted
Research
Re-use of Residue Icon Projects
Re-use of Residue Risk Assessment
Framework
Value Extraction from Residue
Research Provider
CSRP
ANSTO
Alcoa and ECN (Netherlands)
CSIRO
Indicates Foundation project (sponsored by all companies currently involved, namely

Alcan, Alcoa, Aughinish/Glencore, BHP Billiton, Comalco and Hydro Aluminium)
Indicates optional project yet to be

scoped
10
4 Moving Forward
he Alumina Technology Roadmap was

intended to be a dynamic document. The
industry faces significant and varied
challenges over the next 20 years. During
this period some challenges may diminish in
importance while others particularly social and
environmental issues may become more
prominent. By aggressively pursuing innovative
solutions to its long-term problems, the alumina
industry can favorably position itself to meet these
challenges as they arise.
A major objective of the original roadmap was to
help alumina companies align their precompetitive research programs with the needs of
the global alumina industry. The hope was that
the research agenda described in that roadmap
could be pursued by both individual companies
and collaborative partnerships within the industry,
as well as help guide government participation.
Individual companies could develop a better
understanding of how their own strategic plans
mesh with the priorities of the industry as a whole.
The roadmap should also serve as a mechanism
to better educate suppliers to the alumina industry
about its needs and integrate them into
collaborative R&D activities in areas such as
process sensors and materials of construction.
There are already tangible examples of suppliers
developing innovative solutions to the alumina
industrys problems a positive outcome from the
original roadmap.
However, it is fair to say that developing
collaborative research projects out of the roadmap
has been a challenging and somewhat frustrating
exercise. It took longer than expected for the

industry to agree on appropriate research topics.
Scoping individual topics was a slow process.
Other factors that came into play were the
challenges of driving a collaborative model in a
competitive industry, poor definition of the role of
the ARC and communication within companies,
and maintaining consistent membership of the
ARC during a time when the industry underwent
major rationalisations.
Two significant developments have recently
prompted a desire by the industry to revisit and
revise the roadmap such that it receives a greater
impetus to move forward. First, the International
Aluminium Institute (IAI) has constituted a Bauxite
& Alumina Committee, and secondly the Alumina
Technical Panel, comprised of the R&D Managers
of the five major alumina producers in Australia,
has undergone a new lease of life.
The International Aluminium Institute established
a Bauxite & Alumina Task Group in mid-2004. As
constituted, it dealt with four Priority Issues:
Residue management
Energy consumption
Environment at smelters (dusting)
Refinery
emissions
(gas,
liquid
particulates).
and
Its Goals were defined as:
Promoting the exchange of data on Priority

Issues;
11
Establishing key performance indicators

based on the regular collection of data;
Establishing voluntary objectives for global
industry;
Sharing best practices and set benchmarks
against which industry can measure its
environmental performance;
Establishing impact of bauxite mining and
alumina refining as part of the full aluminium
lifecycle; and
Developing messaging on common issues in
order to harmonise industry response to
stakeholder concerns.
At the IAI meeting in San Francisco in February

2005 it was agreed that this Task Group be
combined with the Alumina Roadmap Committee
to form the Bauxite & Alumina Committee under
the aegis of the IAI. Paul Potter (BHP Billiton) was
nominated as the BAC chairman, having been
chair of both the ARC and the Task Group.
Red mud dust control and/or

management (dust suppression/
prevention)
In process measurement tools
Catalytic dust filter for baghouse
Waste heat utilisation (recovery of low
grade heat)
Cyclone classification
New materials of construction for alumina
refineries.
This should serve as a very useful starting point

for scoping appropriate projects.
The alumina industry can greatly improve the
efficiency of its research efforts by sharing the
costs of mechanisms already in place. Individual
companies can benefit by sharing research
results, thereby increasing the industrys collective
knowledge and avoiding duplication of efforts.
The establishment of this Bauxite & Alumina

Committee is a very positive move to drive the
roadmap initiatives forward with renewed vigour.
The BAC has a much wider membership than the
ARC had, and, with its links directly to the Board
of the IAI, has the most senior personnel in the
alumina producers directly interested in its
outcomes.
Similarly, the sharing of best practices among

refiners can benefit all areas of plant operation as
well as environment, health, and safety aspects.
In many cases technologies existing in other
industries may offer solutions to alumina industry
problems. Examining other industries responses
to scale management, ore beneficiation, and
waste heat recovery, for example, could help
refiners develop their own solutions to these
problems.
The Alumina Technical Panel (ATP) has been in

existence for more than ten years; recently it
reinvigorated its efforts and now meets on a
quarterly basis. It has an important role in being
much more hands on with project development,
implementation and monitoring than the ARC (and
now the BAC) can and should ever have. Hence
the appropriate combination of efforts by the BAC
and the ATP should deliver a more successful
outcome for collaborative projects out of the
roadmap being defined and implemented.
Sharing of best practices within the industry or

application of best practices from other industries
may represent the best pathway for industry
needs that are considered low risk yet have
potentially high payoff. It should be noted,
however, that successfully applying a new
technology in another industry does not
necessarily ensure its success in the alumina
industry.
To this end the IAI Board at its meeting in London

in November 2005 endorsed a clear working
relationship between the BAC and the ATP.
The ATP has recently put significant effort into
defining a suite of focus areas for collaborative
projects:
12
Generic course on Bayer process

technology
Mechanism of gibbsite/boehmite scale
formation on steel
Scale formation dependent on many
variables (generic/follow up projects)
Scale removal
Microwave comminution
Alkali mist emissions
As stated in the original roadmap document,

implementing the research activities in this
updated roadmap will require a substantial effort
on the part of the alumina industry to increase
corporate spending on R&D, handle complex
intellectual property issues, and overcome other
difficulties and costs involved in developing and
demonstrating new technology.
The alumina industry should make renewed
efforts via the BAC and the ATP to move forward
with the research priorities in the roadmap so that
it can begin to reap the benefits. New
technologies that can lower costs, decrease
energy consumption, reduce environmental
impact, and improve worker health and safety will
help ensure the industrys
continued health and
st
prosperity well into the 21 century.
Bibliography
Partnerships for the Future, The Aluminum Association, Inc., March, 1996.
Aluminum Industry Technology Roadmap, The Aluminum Association, Inc., May 1997.
Inert Anode Roadmap, The Aluminum Association, Inc., February 1998.
Aluminum Industry Roadmap for the Automotive Market: Enabling Technologies and
Challenges for Body Structures and Closures, The Aluminum Association, Inc., May 1999.
Technology Roadmap for Bauxite Residue Treatment and Utilization, The Aluminum Association, Inc.,
February 2000.
Applications for Advanced Ceramics in Aluminum Production: Needs and Opportunities, sponsored by the
United States Advanced Ceramics Association, The Aluminum Association, and the U.S.
Department of Energy, February 2001.
Alumina Technology Roadmap, AMIRA International Limited, November 2001.
Aluminum Industry Technology Roadmap, The Aluminum Association, Inc., February 2003.
For further information contact:
The International Aluminium Institute
Chris Bayliss
New Zealand House
Haymarket
LONDON SW1Y 4TE
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel: +44 20 7930 0528
Fax: +44 20 7321 0183
E-mail: [email protected]
The European Aluminium Association
Eirik Nordheim
th
Avenue de Broqueville 12, 6 Floor
B-1150 BRUSSELS
BELGIUM
Tel: +32 2 775 6317
Fax: +32 2 779 0531
The Aluminum Association, Inc.
Mike Skillingberg
900 19th Street NW
Washington, DC 20005-2168
USA
Tel: +1 202 862 5121
Fax: +1 202 862 5164
The Australian Aluminium Council
Ron Knapp
Level 1, Dickson Square, PO Box 63
Dickson ACT 2602
AUSTRALIA
Tel: +61 2 6262 9155
Fax: +61 2 6262 9144
13
14
Appendix A
Priority R&D Needs
15
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Alternative Methods to Accelerate Precipitation Rates
Dissolved alumina is recovered from liquor in precipitation tanks seeded with alumina trihydrate crystals. The
rate of precipitation depends on the temperature of the process, the concentration of the alumina hydrate
and the caustic soda, the seeding process, impurities in the liquor, and other factors. Precipitation is typically
very slow, necessitating the use of many large tanks.
Potential Partners
Alumina companies, academia, research

organizations
Potential Payoff
High
Technical/Economic Risk
Time Frame
16
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Bauxite Residue: Cost-Effective Inerting and Alternative Uses
The sheer volume of bauxite residue generated at refineries, combined with its alkalinity and the cost of
treatment and handling, are major constraints in finding economical applications for this byproduct.
Rendering the residue inert would make it easier and cheaper to store in a sustainable form and would
facilitate its use in many applications.
Potential Partners
Alumina companies (corporate level), government,

industry associations, academia, research
organizations, potential customers
Potential Payoff
Moderately high
Time Frame
17
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Conversion of Monohydrate Bauxite to a More Beneficial State
A significant fraction of the bauxite being refined in the world today is monohydrate bauxite (boehmite or
diaspore) that requires high-temperature digestion. Bauxite in the form of some intermediate state between
monohydrate and trihydrate (gibbsite) could be digested at lower temperatures and would require less
caustic and energy.
Potential Partners

organizations
Potential Payoff
Moderate
Moderate
Time Frame
18
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Direct Reduction of Bauxite or Other Aluminium Materials
The development of a direct reduction process for producing aluminium from bauxite or other aluminiumbearing minerals could eliminate many of the problems associated with alumina production. Direct reduction
could be combined with an aluminium refining process to produce aluminium with the desired quality. This
new process would be a radical change from the current alumina/aluminium production route with major
impacts on costs and energy consumption.
Potential Partners
Alumina companies, government, academia,

research organizations
Potential Payoff
High
High
Time Frame
19
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Full Automation/Improved Control Strategies
The motivating factors for increased automation in the refinery are improved efficiency and productivity as
well as reduced manpower requirements. Safety considerations also represent a key driver; automation
reduces process upsets requiring human intervention in potentially dangerous environments. Automation can
also lead to better product quality and consistency.
Potential Partners

organizations, equipment and instrument suppliers
Potential Payoff
Moderate
Time Frame
20
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Impurity Removal: Bauxite and Bauxite Beneficiation
Efficient use of the worlds bauxite resources requires maximizing both the quantity and quality of the
alumina that is extracted. A major cause of Bayer process inefficiency is the introduction of impurities
contained in the bauxite. The industry lacks technically and economically viable methods for controlling and
removing these impurities. The trend toward lower grades of bauxite available in the future will only
exacerbate this problem.
Potential Partners
Alumina companies, research organizations,

government, suppliers
Potential Payoff
High
Moderate
Time Frame
21
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Impurity Removal: Bayer Liquor
Almost all organic compounds enter the Bayer circuit with the bauxite. Inorganic impurities also are
introduced via bauxite as well as caustic and makeup water. The presence of significant concentrations of
impurities in the liquor has a detrimental effect on almost every aspect of the Bayer process, including
digestion and precipitation capability, liquor productivity, and product quality.
Potential Partners

organizations, government
Potential Payoff
Moderately high
Time Frame
22
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Knowledge Management and Best Practices Benchmarking
The alumina industry lags behind the chemical and some other industries in terms of its use of process
modeling to optimize operations, the sophistication of its control systems, its handling and treatment of raw
materials and byproducts, and its safety culture. Poor knowledge management, particularly at the operations
level, inhibits the industrys ability to improve its performance. Benchmarking may help the refining industry
identify potential solutions to some of its key problems by learning from other industries.
Potential Partners
Alumina companies, government
Potential Payoff
Moderately high
Low
Time Frame
23
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Major Reduction in Caustic Consumption
The caustic soda used in Bayer liquor represents one of the largest operating costs in an alumina refinery.
Major factors influencing caustic requirements are the composition of the bauxite being processed and the
chemistry of the desilication product (DSP) formed during digestion. Much of the caustic soda content of
DSP is currently unrecovered.
Potential Partners
Industry, academia, research organizations,

government
Potential Payoff
High
Moderately high
Time Frame
24
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Scale Management
The precipitation of sodium aluminosilicate crystals from spent Bayer liquor leads to scaling of heat
exchanger vessels and piping. Other types of scale can occur elsewhere in the plant (e.g., calcium titanatecontaining scale and alumina trihydrate scale). Maintenance personnel are required to remove scale
manually, presenting a serious risk for injury because of the corrosive environment and enclosed space.
Scale leads to a significant reduction in heat transfer efficiency and liquor throughput, resulting in increased
energy and caustic soda consumption and loss of productivity.
Potential Partners

organizations
Potential Payoff
High
Moderately high
Time Frame
25
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Technical Solutions for Refinery Releases
The issue of refinery releases (including air emissions, effluents, and solid wastes) is becoming more
prominent and must be viewed from a broader perspective than in the past. Cost-effective solutions are
needed to deal with caustic, organics, trace metals, particulates, and other releases. Insufficient attention
has been given to groundwater contamination in particular.
Potential Partners
Research organizations, government, refineries,

industry trade associations
Potential Payoff
Moderately high
High
Time Frame
26
PRIORITY R&D NEEDS

Waste Heat Recovery
The alumina industry is a large sink for low-grade heat and presents significant opportunity for cogeneration.
The industry is currently not taking advantage of available waste heat, mainly because of economic and
regulatory reasons. The initial focus should be on recovering waste heat generated in the refinery.
Potential Partners
Alumina companies, adjacent industries,

government
Potential Payoff
Moderate
Low
Time Frame
27
28
Appendix B
R&D Areas
29
R&D AREAS
Digestion
During the digestion process, the alumina contained in the bauxite is dissolved in the Bayer liquor in the form
of sodium aluminate. R&D needs in digestion focus on reducing the energy requirements (e.g., by carrying
out the process at lower temperature or using biotechnology), facilitating the use of different grades of
bauxite such as those with more reactive silica and reducing caustic requirements. A specific activity would
be research into altered desilication technologies that reduce sodium consumption, which would have a
substantial payoff for refiners processing high-silica bauxite. The success of this effort would also
significantly increase usable bauxite reserves. A true countercurrent digestion process for extracting
monohydrate grades of bauxite at low-temperatures (using a vertical upflow vessel where the monohydrate
is introduced at the top and the spent liquor at the bottom) would be a valuable progression of the best
practice countercurrent technology currently used. The use of free evaporation (where entropy is used as
a substitute for additional live steam) should also be investigated.
Challenges
Achieve higher alumina extraction efficiency
Alter the chemistry of DSP Sustain higher supersaturation in
the digester
Reduce embrittlement in the digester
Lower temperatures in Bayer operations
Reduce caustic consumption
Increase use of biotechnology
Address declining grades of bauxite reserves
R&D Activities
Near Term
Flexible digestion technology
to accept variable grades of
Bauxite
Free evaporation using
entropy
Design of a real
countercurrent digestion
process to extract
monohydrates at low
temperatures
Mid Term
Non-milling digestion
technology
Long Term
Continuation of near- and
mid-term activities
Altered desilication
technology with lower soda
consumption
Technology for high alumina
extraction at low temperature
Selective bauxite biodigestion
New digestion system for
high-silica bauxite
Methods to eliminate coarse
particles from the digestion
circuit
30
R&D AREAS
Clarification
Bauxite residue is separated from the liquor containing the dissolved sodium aluminate in a settling process,
after which the residue is washed to recover caustic soda and any remaining aluminate liquor. Potential
improvements to this process could include the elimination of security filtration, which would improve safety
while decreasing capital and operating costs. Combining digestion and clarification into a single unit
operation would improve the stability of these processes. If the combination process is continuous, it would
represent a step change in current operations. An alternative to pressure decanter technology for the
combined process would be a liquid/solid separation process utilizing membrane technology.
Challenges
Achieve higher alumina extraction efficiency
Achieve better separation of components in the process
Combine unit operations to reduce capital intensity
Use more capable processes and elegant designs Reduce
wash water requirements Reduce energy consumption
R&D Activities
Near Term
Pressure decanter to carry
out both digestion and
clarification at elevated
temperature
Mid Term
Low-wash soda
Long Term
Alternative liquid-solid
separation process for
residue from liquor
Alumina stabilizer that can
be easily removed from
pregnant liquor
Elimination of security
filtration
31
R&D AREAS
Precipitation
Alumina hydrate crystals are precipitated from Bayer liquor in a series of tanks seeded with gibbsite. The
development of catalysts for reducing the activation energy for precipitation (as well as other Bayer process
steps) could significantly improve productivity. Computer modeling techniques should be developed to
improve the efficiency of designing these catalysts as well as other additives. An alternative to current
precipitation operations would be to focus on the yield of the precipitation process and adjust the quality of
the product afterwards.
Challenges
Increase precipitation rates
Use more capable processes
Improve seed management
Reduce equipment residence time
Increase use of lower-grade reagents
Understand fundamental precipitation chemistry and physics
R&D Activities
Near Term
Continue ongoing projects
aimed at incremental
improvements
Mid Term
Better seed management
Molecular simulation of new
reagents to promote rapid
crystallization
Highly energy-efficient
agitators
Long Term
Identification of a gibbsite
precipitation catalyst
Accelerated precipitation
technology
Computer modeling to
design additives
Countercurrent precipitation
Methods to make quality
after precipitation
32
R&D AREAS
Calcination
Calcination represents one of the costliest and most energy-intensive operations in alumina refining. In
calcination, the precipitated alumina hydrate crystals are sent to calciners or kilns where the water is
removed. Several properties of the alumina product are very dependent on the conditions of the calcination
process. The main focus of R&D is investigating potential means for improving the thermal energy efficiency
of calcination. These efficiency gains must be sufficient to offset the high cost of retrofitting the calciner.
Refiners and smelters need to collaboratively examine whether the trend toward decreasing smelting
temperatures would affect calcination requirements. The quality of reprocessed calciner dust and
technologies that activate it for use in the Bayer process also merit more research.
Challenges
Improve energy efficiency of calcination
Lower the overall temperature in Bayer operations
Increase use of waste Products
R&D Activities
Near Term
Mid Term
Long Term
Determination of effect of
lower Al smelting
temperatures on calcination
Study of oxygen-enrichment
benefits of calcination

mid-term activities
Methods to reduce the

temperature of calcination
Technology that activates
calciner dust for use
33
R&D AREAS
New Process Chemistries and Alternative Raw Materials
The development of new process chemistries could eliminate many of the problems associated with alumina
production (e.g., scale, impurities). Some options (the use of trona, for example) have been considered in
the past but were unsuccessful. Other options include an aluminium chloride route to alumina production
and the physical separation of monohydrates and trihydrates. New physical or chemical methods to reduce
the amount of reactive silica that is dissolved or to remove kaolin from Bayer liquor before dissolution is
complete are needed. The alumina industry also needs to establish a strategy for managing its use of
resources in the future. The trend toward lower grades of bauxite and higher raw material costs will require
the industry to maximize the use of its bauxite reserves, possibly through the use of alternative raw
materials.
Challenges
Develop alternatives to the Bayer process
Understand other process chemistries that may supplant
Bayer
Use more capable processes and elegant design
Reduce scale
Find cheaper sources of raw materials
Address declining grades of bauxite reserves Encourage
management to adopt long-term view
R&D Activities
Near and Mid Term
Study of simpler systems and analogy
34
Mid Term
Dry particle separation for bauxite
Physical separation of mono- and tri-hydrate
Use of low-alumina laterites
Economic use of trona
Mechanical and chemical fine grinding
technology and kaolin immobilization
Kaolin complexation technology process agent
Process for converting kaolin to absorbents
Viable alternative caustic source
Use of other caustic salts as solvents
Solvent extraction technology for Bayer liquors
Investigation of a chloride route
(production of aluminum trichloride)
Alternate means of inducing reactions (e.g.,
microwave)
R&D AREAS
Product Characteristics and Quality
Alumina refiners and aluminum smelters need to work cooperatively on a number of issues related to
alumina quality and properties. A solid fundamental understanding of aluminas chemical and physical
properties and their variations will provide the framework for achieving consistent product quality. This will
also enable refiners to tailor product characteristics to better meet their customers needs. Better data on
product characteristics may also indicate the potential use of beneficial process changes (e.g., calcining at
lower temperatures) while still producing an acceptable alumina. New or revised product classification
technologies are also needed, as are new measures for product quality itself. The refining industry could also
work with smelters to redesign pot feeders capable of handling variable density alumina and to redesign dry
scrubbing systems.
Challenges
Better rationalize product strength
Develop better measures of product physical quality
Improve fundamental understanding of product quality
Develop better understanding of aluminas properties
Increase cooperation with experts from other industries
Improve coordination between suppliers and customers
R&D Activities
Near Term
Improved method for attrition
index/alumina dustiness
Scrubbing technology that
uses weak alumina
Mid Term
Cooperative effort with
customers to redesign pot
feeders to handle variable
bulk densities of alumina and
fines
Long Term
mid-term activities
Studies of alumina
dissolution at low
temperature
Study of product variability
35
R&D AREAS
Controls and Instrumentation
Advances in process controls, instrumentation, and measurement techniques are key to the long-term goal
of full refinery automation. Achieving a high level of process control without significant human labor requires
instrumentation that is precise, reliable, and robust. Reliable instruments that are specific to alumina refining
are needed to measure common parameters such as temperature, pressure, density, and flow. New on-line
measurement techniques and robust sensors are also needed for parameters specific to the Bayer process
such as A/C and caustic analysis. The use of at-line instrumentation a variation of on-line
instrumentation that is not in continuous use (and therefore not constantly subjected to the corrosive stream)
could add operational flexibility by providing the feedback needed to make corrections without the delay
associated with lab results. Other research needs include the development of new in-situ techniques that will
survive in sodium chemistry; remote sensing technology (e.g., ultrasonics) that can evaluate material
thickness and defects without opening up equipment; and industry-specific control valves that are cheap, low
pressure-drop, non-scaling, and reliable for use in liquor and slurry applications.
Challenges
Improve process control and develop more online
instrumentation and measurement techniques
Increase process automation
Reduce manual labor requirements
Develop more process optimization tools and techniques
Improve knowledge management at the operations level
Develop efficient isolation valves
R&D Activities
Near Term
Better plant sampling
methodologies and
techniques
Use of new developments in
chemometrics
Bayer-specific sensors for
particle size, caustic, A/C
Mid Term
Industry-specific control
valves, isolation valves,
isolation valves, and pumps
for liquor and slurry
At-line instrumentation
(simple, robust, real-time,
operator-controlled)
Long Term
Specifications for sensing of
common parameters (i.e.,
temperature, pressure,
density, flow) reliably and
accurately
In-situ techniques that will

survive in sodium chemistry
Remote sensing (e.g.,
ultrasonics) to examine
material or scale thickness
36
R&D AREAS
Models and Tools/ Process Management
Accurate, validated models can allow more effective management of the refinery from both a process and an
economic point of view. Better understanding of what is happening in each process step will help refiners
optimize operations and increase throughput. The industry needs to create tailored tools that will allow
alumina companies to achieve best practice status. Models that incorporate economic factors are also
needed; capital efficiency is an area where the refinery industry suffers in comparison to other industries. A
refinery tool for capital process optimization could offer the potential for large savings by sharing knowledge
between companies. In addition, the industry could develop an alumina/aluminium process model to
determine whether certain process steps could be shifted from refineries to smelter operations in order to
reduce overall costs, energy use, or waste generation.
Challenges
Develop more process optimization tools and techniques
Increase process automation Improve knowledge
management at the operations level
Optimize the efficiency of the overall process Improve
accounting of full product life cycle
R&D Activities
Near Term
Industrial process model
(continuously updated;
contains equipment reliability
data)
Capital process optimization
tool
Use of lean manufacturing
Technology
Mid Term
Life-cycle modeling (including
environmental factors and
cost)
Process model (including
energy and waste data) to
define optimal break points
Long Term
Techno-economic model of
the Bayer process (validated
computational modeling of
process steps)
Modularization and
optimization of plant layout
Methodology to convert
process parameters to key
performance indicators
Methodology to maximize
equipment up-time
37
R&D AREAS
Knowledge Management
Gathering and managing information on developments within the alumina industry as well as those in related
industries is critically important to improving competitiveness. The alumina industry tends to be quite insular
and does not typically look for solutions from other industries, even those facing the same issues as refiners.
The development of an information infrastructure for the industry will allow companies to avoid duplication of
efforts and take advantage of shared knowledge. Suggested actions include developing a Bayer-sector data
base with common units and finding ways to utilize the wealth of Bayer plant knowledge (particularly on
instrumentation) in the Eastern Block. A potentially major event would be an examination of the Bayer
process by world-class organic chemists and separations technologists, who would be asked to recommend
improvements or even entirely new ways of producing alumina. Finally, the industry needs a guide on how to
approach local communities when moving into new countries to find bauxite reserves.
Challenges
Improve knowledge management at all levels, particularly
operations
Work with all levels of plant personnel to develop solutions to
problems
Develop new processes and technologies for producing
alumina
Keep alumina industry ahead of the curve on dealing with
new issues (e.g., environmental)
Increase focus on corporate social responsibility
R&D Activities
Near Term
Cooperative efforts with
other industries to look for
ideas and synergies
Invitation to world-class
scientists to evaluate Bayer
process
Industry-wide process model
to manage knowledge
Expert systems that capture
existing knowledge
Techniques to utilize
knowledge in the Eastern
Block
Guide on how to approach
communities on exploration
and mining
38
Mid Term
Long Term
Study of the theoretical and

technical limits of existing
processes
Bayer-sector common data
base

mid-term activities
R&D AREAS
Energy and Fuels
Energy use and process efficiency are key drivers for many process-related issues in the refinery. Reducing
the time spent on unit operations such as digestion and precipitation, increasing product yield, and adopting
on-line instrumentation all make the overall refining process more efficient. The lack of plant-wide energy
balance models makes it difficult to optimize plant thermal efficiency and use of waste heat. The
development of process-specific models for condensate and steam balance would reduce water
consumption in addition to energy requirements. In terms of power generation, on-site cogeneration is more
efficient and has fewer associated greenhouse gas emissions than purchasing power. One of the most
efficient and environmentally friendly options would be the use of a coal-gasification combined-cycle system
to cogenerate electricity and process steam.
Challenges
Consider thermal efficiency on a system basis
Optimize the efficiency of the overall process
Achieve 16 MW/petajoule of cogeneration industry-wide
Reduce greenhouse gas emissions from energy use
Overcome the difficulties and cost associated with
demonstrating new technology
R&D Activities
Near Term
Mid Term
Improved condensate and

steam balance
Use of geothermal and solar

power to supplement energy
requirements
Full model of plant-wide

energy balance
Methods to improve the

efficiency of power houses
Methods to build power
interruptability into the plant
(e.g., different levels of gas
turbine output
Long Term
Utilization of organics in
bauxite for energy
Coal combustion
technologies that give
cogeneration capabilities
(e.g., low-capital coal
gasification)
Methods of apply combined

cycle system and still use
coal efficiently
39
R&D AREAS
Bauxite Residue
Bauxite residue, or red mud, is the largest environmental concern of alumina refineries mainly because of the
size of this waste stream and its causticity. Much effort has already been put into developing improved
dewatering techniques, disposal technologies, and alternative uses. The alumina industry recognizes that it
has a cradle-to-grave responsibility for the residue and that more work is needed to develop reuse
opportunities and sustainable storage options. One option may be to neutralize the residue in-situ rather
than build up large inventories. Improved methods of separating the components of the residue may ease
neutralization and reduce the need for future remediation. This may include development of processes to
extract valuable materials such as titanium or even organics from the residue. (Note: more detailed
information can be found in the Technology Roadmap for Bauxite Reside Treatment and Utilization.)
Challenges
Improve bauxite residue management
Develop economic applications for bauxite residue
R&D Activities
Near and MidTerm
Methods to produce a residue with high solids
content and the required rheological properties
More efficient fine particle classification
Further development of high-temperature
separation technology
Mid Term
Viable technology to neutralize residue
Single-stage washing of residue
Separation of residue into components to
facilitate neutralization
Process for extracting useful components from

residue
Examination of land reclamation alternatives
40
R&D AREAS
Releases
Refinery odours are an issue for on-site personnel as well as refinery neighbors. Most odours are a
consequence of the emission of low-grade heat in the form of vapor, which also represents a direct energy
loss. An industry-wide database defining the origins of organic vapors should be created for the worst
compounds contributing to plant odours. The toxicological effects of emissions of mercury and other
compounds are not often clearly understood, creating the need for a health assessment of all refinery
emissions. Refineries consume large amounts of water; new effluent treatment technologies and techniques
to reduce groundwater pollution can help the industry minimize its water use. Better technologies for
reducing flue gas emissions are critical for those refineries burning oil or coal.
Challenges
Reduce or eliminate groundwater pollution
Minimize water usage
Better understand and control toxic emissions
Reduce mercury emissions
Eliminate refinery odours
Increase use of waste products
R&D Activities
Near and Mid Term
Health assessment of all emissions
Mid Term
Low-cost effluent treatment technologies
Inexpensive way to completely detect organic

vapors
Identification of specific compounds with high
level of odour
Flue gas emission reduction technology
Bioremediation to address groundwater
problems
In-situ barriers technology to control
groundwater
Downstream uses for oxalate
41
R&D AREAS
Minimization of Human Exposure and Improved Safety: Technology and
Training
Improved materials of construction and processes that are designed with a focus on eliminating human
exposure are particularly important in improving the safety of alumina refineries. Techniques to reduce
workforce requirements for maintenance will also reduce human exposure to potentially harmful conditions.
Training and education programs on safety and the development of systems for housekeeping and health
will help establish a safety culture within the alumina refining industry. The acceptance and adoption of
behavioral-based safety by plant personnel will be key. Based on the petrochemical industry model, for
example, refiners can establish industry-wide cooperative standards for ES&H in engineering design.
Challenges
Reduce human exposure
Create better safety systems and supporting culture
Reduce manual labor
Establish standards for hazardous operations
Technology R&D Activities

Near Term
Mid Term
Long Term
New materials for conveyor

belts to reduce noise
Designs to eliminate human

exposure
Safer heat transfer medium

than steam
Improve materials for piping

and tanks to reduce exposure
Scale removal techniques
Training R&D Activities

Near Term
Mid Term
Virtual reality for safety

hazard training
Behavior-based safety
(education and standards)
Education programs on
safety procedures
Uniform industry cooperative

standards for ES&H
Long Term
Continuation of the nearand mid-term activities
Standardization of pressure
42
Appendix C
Members of the International Aluminium

Institutes Bauxite & Alumina Committee
S. Healy
Alcan QRDC
S. Rosenberg
BHP Billiton BATC
M. Arruda
Alcan Inc.
S. Chandrashekar
Comalco Ltd
G. Forte
Alcan International Ltd
C. Parisi
Companhia Brasileira de Aluminio
L. Stonehouse
Alcoa World Alumina
V. Siqueira
Companhia Vale do Rio Doce
D. Cooling
Alcoa World Alumina
E. Nordheim
European Aluminium Association
R. Arpe
Aluminium Oxid Stade
J. A. Larsen
Hydro Aluminium Metal Products
G. Shen
Aluminium Corporation of China
D. Olsen
Hydro Aluminium Metal Products
A.N.Bagshaw
AMIRA International Ltd
C. Bayliss
International Aluminium Institute
L. Fleming
Aughinish Alumina Ltd
T. Damon
Komi aluminium
M. Fennell
Aughinish Alumina Ltd
S. Hodgson
Russian Aluminium Joint Stock Company
R. Knapp
Australian Aluminium Council
A. Kruchinin
Russian Aluminium Joint Stock Company
P. Potter (chairperson)
BHP Billiton Ltd
M. Skillingberg
The Aluminum Association
43
44
Appendix D
List of Acronyms
A/C
Ratio of alumina to caustic
CFD
Computational fluid dynamics
DISR
Australian Department of Industry, Science and Resources
DOE/OIT
U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies
DSP
Desilication product
ES&H
Environment, safety and health
MW
Megawatt
R&D
Research and development
U.S.
United States
VOCs
Volatile organic compounds
45
46

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International Aluminium Institute

Alumina Technology Roadmap

Alumina Technology Roadmap

Alumina Technology Roadmap

Alumina Technology Roadmap

he first edition of this Alumina Technology

Experience over the past four years in

Prior to 2001 the DOE/OIT had been instrumental

Alumina Technology Roadmap

Alumina Technology Roadmap

he alumina industry continues to face similar

Alumina Technology Roadmap

These strategic goals are just as valid today as

Exhibit 1. Alumina Technology Roadmap Strategic Goals

Reduce operating costs of existing plants by 3% per annum

Increasing yield by 20% above current bauxite specific best practice

The Product Challenge

Alumina Technology Roadmap

he original roadmap identified six major

Bayer process chemistry and

Appendix A highlights the twelve priority R&D

the likely partners to be involved in each

Alumina Technology Roadmap

the key challenges that the R&D activity

Following the highest priority needs is a

Strategic Goal Legend

Alumina Technology Roadmap

Alumina Technology Roadmap

Alumina Technology Roadmap

o progress implementation of the Alumina

The Terms of Reference for the ARC were to:

Advance initiatives from the Technology

Alumina Technology Roadmap

Provide a concerted technical focus for

The Activities of the ARC were as follows:

The Committee meets on average twice a

AMIRA International will act as the secretariat

The ARC has put considerable effort into ranking

Further detailed discussion across the industry

Alumina dusting in smelters and alumina

Alumina Technology Roadmap

Exhibit 3. Ranking of Twelve Priority R&D Needs

1 - ALMOST ALL SAW AS IMPORTANT

Technical solutions for refinery releases

Alternative method to accelerate precipitation rates

Bauxite Residue cost effective inerting and alternate uses

Conversion of monohydrate bauxite to a more beneficial state

Major reduction in caustic consumption

Impurity removal Bauxite & Bauxite beneficiation

Impurity Removal: Bayer Liquor

Knowledge management & Best Practice Benchmarking

Waste Heat recovery

Full Automation/Improved Control Strategies

Direct Reduction of Bauxite and Other Al materials

Alumina Technology Roadmap

Exhibit 4. Summary of Bauxite Residue Projects

Indicates Foundation project (sponsored by all companies currently involved, namely

Indicates optional project yet to be

Alumina Technology Roadmap