The Spread of Yield Management Practices

The Spread of Yield Management Practices
Fabiola Sfodera
(Editor)
The Spread
of Yield Management
Practices
The Need for Systematic Approaches
With 9 Figures and 13 Tables
Physica-Verlag
A Springer Company
Dr. Fabiola Sfodera

Centro Italiano di Studi sul Turismo
e sulla Promozione Turistica
Via Cecci, 1
06088 Sta. Maria degli Angeli Assisi (PG)
Italy
[email protected]
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ISBN-13
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Preface and introduction

Yield management has always been considered a teclinique for large companies,
whether these be airlines, railroad, car rental or hotel companies. Its application to
the small and medium sized businesses that characterise the tourism industry in
many countries, Italy in the first place, has never been totally excluded, but its
implementation and subsequent actuation has always been considered too
expensive for this type of business. In recent years all this has been changing.
Technology and research have opened up new possibilities for its application at
costs, and following methods, that are acceptable even to those who cannot access
sophisticated statistics or mathematics instruments.
The evolution and the rapid changes in the reference scenarios both of the demand
and the offer, have done the rest. It has become clear that to compete in a market
as vast as the tourism one, one must apply the principles and techniques of
marketing to produce and deliver a service that can satisfy the needs of the client
better than the competition. In the same way, however, a deeper knowledge of the
processes of the clientele's choice, acquisition and consumption permits the
formulation of increasingly accurate forecasts of their behaviour and an
understanding of the significance and importance that each client segment attaches
to the purchase and consumption of a particular service. In this way the
application of the yield management technique has assumed a new and more
important position as well as a greater and constant spread. It has become clear
that, moving from a marketing point of view. It is possible to satisfy the clients'
needs better and, at the same time, appropriate a part of their revenue, by asking
the highest price that each is willing to support to acquire a specific product or
service. From a scientific viewpoint this makes it possible, even in the tourism
sector of restaurant and hospitality businesses, to reconcile product differentiation
with price discrimination.
The application of product differentiation is typical of competitive market forms
in which the product is mature. Though marketing processes and actions aimed at
differentiating their products, suppliers seek on the one hand to prolong the
products' lives and on the other, much more important, to create and operate in
differentiated forms of polypoly markets which allow suppliers to increase the
manoeuvre margins of the price variable and, therefore, of revenue. The final goal
of price discrimination, in addition, is the application of different tariffs for the
same product or service in order to maximise the producer's revenue to the
consumer's disadvantage according to the philosophy of applying the highest price
to each market segment that it is willing to pay. The high intangibility condition of
tourism services leaves space for numerous and diverse perceptions of the quality
of the services acquired, corresponding to different levels of satisfaction and
fidelity. In the same way the purchase of such services takes place, generally, in
VI
places other than where they will be consumed and the price, in the lack of the
necessary information for formulating a con:ect and precise evaluation, still
represents an important indicator of the quality level that can be expected. Today
such considerations assume greater value, because of the introduction of a single
currency in the European Community where it is now possible, in this way, to
compare the price of each service with the quantity and quaHty of services offered
and distributed using a single common denominator: the Euro. Expert forecasts of
market trends indicate possible future mutations in the direction of tourist flows,
not just by extra-community nations, but also within the Community itself
Tourism operators will find themselves faced with a much larger reference market
than that present up until January 2002. In this context the quality/price ratio
assumes greater importance in tourism choices than ever before. From a scientific
viewpoint two areas have assumed very great importance in business discipline:
that of differentiation/specialisation and that of client relations management.
Product differentiation and production specialisation will lead to the creation of an
offer that is increasingly centred in one or more highly compatible market
segments and spread over an increasingly vast territory.
The increased competition for each segment will also tend to reduce gross
operating profit, unless the producer manages to communicate (and the user
perceives) the uniqueness of the offer. The yield management technique combined
with communications targeted for each segment will not only allow the coiTCCt
evaluation of the quality-price ratio but also self-selection on the part of the
clientele according to the parameters defined and the segments determined as
targets. The second trend is also closely connected to the strategic management of
customer satisfaction and, therefore, to the survival of the business. It is a question
of activating information tools through which it is possible to enliance the
information available to the tourism business, derived from continuous and
constant contact with its clients, in order to create a product "tailored" to their
requirements and to the desire to satisfy their needs. Such systems in their most
advanced forms become customer relationship management (CRM) tools and an
excellent reference for the application of yield management.
What instead remains unexplored, and which can no longer be ignored, is the role
of the yield management function in business organisation and in the
organisational chart. In fact, in the face of numerous technical and operational
problems yet to be studied, little has been written on the implications in terms of
business organisation and work management. These brief considerations help us to
place the yield management technique within the development and growth policy
of a marketing oriented tourism business, thus rising to the role of a decisionmaking technique rather than a merely managerial or informational one.
From an academic viewpoint the main institutions and university centres of
European tourism have begun in recent years to study its applications, keeping in
VII
mind the particular and varied organisational and managerial structures of

European businesses as compared to American ones where yield management was
initially applied (not only because it was introduced by American Airlines but also
because the first tourism-hospitality businesses to apply it were American hotel
chains).
The various evolutions and problems in the application of yield management are
discussed each year during the International Conference on Yield and Revenue
Management which in 2000 was held in Assisi at the Italian Centi'e for Advanced
Studies in Tourism and Tourism Promotion (Centro Italiano di Studi Superiori sul
Turismo e sulla Promozione Turistica - CST). CST was founded in 1982 as a high
level centre for the training of future managers in the hospitality, food service and
travel and tourism sector in Italy and in Europe and since 1993 it has become the
headquarters for a university diploma programme (now the short degree
programme) in Economics and Management of Tourism Businesses and of a
Specialisation Degree Programme in Economics of Tourism under the Faculty of
Economics of the University of Perugia. Since then much has changed and
tourism has become an industry to which increasingly sophisticated research and
development tools can be applied which go beyond the political boundaries of a
State or a single business or groups of businesses. The work published here is the
fmit of the interaction of the academic world, that of large software companies,
which possess and create the technology used by tourism businesses, and the
actors themselves of the Italian and international tourism sector. An excellent
moment of comparison and evaluation of the gaps existing between theorisation,
the modelling of a yield management system and its concrete application with all
the objective and subjective limitations deriving from operational reality.
The book is divided into three parts, each of which constitutes a group of articles.
The first part, entitled "Some strategic aspects for a YMS implementation",
analyses strategic aspects in relation to the implementation of a Yield
Management System and is divided into five papers.
The first paper, entitled "Yield management in advanced systems of hotel
management" by Fabiola Sfodera, considers YM with regard to the models and
organisational set ups of hotel businesses. The paper analyses, first of all, the
mains causes for lack of success in the application of yield management systems,
and then places this in relation with organisational set ups that are widespread in
tourism-hospitality businesses. In this way the characteristics of the mixed system,
called "traditional", are analysed as well as the role of yield management in this
system; a more advanced form of organisation is then analysed, that is, that of
organisational learning and of its capacity to strengthen the role and function of
yield management; finally reaching the most advanced organisational form, still
rarely found in practice, which is that of the learning organisation which manages
to develop yield management potential to the maximum as a management
VIII
teclinique and not merely a technique for the definition of prices and the
optimisation of revenue. The paper ends with the formulation of four different
scenarios of the evolution of yield management and of their applicability.
The second paper, entitled "How to yield value: the Janus perspective" by Brian
Parry and David McCaskey, analyses the implications deriving from the
application of a yield management system in budget hotels, a form of hospitality
that is increasingly widespread in England and in Europe. Taking their cue from
organisational and operational problems encountered in actual practice, the
authors evaluate the advantages of Yield Management, both from an
organisational point of view, expressed in terms of the profit margins that can be
generated, and from a strategic viewpoint, in terms of image management and
price communications with a view to the financial management of the business.
The purpose is to quantify yield management's capacity to influence the
determination and evaluation of commercial policies.
One of the main critical points for success or failure in the activation of a yield
management system is staff motivation, participation and involvement. This is the
topic of the third paper of this section "Human issues and the introduction of a
yield management system. A case study of a 4* Chain Hotel", by Bob Brotherton
and Rebecca Turner. The authors conducted a survey of the staff of the hotel chain
under study after the implementation of a yield management system. This survey
allowed the gathering of important qualitative data which, in part, confirm what
has been examined for some time in literature and, on the other hand, reveal new
important aspects connected to the motivation, participation and involvement of
human resources for the success and functioning of the new system.
In recent years the analysis of the application of YMS to the restaurant sector has
made advances in scientific literature, more because this sector is closely related
to the hotel sector and because its offer fulfils the requirements for the application
of such a system, than for any strong need expressed by the market. Nevertheless,
following the first analyses and applications there is today considerable attention
on the part of sector operators to the implementation of this technique in order to
gather the more important advantages that it is able to offer. The fourth paper
concerns strategic aspects of the application of yield management in particular
with regard to the clients' perception of the variability of price in the case of brand
restaurants. The paper "Yield Management and trust: the effect of variable pricing
on consumer trust in a restaurant brand" by Una McMahon Beattie, Adrian
Palmer, Patrick McCole and Anthony Ingold, explores a further possible limitation
of relationship marketing paradigm and YM systems, namely that individual price
discrimination may be perceived by buyers as undermining trust in a service
provider, and thereby undermining the sustainability of a relationship.
IX
In an analysis of the strategic implications of YM a front-line role is assumed by
the control system that can be activated in the hospitality system. This is the topic
of the fifth paper entitled "Controlling the yield management process in the
hospitality business" by Paolo Desinano, Maria Stella Minuti and Emanuela
Schiaffella. The paper is organised into a section describing the general control
architecture and, after some general considerations about forecasting and room
inventory control, in four subsequent sections that treat specific issues regarding
the phases in which the control process can be articulated. A final section
summarises the topics discussed.
The second part of the book, entitled "Yield management: new applications",
groups four papers on new or innovative applications of yield management. In
particular the novelties reported here are related to the application of yield
management to theme parks and recreational-cultural centres and to restaurants.
The first paper of this section, entitled "Revenue management in visitor
attractions: a case study of the EcoTech Centre, Swaffham, Norfolk" by Julian
Hoseason, analyses the case of the EcoTech Centre starting with marketing,
management, functional and organisational problems to reach the implementation
and application of the YM system. The in-depth study of the problems of Yield
Management application in Italy is the topic of the paper entitled "Revenue
management and food service businesses: the case of Italy" by Emanuela
Schiaffella. "Recent events, challenges and options in revenue management" is the
title of the paper by Paolo Desinano which has the aim of pointing out some
emerging issues that pose new challenges to Y&RM theory and practice.
The application of YM to the restaurant sector, as evidenced in the first section of
the book, is the topic of analysis, verification, testing and application.
Nevertheless there are many aspects which still require analysis, testing and
theorising Some of these are the subject of the paper "Revenue management in the
restaurant sector" by Charlotte R. Rassing, a prelude to a practical, detailed and
precise analysis.
The third section of the volume, entitled "Information instruments for a YMS in
the hospitality industry", is dedicated to an analysis of the characteristics,
problems and implications involved in the definition, creation and use of software
necessary for the application of YM in the hospitality sector. For this reason we
felt it to be useful to include the testimony of two of the main producers of YM
software: Microsoft Fidelio and IDeaS Inc., Integrated Decisions and Systems.
This volume is the work of numerous persons: of the authors and of all those who
contributed to the organisation and reaHsation of the "Fifth International Yield and
Revenue Management Conference" in 2000, entitled "The spread of Yield
Management practices the need for systematic approaches" which was the
inspiration and starting point for this book. Special thanks to Helen Sullivan Sini,
without whose patient revision many inaccuracies would not have been
eliminated, and to Stefano Guamello who handled the layout.
Particular thanks go to CST - Centro Studi sul Turismo di Assisi and to its
direction, for its farsightedness and constant commitment, both economic and of
human resources, in research and innovation in the tourism sector which has made
the realisation and publication of this book possible.
Fabiola Sfodera
Marketing Area
Centro Studi Superiori sul Turismo - CST
Assisi - Perugia - Italy
Table of contents
Preface and introduction
Part I - Some strategic aspects of a YMS

implementation
Yield management in advanced systems of hotel
management
by Fabiola Sfodera
1
Abstract
Introduction
The evolution of the organisational structure

of the hospitality business
3.1 The mixed organisational system and the model

for the planning and control of strategic management
3.2 Organisational learning: a very near reality
3.2.1 Conditions for the application

of organisational learning
11
3.2.2 Yield management in organisational learning
12
The learning organisation: an objective to be reached
13
4.1 Yield management in the learning organisation
14
References
16
How to yield value: The Janus perspective

by Brian Parry and David McCaskey
1
Introduction
19
Operational Y.M. issues
21
2.1 The rapid expansion of budget hotels
21
2.2 The effect of economic cyclicality on the decline
22
2.3 Non-price variables gain importance in selection criteria
23
XII
Strategic Y.M. issues
25
3.1 Mission
26
3.2 Funding philosophy
26
3.3 Creating value- in the eyes of the market
27
Concluding debate
28
References
30
Human issues and the introduction of a

yield management system.
A case study of a 4* Chain Hotel
by Bob Brotherton and Rebecca Turner
1
Introduction
35
Methodology
36
Literature review
37
The case study
40
Conclusions and recommendations
49
References
51
Yield management and trust:

the effect of variable pricing on consumer
trust in a restaurant brand
by Una McMahon Beattie, Adrian Palmer, Patrick McCole
and Anthony Ingold
1
Introduction
56
Reasons underlying variable pricing
57
Individual pricing and relationship marketing
59
Yield management
60
Hypothesis of the research
60
5.1 Methodology
60
Conclusions and management implications
62
References
63
XIII
Controlling the yield management process

in the hospitality business
by Paolo Desinano, Maria Stella Minuti, Emanuela Schiaffella
1
Introduction
65
A general framework to control hotel YMS
66
General considerations about demand forecasting
61
General considerations about room inventory control
69
The control process: tracking
70
5.1 Inventory report
70
5.2 Sales report
71
5.3 Reservation report
71
5.4 Pricing report
72
5.5 Unsold report
73
The control process: checking
73
The control process: signalling
75
The control process: controlling and updating
76
Conclusions
77
References
78
Part II - Yield management:

new applications
Revenue management in visitor attractions:
a case study of the EcoTech Centre,
Swaffham, Norfolk
by Julian Hoseason
1
Introduction
83
Background
84
The economics of visitor attractions
86
Marketing and ideal markets
87
Yield management
89
XIV
6
Data gathering
91
Results and discussion
92
Conclusions
95
Appendix
97
References
98
Revenue management
in the restaurant sector
by Charlotte R. Rassing
1
Background information
101
1.1 Purpose and composition of the paper
101
Introduction
102
Literature review
103
Implications for the use of revenue management
104
Complexity of pricing in the restaurant sector
105
Menu analysis
106
Empirical study to be undertaken
107
References
109
Appendix
111
Questionnaire
112
Revenue management and food service

businesses: the case of Italy
by Emanuela Schiaffella
1
The food service sector in Italy
113
1.1 The food service supply and demand in Italy:

a reference summary
113
1.1.1 Sector data: the food service supply
113
1.1.2 The food service demand
114
Revenue management and food service businesses
115
2.1 Applicability of revenue management
115
2.1.1 Overview
115
XV
2.1.2 Applicability requirements
and food service businesses
2.2 Revenue management and Italian food service
businesses: application difficulties
117
118
2.2.1 Structural limits
118
2.2.2 Managerial limitations
119
Recent events, challenges and options

in revenue management
by Paolo Desinano
1
Introduction
121
Y&RM community: towards growing consolidation
122
CRMvs.Y&RM?
122
The spreading fascination of RM
123
Conclusions
124
References
125
Part III - Information instruments

for a YMS in the hospitality industry
Microsoft Fidelio: Opus 2 overview
by Opus 2 Revenue Technologies
1
Organisation & scope of operations
129
1.1 Service/product overview
13 0
Supplier's description of goods and services
131
2.1 System architecture
131
2.2 Property configuration
132
2.3 Property initialization
132
2.4 Dataflow
134
RMS system versions
13 5
3.1 Interfaces
135
3.2 Forecasting
136
XVI
3.2.1 History sets
136
3.2.2 Trending
137
3.2.3 Hourly reforecasting
137
3.2.4 Forecastable clusters
137
3.2.5 Special events/demand changes
13 8
Group management
138
e-yield^M technical brief

by IDeaS Inc., Integrated Decisions and Systems
1
e-yield
141
1.1 Whatise-yield?
141
1.2 Whye-yield?
143
IDeaL/CARE
145
2.1 What is IDeaL/CARE?
145
Ideal/RESULTS
148
3.1 What is IDeaL/RESULTS?
148
3.2 What is required?
148
3.3 How does it work?
149
3.3.1 Control study report
149
3.3.2 Transient business report
149
3.3.3 Total business report
149
Are the results valid?
150
4.1 Why measure?
15 0
Hotel management
151
5.1 Defining the strategies that drive the decisions
151
5.2 Preparing for success
152
Decision integration
152
Parti
Some strategic aspects of a YMS
implementation
Yield management in advanced systems of hotel

management
Fabiola Sfodera
[email protected]
CST - Universita di Perugia
Via C. Cecci, 1 - 06088 - Assisi (PG) - Italy
Contents: 1 Abstract. 2 Introduction. 3 The evolution of the organisational

structure of the hospitality business. 3.1 The mixed organisational system and the
model for the planning and control of strategic management. 3.2 Organisational
learning: a very near reality. 3.2.1 Conditions for the application of
organisational learning. 3.2.2 Yield management in organisational learning. 4
The learning organisation: an objective to be reached. 4.1 Yield management in
the learning organisation. References
Abstract
What is the position of yield management in hotel business organisations? What is

its potential? Is this totally achieved or is there still an unexpressed margin? And
with what organisational form does yield management best develop its potential?
Innovations regarding organisational structure and work organisation in hotels
have placed in doubt the role and position which yield management currently
holds in hotels. This paper analyses, first of all, the principal causes for the failure
of yield management systems and then relates these to the organisational
structures widespread in the tourism-hospitality business. In this way the
characteristics of a mixed or traditional system are analysed, along with the role
that yield management plays in it; we shall also analyse a more advanced form of
organisation, that of organisational learning, and its ability to strengthen the role
and function of yield management, to the point of reaching the most advanced
organisational form, still rarely recognisable in practice, which is the learning
organisation which manages to develop to the maximum the potential of yield
management as a management technique and not merely a technique for the
deteraiination of prices and the optimisation of revenue. The paper ends with the
formulation of four different scenarios for the evolution of yield management and
for their applicability.
Introduction
Increasingly one witnesses the failure of yield management applications in hotel

stmctures. The analyses conducted in Italy through the research and degree theses
prepared at the Italian Centre for Advanced Studies in Tourism of Assisi (CST)
and those published in the principal sector journals\ have demonsti'ated that the
main causes of failure in the implementation of a yield management system are:
1.
an inadequate information system;
2.
the crystallisation of the current organisation. Often it is not adapted for the
functioning of the yield management system, an added activity in the
organisation;
3.
non-incisive training: just techniques. The entire organisation is not trained

in the implementation of the system. Only the staff directly involved are
taught the software application;
4.
the marketing objectives are unclear and segmentation not well defined;
5.
difficulty, for independent hotels, in defining the standard product upon

which yield management is applied;
All these causes have something in common: they refer to the difficulty in
conceiving yield management as a management technique which in order to
function needs to be absorbed into the business organisation. It also modifies the
commercialisation processes. In fact, as a technique, merely recognising its
existence and ti*aining staff in the application of the software is not sufficient to
guarantee the success of yield management. These are required and necessary
activities. Nonetheless they do not guarantee that the teclinique becomes an
instrument of successful management.
This paper does not intend to investigate any single cause for failure among those
listed, this has already been done, but rather how yield management is collocated
within the business organisation of a hotel. In particular we wish to analyse:
1. the position of yield management in advanced organisational systems;
2. the new way of planning a product in the experience economy;
In particular we refer to the article of Lieberman W.H, Debunking the Myths of Yield
Management, which points out 10 myths to be discredited. These myths are: myth 1
YM is a computer system; myth 2 YM takes control away from employees; myth 3 YM
works only when demand exceeds supply; myth 4 YM is price discounting; myth 5 YM
is incompatible with good customer service; myth 6 YM is too complex; myth 7 YM
doesn't address "my" problems; myth 8 YM programs automatically increase revenues;
myth 9 hotels using YM don't need to change a thing; myth 10 hotels can't use YM if
competitors don't. The Comell H.RA. Quarterly, February 1993, pages. 34-41
3. the way in which this technique must be modified or adapted to the new
models for the organisation of work in businesses.
In recent years, in fact, in the hospitality sector certain important changes have
occun'ed which represent opportunities for reaching and maintaining competitive
market positions.
The importance of these opportunities varies in relationship to the degree of
competition in the market in which one is operating. These can be summarised in
two trends of innovation. The first is that of the techniques for the management,
running and organisation of hospitality businesses. The second is related to the redefinition and re-engineering of the hospitality product in the experience
economy.
These are two aspects which have an effect on the operability of hotel
management, from the moment of its creation to that of daily activity,
conditioning the entire organisation, the application of insti'uments and the
tecliniques of management. It is exactly for this pervasive capacity in the entire
stmcture that it also conditions the applicability of yield management.
In the world hospitality panorama the first applications of more complex
managerial systems based on the principles of the learning organisation^ can
already be found but, on the whole, these are innovations which, still, cannot be
found in the majority of cases.
3 The evolution of the organisational structure of the

hospitality business
3.1 The mixed organisational system and the model for the
planning and control of strategic management
The organisational structure currently most widespread is a mixed one deriving
from the integration of the functional model with the divisional model. The
puipose is that of maximising the advantages deriving from functional
specialisation with those coming from a full-field vision of the divisional
organisation. It is by now standard practice to speak of hotels thinking of the
individual departments that compose them: rooms division, F&B, accounting, etc.
a practice consolidated also by the techniques for monitoring operational costs
In particular we refer to the Starwood group which has introduced the Six Sigma
system as the instrument of advanced managerial control based on the principles of the
learning organisation. Bruno Cavasini, "L'apprendimento dinamico nel sistema Six
Sigma", tesi di laurea triennale in Economia e Gestione dei Servizi Turistici, Universita
degli Studi di Perugia, Assisi, 2003.
deriving from the ABC system of industrial accounting. A strategic management

system of planning and managerial control, based on the implementation of
planned behaviours and their constant conti'ol aimed at gathering environmental
discontinuities to obtain additional successes, corresponds to the mixed
organisational structure. Strategic management has substituted strategic planning
since the first half of the 1980's as a system able to foresee and incoiporate the
environmental variable as a sti*ategic planning variable. The speed with which
change occurs in tourism and hospitality businesses, in particular, cannot be
overlooked. Flexibility has become an important objective which all firms, that
wish to compete in these fields, must reach. In particular strategic management is
based on decision-making processes for which:
the solution found is satisfactory in that moment and in that condition, even
if it is not considered optimum;
the strategy is a system of acts and reports and not the single output of a
formal process.
The compatibility and coherence of the two decisional axioms of the strategic
management system with yield management can be seen immediately. Even for
yield management the solution proposed, and that is the individual price classes
and the prices applied to individual clients, is the most satisfactory solution in that
moment and under those operational conditions. In other words, it is not an
absolutely valid and always applicable solution, but presumes a dynamic
interaction with the external environment. In the second place, the strategies
identified are not the output of a formal planning process. Unlike strategic
planning, which follows a rigid planning outline, in a strategic management
system the strategies are defined on the basis of the actions and the relations to
activate to reach the objectives. Here there is the use of ex ante, in itinere and ex
post conti'ol instruments, which help to verify the coherence of the strategies
defined with the objectives set in relation to the changes which have taken place in
the external environment. In particular the strategy control action is developed
around three aspects:
1.
feedback of the plan: the essence of this control is to reconfirm

organisationally that the critical assumptions of the strategy, with relation to
the environment, are still valid. The objective is to confirm the crucial
essence of the given strategy and to keep the strategy itself miming. Should
the hotel have a yield management system, this control verifies if the
conditions for applicability of yield management to the various demand
segments determined as the target market have remained unvaried or not.
Noticing a variation in the behaviour of a market segment or finding a new
segment can mean the non-applicability of the revenue management
strategies set and the need to activate a second level control such as the one
described in the following point;
2.
guidelines for the organisation: This type of control is intended to verify if

the direction taken leads to the real achievement of the objectives or if it is
necessary to adjust the trajectory of the sti*ategy or decide, with relative
certainty, on a new strategic direction. This happens tlirough the selective
monitoring of market requests and of the external environment besides the
internal one, allowing the formulation of hypotheses on further
developments of the scenarios. With reference to yield management, this
type of control verifies if the strategies for maximising profits and the
assumptions on which the strategies are based are still valid and can still be
applied. Unlike the first type of control, which takes into consideration the
actuation of strategies, in this area both the coherence of the yield
management model implemented with the objectives set and the expediency
of adjusting this are evaluated;
3.
organisation check: this type of conti'ol selects the set of internal variables
and of the inter-relations among these which are the basis of the strategic
process and which are essential to reach the objective and, therefore, for
carrying out the strategy. This is generally structured as monitoring which
evolves to become a system for monitoring management and the various
parts of the organisation. The organisation check is the most advanced
control of the strategic management system. It verifies the expediency of the
yield management system in the business context but above all how it has
been inserted within the organisation and what flows of relations have been
activated. In other words it verifies the operational conditions of the yield
management model implemented and how it and the persons involved in its
actuation interact with the rest of the organisation.
In the traditional organisational model and in the planning and control system of
strategic management, yield management finds two different collocations in the
business organisational chart, with reference to two different methods for its
application and connotation.
The first, by now practically abandoned, envisions yield management as a line
function of the rooms division, directly conti'olled by the "hotel director", who
interacts with Reception or with the booking office, if this exists. The connotation
and application of yield management in this case are practically null, highly
conditioned by the understanding which individual workers have of this system to
the point of making it lose its identity as a technique to become an operational
instrument. Application carried out using this hypothesis have proven disastrous
and represented the first cases of failure of yield management, due mostly to the
difficulty in understanding how the system flmctions and to its real integration
with the business organisation and to the models for the management and running
of the hotel.
The second is currently the most wide-spread and envisions yield management as
an activity of the staff belonging to the marketing & sales division. In this case
yield management is envisioned as a technique of sales, of management of the

offer and of sales prices.
Nonetheless even this collocation presents some risks:
as a staff function, it is in direct support of the direction but carrying it out is
an operational function which requires interaction with the rooms division;
the objective of yield management is the maximisation of revenue,
nevertheless it is well-known that its application must take place with a view
to the long range rather than short range effects. Should this not happen it
could, in the long run, damage the image of the hotel without leading to an
effective increase in revenue. For example, when yield management with
high season prices is applied to habitual clients who are also present in the
structure in low season; or when the communication to the clients is not clear
and such to permit them to justify the different economic treatment received.
This need and this awareness have caused a nearly total shift of yield management
toward the marketing area, causing the problems connected to the interrelation of
the system with other company functions to become of secondary importance. In
particular with the Reception (for the management of communications), with
Housekeeping and Maintenance (for the reordering of rooms) and with the
company information system (for the gathering and circulation of information).
The risk, in this case, is that yield management become a system for the exclusive
use of the marketing function and of the direction and, as something that rains
down from above, that it have an effect on the actions and behaviours of others
without their having any voice in the matter. This situation represents a risk in the
case that the organisation is leaning toward the sharing of knowledge to make this
a common good, intending by this not so much the sharing of data and information
useful for carrying out one's work, but rather of values, procedures and biow
how.
In neither case does yield management succeed in fully developing its potential as
it could if inserted in an organisation by processes.
In fact, yield management is a strategic activity which to function requires the
activation of a two-way communications process among the departments in which
it interacts. Even in the tourism business, notoriously labour intensive, but also a
sector of small family-run businesses, the awareness is rapidly spreading that
traditional management models can no longer develop sufficient knowledge,
values, and competitiveness to compete both in the current model and in the future
scenarios that are developing.
For this reason for some time it has become vitally important to study in depth the
concepts, instruments and techniques of mature economic sectors.
This trend regards not only management, with the development of managerial
models for conducting business rather than family ones, and marketing, which
puts competitive instruments in play in mature markets such as product
differentiation and brand policy, but also the organisation, which is evolving from
the traditional form to models which tend toward the learning organisation, as the
ultimate expression of an efficient and effective business organisation model.
3.2 Organisational learning: a very near reality

The passage from the mixed organisation to organisational learning in the tourism
business has barely begun, yet those who have embraced it are already able to
profit from its advantages. As always when changes take place, these are dictated
by need and by the impossibility of carrying out one's job as one has always done,
with the same satisfactory results. When this is no longer possible, change toward
new models and new systems has already begun.
This is what happened, at the time, to the model for business planning based on a
static and formal approach (strategic planning) in favour of strategic management,
mentioned above, and it is what is happening now to strategic management in
favour of dynamic learning. The reasons for this evolution must be sought, first of
all, in the changes which have taken place in the external environment, and that is
those in relation to:
the globalisation of the market, intending by this both economic progress, the
broadening of the physical market and the competition, and the virtualisation
itself of business;
the centrality of the time factor which becomes a strategic variable of
business planning. The great dilemma that has characterised the last decade
of the past century is exactly that related to the role of time, to its priority and
compatibility with the quality of the work carried out or of the service
offered. The turbulence of markets and of the phenomena which directly or
indirectly affect the tourism sector require here, more than in any other
economic sector, problem solving ability, that is the ability to make decisions
in little time and in conditions of uncertainty. This has meant that the time
variable, in many cases, becomes even more strategic than quality. In other
words it is better to finish a job in time or make a decision rapidly rather than
be certain of the quality of a job done or the vaHdity of a decision but arrive
late. These are also the operational conditions of yield management in which
the seller must communicate the price to a client who is on the phone,
quickly deciding which tariff to apply, keeping in mind the information to
hand about the occupation trend on the same day of the previous year, of the
price classes available and of the segment to which a client hypothetically
belongs and whom the seller only knows from a brief telephone
conversation. With yield management, the sitviation is even more complex
because one must respond in little time and, at the same time, communicate a
tariff that is adequate to the characteristics of the client, with the risk, should
that not happen, of losing him/her. Thus the importance of having
10
information and adequate instmments available but, especially, of having a
structure behind one which can place the strategic decision-making
dimension in relation with the organisational one in a dynamic logic.
In relation to these changed conditions of external operabiHty the limits of
strategic management have become insupportable. And this must be sought in:
a.
insufficient ability to adapt of the model which cannot grasp opportunities

for change different from those which are part of the adaptation logic of the
model itself;
b.
insufficient control system as an instrument of adaptation since it is still only

an instrument of comparison between what has been delivered and what was
planned, and because the external analysis is carried out on selected factors
offering the possibility of interpreting the present and predetermining the
planned future without representing an intuitive guide for what does not yet
exist and has not been foreseen.
The connection between the strategic dimension and the organisational one allows
this limit to be overcome and to approach a system of management, planning and
control that is dynamic and competitive, in which workers feel themselves to be an
integral part of the whole, and of which they share values and principles. This
connection is realised, as mentioned above, in dynamic learning.
To obtain this, first off, the meaning itself of work in a hotel must be modified. No
longer a series of tasks defined in a job description in which each division defines
its activity and puts to use its experience but making knowledge explicit which
becomes a dynamic growth element.
Above all it belongs to all, in the logic of group learning which lies at the base of
organisational learning.
A hotel organised in this way will be a hotel in which the staff does not participate
in training courses for individual divisions or because required by the direction but
it will be a hotel in which the initiative and experience of persons can be put to
use, for example through the development of internal projects, and hopefully
become the knowledge and shared "patrimony" of the entire structure. In such a
hotel the turnover will be low because people will feel motivated since they can
combine their own personal growth to that of the sti*ucture in which they work
which will also give them interesting professional opportunity for satisfaction,
growth or specialisation.
Always in such a hotel, yield management is not a term that the majority do not
know about nor a technique that is the sole prerogative of marketing or booking
but rather a process in which knowledge and information flow from the various
divisions and whose actuation improves the satisfaction of the hotel and its
employees and increases knowledge and the ability to satisfy the clients.
3.2.1 Conditions for the application of organisational learning

To understand the passage from a traditional organisation (whether this be mixed,
divisional or purely functional) one must first analyse the elements that are
essential for organisational planning, that is:
a.
the coordination mechanisms emphasise the importance of the organisation

also as an instrument of communications and control besides for the division
of work, as was pointed out previously. Coordination mechanisms, according
to Mintzberg, include: direct supervision, the standardisation of work
processes with the predetermination of behaviours, the standardisation of
input, including the specification of the abilities and knowledge required, and
reciprocal adaptation;
b.
The parts making up an organisation, which include the general

management, the operational area, the intermediate line of connection, the
techno-structure for interventions of standardisation and the support staff
which carries out activities not directly connected to the operational flow.
The various organisational set ups depend on the configuration of the coordination
mechanisms and on the different roles carried out by the individual parts of the
organisation, all in relation to the external and internal operational situations. In
organisational learning the coordination among the various elements of the
organisation is high and of a relational nature, as is communication which uses
both formal and informal channels, and control takes on the characteristics of
operation and strategic control.
The component parts of the organisation communicate at different levels using
adaptation and the coordination mechanism, enliancing at the same time
innovation and specialisation. This organisational model has been adopted by
some important hotel chains which make coordination, communications and
strategic control the instruments for an innovative and dynamic management of
their hotels.
We can summarise the most important concepts of organisational learning by
pointing out the difference between individual learning, typical of traditional
organisations and organisational learning:
1.
individual learning emiches the knowledge and skills of an individual who

can make these available to a community.
2.
learning within an organisation, which is no longer individual but of the

organisation itself, creates the basis and the substi*atum upon which all the
knowledge and the various possibilities for choice of the organisation as a
whole are based.
Organisational learning is a process through which the organisation itself acquires,

transforms and matures new knowledge, new abilities, new skills based on
12
collective experience. Learning that can develop is called organisational and is
greater than the sum of individual learning. The know how, skills and knowledge
have value because they are shared, assimilated and redefined within the
organisation. Knowledge is a good of the organisation that remains with it even
when an individual leaves the firm, since part remains within.
3.2.2 Yield management in organisational learning
In a more evolved organisational context even yield management develops great
potential for success both because it has a more adequate system available for the
organisation of work which is able to create the optimum conditions of
applicability, coherently with the external environment, and because it can
interact, in the logic of processes, with the other functions, transferring concepts,
practices and information which can improve individual performance.
The organisation context for the application of yield management in this case
requires that the parts of the organisation start up a synergic process for the
acquisition of information and knowledge, and then interpret and distribute these,
in a coordinated manner within the structure in order to retain and memorise
whatever can determine an increase in competency. In other words this means that
in this context Reception, Booking, Accounts but also Breakfast, the Bar and all
the other services available in the hotel will acquire the information and
knowledge necessary to give life to a yield management system, besides
Marketing which will be concerned both with internal infomiation and with the
external market information. This information and knowledge will then be
inteipreted and distributed within the hotel: to Reception, for example, so that they
can communicate correctly with the clients; to Booking so that they can determine
with a brief conversation the characteristics of the potential client; or whether the
person is a habitual client, and therefore define the class to which s/he belongs and
the price to propose; to Accounts so that they can process bills, combining client
identification codes or the segments to which they belong in order to know the
average expenditure of each type of clientele; Food & Beverage, Breakfast, the
Bar and all the other services can have useful information on the behaviour of the
clientele, on their needs and their purchase and consumption methods to, in turn,
apply yield management.
This useful information is maintained and memorised within the structure and
equipment of the divisions or offices which can draw benefit from it in more
efficiently carrying out its own activity. Yield management becomes an
instrument for the growth of the organisation, in which the persons and the
activities directly or indirectly involved are informed and contribute to giving life
to the process necessary for its functioning. It is no longer a software, a sales
teclinique or another invention of Marketing and of Management to maximise
profits but it now becomes a management technique.
13
4 The learning organisation: an objective to be

reached
Organisational learning represents a very up-to-date business organisational model
in the hotel sector toward which both the large international chains and individual
independent hotels, which occupy positions that are by no means marginal in the
market, lean. The advantages of organisational learning are undeniable, even for
yield management application purposes, as has been shown above. Nevertheless,
when an organisation makes all the learning processes a strategic lever of value
and, therefore, a central element of its planning and of its continuous re-planning,
it passes from a common condition, which is that of organisational learning to that
of the learning organisation.
The organisation itself becomes capable of learning, places under discussion the
values that regulate it and the objectives set and not just the strategies. That is, it
places itself in a dynamic condition before the market and its internal stmcture is
characterised by people who, in carrying out their work, do not ask themselves
simply how to do something but also why. What characterises this organisational
context is the investigative curiosity which demonstrates itself under the form of
the continuous search for relations, explanations, cause and effect and which
draws its origin from delegation, decentralisation and empowerment. The focal
element of an organisation that is able to learn is the conviction that from
interaction and exchange among the various parts of the whole, synergies can be
generated and more information and more articulated knowledge can be produced
which in turn foster a proactive culture. Eliminating, or in any event reducing,
resistance to change and the search for innovation generate a lever effect able to
sustain and amplify the development of the knowledge and skills possessed and to
facilitate, thanks to the control processes which distinguish each incremental
process, the continuous and progressive improvement of the organisational
structure attained at the moment.
The application conditions of the learning organisation and its characteristics can
be summarised as follows:
it encourages creativity and initiative. The learning process itself is the object
of a learning process. The possibility of improving one's own work and the
ways in which it is conducted is an important lever of manoeuvre with
employees who qualify their jobs on the basis of the personal satisfaction,
not just economic, that they draw from it. For this reason empowerment,
delegation and decentralisation are fundamental conditions for the existence
and success of an organisation able to learn. They must be placed in the field
at the right moment and managed as a motivational lever able to reduce the
high turnover that characterises hotels.
it is concerned with the climate and quality of the work environment. As

already mentioned, the work environment of a hotel organised according to
this model is positive, the climate is relaxed, there is cooperation,
14
enthusiasm, a desire to grow and improve. Employees are ready to become
the protagonists of their own work and not just persons carrying out orders
and this especially for the more strictly operative activities. A valuable
connection is established between the learning process and the innovation
process. Those who enter a learning organisation find themselves in an
environment intent on growth, on experimentation and innovation in which it
is only natural to reduce or lower one's defences against change and in which
each person's contribution to the organisation and to the collective learning
becomes part of the organisation itself and stays there even after that person
has decided to change jobs. It is the most important solution to the problem
of loss of skill and know how deriving from the high turnover which afflicts
hotels and which is also one of the principal causes for the lack of success of
yield management system applications.
it sustains and supports the development of teamwork activities and of the

values of collaboration which foster social interaction and the birth of new
ideas. The groups become excellent instruments to support the dynamic
dimension of learning.
It sustains and increments the implementation of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) to guarantee a continuous and constant
flow of information.
These conditions and characteristics are also the conditions for the success of a
yield management system.
4.1
Yield management in the learning organisation
The appHcation of yield management in the learning organisation is still an open

question, as much from a theoretical-conceptual point of view as from the
operational one. What appears evident is that in the learning organisation there has
been an ulterior evolution of yield management, of its applicability and application
and, especially, of its role within the organisation.
In a learning organisation the application of yield management can challenge not
only the way of acting, modifying sales techniques, the relations and coordination
among the various divisions involved, but it can also challenge the behaviours in
act and their underlying values. In other words it can challenge the philosophy, the
business culture and the very concept of one's job.
From crossed analyses of the characteristics of the learning organisation with
those of yield management it has been possible to trace some scenarios for the
future of yield management application in a learning organisation, and that is:
1.
the most extreme scenario is one which leads to the non applicability of yield
management when this is in conflict with the philosophy, the concept of
15
hospitality and the very essence of the hotel. In a learning organisation each
action, behaviour and activity is realised coherently with the essence of the
hotel itself which defines its principles, business culture and values. Should
price discrimination be in conflict with the essence of the hospitality and
welcoming of the hotel, yield management becomes inapplicable. The
organisational learning behaviours generated would push work organisation
in a direction that is incoherent with the philosophy of the hotel.
2.
a second scenario is that of the evolution of yield management to the point of

making it an instrument for the personalisation of prices in an organisation
able to create and provide clients with unique experiences. In the economy of
experiences the purchase choice and consumption methods are defined by
what one wishes to experience. What hotels are proposing to their clients are
no longer rooms and some accessory services but living experiences, unique
and worth talking about, made up of the coherence and integration of the
entire offer. In this scenario price discrimination, at the root of yield
management, is no longer applied to standard rooms but to the experiences
offered to the market and which include, besides the room, all the additional
services able to create and make the experience live. Certainly its application
becomes more complicated but it will present greater advantages from the
point of view of communications and client satisfaction. To apply yield
management in a context such as this, the organisation must have a high
degree of coordination and must be able to learn and modify, if necessary,
even the principles and the organisational set up itself, besides the values.
3.
the third scenario places a stronger accent on the marketing component,

modifying the order of priority of segmentation variables. The variables that
allow the hotel to recognise the behaviour of the individual segments faced
with price discrimination based on the economic concepts of marginal utility
become more important. The target market will in this way be composed of
market segments expediently combined according to this end.
4.
in the last scenario hypothesised, yield management loses its strategic

connotation to become a simple technique to apply in support of the
reception or booking staff. No correlation, no process, no staff function, no
provisional system but simply an instrument in support of the definition of
prices to apply which remains the object of the individual and collective
learning of the organisation itself. This does not mean that there are no yield
management applications, but that each hotel can design the model of yield
management that is most suitable and appropriate for its needs and
objectives.
References
Argyris C , Schon D.A., (Italian versione edited by Xarmagnola F. and Tomassini M.),
Apprendimento organizzativo, Edizioni Angelo Guerrini e Associati SpA, Milano 1998
Belobaba P.B., Back to the future? Directions for revenue management, Journal of Revenue
and Pricing Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, 2002, pp. 87-89
Cavasini B., "L'apprendimento dinamico nelsistema Six Sigma", tesi di laurea triennale in
Economia e Gestione dei Servizi Turistici, Universita degli Studi di Perugia, Assisi,
2003)
De Simone Niquesa L., Economia e direzione delle imprese ricettive e ristorative, Franco
Angeli, Milano, 2003
Frank S., Applying Six Sigma to revenue and pricing management. Journal of Revenue and
Pricing Management, Vol. 2 No. 3, 2003, pp. 245-254
Kuhlmann R., Future of revenue management - Why is revenue management not working?,
Journal of Revenue and Pricing Management, Vol. 2 No. 4, 2004, pp 378-387
Lederer P. and Yeoman I., The natural extension of marketing, in Journal of Revenue and
Lieberman W.H., Debunking the myths of Yield Management, The Cornell H.R.A.
Quarterly, February 1993, pp. 34-41
Minzberg H., La progettazione dell'organizzazione aziendale, II Mulino, Bologna 1985
Noone B.M., Kimes S. E. and Renaghan L. M., Integrating customer relationship
management and revenue management: a hotel perspective. Journal of Revenue and
Peroni G., Marketing turistico. Franco Angeli, Milano, 1998, VII ed.
Pinchuk S., Revenue management's ability to control marketing, pricing and product
development, Joumal of Revenue and Pricing Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, 2002, pp. 76Pinchuk S., Revenue management's ability to control marketing, pricing and product
development: Part II, Joumal of Revenue and Pricing Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, 2002,
pp. 174-182
Pinchuk S., Revenue management does far more than manage revenues. Journal of
Revenue and Pricing Management, Vol. 1 No. 3, 2002, pp. 283-285
Pande P.S., Neuman R.P., Cavanagh r.r. The Six Sigma Way; McGraw-Hill, New York,
2000.
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e ristorative, a.a. 2003-2004, Universita degli Studi di Perugia, Facolta di Economia,
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Revenue and Pricing Management, Vol. 2 No.3, 2003, pp.271-279
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Wirtz J. Kimes S. E., Ho Peng Theng J. and Patterson P., Revenue management: Resolving
potential customer conflicts. Journal of Revenue and Pricing Management, Vol. 2 No.
3, 2003, pp. 216-226
How to yield value: the Janus perspective

Bryn Parry
Southampton Business School
Southampton Institute
East Park Terrace
Southampton, SO 14 ORH
United Kingdom
David McCaskey
Centre for Management Studies
Colchester Institute
Essex, CO 15 6JQ
United Kingdom
Contents: I Introduction. 2 Operational Y.M. issues. 2.1 The rapid expansion of

budget hotels. 2.2 The effect of economic cyclicality on the decline. 2.3 Non-price
variables gain importance in selection criteria. 3 Strategic Y.M. issues. 3.1
Mission. 3.2 Funding philosophy. 3.3 Creating value - in the eyes of the market. 4
Concluding debate. References
Introduction
A prescient comment from the floor at the 4^^^ Annual International Yield and
Revenue Management Conference posed the question what does one do when
everyone is utilising Yield Management [YM\1 This paper takes up that challenge
and integrates the operational implications of YM into the strategic perspectives of
hospitality organisations. Recognising that one needs to seek out a suitable
framework for analysis (Bettis & Prahalad)(Phillips, 1998), this paper takes a
systems approach (Johns & Jones, 1999a&b) (Forrester, 1995), addressing
thi'ough-lifecycle issues (Langston, 1999) (Parry, 1999a). Recognising that any
'Hospitality system' is governed by feedback loops (Senge, 1990) - this paper
addresses a simple acid test for the effectiveness of YM, namely its ability to
influence and determine commercial valuations (Marshall & Williamson, 1994)
(Heer & Koller, 2000) (Hsu & O'Halloran, 1997).
20
Put another way, this papers seeks to address the most effective blend of:
1. Operational FM issues: e.g. the sustainable profit levels that a company can
generate;
2. Strategic FM issues: e.g. the image perceptions driving the 'exit multiple' of
those profits; which underpins the company's financial engineering.
Given the comments above, the definition of YM adopted by this paper will be:
"A management technique by which an organisation's decision-making process
actively utilises information affecting the factors driving the demand patterns for,
and supply costs of, the central product [e.g. accommodation] - in order to
optimise the return from total sales (in the short, medium and long term)" (Parry,
1999b).
Figure 1: Janus perspective
Yielding Value
Operational
Yield Management
Issues
Strategic
Yield Management
Issues
Market Environment
21
2 Operational Y.M. issues

Looking forward into the new millennium there follows three 'emergent' issues
which had limited influence in the 1990s, but which will have a significant impact
in the next decade - on Yield Management practise, in the UK and on European
hotels.
1. The rapid expansion of Budget Hotels.
2. That the effects of economic cycHcaHty - a major industry driver and yield
factor - are on the decline.
3. That research continues to show that non-price variables are gaining in
importance, at the expense of price, in selection criteria.
2.1 The rapid expansion of budget hotels

HVS International (2000) recorded the following from a Dow Jones news report.
The UK's growing budget sector could erode the market share and profits enjoyed
by the mid-market operators such as Thistle, Regal and Jarvis. Merrill Lynch
expects the number of budget hotel rooms to rise from 40,000 in 1999 to 80,000
by 2003, accounting for 20% of the UK hotel market. Whitbread announced that it
would be developing a network of Travel Inns, alongside Punch Taverns, in an
80 million joint venture. Similar expansion schemes are expected from the other
major operators, such as Granada, Bass, Accor and Premier.
The voracious ''Pac Man Effect' of this rapid growth of budget hotels, initially
estimated by McCaskey (2000), has been recalculated using the Merrill Lynch
forecast:
40,000 rooms [at an average inn occupancy of 80%] = 32,000 room nights
Multiply by 366 nights (leap year) = 11,712,000 annual nights

In 1995, Kleinwort Benson estimated that = 30.25 million room nights
UK Pic hotels sold in 1996, 31.35 million room nights
So, in excess of 35 per cent of demand is currently being gobbled up by these
newcomers and - given the estimated doubling in supply by 2003 and accounting
for some growth in demand - budget hotels could, by then, have captured over 55
per cent of UK room nights. Whilst some of this demand may have been
cannibalised from the existing brands of the major Pic operators, much of it is
being taken from the smaller groups and unaffiliated hotels who in the past drew
from this market segment.
Traditional 2/3 star hotels are vulnerable, as they have built-in cost stiTictures that
are high. The new lodge formats, meanwhile, have a low-cost base - a parallel
may be drawn with low-cost airlines, which have recently gained significant
market share to the detriment of existing carriers. Comparison shows that low-cost
22
airlines achieve a similar demand mix to lodges - 60 per cent Leisure to 40 per
cent Business. Mason (1999) found a number of contemporary studies that
suggested that pressure is being brought to bear on business travellers to reduce
travel expenditure; he cites lATA (1997), Bender and Stephenson (1998) and
Mason (1998).
A similarly explosive growth in lodge provision in the USA, between the mid1960s and the late 1970s, left many of their unfocused mid-market hotels in
disarray. In the air, deregulation spawned the growth of low-cost airlines which
helped to rapidly bring about the demise of Pan Am and TWA. This process is now
in full spate in the UK and Europe and is having a radical dampening effect on
prices and subsequent yields in both industries {Airbus Industrie, 2000).
2.2 The effect of economic cyclicality is on the decline

Research published in ''Leisure in the New Millennium'' report {Henley Centre,
2000), for the Joint Industry Hospitality Congress [JHIC\ conference, showed that
the link between the boom and bust cycles of the UK economy are diminishing.
Hospitality, which is often seen as suffering disproportionately - being first into a
recession and last out of it- appears to have finally broken away from this
destiTictive cycle.
Henley Centre (2000) reported that:
There is great potential for the leisure industry. It is already one of the largest
sectors of the economy, and is one of the very few large sectors to have
strong growth. Growth will come from an increase in discretionary income,
in particular from the wealthy grey market.
What people do with their free time is becoming more important to their
identity than what they do for a living. There are early indications that this
will mean that leisure expenditure will become more resilient during any
future down turns in the economy.
Consumer expenditure seems to have become less prone to the boom-bust

cycles. Modelling consumer expenditure over the last ten years shows a
strong con-elation between leisure expenditure and key economic indicators
such as prices unemployment etc. ... however these models have started to
lose their predictive capability: where once the industiy was heavily
dependent on the economy, now it seems to be developing some
independence".
Leisure expenditure used to be thought of as a luxury; increasingly it is becoming

an essential. Henley identified this as 'sanity expenditure'.
In his conference speech, Philip Monks (2000) [of Barclays Bank Pic, sponsors of
the Henley Report] assured his audience that Barclays was now committed to
23
being a major player in the hospitality industry. It had commissioned this report to
help it understand how the industry works and this had much altered the banks'
perception of the industry in particular of its associated risks.
The main finding was:
"...that economic downturns affect the industry no more severely than business in
general. They may even have less severe effects at times. So we need to have a
less negative reaction to such downturns."
Slattery (1996), in describing the future as "a golden age for hotels'\ predicted
this uncoupling of the economy from hotel demand. He also projected the deseasonalisation of demand patterns with thi'ough-year demand being generated, by
the expanding grey market - which, increasingly, had the time, money and
inclination for hotel stays. This segment would also eliminate the predictable
weekend troughs and dead Sunday nights, as they indulged in three-day weekends.
It would seem that some of those demand factors which have invoked much YM
application are becoming less prevalent and, whilst it's not entirely good bye to
weekend troughs, seasonal highs and lows, all tied to the helter-skelter of the UK
economy, their impact is diminishing rapidly.
2.3 Non-price variables gain importance in selection criteria

In his examination of aspects of "Pricing a Service'', Ken Irons (1993) found that
in most markets, indeed in the majority of markets as far as the Western world is
concerned, non-price variables are gaining at the expense of price.
"That this had been happening for some considerable time and has been forecast
as a outcome of economic progress for at least the past 60 years. As people
become more used to economic power, the focus will move from basic to higher
needs, a direct echo of Maslow's theory of the hierarchy of needs. In such
circumstances, the importance of relating both price and quality to consumer
needs, as they see it both from their expectations and experiences, is clearly
critical and the extremely low emphasis on price is evident from our core
respondents."
Much has been written about branding as a major, non-price, variable and
influencer of choice criteria.
To illustrate this, the marketing practises of the Whitbread Hotel Company's
Travel Inn brand will be integrated into the ''Seven Characteristics of Leadership
Brands" [adapted from Tilley (2000)]. Travel Inn is the outstanding market leader
in the burgeoning lodge sector; achieving 86 per cent room occupancy, across its
220 outlets, in 1999 and an astounding 78 per cent repeat occupancy (McCaskey,
1999a).
1. Rather than follow rules and markets, they create them. This is easily
24
illustrated by the ''Guaranteed Good Nighf scheme cun'ently being piloted in

four, representative, Travel Iwis: Euston, Coventry, Derby and Nottingham
Central. Under this scheme, if you did not have a good night, you simply claim
a refund. This is entirely in keeping with Tesco's, mould breaking, 'NonSmiling Fish' guarantee - of money back, or a replacement for any product
sold by them (McCaskey, 1999b). Within Travel Inn, "mystery shopper"
grades clearly showed that this promise was operationally feasible and could
be sustained; however, piloting was essential to iron out operational issues and
develop implementation training. The "first mover" status that this will gain
Travel Inn is considerable and, in the time that it takes for any fast-followers to
adopt, will prove an unbeatable differentiator. Some of you may be familiar
with a similar scheme, initiated by Christopher Hart [for Hampton Inns, USA],
in 1990. Indeed, prior to its launch, Chris Hart presented details of his scheme
to senior management of the Whitbread Hotel Company and its internal
franchisees. A full account of the benefits may be found in Bateson (1995) and
in Teare et al (1994). Today, most US lodges have introduced some sort of
guarantee but, often, in a rather desultory and meaningless manner, similar to
those who followed McDonald's lead and put up notices that ^toilets were
inspected every hour on the hour' but which, in many cases, are obviously an
empty promise.
2. They effectively create a meaning that is more than just a function of the
product or service. Research showed that Travel Inn is 'more approachable
than Holiday Inn Express and TraveLodge'. It, also, confirmed Travel Inn to
be the 'first choice in affordable accommodation'.
3. Leadership brands embody meaning in all that they do. The whole issue of
ethics and YM and the pluralist approach adopted by Whitbread is discussed in
Stanley and McCaskey (1999)
4. They are consistent and eloquent in every aspect of their communication
ensuring understanding. The recent, innovative, TV campaign fully meets these
criteria
5. They are dynainic, constantly changing to meet new needs and remain
relevant. The, 1998, brand re-launch, clearly redefining the brand proposition
may be found in speech by [Marketing Director] Guy Parsons (1999) speech
to the ''Marketing Week Marketing Hotels '9T conference, where he also
showed that there was a continuous dialogue between the brand and its users.
6. Leadership brands have social responsibilities; they hold beliefs, attitudes and
behaviours which earn the respect of those outside. This was clearly
exemplified in the speech of David Thomas (2000) [Chief Executive,
Whitbread Pic]: " A few years back, we were criticised by some people in the
hotel business, and a fair number of city analysts, for missing the opportunity
25
to make short term profits in Travel Inn. As you may know, we had a single
national price and applied it every night of the week - not a pricmg policy
typical of the hotel industry. The outcome is that Travel Inn has grown to be
the UK's largest branded hotel network with almost 250 hotels and 12,500
rooms, Occupancy is running at 86% across the brand - a record for the UK
and our returns continue to rise - it's a win win for our customers and
ourselves."
7. Their leadership is earned not given. Leadership brands permeate the whole
organisation, they are not just its label. They provide a living template of how
to act, what to do for the best and how to move into the future. For Whitbread,
David Thomas concluded: "My message is a simple one. Our customers are
well informed and have plenty of choice. They shop around for good value. If
we provide it they'll reward us - and in turn this enables us to reward our
shareholders who include most of our staff. Whitbread is well spoken of by
hotel users in general and is well respected in the industry.
The intention here is not to infer that price does not matter but that it is often not
the deciding influence; in many cases the confident expectation of a wellestablished brand will override.
To show that price matters, one only has to witness the furore of activity under the
bamier of 'Rip Off Britain' which has successfully targeted, retail banking, supermarketing and motorcar distribution, as having unfair pricing policies.
It has to be stated that there are aspects of pricing in our industry - such as:
inflated rack-rates; bait and switch advertising; single room supplements; kickbacks to agents / intermediaries and to their staffs; etc. - which are entirely
questionable and, given the current consumer rights-driven agenda, will,
inevitably, be exposed in the media.
To avoid censure, test the validity of your pricing against the following criteria:
It should be Mainstream, Competitive, Universal, Consistent, Fair and Easily

Communicated (Stanley & McCaskey, 1999).
3 Strategic Y.M. issues

In March 2000, Olympus Real Estate, of Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., spent $1 million
on buying the Rockresort brand name; even though: ''The brand owned no
properties, held no management contracts it was just a name'' (Jeffer et al., 2000).
Justifying the purchase, Eric Prevette argued that:
"With more consumers attracted to this niche, we're confident that we will capture
more than our fair share of the upper end leisure market. There may be
26
consolidations down the road, but for now we feel at ease with the current
dynamics and how our skill set will enable us to succeed" (Jeffer et al., 2000).
The price paid for the ''goodwiir of this company demonstrates that more is
required of effective YM than just effective forecasting and operational skills.
Companies will need to blend their strategic Mission (Katzenbach & Smith, 1994)
with their funding philosophy (Clayton et al, 1999) (Wagle, 1998) and their
ability to create value, in the eyes of the market (Economist, 2000).
3.1 Mission
In order to ensure that operational YM advantages are translated, effectively, into
bottom-line profits, it is vital that the company's Mission, Objectives, Strategy and
Tactics are streamlined.
The Ashridge mission model (Stacey, 1993) helps to highlight areas of tension and
potential improvement. KM must not fall prey to over-simplified Missions (Bartlett
& Ghoshal, 1994) or mixed-messages (Bucklin et al, 1997) within the
organisation [and its supply chain (Heape, 1994)]
Figure 2: Ashridge mission model

"Why the company exists"
PURPOSE
"The competitive
,
position and
puRposE <
distinctive
\
\
competence
.
/
>
/
VALUE
.^^^^^^^^^
company
. .. "^ . -^
believes in
BEHAVIOUR
STANDARDS
"The policies and behaviour patterns
that underpin the distinctive
competence and the value system"
3.2 Funding philosophy

Recent attempts to develop innovative methods of funding - such as Real Estate
Investment Trusts [REITS] {King Sturge, 1998) (HIO, 1998), or the securitisation
27
of investments (Wilder, 1998) (ICCL, 2000), favoured by Nomura - have not

proved to be the radical developments promised. They do, though, serve notice
that an organisation that adopts a radically different funding philosophy will
operate different 7M parameters. Swig (1999) suggests redefining the mature hotel
sector and its funding is an obviously overlooked aspect. Parry (1999a) indicated
how market perceptions can put a sector out of favour with key investors,
something which many commentators felt happened to the UK hotel sector during
the late 1970s and early 1980s. Companies willing to accept higher risks, investing
over longer time periods, or achieving lower investment / operating costs, will be
able to out-manoeuvre the average hospitality company. Quek & Heniy (1998)
illustrate that capitalisation rates for US hotels have been consistently higher than
other real estate investments, because of concern over the cyclicality of the profit /
income stream. They go on to observe that:
" ...in a recent survey of investor perceptions, PKF Consulting found that fullservice luxury hotels and upscale hotels were perceived as the most favored
property types, while economy limited-service hotels ranked as the least popular
with investors".
Hence, whilst improving operational YM issues might help the fulfilment of
investments, more effective strategic YM would enable the identification and
education of the key stakeholders who can influence the investment structure's
long-term benefit for the hospitality company.
PKF (1999) found that "historically, management tends to underestimate its
forecasts of occupancy growth, while overestimating its ability to raise room rates
and profits". Whilst, resonating with other research on risk-taking, removing the
inlierent errors caused by such a culture would reduce a company's operational
challenges, as well as improving its relative attractiveness to investors.
3.3 Creating value - in the eyes of the market

Jarvis (1995) warned that using YM techniques to out-source under-performing
areas of a business would lead to its demise; a view taken up by Ghoshal et al.
(1999). The Economist (2000) demonstrates the relevance of this, to the topic at
hand. Bass sought to leave the, under-valued, UK brewing sector and refocus the
group, as befits the world's second largest hotel group (Hotels, 2000).
Despite this: "....Bass's shares still track Britain's depressed brewing sector. In the
past five years the shares have underperformed Marriott, Granada and Accor by
30-45% and the overall British stockmarket by 40%." (Economist, 2000).
Although operational 7M-based tecliniques have helped to improve profits from
Inter-Continental hotels, by 60 per cent, Gross Operating Margins are still some
six percentage points below those achieved by Hilton hotels. A low share price
would make Bass more reliant on loans and investors might be concerned that half
28
of those profits come from just four, booming, cities [London, Paris, New York
and Chicago] (Economist, 2000). Hence, by not balancing operational YM activity
with strategic YM components [e.g. investor loyalty, risk philosophy, brand equity
and share values], Bass seems to be working hard to hold back its full potential.
4 Concluding debate
In his critique of three articles (Johns & James, 1999a&b) (Johns & James, 2000),
on the application of systems to the hospitality, Kirk (2000) argues that when we
talk:
"Catering systems or in this instance of Yield Management Systems or Property
Management Systems the approach has been one of simplifying problems in a
reductionist way. Treating all problems as if they were ones of cause and effect
thus describing the outcomes we may have a system but it is not generated using a
general or soft systems methodology".
The new methodology calls for this deductive methodology to be subsumed by an
inductive approach. This allows a break away from models of causality and should
result in the use of systems concepts as a means of understanding complex issues.
This paper is an attempt to codify the components that will enable a complex,
holistic, framework to be developed - drawing on systems theory (Forrester,
1995) outlined in earlier work (Parry & Norman, 1996).
Whilst focusing on YM, this acknowledges work by others - e.g. Philips (1998),
Kaplan & Norton (1993) 2in& Arthur Andersen (2000).
The simplistic valuation matrix in Appendix A can be used to illustrate key issues
raised and to focus delegates' debate: operational YM decisions should be profitfocused and, so, strengthen the profit-stream during the important first five years.
If the YM techniques are focused only on the short-term, though, these profit
levels will not be sustained throughout the asset's life;
operational YM decisions must reflect their impact on strategic issues [e.g.

brand equity; value for money; etc.], or the organisation / unit will struggle to
sustain the top-end exit multiples - which undeipin strong market values,
high share prices, advantageous credit ratings, etc.;
strategic YM decisions should help to achieve advantageous interest rates and

risk components;
effective blending of operational and strategic YM components should ensure

that the organisation makes the most of market opportunities and optimises
the value achieved.
It is for these reasons that future research will tend to apply soft systems
methodology to Yield Management issues. Checkland and Scholes (1999) indicate
29
that:
"The concept itself starts with the basic thinking that a system may have
properties which refer to the whole and are meaningless in terms of the parts
which make up the whole. These are the so-called emergent properties, i.e. the
sum is more (or less) than the sum of the parts."
The concept of emergence implies a view of reality as existing as layers in a
hierarchy; to which are added the concepts of Survival, Communication and
Control - thus, creating a complex adaptive system (Beinhocker, 1997).
30
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Human issues and the introduction of a yield

management system. A case study of a 4* Ciiain
Hotel
Bob Brotherton and Rebecca Turner
Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management
Rollings Faculty
The Manchester Metropolitan University
Old Hall Lane
Manchester, M14 6HR
United Kingdom
Contents: 1 Introduction. 2 Methodology. 3 Literature review. 4 The case study. 5

Conclusions and recommendations. References
1 Introduction
Many commentators on Yield Management (YM), for example, Rowe, (1989);
Brotherton and Mooney, (1992); Harris, (1995); Yeoman and Watson, (1997);
Donaghy et al, (1997); Lee-Ross and Johns, (1997), have stressed the importance
of considering the 'people element' in hotels seeking to adopt a YM system and its
associated business philosophy. In spite of this hotel companies invariably either
ignore, or relegate to a subsidiary consideration, the fundamental human issues
such a change inevitably generates.
The inti'oduction of a Computerised Yield Management System (CYMS) involves
far more than those logistical and teclmical changes to existing systems required
as an integral element of this process. Such a change not only alters the nature of
the capacity management infrastructure within the hotel, it also impacts on the
work roles, mindsets and behaviour of reservations staff, their relationships with
customers, and how they perceive the operation of a YM-driven environment.
It is these issues this paper focuses on. The research work undeipinning the paper
is based on a case study approach focusing on the people issues associated with
the introduction/implementation of a CYMS system in the case study hotel. A
series of semi-structured interviews were conducted with some of the key
persomiel, at senior/line management and employee levels, involved in this
36
process. The results obtained from this yielded some rich qualitative data
indicating that there are a number of strategic and operational issues associated
with the effective, or otherwise, introduction and implementation of such a
change. Many of these are referred to widely in the associated YM literature but
do not as yet appear to be reflected in management practice. The paper concludes
by proposing a series of practical recommendations for practitioners.
Methodology
Given the existence of a reasonably substantial body of literature on yield

management, a deductive approach to designing this research was considered to be
the most appropriate. The initial work consisted of a review of the pertinent
literature to estabUsh the current state of knowledge on the issues that the research
was to address. The results obtained from this literature review were, then, used as
a basis to compile the interview questions that comprised the main empirical data
collection instrument. The empirical research design constituted what Yin (1994)
refers to as a 'Type 2' case study. The Type 2 design focuses attention on a single
context or case, but uses multiple (in Yin's terminology 'embedded') units of
analysis within this context. In this study the single case was the hotel in question
with the multiple units of analysis, comprising the levels of employees
interviewed.
This design was considered appropriate for this research as it enabled the
researchers to explore the issues in some depth within the case situation.
The sample chosen for the interviews included representatives drawn from senior
management, line management and front-line employees as follows:
Senior Management
-
Deputy GM/Marketing Manager;
Rooms Division Manager;
Reservations Manager.
Line Management
-
Head Receptionist;
Reception Manager.
Front-Line Employees
-
Reservations Co-ordinator;
Receptionists.
37
These individuals were selected Xo provide a range of views from different

management and employee levels in the organisation. This, in turn, enabling the
researchers to explore how each level were involved in the Yield Management
Implementation (YMI) process, whether there was a shared understanding of YM
philosophy and the extent to which perceptions of the YMI process were
congment or otherwise. Rooms Division managers/staff were specifically chosen
as respondents as the YM system currently operates only within this division. All
the respondents were long-term employees and therefore regarded as ideal
interview candidates due to their experience and wealth of knowledge. Once the
draft interview questions had been determined, a pilot study was conducted with
two of the potential respondents at the hotel to test the extent to which the
questions were unambiguous and understandable. This process indicated that the
terminology used in some of the questions was a little difficult to understand and
these questions were re-worded accordingly. The revised interview questions were
then forwarded to each respondent prior to the interview and the interviews took
place in late 1999. The interview questions were mainly of an open-ended nature
to encourage the provision of in-depth answers. Each interview was tape recorded
to prevent distraction from note taking, encourage eye contact and the evaluation
of body language. The interview questions were derived from the literature review
and sub-divided into five sections to facilitate analysis and provide respondents
with an indication of the key areas the study was focusing on, namely:
-
Section A - Yield Management Implementation;
Section B - Education;
Section C - Training;
Section D - Organisational Culture;
Section E - Organisational Change.
The taped interviews were transcribed into Microsoft Word '97. Once transcribed,
the interview responses were compared to identify the emergence of patterns.
3 Literature review
It is widely recognised that American Airlines successfully developed YM in the
late 1970's (Kimes, 1989; Fitzsimmons and Fitzsimmons, 1998). Tluough the
1980's and 1990's YM has also been applied to other types of service companies
such as car rental, freight transport and hotels (Kimes, 1997), ciaiises (Hoseason,
1999) and holidays (Edgar, 1997). The application of YM also exits on golf
courses, amusement parks, tourist attractions and theatres etc., but is not
extensively exploited (Anderson, 1995; Fitzsimmons and Fitzsimmons, 1998).
However, the development of CYMS within hotels has been a slow process
38
(Rowe, 1989; Bradley and Ingold, 1993; Donaghy et al, 1997). Although
tecliiiological developments have increased YM applications into hotels (Jauncey
et al, 1995) the expense of investing in technology often means that CYMS mainly
prevail within large hotel corporations. However, according to Anderson (1995),
small and medium-sized enteiprises do adopt "manual" approaches to YM, which
are equally successful. To date a considerable amount of Uterature has been
pubHshed on YM in the hotel industry. The early (1980's) articles tend to be of a
descriptive/explanatory nature and were largely concerned with defining the YM
concept and identifying the operational motives for its implementation. A number
of empirical studies have been conducted on YM adoption in hotels. These have
ranged from individual hotel case studies (Peters and Reilly, 1997; Huyton and
Peters, 1997; and Jauncey et al, 1999) to research embracing several hotel contexts
at once (Bradley and Ingold, 1993; Jarvis et al, 1998).
More recently specific YM issues have been researched. For example Luciani,
(1999), Lee-Ross and Johns (1997), Edgar (1998) and Noone and Andrews (1999)
have all examined the application of YM to small and medium sized companies.
Tlie literature has also tended to increasingly focus on the significance of the
'people element' during YM implementation processes (Jones and Hamilton,
1992; Donaghy et al, 1995; Yeoman and Watson, 1997; Hansen and Eringa, 1998;
Farrell and Whelan-Ryan, 1999).
Many writers primarily regard YM as a technique to enhance profit, yield, revenue
or return (Orkin, 1988; Dun and Brooks, 1990; Brotherton and Mooney, 1992;
Bradley and Ingold, 1993; Mac Vicar and Rodger, 1996; Fitzsimmons and
Fitzsimmons, 1998). CYMS are also considered alternatives to ti'aditional
forecasting tecliniques, where accurate forecasting is maintained by manipulating
historical, current and future data (Brotherton and Mooney, 1992; Lieberman,
1993; Mac Vicar and Rodger, 1996; Lee-Ross and Jolins, 1997). However, others
suggest that such 'automated' decision-making processes should not be entirely
relied on and final decisions must remain a human responsibility (Hott et al, 1989;
Gamble, 1991; Jones and Hamilton, 1992; Donaghy et al 1995; Yeoman and
Watson, 1997; Davidson and de Marco, 1999).
To enliance awareness of YM within hotels, skills must be developed to practice
such techniques proficiently. All staff (management and employees) must be
involved in training sessions, especially those dealing with sales and inquiries, to
develop an understanding of its effects on their job roles and the establishment
(Donaghy et al, 1995; Donaghy and McMahon-Beattie, 1998; Farrell and WhelanRyan, 1998; Hansen and Eringa, 1998). According to Davidson and de Marco
(1999), communication and commitment must be established prior to training and
education programmes commencing.
Fan:ell and Whelan-Ryan (1998) suggest that successful education and training
programmes will be acquired by those who employ external consultants to
implement the YMS. Subsequently, training should be an on-going process for all
39
personnel, using both internal (in-house, organisation-specific) and external (YM
consultants) training processes (Farrell and Whelan-Ryan, 1998). Successful YMI
depends on a highly trained and motivated team, confirming that full attention
must be geared towards the people element (Donaghy and McMahon-Beattie,
1998; Okumus and Hemmington, 1998). This increased emphasis on the 'human
element' during YMI is featured strongly in more recent literature that, in tiun,
directly relates to the development of a 'yield culture'. Jones and Hamilton
(1992:95) conclude that management lack effort in developing a yield culture, but
also state that:
"Because YM is complex and because it depends significantly in information
teclinology, involving people is difficuh".
According to Jones and Hamilton (1992), the first stage in implementing a YM
culture is ensuring everybody within the organisation understands the
phenomenon. Brotherton and Mooney (1992) support this view, implying that
hoteliers must concentrate primarily on people and that organisational and
software programmes are less important. The planning stage in developing such
cultural changes is also heavily emphasised within the literature. Organisations
should develop dynamic and responsive organisational cultures with support from
head office and unit managers, to enhance employee morale and motivation
(Brotherton and Mooney, 1992; Donaghy et al, 1995; Farrell and Whelan-Ryan,
1998).
Internal restructuring may also need to take place when adopting cultural changes
(Brotherton and Mooney, 1992; Donaghy et al, 1997; Farrell and Whelan-Ryan,
1998; Davidson and de Marco, 1999). This may involve moving offices;
organising open plan offices; reformation of policies and procedures and structural
changes to the organisation chart, to create flatter, leaner organisations. Successful
YMI requires organisational change, communication, co-ordination and cooperation from all levels, whether at an individual, organisational or coiporate
level, which needs to be carefully planned and appropriately resourced (Kimes,
1989; Jauncey et al, 1995; Donaghy et al, 1997).
However, Mac Vicar and Rodger (1996) and Davidson and de Marco, (1999),
claim staff and guests are rarely consulted during YMI's. Initiatives often fail due
to a lack of cominitment, which is essential for the development and control of
CYMS (Kimes, 1989; Farrell and Whelan-Ryan 1998; Hansen and Eringa, 1998).
Some writers claim that CYMS de-skill employees because the decision-making
process is removed (Kimes, 1989; Brotherton and Mooney, 1992; Bradley and
Ingold, 1993; Hansen and Eringa, 1998). Others hold opposing views, stating that
teclinology increases skills within organisations (MacVicar and Rodger, 1996).
However, a clear relation does exist within the literature, outlining the significance
of fundamental, but sometimes small changes that organisations must consider
during YMI. From the 'people' perspective these include:
40
developing a yield culture;
establishing a forecasting committee/YM team, including rooms, reservations,

sales, marketing, food and beverage, banqueting and front office managers to
meet weekly;
developing employee commitment;
identifying human resource implications;
implementing incentive schemes to enliance motivation;
providing appropriate training and education;
clarifying interdepartmental relationships;
amending job descriptions.
Although some writers have evaluated and established idealistic approaches for
YMI in hotels (Farrell and Whelan -Ryan, 1998; Hansen and Eringa, 1998), and
while theories differ, the importance of the 'people element' when implementing
any organisational change is fundamentally stressed by many commentators
(Rowe, 1989; Brotherton and Mooney, 1992; Harris, 1995; Yeoman and Watson,
1997; Donaghy et al, 1997; Lee-Ross and Johns, 1997; Okumus and Hemmington,
1998). Despite this, the literature generally agrees that the human element is not
addressed satisfactorily within many YMI processes (Kimes, 1994; Donaghy et al,
1995; Jauncey et al, 1995; Mac Vicar and Rodger, 1996; McCaskey, 1998).
4 The case study

The case study hotel has a central Manchester location and was opened in 1992.
Its facilities included 132 bedrooms, a fitness centre, two bars, conference
facilities and two restaurants; a Fine Dining restaurant and French Brasserie. From
the beginning, the hotel was extremely popular and occupancy levels were high.
To maintain its prestigious identity an emphasis on high standards and investment
in people was established, including recruitment, career opportunities, training and
development, and gradually a profile of regular guests was established. Business
and corporate clients often fill the hotel midweek. As with many businessorientated hotels, demand decreases at weekends, and the leisure market is
therefore targeted using special offers (lower rates) and promotions. Since
opening, the hotel has undergone many changes.
In 1996 bedroom capacity was increased to 156 rooms, to coincide with the Euro
'96 soccer tournament, although manpower levels have decreased from 270 to 220
employees. In 1997/8 the company owning the hotel acquired a major UK hotel
company and decided to re-brand the hotel to fit into the portfolio of 4* hotels
operated by this company. Following this the hotel has become increasingly profit
oriented, with more emphasis on cutting costs and meeting budgets. The use of
teclinology has also increased with the introduction of an enlianced key interface
system, a close circuit television security system, pay TV and play station
handsets within the bedrooms being some recent developments. More recently
implementation of the Optims Yield Management System has taken place.
In September 1998 it was announced that an agreement had been signed with
TIMS to implement the Optims Yield Management System into the company's 4*
hotel brand world-wide (TIMS, 1998b). The hotel's system was installed in
January 1999 in two phases, each with a duration of one week. Phase one,
included training, site preparations and the input of history, budgets, room and
yield classes into the system (see Table 1).
Table 1: Optims Phase One Installation Agenda. Source: TIMS (1998a)
DAY/TIME
Monday
0900-1230
1300-1700
Tuesday
0900-1230
MODULE
Site Preparation, Installation of
programmes & interface.
Review of implementation.
Construction of room classes
PERSONNEL TO
ATTEND
Systems Manager
Revenue Manager
1300-1700
Wednesday
0900-12.30
1300-1700
Construction of yield classes
General & Revenue

Manager.
As above.
Input of room and yield classes.

Validate system parameters
Optims personnel
Optims personnel
Thursday
0900-12.30
1300-1700
History/Budget Input
Optims Training
Revenue Manager
General & Revenue
Manager, Director of
sales.
Front office/sales ti'aining - 2 x 1

hours sessions
Review and sign off
All front office and

sales staff
General Manager
Revenue Manager
Friday
0900-1230
pm
Six months later, TIMS retumed from France to conduct phase two of the YMI.
During this time the system collected data, and TIMS supplied support and
assistance through the Optims helpdesk. Phase two included training, the
verification of data, forecasts, rate controls, deal quotations and demand analysis
(see Table 2).
42
Table 2: Optims Phase Two Installation Agenda. Source: TIMS (1998a)

DAY/TIME
Monday
0900-1230
1300-1700
MODULE
Data verification
Forecast calibration
Forecast calibration
Tuesday
0900-1230
Forecast verification
1300-1700
Forecast training. Rate

controls and capacities
Wednesday
0900-1230
PERSONNEL
Optims personnel
Optims personnel
Revenue & Reservations
Manager.
Revenue Manager,
Reservations Manager &
Sales Manager.
Forecast verification,
demand analysis
Deal quotations.

Manager.
Revenue Manager, Sales
Manager, Conference
Manager.
1300-1700
Forecast verification,
demand analysis
As above

Manager.
As above
Friday
0900-1230
Using Optims reports.
pm
Review and Sign off
1300-1700
Thursday
0900-1230

Manager
General Manager Revenue
Manager.
Within both installation agendas only senior managers were involved, and
supervisors or employees are only mentioned once in the Phase One training
sessions.
Although the YMI was in-depth, and could therefore justify the exclusion of a
wide range of personnel, there was very little communication, tuition or training
regarding the YM system during this time, or once the system was installed. There
was no indication within Optim's installation agendas of strategic issues regarding
the 'people element' to indicate how employees and customers should be
informed of the change. However, in a report on the installation process TIMS
explicitly state that staff feedback meetings should be held 'to communicate
operational details of strategic planning and success of previous actions' and that
'incentive schemes should be offered regularly to operational, front office and
sales staff (TIMS, 1998a).
43
This leads to a consideration of the interview data. The tables that follow contain
the interview responses coded according to the following key:
1. Deputy General Manager:
DGM.
2. Reservations Manager:
Res.M.
3. Rooms Division Manager:
RDM.
4. Head Receptionist:
HR.
5. Reception Manager:
RM.
6. Reservations Co-ordinator:
RC.
7. Receptionist:
R.
Although the respondents generally felt that the initial YMI process was very good
(see Table 3) one of the key issues associated with a YM operation is clarity of
roles and responsibilities.
Table 3: What are your feelings about the YM installation process received from TIMS?
DGM.
Yes, installation was fine; the training was very detailed and very hard
for everyone in the hotel. It was very long and I actually didn't attend
all the sessions.
Res.M
The training was excellent, yes.
RDM.
Yes, it was excellent.
HR.
Yes, I thought they were very good, they brought a lot of people
over from France. It wasn't rushed. The support they gave was
very good.
RM.
/ didn 't have much involvement I couldn 't say.
In this respect, it was wonying to find that the interview respondents did not
appear to have a unanimous view on the person with overall responsibility for
managing the YM system in the hotel (Table 4).
44
Table 4: Who is the yield manager in the hotel?

DGM.
The Rooms Division Manager.
Res.M.
We don't have one as such, although the Rooms Division Manager

assumes that role with my assistance.
RDM.
The Reservations Manager and I do a bit of work between us,

and the Reception Manager is beginning to get involved now as
well.
HR.
The Rooms Division Manager, well she maintains the system.
RM.
We haven't got one but the Rooms Division Manager,

reservations manager and myself are involved in it.
RC.
I assume it's the Rooms Division Manager and the Reservations

Manager. The Rooms Division Manager is actually managing it and
the Reservations Manager helps with it.
R.
The Reservations Manager.
Perhaps this was a function of the degree of involvement the respondents had in
the YMI process (see Table 5). Clarity of responsibility is also invariably
associated with communication issues.
Table 5: What involvement did you have in the YM system implementation process?
DGM.
Res.M.
I was trained on it and I try to pass the information I gained onto the
sales office.
I've had quite a bit of involvement, not as much as should take place
in my role but that was due to lack of staff in my department.
RDM.
A lot.
HR.
None at all.
RM.
None.
RC.
None, I'm just told about things as they are implemented.
R.
None.
As Table 6 shows there would appear to be some dissonance between the higher
levels of respondent and those lower down in the hierarchy, with the Head
Receptionist and Reception Manager indicating something very different to their
superiors! Not only would there appear to be some difference of opinion between
the higher level managers and others on this issue of communication.
45
Table 6: How is YM communicated through management?
DGM.
Through training sessions.
Res.M.
By ti'aining in front office areas.
RDM.
We discuss it at the Management meeting every week. We give out

forecasts from the yield system in the form of a graph, so that it's
nice and user friendly and easy to use.
HR.
I don't think it's communicated at all tlirough management.
RM.
It's not.
Table 7 also indicates the management team have not established a systematic
formal meeting mechanism to discuss YM issues.
Table 7: How often do departmental heads meet to discuss YM?
DGM.
No departmental managers, but certainly myself, the General

Manager and the Rooms Division Manager talk about it daily.
Res.M.
We don't.
RDM.
I have to admit that we are not meeting as we should, we are

supposed to have daily meetings. So the General Manager,
Reservations Manager, Reception Manager, Rooms Manager are to
meet daily to decide the plan of action for the next two days. Each
day we are to discuss what the rate will be for that evening, and then
every week we are supposed to discuss the following week. We have
a Sales meeting where we discuss yield and the forecast once a week.
HR.
Not very often, just once a month.
RM.
Never.
The literature suggests that for a YMI to be successflil the organisation should
take appropriate steps to manage the change process that this inevitably generates
and to establish a 'yield culture' amongst employees.
This requires that the managers and staff directly involved with the operation of
the YM system, and others who will be indirectly affected by it, are made fully
aware of what it means to be operating in a yield-driven environment.
There is some evidence to suggest that this did take place (see Table 8) but it was
largely restricted to senior management and those managers and employees
directly involved in the operation of the YM system.
However, the responses in Table 9 indicate that this process has not been as
successful as the management might have hoped.
46
Table 8: How were staff made aware of the new YM policies and procedures?
DGM.
We have daily meetings in the hotel. We have a weekly management

meeting which all Hod's and UBM's go to, and they should feed that
back to their department through staff daily briefs, job chats, tlirough
memo's and staff notice boards.
Res.M.
Through the departmental heads, team briefs and management

meetings.
RDM.
Generally by forms or memo's and they are told at team briefing

meetings.
HR.
The Rooms Division Manager made sure that people understood

new procedures, and how important it was that what you put in
is what gets passed to the YM system, so I think that has been
done well.
RM.
Memo's, reception meetings, training. They probably weren 't told

there was to be a change. I learnt more about it, and as things
change I try and tell my staff, and try and explain as much as I know,
but what I don't know I can't pass on.
Table 9: What commitment have employees made to YM procedures?
DGM.
Res M.
RDM.
The ones that are involved in it are pretty committed to it because

they understand what YM is all about, but the ones that don't aren't
committed because they don't understand it.
Management have certainly made a great commitment. Employees
are getting it incorporated more into their day-to-day routine rather
than showing commitment.
Some front-office staff seem interested.
HR.
There's commitment from people like the Rooms Division Manager

and the Reservations Manager who are on it all the time. I think if
people were made more aware of it they would want to learn more
about it.
RM.
/ am committed to it, but none of my staff are.
One would also have expected the awareness building exercise to be followed up
by extensive training, particularly amongst those managers and staff who are
directly responsible for the day-to-day operation of the new YMS. Unfortunately
this does not seem to have happened. Tables 10 and 11 show a considerable
difference between the views of the Deputy General Manager and the other
respondents. They also highlight the limited range of staff who have been
involved in the YM training process.
47
Table 10: Which staff have been involved in YM training sessions?

DGM.
Most of the staff in the hotel have.
Res M.
Just Front Office staff.
RDM.
Not many, staff generally have had initial training on v^hat YM does.
HR.
All of the reservations staff have been on it, The Reception Manager
has, I have, and the Reception staff have.
RM.
Just me, none of my staff have.
RC.
Only the initial training, briefly explaining w^hat the system is for. I
haven't been trained to use the system. When it first came into the
hotel we were trained on what it's going to do, and how you use it.
But I've had no training on how to use the system specifically.
R.
Nothing except for that bit I had at the beginning. I've hardly
had any training, and I'd be scared to touch the system in case it
crashes.
Table 11: How have the employees been trained to use the YM system?
DGM.
Res M.
All staff went to the training, the Rooms Division Manager, the Head
Receptionist, the Reception Manger and the Reservations Manager
are fully trained on it and can train people on it. So new members of
staff that start have a basic understanding of it, but to be fair they
don't need to use it at the moment.
Through TIMS, the Rooms Division Manager and myself.
RDM.
They haven't, they're not using it yet, there's only tlii'ee people,
myself, the Reservations Manager and the Reception Manager that
are using it.
HR.
They haven't.
RM.
Mine haven't, the Reservations Supervisor has.
Given the above it is perhaps not surprising that most of the respondents, with the
exception of the DGM and Res.M., feel that the training provided has not
developed a widespread understanding of the YM concept amongst the staff (see
Table 12). In addition to the awareness, communication and training issues
referred to above the literature also suggests that the embedding, and ultimate
success, of a YM system can be facilitated by the provision of appropriate
incentives to staff. Incentives can help to inculcate a more positive response to the
new YM environment, though incentives alone are unlikely to be a sufficient
motivator for staff to fully engage with this change in orientation.
48
Table 12: Has the training developed an understanding of the YM concept amongst staff?
DGM.
No, we have 220 staff here. If you mentioned it to 200 people they
would probably ask what YM is. I would hope that most of the
UBM's would understand what YM is.
Res M.
There is more understanding, definitely.
RDM.
I think they understand it more, I wouldn't say they'd be able to

answer lots of questions on it. They are probably not fully
comfortable with it but there is more understanding of it.
HR.
I think they are quite unaware, they may be aware on a subconscious

level, as they are aware of things that are happening, but they
probably don't relate it to YM.
RM.
No.
RC.
I understand what the system says from looking at the screen, but I
couldn't use it.
R.
Not as much as I should really, it's still a mystery; I'm not really
sure what it's all about.
The evidence on this aspect is a little contradictory (see Table 13) but tends to
suggest that, at the very least, any positive effects derived from the incentives
provided by the hotel are likely to be minimal.
Though the management appear to have a view that incentives are offered, and
that these are associated with encouraging staff to use YM practices - at least
indirectly if not directly - the staff have a different perception (see Table 13).
To summarise it is clear that the interview data reveals the YMI process in this
hotel has not focused strongly on the human aspects of the process. It has tended
to concentrate on the integration of the technical and business aspects of the YM
system and relegate the human/system interface to a secondary consideration. This
may have some longer term consequences.
49
Table 13: What incentives have been offered to encourage staff to use YM practices?
DGM.
There's a bonus scheme running in reception where if staff sell a

certain amount of rooms at a certain rate, then a bonus is paid. We
change incentives all the time.
Res M.
We have had incentives for reception staff to sell rooms in the

evening at the correct rates.
RDM.
We change the incentives monthly, and this month it's been

restaurant bookings to yield the restaurants. In previous months it's
been room sales after 6.00pm, staff got a percentage of what the
room rate was, so there has been some.
HR.
There haven't been any incentives offered.
RM.
Nothing.
RC.
There's been no incentive ever since I've worked here.
R.
None.
5 Conclusions and recommendations

In conclusion it has been demonstrated that the literature associated with YMI,
particularly that focusing on the 'people' or 'human' aspects of this process,
clearly identifies a number of what may be regarded as 'critical' issues influencing
the success, or otherwise, of any given YMI. These being:
-
Awareness Building and the Development of a Yield Culture;
Encouraging Involvement and Creating Commitment;
Initial and Ongoing YM Training;
Effective Communication, Co-ordination and Clarification of Responsibilities;
Organisational and Job Re-structuring;
Motivation and Incentivisation.
Though the relative importance of these may vary from context to context and the
specifics of the YM system being introduced they are, individually and
collectively, likely to be strong influences on both the efficacy of the YMI process
and the efficiency and effectiveness of the YM system over time. In essence they
are all inextricably linked with the planning of such a change from its conception
50
to final operation. The empirical evidence derived from the case study
demonstrates that a number, if not all, of these issues could have been planned for
and managed more effectively. In turn, this lends further support to the
contentions of many commentators that the primary focus of attention in most
YMI processes tends to be that of ensuring that the technical aspects of the YM
system are successfully installed and integrated with the hotel's business history
and objectives. Conversely, the inculcation of a YM philosophy amongst the staff
who are expected to operate the system receives far less attention.
While it would be patently foolish to suggest that organisations should reduce the
amount of attention, time and resources they devote to the former, greater
attention paid to the latter may be expected to yield additional benefits. This
partial, very rationalistic, approach to planning the introduction, installation and
implementation of a YM system may result in a reasonably satisfactory outcome
vis-a-vis the benefits derived from the system, as it has in the case study hotel. On
the other hand, the question remains: how much more successful, in both the
implementation and operational phases, would this have been if the planning
conducted for it had contained a greater emphasis on the organisational and
human/system interface issues such a change inevitably embodied? The practical
recommendations arising from this research are therefore clear. Firstly, 'plan, plan
and plan' before the initiation of the YMI appears to be a suitable mantra.
Secondly, ensure that the plan/s address the organisational and human issues
associated with the change.
Thirdly, educate and train the staff in order to develop a culture that is receptive,
and willing, to embrace the new philosophy and practices before they are installed.
Fourthly, initiate the required structural changes and re-negotiate work
role/responsibilities prior to implementation. Fifthly, provide suitable incentives to
further motivate staff and secure their commitment when the system is up and
mnning. Finally, set up effective communication structures and procedures that
actively encourage staff to engage with, and conti'ibute to, the operation of the YM
system.
51
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Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol.9, No.2, 1997, pp. 80-83.
Yin R. K., Case Study Research -Design and Methods, (2"^^ Edition), Sage, 1994.
Yield Management and trust: the effect of

variable pricing on consumer trust in a
restaurant brand
Una McMahon Beattie
Faculty of Business and Management
University of Ulster
Shore Road
Jordanstown
Co. Antrim
Northern Ireland, BT37 OQB
Adrian Palmer
Professor of Services Marketing
Gloucestershire Business School
Pallas, PO Box 220
The Park Campus
Cheltenham
Gloucestershire, UK, GL50 2QF
United Kingdom
Patrick McCole
School of Business / Department of Marketing
University of Otago
P.O. Box 56
Dunedin
New Zealand
Anthony Ingold
Chandelle Consultancy
43 Carlyle Road
Edgbaston, Birmingham, B16 9BH
United Kingdom
Contents: 1 Introduction, 2 Reasons underlying variable pricing. 3 Individual
pricing and relationship marketing. 4 Yield management. 5 Hypothesis of the
research. 5.1 Methodology. 6 Conclusions and management implications.
References
56
Introduction
Information teclinology is allowing services organisations to set their prices in

very much the same way as traditionally practised in eastern bazaars - by
individual bargaining and haggling. "The price list" is not typical of small
businesses dealing with small numbers of buyers. It has no part in the business
methods of traders in many eastern countries for whom bartering on a one-to-one
basis is the norm. Price lists emerged in response to the industrialisation of
economies and the growth in the size of markets served by individual firms. Price
lists became a method of simplifying transactions between a large organisation
and large numbers of its customers.
Over time, there has been a tendency for societies to fragment in their motivations
to make purchases, which has been reflected in companies developing
increasingly fine methods of segmenting markets (Kotler et al., 1996). In the move
from mass marketing to target marketing, firms subtly developed multiple price
lists, based on slightly differentiated product offers aimed at different market
segments. Today, the process of market segmentation has proceeded to the point
where companies can realistically deal with individual market segments (Peppers
and Rogers, 1995).
Intriguingly, the conditions for pricing by suppliers of consumer goods and
services would appear to be reverting to those which apply in eastern bazaars, in
which the seller seeks to apply a price which is uniquely appropriate to each
individual buyer. There is plenty of evidence of this move towards unique one-toone pricing in the Internet based auction sites which have grown in number during
the late 1990s (Wisse, 1999, Palmer and McCole, 1999).
On-line auctions represent an extreme case of one-to-one pricing which is being
facilitated by information technology. Much more pervasive is the ability of firms
to subtly adjust prices offered to individual customers. Rather than having a fixed
price list, an enquirer for a specified product may receive different quotations at
different times of enquiry. Similarly, two different enquirers may simultaneously
receive different price quotations.
The theory and practice of relationship marketing has been based on an
assumption that companies are able and willing to enter a dialogue ttoough which
additional value is generated (Gummesson, 1998). A seller may learn more about
the needs and motivations of individual customers and develop product offers that
are unique in satisfying those needs. In this dyadic relationship a seller should be
able to assess the value which each individual buyer (or potential buyer) puts on
its product, and price its offer uniquely. To economists, the supplier would seek to
appropriate the consumer surplus which arises as a result of individuals being
prepared to pay a price which is higher than a ruling and uniform market price.
Likewise, organisations actively practising YM use differential prices and charge
customers using the same service at the same time different prices depending on
57
customer and demand characteristics (Kimes, 2000). Indeed, Donaghy at al (1998)
have outHned a 'Yield Segmentation Process' for managers operating YM systems
and state that it adds value to the customer since it affords the provision of a
product or service that more accurately meets the needs of more clearly defined
groups of guests.
There is now considerable evidence of companies who adjust prices according to
the unique circumstances of individual buyers. National newspapers for example,
typically charge low annual subscriptions to encourage uptake among potential
customers, but reduce their discounts as customers show increasing levels of
loyalty. Travel related companies have become sophisticated in finely adjusting
their prices according to their availability of capacity and the travel motivations of
the buyer. However, variable pricing of this nature would appear to undermine a
centi'al thesis of the relationship marketing argument, that trust is an essential
antecedent of successful long-term buyer-seller relationships (Ganesan 1994;
Morgan and Hunt 1994).
It has been noted that trust is a particularly important factor early in a relationship
and an essential precondition for the relationship to move to more committed
stages of development (Dwyer, Schurr, and Oh 1987; Grayson and Ambler 1999).
YM is essentially a form of price discrimination. Kimes (1994) raised the issue of
customer perception of price variability stating that 'customers must view [new]
procedures and policies as fair'. Therefore, the challenge for the manager
operating a YM system is to maintain the trust of his/her customers.
It is a hypothesis of this research that trust may be undermined where a buyer of
consumer goods or services perceives that the price that they are being offered for
a specified product is less equitable than a siinilar bundle of benefits offered to
another buyer, or offered to that customer on a different occasion.
The effect of price discrimination on buyer-seller relationships within YM systems
has yet to be explored in research. Similarly, relationship marketing has been
presented as an emerging paradigm during the 1990s, but its underlying axioms
have been increasingly challenged (Saren and Tzokas 1998). This paper explores a
further possible limitation of relationship marketing paradigm and YM systems,
namely that individual price discrimination may be perceived by buyers as
undermining trust in a service provider, and thereby undermining the
sustainability of a relationship.
2 Reasons underlying variable pricing

There is considerable evidence of a lack of sophistication in pricing used within
the services sector, with a suggestion that various forms of cost-based pricing
predominate (Zeithaml et al 1985). A company which charges a uniform price for
58
its products will only achieve maximum possible profits tlirough this pricing
method where consumers' evaluation of the product offer is homogenous and there
is no consumer surplus. Schematically, companies seek to move from the position
in Figure la to that in Figure lb ^.
Fig la: Non price discrimination
Fig la
Fig lb: 1^^ level price discrimination
Fig lb
Classical micro-economics has been based on an assumption of perfect knowledge

within a market place (Lipsey 1996), such that price differences between
individuals would become transparent and those buyers who were charged higher
prices by one seller would migrate towards sellers offering lower prices. Over
time, models of imperfect competition have developed to partially overcome this
effect, by recognising that product differentiation produces a number of subsegments in a market which can be discriminated with differential bundles of
product / price offers.
Traditional haggling over prices in open markets was visible for all to see. With
modern IT based systems of individual pricing, the results are less visible and can
typically only be compared indirectly. The lack of openness in pricing creates
conditions for mistrust. Indeed, several recent pricing studies suggest that
consumers' reactions to a price change depend not just on the magnitude and
direction of the change, but on buyers' perceptions of the seller's circumstances
and motivations that led to it (Bobinski et al, 1996). For example, both
Kahneman, Knetsch and Thaler (1986) and Kalapurakal, Dickson and Urbany
(1991) examined how consumers' perceptions of the "fairness" of price increases
were influenced by the circumstances that led to them. Kahneman et al. found that
buyers typically perceive a given price increase as "fair" if it is a reaction to an
increase in seller costs, but as unfair if it is a reaction to increased consumer
demand,
^ Pigou A. C, The economics of welfare, 1920
59
Similarly, Lichtenstein, Burton and O'Hara (1989) examined how consumers'
attributions regarding a retailer's motives for discounting a product influenced
their attitudes toward the deal. They found, for example, that consumers had more
negative attitudes toward the deal when they attiibuted it to the retailer's desire to
unload a difficult-to-sell offering.
Customer perception is therefore important, especially in relation to the use of IT,
since there is a greater opportunity to offer price differentials to consumers on a
one-to-one basis. Trust and mistrust are at bi-polar opposites (Pearce, 1974), and
consumers' who perceive that suppliers' are untrustworthy through various pricing
differentials consider them to be practising malfeasance, and not having their best
interests at heart. Therefore, consumers' risk that the price they pay at a particular
moment in time is the best price that they will get. Tmst and risk are often used
interchangeably in the marketing literature.
Williamsom (1993) states that trust in fact is redundant and it can be misleading to
use the term trust to describe commercial exchange for which cost-effective
safeguards have been devised in support for more efficient exchange. Calculative
trust therefore is a contradiction in terms, with a suggestion that consumers
conform to theories of economics, with price and not tmst, as the focal point for
commercial transactions.
Two recent marketing phenomena, assisted by developments in IT, have been
particularly important contributors to the development of individual pricing: YM
and relationship marketing.
3 Individual pricing and relationship marketing

Although the concept of relationship marketing has been positioned at various
points between being a short-term tactic and a fundamental marketing philosophy
(Fisk, Brown and Bitner, 1993), its core feature is the existence of an ongoing
dialogue between partners, such that a buyer will retiu'n to a seller in a nonrandom manner. Repeated purchases from a seller may be the result of a buyer
perceiving lower transaction costs in dealing with a previous exchange partner,
manifested through simplification of re-ordering processes and a reduction in
perceived risk. It has been noted that many ongoing relationships occur as a result
of inertia, one explanation of which may be the psychological cost to a buyer
which switching suppliers would entail. Ongoing buyer-seller relationships may
exist alongside a code of conduct (presumed or formalised) in which a seller is
presumed to be acting in co-operation rather than in conflict with the buyer
(Luhmann, 1979; Granovetter, 1985; Anderson et al, 1987; Dwyer et al, 1987;
Crosby et al, 1990; Miles and Snow, 1992).
60
Yield management
In many service sectors, the development of relationship marketing strategies has

been developed alongside yield management methods. Yield Management has
gained widespread acceptance in number of service industries where it assists the
manager to profitably match variable demand with fixed capacity. (Kimes, 1997,
2000, McMahon-Beattie and Palmer, 2000).
Simply, it is a revenue maximisation technique which aims to increase net yield
though the predicted allocation of available capacity to predetermined market
segments at optimum price (Donaghy et al, 1995). Yield management is not a
computer system or a software package but IT has allowed the extensive
accumulation, manipulation and analysis of data for effective pricing strategies in
forecasted periods of high and low demand. This in effect results in different
prices for different people at different times. It is the reason why some airline
passengers end up with a better deal than the businessperson who booked his/her
flight at the last minute. Again, this highlights the issue of maintaining consumer
trust when companies use variable pricing strategies.
Tmst is at the heart of relationship marketing and yield management. It is a
fundamental element to relational exchange. It is also reasonable to assume that
tmst is related to equity. Can a buyer trust a seller when there is a suspicion that
the seller is providing a lower price to other buyers for an identical bundle of
benefits? Likewise, if a new customer is targeted and is rewarded with low prices,
what does this say about loyal customers' ti'ust in the supplier? Should it
encourage individual buyers to disloyalty?
Hypothesis of the research
Consumers' level of trust in a company is greater where a policy of uniform

pricing is applied, compared with one where prices are flexible in response to
supply/demand conditions.
5.1 Methodology
The hypothesis is to be tested using a quasi-experimental framework in which a
sample of consumers received a series of communications from two organisations
for a similar product (a dining club). The two organisations' offers differ only in
respect of the method of pricing employed. A longitudinal survey will be
conducted in which the series of messages will be communicated to potential and
actual customers of the product, differentiated only by price and conditions of
availability. Trust by respondents in each product will be measured at the
61
conclusion of the research. The product will be "new" to respondents, so it was
assumed that trust at the outset was equal for the two products.
Trust is the dependent variable of this research. Butler (1991) developed a
conditions of trust inventory, and these scales were used to measure the conditions
of tiiist in a specific person. For the present study, these scales will be adapted to
examine the effects of price discrimination on trust in buyer seller relationships.
Butler's scales have been developed from the work of Jennings (1971) and
Gabarro (1978) and have been tested for validation and standardisation in many
studies. Butler identified 10 conditions of trust 1) availability 2) competence 3)
consistency 4) discreteness 5) fairness 6) integrity 7) loyalty 8) openness 9)
proinise fulfilment, and 10) receptivity. He also developed an eleventh scale
'overall trust', which tests the relationships between the conditions and overall
trust in an individual. Butler's scales will be adapted for this study on the basis of
the inputs of focus groups. Basic demographic and behavioural variables will also
be recorded and analysed. The research will focus on two dining clubs, which
offer a similar product in a selection of known restaurants. The dining clubs will
be positioned as offering a discount to the normal prices charged by the sample of
restaurants. The mean discount will be pitched at 10% below normal prices.
However, the dining clubs will differ in their variation of prices around this mean.
The sample of consumers will be contacted as follows:
Dining Club A: weekly newsletter by e-mail reminding customers of restaurants.
The same discounted prices will be offered at all times.
Dining Club B: weekly newsletter by e-mail giving special offers for the sample
of restaurants. Some deep discounts will be offered. At other times the price will
be higher than what would have been obtainable by dealing directly with the
restaurant.
Dining Club C: as dining club A, but communication was by printed flyer
Dining club D: as dining club B, but communication was by printed flyer.
Each dining club will be given a distinctive name to improve memorability. Six
iterations will follow over a period of 6 weeks. Respondents will have personal
knowledge of the restaurants involved. The limitations of this approach are
recognised. The research cannot develop trust on the basis of tangible property
qualities since there were no actual interaction with the service on which trust
could be based. However, the research design will allow trust to focus on
messages and how these are manipulated. By assumption, all of the dining clubs
will be equal in their ability to deliver what is promised.
62
6 Conclusions and management implications

By the nature of longitudinal research, it will take some time to gather in all data
and to analyse it for the development of trust. Too much research on the subjects
of trust and relationship marketing has relied on cross-sectional data and, as yet,
no research has been carried out on the effect of variable pricing on the level of
consumer trust in YM. As such the results of this research should provide service
managers with more customer-orientated YM strategies and ultimately improve
the effectiveness of their YM systems. Despite the advantages of the approach
adopted here, its limitation should be recognised, especially the absence of a
significant level of risk on the part of participants.
63
References
Anderson E., Lodish L.M. & Weitz B.A., Resource Allocation Behaviour in Conventional
Channels, Journal of Marketing Research, 24 (February), 1987, pp 85-97.
Butler J.K., Toward Understanding and Measuring Conditions of Trust: Evolution of a
Conditions of Trust Inventojy, Journal of Management, 17 (3), 1991, pp 643-663
Crosby L.A., Evans K.R., & Cowles D., Relationship Quality in Services Selling: An
Interpersonal Influence Perspective, Journal of Marketing, 54 (July), 1990, pp.68-81
Donaghy K. McMahon U & McDowell, D., Yield Management: An Overview, International
Journal of Hospitality Management, 14 (2), 1995, pp 139-150
Donaghy K., McMahon-Beattie U., Yeoman,!. & Ingold A., The Realism of Yield
Management, Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 4, 1998, pp 187-195
Dwyer F. Robert, Paul H. Schurr & Sejo Oh, Developing Buyer-Seller Relationships,
Journal of Marketing, 51 (April), 1987, pp 11-27.
Fisk R.P., S.W. Brown & M.J. Bitner, Tracking the Evolution of the Services Marketing
Literature, Journal of Retailing, 69 (1), 1993, pp 61-103
Ganesan & Shankar (), Determinants of Long-Term Orientation in Buyer-Seller
Relationships, Journal of Marketing, 58 (April), 1994, pp 1-19.
Granovetter M., Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Emdeddedness,
American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 91, 1985, pp. 481-510
Grayson, Kent and Tim Ambler, The dark side of long-term relationships in marketing
services. Journal of Marketing Research, 36 (1 ), 1999, p 132
Gummesson E., Implementation Requires a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, Academy of
Marketing Science, 26(3), 1998, pp. 242-249
Kahneman D., Knetsch J. & Thaler R., Fairness as a Constraint on Profit Seeking:
Entitlements in the Market, The American Economic Review, 76 (September), 1986, pp
728-741.
Kalapurakal R., Dickson P. & Urbany. J., Perceived Price Fairness and Dual Entitlement,
1991, pp. 788-793 in Rebecca Holman and Michael Solomon (eds.), Advances in
Consumer Research, 18. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research
Kimes S., Yield Management: An Overview, in Yeoman, I and Ingold, A. (Eds) Yield
Management, Strategies for the Service Industries, London, Cassell, 1997, pp 3-11.
Kimes S, A Strategic approach to Yield Management, in Ingold, A., McMahon-Beattie, U.,
and Yeoman, I. (Eds) Yield Management, Strategies for the Service Industries, 2"^
edition, London, Continuum, Forthcoming, 2000.
Kotler P., Makens J. & Bowens J., Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, 1996.
Lichtenstein D., Burton S. &. O'Hara. B.S., Marketplace Attributions and Consumer
Evaluations of Discount Claims, Psychology and Marketing, 6 (Fall), 1989, pp. 163180.
64
Lipsey R.G., Microeconomics, Addison Wesley Longman, 1996.

Luhmann, N., Trust and Power, New York: John Wiley, 1979.
McMahon-Beattie U & Palmer A., One for All or All for One: A Comparison of Everyday
Low Pricing and Yield Management Strategies in the Hotel Industry, Journal of
Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing, 8 (3), 2000, pp. 249-258.
Miles R.E. & Snow C.C., Causes of Failure in Network Organisations, California
Management Review, Summer, 1992, pp.93-72.
Morgan, Robert M. & Shelby D. Hunt, The Commitment-Trust Theory of Relationship
Marketing, Journal of Marketing, 58 (July), 1994, pp. 20-38.
Palmer A. & McCole P., The Virtual Re-intermediation of travel Services: A Conceptual
Framework and Empirical Investigation, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 6 (1), 1999,
pp.33-47.
Pearce W.B., Trust and Interpersonal Communication, Speech Monographs, 41, 1974, pp.
236-244.
Pigou A. C , The economics of welfare, 1920.
Saren M.J. & Tzokas, Some dangerous axioms of relationship marketing, Journal of
Strategic Marketing; 6 ( 3), 1998.
Peppers D. & Rogers M., A New Paradigm: Share of Customer, Not Market Share, 5 (3),
1995, pp. 48-51.
Williamson, O.E., Calculativeness, Trust, and Economic Organisation, Journal of Law and
Economics, 36, 1993, pp. 453-486.
Wisse B., The Internet- The Future of Travel Distribution, Key Note Speaker at the 1999
European Travel and Tourism Research Association Conference, Dublin, Ireland, 1999.
http://www.trc.dit.ie/priceline.ppt
Zeithaml V.A., Parasuraman A. & Berry L.L., Problems and Strategies in Services
Marketing, Journal of Marketing, 49, Spring, 1985, pp. 33-46.
Controlling the yield management process in the

hospitality business
Paolo Desinano, Maria Stella Minuti, Emanuela Schiaffella
Universita di Pemgia, Facolta di Economia
Centre Italiano di Studi Superior! sul Turismo e sulla Promozione Turistica
Via C.Cecci, 1
06088 S.M. degli Angeli, Assisi (PG).
Italy.
Contents: 1 Introduction. 2 A general framework to control hotel YMS. 3 General

considerations about demand forecasting. 4 General considerations about room
inventory control. 5 The control process: tracking. 5.1 Inventory report. 5.2 Sales
report. 5.3 Reservation report. 5.4 Pricing report. 5.5 Unsold report. 6 The
control process: checking. 7 The control process: signalling. 8 The control
process: controlling and updating. 9 Conclusions. References
1 Introduction
This paper focuses on the control activities entailed within a Yield Management
(YM) system for the hospitality business. The teclmical literature on this issue is
rather rare despite the fact that this topic is very critical in the evaluation of the
business effectiveness of the whole YM process.
Our intention in this inti*oduction is to define the meanings of "YM system" and of
"control" to avoid possible misunderstandings. Our framework is based on the
following assumptions:
1. We agree with the YM system definition contained in EC report (European
Commission, 1997). Precisely, we think that an authentic YM system
conresponds to those classified as "very high" in the report cited above.
2. The generic conceptual framework of a YM system is organised into five main
function components: market segmentation, pricing, forecasting, inventory
management and reservation.
3. The general criterion for managing the YM system is the concept of bid-price.
4. The control regards a single-unit firm. We have not considered the case of
multiple-unit firms such as hotel chains, consortia, et cetera.
66
5. The control illustrated considers neither organisational nor marketing aspects
and is limited to investigating the effectiveness of the demand forecasting
process.
In this paper our intention is to organise the many suggestions that have emerged
from studies and common practice in regard to the control issues of YMS into a
systematic framework.
In a YM oriented approach, systematic control is fundamental for (Educational
Institute of the American Hotel & Motel Association, 1990; Orkin E. B., 1988):
1. judging the effectiveness of forecasts;
2. measuring the adequacy of YM systems and procedures;
3. monitoring denials/regrets and confirmations for measuring the economic
perfoimance.
It is also important for assessing the performance of individuals and departments
in their efforts to achieve yield objectives ^ (for example, it may be important to
measure daily average revenue associated with a particular booking agent, in
relation to daily revenue potentially obtainable by the agent; and for observing the
impact of YM oriented strategies and tactics, leading to optimisation of their
application (Orkin, 1988).
The paper is organised into a section describing the general control architecture
and, after some general considerations about forecasting and room inventory
conti'ol, in four subsequent sections that treat specific issues regarding the phases
in which the control process can be articulated. A final section summarises the
topics discussed.
2 A general framework to control hotel YMS

This paragraph illustrates one possible general framework we can use to classify
and place the various activities entailed. The framework is based on the following
considerations. Within the global control activity, we can make a distinction
among tracking, checking, signalling and "control" in the strict sense of the word.
The controls are based on the data produced by hotel sales.
Then the first key component of an effective conti'ol system is a sales ti'acking
system that collects and organises the data generated during sale transactions.
'
A timely training programme for developing a working knowledge of the YM system

and for motivating employees towards yield objectives is very important. An interesting
work on this topic in the implementation phase is in (Donaghy, McMahon Beattie and
McDowell, 1997).
67
From this control phase, information reports are periodically and regularly issued.
They contain records of the actual values of different parameters regarding
reservation and sales patterns.
The second key component of the control process is a checking system that
compares the data tracked with parameters set by the yield manager. The output of
this comparison are two types of reports: warning reports and fatal reports, the
former evidence slight anomalies while the latter report critical situations for the
YMS. We called this activity of notification "signalling". These reports feed
control activity in the strict sense. Tracking, checking and signalling can be
performed by software while the yield analyst performs the control.
Figure 1: This figure illustrates the overall control process.
ptîFQr^castiiig;
}^nventoiYManagement;
-r.;^:H^;:'Saies'8t;v
Reservations
3 General considerations about demand forecasting

The importance of demand forecasting in the YM system has been greatly stressed
because forecasts represent the building blocks for optimisation and for room
inventory management (Kimes, 1989).
Therefore the accuracy of forecasts is of special importance because the
effectiveness of the whole YM system is derived from it. Consequently,
monitoring the accuracy of forecasts is an important part of the hotel YM system
control process. The problem of forecast accuracy concerns two different issues:
68
the first one can be seen as an ex ante problem regarding the measures a model
must adopt for a high level of accuracy. The second one can be seen as an ex post
problem and regards the evaluation of forecast accuracy by comparing the forecast
values with the actual values, that is, the real forecasting control process.
With regard to the ex ante issue, there are several factors, which can determine the
accuracy of the forecasts (Cross, 1997; Curry, 1994; Granger, 1989):
-
the forecasts must be carried out for different customer segments as booking
patterns, perception of the product and willingness to pay vary from segment
to segment;
the data set used for the forecast model must be the largest and most accurate
possible: if the input data used as explanatory variables are inaccurate then the
forecast will be inaccurate too and generally more data means more accurate
forecasts;
forecasts must be updated frequently: because most of the demand forecasting

models^ rely on reservations on hand at various dates before the date of stay, as
the hotel receives new reservations these must be added to the model and the
model must be carried out again. As (Cross, 1997) says:
"there are three secrets to accurately forecasting the behaviour of
nonconformist consumers in the amoeba market: reforecast, reforecast,
reforecast. Things happen every day that destroy the accuracy of your forecast,
no matter how much data you use or how accurate your forecasting
methodology is. The only way to keep up with the increasingly enti'opic
market is through reviewing, reassessing, and reforecasting."
YM operates on a daily basis: decisions on allocations must be made for

individual future days and for this reason forecasting models provide daily
forecasts of future demand. Therefore at least a daily updating of the forecast is
required for good model performance and, in fact, many hotels update their
forecasts every day. But sometimes, if the hotel has high levels of activity, more
frequent updating, for example every hour or even less, is required. Some hotels
update their forecasts even after each customer transaction.
Forecast updating is necessary to improve the accuracy of the model but it is not
sufficient to guarantee its complete effectiveness.
In fact, despite the considerable amount of information that is continuously added
to the reservation database, it is necessary to frequently monitor the adequacy of
the model in use and, if necessary, re-calibrate the model parameters (Schwartz
and Hiemstra, 1997). These issues, as they are related to the various phases of the
real control process, will be discussed in their respective paragraphs.
^ A list of forecasting methods and models is given in (Desinano, Minuti, Schiaffella,
Sfodera, 1999).
69
4 General considerations about room inventory

control
In hotel YMS control it is important to focus on four aspects: definition and
allocation of room inventory, length-of-stay control and group booking. Reports
should be available to the yield analyst allowing the manipulation of a given room
inventory structure when market conditions change.
The capacity definition must be determined in view of offsetting the effects of
cancellations, of no-shows and of early check outs, projected between the control
date and the amval date. In this way, by allowing for inventory overbooking,
hotels attempt to minimise the spoilage situation, whenever a unit of capacity is
allowed to go unsold (Wheatherford, 1991).
In an impmdent configuration, it is possible to define the overbooking level within
a local market structure, where nearby competing properties can solve any
overselling problem. Furthermore, the possibility of up-grading allows for a more
aggressive overbooking policy.
The allocation process requires a nested inventory stmcture, based on buckets of
various parameters, for example length of stay, different packages and so on
(Berretta, Desinano, Minuti, Schiaffella and Sfodera, 2000). There are many
optimisation techniques for the protection of each bucket, based on a mathematical
programming approach or on a marginal revenue heuristic (Yeoman and Ingold,
1997), but the objective is to limit sales in the lower value classes and encourage
up-sells. Since hotels offer several products or packages, a multi-dimensional
inventory nesting structure (Desinano, Minuti, Schiaffella and Sfodera, 1999) is
more appropriate.
The length of stay control process trades off one and/or multiple day requests,
given displaced revenues generated by accept/deny decisions.
Another important component of the hotel YM toolbox is the conti'ol of group
bookings, taking into account the expected spilled demand ^, the expected
displaced revenue and the expected relocated demand (walk-in guests) '^.
When full price demand is denied for at least one discount customer, it is spill.
(Wheatherford, 1991).
See on this argument (Bastiani, 1999).
70
5 The control process: tracking

As we have said, the first key component of an effective control system is a sales
tracking system that collects and organises the data generated during sale
transactions.
The data tracked can be organised in output reports ^, by information objective,
issued periodically and regularly (Figure 2).
Some examples of these reports are Usted below.
Figure 2: Type of reports issued in control process phases
SilesSti
Warning
Report
Check
Report
5.1 Inventory report

This report illustrates the room inventory situation, referred to a given time frame
(for example one or two weeks). So, one could visuaHse, line by line:
-
arrival date;
day of week;
A good illustration of Optims software reports is in (Pizzolante, 1999).
71
days remaining to arrival date;
rooms available;
actual level of overbooking;
actual level of acceptable reservations for each rate class (if nesting stmcture is
adopted).
5.2 Sales report

This report illustrates various information about room sales and can be issued
daily, weekly and monthly. Line by line, this report, concerning a given anival
date, could contain (all data are recorded by rate class):
-
actual rooms sold, by length of stay;
actual rooms sold to clients arriving on the date;
actual rooms occupied by stay-overs;
actual rooms occupied by over-stays;
actual level of no-shows;
actual level of early check-outs;
actual average daily revenue;
rate percentage (found dividing actual average daily revenue by the rack rate);
actual number of rooms sold to walk-ins;
actual extra revenues;
actual displaced rooms and revenues;
actual spilled demand;
group net revenue (that is, actual group revenues minus displaced revenues);
yield percentage, obtained dividing revenue realised for the specified day by
potential revenue for that day;
actual revenue per available room;
actual revenue per available customer.
5.3 Reservation report

This report contains various information about room reservations and can be
72
issued daily, weekly and monthly.

Line by line, this report, concerning a given arrival date, could contain (all data
are recorded by rate class):
-
actual rooms sold, by length of stay;
actual level of tumaways;
actual level of definitive reservations;
actual level of non-definitive reservations;
actual level of reservation with options;
actual level of reservation without options;
actual level of guaranteed reservation;
actual level of non-guaranteed reservation;
actual level of denials;
actual level of regrets;
actual level of cancellations.
5.4 Pricing report

This report could contain, for each day, the threshold values (or the bid price ^)
calculated by the YM system. In particular:
-
rate classes deriving from marketing analysis;
bid price for the day;
length of stay bid price ^;
minimum acceptance price ^.

Bid prices are set for the room and the service is sold only if the offered rate exceeds
the sum of the bid prices of all units needed to supply the service (Talluri, Van Ryzin,
1998); (EBNT, Ires Liguria, lal Emilia Romagna, CST Assisi, Accademia CT Trento,
1998).
In a simplified version, the length of stay bid price is the arithmetical average of the bid
prices of different days comprising the period of stay (EBNT, Ires Liguria, lal Emilia
Romagna, CST Assisi, Accademia CT Trento, 1998).
Minimum price of acceptance is obtained dividing the difference of displaced revenue
minus extra-room revenue by the number of requests (Bastiani, 1999).
73
5.5 Unsold report

This report could be referred to a given time frame and could allow the
visualisation of some causes that could generate an unsold; in particular, line by
line:
-
aiTival date;
day of week;
room capacity available for any arrival date;
actual level of tumaways;
actual level of definitive reservations;
actual level of non definitive reservations;
actual level of reservation with options;
actual level of reservation without options;
actual level of denials;
actual level of regrets,
actual level of cancellations;
actual level of over-stay;
actual level of early check-outs.
6 The control process: checking

The second key component of the control activity is checking focused on the
comparison between the data tracked and that forecasted (YM systems could also
produce recommendation reports, as in figure 2, in which the yield analyst can
find information concerning an optimal scenario system, elaborated on the basis of
segmentation, forecasting, overbooking and allocation models).
In this phase of control process, check reports (Figure 2) are useful and contain
records extrapolated from information reports, issued in the tracking phase, and
from forecasting process.
These reports, concerning a given arrival date, could contain (all data are recorded
by rate class):
74
expected/actual rooms sold, by length of stay;
expected/actual rooms sold to clients arriving on the date;
expected/actual rooms occupied by stay-overs;
expected/actual rooms occupied by over-stays;
expected/actual level of no-shows;
expected/actual level of early check-outs;
expected/actual number of cancellations;
expected/actual number of rooms sold to walk-ins;
expected/actual spilled demand;
expected/actual level of definitive reservations;
expected/actual level of non definitive reservations;
expected/actual level of reservation with options;
expected/actual level of reservation without options.
The evaluation of forecast accuracy is based on the magnitude of the forecast

error, that is, on the difference between forecast value and actual value. The
selection of the best error measure is not simple because of the absence of a single
universally accepted measure of accuracy (Schwartz 1999). The most common
measures of accuracy are:
-
mean absolute deviation (MAD);
mean squared error (MSE);
mean absolute percentage error (MAPE);
mean square percentage error (MSPE);
standard deviation of error (SDE) ^.
The selection of an appropriate eiTor measure is, however, an important task since
the eiTor measure should reflect the estimated damage caused by the forecast
error, i.e. the cost of error (Schwartz, 1999). For example, the squared error
measures assume that as the forecast error increases, the resulting damage to the
hotel increases exponentially. This is not the case of ratio (percentage) based error
^ A list of the most common measures of accuracy with a detailed report of their use in
the literature and the justifications adduced to their choice is given in (Witt and Witt,
1992).
75
measures which are less affected by extreme eiTors and, being independent of
scale, are good relative measures when comparing different techniques.
Unfortunately there is little empirical evidence of the actual cost of error functions
in the hotel industry. It has been said that the cost of an over-forecast error can be
approximated by the hotel production cost function which is more often linear
than exponential, while the cost of an under-forecast eiTor is more difficult to
generalise (Schwartz, 1999).
On the contrary, studies conducted in the airline sector (CuiTy, 1994) reveal that
over-forecasting is more harmful than under-forecasting because it has a greater
impact on revenue. The same considerations made for this sector seem applicable
to hotels as over-forecasting could save too many rooms and the hotel is more
likely to remain with some empty rooms, thus losing the entire amount of the rate,
while under-forecasting leads to a full hotel but with too many discount clients
(not enough rooms saved for the late-booking, high value client). The loss in this
situation is the difference between full and discounted rates.
As we have seen it is quite probable that the cost of the forecast error is
asymmetrical; that is, the cost of an over-forecast error might be larger (or
smaller) than the cost of an under-forecast error. This asymmetry should be
properly addressed by the error measure and (Schwartz, 1999) suggests a cost of
error function when over-forecast and under-forecast costs are different.
As we have seen, since the actual cost of error is not known for a certainty, it is
not possible to indicate a single error measure that is likely to be more appropriate.
In practice, because there is no evidence of a quadratic loss function, preference in
many cases goes to MAD and MAPE, also because they facilitate comparison
between different forecasting models. This is not a secondary reason as there are
many methods applicable for forecasting hotel reservations and often the choice of
the most appropriate model can be difficult.
7 The control process: signalling

The last formalised phase of the YM control is signalling. The outputs of this
phase are two types of reports: warning reports and fatal reports, the former notify
slight anomalies while the latter report critical situations for the YMS (Figure 2).
As we have already said, once a particular forecasting model has been chosen, a
constant monitoring of its adequacy is absolutely necessary for the effectiveness
of the entire YM system. Therefore the analysis of error measures is also a tool in
the continuous evaluation of the accuracy of forecasts so as to intei-vene at the first
sign of excessive deviation between forecasted and actual data. A very useful tool
for the systematic monitoring of forecasting accuracy is the tracking signal and
graph (Kimes, 1998). Tracking signal values can be calculated by dividing the
76
cumulative forecast errors by the moving MADs. Tracking signal values generally
near zero show a good performance of the forecast model in time, while values far
from zero, positive or negative, are signals of poor forecast accuracy deriving
from forecasts lower (under-forecast) or higher (over-forecast) than the actual
values.
The graph of the tracking signal values over time (i.e. days) offers the best way to
analyse the trend of the forecast error as time goes by. As long as the analysis of
the graph reveals a tracking signal trend within an acceptable range, forecasts can
be considered under control and therefore accurate.
Naturally these range values cannot be defined universally but vary according to
specific characteristics of the hotel (Bolt, 1988). A hotel that registers high
demand fluctuations from period to period must expect a higher error margin and
therefore define a higher tolerance range compared to a hotel that operates in a
more stable environment. However an empirical rule has been defined (Kimes,
1998) which indicates that a range lower than 3a can be considered acceptable.
If the ti'acking signal values escape the range of values considered acceptable and
if this situation goes on, it is necessary to make some adjustments to the forecast
model.
In fact, the control process should not be restricted to an evaluation of the forecast
performance compared to actual values, but should help in identifying the reasons
for high deviations between forecasted and actual values and consequently point
out possible remedies (Bolt, 1988). For example, high tracking signal values,
consistently positive or negative, might result from new demand trends: a resort
has become a less popular destination or, on the conti'ary, it attracts more tourists
as a result of some event (for example the opening of a new congress centre in the
area). In such cases the forecast analyst must consider these new factors,
reassessing, i.e. increasing or reducing, the forecasts. Only one or few anomalous
values of the tracking signal (very high or low) can instead result from isolated
factors, which perhaps are not going to happen again (for example a major sport or
cultural event). In this case the anomalous registered value must be realigned
because it can invahdate future forecasts (Granger, 1989).
When there are no evident explanations for large differences between forecasted
and actual values, the adopted forecasting technique may no longer be adequate
and it could be necessary to evaluate alternative forecasting methods.
8 The control process: controlling and updating

The control process continues with the control phase, in which the yield analyst
evaluates any warning or fatal signals; it is important to emphasise that the human
factor in hotel forecasting and control cannot be underestimated (Orkin, 1989).
77
Forecasts must be carefully evaluated by a manager who knows the market

conditions in which his hotel operates.
Therefore the analyst's "clinical judgement" of the surrounding environment must
be the last and most important control form available for YM.
The output of this phase is the control report, in which the yield analyst formalises
his evaluations and considerations (Figure 2). Finally, there is the analyst's real
intervention that may be articulated in two levels: the first concerns access to a
model for running simulations; the second level allows the modification of the
model and its parameters, for example the number of ti'ansient available
reservations (Daudel and Vialle, 1989).
Conclusions
The importance of these control phases within the YM process is straightforward.

This paper was not intended to propose any special innovations in hospitality YM
practices but to reorder the various controlling options into an organic outline. We
think that this outline is useful both for future research and as a practical tool. In
fact these reports can be use as check-list to evaluate commercial YM systems or
to measure the YM "orientation" of existing hotel information systems.
78
References
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Management System, tesi di laurea, Economia del Turismo, Universita di Perugia, 1999.
Pizzolante G., Le Meridien & Forte - Una catena che applica uno yield management
system, tesi di diploma, Economia e gestione dei servizi turistici, Universita di Perugia,
1999.
Bolt G.J., Market and Sales Forecasting, Franklin Watts, New York, 1988.
Cross R.G., Revenue management: hard-core tactics for market domination, Brodway
Books, New York, 1997.
Curry R.E., Forecasting For Revenue Management, Scorecard - Technical brief. Third
Quarter, 1994.
Desinano P., Minuti M.S., Schiaffella E. & Sfodera F., Issues regarding yield management
application in the hospitality industry. New directions for research. Proceedings of the
4^*^ Annual International Yield Management Conference, Colchester (UK), 1999.
Berretta M., Desinano P., Minuti M. S., Schiaffella E. & Sfodera F., Yield Management Uno strumento innovativo per la gestione dei ricavi nelle imprese turistiche, Economia
& Management, n. 2, Marzo, 2000, p. 73-90.
Donaghy K., McMahon Beattie U. & McDowell D., Implementing yield management:
lessons from the hotel sector. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management, 9/2, 1997, p. 50-54.
EBNT, Ires Liguria, lal Emilia Romagna, CST Assisi, Accademia CT Trento, Yield
Management per le piccole e medie imprese ricettive, software ipertestuale per le Unita
Formative Capitalizzabili '98-'99, 1998.
Daudel S. & Vialle G., Le yield management, InterEditions, Paris, 1989.
Educational Institute of the American Hotel & Motel Association, Yield Management Video Program Companion Materials, Michigan, 1990.
European Commission, Yield Management in small and medium-sized enterprises in the
tourism industry - General report, Luxembourg, 1997.
Granger C.W.J., Forecasting in Business and Economics, Academic Press, San Diego
(CA), 1989.
Kimes S.E., The basic of Yield Management, The Cornell H.R.A. Quarterly, November,
Vol.30. No.3, 1989, p. 14-19.
Kimes S.E., Seminar in Yield management, CST, Assisi, May 18-20, 1998.
Orkin E.B., Boosting Your Bottom Line with Yield Management, The Cornell H.R.A.
quarterly, February, 1988,.p 52-56
79
Orkin E.B., Forecasting: Cristall Ball or CRT? The Bottomline, June-July, 1989, p. 2029.Schwartz Z., Monitoring the accuracy of multiple occupancy forecasts, FIU
Hospitality Review, Vol.17, Nos. 1 & 2, Spring/Fall, 1999, p. 29-42.
Schwartz Z. & Hiemstra S., Improving the Accuracy of Hotel Reservation Forecasting:
Curve Similarity Approach, Journal of Travel Research, Summer, 1997, p. 3-14.
Talluri K. & Van Ryzin G., An analysis of bid price controls for network revenue
management. Management Science, vol. 44, no. 11, part 1 of 2, november, 1998, p.
1577-1593.
Wheatherford L. R., Perishable Asset Revenue Management in General Business
Situations, Ph.D. Dissertation, Darden Graduate School of Business Administration,
University of Virginia, 1991.
Witt S.F. & Witt C.A., Modeling and Forecasting Demand in Tourism, Academic Press,
London, 1992.
Yeoman I. & Ingold A., Yield Management. Strategies for the Service Industries, Cassell,
London, 1997.
Part II
Yield management: new applications
Revenue management in visitor attractions: a

ease study of the EcoTecli Centre, Swaffham,
Norfolk
Julian Hoseason
Academic Dean
Institute for Higher Education - Butte Campus
Glion Hotel School
Route de Glion 111
1825 Glion sur Montreux
Switzerland
Contents: 1 Introduction. 2 Background. 3 The economics of visitor attractions. 4

Marketing and ideal markets. 5 Yield management. 6 Data gathering. 7 Results
and discussion. 8 Conclusions. References.
Introduction
Visitor attractions form an integral part of the total tourism product for both the
domestic and incoming visitors to a region. Attractions cover a broad spectrum of
activities based upon the natural or man-made environment ranging from heritage
sites thi'ough to purpose built centres usually devoted to leisure and recreational
activities (Getz, 1993; Swarbrooke, 1999; Hall and Page, 1999).
The attractions sector is complex in definition and provides different levels of
engagement with the visitor when the 'encounter' takes place (Crouch, 1999).
While visitors enjoy this variety, attractions offer an intangible experience
(Yeoman and Leask, 1999) which makes visitor management and marketing
complex (Prentice et al, 1998J since seasonality and a spatial element enters into
the pricing strategy.
In the mid 1990s Norfolk was experiencing a decline in its agricultural base and
indicators suggested alternative strategies needed implementation to avoid
unemployment and social blight in the community of Swaffham. Regional funding
from the European Union enabled an imaginative proposal for the development of
a sustainable attraction to act as a growth-pole for inward investment.
The EcoTech Centre was to be an experimental showcase in design and
84
construction techniques with the emphasis upon environmental management and
education. As an attraction, the EcoTech Centre would need to reach a critical
mass of around 50,000 visitors per annum to be viable. The centre would be
competing against the region's existing atti*actions, the coast and an area of
wetland known as the 'Norfolk Broads'. Yield Management (YM) is widely
regarded as a technique for balancing demand and supply tlirough rigorous
management of revenue (Cross, 1998; Edgar, 1998; Fan:ell and Whelan-Ryan;
1998; Daudel and Vialle, 1994). The success of YM is dependent upon a balanced
relationship between inventory or capacity management and pricing strategies
(Kimes, 1997; Cross, 1998). To optimize revenue, YM uses mathematical
algorithms (Belobaba and Wilson, 1997) to improve profitability. Reduction in
seasonal fluctuations in demand produces greater financial stability and in the
attractions sector may assist in the conservation of sites where carrying capacities
have been reached. YM has been widely adopted by most service industries,
especially in airlines (Larsen, 1988; Ingold and Huyton, 1997), hospitality (Orkin,
1988; Donaghy et al; 1995) tour operations (Hoseason and Jolins, 1998; Laws,
1997) and in the cruise industry (Dickinson and Vladimir, 1997; Cross, 1998) and
is now widely accepted as part of strategic management.
As the implementation of YM matures across the travel and tourism industry, the
attractions sector has yet to extensively adopt YM as a management teclinique that
produces lower financial performance in comparison to other sectors. Research by
Yeoman and Leask (1999) into heritage visitor attractions indicated the highly
seasonal nature of the market necessitated in revenue management techniques
being applied to main season activities with more specialist activities being
introduced during low or out of season periods for maximization in revenue.
However, major capital projects funded by the UK's National Lottery, may have
caused distortion to the attractions sector at local, regional and national level
where sudden increases in market capacity cannot be met by corresponding
increases in visitor activity.
Over 1.2 billion has been awarded to over 180 major projects with an additional
2.8 billion being awarded through European funded grants for projects (Anon,
2000). Key projects like the Royal Armouries in Leeds, or, the Earth Centre have
failed to live up to projections not only visitor numbers, but also in revenue
management where over-estimates and losses threaten their future (McClarence,
2000). For the EcoTech Centre, its future success may not simply lie in
developing a highly imiovative attraction, but consider micro-market behaviour in
relation to the capacity of the 'ideal market' or catchment area.
Background
The EcoTech Centre has been built on a brown-field site on the edge of
85
Swaffliam, a market town in the centre of Norfolk. Sited on a former derelict
firework factory, the project aimed at cleaning up a polluted site for the benefit of
the community. The original proposal envisaged an experimental building in
design and constiiiction techniques attracting 50,000 visitors pa and provides an
interactive learning centre based on environmental education. By targeting the
enliancement of leisure and tourism facilities, it was hoped to attract high inward
investment to a showcase project.
Regeneration would provide a high profile attraction in order to bolster the
regional tourism and leisure product base. An experimental building would
provide an opportunity to be innovative in not only design, but also constmction
tecliniques where fusion between designers and the construction industry could
present alternatives to current building practices where visitors and the community
would be engaged with the project.
The 'environmentally friendly' experimental building was designed to embrace
energy efficiency, ecological waste treatment and provide a centre for
environmental education with facilities in skills training for the local community.
Management and marketing of a multi-faceted project requires great
understanding of site development and management where market segment
behaviour and pricing strategies for the management of revenue are effectively
implemented.
The EcoTech Centre would form part of an economic growth pole (Higgins, 1983)
where a group of 'propulsive enterprises' would produce spread effects within the
region. d'Hauteserre (1997) highHghted the positive economic impacts this
teclinique brought to the Marne Valley since the establishment of Disneyland,
Paris.
The EcoTech Centre was planned by the partnership between Breckland District
Council and the EcoTech Centre Trustees to be a high profile EU funded capital
project to optimize benefits to the community. Offering an eco - based experience
would attract additional investment into the region and alter the publics'
perceptions of the attractions sector profile.
Provision of a sustainable resource was seen as critical to the project. As part of
the site development programme, a wind turbine with viewing platform was built
by Ecotricity and opened to visitors in May 1999. Instantly, this massive structure
provided a focal point and Unique Selling Point (USP) for the site since there were
no similar attractions in the UK. The decision to construct a viewing platform had
been based upon visitor experiences of a similar attraction in Europe.
The opening of the wind turbine has pushed visitor numbers up to 28,500 and
revised targets have been reduced to 32,000 which reflects current performance
more accurately.
Future plans include the development of an experimental eco-house, organic
86
garden and using COPIS funding, build an interactive walk-through compositor to
enliance the attractions coverage of future techniques in sustainability of
resources. As EcoTech matures as an attraction and the novelty factor diminishes
the need for revenue management will increase. The reliance upon re-designing of
interpretation and programmes of exhibitions will form only part of the revenue
management strategy where the shift towards more specialist and communitybased micro-markets will need to be addressed.
3 The economics of visitor attractions

The visitor attractions sector is highly fragmented and diverse (Bull, 1995). The
very diversity in nature of the market dictates the economic conditions which
impact upon the market and the operators or suppliers within in it. At one end of
the product continuum natural heritage sites are often free to visitors and managed
either by government agencies, for example English Heritage or organisations like
the National Trust that has charity status.
At the other end of the continuum, there are commercially based organisations
providing built attractions that require profit or revenue maximization (Bull,
1995;Tribe, 1995; Yeoman and Leask, 1999). Since alteration to public funding in
the 1990s, many organisations irrespective of organisational structure and status,
have increasingly used commercial i.e. revenue maximization techniques to
support attractions' viability. Similar to the accommodation sector, visitor
attractions (Yeoman and Leask, 1999) are capital intensive or are high in capital
value as in the case of built heritage sites. However, there is also an 'unpriced'
value (Bull, 1995) within the economic structure of attractions.
These include social cost/ benefit pricing and tourist values that are elements all
included within the tourist product. They may be inseparable from the experience,
but cannot be given a market value (Sinden and Worrell, 1979) and this
particularly applies to the natural environment. Managers of visitor attractions
subsequently manage revenue through either profit maximization, break-even
pricing or social cost/ benefit pricing.
As Bull (1995) points out, it makes comparison of economic or financial
performance almost impossible, particularly where local authority assist in
financial support or donations are made. A number of high profile projects funded
tlii'ough the National Lottery, for example, the Millennium Dome or the
Armouries in Sheffield, have foundered where altmism and social cost/ benefit
pricing has tried to defy gravity models along with economic modelling in demand
and supply. The result: a distorted picture in terms of visitor numbers and
ultimately the financial viability. A massive influx in major projects funded by the
National Lottery has caused existing atti'actions management problems on
87
national, regional and local scales.

Wanhill (1998) identified attractions have high fixed costs either tluough capital
investment required to establish or to expand the development of an attraction.
Operational and variable costs are impacted upon by the seasonality of the
attraction and may force operators to use cost-orientated pricing to ensure
contribution margins are met. While admissions prices form the core of income
generation (Swarbrooke, 1999), each attraction suffers from an element of price
discretion to cover short run operational costs (Bull, 1995; Wanhill, 1998). Low
marginal costs may enable a greater range in price discretion. However, pricing
strategies often include an element of visitor's perception of 'value for money'.
Reliance on measuring admission prices based upon a general mle of market
knowledge and visitor perception increases risk. High visitor numbers are usually
required to meet break-even points and this makes attractions susceptible to the
vagaries of weather, which alter visitor numbers and ability to effectively manage
revenue.
Yeoman and Leask (1999) identified heritage based attractions exhibit operational
and financial seasonal dependency characteristics that makes the need for stronger
revenue management to maximize revenue during peak periods. Swarbrooke
(1999) suggested success must not be measured by visitor volume, but tlirough
visitor spend. Pricing strategies may target market segments and be used
effectively to discriminate against visitors as a teclinique in visitor management
particularly where a heritage attraction has reached its carrying capacity. Research
by Prentice, Witt and Hamer (1998) indicates there should be a shift away from
viewing visitors purely upon socio-economic profiling and move towards a model
of benefit segmentation, as it may be a truer reflection of consumer behaviour and
willingness to pay.
4 Marketing and ideal markets

It has now been firmly established that tourist products are offered to highly
segmented consumer markets either tlirough behavioural (Cohen, 1979; Plog,
1973) or archetypal characteristics (e.g. Holloway and Robinson, 1995).
Middleton (1996) suggested that culturally there was unifomiity in drawing in
basic range of segments to visitor attractions irrespective of destination. These
segments are broken down into:
1. local residents living within half an hour's drive;
2. regional residents making day visits and ti'avelling up to 2 hours depending
upon motivating power of the site;
3. visitors staying with friends and family within about an hour from the site;
4. visitors staying in serviced or no-serviced accommodation within about an

hour;
5. group travel;
6. school and educational visits;
Prentice et al (1998) recognised the importance of benefit segmentation rather
than follow a too generalized socio-economic analysis and ignored the geographic
nature of 'ideal markets' which Middleton indicated were important. Getz (1993)
modelled the 'tourist business district' in terms of attractions being mutually
surrounded and interact with tourism services (i.e. accommodation and transport)
and the central functions of government, retail sector, offices and meetings where
the access and movement of people were important.
However, this does not fully explain the 'ideal market'. Attractions display spatial
characteristics which cannot be simply analysed through distance decay models
(Bull, 1995) or consumer profiles. Distance decay assumes the level of activity
decreases with distance measured either in time or absolute measurement.
For spatial interaction to take place, there needs to be 'perfect' complementarity
i.e. demand in one place has to be matched with supply in another (Ullman, 1956).
By using gravity models, marketers of visitor attractions should consider not only
market segmentation processes, but also, consider the attractions 'mass' as a
pulling power.
Where an intervening opportunity exists, (i.e. alternative supply) an alternative
atti'action will only be visited by tourists if there is a criteria match. Empirical
evidence suggests marketing managers tend to mismatch the degree of
competition with other attractions without analyzing their own customer base to
check behavioural characteristics.
In terms of pricing strategies, there may be greater emphasis upon consumer
perception in 'value for money' and the tourist values than maximization in
revenue opportunities tlirough value added processes. Christaller (1966) modelled
location in terms of service hierarchy and matched these to distance and sizes of
population to produce theoretical ideal markets. In reality 'ideal markets' or
catchment areas will produce not a rigid circle or hexagon on a map, but fluid
lines based upon the attractions 'mass' and the efficiency of flows within transport
systems.
The key to recent growth in many attractions has been matching product
development with demographic and life style changes (Fry, 1997). Numerous
attractions use pricing structures to attract the over 55's (Ananth, 1992)
particularly with grandchildren.
Changes in service provision has aimed at higher quality and more personalized
service, for example, membership schemes, timed tickets or restrictions in access
to use retail or hospitality services. Attractions have increasingly recognised the
89
importance of a growing secondary role in providing a meeting place where the
emphasis is on hospitality or retail provision rather than a repeat visit to the core
area of the attraction whether it is an ecclesiastical site, museum, zoo or a themed
site.
5 Yield management
As the implementation of Yield Management (YM) nears maturity as a
management tool, published research now covers airhnes (Larsen, 1988; Smith,
Leikuhler and Dan:ow, 1992; Daudel and Vialle 1994; Belobaba and Wilson,
1997; Ingold and Huyton, 1997), hotels (Orkin, 1988; Donaghy, McMahon and
McDowell, 1995, tour operations (Hoseason and Johns, 1998; Laws, 1997), cruise
and car rental operations.
These studies range from technology impact and implementation studies to
marketing, human resource management, revenue and inventory management.
Few studies have been made on built visitor attractions whether they are heritage
based or theme parks.
Built visitor atti'actions industry shares a number of common characteristics with
other travel and tourism sectors. Both heritage and puipose built visitor attraction
sites have capacity relatively constrained either tlirough the canying capacity of
the site or tlirough other factors, for example, planning permission or car parking
facilities. Demand is both seasonal and highly segmented (Cross, 1998; Wanliill,
1998; Yeoman and Leask, 1999). Supply may also be consti-ained through
seasonality or, in the case of heritage visitor atti*actions, through conservation
policies.
Subsequently, the different nature in managing organisations where they straddle
the public/ private and charity divide, requires fundamentally different strategies
for managing revenue even though they may emulate revenue techniques from the
private sector. While public sector organisations have to give greater consideration
to social cost, the use of revenue maximization techniques may have impact upon
funding through central and local government budgetary control. However, shifts
in government funding has placed greater dependence on public sector
organisations to re-evaluate revenue management and become more empowered
and independent in control, making the implementation of YM techniques even
more appropriate in their strategies for revenue management.
Kimes (1989, 1997) identifies five necessary conditions for effective YM. These
are:
1. fixed capacity;
2. high fixed costs;
90
3. low variable cost;
4. time - varied demand;
5. similarity of inventory.
Kimes (1989, 1997) augments these conditions with five "necessary ingredients"
for the successfully implementation of YM:
1. market segmentation;
2. historical demand and booking patterns;
3. pricing knowledge;
4. overbooking policy;
5. information systems.
Research by Yeoman and Leask (1999) into heritage visitor attractions in
Scotland, indicated that visitor attractions match to a greater or lesser extent the
core necessary conditions and ingredients in order to implement revenue
maximizing techniques. Unlike the accommodation sector visitor attractions are
dedicated more specifically to a particular tourist market (Bull, 1995).
Clearly, this indicates a more customized approach to implementation where
careful consideration to the site and local conditions must be made. Cross (1998)
suggested where markets are mature, over-supplied and showing signs of
congestion, organisations need to re-focus on micro-markets for the benefits of
effective revenue management to take place and it is here that visitor attractions
now need to concenti'ate.
Schwartz (1998) suggests that the perishability of the product and the customer's
willingness to pay are in fact the key elements in YM. The necessary conditions
and ingredients identified by Kimes and Cross are often overstated and may be
conti'ibuting factors and embody misconceptions and misunderstandings of price
demand elasticity and consumer behaviour.
Substantial research by numerous authors (notably Lieberman, 1993; Farrell and
Whelan-Ryan, 1998; Edgar, 1998) indicates that different sectors of the travel and
tourism industry apply YM tecliniques differently (Smith et al, 1992). Both Orkin
(1988) and Lieberman (1993) recognised YM can be effectively implemented
without sophisticated computer or management systems.
The Millennium Commission has reported a 4 billion-programme covering over
180 capital projects to celebrate the millennium. In the visitor attractions market,
impact studies tended to focus on individual projects at the time of funding bids
being made rather than a more holistic approach.
While these projects have upgraded and enabled greater diversity in choice, this
type of product development may impact upon pricing strategies (Middleton,
91
1996; Edgar, 1997; Poon, 1993) in order for new sites to reach critical mass in
visitor numbers. Established visitor attractions may have to alter pricing strategies
to counter any destabilization and lowering of yield.
Capacity management should therefore be given far higher visibility and inclusion
in revenue management processes than Schwartz (1998) credits.
6 Data gathering
The methodology incorporated extensive literature searches within the field of
YM. As the implementation and research into YM matures the experience and
widening of studies enables researchers to draw upon a more extensive pool of
knowledge for evaluation.
The research methodology for this investigation reviewed major annual surveys by
the English Tourism Council (ETC) and the East of England Tourist Board
(EETB) together with other trade publications in order to obtain contemporary
information.
In order to obtain empirical data, a semi-structured interview took place with
Anne Bloomfield, manager of the EcoTech Centre in order to obtain qualitative
data. Questions were designed to reveal not only historic experience of visitor and
revenue management, but also to evaluate future development plans in relation to
site capacity and segmentation processes.
In addition, responses were being evaluated in relation to the results of two
surveys that had recently been undertaken. One survey had been carried out on
behalf of the EcoTech Centre and the other on behalf of the members of the
Norfolk Tourist Attractions Association (NTAA). Generally, the questionnaires
were designed to look at visitor perceptions of the attractions and included
standard questions to establish visitor profiles.
The semi-structured interview was designed to cover questions based upon
Cross's (1997) core concepts of revenue management in order to establish the
EcoTech's management experiences or strategies towards:
pricing strategies;
main market segments;
ti'ends in micro-markets;
incentives for repeat business;
establish data on individual organisational experiences in YM;
booking lead-time trends.
92
Both questionnaires had been carried out over May to June 2000. The EcoTech
Centre included on-site sampHng where the focus was on usage and perceptions of
faciHties on site as well as off-site surveys in adjacent market towns that focussed
on awareness. The NTAA survey was intended to establish reasons behind poor
attendance by local visitors and to analyze spatial trends within the region by
using a number of market towns spread out over the region, but always located
near a major attraction.
7 Results and discussion

The EETB estimated there were 3.2 million trips to Norfolk where visitors spent
434 million on tourism related services of which 7% were overseas visitors who
spent 97 million. In 1998 Norfolk had around 567,000 visits spread across 69
major visitor attractions (EETB, 2000). Since 1995, many attractions within the
region have either remained stable or seen a reduction of between 3% and 7.5%.
These figures broadly follow known national trends (Hanna, 1999; Howell, 2000).
Difficulties in analysis stems from lack in consistency of reported data with a
number of attractions not disclosing visitor numbers. The largest attraction. The
Pleasure Beach at Great Yarmouth has seen a decline of 30% (600,000 visitors)
since 1995 and this reflects the general decline of the resort and a number of poor
seasons where weather and international events like Euro '98 impacted upon
visits.
A key factor in the performance of any new attractions is being ready for the main
tourism season. Although the EcoTech Centi'e opened in the spring of 1999,
delays to building and site completion coupled to poor weather did not turn the
opening into a recipe for a disaster, but did impact upon visitor targets. The
EcoTech Centre opened to a fanfare of high media coverage and the management
team recorded visitor responses from the first day of opening.
Pricing strategies were set well within the range of local attractions and were
thought to be 'about right'. Quite early, qualitative research indicated that the first
wave of visitors were environmentalists or organisations associated with
environmental issues who would turn out to be quite critical of the centre. These
groups had a high socio-economic profile of A, B, Cl/2 who found the centrepiece
exhibition 'Doomsday' re-iterating environmental issues as a core theme, but not
offering solutions.
The inteipretation boards would not be fully in place until July 1999 that meant
the full impact of exhibition material could not be appreciated. Responses clearly
indicated to the management team that a successful high profile media campaign
was now perceived as media hype. Initial research indicated 40% of the visitors
came from Norwich and Kings Lynn that tied in with major newspaper coverage
93
for the region. Even a poor range in stock for the shop received comment. It was
anticipated that a major revenue centre would have a poor performance even
though gross profit margins are typically between 40 - 60%. There was a
reluctance to commit 20,000 towards stock too early in the 'proving' stages.
Operationally, the centre suffered from similar tourist behaviour patterns
experienced by other attractions within the area. Themed attractions and heritage
properties see falls in attendance when hot weather conditions existed and
compete head-on with the beach or zoos. The EcoTech Centre was perceived to be
an indoor attraction best suited to colder weather which has brought to the front
the need for continued site development to counteract this factor. The centre's
design incorporated a passive solar collection system. On hot days visitors and
staff found the experimental building too efficient in heat retention and this has
caused modification work to be carried out to improve temperature.
With Ecotricity's agreement to build a wind-turbine with a viewing platform, it
provided the EcoTech Centre with an additional showcase exhibit and provided a
much-needed value-added element to the visit. Due for completion in May 1999,
delays in construction and granting of Health & Safety Executive approval forced
re-evaluation of visitor targets and the management of revenue as the turbine
finally opened during the month of August.
Between April and October 28,500 visitors were atti*acted to EcoTech, a reduction
of 36% from estimates made in the feasibility study. Despite delays and coping
with a 'learning curve', the number of visitors was comparable to other visitor
centi*es within Norfolk.
For 2000, pricing strategies (see Appendix 1) were altered and the principles of
revenue management (Cross, 1997) were applied even though they were not
directly recognised as such. The wind turbine was priced separately with main
entrance prices significantly reduced in order to focus on revenue generation from
family or single adults with children. Research indicated the over 55's with
grandchildren too formed a significant segment of visitors. Their usage of the site
would differ from other visitors and the pricing strategy ensured this group's were
being met. With a full programme of activities and exhibitions planned for the
year, the wind-turbine now provided the USP.
New marketing and pricing strategies could now provide a more dynamic
management plan with the shift in focus to micro market segments. With a
broadened base, the attraction could now effectively use pricing strategies based
upon clear segmentation processes to allow sufficient price discrimination to
improve revenue.
A bold decision was made to close the centre on Saturdays
period. Market day in Swaffham and 'change-over day' for
homes and boats on the Norfolk Broads produced very low
conjunction with new pricing sti'ategies, a more defined
during the off-peak

the regions holiday
visitor numbers. In
marketing strategy
94
towards a more formalized programme of educational visits for staff and school
children was put together with a target of 6,000 visitors.
The impact of the new strategy saw a significant shift in relationships within
revenue centres. Figure 2 shows there is a clear indication that the new pricing
sti'ategy saw a significant improvement to secondary spend which almost doubled
the on-site spend. By implementing micro marketing and pricing strategies, the
enlianced on-site spend will begin to compensate for lower visitor numbers
tlirough improvement in visitor spend and value.
Consideration must be given to a number of consti*aints that impact upon the
EcoTech Centre and similar attractions in Norfolk. Empirical evidence suggests a
number of factors need to be included within the revenue management system.
These being:
1. Timing/ planning visits.
2. The size of the ideal market and its capacity.
3. Seasonality.
Day-trippers do not pre-plan trips in the same way as other tourists use cognitive
decision making models (Chen, 1997). The research from different locations
indicated that between 20-30% decided to visit an attraction on the 'spur of the
moment' and between 16% and 35% on the day of visit. Between 15% and 21%
would make a decision two days prior to the visit and between 8% and 25% would
plan a visit up to a week before.
Less than 23% would make any trip plans more than a week ahead. While weather
is a significant element in the planning process, responses across all segments
indicated the decision making process was subject to an emotional response within
the decision group. No amount of advertising or promotions can fully exploit
variance and change influences within these groups.
The second constraint is the concept of the 'ideal market' and tlii*eshold population
sizes needed to support services (Christaller, 1966). Norfolk has a population of
772,000 and a density of 144 people per sq. Km where 80% of land use is
agricultui'e. In economic location modelling there is insufficient local population
to support any of the major attractions within the county and therefore relies
heavily upon the 3.2 million visitors to compensate and enable attractions reach
tliiêshold figures. While many major Lottery projects have been located within
major urban areas within the UK, any expansion in capacity or shortfall in visitor
numbers leaves all attractions exposed. Clearly, the future development plans for
the EcoTech Centre will broaden its base as an atti-action, but as the capacity
increases within the visitor attractions market, the exposure to lower performance
or constrained opportunity for revenue management, still remains. Empirical
evidence also indicates, visitor attractions may be an anomaly within gravity
models (Ullman, 1956). Gravity modelling assumes larger the function of place or
95
level in service, human behaviour would follow Newtonian Laws.
Research indicates that local residents under 15 miles from an attraction may not
visit an attraction due to a combination of experiential or poor perception of the
attraction or by what constitutes a 'day out'. Between 20% and 42% had not
visited an attraction adjacent to where they resided and yet between 50% - 70%
would travel over 20 miles to an atti*action. Fewer than 15% would travel less than
15 miles to an attraction and this creates a 'doughnut' effect around an atti'action.
Clearly, visitors do not see a local attraction as a 'day out' and this has major
implications in marketing and in revenue management. To regain local resident/
visitor confidence in the attraction, highly targeted marketing campaigns with
additional concessions will be needed to improve revenue performance from this
segment. Capacity management has been identified by Kimes (1989, 1998) and
Cross (1997, 1998) as an essential element in YM to be effective. Should there be
capacity increases within the region's visitor attractions, then revenue must be
expected to fall, unless the volume of visitors into the region has increased, as
tluesholds may not have been reached.
The third constraint is seasonality (Cross, 1998; Wanliill, 1998; Yeoman and
Leask, 1999). EETB figures show 34%) of visitors to Norfolk arrive in the period
July to September. An additional 26% visit between April to June. However, the
statistics do not show the peak in activity spans only a 6 - 8 week period across
July and August where operational efficiency is at its peak. Yeoman and Leask
(1999) suggested seasonality increased the need for revenue maximizing
techniques to be implemented to offset low season performance. For the EcoTech
Centi'e, educational visits and specialist activities, particularly during half term
and holidays must be given higher profile than in the past if revenue enhanced
tecliniques are to be used to improve overall performance.
Conclusions
Yield management is designed to optimise revenue. Institutional change and the

greater need for more effective revenue management may govern pressure upon
all organisations to improve revenue performance. The EcoTech Centre is
severely consti'ained by the economic tluesholds that operate within the ideal
market locally. There is insufficient population to support the regions' attractions
without the seasonal influx of 3.2 million visitors. The 'douglinut effect' which
surrounds the attractions has major implications towards revenue management.
Marketing and revenue management strategies need to re-focus their attention on
this segment as local residents within 15 miles of an attraction form the tlii'eshold
for survival. Add an element of seasonality together with performance in weather
and all of the attractions then become very exposed to marginalized revenue
performance. Too little attention has been paid at national and regional level in
96
terms of the changes in capacity through Lottery funded projects. One of the
greatest impacts upon Norfolk attractions in 2001 will be the re-opening of a hightech interactive display at the Castle Museum, Norwich. Competition amongst the
educational sector will be particularly sharp. As the EcoTech Centi'e matures as a
visitor attraction, the plans to build an experimental house together with the
interactive walk-through-composting exhibit will become critical to the long-term
success of the centre. The behaviour of the micro-market segments is the essence
of successful revenue management implementation. Without a continued
programme of innovative exhibitions and site development, the EcoTech Centre
will fail one of its original objectives i.e. experimentation and innovation.
Figure 1: Correlation between number visitors and shop revenue
Sales Admissions -v- Shop Revenue (%)
mar-95
apr-95
iTiag-95
giu-95
lug-95
ago-95
set-95
Month
Source: East of England Tourist Board (2000)
olt-95
nov-95
dic-95
gen-96
feb-96
97
Appendix
EcoTech Discovery Admission Prices 2000. (Centre only). Source: The EcoTech
Centre
Category
% Change
Adults
4.00
-20
Children (up to 15yrs)
3.25
-7.14
Concessions (Senior citizens etc)
3.50
-17.6
2 Adults + 2 Children
11.00
N/A
2 Adults + 3 Children
11.00
N/A
2 Adults + 1 Child
9.00
N/A
1 Adult + 2 Children
9.00
N/A
1 Adult + 3 Children
9.00
N/A
2 Grandparents + 2 Children
8.00
N/A
2 Grandparents + 3 Children
8.00
N/A
Family Tickets
Grandparents
Note: Access to Wind Turbine an additional 1.90 per adult and 1.30 per child
98
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Revenue management in the restaurant sector

Charlotte R. Rassing
Institut for Konjunktur Analyse
Aaberaa 29
1124 Copenhagen
Denmark
Contents: 1 Background information. U Purpose and composition of the paper. 2

Introduction. 3 Literature review. 4 Implications for the use of revenue
management. 5 Complexity ofpricing in the restaurant sector. 6 Menu analysis. 7
Empirical study to be undertaken. References. Appendix. Questionnaire.
1 Background information
The beginning of 2000 a new tourism research centre in Denmark was founded
Centre without walls (Center uden mure} The centre is a consortium of Roskilde
University, Copenhagen, Business School (institute for management, politics and
philosophy) and the Research Centre of Bomholm. The research program that has
to take place during the next tliree years is partly founded by the Danish Social
Science Research Council. As part of this program a Ph.D. study at the Research
Centi'e of Bomliolm has been offered under the title Revenue Management in the
Restaurant Sector. The Ph.D. student will be registered in Bournemouth
University, UK, but the daily work will take place at the Research centre of
Bornliolm, Denmark.
The objectives of the Ph.D. project is (1) to extend the theory of revenue
management into the area of food and beverage operations, so as to product new
processes in pricing, menu analysis and budgeting, and (2) to work with
HORESTA (the Danish Hotels, Restaurant and Tourist Businesses Association)
and selected restaurants in Bomholm to develop applications which have
immediate practical returns to the sector.
1.1 Purpose and composition of the paper

The puipose of this paper is to introduce the reader to the Ph. D research that has
to be undertaken at the Research centre of Bornholm within the next tluee years.
102
The first part of the paper will take a closer look at what literature already exists
about revenue management and what has to be done to apply the theory to the
restaurant sector. In the second part of the paper the empirical research to be
undertaken will be briefly presented both the ideas and the expected output. It is
important to point out that the Ph. D project is still at its very beginning. Therefore
most of this paper will deal with already existing research and ideas to research in
the future.
Introduction
Within the food and beverages industry revenue management is defined by Farell,
K. and Whelan-lyan, F. (1998) as "the allocation of fixed capacity to various
segmented markets in such a way as to meet customer requirements and to provide
maximum returns on available capacity by the application of discriminatory
pricing".
Revenue management includes all kinds of price discrimination that can be used to
maximise the revenue when the capacity is fixed (HOREST A, 1999} The theory
was developed, coined for and refined by the airline industry following airline
deregulation in the 1970s. Today the technique is widely accepted and extensively
used tliroughout the world, mainly among large hotels (Baum, T and Mudambi,
R., 1998, p. 68) but also among large cruise liners, tour operators, and car rental
companies. As far as the author knows, and according to experts within the field
of revenue management, the theory has not yet been applied to the restaurant
sector.
Some authors (Kimes, S.E., et al, 1998; Kimes, S.E., 1999) are occupied with the
theoretical aspects of revenue management in relation to the restaurant sector,
however as van Westering, J. stated in 1994 (p 140) still seems to be true "the
theory is far in advance of the practical application of YM".
The research into food and beverages has tended to tackle singular problems rather
than taking a holistic review (van Westering, J., 1994} Historically there has been
much focus on optimising the average meal rate or the number of visitors in the
restaurant. When the focus is on the number of customers this tends to encourage
the sale of discounted meals (two courses for the price of one, two meals for the
price of the most expensive, etc.).
Even though this could be a profitable strategy it sets focus on volume rather than
value. To focus on the average check also leaves out important information. High
paying customers could be lingering over their meal and occupying the table for a
long period of time leaving other customers waiting. The objective of revenue
management in the restaurant sector is to go beyond ti'aditional thinking and make
a composite measure of average meal rate and number of visitors. The idea is to
shift from product-orientation to demand-orientation
103
Literature review
Revenue management, also called yield management, capacity management,

revenue enhancement or perishable asset revenue management, is said to be
(Donaghy, K., 1996) "the most important working tool available to the lodging
and hospitality industry for business planning".
In literature revenue management is described as the process of allocating the right
capacity to the right customer at the right time in order to maximise revenue or
yield (Smith, BC. et al, 1992; Hanks, R.D. et al, 1992; Donaghy, K., 1996; Kimes,
S.E., 1997; Donaghy, K. et al, 1998; Kimes, S.E. et al, 1998; FaiTcll, K. and
Whelan-Ryan, F., 1998; Yeoman, L. and Watson, S., 1997; Orkin, E.B., 1998)
The idea is to maximise an enterprise's effective use of its resources by moving
away from mass pricing and mass marketing, to the management of the micro
market. It is an approach to increasing revenues and improving customer service
by responding to current and expected demand (Lieberman, W.H., 2000) and is
based on three factors, people, forecasting and strategy (Yeoman, L and Watson,
S, 1997).
Revenue management is build on facts about the past, what is known about the
present and current trends and what is likely to happen in the future i.e. projected
levels of business (Donaghy, K. et al, 1995; Donaghy, K. 1996)
The key to the application of revenue management theories is the predictability in
the behaviour of specific market segments within overall market demand. The
restaurant sector is faced with a variety of customer segments with quite different
demands (Hiemstra, S.J., 1998)
These demands vary according to the purpose of the visit to the restaurant (basic
need for eating, pleasure, celebration, business etc.) The capability of continually
monitoring and forecasting changes in these demand patterns is crucial to the
successful implementation of revenue management. Revenue management
activities must be based on a comprehensive awareness of continually changing
market configurations (Donaghy, K. and McMahon, U, 1995) and it requires
knowledge of customers' expected behaviour, plus an understanding of which
business is most beneficial/profitable (Quain, W.J. et al, 1999).
As stated by Muller, C.C. (1999) the restaurateurs have to be aware of both
predictable, seasonal factors and unpredictable, individual customer demand - a
combination of macro-predictability and micro-uncertainty. A systematic
approach and combination of knowledge, experience, understanding and
forecasting will help the restaurant to succeed in a very fast changing
environment.
104
4 Implications for the use of revenue management

Revenue management is seen as applicable and of interest to businesses where the
following conditions prevail (Kimes, S.E. et al, 1998; Smith, B.C. et al, 1992;
Brotherton, B. and Mooney, S., 1992; Hanks et al, 1992; Donaghy, K. and
McMahon, U., 1995; European Commission, 1997; Cross, R.G., 1997; Yeoman, I.
and Ingold, A., 1997; Vogel, H. et al, 1998).
1. Where capacity is relatively fixed.
2. When demand can be separated into distinct market segments/offer a range of
customer values (different prices available).
3. When stock inventory is perishable so that timing of sale is important.
4. When the product is sold well in advance of consumption/allow advance
reservations.
5. Where cancellations and no-shows are experienced.
6. When demand fluctuates substantially/seasonal and other demand peaks.
7. Where marginal sales costs of selling an additional unit are low and fixed costs
are high.
8. Where rapidly changing market circumstances exist.
9. Where there is an ability to forecast future demands.
10. Where there is an ability to segment customers on their varying needs,
behaviour, and willingness to pay.
The restaurant sector can nod their acquaintance to the conditions but obviously
needs to concretise, adjust and specify them according to the restaurant sector's
specific needs. It seems very important to clarify the differences between the
sectors where revenue management has already been applied (airlines and hotels)
and the restaurant sector. The root concepts are the same, but the applications and
the techniques used to implement the concepts will vary widely. Airlines and
hotels have been working with revenue management for years. Even though
especially hotels and restaurants have many similarities (i.e. different arrival times
during the day and relatively fixed capacity) there are also important differences
that need to be highlighted.
Both hotels and restaurants use day of the week to differentiate prices.
Furthermore hotels use length of stay (among other factors) to differentiate price
while restaurants use time of the day (among other factors). Restaurants operate
with smaller time periods and considerably more variables than hotels and airlines
(Muller, C.C. 1999). A menu can easily be composed of more than 100 items,
each of which need to be separately costed, prepared, served and accounted for on
the customer's bill (National Restaurant Association, 1990) A restaurant can meet
105
many small transactions during one day and has many employees who handle
cash. In both hotels and restaurants the demand pattern consists of customers who
make reservations and customers who walk in. However, the distiibution between
the two groups of customers is very different. Restaurants typically experience a
smaller proportion of advance reservations than hotels.
In restaurants opposite hotels some regular periods of the day will obviously be
busier than others. Especially during lunch and dinnertime there can be pressure
on the capacity measured by seating, kitchen capacity, menu items, and/or staff
(Kimes, S.E. et al, 1998).
When a customer enters a restaurant the tangible product is the meal but the
customer also buys an experience consisting of many components: reception, table
assignment, table location, ordering acceptance, food delivery etc. - a complex
mixture of service, atmosphere and mood. All this makes pricing for restaurants
very complex.
The hotel room is a perishable product and a parallel can be drawn to a seat in a
restaurant. A seat that goes unfilled is gone forever but it is not as simple as that.
The food can be stored for some period of time and directing the customers'
attention towards specific menus can reduce losses.
Revenue management primary focus is often regarded as maximisation of sales
revenue but can be seen as a concept of further extension in terms of the
development of an optimum business mix to maintain profitable product-market
aligmiient (Edgar, D.A., 1997). The goal of implementing revenue management in
the restaurant sector is to maximise revenue per available seat-hour (Rev P. ASH)
by manipulating price and meal duration (Kimes, SE. 1999) It has been defined as
selling the right seat to the right customer at the right price and for the right
duration
5 Complexity of pricing in the restaurant sector

In 'Pricing and yield management' (1998, p. 4) it is pointed out that
"improvements in price typically have three to four times the effect that
proportional increases in sales volume have on profit levels". Therefore success in
the food service area is dependent on the development of the right menu-pricing
system (Miller, J .E., 1992, p. 104 } The price of the items on the menu will
ultimately determine the success or failure of the restaurant. Both economic and
strategic objectives have to be taken into consideration when the restaurant
decides on its pricing policy. A higher menu price seems more acceptable to the
customers if it is followed by additional service. Simply put, value to a restavu'ant's
guests is enhanced by an increase in the quality of food, service, decor etc., or by a
decrease in the tariff associated with the dining experience (Orkin, E.B., 1978) It
106
is important to keep in mind that each restaurant is unique when it comes to
pricing. Depending of the history of the restaurant as well as the number of years
in business and the supplier arrangements, the restaurants can have very different
expenses to start off with. The costs of providing a product or service must be
incoiporated into the price charged. When it comes to pricing different items on a
menu qualitative aspects also have to be taken into consideration. At the end of the
day the restaurateur has to be able to offer a product with an acceptable gross
profit margin at an acceptable price for the customer
The restaurant's price level tells the consumers something about the product
offered: the quality. By manipulating price in combination with product quality
and promotional messages, the product can be differentiated or standardised
(Pricing and yield management, 1998, p. 3) A price is a complex phenomenon The
price has to reflect both the food costs (cost of raw material) and preparation At
the same time it can reflect the atmosphere, different kinds of entertainment,
specific service, product presentation etc. If the customers feel they achieve an
additional value they will be willing to pay more. If the product cannot satisfy the
consumers' needs and expectations, the customers are not going to return. The
essential part of pricing is meeting the restaurant's need for profit making and
combine that need with customers' need for value for money. Customer attitudes
will dictate what is acceptable (Miller, JE., 1992, p. 105}
To succeed in adapting the concepts of revenue management the individual
restaurant must have a clear understanding of the menu sales mix and the
contribution margin of each menu item. Costs include all overhead, labour, food,
and beverage cost The highest contribution margin may not come from the
highest-priced menu items (the valuable customer is not always the profitable
customer) and the waiters need to know where to focus the attention of today's
customers in the ordering process. The place to focus may very well change
during the day and the week. The essence of revenue management is not new to
the restaurant sector. Many businesses are using sub-components from the theory:
offering a specific lunch menu that costs less than the same menu in the evening,
charging different prices on weekdays compared with weekends ( depending on
the target group} offering specific menus if the customers order in advance in
connection with their booking - menus that are not available otherwise, etc. What
is new to the restaurants is the systematic approach towards pricing and menu
planning that the adoption of revenue management will result in.
6 Menu analysis
Revenue management focuses the management decision-process on the
maximisation of profits from sale of the core product: the menu item. The main
product in a restaurant is seen to be food and the menu is thus the principal means
107
of selling (Cattet, A. and Smith, C, 1994). The customers have to rely totally on
the menu for all communications about the products, as they cannot examine the
products beforehand. The choice of menu item (the intangible item) has to be
based on the tangible clues that surround it. Customers can reduce the risk of
miss-purchase by examining the clues given on the restaurant's food and the
services before entering the place. If the menu is well made it will lead customers
to buy the items with the highest gross profit margin - the dishes the restaurant
wishes to sell.
The social and demographic profile of a restaurant's customers must have a major
impact on the menu. Different food products, cooking styles and ingredients are
continuing to appear and influence the menu content and have to be directed
towards the target group of customers. The menu is the ultimate profit centre of
the restaurant and must always be the focal point. How well the customer can see,
read and understand the menu item description will affect how well the dish will
sell. Restaurants have to structure their menu formats around the needs of their
customers as well as the limitations of the kitchen (Cattet, A and Smith, C , 1994).
The menu functions as the communication tool between the restaurateur and the
customers.
7 Empirical study to be undertaken

The main intention of revenue management is to shift from cost oriented pricing
towards market oriented pricing. During the summer 2000 a questionnaire and
letter of introduction will be designed and mailed to HORESTA for their
comments (temporary draft for the questiomiaire is enclosed as appendix 1) In the
late summer a pilot survey will be carried out among 10-20 restaurants and the
questionnaire will be corrected according to the responses. During the autumn of
2000 the questionnaire will be mailed to all 900 restaurants (except the
participants in the pilot survey) in Denmark who are members of HORESTA. The
idea is, though this quantitative study, to throw light on the typical pricing
procedures used among restaurants in Denmark and thereby find out what aspects
are taken into consideration when different items on a menu arc priced. The
survey will provide an indication to what degree the restaurants in Denmark are
still focused on traditional cost pricing or moving towards market oriented pricing,
that is. to what extent the restaurants are using elements of revenue management
in their daily pricing procedures and menu planning. The research undertaken will
mainly apply to services restaurants. Fast-food establishments and industiy
kitchens do not share the same kind of problems.
As can be seen from appendix I, the restaurants will be asked if they wish to take
part in a further co-operation. About 20 of the restaurants, which agree to
participate, will be used as case studies in the further research. If more than 20
108
agree to participate, a selection process has to take place. This process has not yet
been decided but the idea is to choose different types of service restaurants.
Thereby the results can be widened and made usable and useful to more
restaurants. Both quantitative numbers (accounts) and qualitative statements
(personal interviews) will be used to go further into the procedure of pricing and
menu plaiming in the restaurants.
In mathematical modelling terms, the iterative process of pricing and budgeting, is
one of solving a set of simultaneous equations subject to certain constraints, both
qualitative, in terms of providing a cuisine that is consistent with the meal
experience that is being offered, and quantitative, in terms of the pattern and
volume of demand. It should be possible to model these processes so as to provide
a mathematical tool to assist in setting menu prices and sales volumes that are
consistent with overall food and beverage budget targets. Such a tool will be
developed as software and made available to restaurant operations. The data from
the restaurants will be used in the construction phase and testing of the model.
109
References
Baum T. & Mudambi R., Empirical analysis of oligopolistic hotel pricing, in Economic and
Management Methods for Tourism and Hospitality Research, ed Baum, T. and
Mudambi, R., Wiley, England, 1998, p. 68.
Brotherton B. & Mooney S., Yield Management - progress and prospects, International
Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. I, No. 1, 1992, pp. 23 - 32.
Cattet A. & Smith C , The menu as a marketing tool, in Progresses in Tourism, Recreation
and Hospitality Management, ed. Cooper C. P. and Lockwood A, Wiley, Chichester,
ch. 12, 1994, pp. 149-163.
Cross R.G., Launching the Revenue Rocket. How Revenue Management Can Work for Your
Business, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 38, No. 2, 1997,
pp. 32-43.
Donaghy K., Plotting future profits with yield management, Hospitality, February/March,
1996, pp. 18-19.
Donaghy K. & McMahon U., Managing yield: a marketing perspective, Journal of
Vacation Marketing, Vol. 2, No I, 1995, pp. 55 - 62.
Donaghy K., McMahon U & McDowell D., Yield Management an overview. International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1995, pp. 139 - 150.
Donaghy K., McMahon-Beattie U., Yeoman I. & Ingold A., The Realism of Yield
Management, Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1998, pp.
187-196.
Edgar D.A., Economic Aspects, in Yield Management Strategies for the Service Industries,
ed. Yeoman, I. and Ingold, A., Cassell, London, 1997, pp. 12 - 28.
European Commission, Yield Management in small and medium-sized enterprises in the
tourism industry, Executive summary, Directorate-General XXII, 1997.
Farrell K. & Whelan-Ryan F., Yield Management - a Model for Implementing, Progress in
Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1998, pp. 267 - 277.
Hanks R.D., Cross R.G. & Noland R.P., Discounting in the Hotel Industry. A New
Approach, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 33, No. 1,
1992, pp. 15-23.
Hiemstra S.J., Economic Pricing Strategies for Hotels, in Economic and Management
Methods for Tourism and Hospitality Research, ed. Baum, T. and Mudambi, R., Wiley,
England, 1998, pp. 215 - 231.
Horesta, Notes from Yield Management course, 19th-20th of April and 3rd-4th May 1999,
in Danish, 1999
Kimes S.E., Yield Management: An Overview, in Yield Management Strategies for the
Service Industries, ed. by Coman, I. and Ingold, A., Cassell, London, 1997, pp. 3 - 11.
110
Kimes S.E., Implementing Restaurant Revenue Management a Five-step Approach, Cornell

Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 3, 1999, pp. 16 - 21.
Kimes S.E., Chase R.B., Choi S., Lee P.Y. & Ngonzi E.N., Restaurant Revenue
Management Applying Yield Management to the Restaurant Industry, Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 39, No.3, 1998, pp. 32 - 39.
Lieben Ian W., Yield Management System or Program?, Veritec Solutions, 2000
www.veritecsolutions.com.
Miller J.E., Menu Pricing & Strategy, Third edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York,
1992.
Muller C.C, A Simple Measure of Restaurant Efficiency, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant
Administration Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 3, 1999, pp. 31 - 37.
National Restaurant Association, Uniform System of Accounts for Restaurants, Sixth
revised edition, prepared by Laventhol & Horwath, Washington, D.C., 1990
Orkin E.B., An Integrated Menu-Pricing System, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant
Administration Quarterly, No. 19, 1978, pp. 8 - 13.
Orkin E.B., Wishful Thinking and Rocket Science. The Essential Matter of Calculating
Unconstrained Demand for Revenue Management, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant
Administration Quarterly, Vol. 39, No.4, 1998, pp. 15-19.
Pricing and yield management. Marketing for success a practical guide for tourism
business, Ireland, 1998.
Quain B., Sansbury M. & Wand Lebruto S.M., Revenue Enhancement, Part 4 -Increasing
Restaurant Profitability, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol.
40,No. 3, 1999,pp. 38-47.
Smith B.C., Leimkuhler J.F. & Darrow R.M., Yield management at American airlines,
Interface, Vol. 22, No. I, 1992, pp. 8 - 31.
Van Westering, J., Yield management: the case for food and beverage operations, in
Progress in Tourism, Recreation and Hospitality Management, ed. Cooper C P and
Lockwood A, Wiley, Chichester, ch. II, 1994, pp. 139 - 148.
Vogel, Horand and Associates, AHI Hotel Yield Management Seminar Series Europe '98,
seminar notes, 1998.
Yeoman I. & Watson S., Yield management a human activity system. Contemporary
Hospitality Management, Vol. 9, No. 2, 1997, pp. 80-83.
Appendix
To the restaurants
[ name and contact person ]
My name is Charlotte Rassing. I am employed as a Ph.D. researcher at the
Research Centre of Bomholm. During the next tliree years I will be working on a
project about pricing and menu planning in the restaurant sector. The idea is to
establish a program that can assist the restaurants when it comes to pricing and
menu planning and thereby help to remarkably increase the earnings of the
restaurants.
The theory I am working with is called Revenue Management. One of the basic
elements in the theory is price differentiation, which is used by most of the
restaurants already. Many restaurants offer specific lunch courses at favourable
prices, packaged meals (soup-roast-ice cream) at special prices, etc.
The restaurants have for a long period of time been focusing on increasing the
number of customers or average rate per meal The intention of Revenue
Management is to a larger degree to focus on earnings.
My project is still in the first phase. Therefore I need your help to identify the
restaurant sectors present pricing methods. In connection to that I very much hope
that your are able to spare five minutes to fill in the enclosed questionnaire and
possibly give your permission for further co-operation The idea with the further
co-operation is to work with your specific restaurant and how your revenue can be
increased. The granting will of course be free of charge
All data will be treated with confidentiality.
Thank you very much for your help.
Yours faithfully
Charlotte Rassing
Please enclose a copy of your menu.
112
Questionnaire
When you price an item on your menu, which of the following factors do you take
into consideration?
Always
A feeling of what the customers

are willing to pay
Knowledge of competitors'prices
The price of the food in the item
The direct labour involved in the
preparation of the item (chef)
The total labour involved in
relation to the item (salary to chef,
waiter, etc)
Consideration of the total desired
revenue
Consideration of the total profit
An average amount the item has to
cover of the fixed costs (rent,.
salary to restaurateur, interest, etc.)
Knowledge of the restaurants total
expenses (food costs, salaries, rent,
interests, etc)
I will set my prices close to
competitors'
I will set my own prices regardless
of the competitors' price level
I will set my prices and adjust
them according to markets
reactions
I will try to price below
competitors' price level to attract
more customers
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
Don't
know
Revenue management and food service

businesses: the case of Italy
Emanuela Schiaffella
[email protected].
Italian Centre for Advanced Studies in Tourism and Tourism Promotion (CST)
Contents: 1 The food service sector in Italy. 1.1 The food service supply and
demand in Italy: a reference summary. 1.1.1 Sector data: the food service supply.
1.1.2 The food service demand. 2 Revenue management and food service
businesses. 2.1 Applicability of revenue management. 2.1.1 Overview. 2.1.2
Applicability requirements and food service businesses. 2.2 Revenue management
and Italian food service businesses: application difficulties. 2.2.1 Structural limits.
2.2.2 Managerial limitations.
The food service sector in Italy
1.1 The food service supply and demand in Italy: a reference

summary
1.1.1 Sector data: the food service supply
In Italy, based on the results of the Federazione Italiana Pubblici Esercizi^
2003, 74.749 food service businesses were registered, distributed in this way:
Location
North West
North East
Centre
South / Islands
Italy
'
Absolute value
19.878
17.305
15.137
22.429
74.749
Percentage
26,59%
23,15%
20,25%
30,01%
100,00%
Italian Federation of Commercial Businesses. Data drawn from www.fipe.it "The

numbers of the sector (2003)"
The supply is extremely pulverised, composed of small independent businesses,

often family-run and with a seasonal type of activity, and fragmented into
numerous types^; confirming the data from 2002 ^, a composition is taking shape
of the following ItaHan food service offer, expressed in percentages:
Small restaurants
Family restaurants
Pizza restaurants
Seasonal restaurants
Large banquet restaurants
Fixed-menu eateries
Small restaurants with many workers
Large restaurants /pizza restaurants
Taverns/pubs/eateries
Total
%
17,4
8,3
25,1
7,2
1,3
8,7
9,8
1,6
20,6
100,0
To this type of food service, so-called commercial, one must add industrial food
service, composed of collective, military, scholastic, hospital, religious and
community food service, which is characterised , in line with the rest of Europe,
by a polarisation among a few large companies and a myriad of minor operators'^.
As has been mentioned before, the Italian food service business is on the average
small scale, with about 79 seats in interior spaces and, where available, 50 seats
outside ^. Only 34,5% of all structures have a personal computer; 26,2% of these
are connected to Internet and 16,7% use this connection for business purposes^.
1.1.2 The food service demand
As far as the demand is concerned, in the last decade, food consumption outside of
Maria Del Duca, Integrazione produttiva e specializzazione di mercato: miove
tecnologie e processi interni di lavoro nel comparto ristorativi (Production integration
and market specialisation: new technology and internal work processes for the food
service sector), in Stefano Poeta (ed.), L'analisi deifabbisognifonnativi eprofessionali
del settore turismo (Analysis of the professional training needs of the tourism industry),
FrancoAngeli s.r.l. Milan, Italy, 2000.
Elaborazioni FIFE, Convention Mixer, Montecarlo 27 September 2002 (www.fipe.it)
With a world food service value estimated at 1.300 billion euros, the European area is
worth about 22%, or 280 billion euros. In the context of the European turnover, the top
ten companies, with Autogrill, - the only Italian group - ranking tenth, register sales
amounting to 33,8 billion euros, that is 12% of organised European food service.
Autogrill, the leading Italian company, registered 1,1 billion euros in sales in the
European market. It is interesting to observe that, in almost all sectors, the market
leader is British (with Compact Group for catering, Scottish and Newcastle for
cafeterias, etc.). These observations have been drawn from the trade magazine
Ristorazione collettiva, April 2003
Elaborazioni FIFE, Convention Mixer, Montecarlo 27 September 2002 (www.fipe.it)
Elaborazioni FIFE, idem
the home, in Italy, has been in continual expansion: in 1992, 25,7% of food
spending regarded food consumed outside the home, compared to 31,2% in 2002
7
In line with the increase in extra-domestic food consumption, other variations

have been found in eating habits, for example ^:
the role of the evening meal is growing in an identical way: compared to a destructured lunch consumed outside the home (both for economic reasons and
because of the pace of work), the evening meal becomes the complete meal;
the classical combination of the Italian meal is changing (first course, second
course, vegetable, dessert) with the development of the buffet-style food
service offer;
less elaborate and more digestible foods and cooking methods are preferred;
there is greater awareness of the reception, the aesthetics, the friendliness of

personnel.
In this context, although traditional Italian food service is still prevalent, the
cun'ent and future trend is that of heading towards new, different and innovative
formulas.
2 Revenue management and food service businesses

2.1 Applicability of revenue management
2.1.1 Overview
Revenue management is one of the more innovative phenomena which have
characterised the management of tourist businesses in the last fifteen years.
Experience has demonstrated that such a system can really contribute to increasing
a company's revenue, through management following models that keep in mind
the particulars related to the production capacity of the business (supply) and at
the same time as those related to the differentiated behaviour of the clientele
Data 2002 drawn from www.fipe.it "Evoluzione degli stili alimentari negli ultimi anni"
(Evolution of eating habits in recent years)
Considerations drawn from www.fipe.it "Evoluzione degli stili alimentari negli ultimi
anni" and from Maria del Duca - Emanuela Schiaffella, Una proposta gestionale per
I'impresa ristorativi (A management Proposal for Food Service Businesses), in Ricette
della cucina italiana per la ristorazione programmata a menu rotativi (Italian Recipes
for Food Service Planned with Rotating Menues), in collaboration with FIPE, Franco
Angeli, Milan, Italy, 1995
(demand)^. There have been, and still are, numerous attempts, not always
successful, to apply at least the principles at the basis of revenue management
systems to small and medium size hospitality businesses: in the European market,
the prevalence of the SMEs obstructs the spread of such systems both for
objective reasons (size barriers) and for reasons tied to the entrepreneurial culture
(managerial baniers) ^^.
Despite this, studies and research progress at a rapid pace: in the last five-year
period, besides developments in the "traditional" themes such as, for example,
forecasting models and models for managing the capacity to supply a service,
researchers have gone in depth into the application of systems of revenue
management in food service businesses, thanks to the contributions of the
American school^ \ which has stimulated studies and research applied to a sector
considered, in the past, "uninteresting" and lacking organisational models and
models of advanced management processes.
E. Schiaffella, "Yield Management in albergo: alcuni modelli di gestione della capacita

ricettiva" (Yield Management in the hotle: some models for managing lodging
capacity), in Turistica, vol. 1, 1999, page 71 and following.; P. Desinano, M. S. Minuti,
E. Schiaffella, F. Sfodera, "Issues regarding yield management in the hospitality
industry - New directions for research", proceedings of the Fourth Annual International
Yield & Revenue Management Conference, 5-7 September 1999, Colchester Insitute,
Centre for Management Studies; M. Berretta, P. Desinano, M. S. Minuti, E. Schiaffella,
F. Sfodera, "Yield Management - Uno strumento innovative per la gestione dei ricavi
nelle imprese turistiche" (Yield Management - An innovative instrument for revenue
management in tourism businesses), Economia & Management, n. 2, March, 2000, pag.
73
European Commission - Directorate General XXIII - Tourism Unit, Yield Management
in small and medium sized enterprises in the tourist industry, 1996.
Sheryl E. Kimes, Richard B, Chase, Sunmee Choi, Elizabeth N. Ngonzi, Phillip Y. Lee,
Restaurant Revenue Management, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration
Quarterly, 1998, 40-3, pages 18-30; Sheryl E. Kimes, Deborah I. Barrash, John E.
Alexander, Developing a restaurant revenue management strategy, Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 1999, 34-5, pages 18-30; Sheryl E. Kimes, Jochen
Wirtz, Perceived fairness of demand based pricing for restaurants, Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 2002, 41-1, pages 31-38; Sheryl E. Kimes, Jochen
Wirtz,Breffni M. Noone, How long should dinner take? Measuring expected duration
for restaurant revenue management, Cornell University School of Hotel Administration,
working paper 11-04-2002; Sheryl E. Kimes, Gary M. Thompson, An evaluation of
heuristic method for determining the best table mix in full service restaurants, Cornell
University School of Hotel Administration, working paper 09-01-2002; Sheryl E.
Kimes, Gary M. Thompson, Restaurant Revenue Management at Chews: determining
the best table mix, Cornell University School of Hotel Administration, working paper
07-05-2002
117
2.1.2 Applicability requirements and food service businesses
Food service businesses have all the requirements for the application of revenue
management systems:
/. Fixed supply capacity
Since the objective of revenue management is the efficient allocation of
capacity, the systems cannot be applied where capacity is able to adjust rapidly
to the demand, using the example of stock. When the supply capacity is
variable, and not very expensive, it is possible to increase or decrease it to
meet the variations in the demand. The rigidity of production capacity
represents a critical factor for a business, not only in managing the high points
of variable demand, but also the moments of low demand, especially where
general fixed costs have considerable impact.
2. Perishable products and/or services with the passage of time
Food service is perishable with the passage of time: an empty table generates a
loss of revenue which can never be recuperated.
The closer one gets to the moment of the presumed sale, the less value an
unsold table has: once the variable cost is covered, any revenue is better than
none. The cmcial point of revenue management is to avoid selling at reduced
prices, when it is possible to sell at higher prices; in the same way, a service
must not remain unsold because of prices that are too high for the clientele that
requests it.
3. Variable demand
Restaurateurs undergo demand oscillations on various levels: seasonal
variations are affected by the habits and consumption behaviours of the
demand; weekly variations are created by different types of demand that use
the service; daily variations depend on any events and manifestations located
near the structure. Revenue management attempts to ''flatten" the demand
peaks, by manoeuvring prices and the strategic alternatives of marketing.
4. Demand which can be segmented
The demand must be able to be segmented in a clear and precise manner, so
that it is possible to develop a differentiated pricing strategy, in order to
separate clients willing, and able, to pay higher prices, from those who will
change their habits to obtain lower prices. It is important that the segments,
and therefore the prices, be completely independent, in order to avoid a
dilution of prices caused by the passage of clients from one segment to
another.
5. Stochastic demand
Revenue management deals with dynamic variables and uncertain variables:
there is uncertainty about the number of reservations requested by each market
segment and about the reservation dates; the dynamism is inlierent in the fact
that there is an evolution of the reservations over time, decreasing or
increasing, according to the type of clients, and in function of this the
allocations of tables left are reviewed daily.
118
6. Product that can be sold in advance
Food service can be sold in advance and, other important factor, market
segments demonstrated different behaviour characteristics in making
reservations.
7. Price-sensitive demand
Market segments, according to revenue management logic, must have a
different price sensitivity; in other words, one must be able to influence the
demand with pricing manoeuvres which, from time to time, the system sets
moving to meet market conditions.
8. Low marginal sales costs and high fixed production costs
If there is availability, the sale of a supplementary table entails sustaining low
costs, mostly tied to variable costs. Inversely, if there is no availability, there
are high production costs which impede the satisfaction of a supplementary
service request, because of the fixed capacity, at least in the short term, of the
food service business.
2.2 Revenue management and Italian food service businesses:

application difficulties
2.2.1 Structural limits
As mentioned previously, the Italian food service sector is characterised by a high
level of fragmentation of businesses, in which the presence of small companies
prevails, not infrequently characterised by managerial, organisational and
stiTictural systems that are by now obsolete. Small dimensions are not suited to
revenue management: the studies applied, reported in foreign publications, deal
with much vaster dimensions: 230-240 seats'^. In the Italian context this is
applicable tout court in very few cases; in most structures only the principles that
inspire revenue management systems (which can concern the management of
tariffs and of reservations ) can be applied.
Moreover, there is the problem of the scanty computerisation of Italian food
service structures; approximately 65% of the companies (excluding those included
in institutional food service) are without computer equipment sufficient to
elaborate and manage data coming from outside the firm and which are essential
to understand the environmental situation in which they are obliged to operate.
".../4 yield management system is a high intensity information system and this
elects information technology to a key role in its management. In fact, each phase
Sheryl E. Kimes, Gary M. Thompson, An evaluation of heuristic method for
determining the best table mix in full service restaurants, Cornell University School of
Hotel Administration, op. cit.; Sheryl E. Kimes, Gary M. Thompson, Restaurant
Revenue Management at Chews: determining the best table mix, Cornell University
School of Hotel Administration, op. cit.
119
of the process consumes data and produces information. The availability of
detailed data on the demand, addressing the company in digital format, that is,
such to permit its computerised elaboration is an essential requirement in
implementing a yield management system. The companies which adopted
information systems earliest are those which potentially can realistically
implement an authentic yield management system ..." *^ It is totally evident that
without adequate computerisation the gathering and elaboration of data is not
possible for:
demand segmentation
demand forecasting
the definition and allocation of production capacity
the sale of services.
2.2.2 Managerial limitations

The size factor strongly affects the management of a firm: besides a de-structured
or inexistent wide-spread innovation process, the Italian food service sector has
difficulty finding resources dedicated to the research and development of new
product lines, to marketing, to management control, but it especially suffers from
a tendential absence of an entrepreneurial culture oriented towards innovation,
also in virtue of the fact that the sector does not present elevated "entiy barriers";
therefore it is crowded with competitors, often not adequately prepared not only in
the area of professional techniques but also in the operational - managerial area.
Management "by exception", or hands-on management, represents one of the
sector's weaknesses: the concepts of market segmentation, positioning, marketing,
market target, forecasting, and production capacity management are therefore not
always compatible with the broad managerial scheme in which Italian firms
operate.
Therefore it is above all the managerial gap which obstructs the spread of revenue
management systems in the Italian food service sector: overcoming this will be a
long and complex journey, in which, however, the examples are not lacking of
coherent management with the high-level laws and ways of being of
industrialisation, unionisation and economic development reached by the nation.
13
M. Berretta, P. Desinano, M. S. Minuti, E. Schiaffella, F. Sfodera, "Yield Management

- Uno strumento innovativo per la gestione dei ricavi nelle imprese turistiche" (Yield
Management - An innovative instrument for revenue management in tourism
businesses), Economia & Management, n. 2, March, 2000, page 73
Recent events^ challenges and options in revenue

management
Paolo Desinano
p.desinano@cstassisi,it
CST - Universita di Perugia
Contents: 1 Introduction. 2 Y&RM community: towards growing consolidation. 3

CRM vs. Y&RM? 4 The spreading fascination ofRM. 5 Conclusions. References
Introduction
During the four years since the Assisi Conference on Yield and Revenue
Management (Y&RM) many events have changed the vision and perceptions on
this topic. The crisis of the web economy, well analysed by Porter (2001), is only
one of the events that have characterised this period (I do not want to discuss the
September 11 tragedy and its heavy consequences for the tourist industry).
The aim of this brief paper is to point out some emerging issues that pose new
challenges to Y&RM theory and practice.
A first important issue is the growing consolidation of the scientific debate on the
topic. Two fundamental tools have been very useful in that structuring. The first is
the publication of the "Journal of Revenue and Pricing Management" starting in
the Spring of 2002. The second important event is the new edition of Ingold and
Yeoman's seminal book with McMahon as co-editor (Ingold, McMahon-Beattie
and Yeoman, 2000). It is very important that the Y&RM scholar and practitioner
community have access to specific tools to better perform their work.
On the side of new challenges there are, among others, at least two interesting and
problematical topics related to Y&RM: the adoption of e-CRM systems and a
demand driven supply approach.
In this paper a paragraph is dedicated to each of the issues cited. A final paragraph
draws some brief conclusions.
122
Yi&RM community: towards growing consolidation
In the last three decades the Y&RM community has been part of the larger OR
(Operations Research) community. Most important papers were published in
journals such as Interfaces, Management Science and so on. These journals deal
with sti'ictly teclinical topics but Y&RM is a complex topic that cannot be reduced
to mathematical programming or statistics. In fact, a Y&RM system
implementation implies consequences at various organisational levels from human
resources (i.e. personnel training) to marketing management (i.e. price and fare
fairness and/or customer loyalty) and so on. Up to now this broader approach
found expression in special interest groups related to specific sectors (i.e.
AGIFORS of lATA and similar).
In this context the "Journal of Revenue and Pricing Managemenf fills a gap.
Hemy Stewart Publications in London began publishing the Journal in the Spring
of 2002. The journal's organisation, using tliree regional editors, offers a large
geographical coverage. Furthermore the special space dedicated to practical papers
permits a interesting comparison with real business experience and non academic
authors. This innovative format allows a fmitful deployment of Y&RM studies,
approaches and techniques.
In 1987 Yeoman and Ingold edited an important book on Y&RM that covered the
most important related topics. The book received wide acceptance and tluee years
later the two editors, with the important addition of Una McMahon, published the
second edition of the work. The new book contains twenty-one papers as opposed
to the fourteen papers of the first edition. Also the authors increased from twenty
to twenty-nine and the pages from 248 to 346. These figures reveal that RM
philosophy is extending its influence towards new and wider horizons. In
particular the application domain has been extended to include cruise, restaurant
and football businesses.
CRM vs. Y&RM?
"Customer retention" is an imperative that must always be observed in tourism

businesses. The hotel guest history system is one of the most popular
technological implementations of that imperative. It is unthinkable to apply the
same fare mles to new customer as to repeat clients. Faced with these alternatives
we must reason in two different ways, in other words, there are two different
revenue optimisation domains: one for repeaters and one for new clients. The
company marketing policy must decide about the reciprocal weight of each
domain. In the end the new central question is: is it wiser to seek immediate
profitable returns or a long-term relation in which the customer repeats his/her
purchase?
123
Relationship marketing is the basis for developing durable and attractive relations
with one's own customers. In (McCaskey, 1998) and (Noone and Griffin, 1998) a
possible conflict was pointed out between Y&RM and the relationship marketing
approach. This question was also mentioned in (Desinano et al., 1999). The issue
is important because it affects two technical aspects where revenues can be
maximised: the time horizon (how many nights?) and inventory capacity (how
many rooms?).
A new issue called "customer relationship management" (CRM) can be added to
these aspects. Since the 1990's CRM has become a central theme in management
studies and practices. The CRM approach requires a more complex evaluation of
the customer's value and makes feasibility studies on Y&RM adoption more
difficult. Will CRM cause the death of classical Y&RM, or is it the next
evolutionary step of Y&RM?
Furthermore an important organisational issue emerges: can an organisation
trained for YM sustain a CRM policy? Is the Y&RM-oriented business culture
compatible with a CRM-oriented one?
If one-to-one marketing kills segmentation (Rayport and Jaworsky, 2001) one of
the classical foundations of Y&RM disappears. These questions may seem
extreme, nevertheless this is a time of profound changes. Our theory must be
corroborated and well founded.
4 The spreading fascination of RM

The theoretical principles of Y&RM are well known. (Kimes, 1989) is the most
frequently cited reference. These principles are generally accepted by the Y&RM
community. The association between capacity-constrained production and the
service firm is almost automatic. In 1998 Schwartz discussed and criticised the
well-known foundations of Y&RM. On this basis it could seem strange that
Manugistics Inc. acquired Talus in the last quarter of 2000. Indeed Manugistics is
the leading software house for manufacturing systems while Talus, in turn, is a
leader in RM systems. What happened?
In the past decade re-engineering in many manufactiuing companies has driven
managers and consultants to develop and deploy new production models; many of
these were inspired by the JIT approach. It is particularly important to integrate
production processes to include logistic ones, both inbound and outbound (Poirer,
1999). Supply chain management (SCM) or Supply chain automation (SCA) are
typical expressions that refer to this vision of which the well known "zero
inventory" concept is part. This concept is valid for both inbound (raw materials)
and outbound (final products) inventory. Operating under those assumptions yet
another concept, the "demand driven supply" concept, is derived; with this system
124
the supply is activated and controlled "on demand", i.e. upon the customers'
orders.
In effect "zero inventory" is equivalent to the "fixed capacity" assumption of
Y&RM. But that is not the only assumption that new manufacturing organisations
share with the Y&RM approach. With the end of mass production (Pine, 1993)
manufacturing firms are also compelled to tackle a highly segmented and time
varied demand to the limit of 1:1 relations (Peppers and Rogers, 1990). In this
situation the ability to perform reliable forecasting of customer behaviour becomes
a key competency of the firm. To be able to analyse historical demand and
recognise patterns has become a fundamental skill for the leading enteiprises of
many industries not just service ones. Y&RM techniques can extend their
application domain beyond traditional boundaries (Secomandi et al., 2002).
These brief considerations show that new trends are emerging which can
profoundly modify deep-rooted ways of buying, producing, selling and
distributing. The traditional theories must also be reviewed and reformulated.
Conclusions
The pioneer period of yield management developed from the 1970s to 1990s. I call
this period YM 1.0. In this period Yield management grew from its first empirical
and practical applications to more recent and sophisticated techniques to finally
become a systematic and rigorous discipline in management studies. A specific
segment of software systems was developed and many tools are available for the
companies that intend to embrace this approach. The Y&RM scholar and
practitioner community is well established and equipped with its own specific
tools such as journals, books, courses, conferences etc.
Recent business developments delineate new scenarios, at first glance not
completely compatible with classic Y&RM assumpfions. While the e-CRM
approach would suggest a new look at the concept of "fairness" (Kimes, 1994).
"Demand driven production" in manufacturing seeks to extend the traditional
domain of Y&RM applications. Perhaps we need a YM 2.0 version that extends
beyond traditional appHcation domains. The Y&RM practitioner and scholar
community is asked to take up the challenge toward new and exciting applications
in ever changing business scenarios.
125
References
Desinano P., M.S. Minuti, E. Schiaffella, F. Sfodera, Issues regarding yield management
applications in the hospitality industry. New directions for research. Proceedings of the 4^'^
Annual International Yield Management Conference, Clacton Campus, Colchester (UK),
1999.
Ingold A., U. McMahon-Beattie, I Yeoman (eds), Yield Management. Strategies for the
Service Industries. T^ edition, Continuum, London, 2000.
Kimes S.E., The Basics of Yield Management, The Cornell H.R.A. Quarterly, November,
Vol. 30, No. 3, 14-19, 1989.
Kimes S.E., Perceived Fairness of Yield Management, The Cornell H.R.A. Quarterly,
February, Vol. 35, No. 1, 1994, pp. 22-29.
McCaskey D., Yield management vs relationship marketing. Proceedings of the 3'^^ Annual
International Yield Management Conference, University of Ulster, Portrush (UK), 1998.
Noone B., P. Griffin, Managing the long-term profit yield from market segments in a hotel
environment: a case study on the implementation of customer profitability analysis,
Proceedings of the 3'*^ Annual International Yield Management Conference, University of
Ulster, Portrush (UK), 1998.
Peppers D., M. Rogers, The One to One Future: Building Relationships One Customer at a
Time, Currency Doubleday, New York, 1993.
Pine II, B., Mass Customization: The New Frontier in Business Competition, Harvard
Business School Press, Boston, 1993.
Poirer C , Advanced Supply Chain Management, Barrett-Koelher Publishers, S. Francisco,
1999.
Porter M.E., Strategy and the Internet, Harvard Business Review, March, 2001, pp. 63-78.
Rayport J.F., B.J. Jaworsky, e-Commerce, Mc-Graw-Hill, New York, 2001.
Schwartz Z., The Confusing Side of Yield Management: Myths, Errors, and
Misconceptions, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, vol. 22, No. 4, 1998, pp. 41330.
Secomandi N., K. Abbott, T. Atan, E.A. Boyd, From Revenue Management Concepts to
Software Systems, Interfaces, vol. 32, No. 2, March-April, 2002, pp. 1-11.
Yeoman I, A. Ingold (eds), Yield Management. Strategies for the Service Industries,
Cassell, London, 1997.
Part III
Information instruments for a YMS in the
hospitality industry
Microsoft Fidelio: Opus 2 overview

Opus 2 Revenue Technologies
7031 Columbia Gateway Drive
Columbia, MD 21046-2289
United States of America
Contents: 1 Organisation & scope of operations. LI Seiîce/product overview. 2

Supplier's description of goods and services. 2.1 System architecture, 2.2
Property configuration. 2.3 Property initialization. 2.4 Dataflow. 3 RMS system
versions. 3.1 Interfaces. 3.2 Forecasting. 3.2.1 History sets. 3.2.2 Trending. 3.2.3
Hourly reforecasting. 3.2.4 Forecastable clusters. 3.2.5 Special events/demand
changes. 4 Group management.
Organisation & scope of operations
Originally established in 1985 as Eric B. Orkin Associates, Inc., the company

became OPUS 2 Revenue Teclinologies, Inc. (OPUS 2) in 1992 and a wholly
owned subsidiary of MICROS Systems, Inc. on October 1, 1999. Our corporate
office is located in Portsmouth, New Hampshire with a field office located in San
Francisco, California. The company's continued success is based on a
commitment to providing clients with strategies, technology and training to
achieve and surpass revenue goals.
The principals of OPUS 2 have a hospitality industry record of high achievement
from combining hotel leadership in operations and marketing with revenue
management and computer software expertise. At the core of system development
is a team of MIS professionals truly operating at the forefront of PC-based
systems, client-server technology and applications development.
A complementary staff of consultants and ti'ainers drawn from hospitality
backgrounds has gained acknowledgement for OPUS 2 as a provider of creative,
effective and highly motivational training.
The knowledge gained through years of research and practical problem solving in
the revenue management area undeipins the ultimate system solution for your
company and reduces the risks associated with implementation.
Our core business areas are development of both yield management and yield
based central reservation systems for the hospitality industiy. Installed in over 250
130
properties worldwide, our initial TopLine yield management system has become
our legacy. In 1995, we successfully deployed a new paradigm reservation system
for Outrigger Hotels. TopLine PROPHET, a Windows-based, fully automated
hotel yield management system was initially launched in 1996. As a successor to
the popular TopLine system, TopLine PROPHET has already been chosen by over
300 hotels including though not limited to the following:
Starwood Hotels and Resorts.
Swissotel at worldwide locations.
Sunburst Hotels (Choice Hotels).
Boca Raton Resort & Club.
La Quinta Resort & Spa.
Hershey Lodge and Convention Center.
Caesar's World.
Gmpo Posadas Hotels throughout Mexico.
Greenalls Hotels & Leisure Limited.
Cok Hotels, Amsterdam.
Colonial Williamsburg.
MGM Grand.
OPUS 2 is exceptionally sound financially and operationally with steady growth
in employees, clients and sales. We undertake consulting and development
projects in a disciplined manner and take pride in our innovative software
applications with clean, easy-to-use interfaces that have become our hallmark and
the basis for a high level of customer satisfaction.
OPUS 2 is a wholly owned subsidiary of MICROS Systems, Inc. of Beltsville,
Maryland.
1.1 Service/product overview

OPUS 2 has taken a leading role in the development of yield management
systems. The two most widely installed products are TopLine and TopLine
PROPHET.
TopLine was initially introduced in 1985. Since then, it has been installed in over
250 properties around the world.
The system has evolved over the years, continually revised and enhanced on a
regular maintenance schedule. The current matured version is 3.10.
131
TopLine PROPHET (TLP) was released in 1996. It is a comprehensive Yield
Management package. Since its introduction, over 300 hotels have selected TLP.
TopLine PROPHET provides:
1. Maximization of transient revenue through sophisticated forecasting and
optimization.
2. Maximization of group revenue via detailed analysis of group business
provided via a real-time interface to your sales and catering system or via our
own group booking module.
3. Incentive systems to influence sales managers and reservation agents to
produce the most revenue for your hotels.
Other features include:
TLP automatically implements optimal settings and provides management

with a master control panel for viewing the solutions and modifying them if
needed;
TLP provides tools for all market segments: leisure, conventions, meetings,
contract accounts and others. Profit contiibutions from all revenue streams are
considered, as is displacement of short lead-time business when making longer
lead-time decisions.
Version 3.5 of TopLine PROPHET is currently deployed. Version 4.00 with an

expected release in the first quarter of 2000 will include enhancements to increase
the cHent interface functionality as well as a Global Distribution System (GDS)
optimization report. OPUS 2 is in the development phases of design for TopLine
PROPHET Enterprise, a solution to allow easy access to a centrally installed
version of TopLine PROPHET via internet, extranet and intranet.
OPUS 2 takes the lead role in the planning, implementation and rollout of yield
management products.
2 Supplier's description of goods and services

The responses provided in this section refer to a scenario that would involve either
a CRS or PMS solution.
2.1 System architecture

TopLine PROPHET was developed using Delphi from Inprise, an object-oriented
Pascal language development environment and compiler, which runs under
Windows NT, Windows 95, or Windows 98 operating systems on Intel-based PCs.
Decision support servers are recommended to be 300MHz Pentium II PCs with
132
128MB RAM and a 1GB hard drive. The database server can be a similar PC with
dual 4GB hard drives or any reasonably powerful Unix machine. The database
system used is Oracle. TCP/IP is required as a communications protocol. Only a
licensed copy of the database engine software is required in addition to the
operating system and the application.
2.2 Property configuration

Individual room types within the PMS/CRS are easily cross-referenced or mapped
to room types within TopLine PROPHET. The cluster concept in TopLine
PROPHET allows the hotel to group room types with similar demand patterns so
they may be forecasted independently. TopLine PROPHET supports a 'Run of
House' room type.
TopLine PROPHET controls rate availability by rate values rather than by rate
type, therefore, there is no need to map PMS/CRS rate types to our system.
Local and Preferred Account business may be treated differently than normal FIT
business by using the TopLine PROPHET concepts of 'indifference rate' and/or
'yieldability. An 'indifference rate' may be assigned to Local and Preferred
Accounts that allows them to remain open when equivalent FIT rates are closed.
Assigning a 'yieldability' status of non-yieldable will keep Local and Preferred
Account rates open under all circumstances.
TopLine PROPHET'S ability to store historical data or future inventory is limited
only by the disk space available to the TLP database. If at the time of an
installation, historical data is available from the PMS/CRS the amount of data
loaded into TopLine PROPHET may vary on a property by property basis.
The amount of future inventory held in TopLine PROPHET may be configured by
each property.
TopLine PROPHET does not cuiTcntly support any configuration at the brand
level though this feature could be easily added if required.
2.3 Property initialization

Several pieces of data are needed in order to initialize the TopLine PROPHET
database. As long as the required historical data exists in the PMS/CRS, it may be
imported directly from these systems into TopLine PROPHET. For an opening
hotel, or one with very little relevant history, the data must be entered manually.
Combining historical data from a PMS/CRS with manual estimates entered by the
user is also possible.
Although a hotel may have five years of history, it may not be appropriate to load
all of this data into TopLine PROPHET, as changing market conditions may
133
render some of the data irrelevant. During the initiaUzation process, we can choose
to import reservation records from a certain period of time, thus avoiding periods
of data that do not accurately reflect the current market conditions for this hotel. In
the case of a new hotel, where historical data is not available the required data is
entered manually. With the assistance of an OPUS 2 Consultant, market
conditions will be reviewed with the hotel's management team in order to
determine basic data for the property. The understanding is that although this data
is the initial "seed" used by TopLine PROPHET for forecasting, the system will
iiTimediately begin to adjust as real transactions are accepted from the PMS/CRS
and actual history is created. See Section 3.2 for a discussion of Bayesian learning
model.
New hotels with or without heavy seasonality go tluough the same initialization
process. During our discussions, seasonality is addressed so that a set of data will
be developed for each season. See Section 3.2. A for a discussion of History Sets.
When historical data is imported from the PMS/CRS and it does not coincide with
management's opinions, the following will be reviewed: Step one is to understand
why management disagrees with this historical data.
The data could be coiTect, but management's perceptions may in fact be incorrect.
If after further investigation it is determined that although the historical data is
correct it does not reflect future trends, management can make manual overrides
to the historical "seed". Thus, there is a high degree of flexibility allowed when
configuring TopLine PROPHET.
During the initialization and configuration of TopLine PROPHET we can load
some data from the PMS/CRS as listed in Section 2.4, Data Flow. There is also
some data that must be configured directly into TopLine PROPHET. This data
includes, but is not limited to:
-
history set dates;
market segments;
account information;
users;
room types;
group pricing strategies;
transient pricing strategies;
yieldability;
indifference rate;
group Potential;
oversell allowances;
134
upgrade Levels;
~ rate gaps;
-
report Parameters.
Figure 1
I
Jy P!5î2?P J: j"^^^
??,LPf "i'^^Jl^^^
Larger companies may utilize more

than one TopLine,PROPHET
application
2.4 Dataflow
On a nightly basis, TopLine PROPHET reforecasts and re-optimises as far into the
future as the long-term planning horizon. In addition, the application re-optimises
the near-term, on a more frequent basis. For these reasons, we recommend nightly
updates of all data from the CRS combined with hourly updates of reservations
data. TLP supports user requests for data updates as well as the manual initiation
of the optimization process for future dates if a significant event warrants this
action. Currently, we do not update based upon a certain amount of activity
though a future release will support event-driven updates. TopLine PROPHET
also has these data types available, inventory, both physical and off-market, and
by room type. Inventory and Group Bookings are passed nightly. Reservation
ti*ansactions can be passed as frequently as hourly.
The data is stored in tables in the RMS database. Additional data types available
135
are Stay Pattern Rate Hurdles and Inventory Controls. Data required by the
PMS/CRS that has changed as a result of recalculation by TopLine PROPHET is
passed to the PMS/CRS immediately.
3 RMS system versions

Version 3.50 of TopLine PROPHET is currently deployed. Version 4.00 is
currently in alpha testing. In addition, we are in the early stages of the design of
TopLine PROPHET Enterprise. This product will allow access to a centralized
installation of TopLine PROPHET via internet, extranet or intranet. It will feature
a browser-based client that will bring the full power of TopLine PROPHET to any
desktop while minimizing deployment and support issues. Version 3.50 contains
enhanced processing and analysis of group bookings. The application will support
multiple group types (e.g., wholesale, base business, true groups) with a vuiique
analysis for each type.
Version 4.00 increases the functionality of the client interface, as well as
providing a GDS optimization report. Version 3.50 was released in the first
quarter of 1999 and version 4.00 is currently expected to be released in the first
quarter of 2000. Subsequent versions will be released on a semi-annual basis.
3.1 Interfaces
TopLine PROPHET currently interfaces to the following vendors:
-
Choice Hotels (Profit Manager) PMS.
GEAC Computers PMS.
Hotel Computers (INNtime) PMS.
Hotel Information Systems PMS.
MICROS Fidelio PMS and SCS.
Visual One (formerly National Guest Systems) (Miracle III) SCS.
Springer Miller (Host) PMS.
Elti-ax (LANmark) PMS.
TCA (INNSIST) PMS.
Inter American Data (LMS) PMS.
Additional interfaces are currently being developed with the following vendors:
136
-
Newmarket Software (Delphi for Windows) SCS.
Rio Systems PMS.
National Guest Systems (IS4VB) PMS.
National Guest Systems (Visual Miracle) SCS.
Daylight Software SCS.
Eltrax (Medallion) PMS.
OPUS 2 has had discussions with additional PMS and CRS vendors. As those
agreements are finalized the interfaces will be developed.
3.2 Forecasting
TopLine PROPHET uses a Bayesian statistical model for forecasting all the
variables of interest (e.g., transient booking pace). The Bayesian model has
numerous advantages over traditional "frequentist" statistical techniques such as
time series analysis. The Bayesian school of statistics is based on a different view
of what it means to learn from data.
In the more traditional frequentist approaches probability is a property of the event
itself and is used to explain the phenomenon. The Bayesian model uses probability
as a measure of uncertainty about the phenomenon. As actual data on the variables
is accumulated, the distributions are updated in a manner that adapts based on the
degree and consistency of deviation from the prior distributions. In this way, no
arbitrary weights or smoothing need be applied to the data.
Another advantage of the Bayesian model is the ability to combine subjective
estimates with objective information to generate a prior distiibution that then gets
modified by actual history to produce a new posterior distribution. Estimates or
actual data that were once reasonable but are unsupported by more recent data are
automatically modelled as less likely to occur in the future. This allows TopLine
PROPHET to be successfully installed in a hotel with no available history or one
that is experiencing rapid market change and still receive immediate benefit.
All distributions in TopLine PROPHET are of unconsti'ained behavior. When
actual observed data is constrained or censored by a rate hurdle or inventory
restriction, data augmentation algorithms are used to calculate the effect of the
missing data on the distributions.
This approach is far more accurate than using "regret" and "denial" from a subset
of reservation distribution channels.
3.2.1 History sets
TopLine PROPHET uses History Sets to associate past and future days in a
137
predictive relationship. The assignment of days to particular history sets is a

simple point and click on a calendar operation. There is no limit on the number of
history sets. Past or future days may be reassigned at any time. In this way a day
may be moved from the "High Season" set to the "Convention - Overflow Hotel"
set as soon as a citywide convention is announced. This is an infinitely flexible
approach for handling all types of market conditions.
3.2.2 Trending
Prior to the availability of actual data for a future day, TopLine PROPHET uses
distributions from its assigned history set to forecast future demand, rate
distributions, stay patterns, etc. As actual reservations and cancellations occur for
the day deviations from the expected behaviour are trended with the prior estimate
to generate a revised forecast.
3.2.3 Hourly reforecasting
Reforecasting and subsequent re-optimisation occurs regularly thi'oughout the day
(e.g., hourly) for short lead times (e.g., next fourteen days). This is vitally
important for establishments with walk-in volume or volatile transient demand.
Longer lead time dates (from a transient standpoint) are reforecasted and reoptimised on a daily basis.
3.2.4 Forecastable clusters
TopLine PROPHET allows the user to configure the hotel's room types into
separate forecastable clusters. This is useful when a hotel has room types of
widely different desirability and therefore experiences significant differences in
demand. An example is an oceanfront hotel that can run 100% occupancy in the
rooms with a view while achieving 75% in the rest of the hotel.
TopLine PROPHET automatically compares actual data to forecasts and makes
appropriate adjustments.
Graphic comparisons of actual data to forecast data demonstrate the accuracy of
the history set in forecasting the particular day.
TopLine PROPHET features automatic outlier detection as well as the ability to
manually ovenide a day's outlier status.
Once a day has passed, its data is compared with all like days in the history set to
determine its degree of consistency. If it is found to be deviant in any of the
significant distributions, the day is tagged by TopLine PROPHET as an outlier
and its data is not included in calculation of history set forecasts. Each time a day
of the week (e.g., Sunday) is processed, all like days are reanalyzed for deviance.
In this way, a new trend in the data will cause older days to be tagged as outliers
138
and more recent days to be untagged. All outlier tags can be overridden by the
user.
User entered forecast overrides are shown graphically in comparison to the system
forecast. In addition, the Overrides report shows all overrides, their values, and the
current system value. TopLine PROPHET continues to update its forecast but does
not override the user-entered change. An Audit report shows all changes and the
user who made them.
3.2,5 Special events/demand changes
Patterns of behaviour that are extraordinary and will never happen again such as
huiTicanes, disasters, and renovations are demand periods that are designated as
'outliers' in TopLine PROPHET. These dates are not included in the historical
data that is used for forecast puiposes therefore the database will not be infected
with information that has no bearing on future dates. TopLine PROPHET
automatically detects 'outliers', or they can be manually entered and overridden
by the user.
If a change in demand patterns such as a sudden economic surge causing business
to trend upward would indicate that a new history set should be created to reflect
the increase in demand, or if the change has been consistent over the last few
weeks, then this data can be used to create a new history set that will be used from
this point forward. A new history set would thus be created using this recent data
and would involve minimal intervention from the user.
4 Group management
TopLine PROPHET fully yield manages both group and transient segments. In
order to fully determine the appropriate rate hurdles for each arrival date and
length of stay of the transient guest, it is assumed that the entire demand "picture"
is taken into consideration. Thus the groups play an important role in this process.
Group business can be entered directly into TopLine PROPHET or via an
interface to the Sales and Catering system (see section 1.7 Interfaces). Either
method will provide the Sales Manager with a comprehensive analysis of the
group's profitability to the hotel.
The group is assigned a Booking Point value, which measures the profitability of
the group in relation to the market position of the hotel during the requested dates.
It will also measure the impact this group will have on any lost transient revenue.
In order to do this, TopLine PROPHET considers all revenue sources for the
group (Rooms, F&B, function room rental, etc) as well as costs (Incremental
costs, commissions, rebates, comp rooms, etc).
139
This data is compared against the Lose It rate for the time period as well as the
transient revenue displacement in order to obtain a Booking Point value. TopLine
PROPHET will also advise the Sales Manager of any alternative arrival dates that
may be more profitable for the hotel.
In regards to transient optimization, all near term days and their stay patterns are
optimized on an hourly basis. All future stay patterns are optimized on a nightly
basis. These are configured for each property individually. Likewise, the user can
manually initiate the optimization of future dates if a significant event warrants
such an action. A future version of TopLine PROPHET will allow for the
automatic initiation of the transient optimization based on a major change in
demand. The transient rate hurdle values and stay pattern controls that are
generated due to the optimization process can all be modified by the user if need
be.
e-yield^^ technical brief

IDeaS Inc., Integrating Decisions and Systems
3500 Yankee Drive, Suite 350
Eagan,MN 55121, USA
Contents: 1 e-yield, 1.1 What is e-yield? 1.2 Why e-yield? 2 IDeaL/CARE.

2.1 What is IDeaL/CARE? 3 IDeal RESULTS. 3.1 What is IDeaL/RESULTS? 3.2
What is required? 3.3 How does it work? 3.3.1 Control study report. 3.3.2
Transient business report. 3.3.3 Total business report. 4 Are the results valid? 4.1
Why measure? 5 Hotel management. 5.1 Defining the strategies that drive the
decisions. 5.2 Preparing fi)r success. 6 Decision integration.
e-yieldTM
1.1 What is e-yield?

E-yield integrates hotel management expertise and IDeaS statistical market
models into optimal revenue decisions. The combination of Full Precision
Forecasting, The e-yield Decision Engine and Decision Integration create a
powerful system that delivers on the 4% guarantee: We will increase revenues by
at least 4% (above and beyond market forces) for all room inventory impacted by
the e-yield Solution. In addition, the system will deliver significant benefits to the
hotels with modules such as group evaluation, contract evaluation, management
information, monitoring and many more.
What are the Components of e-yield'^^?

Component
Historical Data Capture
Description
Raw data is collected from the PMS/CRS (property
management system or central reservation system)
history file and snapshots of current databases are
taken. No other system comes close to e-yield in
historical data capture or usage.
142
Component
Description
Data Analysis,
Verification and
Calibration
The historical data is analyzed for patterns and

exceptions, e-yield exti'acts the following: booking
pace, demand patterns (length-of-stay, day-of-week,
no-shows, cancellations and seasonality) and special
events. Hotel management works with IDeaS yield
professionals to configure the system.
e-yieldData
This includes detailed, summary and configuration

data for e-yield.
e-yield Decision
Integration
e-yield integrates seamlessly with the PMS/CRS to

implement hotel management strategy. It provides the
PMS/CRS with the overbooking and opportunity cost
information needed to automatically determine
availability based on rate and length-of-stay
requested, e-yield also extracts information necessary
to monitor forecasts and update controls from the
PMS/CRS databases.
Full Precision Forecast
Forecasts are prepared using demand patterns and the

corresponding uncertainty, special event databases,
on-books information and user demand changes.
Unconstrained forecasts (not limited to the capacity
of the hotel) are prepared for each of the following:
demand, no-show and cancellation, booking pace and
rate.
e-yield Decision
Engine
Opportunity cost is the expected revenue generated

from the last available room. It is calculated based on
the demand forecasts and used to make rate and
length-of-stay decisions. The e-yield Decision Engine
calculates opportunity cost, then writes this data
directly to the hotel PMS/CRS. Opportunity cost
includes non-room revenue and cost factors to allow
hotels to maximize revenue per customer, not just
revenues per room. This module also includes
overbooking conti'ols that are configured to meet
hotel management's risk vs. benefit strategy. It
allows "overbooking" to make up for slippage or
"wash" due to no-shows, cancellations or early
departures.
PMS/CRS Data
These are databases the PMS/CRS read from and

write to.
143
Component
Description
PMS/CRS
This is the property management system or central

reservation system.
Updating
PMS/CRS data is extracted nightly and is used to

update the e-yield database. This allows the system to
make daily adjustments for changes in market
behaviour.
Monitoring
The monitoring module compares on-books data with

data from the current forecast. Significant deviations
are noted as exceptions.
e-yield GUI
This is the e-yield graphical user interface. It

provides the screens necessary for hotel management
to interact with the program.
Calendar
Significant deviations of on-books data from the

forecast are identified via the calendar. Exception
dates are identified in red to alert hotel management.
Group Evaluation
A tool that helps the group sales manager evaluate a

group based on profitability, placement, displaced
transient demand and fair market rate.
Reports
Tabular and graphical reports that help hotel

management analyze a dynamic marketplace.
Demand Change
A module in the e-yield GUI that allows hotel

management to override the system. Use of this
module is encouraged only in cases where the system
will not be able to respond to demand changes in
time.
Hotel Management
This group consists of hotel management personnel

that interact with the yield management system.
IDeaS Yield
Professionals
Hoteliers, mathematicians, scientists and engineers

employed by IDeaS. They partner with hotel
management to help set optimum yield strategy,
address problems and answer questions.
J
1.2 W h y e-yieldTM?
The Full Precision Forecast is a revolutionary statistical approach to forecasting
144
demand and the corresponding uncertainty. It is conducted at a level of detail not

found in any other system. The forecast is produced by properly inteipreting
benchmark rates, occupancy trends, out of order rooms, market segmentation, day
of week patterns, length-of-stay patterns, historical and future block activity,
booking pace patterns, price distribution patterns and overbooking strategies. The
volatility of demand for all days along the booking curve are forecasted by arrival
date, rate class and length of stay. It is this unprecedented level of precision that
enables the e-yield system to fully optimize revenue in hotels.
The e-yield Decision Engine uses IDeaS unique probabilistic approach to
maximize hotel revenues. Gains are achieved by selecting the optimal business
mix and result from rate controls, overbooking conti'ols, and most importantly,
length-of-stay controls. These controls are based on an opportunity cost analysis
and create a powerful engine that evaluates each individual room request. The
analysis takes into account non-room revenues and costs (such as marginal
package and distribution costs per customer) to realize maximum profit per guest.
A room request is denied if the resulting revenue is less than the calculated
opportunity cost.
Decision Integration ensures that the right reservation decisions are continually
implemented, e-yield works behind the scenes with the hotel's existing reservation
system, dynamically controlling available rates and length-of-stay tluough the
familiar PMS/CRS interface. Changes in business patterns are anticipated before
they occur and result in improved decision making.
What is the impact on operations?
Affected Role
Impact
Executive Management
e-yield provides detailed reports (e.g. booking pace,

history vs. demand, opportunity cost by length-ofstay, etc.) that can be used to analyze past and future
business trends.
Yield Manager /
Reservations Manager
The e-yield Full Precision Forecast and Decision

Engine free the yield manager from analyzing reams
of data. Instead, e-yield automates rate and length of
stay restrictions as well as desired overbooking levels
for the entire forecasting window. It insures that hotel
yield management strategy is implemented 24 hours a
day, 7 days a week.
e-yield also flags exceptions (either higher or lower
occupancy than expected) so that the yield manager
can focus on the situation and take appropriate action.
IDeaS delivers the yield manager at least a 4%
increase in room revenues.
|
145
Affected Role
Impact
Group Sales Manager
The e-yield "group evaluation function" takes the

guesswork out of signing up group business. The
program determines the displacement cost of the
group business so that the group sales manager can
rest assured that revenue is not lost as a result of
placing a group.
Reservationist
e-yield works with the PMS/CRS to automatically

manage rates which maximize yield. Because e-yield
integrates seamlessly with the PMS/CRS, the
reservationist takes reservations in the normal
fashion.
Front Desk Personnel
Full Precision Forecasting enables the property to

maximize yield while closely controlling the risk of
walking guests.
System Administrator
The e-yield system produces minimal impact to I.S.

personnel because many administration tasks are
handled by IDeaL/CARE staff through remote access
tools. The system administrator can expect about the
same amount of work as with other workstations
attached to the LAN (e.g. system setup and some disk
management may be required).
IDeaL/CARE
2.1 What is IDeaL/CARE?

IDeaL/CARE provides the infrastructure necessary to ensure maximum yield
revenue. This intricate structure of software, communications technology, issue
resolution processes and highly experienced yield professionals works to insure
that optimal revenue decisions are made every minute of every day - even in a
rapidly changing environment.
Why go to all this trouble? Because IDeaS, like no one else, makes the 4%
guarantee: we will increase revenues by at least 4% (above and beyond market
forces) for all room inventory impacted by the e-yield Solution.
Delivering on this commitment requires a continuous process of monitoring,
supporting, partnering and re-configuration.
146
1. Monitoring takes place via "remote computing." IDeaL/CARE staff accesses
the hotel's e-yield System daily to insure that it is up and running, interacting
with the PMS/CRS (property management system or central reservation
system) and responding correctly to the market.
2. Support processes are invoked if an anomaly is discovered during monitoring
or if a question or problem is submitted. Issues are logged into TROI (a
database for ti*acking issues) and the appropriate experts are assigned. The
owner of the issue follows it through to resolution and logs the results. Internal
reports are generated to insure 100% resolution and that responsiveness
requirements were met. You may be surprised to know that 9 out of 10 support
calls actually originate from the IDeaL/CARE staff.
3. Partnering and Re-configuration is necessary when market conditions or
business strategies change, or when major enliancements to e-yield are
introduced. In these situations, hotel yield managers and IDeaS yield
professionals partner to mutually understand the yield revenue situation and
how to best manage it. Often times, these interactions will be initiated by
IDeaS personnel as a result of "flags" generated by the system. With solution
in hand, the yield professional involves the necessary IDeaS experts to reconfigure and, if necessary, recalibrate the system.
IDeaL/CARE removes the element of chance from the yield management process.
It insures the system is up and functioning properly, that issues are promptly
resolved and that the system is properly configured given the market environment.
IDeaL/CARE is an essential element of the e-yield Solution and enables us to
make the 4% Guarantee.
What is included with IDeaL/CARE?
Category
Monitoring
Support
Service
Monitoring of e-yield and PMS Interaction
Monitoring of Software Operations
Decision Quality Audits
Responding to Events/Incoming Communication
Escalation to Appropriate Yield Professionals
Problem/Question Resolution
Patch/Update/Upgrade System
Implementation of Configuration Adjustments
Recalibration when Necessary

Affected Role
Impact
Yield management can be practiced at many levels. If

you want to be the best, just as in competitive team
147
Affected Role
Yield Manager /
Group Sales Manager
Impact
sports, you need talent, teamwork and practice,
practice, practice. That's where IDeaS yield
professionals come in. This group of hoteliers,
mathematicians, scientists and engineers (many
holding advanced degrees) has worked together
analyzing hundreds of properties. Their goal:
consistently exceed the revenue gains stated in the
4% guarantee.
When a hotel invests in IDeaL/CARE, hotel
management can use this highly effective team of
experts to:
Information Systems
Manager
System Administrator
Immediately take action when yield issues arise

(often before you are aware there is a problem),
Address yield management questions,
Partner in evaluation of yield strategy,
Configure the e-yield system consistent with hotel

strategy.
IDeaL/CARE ensures the I.S. manager that e-yield

System support is being performed efficiently and
effectively by:
Making support personnel available 24 hours a

day, 7 days a week,
Minimizing e-yield System down-time,
Minimizing the need for additional staff,
Eliminating scheduling difficulties in achieving

round-the-clock support,
Reducing the cost of training,
Reducing the impact of employee turnover.
System administrators will appreciate the remote

monitoring performed by the IDeaL/CARE staff.
Tasks include:
Daily monitoring of e-yield daily activities and

software,
Daily monitoring of system performance,
148
Affected Role
Impact
Daily monitoring of e-yield and PMS interaction,
Monthly monitoring to insure that archiving has

been performed,
Remote installation of patches and updates as

available.
If a problem is detected, the IDeaL/CARE staff

invokes the support process and, when
appropriate, initiates a support call to the
property.
This means the system adixiinistrator is free to

concentrate on normal daily tasks. If a problem does
arise at the hotel, the system administrator can call
the IDeaL/CARE staff 24 hours a day, 7 days a week
for answers or problem resolution.
Reservationist
Front Desk Personnel
Constant system monitoring and the IDeaL/CARE

staffs commitment to 100% up time minimize the
chance of the reservationist or front desk personnel
being inconvenienced by system problems.
IDeaL/RESULTS
3.1 What is IDeaL/RESULTS?

IDeaL/RESULTS is the first and only tool to scientifically measure the
effectiveness of a yield management system.
The process isolates external factors such as changes in strategy or marketplace,
then measures the revenue contiibution solely attributable to the yield
management system.
The resulting reports make it easy for hotel management to clearly evaluate the
effectiveness of the product.
3.2 What is required?

The measurement can be performed in as little as thi'ee months following system
149
installation. Hotel PMS/CRS (property management system or central reservation
system) data must be available for the 15 months prior to installation of the
system. Because only hotel PMS/CRS data is used in the analysis,
IDeaL/RESULTS can evaluate any yield management system.
3.3 How does it work?

IDeaL/RESULTS methodology is applied to data supplied by the PMS/CRS in
order to determine the change in revenue due exclusively to the yield management
system. The results are presented in three separate reports: a conti'ol study, an
analysis of transient business and an analysis of total business.
3.3.1 Control study report
The Control Study is used to validate the methodology and ensure that the benefit
measurement procedure can accurately isolate any changes resulting from external
factors. It does this by reporting changes in transient business for two separate
periods in consecutive years.
The periods chosen represent the same time of year and are typically tliree months
long. Both periods are prior to the installation of the yield management system.
IDeaL/RESULTS methodology is applied to data from each period to adjust for
rate and marketplace changes.
If the methods are sound, this report will show changes in transient occupancy,
ADR and revPAR due to the yield management system at 0% or slightly below.
3.3.2 Transient business report
The Transient Business Report reviews the effect of the yield management system
on transient business. As in the previous report, it uses data from the same period
in two consecutive years. However in this case, one period is prior to system
installation while the other is after.
The same methods, proven valid in the Control Study, are applied to the data. This
time, the differences calculated are those due to the yield management system. An
example of actual hotel transient revenue increases is shown below.
3.3.3 Total business report
This report is essentially the same as the Transient Business Report except that the
overall business is reviewed. This report is important in ensuring that the yield
management system does not improve transient business at the cost of some other
area.
150
Figure 1: Actual IDeaL/RESULTS Data
4 Are the results valid?

IDeaL/RESULTS methods have been reviewed by independent auditors and yield
management experts. Their reviews have indicated that the methodology provides
results that are both valid and conservative.
4.1 Why measure?

L Something may not work as expected. Our e-yield System produces the most
accurate forecast in the industry. It does this by properly inteipreting
benchmark rates, occupancy trends, out of order rooms, market segmentation,
day of week patterns, length of stay patterns, historical and future block
activity, booking pace pattems, price distribution patterns and overbooking
strategies. It is a very thorough and complex process. We have every
confidence in it, but it is possible that something may not work as we
anticipate. As a company founded by scientists, we understand that. That's
why we use the scientific method. We measure to insure our hypotheses are
correct.
2. You deserve value for your money. IDeaL/RESULTS is the first and only
tool to assess yield management return on investment. We developed it
because you deserve more than a handshake to secure your interests. Not only
do we measure, we back our system with the 4% guarantee: we will increase
revenues by at least 4% (above and beyond market forces) for all room
inventory impacted by the e-yield Solution.
3. You deserve pricing choices. IDeaL/RESULTS allows IDeaS to offer you a
unique pricing option called Benefit Dependent Pricing (BDP). We'll do the
data analysis, install the system, provide the care and perform the
measurement. The price is dependent on the revenue increase produced by the
system.
151
That's why we measure. We do it to meet our number one objective: creating
measurable benefits our clients can count on.
Affected Role
Impact
Presentation of IDeaL/RESULTS takes about a day.

The information allows hotel management to see how
the yield system is affecting various hotel
performance factors such as length of stay,
occupancy, ADR and revPAR.
i
Yield Manager /
Group Sales Manager
The information quantifies yield management system

ROL
System Administi'ator
The system administrator may be asked to provide

historical PMS/CRS data.
5 Hotel management
Hotel Management plays 2 critical roles in the e-yield Solution:
1. Management determines the pricing, market segment, and risk strategies which
drive the solution's decision-making logic.
2. Management experience and guidance is essential in addressing unexpected
market behaviour. The exception reporting system alerts management to these
areas in time to take corrective actions when needed.
5.1 Defining the strategies that drive the decisions

Discussions with management and an analysis of the hotel are conducted before
the e-yield system is built to ensure that the hotel's business policies are properly
incoiporated into the mathematical model; management sets the business
strategies, and the e-yield Solution implements them.
An example might help demonstrate this. Suppose a hotel has a good feel for the
acceptable over-booking level for a particular night, say 13 rooms. This number
represents an intuitive, or perhaps spreadsheet-based, inteipretation of
management's underlying risk/reward strategy for overbooking. With e-yield,
management quantitatively defines their overbooking risk tolerance to be
consistent with the property's marketing and business goals. The system then
detemiines how best to implement this strategy. If the system actually
152
reconiiiiends overbooking by 25 rooms, it does so in order to accurately

implement hotel management's policy while maximizing revenues.
5.2
Preparing for success
Executive training sessions are organized to prepare the hotel's management team
for the system. The training sessions are based on the hotel's actual data. These
interactive sessions, taught by IDeaS staff of specialists, also help IDeaS finalize
the system calibrations. As the system is brought up, initial recommendations are
tested and reviewed to build the staffs confidence in the solution. Finally,
ongoing monitoring keep management in the loop at all times and exception alerts
focus management's attention to the areas that need it most. Training and ongoing
consuhing prepare management to deal effectively with the unexpected.
Often, as a result of using the e-yield solution, management is able to spend more
attention to guest services and strategic decisions such as planning, pricing,
scheduling and budgeting.
Figure 2: The training steps
I
I
II
Create Data
Warehouse
1
T
I
I
I
1
3 Months
"Snapshot"
Installation
Build &.
Calibrate
System
System
Installed
1
IDeaL/RESULTS
Benefit
Measurement
1
f
5-6 Weeks
Stage 1
Training
2 Days
Executive Training
T
Stage 2
Training
5 Days
User Training
Stage 1
Training
2 Days
Quality Audit
6 Decision integration
Decision Integration enables efficient execution of the hotel's market, risk, and
pricing strategy by actually implementing the resulting reservation decisions, eyield works tlirough the hotel's existing reservation systems, controlling
overbooking, available rates and length-of-stay tlirough the familiar Property
Management and Reservation System interfaces.
As a result, e-yield begins increasing revenues immediately after installation. The
dynamic nature of the PMS (or CRS) integration also ensures that each booking
and change ti'ansaction is automatically incorporated into subsequent
recommendations and decisions. Instead of spending time interpreting charts and
graphs to make routine reservation decisions, management is able to concentrate
153
on more complex decisions, such as how to price and place groups, and how to set
pricing. The system also produces a wide range of reports to provide the insights
into demand patterns and forecasts to support mission-critical processes, such as
marketing, planning, and budgeting.
When fully integrated, the hotel's revenue management practices are not subject to
being compromised by staff absence, turnover or promotion. While decision
integration enables effective yield management, ongoing automatic monitoring
ensures its continued success.
e-yield's extensive monitoring capabilities keep hotel management in the loop at
all times, directing attention where management expertise and knowledge are most
needed. Decision integration and exception monitoring work hand-in-hand to
provide hotel management the benefits of automation while retaining and
improving decision visibility and control.
Feature
Full PMS Integration
Monitoring
Benefit
Minimizes end-user training.
Ensures decision implementation
Insulates revenue management from staff turnover
and absence
Directs management attention to potential problems
Remote monitoring of system activity ensures
smooth operations

The Spread of Yield Management Practices

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The Spread of Yield Management Practices

Dr. Fabiola Sfodera

3-7908-1582-9 Physica-Verlag Heidelberg New York

Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for

43/3153-5 4 3 2 1 0 Printed on acid-free paper

Preface and introduction

mind the particular and varied organisational and managerial structures of

Preface and introduction

Part I - Some strategic aspects of a YMS

The evolution of the organisational structure

3.1 The mixed organisational system and the model

3.2 Organisational learning: a very near reality

3.2.1 Conditions for the application

3.2.2 Yield management in organisational learning

The learning organisation: an objective to be reached

4.1 Yield management in the learning organisation

How to yield value: The Janus perspective

Operational Y.M. issues

2.1 The rapid expansion of budget hotels

2.2 The effect of economic cyclicality on the decline

2.3 Non-price variables gain importance in selection criteria

Strategic Y.M. issues

3.2 Funding philosophy

3.3 Creating value- in the eyes of the market

Human issues and the introduction of a

The case study

Conclusions and recommendations

Yield management and trust:

Reasons underlying variable pricing

Individual pricing and relationship marketing

Hypothesis of the research

Conclusions and management implications

Controlling the yield management process

A general framework to control hotel YMS

General considerations about demand forecasting

General considerations about room inventory control

The control process: tracking

5.1 Inventory report

5.2 Sales report

5.3 Reservation report

5.4 Pricing report

5.5 Unsold report

The control process: checking

The control process: signalling

The control process: controlling and updating

Part II - Yield management:

The economics of visitor attractions

Marketing and ideal markets

Results and discussion

1.1 Purpose and composition of the paper

Implications for the use of revenue management

Complexity of pricing in the restaurant sector

Empirical study to be undertaken

Revenue management and food service

The food service sector in Italy

1.1 The food service supply and demand in Italy:

1.1.1 Sector data: the food service supply

1.1.2 The food service demand

Revenue management and food service businesses

2.1 Applicability of revenue management