DEVELOPMENT OF GUIDELINES

FOR THE DESIGN OF

SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
FOR
HIGHWAY PAVEMENT STRUaURAL SECTIONS
CEDERGREN/KOA
A JOINT VENTURE
SAC~~AMENTO AND LONG

BEACH,

CALIFORNIA

JUNE 1972

GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN

,f\vailability is unlimited. Document may be released to the
C:learinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical fnformatk)n,
Springfield, Virginia 22151, for sale to the public.

Prepared for

FEDERA,L HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION

Office of Research
Washington, D.C. 20591

TECHNICAL REPORT STANDARD TITLE PAGE

1.

'2. Government Accession No.

Report No.

~-:F:...:~=.:.r.A=--..:.RD=--~72=----.:3~O:"'--

L-.

3.

Recipient's Catalog No.

-+o;:--;;::------;::.-:-.

4. Title and Subtitle

-----,

5. Report Date

June 1972
GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
SYS'IT'EMS FOR HIGHWAY STRUCTURAL SECTIONS

6. Performing IDrgani zation Code

8. Performing (Jrgani zation Report No.

~-_._----------------------------+-:~~~~-~-._---------t
9. Performing Organization Name and Address

10. Work Unit r'io.

Cedergre.n, Ken O'Brie.n and Associates

Joint Venture

11. Contract

0 1'

Grant No.

FH-11-7582

---------"'11 13.

~--,--------------------

12. Sponsoring Agdncy Name and Addres c

Department of Transportatio.n
Federal Highway Administration
400
7th st. S.W.,.:.-.Washington, D. C.
....... _
_. -

Type of Report and Period Covered

"GuideliJ1es ff - Design
Final Report

Summ.ary~)f

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

20590

----j

...J-

'15. Supplementary Notes

Froln the study "Guidelines for the Design of Pavement Subd.rai.nag(~ Systems"
I---_._-----------------------------~----------------;
~

6. Abstract

Design criteria and a design method for pavement subsurface draillage systems include
inf:Low-outflaw method of anaJLysis, ope.n graded drainage layers, eollector drains,
pipe outlets a.nd markers. Design examples are gi ven f01r embankmE~.nt sections,
cut sections and superelevated curves. Emphasis is on draining water that
infiltrates the paveme.nt strtlcture from the surface through crac};:s, construction
j Oil1ts, a.nd through permeable surfaces, medians and shoulders. .A. final section
of the report covers general guidance for the desig.n, construction and operation
of 8ubsurface drainage systenls.

Fedaro(

r~~igr1way Admin.

Technical F~eferance Center

6300 Georgetown Pike

Mcl.ean. VA 2'21012296

17. K~y Words

18. Di stri buti on Statement

Pavement design, subsurface drainage,

drai..nage analysis, collector drains,
.pipe outlets, drainage layers, open
~raded bases

19.

20. Security Classif. (of this page)

Security Classif. (of this report)

21. No. of Pages

22. Price

Unclassified
----lL

1o...- _ _

F.)rm DOT F 1700.7

(8-69)

---JL--

.......

GUIDELINES FOR THE

DESIGN OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS l~OR
HIGHWAY PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL SECTIONS
June 1972

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.
iii

P:REFACE
1

INTRODUCTION

WHERE SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS ARE NEEDED

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4

4
7

10
10

INFLOW-OUTFLOW METHOD OF ANALYSIS

11

4.1
4.2
4.3

12
12

General
Inflow Analysis
Outflow Analysis

11

EXAMPLES OF DESI(;N OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

5.1
5.2
5.3
6

Subsurface Drainage Layers (Open Graded

Bases or Subbases)
Collector Drains
Pipe Outlets
Markers

Example No.1 - Embankment Section

Example No.2 - Cut Section
Example No.3 - Curve Section

GENERAL GUIDANCE FOR SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

6.1
6.2
6.3

SY~;TEMS

17
18
19
20

SYS'l~EMS

22
22
23
23

In Design
In Construction
In Operation

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

I,IS,]~

OF FIGURES

F).gure No.

Title

Page No.

Sources of Water in Rbadbeds

Subsurface Drainage System

1 Hourll Year Frequency Precipitation Rate

Typical Gradations and Permeabilities of

Open Graded Bases and Filter Materials

Freezing Indices for Continental United

States

Typical Cross Sections of Subdrainage

Systems

Transverse Drains Are Needed on Superelevated Curves

Outflow Capabilities of Drainage Layers

13

Coefficient of Transmissibility Versus W/s

14

Permeability Required in Order To Drain

Subsurface Drainage Layer in 1 Hour or Less

15

Chart To Determine Either Required

Collector Pipe Trench Backfill Permeability
or Collector Pipe Trench Width

17

12

Highway Geometries for Example No. 3

20

13

Subsurfac:e Drainage Design for Exampl'e

No. 3

22

10
11

NOMOGRAPH A - Selection of Perforated Pipe Diameters

and Outlet Spacings

16

FORM A - Subsurface Drai.nage System Computations

24

ii

PREFACE

These Guidelines were developed under Research and DevelopJnen't Contract FHWA-ll-7852 issued by the Federal Hi<;rhway
~\dministration, Office lof Research, Washington, D.C. to the Joint
~len -ture of Cedergren/K01\.
This project has bl2en accomplished in two phas~s. During
]~hase I, a thorough literature search was made of the past and
l)resent It state-of-the-l\rt H of protecting roads from the damaging
E~ffE~cts of water wi th s:pecial emphasis on surface waLter.
Exten~;ive field surveys, reconnaissance, and interviews Were also con<iucted and two test sites selected for Case Study to determine the
rnagr1i tude of the problelus being caused by undrained water in
strl1ctural sections.
D1uring Phase II, seven addi ticlnal Case Study
si tE~S were selected and investigated, the final repclrt prepared,
a.nd these Guidelines de'veloped.
The studies under the R&D contract have shown that with time,
'somE~ pavemen ts deve lop c~racking and many others have: opening of
~)OilltS, thus precipi tation can enter into the paveme:nt structural
sec1:ion.
Where this occurs, much of the damage and many of the
Ilremature failures can be blamed largely on excess water in the
strllctural sections of 11ighways.
Cost-effectiveness studies that were made in connection with
1:his R&D study have dem()nstrated that pavements designed with
subsurface drainage sys 1tems capable of rapidly drain.ing excess
vlatE~r from structural sE~ctions generally have lower annual costs
i:harl undrained pavements.
These Guidelines present the methods of design of pavement
subsurface drainage systems that will virtually elim.inate exposurE~ of pavement structl1ral sections to excess water.
The procedures outlined in these Guidelines are proposed as
cln clii to Highway Engin~ers for design of pavements that, under
(~ert:a:..n con.di tions, ShOl1ld add many years of superio,r performance.

iii

This guideline was prepared by the Joint Venture

of Harry R. Cedergren, Consulting Engineer,
Sacramento, California and Ken O'Brien &
Associates, Consulting Engineers, Long Beach,
California. This research and development
.
study was authorized by the Federal Highway
Administration under Contract No. FH-11-7852,
dated June 26, 1970. The contents of this
guideline reflect the views of Cedergren/KOA,
A Joint Venture which is responsible fbr the
facts and the accuracy of the data presented
herein. The contents do not necessarily
reflect the official views or policy of the
Department of Transportation. This guideline
does not constitute a standard, specification
or regulation.

GUIDELINES FOR THE

DESIGN OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS FOR
'HIGHWAY PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL SECTIONS
June 1972

INTRODUCTION

The research and development studies performed to formulate

trlese Guidelines have d~emonstrated that most modern highway pavemE~nt structural sectioI1S are slow draining systems, an'd heavy wheel
impacts on these structural sections that contain free water or
"E~xcess water" are accE~lerating the damage and deterioration of the
highways.
Subsurface drains have generally been used to remove
high ground water, inflows from springs, etc.; but s~~ldom used
specifically for the control of surface water that infiltrates into
the highway pavement structural sections.
The purpose of these Guidelines is to show how to design
drainage layers to rapidly drain entire roadbeds to reduce the
periods of exposure of structural sections to excess water.
The
basic method considers subsurface drainage layers as conveyors of
water and analyzes prot.able inflow rates from all knc)wn important
sources (Refer to Figure No.1).
Seepage principles are then used
to determine the required permeability and thickness of a subsurface drainage layer that will accommodate the anticipated flows.
Addi tional informa.tion on the many important aSf)ects of subsurface drainage system design, damages caused by excess water in
highway pavement structural sections, and related matters, is
presented in considerable detail in the Final Report and Case Study
Reports for the development of these Guidelines.

/1//11
I
I

.JOINTS AND lOR

PCC PAVEMENT

CRACKED/
/

ROADSIDE
IRRIGATION

FIGURE NO. 1 - Sources of Water in Roadbelds

-1-

WI-IERE SUBSURFACE DRAIN1\GE SYSTEMS ARE NEEDED

The purpose of subsurface drainage systems for highway pavement

strtlcttlral sections is to rE~duce damages caused by "excess water."
Excess water is water which (1) creates a condition of internal
flooding of the pavement structural section with free water available
to produce hydrostatic pressures in cracks, voids, and other spaces;
or (2) causes detrimental changes in the supporting characteristics
of the structural layers.
To properly protect highway pavement structural sections, subsurface drains must be capable of removing the water as fast as it
enters.
Since the present "State-of-the-Art" of construc 1ting roads
does not guarantee watertightness of pavement surfaces for more than
brief periods of time, subsurface drainage systems are needed for
modern rigid and flexible highway pavements.
Surface water can enter into highway pavement structural sections
through cracks or joints in rigid pavements; or through cracks, joints
or the pavement surface in flexible pavements. Temperature changes,
weathering, pavement deflection under traffic, and other actions can
produce openings or highly permeable areas in road surfaces to permit
water to enter pavement structural sections.
Since all of the specific locations where water can enter structural sections cannot be
predicted in advance, subsurface drainage systems are needed for the
full width of pavements that may be subjected to significa.nt numbers
of 11eav y wheel impacts whilE~ the sections contain excess '\Vater.
The
forE~going is the basic concE~pt of these Guidelines.
S~lbsurface drainage systems as advocated in these Guidelines
consist~ of a layer of highl 1r permeable open graded base placed
imrnE~diaLtely beneath paved al~eas requiring protection from excess
water (Refer to Figure No.2). The subsurface drainage systems must
include pipe collector drains and outlets properly located to provide
a permanent system that will prevent the accumulation of excess water
in t:he structural section. The open graded base drainage layer must
be protected from the possibility of becoming clogged during construction and the operational life of a pavement system.
Subsurface
drainage systems should not be considered as a panacea--maintenance
of highway pavement surfaces by sealing of joints and cracks must be
continued to minimize infiltration of surface water.
r

(J=

=
w=

LONGITUDINAL GRADE
CROSS SLOPE
DESIGN WIDTH OF OPEN GRADED
BASE DRAINAGE LAYER

-----

FIGURE NO:--2:"- Subsurface Drainage System

-2-

Subsurface drainage systems should be provided fo.r all important highway pavement structural sections unless economic feasibility studies indicate that they are not cost-effective, precipitation quantities and frequencies are so small that drainage is not
needed, or heavy wheel load impacts per day are very small.
The recommended cri-teria (tentative) for determin.ing the locations where subsurface drainage systems for highway pavement
strllctural sections may 110t be required are as follows:

(1)
Where the average annual precipitation is le~s than 10 inches.
(2)
When the lateral drainage transmissibility of the base layer
beneath the highway pavement surface is 100 times greater than the
design infiltration rate (inches/hour).
The design infiltration rate
is 1/3 to 2/3 the I hourll year frequency precipitation.
(3)
When the combined lateral drainage transmissibility of the
base, and the vertical drainage capability of all underlying
matE~rials exceeds the design infiltration rate (inches,/hour).
(4)
When 250 or less lS,OOO-pound axle loads per day are predicted during the design life of rigid pavement systems.
Criteria (2) and (3). are not applicable where freezing of base,
subbase and subgrade materials can occur. The average annual
precipitation can be obtained from U. S. Government weather records.
The 1 hour/l year frequency precipitation rates for conterminous
united States are shown on Figure No.3. The lateral drainage
capability can be determined by calculation and the permeability of
subg'rade can be determine~d by test.
The number of IS, 0 OO-pound
axle loads per day for rigid pavements can be forecasted by evaluatin.g traf_f.ic--da-ca. No specified traffic volume of 18 f' aoa-pound
axleloads can be indicated at this time for flexible f>avements-a more detailed analysis should be made in accordance with the
general procedures contained in the Final Report.

FIGURE NO. 3 - 1 Hour/l Year Frequency Precipitation Rate

-3-

Very few roadbed sections including the subgrade will. normally

contain materials that have relatively high permeabilities;
therefore, it is considered unlikely that the foregoing permeability
criteria will apply to more than limited mileages of roads in the
United States .
.3

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SUBISURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

Rapid drainage of pavem~nt structural sections is essential and

can be best achieved by placing a highly permeable drainage layer
under the full width of the pavement surface. This type of system
must include collector and outlet pipes. The drainage layer is an
integral part of the structural section and is a substitute for a
portion of the normally required base or subbase layers.
Studies
made in developing these Guidelines have indicated that in a
majority of cases, roads designed with subsurface drainage systems
as advocated by these Guidelines are more cost-effective than
presently designed conventional pavement sections.
The basic components of a subsurface drainage system (Refer to
Figure No.2) are:
(1) a highly permeable open graded base drainage
layer, (2) filter layer or impervious membrane, (3) colle(~tor trench
and per'forated pipe, (4) out:let pipes, and (5) markers.
In developing
plans and specifications for pavement sections with subsurface
drainag'e systems, care must be taken to visualize the thrE~e dimensional system, and to properly delineate the location and function of
each cC1mponent of the systenl. The important design and cI~i teria for
the mai.n components are desc:ribed in 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4 following.
3.1

Sl:lbsurface Drainage La}rers (Open Graded Bases or Subbases)

Subsurface drainage layers (open graded base) should be constructe:d irrunediately below t:he pavement surface (first layer) and
should extend laterally 1 foot beneath the inside shoulder and at
least 3 to 4 feet laterally beneath the outside shoulder.
In the
event shoulders are not pavE~d, the top surface of the subsurface
drainag'e layer must be protE~cted from intrusion of fines l)y impermeable se:als or filter layers.,
OI=~en graded bases utilized for subsurface drainage ml1st be
constructed of hard, durable aggregates and stabilized when necessary wi.th an asphaltic binder. These types of bases have high
permeal:.ilities and can have excellent structural propertic~s
(stabil.i ty) and often can bE~ substituted "inch-for-inch II for
current~ly accepted base COUl~se materials.
Irl some areas of the Urli ted States where sui table hard, durable
aggregates of the sizes required to develop an open graded drainage
layer are not economically available, it may prove advantageous to
utilizE~ very thin "mini n drclinage layers.
In such (~ases, open
graded base layers as thin as 1-1/2 inches or 2 inches thick should
be considered.
However, thE~ desirable minimum thickness ()f a
subsurface drainage layer Sflould be 3 inches, except in Ul1usual
situations.
If thin subsurface drainage layers are used, especial
carE~ ffitLSt be taken to preverlt contamination of thesE~ layers to
assure an effective drainage layer.

-4-

3.1"1

Discharge Capabilities of Open Graded Bases

Open graded bases or subbases to be used for subsurface

drainage of pavement structural systems must be designed as
conveyors of water.
Total expected inflows must be estimated and
shall include surface infiltration and any other significant sources
of water~ After estimating the inflow rate from annual precipitation and frequency records (the total of all inflows), the minimum
required transmissibility of the open graded base can then be determined using Darcy's law or other suitable seepage analysis methods.
The equation for Darcy's law (Q. = kiA) can be written ;in the form:
Q/i = kA

(1)

In equation 1, the transmissibility of the open graded base (kA)

is E~qual to the dischargE~ quanti ty (Q) divided by the hydraulic
graclient (i) in the base~. Any suitable corrLbination of permeability
(k) and thIckness (A) will remove the anticipated flow (Q).
Charts and graphs giving potential outflow capabilities of
open graded drainage layers are presented in Section 4~
Several
exan~les for the design of open graded subsurface drainage layers
are presented in Section 5. Typical gradations and estimated
pernleability values for some filter and drain materials; are given
on Figure No.4. These values illustrate the levels of permeability
that are possible for a range of material gradations.
FINE SAND

MEDIUM

SAND

COARSE
SAND

GRAVEL

:)

FILTER

!_I'---_M-rA.,TE~R.....,IA,...;.;;.L:,~~I_ao::::t.1,....,..._.~+_f_~~I_+_~_+_..J.+_~ 60

- . ..

5
0..

~o

-i>-~'-~

.-Z
~

II:

r-_-t~-_-++--+-+--+---I-'I+-#+--#-+-+~--I---J-:J-H---t---+ AI--+--tr-t--i

40

.-o

U. S. STANDARD SIEVE

FIGURE NO.

3.1.2

SIZES

4 - Typica,l Gradations and Permeabili tie~s of

Open Graded Bases and Filter Materials

Filter Protection of Open Graded Bases

Open graded bases serving as subsurface drainage layers

must remain unclogged and highly permeable for the operational
life of the road.
Consequently, open graded bases must be protected against clogging both during construction and after the
-5-

road is completed.
Open graded bases should never be placed directlyon sand, silt, clay or any other erodible subgrade or excessively
fine subbase that can be carried into the base by seepage.
The
following filter criteria will provide a high degree of protection
if gradation of open graded bases, filter layers, and adjacent finer
materials are within the prescribed limits:

D1S (soil):;; D1S (filter) ~ D8S (soil)

(2 )

DSo(filter) < DSO(soil)

( 3)

25

DIS (open graded base)

S
~ D8s(filter)

( 4)

When a,n open graded base is "sandwiched" wi thin the structural

layers of a roadbed, clean well graded base and subbase rrlaterials
will clften meet the above filter requirements.
Neverthel.ess,
verification of the compatibility of ~aterials with respect to
filte:r criteria should always be made and the gradations of adjacent layers modified, if ne~cessary, to ensure that no int~rusion of
finer material will occur.
Certain plastic fabrics can also be used as filters for open
graded bases. 1 The suitability of a given filter fabric should be
verifi.ed by test or be approved by a recognized u.s. Government or
pri vat~e laboratory.
The ctLoice between filter aggregate or filter
fabric is a matter of economy and construction feasibility.
3.1.3

Protection of Sensitive Subgrades

In areas where highway pavements are constructed on highly

expansive soils and geologic formations, fine grained materials of
uniform gradation (i.e. loess), or other sensitive materials that
undersro changes under prolonged exposure to water, it may be necessary t:o construct an impermeable seal beneath the subsurface drainage
layer and around the collector trench backfill to prevent water from
infiltrating into these sensitive materials.
Several types of impermeable seals can be utilized to protect sensitive subgrades from
moistllre and include asphaltic materials and plastic meml)ranes.
In
certain instances, lime can be utilized to stabilize the subgrade.
The depth at which impermeable seals should be constructed will depend
upon local conditions.
Where an open graded base drainage layer is
utilized, the impermeable seal can be placed directly berleath the base.
3.1.4

Specifications for Subsurface Drainage Layers

To ensure proper performance, specifications for subsurface

drainclge layers should include a requirement for pE~rmeability tests.
Subsurface drainage layers should be constructed of aggregate
materials of limited size range.
In no case should open graded
"'Performance of Plastic Filter Cloths as a Replacement for Granular
FiltE:r Materials" by C. Cl. Calhoun, J. R. Compton and Wit E. Strohm,
WES, presented at HRB Annual Meeting, January 1971.
-6-

base sizes be smaller than No. 4 sieve since the smaller size
ma1:erials greatly reducE~ permeability. The maximum size aggregate
sh()uld be 3/4 to 1-1/2 inch.
The range of size of 0p1en graded
bases can be No. 4 to 3,/8 inch, No. 4 to 1-1/2 inch, 3/8 to 3/4
inc:h, 3/8 to 1 inch, and. 3/4 to 1 inch.
These sizes are in the
raIlge of No. 467 throug]) No. 67, ASTM D 448-54.
When required fo:r- stabili ty, the open graded d,rainage layer
call be stabilized wi th :2 to 4 percent asphal t cE~ment, plant mixed.
The permeability of open graded drainage layers as tested
in the laboratory should not be less than 10,000 feet per day in
areas of highway construction with no frost penetratiori and 20,000
feet per day in areas with frost penetration to the depth of the
drainage layer.
Practical construction considerations dictate that
design permeability values should never exceed one-third to one-half
of the value obtained by tests.
Figure No. 5 presents freezing
inciices for continental Uni ted States.

NUMBERS

l~IGURE

3.2

INDICATE DEGREE DAYS

NO. 5 - Freezlllg Indices for Continenta.l united States

Collector Drains

Collector pipes for subsurface drainage layers should be installed at locations that will expedite the removal of water from
thE~se layers.
If there is no ground water to be removed, collector
piE)eS installed in shallow "V" trenches will suffice as indicated
by Figure No.6. Where frost penetration is a problem and where
ground water must also be removed, collector pipes installed in
rectangular trenches will be required.
The rectangular trench
dr21ins should be of sufficient depth to maintain grou11d water at
le21st 3 feet below the l)ottom of the structural secti()n.

-7-

"7P_AVTE~Mr-E -,vr-r-.r-rS---:H~O

A.C. OR P.C C.
N""7T......

L DE
U"-T_ .......R._ _ -

//

r---~-..Jl,.--....

\. OPEN GRADED
BASE

~~~~~_

COLLECTOR PIPE

PAVEMENT

SHOULDER

PAVEMENT

~ ~

A C

OR PC C

-I

SHOULDER-1

/// /EL~2Z
0

...

".6

z::~

r O'~"

OPEN GRADED
BA 5 E

-'

--

'-r~

0 UT LET . /

'

COLLECTOR PIPE
~.

COLLECTOR PIPE

b) WITH GROUND WATER AND/OR

FROST PENETRATION

a) NO GROUND WATER

FIGURE NO. 6 - Typical Cross Sections of Subdrainage S,ystems

In flat terrain, longitudinal drains will generally be needed
only along the lower edge of the traveled lanes.
In steep terrain,
cross drains may be required priodically to limi t the maxim.um seepage path in subsurface drainage layers to less than 150 to 200 feet.
For superelevated curves, collector drains should be installed along
the lower side of the curve, and cross collector drains should be installed wrerever required to prevent the "build-up" of a hydrostatic
head in the drainage layer in excess of the overburden pressure.
Refer to Figure No.7.
Road intersections and interchanges will
also require special collector drain installations.

OPEN GRADED
BASE
PERFORATED
COLLECTOR PIPE

INTERCEPTOR

LEGEND
..A- -

WATER FLOW PATHS

CROSS SlOPIE

lONGITUDIN~L

GRADE

FIGURE NO. 7 - Transverse Drains Are Needed on Superelevated Curves

-8-

In general, collector pipes should be no smaller than 3 inches

in cliameter and no larger than 8 inches in diameter.
The minimum width of collector drain trenches is dictated by
the practicalities of construction. Collector drain trenches must
be of sufficient width to permit the collector pipe to be completely
envE~loped with a minimum of 6 inches of carefully placed permeable
filt.er material.
Collector pipes should be installed at sufficient depths to:
1) protect the pipe from crushing; 2) exceed the frost penetration
depth; 3) intercept lateral ground water flow, when present; and
4) lower the water table to at least 3 feet below the pavement
structural section in areas of high ground water.
Published procedures 2 are available for dimensioning the trenches for 3) and 4)
abo,'e.
The gradation of backfill aggregates for collector trenches
should comply with the filter criteria given in 3.1.2. The permeability of the trench backfill material must be at least several
hundred feet per day to permit the drainage inflows to reach the
collector pipe without restriction.
In many instances, the backfill material size will be 1/8 to 1/4 inch diameter or coarser.
Where trenches are excavated into erodible soils and pea gravel or
coarser backfill is required, filter fabric can be used to provide
protection against clogging of the backfill by intrusion of fines
from the sides and bottom of the trench.
The backfill materials enveloping the perforated collector
pipE~ must comply wi th the following cri teria to prevent iIltrusion
of material into the pipe:
D8s(filter) > Diameter of Perforations

(S)

D8s(filter) > 1.2 Times the Slot Width

Placement of filter and drain materials must be carefully
cont:rolled in order to preserve the drainage characteristics of
the backfill. Placement methods must not permit segregation of
particles by size, and degradation or contamination should be prohibited. Laboratory permeability tests of the collector trench
backfill should be conducted as part of the quality control program
to ensure proper drain performance. Materials not having the
required permeabilities should be replaced.
Collector pipes, perforated qr slotted, should be placed in
the trench on a bedding of backfill drain or filter material at
least 2 inches thick, with slots or perforations in the bottom half
of the pipe. To provide a self-cleaning action so that sedimentation
will be at a minimum, longi tudinal pipe gradients should a.lways be
in the direction of flow and no individual section shall be laid on
a rE~verse slope.
Collector pipes should be inspected immediately prior to their
installation to verify that they have not been damaged during
transit, handling and storage. After installation, when backfilling
2SeE~page, Drainage and Flow Nets by Harry R. Cedergren; Rc>ad Research

Laboratory Report LR-IlO; HRB Proceedings, Volume 23, 1943; HRB

Prc)ceedings, Volume 31, 1952; and ASCE Journal 'rE-4, ~lovember 1969,
No. 6912.

-9-

operations are completed, a cleaning device should be pulled through

the collector pipes to test the waterway continuity.
The type of collector pipe to be utilized depends on several
f~ctors such as pH and chemical characteristics of embankment, backfill, and subgrade materials. Where ground water or lateral seepage
is t<) be accommodated by the collector systenl, the material of the
collector pipe must be resistant to deterioration that could be
caused by the chemical composition of the water.
3.3

Pipe Outlets

Pipe outlets must be provided at locations and intervals

dicta.ted by design considerations. The outlets must be located
to ensure that the subsurface drainage system will be completely
free draining for the entire life of the highway pavement section.
Outlets should be provided at the sag of every vertical curve.
The spacing of outlets should be determined by hydraulic computation
of discharge capacities of the pipe sizes utilized. The location of
outlets may frequently be restricted by the adjacent land elevations
and f~ontours, and the geometries of the highway.
Howev'er, for most
subsurface drainage systems, gravity drainage of outlet pipes should
be obtainable by proper engineering analysis.
In rare instances,
pumping may be an economic option for removal of the water.
The open end of the outlet pipe should be at least 12 inches
abOVE~ the flow line of the roadside ditch and be protected against
dama<je or the intrusion of foreign matter.
The a:rea in proximity
to t11e outlet should have a splash block or should be paved and
the adjoining earth surface sterilized to prevent growth of weeds.
The i:rench for the outlet pipe should be backfilled with material
of low permeability or provided with a cutoff wall or diaphragm
to prevent piping.
3.4

Markers

A marker should be installed at each collector pipe outlet

loca1:ion consisting of a treated wooden post, 6 to 8 inches in
diamE~ter and approximately 36 to 42 inches long, irnbedd1ed to a
deptll of 18 or 20 inches with an identification sign affixed that
is visible from the traveled way.
Other types of markers, such as light gage steel posts, may
be specified in areas subjected to extended periods 'of frost;
however, these types of markers require maintenance and replacement because they are easily damaged.

-10-

INFLOW-OUTFLOW METHOD OF ANALYSIS

4.1

General

The basic method of designing a subsurface drainage system

for a highway pavement structural section is to estimate all
significant inflows into the structural section and to determine
t~le design permeabili ty and optimum thickness of the drai11age
layer.
If surface water is the only source of water into the
structural section, the use of a stabilized open graded base will
generally be cost-effective because there will be merely a substi t:ution "inch-for-inch" of open graded base for currently accepted base material.
Stabilized open graded bases can have
strE~ngth properties comparable to currently accepted base course
materials.
However, where large amounts of surface and subsurface
water must be drained, the thickness of the open graded drainage
layer (b~e) may in some cases exceed that required for the support
of flighway pavement loads.
Although there are a number of possible sources of water that
can enter into highway pavement structural sectic)ns, surfa.ce
infiltration is often the major source. Ground water is the second
majc>r source.
Since methods for lowering ground water, c()llecting
flows from springs, etc. are well understood, the main emphasis in
these Guidelines is on surface water inflows.
The amount of water that can enter through the pavement surface is usually the lesser of the rate supplied by precipitation
or the rate permitted by the average or global permeability of the
pavE~d areas.
The average or global permeabili ty is the illtrinsic
permeability of the pavement surface material that includes joints,
cracks, and any other discontinuities or lapses in watertightness
of t:he surfacing that permits water to enter. Little is ]<.nown
abollt numerical values of global permeabili ty, al though nllmerous
invE~stigators have tested the permeability of various types of
pavement at different ages.
Tests on new and old asphalt concrete
pavement surfaces have indicated a wide range of permeabilities,
from 0.002 inch/hour to over 150 inches/hour.3 Because of the
deteriorating effects of aging and traffic, any attempts to assign
global per~eabilities to pavements should realistically represent
conditions as can be expected to develop after pavements have been
in llse a significant number of years.
Until better knowledge becomes available regarding the effective
pernleabili ties of pavement systems, it is recommended tha ~t the
surface in fi..l tration rate be predicated on a design preci]:>i tation
ratE~.
This is the basis utilized for the method outlined in these
Guic:lelines for design of" subsurface drainage systems.
3Tests performed by: Breen, University of Connecticut; Kari and
Sarltucci, American Bi tumuls & Asphal t Co., California Research
COI~p.; and Van Ganfe & Brull, Centre de Recherc11es ROtltiE~res,
Belgium.

-11-

4.2
4.2.1

Inflow Analysis
Surface Infiltration

The selected design precipitation rate should be exceeded

for only a small portion of the time each year.
This determination
requires an evaluation of precipitation rate for a given climatic
area. The rate recommended in these Guidelines is the 1 houri
1 year frequency precipitation rate, which can be obtained from
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (National Weather
Service) Technical Paper No. 40.
Since it is expected that not all of the surface precipitation will enter into structural sections, the design precipitation
rate (1 hour/l year frequency - Refer to Figure No.3) should be
adjusted to a realistic infiltration intensity by multiplying by a
coefficient of between 0.50 and 0.67 for portland cement concrete
pavements and 0.33 to 0.50 for asphaltic concrete pavements. On
this assumption, the following criterion is recommended for
determining inflow rates from surface precipitation: Design
Infiltration Rate = I = 1 hour/l year precipitation multipITed by
0.33 to 0.67.
Design of the subsurface drainage layer with an outflow capability to accommodate the design infiltration rate will
protect the roads from excess water about 99 percent of the time.
4.2.2

Ground Water and Other Inflows

Estimates of inflows from ground water and other seepage

inflows should be determined by using flow net analysis techniques
or Darcy's law.
Examples of these types of calculation methods are
given in technical pUblications. 2 Realistic estimates of inflows
from any anticipated sources can usually be made by Darcy's law
(Q = kiA) , whenever reasonable values can be assigned to k, the
average or effective permeabili ty of a formation or layer-'through
which water is entering; i, the effective hydraulic gradient in
the direction of flow; and A, the cross-sectional area through
which water is flowing.
4.2.3

Design Inflow Rate

The design inflow rate to be used in designing a subsurface

drainage layer should be the sum of surface infiltration and all
other significant inflows (ground water, seepage, etc.) that is
converted to an equivalent rate in inches/hour.
4.3

Outflow Analysis

As previously indicated, Darcy's law (0 = kiA) can be expressed in the form Q/i = kA. The transmissibility (kA) of a subsurface drainage layer mus~be at least equal to the dIscharge rate
(Q) divided by the hydraulic gradient (i) in the drainage layer.
Outflow capabili ties 0 f drainage layers-are dependent o,n the permeability of the materials, thickness and the available hydraulic
gradient.
The longi tudinal grade and the cross slope o,f the pavement section determine the available hydraulic gradient.
-12-

An illustration of the use of Darcy's law to determine outcapabilities of various types of drainage layer or a.ggregates
is indicated on Fiqure No.8.

flc~w

>~

<t
a.
<t

I 0,000

USUAL RANGE OF INFILTRATION

INTO HIGHWAY PAVEMENT
STRUCT URAL SECT IONS

--------~---\---.---II--------::;iI

4"OPEN-GRADED BASE
k : 100_000 FT./DAY

i: 0.02

3"C~PEN-GRADED BASE
k : 20,000 FT. / DAY
i : 0.02

~'-"~--..~~

A.bi",~~~~~~~""--,,,,,,,a..--.....-~--....,,

"()PEN-GRADED BASE
k : 10,000 FT. / DAY
i -: 0.02

10

II

0.1

L.-

10

~=__.1__-~-_---L-----:.---------

40

100

200

L: LENGTH OF PAVEMENT STRIP (I FOOT WIDE)

EXPOSED TO INFILTRATION - FT.

FIGURE NO. 8 - Outflow Capabilities of Drainage

LaYE~rs

The~ outflow capabilities of drainage layers of different thicknesses

ancl permeabili ty are indicated by horizontal lines on thE~ chart.
The length of pavement strip 1 foot wide exposed to surface infiltration is shown as the abscissa, the quantity of cumtllative
infiltration as the ordinate, with various rates of infiltration
intensity plotted as diagonal lines. A 3-inch thick layer of
open graded base with a permeability (k) = 20,000 feet/day can
rernove surface infiltration of over 1 Inch/hour for a 40--foot
length of pavement strip. This chart illustrates the need for the
rational design of subsurface drainage systems.
The geometric factors that must be known before a sllbsurface
dra.inage system can be designed are: the cross slope of t:he
dra.inage layer (s), the width of the drainage layer (W), and the
lorlgitudinal grade (g) of the road (Refer to Figure NO.2).
These
thr'ee factors are generally established prior to the detE~rmination
of the need for subsurface drainage.
In almost all cases, (W) and
(~) cannot be changed, whereas there may be some latitudE~ tocha.nge (s), if necessary.
FoRM A has been developed to calculate the design of subsurfac~e drainage layers using formulas.
FORM A is included as the
last page of these Guidelines.
Figure No. 9 is a chart that a designer can utilize to
det.ermine required thickness of a subsurface drainage la1rer
(ol?en graded base) or the permeability of the drainage lclyer.
This chart can be used in lieu of Formula No. 1 on FORM 1~.

-13-

10,000

7,OOC)

5,00C)

v"

// //

,/

./

3,OOC )
2,00C I

~IUI

1,000
,

700

./

/
/

'
/././
7//'

./

./
/

.,
,

/././
I

//

/
7'

rr

"./

''/
/

./

//1/

//

500

300
200

10,000
COEFFICIENT OF

100,000

1,000,000

TRANSMISSIBILlTY C- INCH FE-ET /DAY

C

= kb'

kb

= PERMEABILITY OF DRAINAGE LAYEfi~ - FEET /

= THICKNESS OF DRAINAGE LAYER - INCHES
= TOTAL WIDTH OF DRAINAGE LAYER- FEET
= CROSS SLOPE OF PAVEMENT
= DESIGN INFILTRATION RATE - INCHES/HOUR

tb
W

s
I

tb
DAY

FIGURE NO. 9 - Coefficient of Transmissibility Versus W/s

Figure No. 9 chart can be utilized as follows:
Assume that a
6-inch base course is required for the pavement structural section
for strength and that it has been determined that a subsurface
drainage system is required (Refer to Section 2).
Substitute
"inch-for-inch" of open graded base for currently accepted base
mat1erial.
Assume two lanes of pavement 24 feet wide with a cross
slope of 0.02; W/s = 1,200; design infiltration rate I = 1.0 inch/
hou~r.
From the chart, the coefficient transmissibility C = 29,000
inc:h-feet/day.
The required permeabili ty of the open graded base
will be approximately 5,000 feet/day (kb = C/tb) .
Figure No. 10 is a chart that will enable a designer to
verify the time it will take a drainage layer to drain for various
lonljitudinal grades and pavement widths.
This chart is based on
a pavement section cross slope of 2 percent (s = 0.02), porosity
(nb) = 0.20 and for a 1 hour maximum drainage time of the drainage
layc=r.

-14-

,.

.10

.09
.08
THICKNESS OF ~
.07
)
SUBSUf~FACE
.06
DRAINJl.GE LAYER (
.05

'=m

'-r------

.01
:)09

)08

' I

'

,
I

r',

)02

-It)

-~

:m
./ =I'-

II
I

-&0

I I I
I I I

-en.

-I'-

~.

-I/)

IIr

.I

.I

.
!

I
.
=m;

I
1

J / I
, I ,

I I I .I .I
iIi I I
8

.:

I:-rt)

I"i'li
. . ,.

I "'

II ji

I I
.i I // I ;

1[IJ

.If~I

~iir~

!
I

, -7- -

J=",
I

-en

//1

I
-I'-

I
,

)03

=mJ

I I I -1;

I II

::>04

II

,:~

,. ~I f
V:/j / !

I
.' I I I

I II I

)05

11/ I

I I I

I II I

)06

:~
I,

:mlJ/

IIVI

I I I

) ~/ I

JfI

" r~

/J.

...I-

,":

"' mill '=rt)

I I I ,

)07

001

J,;J

=rt)

11

-,rr
, J

ij/ j
/1
II

.02

;.

.03

,.,

,.

, I

.04

NUMBER OF 12 FOOT LANES

I
1=
I'

-an

10

11-

;: -It)

I
I
J

12

(THOUSANDS)

kb= FEET /DAY

I

k b ::

kb

kb: PERMEABILITY OF DRAINAGE LAYER

WITH T (TIME TO DRAIN) = I HOUR

k 'b : REQUIRED PERMEJ~BILITY OF DRAINAGE

LAYER WHEN T IS LESS THAN I HOUR

nb=0.2<J
s

= 0.02

FIGURE NO. 10 - Permeability Required In Order To Drain

Subsurface Drainage Layer in 1 Hour or Less
Figure No. 10 chart can be utilized as follows: Assume that a
6-inch base course is required for the pavement structural section
for strength and that it has been determined that a subsurface
drainage system is required (Refer to Section 2). Substitute
"inch-for-inch" of open g"raded base for currently accepted base
material. For a longitudinal grade of 1 percent, the required
permeability of the subsurface drainage layer (open graded base)
for a two-lane highway (12-foot lanes) is 5,700 feet/day; threelane, 8,500 feet/daYi and four-lane, 11,300 feet/day.
This is
based on a I-hour drainage time of the drainage layer.
If less
drainage time is required, the conversion to the required drainage
layer permeability can be made by utilizing the following formula:
-15-

k'b

kb (from chart)
T

whel:"e T is the required drainage time in hours.

In areas of severe climatic conditions (freezing and thawing),
it is necessary to reduce the drainage time of the drainaq"e layer
to 1/2 hour.
In no case should the drainage time exceed 1 hour.
Nomograph A was developed to determine subsurface drainage
sys"t:em collector pipe diameters and outlet spacing.
The E~xample
explains how the designer can utilize the nomograph.
GenE~rally,
the pipe gradient will approximately follow longitudinal centerlinE~ grade of the highway pavement.
.
DESIGN
INFIL TRAT ION
RATE
IN.lHR (I)
40

PER FORAT ED
PIPE DIAMETER
INCHES

3.5

3.0
2.5

FT.

2.0

1.5

WIDTH OF
PAVEMENT
FT

(9 )

9"

I-

(Ll

1.0
0.9
2 LANES

07

3 LANES

0.6

4 LANES

0.001

8"

2000

10"

~.

9"

8"

1000
I LANE

0.8

10"

(W)

10

PIPE
GRMliENT

(D)

DISTANCE
IBETWEEN
OUTLETS

800
700
600
500

400

10"

WZ

~
o
o

~ ~

0:

8"

0002

6"

0003

w(fl

~ ~

4" -

m
r

:~OO

4"

I-

~
0.02

05
100

100
003

0.4

004

EXAMPLE
0.3

02

0006
0007
0.008

0.01

o
ZOO

0004

0005

(l:

50

250

20

W=2 LANES, 1= IIN./HR,Il=00I,l sT TRIALUSE6"SMOOTH BORE PIPE

EXTEND LINE FROM II =001 THROUGH 6" SMOOTH BORE TO PIVOT LINE (I)

CD

EXTEND LINE FROM 1= 10 IN/HR THROUGH W=2 LANES T,J PIVOT LINE (2)

@
@

READ DISTANCE BETWEEN OUTLETS

CONNECT POINT ON PIVOT LINE (I) TO POINT ON PIVOT LINE (2)

005

0.06
007
008

0.10

L = 900 FT

REPEAT FOR VARIOUS PIPE DIAMETERS

015

0.1

NOMOGRAPH A - Selection of Perforated Pipe

Diameters and Outlet Spacings
Figure No. 11 is a chart that a designer can utilize to
determine the required permeability of the backfill for collector
trenches or if the backfill permeability is known, the re~~ired
width of the collector trench can be determined. This chclrt can
be used in lieu of Formula No. 3 on FORM A.

-16-

......----.

I 0,000 r-----------~==----~--~-----~---..~~...--.-~~

..

.
m
~

1,000

7'00
SOO

:3,00

200

I 00

___I

-=::;;;~_..L._

..

..L__

____J

NUMBER OF 12 FOOT LANES

B
kt,

= WIDTH OF COLLECTOR PIPE TRENCH - FEET

= PERMEABILITY OF TRENCH BACKFILL- FEET /D.AY

= DESIGN

INFILTRATION RATE - IN'C:HES / HOUR

F'IGURE NO. 11 - Chart To Determine Ei ther

Required Collector Pipe Trench Backfill
Permeabili ty or Collector Pipe Trench vlidth
Figure No. 11 chart can be utilized as follows:
Enter chart along
abscissa for the number of highway lanes for which SUbsul~face
dra.inage is to be provided, intersect vertically the desi.gn infiltration rate, and extend horizontally to the ordinate which is
B }(: kt, where B is the collector trench width and kt is t:he permeability of the trench backfill. General~y, the width of the trench
is dictated by the feasibility of installing a collector pipe in a
tre:nch. A minimum envelope of 6 inches of permeable bac:kfill
should surround the collector pipe.

EXAMPLES OF DESIGN OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

Highway geometries, design inflow rates, and the availability

and, cost of materials for subsurface drainage systems will vary
thr'oughout the country. The examples of subsurface drairLage
system designs that follow may not be fully representati\re but
illustrate the application of the method for designing open graded
bases as subsurface drainage layers.

-17-

5.1

Example No.1 - Embankment Section

5.1.1

Data

Design subsurface drainage system for straight section of

portland cement concrete highway situated on an embankment.
Three
lanes in each direction separated by a depressed median; pa.ved
shoulders.
No ground water.
Subgrade soil or subbase can be
stabilized.
Cross slope is 0.02. Maximum grade is 0.03.
The 1 hour/l year precipi tation rate is 0.6 inch!hollr.
Use
desic;3'n infiltration rate, 1 == 0.5 x 0.6 = 0.3 inch/hour.
~rhe area
is s1.1bject to frost action.
Use T (time to drain drainage layer) ==
o. 5 j~our.
5.1.2

Solution

Enter Figure No. 10 with maximum grade, g == 0.03 to intercept family of curves for three lanes (W == 40 feet).
Select a thickness of open graded base, tb and dete:rmine kb.
1ft]:) == 3 inches, then kb = 9,400 feet/day (T == 1 hour).
Calculate k'b (T
1/2 hour).'
k 'b ==

kb
T

9,400
0.5 == 18,800 feet/day

Verify the capacity of the subsurface drainage layeJ=.

Enter
Figure No.9 with W/s == 40/0.02 == 2,000 and with C == k'b x (tb-l) ==
18,800 x (3-1) == 37,600 inch-feet/day.
Read maximum infil"tration
capa(~i ty Ie == o. 75 inch/hour which is > 1 == O. 3 inch/hour.
Determine perforated pipe diameter and establish ou"tlet
spacing.
Enter Nomograph A wi th W == 40 feet, 1 = 0. 3 inch,/hour,
pipe gradient, g = 0.03.
Select distance between outlets as 700
feet.
Required corrugated metal pipe diameter, CMP - 6 inc:hes.
Required asbestos cement pipe diameter, ACP - 4 inches.
Determine minimum permeability of collector trench backfill:
Enter Figure No. 11 for three-lane pavement (40 feet wide), extend
vertically to design 1 (0.3 inch/hour), and project horizol1tally
to B x kt ordinate; B x kt == 470. Minimum collector trt~nc11 width
B == 1.5 feet due to construction feasibili ty; required perlneabili ty
of t:r:-ench backfill (B x kt == 470) is approximately 310 fee"t/day.
5.1.3

Sununary

Minimum thickness of open graded base:

tb = 3 inchE=s.
Minimum permeability of open graded base:
k'b =
18,800 feet/day.
Minimum trench width:
B = 1.5 feet.
Minimum permeabili,ty of trench backfill:
kt == 310 feet/day.
Minimum perforated pipe diameter: eMF - 6 inches;
ACP- 4 inches.
Maximum distance between outlets: L = 700 feet.

-18-

5.2

Example No.2 - Cut Section

5.2.1

Data

Design a subsurface drainage system for a highway with the same

physi.cal characteristics as Example No. 1 except the highwcly is in a
cut section. Assume the ground water flow has a hydraulic gradient
(i) c)f 0. 5
Permeability of subgrade soil k s = 8 feet/day (4~00 inches/hour).
The 1 hour/l year precipi tation rate is o. 8 inch/hour and 1:he design
infiltration rate I = 0.5 x 0.8 = 0.40 inch/hour. No frost; the time
to droain subsurface drainage layer, T = 1 hour.
5.2

.~:

Solution

Calculate ground water inflow per square foot of subgrade surks x i = 4.00 inches/hour x 0.5 = 2.00 inches/hour.
Add ground water inflow to surface infiltration:
II' =
I + :k:s x i; II = 0.40 + 2.,00 = 2.40 inches/hour.
Determine thickness of open graded base required,.
I~nter
Figul~e No.9 with W = 40 feet, s = 0.02, W/s = 2,000 to in1:ercept with
I = 2.40 inches/hour, C = 120,000 inch-feet/day.
If kb = 20,000 feet/
day, tb = (C/kb) + 1 = 120,000/20,000 + 1 = 7 inches.
EntE~r Figure No.
10 with grade g = 0.03 and intercept family of curves for 1:hree 12-foot
lanes with 7 inches thickness of subsurface drainage layer to determine
permE~ability required (kb) to drain subsurface drainage la~rer in 1 hour
or lE~ss; kb = 9,100 feet/day with is < 20,000 feet/day.
Ca.lculate
time to drain the 7-inch thick subsurface drainage layer with kb =
20,000 feet/day using Formula No.2 - FORM A; T = 0.43 110UJ:-S.
If kb =
10,000 feet/day tl:1en the required tb = 13 inches and T :::: 0,.80 hour.
If kl) = 15,000 feet/day then the required tb = 9 inches, aIld T = 0.55
hour
Determine perforated pipe diameter and establish ou1:1et spacing.
Ente]~ Nomograph A wi th W = 40 feet, I = 2. 4 inches/hour "' pipe gradient
g = 0.03.
Select distance between outlets as 400 feet.
RE~quired
corr'ugated metal pipe diameter; CMF - 8 inches.
Required a.sbestos
cemerlt pipe diameter i ACP - 6 inches.
Determine minimum permeability of collector trench })ackfill.
Enter Figure No. 11 for three-lane pavement, W = 40 feet, extend
vertically to intersect wi th design I (2.40 inches/hour), a.nd project
horizontally to read B x kt ordinate; B x kt = 3,900. r.finimum
required permeability of trench backfill (B x kt = 3,900) is
approximately 2,600 feet/day.
face:

41

5.2.3

Summary

Minimum
Minimum
Minimum
Minimum
Minimum
6 inches.
Maximum

thickness of open graded base: tb = 7 inches.

permeability of open graded base: kb = 20,000 feet/day.
trench width: B = 1.5 feet.
permeability of trench backfill: kt = 2,600 feet/day.
perforated pipe diameter: CMP - 8 inches.; A(~P distance between outlet:

-19-

400 feet.

5. 3

~Example

5.3.1

No. 3 - Curve Section

Data

Design subsurface drainage system for divided urban highway

on left curve section. The highway consists of two 12-foot lanes
in each direction with paved median. Assume radius of curve is 900
feet and superelevation is 0.04. The total length of the curve
secti<)n is 800 feet but the superelevation transi tion extends 200
feet :beyond the beginning and end of curve. The grade of the highway is 0.01 and the normal cross slope is 0.02. The 1 hour/l year
preci:pi tation rate is 2. 00 inches/hour. Design I = o. 5 x 2. 0 =
1. a i:nch/hour. The specified permeabili ty (kb) of the open graded
base is 10,000 feet/day; the effective porosity nb = 0.20.
5.3.2

Solution

The highway section will require transverse and longitudinal

colle<::tor drains as illustrated on Figure No.7. The location of
the first transverse drain should be at the section where there is
no crc:JSs slope, s = O. O.

INCREASING

s = -0.02
s = - 0.01
SECT ION WHERE s = 0.00
SECTION WHERE g: S = 0.0 I
SECTION WHERE
SECTION WHERE

' " '\

"

'"

'" CROSS SLOPE s =0.02

CROSS SLOPE s =0.02/

FIGURE NO. 12 - Highway Geometries for Example No. 3

Length of section (L) that will be drained by the fi,rst transverse collector drain will extend back to where g = s (0.01), or
appro:Kimately 35 feet.
Determine required thickness of open graded base 'usi:ng
Figur(= No.9. W/s in this instance will be the value of L/I3' =
35 fe(~t/O.Ol = 3,500; I = 1.0 inch/hour. From Figure No.9, C =
85, 000 inch-feet/day. Thickness of open graded base requirl~d:
tb = (C/kb)+l = 9.5 inches where kb = 10,000 feet/day.
USE 10 inches.
Determine perforated pipe diameter. Distance to outlet is
width of pavement plus shoulder, 28 feet.
Pipe gradient g := 0.02;
W = 3~) feet, I = 1 inch/hour.
Nomograph A indicates tha't o::11y the
minimllffi pipe size will be required, 3-inch corrugated metal pipe.
Using Figure No. 11, determine minimum permeability of backfill
for t:ransverse collector pipe system. Width of pavement to be
-20-

drained, 35 feet.
Enter Figure No. 11 midway between two and three
lanes and extend to I = 1.0 inch/hour, project horizontally to
B x kt ordinate.
B x kt = 1,500.
Minimum collector tr'ench width B =
1.5 feet.
Required permeability of trench backfill is 1,000 feet/day
(1,500/1.5 = 1,000).
Find the locations at the beginning of the curve where the
cross slope is -0.01 and -0.02.
Determine the required thickness of
open graded base at these locations using Figure No.9. W/s in these
instances will be the value of L/g. At the location for cross slope
-0.01: L = 37.5 feet, g = 0.01, L/g = 3,750, I = 1.0 inch/hour,
C = 90,000 inch-feet/day.
Thickness of open graded base required:
tb = (C/kb)+l = 10 inches when kb = 10,000 feet/day. At the location
for cross slope -0.02: L = 37.5 feet, g = 0.02, L/g = 1,875, I = 1.0
inch/hour, C = 45,000 inch-feet/day. Thickness of open graded base
required: tb = (C/kb)+l = 5.5 inches when kb = 10~OOO feet/day.
Find the locations at the end of the curve where the cross
slope is -0.01, 0.0 and +0.01.
Determine the required thickness of
open graded base at these locations using Figure No.9. W'/s in these
instances will be the value of L/g. At the locations for cross
slope -0.01, 0.0 and +0.01, required thickness of open graded base is
10 inches as previously determined above.
Determine the required thickness of open graded base for the
full superelevated section (s = -0.04) using Figure No.9.
W = 28
feet, s = 0.04, W/s = 700, design I = 1.0 inch/hour, C = 17,000
inch-feet/day. Thickness of open graded base required: tb =
(C/kb)+l = 2.7 inches, where kb = 10,000 feet/day.
USE 3 inches.
Determine permeability of open graded base required (kb). Use
Formula No. 1 - FORM A when t b = 3, W = 28 feet, I = 1.0 inch/hour,
s = 0.04; kb = 8,400 feet/day.
Specified permeability kb = 10,000
feet/day> 8,400 feet/day.
Verify time to drain open graded base
per Formula No. 2 - FORM A. T = 0.30 hour.
Determine longitudinal perforated collector pipe diameter.
An outlet is required at the midpoint of the full superelevation.
Therefore, outlet spacing is ~ 400 feet.
Using Nomograph A:
W = 28 feet, I = 1. 0 inch/hour.
Required corruga ted m:tal pipe
diameter: CMP - 6 inches.
Required asbestos cement pipe diameter:
ACP - 6 inches.
Determine minimum permeability of longitudinal collector
trench backfill. Using Figure No. 11, enter chart for two-lane
pavement (28 feet wide), extend vertically to intersect with
I = 1.0 inch/hour and project across to B x kt ordinate, B x kt =
1,200. Minimum collector trench width B = 1.5 feet.
Required
permeability of trench backfill is 800 feet/day (1,200/1.5 = 800).

5.3.3

Surrunary
Construct six transverse collector drains as follows:
Beginning of Curve:
Beginning of Curve:
Beginning of Curve:

0.00 cross slope

-0.01 cross slope
-0.02 cross slope

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End of Curve:
End of Curve:
End of Curve:

-0.01 cross slope

0.00 cross slope
+0.01 cross slope

Required thickness of open graded base:

Beginning of Curve from 0.00 cross slope to -0.02:
tb = 10 inches
Full Superelevation:
tb = 3 inches
End of Curve from -0.01 cross slope to +0.01: tb = 10 inches
Longitudinal collector pipe data:
Minimum trench width:
B = 1.5 feet
Outlet spacing:
400 feet
Required pipe diameters:
CMP - 6 inches; ACP - 6 inches
Minimum permeability of backfill:
800 feet/day
Transverse collector pipe data:
Minimum trench width:
B = 1.5 feet
Outlet spacing:
37.5 feet
Required pipe diameters:
CMP - 3 inches; ACP - 3 inches
Minimum permeability of backfill:
1,000 feet/day
LONGITUDINAL
COLLECTOR

LONGITUI:lINAL
COLLECTOR
PIPE

I~IPE

PIPE

OUTLET
SECTION WHERE

SLO~

""
s=o.O:1~

CROSS

5=

-0.02

SECTION WHERE s = -0.01

SECTION WHERE s =0.00

FIRST TRANSVERSE INTERCEPTOR

SECTION WHERE ~: S : 0.01

FIC;URE NO. 13 - Subsurface Drainage Design for Example NcJ. 3

6

CiENERAL GUIDANCE FOR SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

6. 1

~:n

Design

6.1.1 It is virtually impossible to prevent surface water from

entering highway pavement structural sections.
It is not UJ1COrnmOn
to ma~~e assumptions of possible degrees of permeability ~)f l?avement
surfac=es that are unfortunately underestimated by a factc)r ()f 1, 000
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to 10, 000. As pavements age, joints and cracks open up a,nd surfaces become less resistant to inflows, effective permeabilities
increase, and more water enters into the structural sections.

6.1.2 Highway geometries unfavorable to drainage should be avoided

as far as possible (i.e. consecutive reverse curves connected by
short tangents; insufficient cross slope less than 1-1/2 percent;
and poorly drained depressed medians).
6.1.3 Avoid the use of any type of material that will restrict
the free flow of water into open graded drainage layers.
6.1.4 Positive drainage is needed for continuous, free flow of
water from open graded drainage layers into collector pi};:,es.
Collector pipe drains should be properly located so that optimum
utilization of the discharge capacities of open graded d:['ainage
layers can be achieved and the entrapment of water in the~ drainage
layer avoided.
6 . 1. 5 Outlets for the collector pipe drains should be pI"ovided as
needed to prevent the accumulation of water within the s1.1bsurface
drainage system.
6.2

In Construction

6.2.1 The components of subsurface drainage systems must: be carefUlly constructed in accordance with plans and specificat:ions to
ensure that the system will perform and function as interLded by
the design. Contamination of fil ter or drainage layers l:)y tracking' of mud or foreign matter on these layers by construct:ion
equ,ipment must be prevented.
6.2.2 All collector and outlet pipes must be continuous and free
of blockages of the waterway. Pipe outlets must not be blocked or
cov"ered by materials placed on slopes for landscaping or other
PUI'poses.
6.3

In Operation

6.3.1 Normal sealing practices for pavement surfaces, je)ints, etc.

should be continued on regular basis to minimize the quantities of
wat:er that can enter into the pavement structural sectioI1S.
6.3.2 Prohibit the injection of significant amounts of :Joint
seaLling or other pavement maintenance materials into any part of
the subsurface drainage system that could possibly inhibit drainage.
6.3. 3 Prohibi t any maintenance operation that will dama~Je or plug
out:lets or obliterate or damage protective posts or markE~rs.

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SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM COMPUTATIONS

PR.OJECT:
LCICATION:
SE,CTION:
Sta.

computed by:
Checked by:

to Sta.

of

Sheet
Date:
Date:

DA.TA

feet

Tc,tal Width of Pavement: W =

C:ross Slope: s =
Grade: g =
y=g/sr::.
Permeability of Open Graded Base: kb =
Permeability of Trench Backfill: kt =
Effective" Porosity of Open Graded Base: nb =
1 Hr Duration/l Hr Frequency Precipitation: P =
Design Infiltration Rate: I =
COIMPUTATIONS
1. Calculate Required Minimum Thickness of Drainage

tb

feet/day
feet/day
in/hour
in/hour
LaYE~r:

24 x I x W + 1
kb x s

inches

2 Calculate Time to Drain Open Graded Base:

'"'"

24 x W x nb

'r =

kb~

hours

tb
+ 24 x W
(1 +y2)

3 Calculate Minimum Collector Trench Width:

40 x I x W
kt

feet

4. Determine Collector Pipe Diameter and Outlet Spacing:

(Nomograph A)
Pipe Diameter (inches)

Outlet Separation

(feet~)

FORM A

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