CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Preamble
Cement concrete has clearly emerged as the material of choice for the construction of
a large number and variety of structures in the world today. This is attributed mainly
to low cost of materials and construction for concrete structures as well as low cost of
maintenance. Use of high water cement ratio (w/c) in a high early strength cement led
to serious problems with durability of structures, especially those subjected to severe
environmental exposures. (Kumar et al, 2013). Reinforced concrete structures can be
highly durable as long as a care and quality control are enforced at all stages of the
design,

production

and

construction

processes.

However,

experience

has

demonstrated that its potential long-term durability is not always achieved and early
failure of reinforced concrete structures may even occur. (Rodrigues et al, 2000).
According to Amusan and Olutoge (2014): The effect of sea water on concrete was
first discussed in 1840 by J. Smeaton and L. J. Vicat. Their two-year examination on
the research topic titled What is the trouble with concrete in sea water revealed that
a large number of concrete structures in sea water in the United States, Canada, Cuba
and Paramaare exposed to chemical deterioration.
It should be recognized that concrete is intrinsically a porous material. Despite the
improvements on its formulation and quality control to the best possible extent, it is
not possible to prevent completely the ingress of potentially harmful agents. Microcracks and macro-pores will always exist on the concrete surface, providing a path for
the transportation of aggressive ions into the interior of concrete. (Jose et al, 2008).
In every country tons of steel is used to strengthen the concrete structures in the form
of embedded ribs, hence life of those embedded ribs pose a constant challenge of
1

corrosion to scientists and engineers. Already, much attention has been paid to the
research work in this field and to the development of process and products to meet the
challenge.
When steel embedded in concrete corrodes, the increase in volume from metallic steel
to corrosion product produces an expansive force, which can rupture the concrete.
After a crack has been formed in this way, the steel corrodes even more rapidly,
leading ultimately to complete failure of the structural member involved. Therefore
premature deterioration of reinforced concrete structures due to corrosion of the
reinforcing steel is a concern worldwide.
Corrosion, one of the main causes of deterioration in concrete structures, initiates due
to its exposure to harmful chemicals that may be found in nature such as in some
ground waters, industrial effluents and sea waters. The most aggressive chemicals that
affect the long term durability of concrete structures are chlorides, sulpates, CO 2 or
H2S. Concrete immersed in a wet or moist aggressive medium tend to suffer damages
and exhibits so in the form of micro-cracks.
The major cause of these problems is the chloride-induced corrosion of reinforcing
steel which, because of the substantial volume increase that accompanies the
transformation of iron to rust, can lead to cracking and spalling of the concrete cover.
Also, the corrosion of reinforcing steel bars can also cause a weakening of the bond
and anchorage between concrete and reinforcement, which can reduce the shear
capacity of reinforced concrete (RC) beams and affects the serviceability and ultimate
strength of concrete elements in RC structures. (Kamyab, Z. H., 2010).
Deterioration of concrete infrastructures has emerged as one of the most severe and
demanding challenges facing the construction industry. (Horrigmoe, G., 2000).
Corrosion of embedded steel represents the dominating type of deterioration due to

chloride reaction and it represents a major problem for the durability and long term
performance of concrete structures. Extensive research in the past few decades has
established the mechanisms of seawater attack on cement paste and concrete, and
shown that seawater certainty causes deterioration of cement paste as a result of
reactions with susceptible components of the paste, and formation of new reaction
products such as gypsum, ettringite, brucite, calcium chloroaluminate.
Due to the porosity of concrete, 0 2 can easily diffuse into concrete, becoming
dissolved in the pore solution and finally reaching the surface of steel. At the surface
(cathodic area, C), oxygen is reduced into hydroxide ion via an electrochemical
cathodic reaction:

Figure 1.1: Schematic representation of basic processes of corrosion of steel in

concrete
(Source: Song, G. and Shayan, A., 1998)
Collapse of building structures had been rampant in recent years in the coastal cities
of Nigeria. Oni (2010) reported that these collapse has been on a steady increase,
since the year 2004, in the metropolitan city of Lagos, a coastal city on Nigeria.
Structural defects, dilapitation, deterioration of concrete structures had been identified
as a major cause of many of these building disasters that had led to losses of human
lives and material resources in the country. (Oni, 2010).
1.2 Significance of Study

In situ conditions, structural members such as beams can be affected through

exposure to aggressive chemical environment and loading conditions.
The rate of deterioration is affected by the loading condition, and more importantly
the physical and chemical nature of the host environments. The problem of the
degradation interests all the modern society in terms of discomfort and safety. Many
research works have been done on protective measures against deterioration without
prior understanding of the performance of the materials in these aggressive
environments.
The study focuses on the performance of concrete structures in the aggressive
environment and the deterioration mechanisms.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of this project is to review the performance of reinforced concrete structures
subjected to an aggressive chemical environment.
The objectives are:
To assess the effects of chlorides attack on the performance reinforced

concrete structures
To assess the effects of sulphates attack on the performance of reinforced

concrete structures
To evaluate the effects of chemical attacks on the mechanical properties of
reinforced concrete structures

1.4 Scope or Limitation of the Study

The scope of this project work is to study the performance of reinforced concrete
structure subjected to an aggressive chemical environment. To ascertain their
behavior and proffer possible solution to these worldwide problems.
1.5 Research Methodology in brief
The methodology adopt to see through the aim and objectives of this project is mainly
by reviewing the previous works on the performance or behavior of reinforced
concrete structures subjected to an aggressive chemical environment, to have an
4

expanded knowledge of different chemical attacks on the reinforced concrete

structures and the possible way out.
1.6 Purpose of reinforcing concrete structures
Steel reinforcement bar is also known as rebar, reinforcing bar, reinforcing steel and
reinforcement steel. It is a versatile constructional material which is widely used in
the construction industry for making of the reinforced concrete. Reinforcement
concrete (RC) is a composite material made up of concrete and some form of
reinforcement-most commonly steel rods, bars, wires or mesh of steel rods and wires.
The aim of the reinforced concrete designers is to combine the reinforcement with the
concrete in such a manner that sufficiently of the relatively expensive reinforcement
is incorporated to resist tensile and shear forces, whilst utilizing the comparatively
inexpensive concrete to resist the compressive forces.
To achieve this aim, the designer needs to determine, not only the amount of
reinforcement to be used, but how it is to be distributed where it is to be positioned.
These decisions of the designer are critical to the successful performance of
reinforced concrete and it is imperative that, during construction, reinforcement be
positioned exactly as specified by the designer.
1.6.1 Primary Reinforcement
Primary reinforcement refers to the steel which is employed to guarantee the
1.6.2

resistance needed by the structure as a whole to support the design loads.

Secondary Reinforcement
Secondary reinforcement is also known as distribution or thermal reinforcement
and is employed for durability and aesthetic reasons, by providing enough
localized resistance to limit cracking and resist stresses caused by effects such as

1.6.3

temperature changes and shrinkage.

Steel Rebars

Steel rebar are also employed to confer resistance to concentrated loads by

providing enough localized resistance and stiffness for a load to spread through a
wider area.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Background
Reinforced concrete has been one of the most used building materials in the last
decades. It has proven to be a reliable material with a good durability performance
compared to steel and other structural materials. However, early deterioration of
concrete due to aggressive environments or poor construction quality has occurred in
many reinforced concrete structures. Selection of a remedial action for
aging/deteriorating infrastructure and designing new projects with sustainability
objectives is a challenge faced by asset managers and designers of civil
infrastructures., .
The fast rate of deterioration and the high cost of repair, rehabilitation and
replacement of concrete structures have become major issues in infrastructure asset
management. (Nezamian et al, 2005) said a new research project initiated at RMIT
University, funded by Corporative Research Centre for Construction Innovation
(CRC-CI) in Australia, is aimed to develop a decision support tool for identification
of cause and selection of remedial action for reinforced concrete structures
susceptible to degradation through exposure to aggressive environments such as
marine conditions, extreme arid conditions and chemically active soils. The decision
support tools will account for uncertainties associated with the innovative
technologies using a probabilistic concept, permitting the engineer to quantify and
accept the level of reliability associated with the design. The research outcome can

also be used for the design of more sustainable civil infrastructures in aggressive
environments.
2.2 Factors affecting Corrosion of Reinforcement
Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete structure is an electro-chemical process and is
similar to the action which takes place in a flash battery. The anodic reaction which
is the oxidation process and is dependent on the PH of interstitial electrolyte, presence
of aggressive anions and the existence of an appropriate electrochemical potential at
the reinforcing bar surface, results in dissolution or loss of metal whilst the cathodic
reaction which is a reduction process and is dependent on the availability of O 2 and
the PH in the vicinity of rebar.
2.2.1 Effect of carbonation and entry of gaseous pollutants
The PH of the concrete is reduced by the carbonation and entry of acidic gaseous
pollutants such as SO2 and NO2. The fall in PH to certain levels may cause
commencement of reinforcement corrosion, loss of passivity of concrete against rebar
corrosion and catastrophic corrosion as indicated in the table below (Kumar et al,
2013)
Table 2.1: State of reinforcement corrosion at various PH
PH of concrete
Below 9.5
At 8.0
Below 7.0

State of reinforcement corrosion

Commencement of steel corrosion
Passive film on the steel surface disappears
Catastrophic corrosion occurs

2.2.2 Effect of aggressive anions

According to Kumar et al (2013), chloride in concrete may be present as Acid soluble
chloride, chemically bound chloride with hydration products of cement and free or
water soluble chloride within the pore solution of concrete. Generally, the
concentration of free chloride ions (Cl-) influences the corrosion process. It is
reported that the corrosion rate increases with an increase in chlorine content of
7

concrete. The risk of reinforcement corrosion associated with the level of chloride
content in both uncarbonated and carbonated concrete is presented in the table below.
Table 2.2: Corrosion risk in concrete containing chlorides
Total chloride
(wt% of cement)
Less than 0.4%

0.4% - 1.0%

More than 1.0%

Condition

of

reinforcement
Carbonated
Uncarbonated,

concrete

made

adjacent

with

to Corrosion risk

High
cement Moderate

containing less than 8% C3A

Uncarbonated, made with

cement Low

containing 8% or more C3A

Carbonated
Uncarbonated, made with

High
cement High

containing less than 8% C3A

Uncarbonated, made with

cement Moderate

containing 8% or more C3A

All cases

High

2.2.3 Effect of Bacterial action

Aerobic bacteria may aid in the formation of differential aeration cell which will lead
to corrosion. In sewer concrete, the anaerobic bacteria produces iron sulfides which
too enables the corrosion reaction to proceed even in the absence of oxygen. The
bacteria decrease the amount of cover by disintegration of cementitious material
(ASTM, 1983).
2.2.4 Effect of water cement (w/c) ratio
Basically water cement (w/c) ratio control strength, durability and permeability of
concrete and does not control the rate of corrosion but permeability which is a
function of w/c ratio affect the corrosion of rebar. The depth of penetration of
particular chloride threshold value increases with an increase in the w/c ratio. The
oxygen diffusion coefficient is also found to be increasing with an increase in the w/c

ratio. In a study is observed that the permeability of hardened cement paste is

increased 100 fold by increasing the w/c ratio from 0.35 to 0.45 and the time of
initiation of reinforcement corrosion in a sample with a w/c ratio 0.4 is 2.15 to 1.77
times more as compared to a sample with a w/c ratio of 0.55, under accelerated
corrosion testing (Kumar et al, 2013).
2.2.5 Effect of cover over reinforcing steel
Risk of reinforcement corrosion with low cover thickness, has been reported by
various researchers. The cover thickness has a remarkable effect on rebar corrosion
due to penetration of chloride or carbonation. This effect of corrosion is limited
within the time of casting to the time at which the rebar is depassivated and corrosion
is started. The rate of corrosion, once it has started, is independent of the cover
thickness.
2.3 Service Life prediction of structure
The state of corrosion of steel in concrete is a function of time. Corrosion process of
reinforcement in concrete starts with depassivation i.e. loss of oxide layer over the
rebar and then propagate to reach at a critical stage at which corrosion would produce
spalling of concrete cover or cracking through the whole concrete as depicted in
figure 1 (Kumar et al, 2013). Hence the service life of concrete may be expressed as:
tcr = tp + tcor
(1)

10

Figure 2.1: The stages of rebar corrosion

2.4 Experimental studies of Corrosion process of Reinforcement
The experimental study of reinforcement corrosion is very important because it allow for
thorough observation of the gradual process which has effects on concrete structures.
Regarding the corrosion process of reinforcement and its effect on the service life of
structures, various studies have been carried out in the past years regarding the effects of
corrosion on concrete structure with experimental proofs and results. Some of the notable
experiments are highlighted below
Benin et al (2010) carried out an experiment on the modeling of fracture process in
concrete reinforcement under steel corrosion through a numerical and experimental
11

methods, this experiments includes a 2-dimensional finite element analysis of concrete

cracking under reinforcement corrosion. A reinforced concrete structural component
caused by the expansion of corrosion predicts was modeled by a plane with periodical
holes corresponding to the component cross section, the plane was loaded with an
internal uniform pressure P, applied along the hole circumference to stimulate the
corrosion products smell. The volume of corrosion materials is about 2.0 2.5 times of
the reduction bars cross section which generated a high pressure in the concrete resulting
in original cracks and their propagation through concrete cover. Benin et al (2010) also
observed that the concrete media was free of micro-cracks, the crack system growth was
further assessed which was found also along with the increasing pressure the new cracks
were generated at free surface of cover and extended towards the hole. Matlob et al
(2008) uses several constructive models to test the reliability of the results through multimodel and multi variant analysis. In the model inelastic behavior analysis, concrete was
assumed to be a linear elastic media(homonymic theory of plasticity and flow theory).
Elasto-damage modle was also applied based on the continue damage mechanical
concept. The experiment results in a smaller strain using the corrosion pressure P, for
various materials model.
Similarly, Choo et al (2008) carries out an experiment on the mechanism of cracking
using concrete model; a corrosion failure analysis was carried out using a commercial
non-linear program package ABA QUS 6.5. In experiment, material non-linearity and
non-uniform pressure was applied in order to consider the real state of corrosion failure.
The corrosion product was assumed to be formed uniformly around the steel bar which
results that the higher concrete strength and the thicker cover depth product allow the
12

steel to constraint corrosion expansion, which means that the possibility of concrete
surface cracking is at minimal diameter under the same condition is the same with the
cover depth of 50mm regardless of the concrete strength and steel diameter which implies
that when steel diameter is decreased. It is of benefits for structure safely under
consideration of concrete surface cracking.
In a related development, Matlob et al (2008) carried out an experiment on concrete
inhibitors, he uses materials such as OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement) which was
relatively tested in a cement test laboratory, a washed graded sand was also used with an
aggregate size of 20mm sieve according to specification IQS54:984 two type of anodic,
inorganic corrosion inhibitors were used such as Sodium benzoate (SB) (C 6H5COONa),
potassium dichromate (PD) (K2Cr2O7) to serve as an inhibitors. The Potassium
dichromate was added to water, mix and stirred until it diffuse completely, which was
later added to the concrete mix. Likewise a steel reinforcement of 0.5cm in diameter was
used which was cleaned with wetted grinding paper. A concrete mix in accordance with
American mix design (AC 1211) and a compressive strength of 25MPa (28days) in ratio
of 0.48 was prepared for the casting specimen. The specimen were immersed partially in
aggressive solution (3.5% NaCl soluble for 3 months, through this period of recording of
data) various test such as the compressive strength test, splitting tensile test, flexural
strength test, electrochemical test were carried out to analyze the result of the specimen.
The result of the compressive test shows that Sodium benzoate admixture in concrete
does not show any reduction in compressive strength in ages 18, 660 and 90 days which
gives a higher results than the reference mix (C25) by approximately 12%, 15% and 14%,
hence using sodium benzoate as corrosion inhibitors in concrete affect the compressive
13

strength at early ages by 2% and 3% while potassium dichromate admixture affect the
compressive strength through reduction of 8% and 4% respectively. With the splitting
tensile result test results, sodium benzoate admixture reveal an increase in splitting tensile
strength of about 10%, 16.6% and 17%. However, the result of the experiment reveals
that if some kinds of anodic corrosion inhibitors like potassium dichromate are used in
low dosage, they will act as corrosion accelerators not as corrosion inhibitor (Matlob,
2008), the sodium benzoate admixture in dosage 2% and 3% by weight of cement has no
significant effects on concrete properties it only has an effects on concrete strength.
Kumar and Abhay (1999) also carried out a study on the effects of strength of concrete in
corrosion of reinforcement bar, 3 grades of steel bar, HYSD bars of grade Fe 415, and
CRS (corrosion resistant steel). The steel were tested in a laboratory accelerating a
corrosion test to determine the mass loss and assess the corrosion quality and the
thickness of concrete cover largely determines the effectiveness of general defensive
shield against corrosion. The mass loss of the steel are significantly influences by the
strength of the concrete. The rate of decrease of the mass loss for all type of steel is
maximum 35 to 40MPa concrete strength. The study also reveals that the higher carbon
content of the steel exhibit relatively large amount of corrosion, when compared to
HYSD steel and CRS bars. The performance index of CRS lies in the range of 1.3 to 1.5
and increases as the quality of concrete increases and decrease. All of the corrosion
process described above required oxygen in the absence of oxygen the corrosion rate is
appreciably reduced even with chloride concentration above the threshold level.
However, keeping oxygen from reinforcing steel in the field is extremely difficult, if not
possible when corrosion of reinforcing steel occurs, the corrosion products or rust can
14

occupy several times, the volume then the original steel, causing tensile force to develop
in the concrete.

Figure 2.2: Cracks due to steel Corrosion

15

Figure 2.3: Cracks due to Corrosion or insufficient Concrete cover

CHAPTER THREE
BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE IN AGGRESSIVE CHEMICAL
ENVIRONMENTS
3.1 Aggressive Environment Impact on Reinforced Concrete Structures
Concrete is a very important construction material. It is highly resistant to compression
forces, but week under traction forces. To improve its properties, it is combined with steel
bars, highly resistant to traction. Concrete offers corrosion protection to carbon steel. It
acts like a physical barrier that partially isolates steel surface from the external
environment and establishes an alkaline PH that facilitates steel passivity. Durability of a
16

reinforced concrete structure depends on the environment in which it is exposed, as also

on the time and properties of concrete. Permeability is an important property in
determining sensibility of concrete to external factors. For high durability, concrete
should have low permeability that is strongly linked to porosity of the concrete paste. The
extent of the damage depends on concrete quality. Inner causes of damage are chemical
reactions occurring inside concrete, volume changes caused by differences in physical
and chemical properties of aggregates and cement paste and particularly to its water
permeability.
Seawater is fairly uniform in chemical composition, which is characterized by the
presence of about 3.5 percent soluble salts by weight. The concentration of major salt
constituents of sea water were given in weight percentage of salt as 78% NaCl, 10.5%
MgCl2, 5% MgSO4, 3.9% CaSO4, 2.3% K2SO4, 0.3% KBr (Akinkurolere et al, 2007).
However, the feasibly aggressive constituents of seawater as regards concrete are the
sulphate, chloride, carbonate, bicarbonate, alkali metal, and magnesium ions. From the
above salt concentration, it is apparent that sodium chloride is the predominant salt
component of seawater. Nonetheless, Mokhtar and Swarmy, (2008) reported that the
sulphate component in seawater with higher chemical reaction on concrete is magnesium
sulphate rather than sodium or calcium sulphate as is more often the case in sulphateattack situations not involving sea water.
3.2 Corrosion damages on concrete
Premature deterioration of concrete buildings and infrastructure due to corrosion of
reinforcement is a severe challenge, both technically and economically. It has been

17

estimated that Western Europe spends 5 billion Euros yearly for repair of corroding
concrete infrastructures. Repair-work on the public transportation infrastructure are
causing significant inconveniences and delays for both the industry and the general
public, and are now recognized as a substantial cost for the society. As a result of
corrosion reaction, rust forms and occupies a volume of up to 6-7 times that of the
original metal, hence generating bursting forces. These forces might exceed the tensile
strength of concrete, causing cracking and spalling of the concrete leading to further
corrosion and loss of bond between the concrete and the steel. Hazardous situations might
occur when pieces of spalled concrete fall and threaten the user or passer-by, or when the
structural member loses cross-sectional area and thereby experiences increased stress on
the remaining section, which potentially could lead to structural failure.
Examples of damages caused by corrosion are illustrated bellow:

Figure 3.1: Corrosion damage on bridge pier

18

Figure 3.2: Corrosion damage in car park deck

Figure 3.3: Corrosion damage on marine structure

19

Figure 3.4: Corrosion damage on New Jersey type crash barrier

3.3 Protective treatments for concrete

The following are different types of protective treatments for concrete in an aggressive
chemical environments:

Figure 3.5: Hydrophobic (water repelling)

20

Figure 3.6: Sealers, which fill the pores at the surface and can partly be membranebuilding

Figure 3.7: Membrane-building coatings

21

Figure 3.8: Mortar and cement coating

The means of addressing the corrosion problems have mainly followed one of five
distinct
strategies:
Developing very dense and strong types of concrete to protect the reinforcement
against ingress of corrosive substance, particularly chlorides, in combination with
sufficient concrete covers.
Inhibiting corrosion through passive protection (corrosion inhibitors) or through active
protection (cathodic protection/prevention)
Developing coatings to the concrete surface or to the carbon reinforcement
(particularly epoxy or zinc)
Develop non-metallic reinforcements (glass fibre, aramid fibre or carbon fibre)
Developing specially alloyed steel types with higher chloride threshold values for
corrosion initiation.

The figures below show various chemical environments effects on concrete:

22

Figure 3.9: Importance of outer concrete layer to protect the reinforcement

Figure 3.10: Corroded steel in an aggressive chemical environment

Figure 3.11: Concrete beams exposed to high-concentration sulfate soils/solutions

23

(Source: Adapted from Stark, 2002)

Figure 3.12: Typical Plastic Shrinkage Crack

(Source: Adapted from Amusan and Olutoge, 2014)

Figure 3.13: Test of penetration of Chlorides

(Source: Adapted from Jose et al, 2008)

24

Figure 3.14: Colorimetric test of Specimens

(Source: Adapted from Jose et al, 2008)

Figure 3.15: Schema of acids and bases attack test

(Source: Adapted from Jose et al, 2008)

25

Figure 3.16: Vapour barrier sheet

(Source: Adapted from Beatrix, 2007)

CHAPTER FOUR
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
4.1 Chemical analysis of seawater
The results below shows the chemical analysis of seawater:
Table 4.1: Chemical analysis of fresh water and sea water

26

27

*T.D.S means Total Dissolved Solids

(Source: Adapted from Amusan and Olutoge, 2014)

4.2 Compressive Strength at aggressive Chemical Environments

According to Chandan et al (2014), Three numbers of specimens in each acid, sulfate
and chloride solution were tested for compressive strength after curing time and unit
weight of specimens was noted before the test. Sulphuric acid attacks to lead to
deposition of a white layer of a gypsum crystal on the acid exposed surface of the
specimen. The average test results are presented in table 4.1 below:
Table 4.2: Compressive Strength of concrete in an aggressive chemical environment

28

(Source: Adapted from Chandan et al, 2014)

29

Mohammed A. et al (2015), Results of compressive strength of cement mortar in an

annonium

nitrate

attack

shows

the

Figure 4.1: Result of compressive test with nitrate attack

(Source: Adapted from Mohammed et al, 2015)

30

following:

The results obtained by Verma et al (2013), shows the development of compressive

strengths and losses in compressive strengths in both the plain concrete and High
Volume Fly Ash Concrete (HVFAC). The table below shows the results:
Table 4.3: Variations of Compressive Strengths and Masses losses

(Source: Adapted from Verma et al, 2013)

Figure 4.2: Loss in compressive strength in concrete

(Source: Adapted from Verma et al, 2013)
31

4.3 Loss of weight due to aggressive environments

Concrete cubes were immersed in 10% concentration of sulphuric acid, 10% sodium
sulfate solution and 10% sodium chloride for test period of 30 days and 60 days. All the
exposed specimen recorded weight loss and it was observed that the weight loss in case
of acid attack was less as compared to sulfate and chloride attack.
Table 4.4: Loss in weight of reinforced concrete in an aggressive environments

(Source: Adapted from Chandan et al, 2014)

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION
32

The performance of reinforced concrete subjected to an aggressive chemical

environment from the recent and past literatures. Based on the review, several
conclusions can be drawn and these are listed below:
i.
Corrosion usually results in a weakened bond which usually takes place at the
ii.

interface of concrete and corroded bars.

Corrosion is the major causes of failure in concrete structure and mostly
affected through the cover zone. When the expansion stress exceeds the

iii.

tensile strength of the concrete cover, cracks will develop.

Since concrete structure always contain defect which would indirectly or
directly initiate the corrosion of the steel bar, the occurrence of corrosion of
steel in concrete is only a matter of time because the concrete cover will act as
a shortcut for the ingress of detrimental species spalling off the concrete and

iv.

exposing the interior of the concrete to corrosion.

From the Verma et al results, it can be concluded that the utilization of fly ash
reduces the loss in compressive strength in concrete. Therefore, fly ash has
been proved as an effective material which can be used for making concrete in

v.

aggressive environmental conditions.

The performance of the protected concretes against chemically aggressive
environments was generally better than the performance of the unprotected
concretes.

33