How It Works Book of Aircraft

T HE I C
ON
HEL IC IC A PACHE
OP T E R
A IRC
RA
FRONF T ON T H
E
T L IN
E
T HE
ING
L OR S Y S T E M
P
X
E
AR
S OL
ING
S T UNN SPL AYS
I
D
L
AERI A
ER
ED A
A NN I C L E S
M
N
H
U
VE
IAL
BOOK OF
N F-35
FLY ING A
F IG
A IR-S H T ING F OR
UP E R I
OR I T Y
JE T S OF
F IGH T ER T URE
U
F
E
H
T
TAKE AN ADRENALINE-FUELLED RIDE INTO THE SKY AND BEYOND!
Welcome to
The history of human aviation spans over a hundred years, from the
first manned flight of the Wright Flyer in 1903, which flew a
groundbreaking 260 metres, to the futuristic spacecraft of today that
shuttle astronauts and payloads to the International Space Station.
Todays aircraft are constantly evolving and being upgraded; would
the Wright brothers even recognise a Eurofighter Typhoon as a
descendant of their Flyer? In this new edition of How It Works Book of
Aircraft, we will bring to life a plethora of modern flying machines.
Find out what it takes to become a pilot for the Red Arrows and how
the Supermarine Spitfire became such a successful aircraft in the
Military section. Discover how commercial airliners are becoming
more and more efficient and what the next evolution of Concorde
may look like in the Commercial section. In the Spacecraft section we
transport you to the outer reaches of space to search for life on
distant planets and investigate how we may soon send humans to
Mars with the SpaceShipTwo. Enjoy the book!
BOOK OF
Imagine Publishing Ltd

Richmond House
33 Richmond Hill
Bournemouth
Dorset BH2 6EZ
+44 (0) 1202 586200
Website: www.imagine-publishing.co.uk
Twitter: @Books_Imagine
Facebook: www.facebook.com/ImagineBookazines
Publishing Director
Aaron Asadi
Head of Design
Ross Andrews
Editor in Chief
Jon White
Production Editor
Sanne de Boer
Senior Art Editor
Greg Whitaker
Designer
Phil Martin
Printed by
William Gibbons, 26 Planetary Road, Willenhall, West Midlands, WV13 3XT
Distributed in the UK, Eire & the Rest of the World by:
Marketforce, 5 Churchill Place, Canary Wharf, London, E14 5HU.
Tel 0203 787 9060 www.marketforce.co.uk
Distributed in Australia by:
Gordon & Gotch Australia Pty Ltd, 26 Rodborough Road, Frenchs Forest, NSW, 2086 Australia
Tel +61 2 9972 8800 www.gordongotch.com.au
Disclaimer
The publisher cannot accept responsibility for any unsolicited material lost or damaged in the
post. All text and layout is the copyright of Imagine Publishing Ltd. Nothing in this bookazine may
be reproduced in whole or part without the written permission of the publisher. All copyrights are
recognised and used specifically for the purpose of criticism and review. Although the bookazine has
endeavoured to ensure all information is correct at time of print, prices and availability may change.
This bookazine is fully independent and not affiliated in any way with the companies mentioned herein.
How It Works Book Of Aircraft 2nd Edition 2016 Imagine Publishing Ltd
ISBN 978 1785 464 188
Part of the
bookazine series
Iconic aircraft
008 The worlds most
iconic aircraft
022 Sky giants
Military
aircraft
032 Aerobatic displays
042 100 years of
fighter planes
050 On board the Warthog
052 Supermarine Spitfire
054 Lancaster Bomber
056 Sea Harrier
058 Inside a Huey
060 Sea Vixen
062 Westland Lynx
064 Strategic bombers
068 F-35 and future fighters
recordbreaking helicopter
062 The
board the
SpaceShipTwo
126 On
006
On board the
Warthog
050
Aerobatic
displays
032
042
100 years of
fighter planes
090
Spacecraft
The largest
passenger jet
118
Exploring the outer

solar system
122 The evolution of

space travel
Commercial
aircraft
124 The Orion spacecraft
076 Commercial drones
126 On board the

SpaceShipTwo
084 How to build a plane
128 Voyager spacecraft
088 The luxury of the

Lineage 100 jet
130 The MESSENGER probe

132 Big Space Balloon
090 Worlds largest

passenger jet
134 Space Shuttle

payload bay
092 The new Concorde
136 ATV spacecraft
096 Solar-powered aircraft
138 Solar-powered
spacecraft
098 Hot air balloons

100 Inside a cargo plane
140 Next-generation
space planes
102 Boeing 787 Dreamliner

106 Gliders
107 Inside a blimp
107 The Perlan Project
108 Inside Air Force One
110
How to fly a helicopter
111
The AirBoard
112
Next-gen airships
140
Next generation
space planes
007
ICONIC AIRCRAFT
12 most iconic aircraft
BREA KING THER

SOUND BA RR IE
D
A R OUN
FLY INGWORL D
E
H
T
GOING
SUPERSONIC
From the early days of aviation all the way through to the modern
008
DID YOU KNOW? The Wright brothers father, a church minister, was adamant human flight could not be achieved
F IG
WORH T ING
LD W A
AR
THE ULTIMATEINE
MILI TA RY MACH
day, iconic aircraft of all shapes and sizes have taken to the skies
009
ICONIC AIRCRAFT
Wright Flyer
The iconic aircraft that was created by the most famous of sibling partnerships
Orville and Wilbur Wright were
dedicated to their task of developing
powered flight. Meticulously tested,
the Wright Flyer was constructed in Dayton,
Ohio but failed to take off on the first tests
carried out on 14 December 1903. It eventually
managed to get airborne a few days later on 17
December and achieved a best of 260 metres
(852 feet) as Wilbur and Orville took turns to
pilot their invention. The aircraft was launched

from a short monorail track by two modified
bicycle wheel hubs. The engine was very basic
and worked using a hand lever that could only
open and close the fuel line rather than
throttle. Prior to the Flyer, the brothers created
various gliders from 1900 to 1903 that were
tested without great success. Eventually, they
found the perfect formula as it became the first
heavier than air machine to get airborne.

Designed in a biplane structure, the Wright
Flyer had an unfortunate untimely demise
when it was wrecked four days after its maiden
flight by a huge gust of wind. The design was
first housed in the British Science Museum
before moving to the Smithsonian National Air
and Space Museum in the USA after Orvilles
death in 1948.
Construction
The aircraft was created out of
spruce and ash, which were chosen
for their strong yet lightweight
properties. Muslin fabric was
covered over the wood.
The statistics
Wright Flyer
Launch date: 17 December
1903
Length: 6.4m (21.1ft)
Weight: 274.4kg (605lb)
Wingspan: 12.2m (40.3ft)
Max speed: Minimal
Max altitude: Minimal
010
Wing warping
When developing their projects, the
brothers designed a system of gears
and pivoting shafts that could angle
the aircraft in the desired direction.
Engine
The Flyers power system
produced 12 horsepower and was
an inline piston engine created by
local mechanic, Charlie Taylor.
DID YOU KNOW? The 747 was created by a team of 50,000 people including mechanics, engineers and secretaries
Boeing 747
A behemoth of the skies, the size and sheer
scale of the 747 is now legendary
Giants of the sky

The 747s immense bulk means it
can carry 3,400 pieces of luggage
and its total wing area is larger
than a basketball court.
Engine
In addition to the technology
found inside the cockpit, the 747
utilises high-bypass turbofans
that make it powerful, fuel
efficient and quiet.
In the 1960s, aviation companies had a

problem. With the popularity of aviation
soaring for business, recreation and industry,
the supply of aircraft was struggling to meet demand.
But Boeing had a solution up its sleeve; the biggest
civilian airplane ever built, the 747. Built in less than 16
months by a group of workers known as the
Incredibles, the design came in three variations
passenger, cargo and passenger/freighter and was
first flown in 1968. By 1970, this new breed of jumbo jet
had fitted seamlessly into the worlds air traffic and
Modern technology
As well as being a huge machine, the
747 also contains state of the art
technology such as a GPS system
that weighs less than a laptop.
silenced critics. Since its inception, the 747s have

appeared in a variety of models. The 747-400 was first
flown in 1988 and is a combination of the earlier freight
and passenger models. It is the bestselling model.
Statistics calculated in 2005 reveal that 1,365 747s
have been delivered internationally to over 80
different customers. Incredibly, it has flown over 3.5
billion passengers. In recent years, new jumbo jets
such as the Airbus may have beaten the 747s size, but
it remains an icon of the skies and proof for the first
time that gigantic airlines were possible.
The statistics
Boeing 747-400
Launch date: 1988
Length: 70.9 metres (231 feet)
Weight: 180,985kg (399lb)
Max speed:
988km/h (614mph)
Max altitude:
13,449km (8,357mi)
Years in service: 1988-present
011
ICONIC AIRCRAFT
Stealth Bomber
Virtually invisible to radar, the Stealth Bomber is a scientific vision turned reality
Commonly known as the Stealth
Bomber, the Northrop Grumman B-2
Spirit is a ground-breaking piece of
aviation. The design was a giant leap forward
in aviation technology and was first flown on 17
July 1989 before joining the US Air Forces
operational fleet in 1993. Four 19,000 pound
thrust F118-GE engines allow the B-2 to cruise
at high subsonic speeds and was, at its peak,
the largest military programme at Boeing with
10,000 people employed on the project. The

engine is so state of the art that it uses a
temperature control system to minimise the
aircrafts thermal signature. A strategic,
long-range heavy bomber, it only achieved full
operational capacity in 2003, ten years after its
introduction into the fleet. Twenty-one B-2s are
now in operation and are located at the
Whiteman Air Force Base in Missouri but are
often transported around by a portable hangar
system. The most frightening attribute of the

B-2 is its capacity to carry an immense payload.
Its armament includes many types of nuclear
weaponry, Mark 84 bombs, cruise missiles and
a rotary rocket launcher to name but a few. A
key member of the USAs long range strike
arsenal, it can fly in any weather condition and
is a force to be reckoned with, especially as it is
being constantly updated and improved by the
US Air Force.
Stealth material
The Stealth Bombers structure is
composed of resin-impregnated graphite
fibre, a reinforced polymer compound that
has a radar-absorbent coating.
Payload
Designed as an advanced bomber,
the B-2 can accommodate more
than 40,000 pounds of a nuclear or
conventional payload.
The statistics
Northrop Grumman
B-2 Spirit
Launch date: 1997
Length: 21.03m (69ft)
Weight: 71,700kg (158,071lb)
Wingspan: 52.43m (172ft)
Max speed:
1,010km/h (628mph)
Max altitude:
15,200m (49,869ft)
012
Efficiency
Operated by a two-man crew,
the Stealth Bombers weaponry
can perform the duties of 75
conventional aircraft.
The most frightening

attribute of the B-2 is
its capacity to carry an
immense payload
DID YOU KNOW? Pilots would have to undertake a six-month training programme to be qualified to fly Concorde
Concorde
The worlds only ever-supersonic passenger aircraft is an
incredible example of aviation engineering and technology
In 1971 the skies of Britain were dominated
by the sound of sonic booms. These were the
results of a futuristic Anglo-French project
known as Concorde. After 5,000 hours worth of
testing (making it the most tested aircraft of all time),
it was ready. Seating 100 people, Concorde
represented the next step in commercial travel. It was
so fast that it still holds the record for the shortest
transatlantic crossing, a scintillating 2 hours 52
minutes and 59 seconds. The aircraft accomplished
this by utilising reheat technology, which injects
extra fuel at takeoff. This innovative technology
Droop nose
An iconic image of the
Concorde is its hydraulicallypowered droop nose, which
was shaped to reduce drag
and improve aerodynamics.
helped the Concorde fly around the globe in 1992, on

the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus
journey. It managed to complete the journey in just
under 33 hours.
The Concordes final flight was on 24 October 2003,
when it was discontinued after a series of faults that
ended in disaster in 2000 when it crashed, killing 113
people. The Concorde made a total of 50,000 flights for
2.5 million passengers and despite its retirement, is
still held in high regard as an icon of aviation and
there are still calls to bring it back the worlds only
ever supersonic passenger airline back into service.
The statistics
Concorde
Launch date: 1976
Weight: 10.6 tons (23,400lb)
Max speed:
2,172km/h (1,349mph)
Max altitude:
18,288m (60,000ft)
Years in service: 27
Engines
Controlled by a flight crew of three,
each of Concordes astonishingly
powerful engines gave the aircraft
supersonic capabilities and
38,050lbs worth of thrust.
Landing gear
The Concorde had ten landing
wheels that help land its huge
weight safely. The powerful
engine was incredibly thirsty,
consuming 25,630 litres (5,638
gallons) of fuel every hour!
013
ICONIC AIRCRAFT
The Enola Gay

A plane entirely famous for its atomic payload,
the Enola Gay dropped one of the most
destructive bombs in human history
The statistics
Boeing built
Enola Gay was a type of
Boeing B-29
Superfortress and its
long range and ability to
carry a huge atomic
payload made it ideal for
the Hiroshima mission.
Production line
Up to 4,000 B-29s were made
on a rush basis in what was a
huge manufacturing
programme with hundreds of
thousands of workers.
Enola Gay
Weight: 31,400kg (69,000lb)
Wingspan: 43m (141.3ft)
Max speed:
588km/h (365mph)
Max altitude:
9,710m (31,850ft)
Years in service: One
Little Boy
The blast that engulfed Hiroshima was
equivalent to 20,000 tons of TNT and
80,000 died instantly, but it helped end
the war.
Enola Gay; and Little Boy. Two

names that are now synonymous with
changing the city of Hiroshima and the
whole world forever. Named after pilot Paul W.
Tibbets mother, Enola Gay was a B-29 bomber
built under the top-secret Silverplate
programme. Part of a batch of 15 bombers, it was
chosen to fly the first ever atomic combat
mission. The weapon would be known as Little
014
Boy and was a 15-kiloton bomb. Taking off at

2.45am local time, it arrived in Iwo Jima at
6.05am and armed its payload. After Little Boy
was dropped 11.5 miles from the detonation
point, the aircraft turned to make its hasty
escape. As the atomic bomb sent Hiroshima to
oblivion, Enola Gay was rocked by several after
shocks as it withdrew. The crew remember
seeing the resulting mushroom cloud for an
hour and half afterwards as the aircraft

returned to base, mission accomplished.
Unknown to many, Enola Gay actually went on a
second mission later the same month to scout
out the target for the second atomic bombing
mission. Today it is housed in the US National
Air and Space Museum but will always be
remembered for that devastating day in the
summer of 1945.
DID YOU KNOW? Amelia Earhart was only the 16th woman in the world to be issued a pilots license
Lockheed M10
Electra
Often overshadowed by its
infamous pilot, the Lockheed
Model 10 was still an iconic aircraft
State of the art

The entire aircraft was
modern, from its retractable
landing gear, to wing flaps to
variable pitch propellers.
Design
The Electra 10A was Lockheeds
first all-aluminum aircraft and the
use of this material made it
stronger as the alloy shared the
weight of the onboard load.
The statistics
Lockheed Electra 10E
Weight: 3,220kg (7,100lbs)
Max speed: 312km/h (194mph)
The operation ran

into trouble and Earhart
and the Lockheed Model
10 disappeared
Built as a response to the Douglas DC-2
and the Boeing 247, Lockheed was one
of the companies transforming
commercial aviation in interwar USA. Twin
engine, the plane was originally intended for
commercial use and could accommodate ten
passengers and two crew. Before being used by
Earhart, Northwest Airlines flew the plane in
its fleet in the late 1930s and it was also taken
on by European and Australian firms. The

aircrafts most famous moment however, was
undoubtedly its final journey. The plane used
on the voyage was actually a modified version
of the original model. More fuel tanks were
added to the aircraft, increasing the carrying
capacity and also the electronics were altered
to add radio direction finders, which was state
of the art at the time. Piloted by young pilot
Twin tail
The Model 10 had a
signature twin tail in
addition to a distinctive
art deco appearance
that was very popular
at the time.
Amelia Earhart, the mission was simple; fly

around the world. Tragically, the operation ran
into trouble and Earhart and the Lockheed
Model 10 disappeared in mysterious
circumstances in October 1937. The reasons are
still debated to why Earhart and her navigator
Fred Noonan disappeared on the final leg of
their journey with reasons ranging from a lack
of fuel to a crash landing.
015
ICONIC AIRCRAFT
LZ 129
Hindenburg
This colossal machine is an example of a bygone era of aviation
Lift
Propaganda tool
Hydrogen was
preferred to helium
as it was lighter and
more cost efficient
but critically, it was
incredibly flammable.
The Nazis were aware of the

symbolic value of the
Hindenburg so emblazoned it
in swastikas as it appeared at
the Berlin Olympics and the
Nuremburg Rally.
Control car
The Hindenburg was
manoeuvred by the
Fhrergondel or control
car on the bow of the
airship. Rudders and
elevator wheels helped
pilot the massive machine.
The statistics
LZ 129 Hindenburg
Launch date: 4 March 1936
Length: 245m (803.8ft)
Diameter: 41.2m (135.1ft)
Crew: 40 flight officers,
12 stewards and cooks
Years in service:
One year and two months
016
In the first few decades of the 20th century,

giant airships filled the sky. They were the
preferred transport of the rich and famous and
were particularly popular in Germany, where Zeppelin
airships were all the rage. The Hindenburg was
constructed solely for transcontinental transportation
and after its maiden flight, became the largest object
ever to fly at a mammoth 2.1 million cubic metres (7
million cubic feet). The airship finally got airborne after
financial support by the Nazi Government and its
maiden flight to the USA occurred on 31 March 1936. By
the end of the year it had crossed the Atlantic 34 times
carrying both passengers and cargo. It even had an

autopilot system that could keep the ship on course in
stable weather conditions. All seemed to be going well
for the new technology but disaster would strike on 6
May 1937. When flying over Lakehurst, New Jersey an
electrostatic discharge ignited with leaking hydrogen,
causing the Hindenburg to explode dramatically.
Miraculously, only 35 of the 97 passenger crew died with
the majority just escaping with their lives. The disaster
sent shockwaves across the world and the zeppelin
industry never recovered. The age of transatlantic
airship travel was over before it really began.
DID YOU KNOW? The inspiration for the Fokker came after a British Sopwith aircraft crashed behind enemy lines
Fokker Dr.I
The statistics
The most famous German aircraft of the Great War

and the triplane of choice for the Red Baron
Fokker DR.I
Launch date: 1917
Length: 5.77m (18.93ft)
Weight: 406kg (895lb)
The fighter remains

an evocative symbol of
the dogfights over the
Western Front
Firepower
The German pilots wielded
twin 7.92mm Spandau LMG
08/15 machine guns that
would cause mayhem to the
British planes in the
1915-1916 Fokker Scourge.

Max altitude:
6,095 miles (19,997ft)
Number produced: 320
Engine
Alongside the wings, the
rotary engine gave the
Dr.I an excellent service
ceiling and climbing
capabilities for the era.
Three wings
The Fokker was a
dreidecker (three
decked) fighter with its
wheel structural
support acting as a
smaller fourth wing.
Remembered as one of the greatest

aircraft of the First World War, the
Fokker DR.I filled British and French
hearts with dread. Powerful and highly
manoeuvrable, opposing pilots quickly learnt
that it was not be taken lightly, especially when
it was being piloted by Manfred von Richthofen,
the German fighter ace nicknamed the Red
Baron. As the war progressed, the triplane was

hampered by structural issues and only 320
were produced. It could only last for a total of 80
minutes in the air on one tank of fuel and they
were grounded completely for a period in the
winter of 1917 when the wing attachment points
were considered far too weak when in flight.
Part of the Jagdgeschwader 1 fighter unit, the
Dr.I returned to the skies in the spring of 1918 but

was only ever truly effective in the hands of
skilled pilots, so never made it as the main
aircraft in the German air force, the
Luftstreitkrfte. However, the fighter remains
an evocative symbol of the dogfights over the
Western Front and the bright red edition piloted
by the formidable Red Baron.
017
ICONIC AIRCRAFT
Apache
Helicopter
The statistics
Boeing AH-64
Apache
Launch date: 1984
Length: 17.73m (58.17ft)
Weight: 6,838kg (15,075lb)
Destructive on land, sea and air, the Apache isnt far

off being the ultimate military machine
A nightmare for tanks and ground
troops alike, the Apache has
revolutionised modern warfare. An
immensely powerful war machine, the Apache
is feared across the globe and can spring into
action at any time, day or night, rain or shine.
The AH-64 is a stalwart of the US and British
militaries and has been used with great success
in Iraq, Afghanistan and Kosovo. The Gulf War
Cockpit
Two pilots control the war
machine, which has a
state-of-the-art cockpit
complete with long-range
communication and
navigation systems.
in particular saw the Apache come into its own,

with the Iraqi tanks no match for a combined
AH-64 and F-117 Nighthawk stealth fighter
assault. The gunship is effective on land, sea
and air and is able to quickly respond to any
skirmish, making it an ideal rapid response unit
that can lead counterattacks. The design has
proved so popular that it has been developed
and improved on in various other models that

can be used in almost any terrain. It has also

caught the attention of a number of other
militaries around the world with Israel, Greece,
Japan and the Netherlands all incorporating
Apaches into their ranks. Boeing (known as
MacDonnell Douglas at the time of the first
Apache) was given a 158 ($247) million contract
in 2010 to build even more of these beasts for use
in global peacekeeping.
Engine
Requiring expert
manoeuvrability to dodge
enemy fire and take down
insurgents, the Apache has
that in abundance thanks to
its T700 Turboshaft engine.
Weaponry
The Apaches
awesome arsenal
packs a punch and is
made up of Hellfire
laser-designated
missiles, a M230 chain
gun and hydra rockets.
018
DID YOU KNOW? The USAF had a lot of faith in the Bell X-1 there was no ejector seat for the pilot!
Bell X-1
The first plane to go supersonic, the Bell X-1
smashed the sound barrier in 1947
Rocket launch
To enable the Bell to
reach its target speed
and for safety reasons,
the aircraft was only
ever air launched from
Boeing B-29 or B-50.
The design was so

good that the X-1
provided inspiration for
the space programme
Material
The X-1 was built with
high strength
aluminium and radium
paint in an international
orange paint scheme.
Need for speed

Cabin pressurisation,
retractable landing
gear and 12 nitrogen
fuel spheres gave the
X-1 the best chance of
achieving its goal.
US Air Force pilot, Captain Charles E Yeager,

broke the speed of sound on the 14 October 1947
in this very aircraft. Attaining a speed of 1,127
kilometres (700 miles) per hour or Mach 1.06, the plane,
nicknamed Glamorous Glennis after the pilots wife,
entered the record books. The X-1 wasnt launched in the
orthodox way and was instead propelled via air-launch
from the bomb bay of a Boeing B-29. The record attempt
wasnt the last of the X-1s record breakers, though. On 26
March 1948, it reached the highest velocity and altitude of
a manned airplane up to that time. A single engine,

single seat aircraft, Glennis, broke all idea of a sound
barrier using a liquid fuelled 6,000-pound thrust rocket
engine. The aircraft was one of a kind, shaped like a
.50-caliber bullet a round that was stable in supersonic
flight when fired from a gun. The design was so good that
the X-1 programme helped provide the inspiration for the
space programme that would begin in subsequent
decades. One of the most important aircraft of all time,
the Bell X-1 ushered in a new era; the supersonic age.
The statistics
Bell X-1
Launch date: 1946
Weight: 3,674kg (8,100lb)
Max speed: 1,540km/h
(957mph)/ Mach 1.45
Max altitude:
21,900m (71,900ft)
019
ICONIC AIRCRAFT
Supermarine
Spitfire
The statistics
The heroic British fighter of World War Two that took

the fight in the skies back to the German Luftwaffe
One of the most enduring images of the Second
World War, the Spitfire is credited with saving
the British Isles from the threat of German
invasion. Fast, manoeuvrable and with an iconic engine
sound, the Spitfire combined well with the Hawker
Hurricane against the threat of the Messerschmitts. The
Battle of Britain wasnt the Spitfires only major
contribution. It served the Allies with distinction over the
course of the war, becoming the most widely produced
British fighter of the war. It was constantly upgraded to
battle the best the Luftwaffe had to offer and fought in
The Spitfire remains

an icon of plucky
British resistance in the
summer of 1940
Bullet proof
Many Spitfires had their
fuel tanks lined with
linatex rubber to prevent
leaks and fire when they
were struck by bullets.
020
every theatre of the war. D-Day and the invasion of Sicily

wouldnt have happened if it wasnt for the excellent air
support the Spitfires provided. A Seafire version was
created specifically for use in the Royal Navy on aircraft
carriers and they became invaluable in the battle in the
Pacific against Japan. Quintessentially British, the
Spitfire was sold to various air forces around the world
after the war but remains an icon of plucky British
resistance in the summer of 1940. It is estimated that
over 20,000 Spitfires were made and around 50 are still
flying today as its legendary status lives on.
High flyer
As well as being a more than capable
fighter, the Spitfires high service
ceiling allowed it to be an effective
reconnaissance aircraft, gathering
valuable enemy information.
Supermarine Spitfire
Launch date: 1936
Length: 9.12m (29.11ft)
Max speed:
584km/h (362mph)
Max altitude:
10,668m (35,00ft)
Strategy
Boasting superior
manoeuvrability, Spitfires
would take down the more
nimble German fighters while
the Hurricanes went for the
Luftwaffe bombers.
DID YOU KNOW? The first aircraft to make a solo transatlantic flight, the St Louis stayed in the air for 33.5 hours!
Spirit of
St Louis
With a prize of $25,000, US pilot Charles Lindbergh
jumped at the chance to pilot the famous monoplane
The statistics
Spirit of St Louis
Launch date: 1927
Max speed: 200km (120 miles)
Fuel space
The extra fuel tanks required
for the transatlantic journey
were so big that the aircrafts
capacity was cut from five
persons down to one!
Flight preparation
Power
To be able to make the

daring trip, the aircrafts
wingspan was lengthened
and a larger fuselage was
constructed to accompany
the increased fuel tank.
After the Wright Brothers and their

contemporaries had made flight
achievable, aviators competed to take
aviation to an even higher level. Charles A.
Lindbergh was one of these men and in May 1927
competed for $25,000 to be the first to cross the
Atlantic non-stop. French hotel owner Raymond
Orteig had a great passion for flying and offered
The plane was powered by a 223

horsepower Wright Whirlwind
air-cooled J-5C engine, which
allowed it to make it all the way
from New York to Paris.
the best pilots in the world the cash prize.

Lindbergh and the Spirit of St Louis were the
ideal team to undertake the task. The plane had
been specifically constructed for the mission and
in test flights it managed to break the
transcontinental record by flying from San Diego
to New York in 21 hours and 40 minutes. Any item
that wasnt needed was removed so Lindbergh
was forced to fly with no radio, parachute or

navigation lights! The historic journey was made
between 20-21 May and the Spirit of St Louis was
in such good shape, it was constantly flown
around the Americas for years by Lindbergh to
increase interest in aeronautics. The plane is now
at the Smithsonian National Air and Space
Museum in Washington DC, forever an icon.
021
ICONIC AIRCRAFT
Sky giants
Wingspan
To provide enough lift,
the Stratolaunch has a
wingspan longer than the
total height of the Apollo
Saturn V rocket.
SKY
GIANTS
Discover how the worlds biggest aircraft combine clever
engineering and advanced materials to defy gravity
The first powered flight in 1903, by
Orville Wright, covered a distance of
just 37 metres (121 feet). He could have
taken off and landed twice across the wings
of an Airbus A380. In the 110 years since that
flight, engines have moved from pistons to
turbo jets; construction materials have
switched from wood and cloth to aluminium
alloys and carbon fibre; and wing design has
dropped the draughtsmans table in favour of
computational fluid dynamics.
For passenger aircraft, increasing size offers
greater economies of scale; large planes can fly
farther without stopping and they use less fuel
022
per passenger-mile. Thats true for cargo planes

as well but truly huge cargo planes can carve
themselves a niche even when the cost per ton
is higher. Thats because some loads are just so
massive they can only be carried by the largest
planes. The heaviest, the widest, the longest or
simply the largest, the aircraft included here
can all claim to be the biggest in the world,
according to some criterion. What they all have
in common, though, is jaw-dropping specs.
Whether you need to airlift a downed Chinook
helicopter from a warzone or send off a 220-ton
shuttle into space, theres always going to be a
demand for mega-planes like these
KEY
DATES
AVIATION
MILESTONES
1907
1933
1939
1964
1986
The Breguet-Richet gyroplane

makes the first manned
helicopter flight, although it
is tethered to the ground.
The first true airliner, a

Boeing 247, carries ten
passengers from New
York to LA in 20 hours.
Heinkel He 178, the first

turbojet aircraft, flies. It
reaches speeds of over
644km/h (400mph).
The test vehicle for the Apollo

Lunar Lander is the first
electronic fly-by-wire aircraft
with no hydraulic backup.
Dick Rutan and Jeana

Yeager fly around the
world without refuelling
in the Rutan Voyager.
DID YOU KNOW? Boeings 747 fleet has flown more than 5.6bn passengers equal to 80 per cent of the worlds population
Catamaran fuselage
Fuel tanks are balanced on either
side so that the massive payload
can be slung from the middle.
Payload
The payload is released some
9,000m (29,528ft) up and is
boosted to orbit by a three or
four-stage rocket.
Engines
The six jet engines are
cannibalised from a
pair of used 747-400
planes. The total thrust
is 252kN (56,750lbf).
Integration system
Developed by Dynetics Inc,
which has extensive
experience with air launch
systems used on military
missile systems.
Cockpit
The fully fly-by-wire
system balances the
control inputs to
compensate for the
off-centre pilots position.
Stratolaunch dimensions
How does the Stratolaunch measure up to
other airborne behemoths?
Stratolaunch
Wingspan:
117m (384ft)
105m
(not to scale)
Hughes H-4
Spruce Goose
Wingspan:
97.5m (320ft)
Airbus
A380-800
Wingspan:
79.8m
(261.8ft)
Antonov
An-225 Mriya
Wingspan:
88.4m (290ft)
Boeing 747-8
Intercontinental
Wingspan:
68.5m (224.7ft)
Wings longer than

a soccer pitch
Stratolaunch
Funded by Paul Allen, co-founder of Microsoft, the
Stratolaunch is still at the design stage. But if it is ever built,
it will have the largest wingspan of any aircraft ever made.
Taking off from a runway almost 3.7 kilometres (2.3 miles)
long, it will climb to 9,000 metres (29,530 feet) before
releasing a 220-ton rocket that will fly the rest of the way
into orbit. Launching rockets this way avoids the thickest
part of the atmosphere and grants a greater choice of
possible orbital trajectories. It effectively turns the
Stratolaunch into a reusable first-stage booster.
The technical challenges, however, are formidable.
Air-launching rockets isnt new; the early test flights of the
Space Shuttle involved the
The statistics
Enterprise being launched
from the back of a 747. But the
Shuttle was a glider, empty of
fuel and only weighed 68 tons.
The Pegasus II rocket carried
by Stratolaunch weighs more
than three times this and is
Stratolaunch
full of explosive rocket fuel.
Stratolaunch also needs to
Wingspan: 117m (385ft)
pull into a steep climb just
Capacity:
before releasing the rocket,
226,800kg (500,000lb)
without plunging itself into a
Max takeoff weight:
590,000kg (1.3mn lb)
fatal stall. Designing an
Range: 1,850km (1,150mi)
airframe to cope with these
Estimated cost:
strains will push aviation
178mn ($300mn)
technology to the limits.
023
ICONIC AIRCRAFT
Each main wheel has a weight

sensor so the flight engineer
knows the exact takeoff weight
Sky giants
Mammoth transporter
Mi-26 helicopter
The Russian Mi-26 is the largest helicopter in the
world and the one with the greatest lifting
capacity. The cargo compartment can fit a fire
engine or 150 troops. It can be outfitted as a flying
hospital with its own operating theatre, pre-op
section, medical lab, restroom, changing area
and space for 60 stretchers. For really mammoth
loads (see Did you know?), theres an exterior
sling rated to lift 20 tons. The total takeoff weight
of the Mi-26, including fuel and cargo, is 56 tons
and the power to keep it all aloft is supplied by
twin turboshaft engines. Lifting such enormous

loads needs precision too. The winch mechanism
is positioned in line with the main rotor, to avoid
unbalancing the helicopter, and includes a video
link so the pilot can keep an eye on the dangling
cargo. Each of the three main wheels
also has a weight sensor so the flight
engineer knows the exact takeoff
weight in advance. The Mi-26 was designed in
1977 but it still outperforms the Sikorsky Super
Stallion the heaviest US military helicopter.
Eight blades
The Mi-26 was the first
production helicopter
in the world to use
eight blades off a
single rotor.
Heated rotors
All the rotors are fitted
with electro-thermal
anti-icers to stop them
freezing at high altitude.
Twin engines
There are two engines
but the Mi-26 can
remain flying on a single
engine should one fail.
The statistics
Crew
Mi-26
Length: 40m (131ft)
Rotor span: 32m (105ft)
Capacity: 20,000kg (44,100lb)
Max takeoff weight:
56,000kg (123,460lb)
Max speed:
295km/h (183mph)
Cost: 6.5mn ($11mn)
Engine
There are two types of
engine used in the Mi-26.
The standard D-136
provides 8,500kW
(11,400hp) and has been
designed to have a low
weight-to-power ratio.
Newer models use the
D-136-2 engine, rated at
9,321kW (12,500hp).
The Mi-26 takes five crew

to fly: pilot, co-pilot,
navigator, flight engineer
and flight technician.
Fuel tanks
Main tanks under the cargo
compartment hold 12,000l
(3,170ga). Another 14,800l
(3,910ga) can be carried in auxiliary
tanks if needed.
Giants that never

took off
Kennedy Giant 1917
This 8.5-ton British biplane
bombers four engines only
had enough power to fly in a
straight line. It was cancelled
after a single test flight.
024
Blohm & Voss BV

238 1944
Built by the Germans during WWII, it was
a 55-ton seaplane armed with 22 machine
guns. The only one built was sunk while
docked at Lake Schaalsee, Germany.
Spruce Goose 1947
Convair XC-99
1947
To save wartime aluminium,

this seaplane was built from
wood. It was intended as a
troop transport but it weighed 113 tons
empty and even its 97.5m (320ft)
wingspan could barely get it airborne.
The largest
piston-engined land-based
carrier plane ever built. It weighed 61
tons and could carry 45,000kg
(99,208lb). Only one was made, but
it remained in service for ten years.
HEAD
HEAD
HELICOPTER
1. BIG
HEAVYWEIGHTS
Hughes XH-17
2. BIGGER
The Flying Crane was

an experimental
helicopter built in 1952. It
had the largest rotor
span ever at 40.8m
(134ft).
Sikorsky
CH-53E
3. BIGGEST
Mil V-12
Although it never went
into production, the Mil
V-12 was the largest
helicopter ever to be built.
It could lift a mindboggling 40 tons!
The Super Stallion is the

largest helicopter in the
US military. Lift capacity
is 13.6 tons internally or
14.5 tons externally.
DID YOU KNOW? In 1999 a Mi-26 was used to carry a 25-ton block of ice containing a frozen woolly mammoth!
Tail rotor
The same span and
power as the main
rotor of the OH-6A
scout helicopter used
in the Vietnam War.
Fuselage
Can carry up to 20
tons of cargo. Two
electric winches and
a telpher operate
the cargo doors.
Tail wheel
This prevents tail rotor
strikes when tilted back
for loading. It retracts
when in flight.
A Mi-26 carrying a Tu-134 airliner

without breaking a sweat
Cargo space
12.1m (39.7ft) long and
3.1m (10.2ft) wide
about the same as a
C-130 Hercules
transport plane.
Worlds biggest hangars

As youd expect, the biggest aircraft
in the world need the biggest
hangars to keep them out of the
elements during inspection and
maintenance. One of the largest
hangars in a commercial airport
belongs to the Dubai Royal Airwing.
It has space for eight planes,
including three Airbus A380s, with
doors that are over 580 metres
(1,903 feet) wide. The largest
building for a single aeroplane,
though, is the one-hectare (2.4-acre)
Stratolaunch hangar in Mojave, CA.
Undercarriage
Can be adjusted to tip
the helicopter back
when loading very
heavy vehicles.
Once you include airships, the

sizes jump way up. The Cardington
airsheds in Bedfordshire, used for
Airlander, for instance, are 1.4
hectares (3.4 acres) each, while
Hangar One at the US Naval Air
Station in Sunnyvale, CA, covers 3.2
hectares (eight acres).
The biggest of them all isnt a
hangar any more. It was built for the
abandoned CargoLifter CL160
airship and you could park the Eiffel
Tower on its side within it. It has
been turned into a holiday resort.
Convair X-6 1958

Bristol Brabazon 1949
A British transatlantic passenger jet. It
had a larger wingspan than a 747 and
four pairs of contra-rotating propellers.
Built for luxury, each passenger had as
much space as the interior of a car,
which made it hopelessly uneconomical.
The idea was to mount

nuclear-powered engines in a converted
B-36 bomber. The plane would have been
able to fly continuously for several
weeks but the crew required 12 tons of
lead and rubber shielding to protect
them from the deadly radiation!
Boeing NLA 1993
Boeing Pelican 2002
The New Large Aircraft (NLA) would

have seated over 600 passengers,
with a maximum takeoff weight of
635.6 tons. However, Boeing
abandoned the design to
concentrate on 747 derivatives.
This transport design concept

could fly like a plane if necessary,
but would mostly skim just 6m
(20ft) above the surface of the sea.
It would have been able to carry
around 1,400 tons of cargo.
025
ICONIC AIRCRAFT
Boeing responded by developing

the 747-8, now the worlds
longest passenger airliner
Sky giants
Battle of the airliners
The statistics
Boeing 747 vs Airbus A380

The Boeing 747 and Airbus A380 are in direct
competition for long-haul flights, both for
passengers and cargo. When the A380 was first
developed, it topped the most common 747
variant, the 747-400, in almost every way apart
from price. But Boeing responded in 2008 by
developing the 747-8, which is now the worlds
longest passenger airliner and the heaviest
aircraft of any kind to be manufactured in the
US. Although it has a smaller passenger
capacity than the A380, the gap has shrunk
considerably and the 747-8 is lighter, which
means it uses less fuel. For airline companies,

this makes the 747-8 a considerable 21 per cent
cheaper to fly for each trip. However, the A380 is
quieter. In fact, it is the quietest wide-body
airliner in service, producing only half the
noise of a 747 on takeoff. The A380 has also been
marketed as more luxurious. The cabin area
can be configured with shops, a restaurant and
even a beauty salon for passengers. But so far,
commercial airline companies have preferred
additional seating over luxury and this is still
the biggest selling point of the A380.
Airbus A380
Fly by wire
Length: 72.7m (238.5ft)
The A380 is steered

with a computer
joystick to the side of
the pilots seat.

Capacity: 853 passengers
Max takeoff weight:
560,000kg (1.23mn lb)
Max speed:
945km/h (587mph)
Cost: 240mn ($404mn)
The 747 reinvented

The latest in the Boeing jumbo jet family,
the 747-8 has received plenty of upgrades
The statistics
Fuselage
Boeing 747-8
Length: 76.3m (250.3ft)
Capacity: 605 passengers
The outer fuselage is

made from advanced
aluminium alloy, with
carbon-fibre
composites used on
the internal structure.
Max takeoff weight:

448,000kg (987,670lb)
Max speed:
988km/h (614mph)
The inside layout of an A380

(left) and a 747-8 (right)
In-flight
shopping
LED lighting
Airbus offers variants

of the A380 that have a
bar for first and
business class, and
even a duty-free shop.
LED lighting can vary the

ambient colour to change
mood and provide a
smoother transition from
light to dark conditions.
Cost: 212mn ($357mn)
Aeroloft
An option on some
airlines is a separate
section on the top deck
with eight VIP sleeping
berths with flat beds.
Raked wings
Swapping the winglets of
the 747-400 for raked
wingtips increases the
overall span and also
improves aerodynamics.
Undercarriage
Two wheels on the nose
and four sets of four
just behind the midpoint
making 18 tyres in all.
Engine
General Electric
GEnx-2B67 turbofan
engines produce 296kN
(66,500lbf) of thrust each
and have 2.6m (8.7ft)diameter fans.
026
RECORD
BREAKERS
HIGH FLYERS
297
LARGEST FORMATION SKYDIVE

In 1996, a Mi-26 helicopter was used to set a world record for the
largest freefall formation skydive from a single aircraft. The 297
skydivers jumped from 6,600 metres (21,650 feet) up.
DID YOU KNOW? The Airbus A380 contains a total of 483km (300mi) of electrical wiring
The flying mall

The A380 is the most luxurious and
hi-tech of the wide-body airliners
Auxiliary
power plant
Elevator
Under pressure
As well as two
double-width
staircases, there is a
lift which connects
the decks.
The cabin is maintained at a

higher pressure than most
airliners equal to 1,520m
(4,987ft) above sea level.
The computerised
electrical power
system uses
aluminium wiring
instead of copper to
save on weight.
Control surfaces
High-pressure titanium
hydraulic lines, first
used on military jets,
save space and reduce
weight, thus saving fuel.
Engine
The Rolls-Royce Trent-900
engine produces 320kN of
thrust and uses a four-door
thrust reverser for braking.
Flight deck
The new flight
management computer
takes features from the
777 and includes a
dedicated central
maintenance
computer.
Jumbo-sized construction
The components for the Airbus A380
are manufactured in plants all around
Europe, but they are assembled at a
huge 50-hectare (124-acre) site in
Toulouse, France, in a process that
takes over 1,300 employees just 11
days for each plane.
The three massive fuselage
sections travel first by sea, then by
barge up the Garonne River, then
finally by road. Every two weeks, the
road to the Airbus factory is closed
overnight so the convoy can pass
without holding up traffic.
The fuselage is manoeuvred using
giant radio-control motorised
scaffolds. The sections overlap along
a 12-centimetre (4.7-inch) seam and
are held together with 19,000 rivets.
Once the wings and undercarriage
are on, the airframe is towed to
another assembly hangar for the
electrical and hydraulic systems to
be installed. The engines go on
almost last because they are so
expensive that Airbus must be sure
the plane is almost ready for delivery.
An Airbus A380 being

built for Thai Airways
027
ICONIC AIRCRAFT
Airlander is much quieter and

has lower carbon emissions
than other aircraft
Sky giants
15 Olympic swimming
pools of helium
Hull
Airlander
Although it looks like a World War II zeppelin, the
Airlander is a brand-new design featuring the latest
technology. To date the longest aircraft ever built
and with even larger models in development
the 91.4-metre (300-foot) long hull is filled
with helium to give it buoyancy. The hybrid lift
system means the Airlander can take off
vertically and hover, like a helicopter, yet has a
range of 4,815
The statistics
kilometres (3,000
miles). Airlander is
much quieter and has
lower carbon emissions
than other aircraft
carrying hefty cargo
and it can stay airborne
Airlander
for three weeks!
Width: 34m (111.5ft)
Height: 26m (85.3ft)
Max payload:
1,225kg (2,700lb)
Cost: 60mn ($101mn)
028
Made from a proprietary

three-layer material and filled
with low-pressure helium gas.
Engine
Four 261kW (350hp)
V8 diesel turbo engines
can be swivelled to
provide lift or thrust.
Lifting body
The lobed shape
means that the
fuselage acts like
a wing. Airlander
gains 40 per cent
of its lift this way.
Payload
module
Made from carbon
fibre to minimise
weight. The cockpit
at the front needs
just two crew.
Landing cushion
Instead of wheels, Airlander
has inflatable tubes.
Heavier versions will use a
hovercraft system to touch
down almost anywhere.
DID YOU KNOW? The Airlander could fly non-stop around the world without refuelling twice!
Interview
The future
of airships
Chris Daniels from Hybrid
Air Vehicles tells us more
about the Airlander
What is Airlander made from?
The hull is made from a specially constructed
material that is unique to us. This is based on the
materials developed for Americas Cup sails and is
strong, light and retains its shape. The material
consists of three layers heat-welded together: a
white outer layer for protection, a weave for
strength and a film for helium retention. A strip a
few inches wide could easily hold up a family car.
What happens if it springs a leak in flight?
There are separate compartments with valves
between them. So if there is a major leak the
compartment is isolated. Minor rips and tears
dont have much effect as the helium is under
such low pressure and theres 38,000 cubic metres
(1.3 million cubic feet) of it, so it tends to seep out
slowly. Tests on an old [smaller] airship showed it
took over an hour and a half for an airship
penetrated by 200 large-calibre bullet holes to
lose enough helium to [be forced] to land.
Weighs the same as

157 London taxis
The statistics
An-25 Mriya
Constructed in Ukraine in 1988, the Antonov An-225 Mriya
(Ukrainian for dream) still holds the record of heaviest-ever plane
though its length record has now been claimed by the Airlander
airship. This cargo transporter had one primary purpose to
transport the Buran space shuttle. The shuttle weighed 170 tons
and the An-225 acted as its airborne launch platform. Launches
were possible at heights of up to 10,000 metres (33,000 feet) and its
stabilising split tail increased manoeuvrability. The An-225 Mriya
lost its role after the USSR collapsed. NASA used a similar setup for
the transportation of its Space Shuttles using modified Boeing 747s
and rumours are circulating that the European Space Agency
may be bringing it back for future space missions.
157
An-225 Mriya
Length: 84m (276ft)
Height: 18.1m (59ft)
Weight: 285,000kg (628,317lb)
Max speed:
850km/h (528mph)
Maximum takeoff weight:
600,000kg (1.32mn lb)
Max range:
15,490km (9,625mi)
How does Airlander cope with bad weather?

Very well. It is designed to be stable and can
withstand similar weather conditions to
helicopters and other aircraft. On ground, it is
designed to withstand 80-knot [148-kilometre/92mile-per-hour] winds and lightning storms,
without damage. Because its so large, it tends to
ride out storms rather than get buffeted by them.
How does its cargo capacity measure up?
The biggest freight aircraft can carry over 100
tons, but they need long runways and are
expensive to operate. Airlander can take off and
land vertically, and even in a normal aeroplane
takeoff it only needs a couple of its body lengths,
so it has huge advantages over aeroplanes. We
expect to create a 200-ton carrying Airlander,
which will be transformational for world cargo.
Could we see a return to regular
transatlantic passenger trips by airship?
Airlander certainly has the capability. We feel
there are opportunities in luxury travel too,
opening up some extraordinary ways to do
safaris (following animal migrations of caribou,
wildebeest or whales) and getting to amazing
locations that are otherwise difficult [to access].
029
Alex Beltyukov; Corbis; Getty; NASA; Adrian Mann/The Art Agency; Airbus
SAS/P Masclet;Russian Helicopters; Boeing; Hybrid Air Vehicles; Terry Pastor
An Airlander in its equally giant

hangar in Cardington, England
BOOK OF
AIRCRAFT
Military
66
32
Aerobatic displays
42
100 years of
fighter planes
50
On board the Warthog
The amazing tech behind the

stunning aerial displays of the
Red Arrows and Blue Angels
From World War I to modern

day, inside the most iconic
military aircraft
Why is the A-10 Thunderbolt

still in use today after over four
decades of flying?
52
54
Lancaster bomber
030
56
Sea Harrier
58
Inside a Huey
60
V-1 flying bomb
61
Reconnaissance drones
62
Sea Vixen
What made the Spitfire such

a spectacular aircraft in the
Second World War?
Undertaking some of the most

dangerous missions of WWII
Dominating the subsonic

jet fighter field, the Harrier
changed fighter dynamics
Take a look at one of the most

versatile vehicles from the
Vietnam War
How the doodlebug was

responsible for thousands of
Allied casualties in WWII
Unmanned aerial vehicles in
the military are undertaking
reconnaissance missions
Delivering next-generation
firepower in an all-weather
jet fighter
64
Westland Lynx
66
Strategic bombers
70
F-35 and future fighters
Can any other vehicle break

the records held by the
Westland Lynx?
Take to the skies for a closer

look at the dedicated bombing
aircraft of war
Meet the next-generation of

stealth fighters offering
all-round air supremacy
60
58
61
70
031
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
Aerobatic displays
Anyone whos seen the Red Arrows or the

Blue Angels perform will know why many
consider these pilots to be the worlds best.
They execute death-defying stunts at breakneck
speeds; flying low to the ground and experiencing
g-forces that makes their heads feel like 20-kilogram
(44-pound) balls. They manage not only to control their
aircraft, but also to work perfectly in a team, pushing
themselves and their aircraft to the limit.
The Blue Angels the US Navys flight
demonstration squadron and Red Arrows the UKs
Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team have very
interesting origins. After World War II ended, the US
chief of naval operations, Admiral Chester Nimitz,
was keen to maintain the high level of public interest
in naval aviation. He feared that he would lose
significant amounts of funding to other areas of the
US Army; therefore, he devised a plan to create a
flight exhibition team. Throughout the following
decades, the Blue Angels flew a number of different
planes, including the F6 Hellcat, the F-4 Phantom and
the A-4 Skyhawk. They finally settled on the Boeing
F/A-18 Hornet in 1986, the 40th anniversary of their
conception, which they still use today. The Blue
Angels now perform all over America, with air shows
taking place between March and November.
The Red Arrows take their name from two aerobatic
display teams that preceded them, the Red Pelicans
and the Black Arrows. The first Red Arrow display
team was formed in 1964 after concerns that aerobatic
display pilots were neglecting their combat training,
as they preferred to practice their stunts. The first
official Red Arrows flew the Folland Gnat which had
been used by the Yellowjacks in previous years. The
original team flew with seven aircraft, until 1968 when
they decided to adopt their now trademarked
Diamond Nine formation. In 1979, the BAE Systems
Hawk a modified version of the Royal Air Forces fast
jet trainer was chosen to replace the Gnat. The Red
Arrows have now performed nearly 5,000 shows and
celebrated their 50th season in 2014.
033
Airfix; Alamy; US Navy
DID YOU KNOW? The Red Arrows, whose motto is clat meaning brilliance, are based at RAF Scampton in Lincolnshire
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
Aerobatic displays
Death-defying displays
Find out how display pilots pull off their incredible
manoeuvres with precision and coordination
Both the Red Arrows and the Blue Angels
update their show routine each year, which
typically lasts between 20 and 30 minutes. They
prepare three different displays and choose
which one to perform by examining the
weather conditions. A full or high show will
be performed in clear weather, when the cloud
base is over 1,372 metres (4,500 feet) high. This
allows a full, looping display to be carried out
and means that even at the top of each loop, the
planes will remain visible.
If the cloud base is lower than this and
conditions are overcast, a rolling or low
display is performed. When the weather is
particularly bad and the cloud base is below
762 metres (2,500 feet), a flat show is
performed. This will include mainly flypasts
and steep turns, as these are the only
manoeuvres that remain visible in such
poor conditions.
The first five Red Arrow planes (Reds 1 to
5) are the front part of the overall formation,
known as Enid. The remaining three planes,
Reds 6 to 9, make up the rear section and are

known as Gypo. Reds 6 and 7 are the Synchro
Pair, and will perform opposition manoeuvres
during the second half of the show. The Blue
Angels also have a similar pair the Blue 5 and 6.
Blue Angel 5 pilot Mark Tedrow
spoke about the most challenging
manoeuvre that he performs:
Its called the inverted tuck
over roll which is where Im
trying to hide my plane
behind Blue 6, so the
crowd only see one
aircraft. Last year we
performed this
upright, but this
year we decided to make things harder and

perform it inverted.
Being disciplined during a manoeuvre is vital
for all display pilots. Hours of practice enable the
Red Arrows to move nine aircraft as one. Red 2
pilot Mike Bowden, revealed how the Red
Arrows achieve this visual feat: Theres a
perfect position to be in during all manoeuvres
and to achieve this we aim to triangulate a
position on the Team Leaders aircraft, he
explains. We use two reference
points to put us in the right part of
the sky, which helps us to ensure
that we dont get too close. Six feet
[1.8 metres] apart is close enough
when youve got nine aircraft
in one vicinity.
Dye in the sky

Both the Blue Angels and the Red Arrows
use smoke as a visual aid for spectators,
enabling them to follow a traceable path
from each plane during the display. The
Red Arrows are famous for their white, red
and blue smoke, while the Blue Angels stick
to using just white smokes.
Adding small quantities of diesel into the
jet exhaust pipe produces the vapour trails.
As this diesel meets the high temperatures
found in the exhaust it instantly
vapourises, creating a strong, visible, white
smoke. The Red Arrow pilots change the
smokes colour by adding dye through
switches on their control column.
Although they do add something extra to
the display visually, these vapour trails
have a more important function. They
enable pilots to judge wind speed and
direction, and make it possible for the Team
Leader and Synchro Leader to see each
other even when separated by large
distances. They are essential to flight safety.
034
The Red Arrows can produce a

vapour trail for seven minutes
during a 30-minute display
DID YOU KNOW? The Blue Angels took their name from a New York nightclub that was called The Blue Angel
See the display manoeuvres

that will be performed this year
Spitfire Reversal
Whirlwind
The Whirlwind is a brand new manoeuvre for the 2015
Red Arrow displays and features all nine jets
performing a roll followed by a Blackbird loop.
Rollbacks
Red 2 will pull out of the Diamond Nine formation and perform a full 360-degree roll around Red 4 and then
himself outside of Red 4. At the same time, Red 3 will perform an identical manoeuvre around Red 5. The
difficulty here is to keep the roll as tight as possible, and to time the rolls so that they are the same speed and
look the same to the crowd.
Vixen Break
Mirror Roll
All planes fly directly towards the crowd, before

breaking in different directions up and away from the
crowd, pulling up to 7g. This is often a crowd favourite,
but is one of the simplest manoeuvres to perform.
Throughout their 2015 displays, the Red Arrows will

be reviving the Mirror Roll which involves Red 6
performing an inverted barrel roll at -2.5g, while Reds
7, 8 and 9 remain in formation.
035
Graham Taylor/Alamy
The first five Red

Arrows planes
(Reds 1 to 5) are the
front part of the
overall formation,
known as Enid
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
The high speed-crossing

manoeuvre is much easier
than rolling into formation
Aerobatic displays
Inside the moves

Explore what makes the awe-inspiring manoeuvres work
All of the manoeuvres performed by the Blue
Angels are difficult in their own way, but some
of the stunts that look the hardest are actually
the easiest. An example of this is the high
speed-crossing manoeuvre, which is actually

much easier to do than rolling into formation.
This may look graceful, but it requires much
more skill to perfect.
AVERAGE
AGE OF A
BLUE ANGEL
PILOT
68
NUMBER OF
SHOWS SCHEDULED
FOR 2015
Fat Albert
Every show requires a huge behind-thescenes effort. The Blue Angels use a C-130
Hercules to carry spare parts and
support the many personnel that make
their displays possible. Affectionately
known as Fat Albert, it has a range of
3,862 kilometres (2,400 miles) and can
carry a colossal 20,412-kilogram
(45,000-pound) payload.
036
DID YOU KNOW? The Blue Angels perform an average of 70 shows a year in over 30 different locations
(4,542
LITRES)
Knife Edge Pass
Section High Alpha Pass
To perform this manoeuvre, two planes fly towards

the same point at high speed, before suddenly
altering their position so they pass each other. This
can be performed as low as 15.24 metres (50 feet).
This is the slowest manoeuvre the Blue Angels

perform, and involves two of the jets slowing to
193km/h (120mph) as they pitch the noses of
their planes up to an angle of 45 degrees.
JET FUEL
BURNT
PER
HOUR
SPECTATORS PER
YEAR (ABOUT
THE SAME AS
THE POPULATION
OF GREECE)
US Navy
Double Farvel
037
038
13.66mn
($21mn)
COST
15.24m (50ft)
LOWEST MANOEUVRE
The leading-edge
extensions (LEX) enable
the Hornet to be controlled
at high angles of attack,
which is very important for
all display aircraft.
Outstanding
manoeuvrability
This was the first jet fighter to employ

digital fly-by-wire controls as a back
up, which converts flight control
movements to electronic signals.
Each jet has a spring added to its

control stick which makes inverted
flying and staying in formation
easier, and provides more control
and feel for the pilots.
Fly-by-wire controls
GPS is also absolutely vital so that their

location can be pinpointed, while radar
enables the pilots to see exactly what is
going on around them. They can make
sure they are clear to carry out their
display and that there are no other
aircraft in their airspace, Penn adds.
Modified control stick
Efficient and reliable communications

are important for the Blue Angels, says
Kyetta Penn, aviation electronics
technician for the Blue Angels. It is vital
that they are able to talk to each other
during a display and also to the ground
staff so we know whats happenings.
The F/A-18 Hornet was the

first aircraft to be fitted
with carbon fibre wings,
enabling it to be lighter
and stronger.
Carbon fibre wings
Although every effort is made to ensure

the pilots safety, things can go wrong.
Recently, part of Mark Tedrows F/A-18
became detached mid-flight, calling into
question the lifespan of these ageing
fighter jets. He explains exactly what
happened: I was in a high-g rendezvous
Blue Angel: F/A-18 Hornet
The Hornet employs

bleed air vents on its
engine air intake ducts
that lower the levels of
air reaching the engine,
enabling it to achieve
speeds nearing Mach 2.
Engine air inlets
The F/A-18s are equipped with two

General Electric F404-GE-400
engines, which each provide
71.2kN (16,000lbf) of thrust and
enable the Hornet to climb at
152.4m (500ft) per second.
Dual engine power
with the diamond to execute the the line

of our swoop manoeuvre which is when
part of my wing became detached, he
recalls. This is why we take seven planes
to each show; I was able to land my F/A-18,
jump into the spare and complete the
performance. The show must go on!
Find out about the Blue Angel

F/A-18s most important features
Blue Angels versus Red Arrows

MILITARY AIRCRAFT
Aerobatic displays
The pods that produce the

Red Arrows famous smoke
are located where the 30mm
ADEN cannon is fitted on the
Hawks military equivalent.
Smoke production
Each Red Arrow is

fitted with a Rolls
Royce Adour engine,
which produces 23.1kN
(5,200lbf) of thrust.
Small engine
modifications enable
improved throttle response.
Powerful engine
The Hawk T1 has been used by the Red

Arrows since 1979 and Red 2 pilot Flt Lt
Mike Bowden tells us why: The Hawk is
used by the military to train their pilots
and the Red Arrows. Hawk is ultimately
the same aircraft bar a few
A full tank of fuel provides

these aircraft with a range
of 1,852km (1,151mi),
enabling it to access most
of the world with ease.
Range
No control cables are used to

connect the control column to the
tailplane; push-pull rods and
mechanical links are preferred.
Modified tailplane
modifications, he says. Although it is

somewhat dated, the Hawk is absolutely
perfect for what we do. It handles well,
especially well in formation, and doesnt
have any fancy gadgetry that could go
wrong and cause unnecessary problems,
Red Arrow: Hawk T1
The instrumentation within the

planes cockpit is logically grouped
together, in easy view of the pilot.
Cockpit instrumentation
When the Martin-Baker

Mk10 ejection seat is
activated, the cockpit
roof is automatically
fractured, allowing a
clear path for ejection.
Ejector seat
Although they dont perform at

these heights, the maximum
altitude they are capable of flying
at is 14,630m (48,000ft).
9.4m
(30.8ft)
WINGSPAN
1.8m (6ft)
CLOSEST THEY FLY
3,647kg
(8,040lbs)
WEIGHT
1,470km/h
(913mph)
TOP SPEED
18mn
($29mn)
COST
30.5m (100ft)
LOWEST
MANOEUVRE
ideal for the Red Arrows who often

perform on consecutive days.
Maintenance is performed under very
strict controls and all procedures are
thoroughly supervised and checked to
ensure the jets are safe to fly.
Impressive altitude
which is very important considering how

many shows we perform and the
precision flying we need to execute.
The Hawk was designed to be easily
fi xed with the majority of its physical
parts interchangeable for convenience
Why the Hawk is still the

best choice for displays
DID YOU KNOW? The front five Red Arrows are known as Enid, after Enid Blytons Famous Five
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
Aerobatic displays
STAYING
SAFE IN
THE SKY
A number of steps are
taken to keep aerobatic
display pilots in one piece
The purpose of the Red Arrows and the Blue

Angels is to thrill millions of spectators every
year, but they never compromise on pilot safety.
Due to the nature of their flying and the high
number of shows they perform, accidents do
happen, although they are less regular than
they were when the aerobatic teams first
performed. By studying both the pilots and the
planes themselves, both teams are now aware
of exactly how far man and machine can be
pushed. Both the Blue Angel and the Red Arrow
pilots wear specific safety equipment which
enables them to perform their amazing
displays with the minimum amount of danger.
Combating g-forces
We measure gravity in terms of how much
acceleration a force applies to an object. During
some of their daring manoeuvres, aerobatic
pilots will often be exposed to extreme
gravitational forces. These forces direct their
blood away from the brain towards their feet,
causing the heart to stop pumping sufficient
blood back to the brain which will eventually
cause the pilot to totally blackout.
There are two ways that aerobatic pilots
can counteract this problem. Red Arrow pilots
wear a g-suit which employs a compressed
air and bladder system. This compresses
the legs and abdomen, reducing the
likelihood of a blackout by reducing the
amount of blood able to flow away from
the brain.
Blue Angel pilots undergo specific training
to enable them to fly without g-suits. This is
because it is impossible to wear them when they
fly, as they rest their forearms on their legs and
use their knees as a fulcrum which the suits
could interfere with if worn. Instead, they learn
to tense their lower body muscles and exhale
sharply (known as the hick manoeuvre), that
slows the rate at which the blood flows away
from the brain. Blue Angel pilots are mandated to
exercise at least six times a week, which keeps
them fit and helps their bodies cope with g-force.
On top of this, they train in a centrifuge each year
which exposes them to extreme g-force and lets
them practice dealing with its effects.
040
Flying helmet
Although it primarily
functions to protect the
pilots head, the helmet
houses the
communications
equipment as well.
Oxygen mask
The Red Arrow pilots all
wear oxygen masks
fitted with a microphone,
but their Blue Angel
counterparts do not, as
they typically dont fly
above 4,572m (15,000ft).
Display
flying suit
The Red Arrows
and the Blue
Angels have their
own display suits
accordingly
coloured to suit
their name. These
are not worn
during training.
The Blue Angels are famous

for their yellow flight helmet
but do not wear an oxygen
mask during performances.
Life preserver
The life preserver is
equipped with vital
survival aids, such
as a locator beacon
and mini flares.
Personal
equipment
connector
Red Arrow pilots
use this to connect
to their aircraft. It
provides oxygen
and also inflates
their g trousers.
Anti-g trousers
Unlike the Blue Angels,
the Red Arrows wear
anti-g trousers to
prevent blood from
rushing to their legs
during manoeuvres
involving strong g-forces.
DID YOU KNOW? The Blue Angel jets can be made combat ready in less than 72 hours
What it takes to
be a display pilot
Learn about the rigorous
interview and training that
future pilots have to face
The experience youll need to qualify

With only three spots available each year, gaining a place in a display team needs
a very specific set of skills
RED ARROWS
Education
Many pilots are educated to degree level,
but this isnt a requirement.
Experience
BLUE ANGELS
Education
Many pilots are educated to degree level,
but this isnt a requirement
Experience
Completed a frontline tour of duty.

Q
Experience in an F/A-18.
Q
Assessed as being above average in

Q
their flying role.
Carrier-qualified, active-duty Navy or

Q
Marine Corps tactical jet pilot.
An exceptional flying record that

Q
includes reports on operational flights.
Combat experience, usually in landing

Q
on and taking off from aircraft carriers.
Flying Hours
Flying Hours
A MINIMUM OF
A MINIMUM OF
HOURS IS EXPECTED.
FLYING HOURS IS EXPECTED.
Becoming Team Leader
Becoming The Boss
To apply to become Team Leader, or the

Boss, a pilot must have completed a
three-year tour with the Red Arrows earlier
in their career, which makes the number of
people that can apply for this role limited.
The Royal Air Force personnel department
will select the officer they believe is best
suited to carry out the wide range of duties
expected of a Team Leader.
The Chief of Naval Air Training selects the

Boss, the Blue Angels commanding officer.
The Boss must have at least 3,000 tactical
jet flight-hours and have also commanded a
tactical jet squadron. The Commanding
Officer flies the Number 1 jet and leads all
of the formations.
MOD/Crown; Thinkstock; Corbis
The interview process for selecting a new

member of a display team is incredibly
thorough. In the case of the Blue Angels, there
has to be a completely unanimous (16-0) vote in
favour of a candidate in order for them to join.
The Red Arrows will shortlist nine potential
pilots via a pre-selection board, who are then
invited for the seven-day interview. During this
time, the candidates will undertake a flying
test, meet the current team, accompany a Red
Arrow pilot during a display practice and be
formally interviewed. Once this has been
completed, the current team will meet to decide
which applicants have been successful.
Flight lieutenant Mike Bowden, who pilots
Red 2, explains how first-timers learn to fly in
unison: When you fly in formation on the front
line, you wait for the aircraft around you to
move and copy what they do, he says. If we
were to do this in the Red Arrows it would make
the overall formation look very broken, which is
why we learn to follow voice commands from
the Team Leader). We aim to perfect formation
flying before moving to complex manoeuvres.
After meeting the initial criteria, Blue Angel
applicants, or rushees as theyre fondly
referred to, shadow the current pilots for
numerous displays. They watch everything the
existing team do, attend team briefs and go to
social engagements. Candidates are then
whittled down, with the remaining potential
pilots put forward for a daunting one versus 16
interview, where all current Blue Angel pilots
and officers ask the candidate a question.
After this, the current team sits down and
decides which candidates will be joining the
following years team. We spoke to LCDR Mark
Tedrow, the lead solo pilot for the Blue Angels,
who revealed how they train: The Blue Angels
are so unique and the flying we do is very
different to anything you do in the military it
really does feel like learning to fly all over
again, he says. Between the end of one season
and the start of the next, we aim to accumulate
120 training flights. We are usually flying 15
times per week, which is a fairly gruelling
schedule, but that means we can perform our
manoeuvres practically from muscle memory.
Blue Angels recruits have

to complete a variety of
survival challenges before
earning their qualifications
to fly with the team
041
1938
1989
Harrier II
Introduced to active service in
December 1989, the Harrier II is an
example of a vertical and/or
short-takeoff and landing (V/STOL)
jet aircraft, perfect for use on
aircraft carriers. It was frequently
used in combat during missions in
Kosovo, Iraq and Afghanistan.
The Supermarine Spitfire was

used by the RAF and other Allied
forces during WWII. It was designed as a
short-range, high-performance interceptor
aircraft, with a maximum speed of 595km/h
(370mph). Originally fitted with eight .303
Browning machine guns, it helped defend Britains
coastline during the Battle of Britain.
1983
F-117 Nighthawk
The F-117 Nighthawk was equipped with
pioneering stealth technology and was
designed to have a minimal radar
cross-section, making it very
hard to detect by traditional
monostatic radars. During
its 25 years of service,
only one was ever
lost in combat.
FROM WWI TO
MODERN DAY,
INSIDE THE
MOST ICONIC
MILITARY
AIRCRAFT
042
From daring dogfights over World War I

France, to the computer-powered prowess
of the modern eras jet fighters, the history
of aerial warfare is nearly as old as flight itself.
In 1915, Dutch engineer Anton Fokker devised an
interrupter gear, a simple mechanism that allowed
a fixed machine gun to fire through a planes
running propeller blades. The first plane to use this
was the Fokker Eindecker, which was so effective it
began what the British Royal Flying Corps referred
to as the Fokker Scourge. This sparked an
international race to create faster, more

manoeuvrable and ever-more destructive aircraft.
By the end of the Great War, the tactical
advantages of maintaining air superiority were
well established and by 1939 and the dawn of the
Second World War, another leap in aerial combat
was already dominating the skies. Capable of
hitting speeds of over 500 kilometres (311 miles) per
hour, the Messerschmitt Bf 109 was over three
times faster than the Eindecker. From its testing
ground in the skies of the Spanish Civil War to the
DID YOU KNOW? Frenchman Adolphe Pgoud was named the first flying ace of WWI after shooting down five German aircraft
1916
1949
Sopwith Pup
F-86 Sabre
Equipped with a rotary engine and

weighing only 357kg (787lb), it
had a range of over 300km
(186mi). It was armed with only a
single Vickers machine gun and
has a fabric-covered, wooden
framework. It was nicknamed the
Pup as it was smaller than the
two-seat Sopwith 1.5 Strutter.
First used in 1949, the F-86

Sabre was used by more than
20 different nations prior to its
eventual retirement in 1994. An
example of a swept-wing,
transonic jet fighter aircraft, it
also featured a flying tail,
which gave it superb
manoeuvrability at altitude.
2005
Lockheed Martin
F-22 Raptor
invasions of Poland and France, this powerful,

lightweight and well-armed fighter set a new
precedent for fighter planes.
Aerial warfare was now recognised as the key
to strategic success on the ground. Luckily, Allied
machines, such as the Rolls Royce-powered
Spitfire that was already in service at the
outbreak of the war, were able to out-class their
German rivals. In the final months of the war,
however, the future of fighter aircraft had
already taken to the skies. Though it came too
late and in too small a number to turn the tide of

the war for Hitler, the Messerschmitt Me 262 was
the first-ever jet fighter, capable of speeds of 870
kilometres (541 miles) per hour.
Some of the last propeller-powered combat
was seen in the Korean War of 1950 to 53, before
the world fully entered into the jet age. The skies
of the Cold War became tensely patrolled by
Soviet MiG-15s, American F-15 fighters and some
of the fastest planes ever engineered. Then
specialist vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL)
aircraft were developed for deployments on

aircraft carriers, while secret stealth and
surveillance technology was covertly advanced
to wage the war in the shadows.
In modern warfare the job of the fighter plane
is still a crucial element. The new generation of
computer-assisted jets are capable of more roles
and simultaneous operations than ever before;
reducing the risk to the pilot, increasing the
threat to the enemy and ensuring complete
dominance of the skies.
043
Alamy; Thinkstock; Rex Features; EuroFighter/ Geoffrey Lee
100 YEARS OF
The F-22 Raptor is the leading

stealth tactical fighter aircraft.
Its F-119 engines are regarded
as the most advanced ever
produced. Pilots benefit from
360-degree awareness when
flying. Their ability to
super-cruise at Mach 1.5
without afterburners makes
them particularly lethal.
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
100 years of fighter planes
Modern-day tech
How the new generations of military tech
changed the face of aerial warfare
Ever since the Messerschmitt Me 262, nicknamed
the Swallow, first took flight in World War II, the jet
age has seen fighter-plane technology soar. One key
difference between the fighters of today and their
ancestors is the need for flexibility. While
warplanes were previously designed for specific
tasks such as fighter bombers, escort, or
reconnaissance todays aircraft are expected to
perform a range of roles, even simultaneously. For
example, the Eurofighter Typhoon carries over a
dozen brackets under its fuselage. This enables it to
carry any combination of air-to-air or ground-attack
armament, or extra fuel pods for prolonged sorties,
fulfilling the potential for every combat role.
With machines becoming ever faster and
weapons systems leaving little to no room for error,
even the lightning reactions of the hardiest flying
maverick would struggle to last five minutes of air
combat that is, without the aid of computer
technology. Though it goes without saying the role
of a pilot still demands incredible levels of skill,
endurance, multitasking and quick reactions under
pressure, the onboard computer is now an essential
component of any fighter plane.
The heads-up display (HUD), iconic from films
such as Top Gun, was among the most important
electronic upgrades to the cockpits of fighter jets.
It relays target tracking, sensor, navigation and
other data direct to the pilot. The HUD computer
is connected to all the external and internal sensors
of the aircraft, so its able to collate, prioritise and
even give guidance based on this data. This has
enabled pilots to quickly engage various threats,
enact countermeasures and even land safely, all
while keeping two eyes firmly focused on the
danger zone.
Though within the last few decades fighter
technology has leapt several generations, in step
with the growing capabilities of computers, the
principles of assisting pilot operation have
remained the same. For example, the Human
Machine Interface (HMI) and Flight Control System
(FCS) of the Eurofighter accommodates voice input/
output controls, Autopilot, Autothrottle and Flight
Director Modes, all to assist handling. In addition,
its latest generation of radar is able to identify and
prioritise threats. With all this, its no wonder
fighter pilots still feel a special bond with these
incredible machines.
044
Typhoon
Tranche 3
Eurofighter
The technology inside Europes 100 million
fighter will take your breath away
Multifunction Information
and Distribution System
The internal computer system
incorporates all the autonomous
sub-systems, such as targeting and
monitoring, and presents them to
the pilot through multiple cockpit
and helmet displays.
CAPTOR-E AESA Radar

Active Electronically Scanned
Array radar is capable of tracking
multiple air and surface targets
simultaneously, providing
200-degree coverage and
automatically locking on
to potential targets.
Reinforced windows
The cockpit windows are
made from super-resistant
transparent acrylic called
Rhm 249, shaped to give
the widest possible view for
the pilot.
DID YOU KNOW? It is believed to cost nearly 4,000 ($5,935) to keep a Typhoon flying for just one hour
Multi-role arsenal
Future-proof electronics
Fibre-optic data buses are built
into the aircraft to ensure it will
remain compatible with future
generations of weapons systems.
With 13 sockets available, the weapons carriage

can be equipped to suit any single or multiple
roles. The latest Typhoon will be capable of
carrying the Storm Shadow cruise missile.
Twin engines
Stealth material
Two EJ200 power plants

combine to a total of 180kN
(40,500lbf) of thrust, but
are lightweight enough to
ensure the aircraft can
reach Mach 2.0.
Over 70 per cent of the Typhoons

airframe is made up of carbonfibre composite material, making
its surface deliberately unstable
and less visible to radar.
DECMU
Each EJ200 is wired to a Digital
Engine Control and Monitoring Unit
(DECMU), which tell engineers the
exact condition of the engine in
order for them to extend its life
span and apply enhancements.
Towed decoy
As a last resort, a
decoy can be
deployed by the
planes defence
system as
countermeasure to
any hostile fire.
Defensive sensors
The Defensive Aids Sub-System
(DASS) automatically monitors,
prioritises and responds to
targets and threats from the
outside world, both in the air
and on the surface.
E-Scan radar
Weapons integration
This watchful eye

doesnt miss a thing
Fully connected to all the weapons systems,

the radar can establish and lock on to targets
without being prompted, leaving the pilot
free to take instant action if required.
Wide view
The E-Scan is capable of
monitoring multiple
targets simultaneously,
both ground and
airborne, giving the
pilot a 200-degree view
of the battlefield.
Air-to-ground ability
Data link
High-res mapping
As well as its primary

radar functions, the
E-Scan keeps pilots in
contact with one
another through Data
Link capabilities.
The E-Scans increased range

means pilots can conduct
high-resolution synthetic-aperture
radar (SAR) scans of the terrain
below without coming into
dangerous range with the enemy.
EuroFighter/ Markus Zinner
Some of the air-to-ground

features include highresolution maps, ground
moving target identification
and air-to-surface ranging.
045
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
AVIATION HISTORY
Discover how warplanes have developed through the ages
MiG-15
UK
1936
Soviet Union
1949
Sopwith Triplane
UK
1916
Mitsubishi A6M Zero

Japan
1940
Tornado GR4
UK, Italy, Germany
1979
Convair F-106
Hawker Tempest
UK
USA
1959
1944
Yakovlev Yak-1
Soviet Union
1940
F-15 Eagle
USA
1976
Sukhoi Su-30
Russia
1996
046
DID YOU KNOW? The F-100 Super Sabre was the first-ever US fighter plane to achieve supersonic speeds
Sukhoi Su-27
Soviet Union
De Havilland Mosquito
1985
UK
1941
MiG-29
Soviet Union
1983
Polikarpov I-15
Soviet Union
1934
Vought F4U
Corsair
USA
1942
Saab JAS 39 Gripen

Sweden
1997
Sopwith Camel
UK
1917
F-86 Sabre
USA
1949
Messerschmitt
Me 262 Schwalbe
Germany
1944
F-16 Fighting Falcon

USA
1978
047
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
Evolution of the fighter plane

How the old war dogs of the skies reached new heights in their time
Almost as soon as we were able to fly, we have
been inventing new ways to destroy one another
in the air. Aerial combat has come a long way from
pilots leaning out of their cockpits and taking
pot shots at one another with pistols.
War may be hell, but it has also been
the ideal breeding ground for rapid
growth in aviation technology. Certain
milestones stand out that have shaped
the modern military craft we know today;
retractable landing gear, enclosed cockpits,
internal weapons systems, jet engines, ejector
seats, heads-up displays and more.
Here, two landmark aircraft show off their
innovative features, giving a sense of how
they took new technology to battle.
Grumman F-14A Tomcat

A cat with formidable claws in the shape of
sidewinder missiles and cutting-edge avionics
Tail
This twin tail gave the plane
extra stability. The
butterfly-shaped airbrake
enabled it to land on
aircraft carriers more easily.
Cockpit
This housed the pilot, as
well as the radar interceptor
officer. To give the crew an
optimal all-round view, the
seating was raised higher
than the main body.
20mm gun
A single M61A1 Vulcan
20mm cannon was
mounted internally in the
front fuselage of the plane.
Bombs
Air-to-air
missiles
Multimode radar
Located in the nose, the
Hughes AWG-9 pulse
Doppler radar was capable
of tracking 24 targets at the
same time, while directing
fire at six of them.
The Tomcat could

pack up to four
Sidewinder, six
Sparrow and six
Phoenix missiles
for aerial combat.
Over six tons of

bombs could be
carried on missions
for ground attacks.
Multinational
Though they were developed
and built in the USA, most
Tomcats still in service are
flown by the Islamic Republic
of Iran Air Force.
TARPS
Tomcats could also be
fitted with a Tactical
Airborne Reconnaissance
Pod System, for monitoring
enemy ground movement.
Intelligent wings
These could be altered
automatically by up to 20
degrees, increasing the
crafts aerodynamics at
supersonic speeds.
048
Engines
Two Pratt & Whitney
TF30-P-412s powered
the Tomcat, pumping
out 186kN (41,800lbf).
DID YOU KNOW? The SR-72, successor to the SR-71 Blackbird, is under development in an attempt to reach Mach 6
Antenna
Messerschmitt Bf 109
This scourge of the skies dominated the
battles over early WWII Europe
Cockpit
Twin machine guns
Two MG-17 7.9mm guns
were mounted over the
engine, each capable of
delivering over 1,000
rounds per minute.
Unlike its successor

the 209, the 109s
cockpit was found
much farther forward
of the aircraft.
A high-frequency
antenna, connected to a
FuG 16Z radio, kept the
pilot in communication
with his fellow pilots, as
well as his base.
Design
Short range
The 109 had a maximum range
of around 1,000km (621mi),
giving it reasonable flexibility
to engage enemy fighters and
attack medium-distance
ground targets.
A 30mm cannon could

also be built into the
nose, providing even
more firepower.
Retractable wheels
Some Messerschmitt variants had
retractable landing gears, which
made them more aerodynamic.
Wing weapons
Though original models werent
designed with wing armament in
mind, twin machine guns were
built into the planes wings in
response to the heavily armed
British Spitfires.
The future of
warplanes
With the increasing use of unmanned drones to target and
monitor enemy positions and combatants, it has been
suggested that traditional fighter jets could eventually lose
any purpose in future warfare. In 2013 the Northrop Grumman
X-47B prototype unmanned aircraft was the first of its kind to
perform a carrier-launch and recovery, signalling a possible
future of unmanned strike-bomber aircraft. Boeings QF-16s
retired F-16 jets modified to be controlled remotely are now
regularly used for aerial target training. While these pilotless
jets are used as real-life targets to test missile systems, they
demonstrate just how accurate remote flight is becoming.
Both government and industry leaders have admitted that
future military aircraft will have to be more closely integrated
with artificial intelligence, even with suggestions that manned
jets may work alongside pilotless craft. Studies by the Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) have revealed
that drones operate more effectively in packs, prompting
further research into how drones could work with one another,
rather than rely solely on human controllers in combat
scenarios. Even before the fifth generation of fighter jets
become widely available, including the F-35 Lightning II and
Shenyang J-31, world governments are already looking at
cost-effective, as well as cutting-edge solutions for the sixth
generation of military aeronautics.
War has
been the
ideal breeding
ground for
rapid growth
in aviation
technology
The F-35 Lightning II is
currently the fifthgeneration of fighter
aircraft for several global
Air Forces and Navies
Sol90; Thinkstock
Cannon
Built to suit the largest

possible engine with the
smallest possible fuselage,
Messerschmitts were easy
to construct from just
three basic components.
049
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
The A-10 Thunderbolt
On board the Warthog

Why is the A-10 Thunderbolt fighter jet still in use today and just
as popular as it was four decades ago when it first took off?
Fuel tanks
The A-10 Thunderbolt is a single-seat,
close-air support fighter jet that also
goes by the names Warthog and
Tankbuster. Development for the aircraft began
in 1967 and its first flight was in 1972. There are
several reasons why the A-10 has proved
popular enough to weather 40-plus years of
advancing military tech chief among them
its combat versatility and high survival rate.
The A-10 boasts a short takeoff and landing
capacity with a range of nearly 1,300 kilometres
(800 miles). Commonly used for troop support
and ground attacks, it can loiter for long periods
at low speeds and altitudes below 300 metres
(985 feet) and its capable of soaking up as much
damage as it can dish out. Indeed, the A-10 can
take direct hits from armour-piercing and
explosive shells, has multiple redundancies for
its flight systems and, most incredibly, it can
return to base on one engine, one tail stabiliser,
one elevator and even having lost half a wing!
As a result, its well known among US Air Force
pilots for its get home effectiveness.
Modern A-10s have been upgraded from the
original 1972 blueprint, of course. Navigation
and targeting systems have been dramatically
improved. Pilots
can now wear
night-vision
goggles for lowlight ops, plus a
A-10s in service
host of electronic
1 Balkans
countermeasures
2 Florida, USA
3 Afghanistan
and smart-bomb
4 Iraq
capacity have
5 Libya
been installed.
6 South Korea
A-10 Thunderbolt II tech

Weve pulled apart the Warthog to see
what makes it such a hardy aircraft
Cockpit
Canopy
Both the windscreen
and the transparent
bubble canopy are
resistant to small
arms fire.
ON THE
MAP
1
2
4 3
Landing gear
Landing gear is hinged
at the rear so that if the
hydraulic system fails,
wind resistance and
gravity will fully open
and lock them in place.
Main cannon
The General Dynamics
Avenger 30mm (1.2in)
cannon can fire standard,
incendiary or even
depleted-uranium rounds.
050
Contains targeting and

navigation controls for the pilot,
including a heads-up display and
secure radio communications.
The Warthogs four main

fuel tanks are selfsealing and lined with
fire-retardant foam.
TAKEOFF
16.3m MAX
23,000kg MAX SPEED 706km/h
WEIGHT
CANNON
ORDNANCE
SERVICE
CAPACITY 7,260kg FIRE RATE 4,200/min CEILING 13,700m
THE
STATS
LENGTH
TANKBUSTER
DID YOU KNOW? The A-10 is so versatile that one has been converted to serve as a weather research platform
Engines
The US Air Force boasts

over 360 A-10s in its
fleet, operating all
around the world,
including this one
in Afghanistan
Tail
Two TF34-GE-100,
non-afterburning, twin
turbofans provide 4,111kg
(9,065lb) of thrust each.
The engines are mounted

here to reduce heat
signature (for evading
heat-seeking missiles)
and to enable the plane
to fly on just one engine.
Built for defence

The A-10 is robust enough to sustain heavy
damage during combat and remain capable of
flying away, where other aircraft would be
compromised. Its exceptionally well-armoured
around the cockpit, where the pilot is vulnerable.
Sensitive parts of the flight control system,
along with the pilot, are shielded by a tub of
titanium armour: 544 kilograms (1,200 pounds)
of this super-hard metal is layered in plates up to
3.8 centimetres (1.5 inches) thick around the
cockpit, based on the likely trajectories of
incoming projectiles. It can withstand fire from
similar cannons to its own main weapon, as well
as large-calibre rounds. A nylon spall shield also
protects the pilot from shrapnel and round
fragmentation, while the transparent canopy
(which cant afford the same level of protection)
can still resist ballistics from small arms.
Wing
As part of a service life
extension programme,
242 new A-10 wing sets
have been produced to
extend the Warthogs
operation until 2040.
AGM-65 Maverick
These air-to-ground missiles
have been around as long as
the A-10. Theyre equipped
with either contact or
delayed-action fuses.
The A-10 can carry nearly half its weight again in

armaments and their associated systems, with
an external load of up to 7,260 kilograms (16,005
pounds). Its equipped with 11 pylons along which
laser weapon guidance and support systems can
be attached, plus ordnance. Its capable of
carrying a range of cluster and 227-kilogram
(500-pound) general-purpose bombs, Hydra
rockets, plus up to ten Maverick air-to-ground
missiles weighing 304 kilograms (670 pounds)
apiece. The latter can destroy a tank in a single
hit however, at a cost of up to 105,000
($160,000) a pop, a cavalier attitude with the
Mavericks is not tolerated. The main weapon is
the Avenger 30-millimetre (1.2-inch) cannon
mounted under the nose of the A-10, with a top
fire rate of 4,200 rounds a minute and an
effective range of over 6.5 kilometres (four
miles). The cannon can easily disable a main
battle tank in the hands of a competent pilot.
051
Alex Pang
On the offensive
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
The Supermarine Spitfire
Supermarine
Rolls-Royce
Vee-12 engine
The Spitfire utilised two variant of
Rolls-Royce engine during its
production life span, the 27-litre
Merlin and the 36.7-litre Griffon.
Arguably the most iconic fighter

aircraft of the Second World War,
the RAF Spitfire to this day is
championed for its prowess,
grace and versatility
Propeller
Original Spitfires
had wooden propellers, these
were later replaced with
variable-pitch propellers, and
more blades were added as
horsepower increased.
Airframe
The aircrafts airframe was an
amalgamation of a streamlined
semi-single piece of aluminium
alloy with an enclosed cockpit,
allowing increased
responsiveness and ease of flight.
Video still from gun camera

showing the tracers
052
Gun-emplacement
The original armament of
the Spitfire comprised of
eight .303-inch Browning
machine guns, each with 300
rounds of ammunition.
THE
STATS
RAF SPITFIRE
450mph RANGE 400 miles LENGTH 32ft 11ins

WINGSPAN 36ft 11in ARMAMENT 20mm cannon x4
MAX SPEED
DID YOU KNOW? By 1939, approximately ten per cent of all Spitfires had been lost as a result of training accidents
Inside the Spitfire
Fully enclosed cockpit

The benefits of a fully enclosed
cockpit were numerable, most
notably though it improved
the Spitfires aerodynamics.
What made this aircraft so spectacular?
Fuselage
The fuselage of the
Spitfire was
constructed from
toughened aluminium
alloy, composing
of 19 individual frames.
Undercarriage
The Spitfires
undercarriage was
fully retractable, a
refinement that was
not commonplace
in earlier aircraft.
Designed in the technologically

fervent and innovatory melting pot of
the Second World War, the
Supermarine Spitfire became the fighter plane
of the times. With its simple lines, elegant
frame and superb aerodynamics, the Spitfire
was to live on in the minds of generations
during the war and for many decades to come.
The Supermarine Spitfire was the brainchild
of aeronautical engineer Reginald Mitchell,
who led a dedicated and talented team of
designers. Originally planned as a short-range
air-defence fighter, the Spitfire was built for
speed and agility, traits that it was to need in
the explosive dogfights it was to partake in as it
met enemy fighters and bombers. Building a
fighter plane, though, is more complex than
listing desirable traits however, and the
Spitfires construction is a balletic series of
compromises between weight, aerodynamics
and firepower.
The frame of a Spitfire with its elliptical
wings is one of its most defining characteristics,
casting a distinctive silhouette against the sky.
The ellipse shaping was used to minimise drag
while having the necessary thickness to
accommodate the retracted undercarriages
and the guns required for self defence. A simple
compromise that had the resulting benefit of
having an incredibly individual shape. In
contrast, the airframe which was influenced
by exciting new advances in all metal,
low-wing plane construction was a complex
and well-balanced amalgamation of a
streamlined semi-single piece of aluminium
alloy and a fully enclosed cockpit. This allowed
unrivalled responsiveness and ease of flight,
making the Spitfire a favourite for pilots.
Arguably, the other most defining and

success-inducing element of the Spitfire was its
engine, which took on the form of the RollsRoyce Merlin and Griffon engines. Planned by a
board of directors at Rolls-Royce who realised
that their current Vee-12 engine was topping
out at 700hp and that a more powerful variant
would be needed, first the Merlin and later the
Griffon engines were designed. The Merlin at
first delivered 790hp, short of the 1,000hp goal
set in its design brief, however this was to
increase to 975hp in a few years. The Griffon
then built upon the success of the Merlin,
delivering at the climax of its advancement a
whopping 2,035hp. These engines were to
prove tantamount to the airframe and wing
designs in the dominance of the Spitfire.
Despite its origins lying in short-range home
defence, the Spitfire was to prove so versatile
and successful that it was quickly adapted for a
wide variety of military purposes. Many
variants were created, including designs
tailored for reconnaissance, bombing runs,
high-altitude interception and general
fighter-bomber operations. The most notable
derivative, however, was the multi-variant
Seafire, specially designed for operation on
aircraft carriers with the added ability to
double-fold its wings for ease of storage.
Considering the place in history that the
Spitfire holds a fighter-bomber aircraft that
bridged the gap between the age of the
propeller engine to that of the jet the fact that
they are still collected (with an average cost of
1.4 million) and flown today is unsurprising.
The Spitfire is a timeless piece of engineering
that shows some of the most creative and
advanced efforts in military history.
Image DK Images
Elliptical wing
The elliptical wing of the Spitfire
is a defining design characteristic,
functional to the extreme and
aesthetically pleasing to the eye.
053
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
The Lancaster bomber
Lancaster
bomber
Famed for its prowess and entrenched in
popular culture by The Dam Busters film of
1955, the Lancaster bomber played a vital role
in securing an allied victory in World War II
Arguably one of the most famous
heavy bombers of The Second World
War, the Avro-built Lancaster
bomber undertook some of the most
dangerous and complex missions yet
encountered by the RAF. Primarily a night
bomber but frequently used during the day
too, the Lancasters under Bomber Command
flew some 156,000 sorties during the war,
dropping 609,000 tons of bombs. Among these
bombs was the famous bouncing bomb
designed by British inventor Barnes Wallis,
a payload that would lead the Lancaster to
remain famed long after 1945. We take a look
inside a Avro Lancaster to see what made it
so successful.
Lancaster bombers
dropped 609,00o tons
of bombs
Crew
Due to its large size, hefty armament and technical complexity, the Lancaster bomber
had a crew of seven. This included: a pilot, flight engineer, navigator, bomb aimer,
wireless operator, mid-upper and rear gunners. Many crew members from Lancasters
were awarded the Victoria Cross for their heroic actions in battle, a notable example
being the two awarded after a daring daytime raid on Augsburg, Germany.
Inside a
Lancaster
bomber
Bomb bay
Turrets
As standard the Lancaster bomber was
fitted with three twin 7.7mm turrets in the
nose, rear and upper-middle fuselage. In some
later variants of the Lancaster the twin 7.7mm
machine guns were replaced with 12.7mm models,
which delivered more power. The rear and uppermiddle turrets were staffed permanently by dedicated
gunners, while the nose turret was staffed periodically by
the bomb aimer when caught up in a dogfight.
054
The bomb bay could carry a great

payload. Indeed, the bay was so
spacious that with a little modification it
could house the massive Grand Slam
earthquake bomb, a 10,000kg giant
that when released would reach near
sonic speeds before penetrating deep
into the Earth and exploding.
Fuselage
The Lancaster was designed out of the earlier Avro Type 683
Manchester III bomber, which sported a three-finned tail layout and
was similar in construction. While the overall build remained similar
the tri-fin was removed in favour of a twin-finned set up instead. This
is famously one of only a small number of design alterations made to
the bomber, which was deemed to be just right after its test flights.
5 TOP
FACTS
LANCASTER
BOMBER
High calibre
Slam-dunk
Busted
Collateral
Black label
While 7.7mm machine guns

were standard on Lancaster
bombers, selective later
variants were fitted with twin
12.7mm turrets in both tail and
dorsal positions.
Lancaster bombers often

had their already-large bomb
bays modified in order to carry
the monumental 10,000
kilogram Grand Slam
earthquake bombs.
A selection of bombers
became famous after
Operation Chastise, a mission
to destroy German dams in the
Ruhr Valley, the inspiration for
the film The Dam Busters.
Between 1942 and 1945

Lancaster bombers flew
156,000 sorties and dropped
approximately 609,000 tons
of bombs on military and
civilian targets.
The lager company Carling

used footage of Lancaster
bombers to create a parody of
The Dam Busters in which a
German soldier catches the
bouncing bombs.
DID YOU KNOW? A single Lancaster bomber cost 50,000 in 1942, roughly 1.5 million in todays currency
Over 7,000 bombers
were built
The Lancaster bomber was

powered by four Rolls-Royce
Merlin V12 engines. These
were chosen by the
Lancasters chief designer
Roy Chadwick due to their
reliability, as the incumbent
bomber the Avro
Manchester had adopted
the Rolls-Royce Vulture and
had been troubled by
engine failure consistently
when in service.
The
bouncing
bomb
B
lue
mo
ose
Powerplant
One of the most famous parts of the

Lancasters heritage is its role in carrying and
releasing the bouncing bomb payload, as
glamourised in the 1955 film The Dam Busters.
The bomb was designed by Barnes Wallis
who was also the creator of the Grand Slam
and Tallboy bombs and was special in its
ability to bounce along the top of a surface of
water, much akin to skimming a stone. It was
designed to counteract and evade German
defences below and above the waterline,
allowing Allied forces to target German
hydroelectric dams and floating vessels.
In May 1943 the bouncing bombs were
utilised in Operation Chastise, an allied
mission to destroy German dams in the Ruhr
Valley. The aircraft used were modified Avro
Lancaster Mk IIIs, which had much of their
armour and central turret removed in order to
accommodate the payload. Despite eight of
the Lancasters being lost during the
operation, as well as the lives of 53 crew, a
small number of bouncing bombs were
released and they caused two dams to be
breached, one to be heavily damaged and
1,296 civilians to be killed.
The statistics
Lancaster bomber
Crew: 7
Length: 21.18m
Wingspan: 31.09m
Thats a real
dam buster
John Batchelor / www.johnbatchelor.com
Height: 5.97m
Weight: 29,000kg )
Powerplant: 4 x Rolls-Royce
Merlin XX V12 engines
Max speed: 280mph
Max range: 3,000 miles
Max altitude: 8,160m
Armament: 8 x .7.7mm
Browning machine guns; bomb
load of 6,300kg
055
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
The Sea Harrier squadron

achieved this due to their
high manoeuvrability
The Sea Harrier
Sea Harrier
Before being retired in 2006,
the Sea Harrier dominated
the subsonic jet fighter field,
changing the dynamics
and operation of the strike
fighter role forever
The British Aerospace Sea Harrier was the purpose-built
naval variant of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier strike
fighter, an aircraft famed for its vertical take-off and
landing (VTOL) and short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL)
capabilities. It worked by adopting the revolutionary singleengine thrust vectoring technology of the regular harrier (see
Degrees of power boxout) and partnering it with a modified
fuselage to allow the installation of the superb Blue Fox radar
system bubble-style canopy (larger, allowing greater visibility)
and a significantly improved arms load out.
These factors, partnered with the aircraft carriers ability to
launch the aircraft from its ski-jump, allowed the Sea Harrier to
perform to a high standard at sea, carrying more weight, detecting
enemies sooner and taking them down quickly and efficiently.
This was demonstrated most vividly during the Falklands War of
1982, when 28 Sea Harriers operating off British aircraft carriers
shot down 20 Argentine aircraft in air-to-air combat without
suffering a single loss. The Sea Harrier squadron achieved this due
to their high manoeuvrability and tactics while in dogfights for
example, braking/changing direction fast by vectoring their
thrust nozzles while in forward flight as well as their pilots
superior training and early-warning/detection systems.
Thrust vectoring
To achieve VTOL capabilities,
the Sea Harriers engine thrust
was directed through four
vectoring nozzles, which could
rotate through 98.5 degrees
from vertically downwards
to horizontal.
Protection
Due to the testing marine operating
conditions, parts of the Sea Harrier
were changed to use corrosion-resistant
alloys or protective coatings.
Second-generation Sea Harriers

on board an aircraft carrier in
the Persian Gulf
Two Indian Navy Sea Harriers fly alongside

a US Navy F/A-18F Super Hornet
056
5 TOP
FACTS
HARRIERS
Old boy
Post-colonial
Invincible
Vixen
Forgetful
The Sea Harrier was in

service for a total of 28 years,
from August 1978 to March
2006. The secondgeneration Sea Harrier FA2
was introduced in April 1993.
The only other international

operator of the Sea Harrier
is actually India, who use
their own FRS51 variant
armed with R550 Magic airto-air missiles.
The first ever Sea Harrier

confirmed as operational
launched off the Invincible class
aircraft carrier HMS Invincible
in 1981, a purpose-designed
VTOL/STOL carrier.
The second-generation Sea

Harrier, the FA2, featured
the Blue Vixen radar, the
predecessor that formed
the basis of the system used
in the Eurofighter Typhoon.
The second-generation Sea

Harrier was also the first British
aircraft to be armed with the
US AIM-120 AMRAAM, a fire
and forget high-explosive
air-to-air missile.
DID YOU KNOW? During the Falklands conflict the Sea Harrier shot down 20 Argentine aircraft with no air-to-air losses
Powerplant
Crew
The Sea Harrier was fitted

with the Rolls-Royce
Pegasus 11 turbofan, an
engine capable of producing
9,750 kilograms of force. This
delivered a massive amount
of power, which while not
taking the jet to supersonic
speeds did allow it to lift off
vertically, spreading the
output over multiple outlets
positioned over the aircraft.
The first-generation Sea Harrier FRS1

and second-generation FA2 were both
single-seat fighters. However, the T4N
and T60 varieties were built with two
seats as they were used for land-based
pilot conversion training.
The statistics
Electronics
Equipped according to generation by
the Ferranti Blue Fox or Blue Vixen
radars respectively, the Sea Harrier
carried at the time some of the most
advanced military radar systems in
the world. It is suggested by military
historians that the Blue Fox radar was
one of the key reasons why the Sea
Harrier performed so successfully in
the Falklands War.
Sea Harrier FA2

Crew: 1
Length: 14.2m
Wingspan: 7.6m
Height: 3.71m
Some Harriers were fitted with

the AIM-120 AMRAAM missile
Max take-off weight:

11,900kg
Pegasus turbofan (21,500lbf)
Max speed: 735mph
Combat radius: 1,000km
Max range: 3,600km
Max service ceiling:
16,000m
Guns: 2 x 30mm ADEN cannon
pods (100 rounds per cannon)
Armament
As a strike fighter the Sea Harrier was equipped with
a broad arsenal, ranging from conventional,
unguided iron bombs including WE.177 nuclear
options to rockets and laser-guided missiles such as
the AIM-9 Sidewinder. The second generation FA2
was famously equipped with deadly AIM-120
AMRAAM air-to-air, fire and forget missiles.
Degrees of power
Rockets:
72 SNEB 68mm rockets
Missiles: AIM-9 Sidewinder,
AIM-120 AMRAAM, R550 Magic,
ALARM anti-radiation missile,
Martel missile, Sea Eagle
anti-ship missile
Cost: $18 million
The Sea Harriers vectoring

nozzle in aft position
to drift backwards. All nozzles were

moved by a series of shafts and chain
drives, which insured that they operated
in unison (crucial for maintaining
stability) and the angle and thrust was
determined in-cockpit by the pilot.
This flexibility of control and
placement meant that the Sea Harrier
was highly manoeuvrable while in the
air and could be landed and launched
from almost anywhere.
Wyrd Light Photography
The real showpiece and reason for the

lengthy success of the Sea Harrier was its
utilisation of the Harriers revolutionary
Pegasus engine partnered with thrust
vectoring nozzles. These nozzles could
be rotated by the pilot through a 98.5
degree arc, from the conventional aft
(horizontal) positioning as standard on
aircraft, to straight down, allowing it to
take off and land vertically as well as
hover, to forward, allowing the Harrier
John Batchelor / www.johnbatchelor.com
Giving the Sea Harrier lift off
057
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
Over 1,000 were lost in

the war, either through
accidents or enemy attacks
Inside a Huey
Inside a Huey
Take a look at one of the most versatile and
recognisable vehicles from the Vietnam War
Among the most iconic vehicles of American
operations in Vietnam was the multi-functional
Bell UH-1 Iroquois helicopter, better known as a
Huey. With a flexible design, the Huey helicopter was
constantly adapted as a rapid troop transport, medevac,
supply transport, as well as a gunship. In Vietnam, the
American forces were able to strike deep into enemy
territory using Hueys, which had an effective range of up to
510 kilometres (317 miles). Parachute drops were hardly ever
used during the entire war, mainly due to the hazards of
dropping men over thick jungle. Helicopters, on the other
hand, were able to deploy units more precisely in
designated clearings.
At the Battle of Ia Drang (1965), Hueys were used to drop
US troops within Viet Cong territory, but due to the sheer
number of soldiers required for the operation, the
transports had to make multiple trips between the landing
zone and their base. Once the fight began, many of the
vehicles then turned to re-supply and evacuation missions
as casualties mounted and ammunition ran low. The
versatility of the Hueys simple fuselage, its wide doors and
large flat base, proved ideal for housing either injured
troops or crates of supplies.
However, many Hueys had little to no armament, making
them ideal targets for Viet Cong fighters. Over 1,000 were lost
during the war, either through accident or enemy attacks,
though many of the craft also came armed. Door gunners
equipped with either carbines or mounted medium
machine guns were often positioned in the hold, poised to
defend the Huey or provide fire support for troops below.
Later versions of the Huey also came loaded with 30-calibre
machine guns and even rocket pods, with which they could
assault enemies on the ground.
During its lifetime, more than 16,000 Bell UH-1 models
were produced, with 7,000 seeing active service between
1955-1976. Many are still used today by military and civilian
organisations worldwide.
Cockpit
A relatively small
cockpit not only kept
the Hueys lightweight,
but also allowed more
room for passengers
and cargo.
Troop transport
Fire support
Hueys often came with
their own door gunner; a
single soldier positioned
in the back of the craft to
provide fire support.
While the early UH-1 model

had space for just six soldiers
in the main hold, UH-1B
upgrades featured an
extended fuselage with room
for up to 15 GIs.
Landing skids
The Huey had twin skids under
its fuselage, each fi xed in two
places, making it ideal for takeoff
and landing on difficult surfaces.
Here a UH-1D is pictured during

the Battle of Ia Drang in 1965
Huey helicopters prepare to transport

troops during Operation Wahiawa,
South Vietnam
058
DID YOU KNOW? The medevac version UH-1V, could carry six stretchers and one member of medical staff
Rotor blades
The Hueys twin rotor
blades stretched 14.6m
(48ft) across.
Turboshaft engine
Versions of the Lycoming
Turboshaft engine provided the
different incarnations of the UH-1
series, with some capable of up to
1,400 shaft horsepower.
Slick design
When unarmed, the
helicopters were incredibly
streamlined and able to fly in
very close formation, earning
them the nickname slicks.
Flexible armament
Though many Hueys were
flown without weaponry,
some were fitted with
30-calibre machine guns
or rocket pods.
Bells UH-Y1, also called the Yankee and the Super

Huey, is one of the latest stages in the evolution of the
Huey. With all the flexibility, reliability and efficiency of
the original UH, this 21st-century beast of the air packs
in the most up-to-date military-grade tech. As well as a
night-vision-compatible cockpit and an electronic
warfare self-protection suite, this modern Huey also
notably has two twin rotor blades, unlike the original
UH series.
Also different to the original Hueys, the UH-1Y craft
have vastly improved safety and protective features,
including a crashworthy fuel system and energyabsorbing landing gear. Capable of carrying heavier
payloads and flying further than its predecessor, the
UH-1Y was deployed in Afghanistan in 2009 where it was
utilised by the US Marine Corps.
US Marine Corps
pilots landing a UH-1Y
during training exercises
in Pendleton, California
059
Alamy
The modern
Super Huey
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
It was famed for its ability to

pass the sound barrier, going
supersonic in a shallow dive
All-weather jet fighter
Sea Vixen
The first British fighter to be fitted
purely with missiles, rockets and
bombs rather than the heavy calibre
machine guns relied upon in WWI and WWII
the Sea Vixen was a first generation jet fighter
employed by the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy.
It was famed for its ability to pass the sound
barrier, going supersonic when in a shallow dive
(hitting a top speed of 690mph) and saw action in
multiple missions in the Middle East and Africa
during the Sixties and Seventies.
Designed to be deployed from aircraft carriers
as an all-weather fighter and high-speed
reconnaissance jet, the Sea Vixen worked by
partnering the reinforced twin-boom tail layout
as seen on its predecessors the Sea Vampire and
Sea Venom, with the colossal power generated by
twin Rolls-Royce Avon 208 turbojet engines, each
capable of delivering 7,500lb of thrust. This gave
the Vixen massive speed, a range of 600 miles
the twin-boom layout allowed for more fuel tanks
and a flexibility to engage targets at sea, on land
and in the air, as well as conduct lengthy patrols.
The armament of the Sea Vixen was
revolutionary for the time. With six hardpoints
(areas that weapons can be mounted on) capable

of being fitted with a selection of Firestreak
air-to-air missiles, which sported annular blast
fragmentation warheads, SNEB rocket pods with
68 unguided explosive-tipped rockets each, and
whopping 500-pound air-to-ground bombs.
Detection of targets was also state-of-the-art, the
Sea Vixen was fitted with the GEC Al.18 Air
Interception radar, which gave the jet great
strategic vision even at night or in particularly
poor visibility conditions.
In 2015, only one working Sea Vixen now
survives in the entire world, which is maintained
by Naval Aviation Ltd and operated from
Yeovilton, Great Britain. After being declassified
as a military aircraft and entered onto the civil
register (changing its tag from XP924 to G-CVIX),
the aircraft was used for a time as an advertising
vehicle for Red Bull but has recently been
repainted with its original Fleet
Air Arm 899 NAS colours and now
flies regularly as part
of demonstrations and
air shows across the
United Kingdom.
The Red Bull plane repainted

in its original livery
060
Nigel Ish
Sporting one of the most notable post-war

aircraft designs, the de Havilland Sea Vixen
was a fearsome all-weather jet fighter, capable
of taking its pilots supersonic and delivering a
titanic amount of next-generation firepower
Chassis
The Sea Vixen built upon the chassis
used in the early de Havilland Sea
Vampire, and featured an all-metal
construction and swept wings.
Cockpit
The pilots canopy is
offset to the left-hand side
of the chassis, while the
observer is housed to the
right completely
ensconced within the
fuselage, only capable of
gaining access through a
flush-fitting top hatch.
5 TOP
FACTS
SEA VIXEN
Disaster
Breaker
Home
Merger
Vintage
On 6 September 1952, a
prototype Sea Vixen
disintegrated in mid-air at the
Farnborough Airshow while
attempting to break the sound
barrier, killing 31 people.
One of the crew killed at the

Farnborough Airshow was
John Derry, the first British
person to exceed the speed
of sound in a de Havilland
DH 108 in September 1948.
The only remaining Sea Vixen

capable of flight was kept at
Bournemouth International
Airport in Dorset, Britain.
Until an accident occurred on
the runway in 2014
The Sea Vixen was produced

by the de Havilland company,
but post merger with the
Hawker Siddeley aerospace
group, it was renamed the
Hawker Siddeley Sea Vixen.
De Havilland Aviation is a
company that specialises in
acquiring and reconditioning
most military aircraft. You can
find out more at
www.dehavillandaviation.com
DID YOU KNOW? There is only one fully functioning Sea Vixen left in the world
Another similarity shared

with the Sea Vampire was
the Sea Vixens twin boom
tail layout, which aided
strength and rigidity when
travelling at sub-sonic and
near sub-sonic speeds.
The statistics
Tony Hisgett
Twin-boom
The Sea Vixen could reach

speeds of up to 690mph
Sea Vixen
Crew: 2
Length: 16.9m
Wingspan: 15.5m
Empty weight: 12,680kg
Loaded weight: 18,860kg
lex
Pa
ng
Avon Mk.208 turbojets
Max speed: 690mph
Range: 790mi
Service ceiling: 14,630m
Armament: 4 x Matra rocket
pods with 18 SNEB 68mm
rockets each, 4 x Red Top
air-to-air missiles, 2 x 227kg
bombs
Powerplant
It was powered by two
Rolls-Royce Avon 208 turbojet
engines, each capable of
producing 7,500 pounds of
thrust. This massive power
allowed the jet to go
supersonic in a shallow dive.
A Sea Vixen with Red

Bull advertising
Armament
The Vixen had six hardpoints upon
which it could carry a combination
of Matra rocket pods with 18 SNEB
68mm rockets each, Firestreak
air-to-air missiles and 227kg
high-explosive bombs.
061
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
Since the first flight the

Lynx has been continually
upgraded and developed
Worlds fastest helicopter
Westland
Lynx
Central hub
A single-piece titanium forging, the

central hub takes all loads imposed by
flight, as the blades rotate around it.
Engines
Two Rolls-Royce Gem 41-1 turboshafts
producing 835kW (1,120shp) each spin the
main rotor through a shared gearbox.
A record breaker and for

40 years can anything
beat the Lynx?
062
Pilots in control
The two pilots make use of
the three-axes stabilisation
system to gain a solid
weapon launch platform.
Wheels
Unlike other Army Lynx versions,
the AH.9 has a Navy-style tricycle
undercarriage to help with
ground handling.
Lynx AH.9
teardown
The AH.9 variant of the
Lynx is used exclusively by
the British Army, primarily
as a utility vehicle
The statistics
Westland Lynx AH.9
Rotor diameter: 12.8m (42ft)
Height: 3.8m (12.4ft)
Disc area: 128.7m (1,385ft)
Empty weight:
3,291kg (7,255lb)
Max takeoff weight:
5,330kg (11,750lb)
Gem 41-1 turboshaft, 835kW
(1,120shp) each
Range: 528km (328mi)
AgustaWestland
The Westland Lynx forms the backbone

of the British Army and Navy helicopter
forces. Entering military service in 1978,
it had already set world speed records during
testing. Introduced as a utility helicopter in 1971,
the Lynx is a twin gas turbine-powered, two-pilot
aircraft, with advanced control systems, a
four-blade, semi-rigid rotor and, thanks to the
fundamental stability and unrivalled agility of the
basic airframe, it has performed in almost every
role imaginable.
From troop transport, armed escort and
anti-tank warfare with the Army Air Corps, to
anti-submarine warfare and maritime attack with
the Fleet Air Arm, and in many similar roles across
the globe, the Lynx is used by the militaries of over
a dozen countries worldwide.
This helicopter is used as an airborne command
post, a fire support platform, as well as for search
and rescue, casualty evacuation, plus many
specialist roles including anti-pirate and border
patrol. The British Army and Navy also have
display teams that use the exceptional agility of
the Lynx to amaze the crowds at air shows.
Since its first flight, over four decades ago, the
Lynx has been continually upgraded and
developed, ensuring its always at the forefront of
technology, as demonstrated by the most current
variant, the Super Lynx. Army models kept the
traditional landing skids until only recently, when
they adopted the tricycle-wheeled undercarriage
used by the Navy to aid ground handling.
Improvements in navigation, communication
and radar systems in Navy derivatives have
ensured that British helicopter capability at sea is
world leading, while Army versions have similarly
demonstrated their ability to evolve with the
changing requirements of modern warfare.
The latest variants are excelling on the
battlefield, using state-of-the-art weapons and
tactics including night-vision-assisted operations.
The next generation of Lynx (the Wildcat) is
currently undergoing flight testing on land and sea,
ensuring many years of continued service.
5 TOP
FACTS
WESTLAND LYNX
Unbeatable record?
The world helicopter speed

record set by G-LYNX still stands
over 25 years later. With the latest
fast rotorcraft moving away from
eligible designs, G-LYNXs record
may never be broken.
War veteran
The Lynx has proven capabilities in

many combat environments,
including disabling the Argentine
submarine Santa Fe during the
Falklands campaign, and sinking
several Iraqi ships in the Gulf Wars.
Blow me down
Naval versions of the Lynx

have the ability to angle the
main rotor blades downwards
to generate negative lift,
pushing the aircraft onto the
deck of a ship after landing.
More speed?
Super-strong
An even faster variant of the

Lynx was proposed but never
built. It would not have qualified
for a world speed record,
though, as it had aeroplane-like
wings beneath the rotor.
The key component in the Lynx

rotor is a solid titanium hub
around which everything spins.
This provides the strength
needed for both high-speed
and high-agility manoeuvres.
DID YOU KNOW? The Lynx is one of the few helicopters in the world that can perform advanced aerobatics, including loops
Top trumps:
BERP blades
The advanced composite British
Experimental Rotor Programme
(BERP) blades provide huge
performance and speed gains
over conventional helicopters.
BERP blade tips

The enlarged tips of the BERP
blades increase lift and smooth
transonic turbulence as the tips
approach the speed of sound.
MILITARY
CHOPPERS
AgustaWestland
Low-heat exhaust
WESTLAND
LYNX AH.9
The exhaust diffusers mix the hot

gases exiting the engines with colder
ambient air, reducing the infra-red
signature of the aircraft.
The Lynx is the smallest

and lightest aircraft of the
three in this roundup,
which allows it to operate
from small ships. The Lynx
can carry more troops and
is far more agile than its
larger counterparts, but
has less power so cannot
carry as high a payload or
as many weapons.
Weaponry
This Lynx variant commonly carries
7.62mm (0.3in) General Purpose
Machine Guns or a Browning AN/M3M
.50-calibre heavy machine gun.
The Lynx Mark 3 shares many of the same

features as the record-holding G-LYNX, such as
BERP blades and Rolls-Royce Gem engines
Crown Copyright
Record
breaker
Fastest chopper in the west and the rest
In 1972, just one year after its introduction, the Westland Lynx became the worlds
fastest helicopter when airframe XX153 set a new world speed record over 15-kilometre
(9.3-mile) and 25-kilometre (15.5-mile) straight courses by flying at an average 321.7
kilometres (199.9 miles) per hour. In 1978 a heavily modified Russian Mil Mi-24 Hind
increased this to 368.4 kilometres (228.9 miles) per hour. With Westland under
political and commercial pressure, it was decided that an attempt would be made to
reclaim the record. Westland re-registered Lynx airframe ZB500 as G-LYNX, and began
a programme of extensive modification. More powerful Rolls-Royce Gem 60 gas
turbines were fitted, along with a water-methanol injection system, but the biggest
performance contribution came from the British Experimental Rotor Programme
(BERP). On 8 August 1986, these advanced rotor blades carried G-LYNX pilot Trevor
Egginton and his flight engineer Derek Clews to the world record speed of 400.9
kilometres (249.1 miles) per hour, which still stands to this day.
US Navy
SIKORSKY
SH-60
SEAHAWK
The Seahawk has a huge
range advantage over its
competitors almost
twice that of the Hind.
The common parts it
shares with the other
aircraft in the Blackhawk
family make maintenance
and repair highly cost
effective. However, it
cannot operate from
small ship decks, and is
not particularly agile.
BrokenSphere
MIL MI-24
HIND
The Hind is heavily
armoured, heavily armed,
extremely fast and very
powerful. It is not used by
the Navy due to its limited
range, and its size means it
is not very agile. Despite
the variety of fearsome
weapons that it can carry
on its hardpoints, the Hind
has often lacked a reliable
anti-armour capability.
063
Alex Pang
All aboard
The rear crew compartment can
accommodate ten fully equipped
troops, cargo, specialist systems
and/or extra fuel tanks.
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
Strategic bombers
The battlefield has changed. Now, more

than ever before, the theatre of war is in
flux, rebuilding itself minute-by-minute,
breaking down the conventional barriers of
geography, geometry and time. Weapons systems
are co-evolving along with defence systems at a
ferocious rate, fuelled by the continued, perpetual
rage of a segregated planet. The relationship
between organic and inorganic matter is becoming
fused, co-dependent and augmented, in order to
generate the versatility demanded when fighting in
064
USAF
Deployed to support ground troops

in the Libyan civil war, the B-1B
Lancer packs a powerful payload
the 21st Century. Fluidity and reaction speed is now

paramount, for if you have the inability to engage
immediately on a global scale, the parameters shift
and the chance dissipates.
Strategic bombers are positioned at the leading
edge of this technological and logistical war, built to
offer the range, payload, durability and speed to
engage a hostile target quickly and efficiently, no
matter their location or levels of defence. Installed
with the most cutting-edge technology and weapons
systems available these machines excel in
USAF
Dedicated bombing
aircraft act as
damage-dealing
workhorses, engaging
enemy targets 24/7
regardless of weather
conditions and the
hazardous theatre of
war. We take to the
skies for a closer look at
some of its key players
delivering their human operator near-omnipresent

power. They include missiles that can transcend the
speed of sound three times over, bombs that are
guided by invisible, omnipresent satellite links to
their targets, and nuclear warheads over ten times
the power of that which despoiled Hiroshima.
Strategic bombers are also capable of remaining
airborne for days, protected by their insane speed
and large weapons basket (the range in which they
can launch weapons at a target without themselves
being engaged).
5 TOP
FACTS
Bombers
Fortress
Father
Iraq
Swan
Etymology
The B-1 Lancer was originally

conceived in the late-Sixties
as a supersonic bomber with
the range and payload to
replace the famous Boeing
B-52 Stratofortress.
According to Russian
government sources, it was a
Tu-160 that dropped the
Father of all bombs. The
government commented: all
thats alive merely evaporates.
The B-1 Lancer was one of

the most used aircraft during
the Iraq war. One of its most
notable missions was an
unsuccessful attempt to kill
Saddam Hussein.
Russian pilots train to fly the

Tu-160 in a Tu-22M aircraft.
When they qualify, they can
adopt its nickname White
Swan (due to its white
finish and manoeuvrability).
The etymology of bomb

comes from the French
bombe, which comes from the
Italian bomba, which comes
from the Latin bombus, which
stems from Ancient Greek.
DID YOU KNOW? A single B-1B Lancer costs $283 million to produce
One of the most modern

guidance systems,
GPS-guided missiles
allow targets to be
engaged accurately. The
system uses an Inertial
Navigation System (INS)
with a link to Earthorbiting satellites that
relay and feed back
positional data to the
missile. With GPS
enabled, JDAM missiles
have a Circular Error
Probable (a measure of
accuracy) of just under
13m, however if jammed
and under INS guidance
only, that is more than
doubled to 30m.
How It Works explains the different types of

technology that bombers use to hit their targets
GPS guided
Bomber
GPS-guided
Satellite
Laser guided
Gravity
guided
Laser targeting system

Targets
Laser-guided
Gravity guided
Laser-guided systems rely on targets to be

lit up with a Laser Target Designator (LTD)
system. Usually ground-based, they involve a
laser designator being pointed at target. The
missiles infrared seeking unit locates the
designation and adjusts its trajectory.
Bombs are dropped free-fall, relying on gravity and aircraft

co-ordinates to strike. Due to their relative inaccuracy,
gravity-guided bombs tend to be released in clusters to
maximise the chance of a successful strike. Dependent on
aircraft speed and altitude, these bombs can be fitted with
various tails and retarders to speed up/slow down fall time.
WEAPONS
OF WAR
B-1B Lancer
BrokenSphere
Tech of the trade
MK-82
A low-drag, general-purpose,
unguided bomb. It is a stock
munition for a variety of US aircraft,
including the B-1B Lancer, which
can carry northwards of 84 units.
The MK-82 weighs 500 pounds and
measures 222cm (87.4 in) long and
27cm (10.75 in) in diameter. Each unit
has a 192lb filling of tritonal 80 per
cent TNT, 20 per cent aluminium
powder which can be fitted with
fin kits, fuses and retarders to suit
each mission.
The statistics
Damon Moritz-USN
AGM-154
A B-1B taking off at the Royal International Air Tattoo. Note

the firing General Electric F101-GE-102 augmented turbofans
B-1B Lancer
Crew: 4
(326,000lb)
Powerplant: 4 x general
electric F101-GE-102
augmented turbofans
A medium-range launch-and-leave
missile, the AGM-154 allows
bombing aircraft to engage
defended targets from outside the
range of conventional anti-air
weaponry. The missile, which
measures 406cm (160 in) long by
33cm (13 in) in diameter, is guided by
a Global Positioning System of
satellites with an internal Inertial
Navigation System. This twin
system allows for enhanced
accuracy and release range.
Max speed: Mach 1.25

(830mph/1,340kmh)
USAF
The two current foremost examples of

these bombers are the US B-1B Lancer
and the Russian Tupolev Tu-160. These
were designed concurrently to be
machines that could, on demand, travel
long distances quickly, slip under
early-warning radar and engage military
targets with smart munitions bombs
that could be launched from hundreds or
thousands of miles out and guided to
their target by internal inertial
The B-1 is capable of being

refuelled during flight for
an extended patrol and
bombing runs
navigation units and auxiliary

information delivery systems. These
strategic bombers, packing gravity, laser
and GPS-guided munitions (see Tech of
the trade boxout) render anti-aircraft
gun placements useless, and avoid
surface-to-air missiles by flying at
altitudes northwards of 60,000 feet.
The B-1B Lancer is built around a
blended wing body configuration, with
variable-sweep wings, four turbofan

(60,000ft)
Hardpoints:
9 (6 external, 3 internal)
engines and triangular fin control

composite surfaces. Its wings can be
varied by the pilot between 15 to 67.5
degrees, with the former being used
for takeoff and landing as well as
high-altitude cruising, and the latter
being used for high subsonic and
supersonic flight. Stability is ensured a
problem due to its large size and
weight by triangular fin control canards
located by the B-1s nose. These are
USAF
Range: 11,998km (7,456 miles)
GBU-39
The GBU-39 is a small-diameter
bomb weighing little more than 250
pounds that, dependent on
specification, can be guided to a
target via a GPS-aided inertial
navigation system (as with the AGM154), or by a thermal seeker with
integrated auto target recognition.
The thermal seeker works by
tracking the electromagnetic
radiation of a target with an IR
sensor (infrared), before visibly
zeroing in on the heat signature
once launched.
065
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
The Tupolev Tu-160 is larger

and heavier than the B-1
Strategic bombers
WEAPONS
OF WAR
same features and design choices. First, the aircraft

sports a blended wing profile with sweep-enabled
wings that can be swept by the pilot between 20 and
65 degrees. It is also powered by four Kuznetsov
NK-321 afterburning turbofan engines, the most
powerful array fitted to any combat aircraft. These,
in partnership with variable air intakes, grant it a B-1
topping max speed of Mach 2.05 (1,380mph),
although its radar signature is larger as a result. Due
to its larger size, the 160 also has a greater weapons
load capacity than the B-1, with twin internal rotary
launchers capable of holding and launching
40,000kg of munitions. In addition, nuclear and
conventional armaments can be carried (see the
Tu-160
The worlds largest variable-sweep
aircraft, the Tu-160 is a supersonic
strategic missile carrier like no other
Tu-160
Yevgeny Pashnin
controlled by the Lancers Structural Mode Control

System (SMCS), which automatically rotates the
canards to counteract turbulence. In addition, to aid
the minimisation of its radar cross section (RCS), the
B-1 is installed with serpentine air intake ducts and
fixed intake ramps. These, while limiting its top
speedm deflect and shield radar emissions from the
highly reflective engine compressor blades. This
technology, in partnership with the use of radarabsorbent material in its airframe and skin, grant
the B-1 a RCS 1/50th of that of the equally massive
B-52 Stratofortress.
The Tupolev Tu-160, in contrast, is larger and
heavier than the B-1, however it shares many of the
Weapons of war Tu-160 boxout) dependent on

mission parameters. Finally, as with the B-1, the
Tu-160 is fitted with a probe and drogue in-flight
refuelling system, allowing it to remain airborne for
extensive periods.
Both of these aircraft have demonstrated their
awesome ability since their introduction to the skies,
with numerous sorties undertaken and many
notable records broken. Most recently the USAF
deployed a series of B-1s as part of Operation
Odyssey Dawn, the international military operation
in Libya, to prevent Muammar Gaddafis forces from
bombing rebel forces, striking a multitude of
undisclosed military targets.
A Tu-160 is exhibited to the
general public during a
Russian airshow
Electronics
In terms of electronics, the 160 utilises a
Obzor-K attack radar in a dielectric
radome, a Sopka terrain-following
radar and electro-optical bombsight.
Engines
Kh-55
The four Kuznetsov NK-231

engines of the 160 are
ferocious, delivering
24,948 kilograms of thrust
each in maximum
afterburner configuration.
A Soviet/Russian air-launched
cruise missile capable of carrying a
conventional or nuclear warhead,
the Kh-55 is the primary missile
system of the Tu-160. It has a range
of 3,000km and a top speed of Mach
0.78, while thanks to its Inertial
Navigation System with a Doppler
radar mapping service, has a strike
accuracy of within 9m. To achieve
its range the Kh-55 is powered by an
R95-300 turbofan engine, activated
along with swept wings once
launched. Missiles are stored in a
rotary launcher, which rotates
missiles like a six-shooters bullet
chamber until in optimal position.
Munitions
The Tu-160 can carry 40,000
kilograms of munitions, with two
rotary launchers capable of stowing
conventional or nuclear missiles.
The Kh-15 is a short-to-medium

range missile that can be equipped
with a nuclear or conventional
warhead. 4.5m (15ft) long by 5.5m
(17.9 ft) in diameter and with a range
of 300km (186 miles), the missile is
guided by inertial navigation, active
radar or anti-radiation the latter a
system that detects and homes in
on an enemys radio emissions.
Central to the Kh-15s design is its
post-launch velocity accumulation
flight path, climbing to 130,000ft
before diving at a speed of Mach 5
(almost 4,000mph) onto its target.
066
Sergey Krivchikov-Russian AviaPhoto Team
Kh-15
The Tu-160 has the heaviest

take-off weight of any combat aircraft
DID YOU KNOW? On 10 June, 2010, two Tu-160s carried out a world-record 23-hour non-stop patrol
A series of Mk-82 bombs
explode in quick
succession during a test
bombing run
President of Russia
Vladimir Putin sits in the
cockpit of a Tu-160
Cockpit
A collection of laser-guided bombs connect

with Raynham island, Queensland, Australia
The Tu-160 is operated by a crew

of four, with a pilot, co-pilot,
weapons systems operator and
defensive systems operator on
board each sortie.
Bombers of the future

New machines to be ready for 2018
Presidental Press and

Information Office
The statistics
Despite current bombers advanced

technology and weapons, the US Air Force is
now developing its next-generation bomber,
scheduled to enter service by 2018.
Codenamed the 2018 Bomber, the new
system is poised to harness the stealthorientated strike capabilities of the F-35 fighter
jet but extend them into an aircraft with
long-range operability. With a design brief
that the new bomber must be capable of

strategic bombing, tactical bombing and
prompt global strike roles, as well as having
the ability to carry nuclear weapons, a host of
companies including Lockheed Martin,
Boeing and Northrop Grumman are working
towards a prototype being delivered for 2016.
See below for the 2018s design goals as of
January 2011:
Fleet size must

be 175 aircraft
Range must be in
excess of 9,000km
(5,600 miles)
Cost must not

exceed $50 billion
Tu-160
Crew: 4
(589,950lb)
Powerplant: 4 x Samara
NK-321 turbofans
The Tu-160 features variable

geometry wings, with
sweep selectable from 20 to
65 degrees. It also employs a
blended wing profile.
Max speed: Mach 2.05

(1,380mph/2,220kmh)
Must use off-the-shelf

propulsion, computing
and radar technologies
Can be unmanned
for nuclear
operations
Range: 12,300km (7,643 miles)

(49,200ft)
Hardpoints: 4
A Boeing-produced render of a potential design for

the 2018 Bomber. Note its stealth-orientated shape
Boeing
Wings
Payload must be
14,000 28,000lb
067
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
Next-gen stealth fighters
Legacy aircraft worldwide are being blown out of the

skies by a formation of revolutionary multi-role fighter
jets, offering all-round air supremacy and a lethal
barrage of explosive new technology
068
5 TOP
FACTS
F-35 Lightning II
Birth
The F-35 was born out of the

joint strike fighter (JSF)
programme, which was initiated
to create an aircraft that would
replace the F-16, A-10, F/A-18
and AV-8B tactical fighter jets.
X-35
The prototype F-35 was the

Lockheed Martin X-35, which
narrowly beat a rival design
from Boeing (X-32), despite
both aircraft exceeding or
meeting the JSF requirements.
DoD
Alliance
Interestingly, the F-35

designation of the Lightning
II is out of sequence with
standard DoD numbering.
It was supposed to be
named the F-24 instead.
There are eight global partners

in the F-35s development
along with the USA: the UK,
Italy, the Netherlands,
Australia, Canada, Denmark,
Norway and Turkey.
LiftSystem
The STOVL variant of the F-35

Lightning II uses the Rolls-Royce
LiftSystem, an innovative
propulsion system that allows
for the main engine exhaust to
be redirected for vertical lift.
DID YOU KNOW? Total development costs of the F-35 Lightning II are estimated to have run to $40 billion
Each F-35 utilises structural

nanocomposites, such as
carbon nanotube-reinforced
epoxy and bismaleimide
State-of-the-art simulation
suites have been purposely
designed to train F-35 pilots
F-35 Lightning II
Put simply, the most versatile, deadly and
technologically advanced fighter jet in the world
class aircraft carriers also purchases the operator

one of the most advanced aircraft structures in
existence. Each F-35 utilises structural
nanocomposites, such as carbon nanotubereinforced epoxy and bismaleimide (BMI), to
produce a framework unrivalled in lightness and
strength, as well as heavily integrating epoxy glass
resin to maximise aerodynamics. In terms of skin
and coatings, each F-35 aircraft sports a radar
cross-section (ie radar signature) the size of a golf
ball thanks to the heavy implementation of
fibre-mat over the fuselage.
The cockpit is also state of the art, delivering a
full-panel-width, panoramic glass cockpit display as
well as a host of bleeding-edge avionics and sensors
such as the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-81 AESA
radar and electro-optical targeting system (EOTS).
Further, much of the cockpit has been optimised for
speech-recognition interaction, allowing the pilot to
control many parts of the jet by voice alone.

Of course, the main attraction of the Lightning II
is its diverse armaments the equipment that
transforms it from technical marvel into a master of
destruction. You want air-to-air prowess? Youve got
it, with the F-35 capable of launching AIM-120
AMRAAMs, AIM-9X Sidewinders, IRIS-Ts and the
futuristic beyond-visual-range MBDA Meteor. For
maximum air-to-ground penetration, take your pick
from AGM-154 JSOWs, SOM Cruise Missiles and
Brimstone anti-tank warheads. Even if you want to
engage marine-based targets the F-35 delivers the
goods, capable of launching the new anti-ship Joint
Strike Missile (JSM). Throw in a raft of other
munitions, including the Mark 80 series of free-fall
bombs, Mk.20 Rockeye II cluster bomb, the Paveway
series of laser-guided bombs and even, in DEFCON 1
situations, the B-61 nuclear bomb and you have one
extremely versatile and deadly feat of aviation.
The rate of climb of the F-35

is currently classified
BAE Systems
The latest and greatest black project from

Lockheed Martins Skunk Works
technically referred to as the Advanced
Development Programs (ADP) unit, a classified
division of the company unrestrained by
bureaucracy the F-35 Lightning II is the most
advanced fighter jet on Earth. Its the first and only
stealthed, supersonic, multi-role fighter.
Born out of a demand to dominate the fluid
21st-century battlefield, replacing a plethora of
legacy aircraft such as the F-16 and A-10 Thunderbolt
II, the F-35 is rewriting the rulebook on aircraft
design, capable of performing almost any possible
role imaginable today be that strike, support or
reconnaissance with greater efficiency than any
other aircraft made to date. The cost of this
performance? 89m ($139m) per plane.
So what does all that cash actually buy you? To
start, the most powerful powerplant ever fitted to a
fighter aircraft. The F-35, across all its three
variants read: F-35A, F-35B and F-35C, differentiated
largely by takeoff mechanism is fitted with a Pratt
& Whitney F135 afterburning turbofan jet engine,
which delivers a mighty 19,500 kilograms (43,000
pounds) of thrust and grants a sound-shattering top
speed of over 1,930 kilometres (1,200 miles) per hour;
thats over Mach 1.6 or, to put it another way,
infinitely faster than your grans Mini Metro!
The cash, which is being dropped in large
quantities by the States, as well as eight other global
partners including the United Kingdom which is
set to deploy the aircraft on its new Queen Elizabeth-
BAE Systems
BAE Systems
An F-35 on Lockheed Martins primary

build line at Fort Worth in Texas
069
LiftSystem
Anatomy
of the F-35
Lightning II
Made by tech-masters Rolls-Royce, the F-35s

LiftSystem is an innovative propulsion system
that allows for the main engine exhaust to be
redirected for direct vertical lift. Perfect for
carrier deployment.
How It Works breaks down

this awesome piece of military
engineering to see what
makes it so advanced
Cockpit
BAE Systems
A panoramic glass cockpit display

(PCD) is standard on the F-35,
allowing unparalleled visibility.
Speech-recognition systems also
offer audio control of parts of the
pilot interface.
Sensors
The main sensor installed in the F-35
is an AN/APG-81 AESA radar, which
is produced by Northrop Grumman.
This main radar is augmented with
an electro-optical targeting system
(EOTS) mounted under the nose.
Armament
BAE Systems
Asides from a stock GAU-22/A

quad-barrelled cannon, the F-35 can
carry a wide variety of bombs and
missiles, ranging from AIM-9X
Sidewinders, through AGM-128s
and on to JDAM-guided bombs.
JAS-39
Panavia Tornado
1983 McDonnell
Douglas F/A-18 1988 Gripen
History of multi- 1979
Hornet
role fighter jets
The F-35 is the culmination of more than
30 years of development into producing
a single, king-of-all-trades fighter plane
070
The first multi-role fighter

to be produced, the
Panavia
Tornado across its
three variants
(each providing
differing abilities)
offered its owner
the best of striker, bomber, interceptor and
reconnaissance aircraft.
Maybe the most

recognisable
multi-role fighter
until the F-22,
the Hornet was an all-weather,
carrier-capable fighter specialising in
short/medium-range bombing ops.
Another early delta-wing,

multi-role fighter, the Gripen
was designed to be incredibly
lightweight for a fighter and
sported impressive air-to-ground
bombing capabilities. It has
recently been upgraded for
continued use.
DID YOU KNOW? The F-35 has the capability to carry and launch a B-61 nuclear bomb
Structure
The F-35 is the first mass-produced
aircraft to include structural
nanocomposites, primarily
utilising carbon nanotubereinforced epoxy. Other materials
include bismaleimide (BMI) and
composite epoxy glass resin.
Powerplant
A Pratt & Whitney F135 afterburning
turbofan delivers 19,500kg (43,000lb)
of thrust to the F-35, allowing a top
speed of over 1,930km/h (1,200mph).
The engine is the most powerful ever
installed in a fighter aircraft.
Wings
The total wing area of the Lightning
II varies dependent on configuration,
with the CTOL and STOVL variants
sporting 43m2 (460ft2) and the
CV variant 62m2 (668ft2).
The statistics
F-35A
Crew: 1
Weight: 13,300kg (29,300lb)
Powerplant: 1 x Pratt & Whitney
F135 afterburning turbofan
Dry thrust: 125kN (28,000lbf)
Thrust with afterburner:
191kN (43,000lbf)
Stealth
The F-35 has a tiny radar crosssection (the size of a golf ball) thanks
to heavy implementation of
fibre-mat in its construction, as well
as stealth-friendly chines for vortex
lift as used on the SR-71 Blackbird.
Max speed: Mach 1.6

(1,930km/h; 1,200mph)
Max range:
2,220km (1,379mi)
Max altitude:
18,288m (60,000ft)
Thrust/weight: 0.87
g-limit: +9 g
The F-35s LiftSystem

allows for the main engine
exhaust to be redirected
for direct vertical lift
Envisioned as a fighter jet
with excellent
air-to-surface deep
interdiction prowess
(the ability to strike
hostile targets at
Sergey Krivchikov
extreme range from
friendly forces), the Russian Su-30 typifies
multi-role designs from the mid-Nineties.
2000
Dassault Rafale
Marketed by Dassault as
an omnirole jet, the
Rafale was an agile
delta-wing fighter,
specialising in air
supremacy. A
collapse in a
multi-nation agreement, however, led it to be
used for other roles by France and India.
2005
Max payload: 8,100kg

(18,000lb)
Armament: Air-to-air,
air-to-ground, anti-ship
Lockheed
Martin
F-22 Raptor
Originally conceived as an air

superiority fighter, the F-22
evolved over time into a
multi-role jet, capable of ground
attack and electronic warfare
roles thanks to its extremely low
radar cross-section.
Alex Pang
Sukhoi Su-30
Hardpoints: 6 x external pylons,

4 x internal pylons
Rob Shenk
MOD Czech Republic
1996
Guns: 1 x General Dynamics

GAU-22/A Equalizer 25mm
four-barrelled Gatling cannon
071
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
Typhoon pilots are now

linked to their aircraft by
electronic umbilical cords
Next-gen stealth fighters
As well as air-to-air roles,

the Typhoon can adapt to
air-to-ground operations,
delivering GBU-16
Paveway II bombs
Maxim Maksimov
According to government officials, the

T-50 will have a low radar cross-section
and have the ability to supercruise
(perform sustained supersonic flight)
Sukhoi T-50
Russias hottest jet project currently in development,
the highly classified Sukhoi T-50 is a fifth-generation
multi-role fighter designed to deliver awesome
long-range strike capabilities
072
In terms of firepower, the production variant

of the T-50 will boast up to two 30-millimetre
cannons, as well as a mix of Izdeliye 810
extended-beyond-visual-range missiles,
long-range missiles, K74 and K30 air-to-air
short-range missiles and two air-to-ground
missiles per weapons bay. Free-fall bombs can
also be carried with a limit of up to 1,500
kilograms (3,300 pounds) per bomb bay as
well as various anti-AWACS (airborne warning
and control system) armaments, such as the
RVV-BD variant of the Vympel R-37.
Currently only a handful of T-50s have been
produced and flown, however it is expected
that throughout its 35-year life span beginning
in 2016, more than 1,000 jets will be made, each
unit costing between 31-36m ($48-57m).
The NIIP AESA radar as will be used on
the production variant of the T-50
The statistics
Dmitry Pichugin
Sukhoi T-50
Crew: 1
Weight: 18,500kg (40,785lb)
Powerplant: 2 x AL-41F1
afterburning turbofans
Max speed: Mach 2+
(2,500km/h; 1,560mph)
Max range:
5,500km (3,417mi)
Max altitude:
20,000m (65,600ft)
Rate of climb: Classified
Thrust/weight: 1.19
g-limit: Classified
Guns: 2 x 30mm cannons
Hardpoints: 6 x external pylons,
4 x internal pylons
Allocer
Arguably the main competitor to the F-35

Lightning II, the Russian-made Sukhoi T-50 is
an extremely advanced, twin-engine,
multi-role jet fighter that, aside from being a
top-level black project (in other words, highly
hush-hush), promises to deliver an insane top
speed, range and payload.
Power, which is titanic 267 kilonewtons
(66,000 pounds-force) of thrust on afterburner
comes courtesy of two Saturn 117 turbofan jet
engines. The thrust has been drastically
increased since the previous AL-31 powerplant
and this not only allows the T-50 to easily
surpass Mach 2 (a top speed of 2,500
kilometres, or 1,500 miles, per hour) but also
supercruise continuously fly at supersonic
speeds without engaging the afterburner.
The reason for the twin-engine setup, as
well as the supersized fuel tanks, is to help
fulfil the T-50s design focus to specialise in
long-range interdiction operations (striking at
enemy targets that are located at a great range
from allied forces). This is a core competency
for modern Russian military bombing aircraft
due to the size of the country and the great
distances between stopover points.
Avionics are handled by an integrated radar
complex, which includes three X-band active
electronically scanned array (AESA) radars
mounted to the front and sides of the aircraft,
an infra-red search and track (IRST) system, as
well as a pair of L-band radars on the wing
leading edges, which are specially designed to
detect very low observable (VLO) targets.
Electronic
warfare
2. CLOSE CALL
Some jets use specialised

equipment to control, disrupt
or attack enemy targets with
a host of cutting-edge
electromagnetic weaponry.
Allocer
HEAD
HEAD
Fighter jet roles
1. ELECTRIC
Close air
support
3. LONG DISTANCE
Supporting ground troops

with air action despite
their close proximity.
Achieved with fixed-wing
or rotary aircraft.
Air interdiction
This role involves using
aircraft to attack tactical
ground targets that are not
currently in close proximity
to ground forces but located
at a considerable range.
DID YOU KNOW? The Sukhoi T-50 is expected to be renamed to the Sukhoi PAK FA when it is officially launched in 2016
Eurofighter
Typhoon
The Typhoon is one of the most adaptable
multi-role fighters in operation today and has
recently been upgraded to deliver enhanced
air superiority and all-round lethality in its
combat operations over the next decade
Eurofighter Typhoon
A Typhoon undertakes a
low pass at high speed
Crew: 1
Length: 16m (52.4ft)
Weight: 11,150kg (24,600lb)
Powerplant: 2 x Eurojet EJ200
afterburning turbofans
Dry thrust:
60kN (13,000lbf) each
Thrust with afterburner:
89kN (20,000lbf) each
Fuel capacity:
4,500kg (9,900lb) internal
Max speed: Mach 2+
(2,495km/h; 1,550mph)
Max range:
3,790km (2,350mi)
Max altitude:
19,810m (64,990ft)
Rate of climb:
>315m/s (62,000ft/min)
Thrust/weight: 1.15
g-limit: +9/-3 g
Guns: 1 x 27mm Mauser BK-27
revolver cannon
BAE Systems
Hardpoints: 13 (8 x under-wing,
5 x under-fuselage)
Max payload:
7,500kg (16,500lb)
The Typhoons 13
hardpoints allow
multiple munitions
to be smartly
delivered with icecold efficiency
contextual information to be directly fed to the

helmets visor for immediate consultation by
the pilot, but also enables special nodules on
the helmet to be tracked by fixed sensors in the
aircrafts cockpit. As such, wherever the pilots
head moves, the aeroplane knows exactly
where they are looking and can automatically
prep weapon stores dependent on the
perceived level of threat.
Any future fighter though also needs to be
prepared to defend itself against a barrage of
smart munitions, which again thanks to the
Typhoons perpetual evolution the hardware
delivers in spades. The entire jet is protected
by a high-integrated defensive aids subsystem (DASS), also nicknamed Praetorian.
Praetorian consists of a wide array of sensors
and electronic/mechanical systems
detection is handled by both a radar warning
receiver and laser warning receiver that
automatically track and then respond to both
air-to-air and surface-to-air threats. The plane
can respond by releasing chaff (eg small bits of
aluminium or metallised glass, etc), flares and
electronic countermeasures (ECM), as well as
by releasing a towed radar decoy (TRD).
As of October 2011, 300 Typhoons are
recorded to be in operation worldwide with
over 170 aircraft on order.
The RAF received
its first multi-role
capable Typhoons
in March 2007
5x Typhoon images BAE Systems
The statistics
The Eurofighter Typhoon is currently one of

the most agile aircraft in the world. It is so
agile, in fact, that attempting to blow it out the
skies is like trying to make a mile-long sniper
shot in high wind. Why? It was built to be
fundamentally aerodynamically unstable
and, if it were not for its advanced fly-by-wire
control system generating artificial stability,
would be too much for even the most
experienced pilot to handle. This instability,
however, allows for pilots to perform some
physics-bending manoeuvres at just plain
stupid speeds read: upwards of Mach 2
delivering them a combative edge and helping
to ensure total air supremacy.
Of course, agility alone can only take you so
far especially so when the hardware needs to
fulfil almost every airborne military role
imaginable. Good job then that the Typhoon
can carry an abundance of weapons. You need
to go toe-to-toe with enemy fighters in an
air-to-air combat dogfight? No problem, take
your pick from Sidewinder, ASRAAM and
AMRAAM air-to-air missiles. Need to
undertake a bombing run through hostile
territory? Well, the Typhoons 13 hardpoints
allow for Maverick, HARM and Taurus
munitions to be smartly delivered (via
laser-guiding and GPS) with ice-cold efficiency.
Need to disrupt a hostile targets comms
network through a tactical electronic warfare
strike You get the point.
Supporting this awesome arsenal is an
upgraded weapons system, which has been
designed to unite the pilot and hardware like
never before. Typhoon pilots are now linked to
their aircraft by an electronic umbilical cord,
which extends from a comms-optimised
helmet directly into the jets system. This not
only allows images and videos of notable
073
BOOK OF
AIRCRAFT
Commercial
98
84
106 Gliders
Find out what it is that keeps
these gliders in the air
Inside a blimp
76
84
88
90
92
074
Commercial drones
How drones and unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs) will
change your life
How to build a plane

How many people and
hours does it take to build a
passenger jet?
The luxury of the

Lineage 100 jet
Fly in the most luxurious
hotel in the sky for only a few
million dollars
Largest passenger jet

Developing the largest and
most expensive passenger
plane in the world
The new Concorde

Will this incredible aircraft
soar once again?
94
96
98
On board Air Force One

Transporting the US President
requires an aircraft that can
respond to varied situations
Solar-powered aircraft
Take a close look at the flying
machines that are fuelled only
by the Sun
Hot air balloons
107 These graceful forms of

transport are kept afloat by
gas-filled ballonets
Inside Air Force One

108 What
really goes on inside the
president of the United States
private jet?
110
How do air balloons take off

and land safely using the
power of physics?
On board a cargo plane
100 Pinpointing what an aircraft
111
The AirBoard
112
How next-generation
airships work
needs to get the job of carrying

cargo done
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
102 This new commercial jetliner

boasts next-gen features that
showcase the future of flying
How to fly a helicopter

What does it take to become
a helicopter pilot? Find out on
this page
Meet the AirBoard, the

smallest one-person aircraft
in the world
Climb aboard these ultra-light

giants for a journey into the
future of flight
90
108
112
111
075
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Drones
This drone can stream
720p video footage
straight to your phone.
The Parrot 2.0s

processing unit is a 1GHz,
32-bit A8 processor.
How unmanned flight will change your life
The operator can

be 5km (3mi) away
from the UX5 and
still control it.
The lightweight
expanded polypropylene
body helps the UX5
weigh just 2.5kg (5.5lb).
The Draganflyer X6 can

carry one of several
different imaging devices,
including a thermal
imaging camera.
076
The Matternet drone can

carry up to 2kg (4lb) of
medical supplies between
ground stations.
If it is flown out of the

remote controls range,
this drone automatically
returns home.
The Phantom 2
Vision+ is capable of
shooting 1080p HD
video at 30fps.
5 TOP
FACTS
Drone tech
Also known as
The name drone refers to any

aircraft without a pilot on board.
They are also known as
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs),
remote piloted aircraft (RPA) or
unpiloted air systems (UAS).
Future swarms
Friendly drones
There are over 4,000 different

UAVs in circulation on the global
market and the FAA estimates that
as many as 7,500 small
commercial drones could be
operational in US airspace by 2020.
The first drone
In Britain, manufacturers
have suggested painting
drones in bright colours
as a way to make them
appear friendlier and less
reminiscent of warzones.
The first powered UAV was

the Aerial Target invented
by Archibald Montgomery
Low in 1917. It was launched
using compressed air from
the back of a lorry.
Control methods
Drones can be controlled

in one of two ways;
either autonomously by
an on-board computer,
or remotely by a pilot on
the ground.
DID YOU KNOW? The number of organisations allowed to use drones in the UK went up 80 per cent from start to end of 2014
by Dr James
MacFarlane at the
University of Bristol
could put an end to
that. This particular
craft is a hexacopter
with a gamma
spectrometer attached,
which measures the amount
of radiation being emitted from a
chosen site. This can be done without a
human anywhere near the area, so information
can be received much more quickly and safely.
One of the most exciting commercial
applications of drones is aerial photography
and videoing. In the past, shooting any kind of
media from the air required the hire of cranes
or helicopters. Now, however, drone-mounted
cameras can be bought for as little as 50 ($80),
enabling amateur photographers and filmmakers to capture amazing high-definition
footage for a fraction of the cost.
Although drones might seem the futuristic
domain of governments, the military and
serious enthusiasts, there are a number of
extremely practical day-to-day applications
they can be used for. Amazon and DHL are
both deep into the

testing stage of
delivery drones. You
may remember the end
of 2013 when Amazon
claimed drones would
be delivering small
packages within five years.
Currently the use of drones
for commercial purposes is
banned in the United States, but
Amazon has petitioned the Federal Aviation
Authority (FAA) to relax their rules to allow
small drones to carry payloads of 2.3 kilograms
(five pounds) to customers. This weight, they
say, makes up 86 per cent of their deliveries
and would take big, bulky and dangerous
delivery vehicles off the road. DHL has already
flown test missions from the German mainland
to the island of Juist, off its northern coastline.
Commercial drones are a far cry from their
headline-grabbing military cousins, but they
are every bit as exciting, packed with
fascinating technology and the ability to
perform tasks that makes our lives, and the
world, a little bit safer and a whole lot
more fun.
The AARM won its inventor,
Dr James MacFarlane, the
2014 ERA Foundation
Entrepreneurs Award
Thinkstock
Drones are being used in air forces

around the world, but the future is
looking much more varied for the
remote controlled aircraft. There is a fastgrowing industry of autonomous flight that can
both help and entertain the world, from
rescuing people at sea to recording aweinspiring aerial videos.
Disaster relief, for example, is a major area
where drones can make an incredible
difference. They can fly over the scene of an
earthquake, nuclear meltdown or bomb site
and capture high-resolution pictures or video
to help the team on the ground organise a
rescue or clean-up mission. Drones such as the
Trimble UX5 could be of enormous benefit as
the 2.4-gigahertz modems in the craft and the
tablet can communicate over a distance of five
kilometres (3.1 miles), enabling mapping to
take place with the pilot nowhere near
potentially dangerous rubble and aftershocks.
When the Fukushima nuclear power plant
malfunctioned in March 2011, clean-ups and
analysis of the radiation was limited due to the
health risks posed to helicopter pilots.
Drones such as the Advanced Airborne
Radiation Monitoring (AARM) system designed
Drones offer a whole new

perspective on video
recording and photography
077
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Drones
LIFE-SAVERS
Discover the innovative drones designed to rescue those in need
The agility and efficiency of these incredible
machines often means they are better equipped
than humans or other vehicles for humanitarian
tasks . From transporting aid to spotting
someone in need, there is a variety of potentially
life-saving drone aircraft projects that are
currently in development.
One such initiative is the LifeLine Response
app, a personal panic button that will summon
a drone if you are in distress. If you are
concerned about your safety, you can simply
load the app and keep your thumb pressed on
the screen or set a timer. If you get into trouble,
you can release your thumb or fail to deactivate
the timer, and the police will be called and a
drone deployed to your location using GPS.
Draganflyer X6
The main components of a
life-saving drone
The idea is that the drone, which can travel at

97 kilometres (60 miles) per hour, will be able to
scare off an attacker by sounding an alarm,
follow them if they flee the scene, and collect
information from the area before the police
arrive. It is hoped the system could be used in
cities across the world, with dozens of drones
stationed at each law-enforcement
headquarters waiting to spring into action.
Another concept, developed by Dutch
engineering student Alec Momont, involves
ambulance drones quickly delivering
defibrillators to heart-attack victims. The
drone would be able to transport the
equipment within minutes, and then the
operator can use two-way video supported
communication to instruct a nearby helper to

use it.
While some life-saving drones are still a
work in progress, others are already being put
to work. For example, Draganflyer drones are
being used to provide a unique high-resolution
view of disaster zones and crash sites to help
teams on the ground locate victims, organise
rescue missions and document the scene.
Draganflyer makes several different models
of drone suited to both hobbyist and
professional applications. These come with a
choice of camera, including a GoPro and
thermal-imaging camera, and are flown using
a handheld controller, but you will need some
training in order to operate one.
LED lights
Efficient propellers
Sensors
High-intensity LED lights aid

navigation in the dark and
can be remotely controlled
by the operator.
The carbon fibre propellers help the

drone climb to a maximum altitude of
2,438m (8,000ft) at 2m/s (6.5ft/s).
11 different on-board sensors

constantly monitor the
altitude of the aircraft and
send data to the controller.
Portability
The carbon-fibre airframe can
be folded down to just 16cm
(6.25in) wide when not in use.
Battery life
The lithium polymer battery
can keep the drone in the air
for approximately 20-25
minutes between charges.
335g
Quiet motors
Max payload
weight
Each boom contains two quiet

yet powerful brushless motors
that control the propellers and
create just 72db of sound.
Payload attachment
The quick-release payload
system makes it easy to
swap over cameras or other
equipment in a hurry.
078
DID YOU KNOW? 85 per cent of roads in sub-Saharan Africa are inaccessible in the wet season, making drone delivery useful there
Draganflyer
story
We spoke to Kevin Lauscher
from Draganflyer about the
incredible innovations of the X6
What is the main

purpose of the X6?
The Draganflyer X6
was developed as a
safe and easy-to-use
platform to carry an
aerial imaging
system that provided
clear high-resolution images. At
the time of development, systems
that could carry a high-resolution
camera were generally large,
dangerous and difficult to control.
LIFEGUARD DR NE
Getting help to those in trouble out
at sea is especially difficult and
slow, particularly in adverse
weather conditions. Iranian
company RTS Lab hopes drones
can solve this, as it is currently
developing a new lifeguard robot
called Pars. After hearing about the
huge number of people that drown
in the Caspian Sea each year, RTS
Lab decided to create a multirotor
drone that could help save human
lives. As well as being able to fly
above the water and be guided by

GPS, Pars can also carry and drop
life preservers to where they are
needed. Although it is not able to
pull people to safety, it can provide
initial aid before the lifeguard
arrives and monitor the situation
by recording photos and video. A
prototype has already been tested,
and was able to reach a target 75
metres (246 feet) out to sea in just 22
seconds, while a human lifeguard
took over a minute.
Future versions of the

drone could carry up to
15 self-inflating life
preservers at a time
What sets it apart from other

drones in existence?
It has a unique design with six
rotors in the Y-style configuration,
as well as its ability to fly even if
it is missing one of the rotors.
When it was first released, the
concept of using sUAS (Small
Unmanned Aircraft Systems) for
civilian purposes was practically
unheard of, so the attention it
received made it stand out from
other models.
The Draganflyer X6 can carry

cameras weighing 335g (11.8oz) or
less, including a GoPro
DELIVERING AID
In many developing countries, rural roads
become inaccessible during the rainy
season, making it very difficult to transport
much-needed medicine to those in need.
Matternet a network for transporting
matter aims to provide the solution. The
plan involves autonomous drones, carrying
up to two kilograms (4.4 pounds) of medical
supplies, flying between several ground
stations. These stations would allow the
drones to collect or drop off their payload as
well as swap batteries so they can keep
flying for longer. The drones will use GPS
and other sensors to navigate and an
operating system would make sure they
avoid adverse weather conditions and do
not collide with each other.
10km
Max distance
per charge
The Matternet system has

already been tested in Haiti,
Dominican Republic, Bhutan
and Papua New Guinea
079
Draganfly, RTS Ideas;
What are your hopes for the

X6 in the future?
The Draganflyer X6 was our first
industrial system and was
responsible for setting a lot of
firsts for the industry. Since then
we have developed other
improved systems based on our
experience with the X6. Our hopes
are to work some technology
upgrades into its design and for it
to again become a front-runner in
the sUAS world.
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Drones
Battery
AR.Drone
teardown
The incredible Parrot AR.
Drone 2.0, bit by bit
Motors
When accelerating, the
motors that turn the
propellers rotate at
41,400rpm, dropping to
28,000rpm when hovering
in place.
The Parrot AR.Drone 2.0 is

controlled via an app on your
Android or Apple device
C MMERCIAL USE
The drones offering film-makers a
whole new perspective
Drones such as the Parrot AR and
the DJI Phantom 2 Vision+ have
added a thrilling new dimension
to personal photography and
filmmaking. These clever gadgets
are becoming more and more
affordable for amateurs looking to
capture Hollywood-style footage
from unique angles. A Parrot AR.
Drone, for example, will only set
you back around 320 ($300) and
has a built-in camera that can
shoot 720-pixel high-definition
video. It generates its own Wi-Fi
hotspot so you can control it from
up to 50 metres (165 feet) away via
an app on your smartphone or
tablet. The app also shows a live
stream of the video being captured
and lets you change its direction by
simple tilting your device. It can
even perform impressive flips in
mid-air, and you can program
automatic movements to compose
your film like a professional
director. If you do happen to crash
the drone while filming a daring
action sequence, then you can
have a go at repairing it yourself as
all of the parts and instructions are
available online. Due to the
relatively recent advancement of
080
commercial drone technology,

many countries are still
developing laws regarding their
use in public spaces. In the United
States, the Federal Aviation
Administration currently limits
drones to be flown below 122
metres (400 feet), away from
airports and air traffic, and within
sight of the operator.
Using drones in a professional
capacity requires a certificate of
approval from the FAA, but it has
recently granted six movie and
television production companies
permission to use drones on their
sets. Some big blockbusters, such
as Skyfall and the Harry Potter
movies, have already been shot
using unmanned drones for aerial
footage, but filming took place in
countries where this was allowed.
We are already seeing more and
more drone-shot sequences on the
big screen. Not only is this great
news for us cinemagoers, as we
will be treated to more creative
camera angles, but it will also save
the production companies a lot of
money on helicopter and crane
bills as they try to get above the
action while filming.
Propellers
The propellers won a
design competition run
by the French Army.
They can spin either
clockwise or anticlockwise depending
on their position.
420g
Max weight
The drone is powered by

a 1,000mAh 11.1V lithium
polymer battery. It only
lasts 12 minutes, taking
90 to charge.
RECORD
BREAKERS
DRONING ON
14 DAYS
LONGEST DRONE FLIGHT

The solar-powered Zephyr drone developed by UK firm QinetiQ
flew for 14 days and 22 minutes in 2010, breaking the world
record for the longest drone flight.
DID YOU KNOW? TV coverage of skiers and snowboarders at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi was shot by unmanned drones
BEST FOR VIDEO STREAMING
DJI Phantom 2 Vision+

Price: 0+'&()00Get it from: www.dji.com
BEST FOR EVERYDAY FUN
Parrot MiniDrone Rolling Spider

Price: 0'&(''Get it from: amazon.co.uk
Hull
The hull is attached to the
body by a pair of magnets.
This protects the electronics.
Central cross
Made from rigid yet
lightweight carbon fibre,
the central cross contains
wires that control and
provide power to the
four motors.
BEST FOR BEGINNERS
Walkera QR Ladybird V2
Price: -'&/0Get it from: walkera.com
BEST FOR STUNTS
Blade 350 QX V2
Price: *+'&,.,Get it from: quadcopters.co.uk
Camera
The HD camera shoots
30fps at 720p,
streaming it directly to
your mobile phone.
BEST FOR AFFORDABILITY
Ultrasound altimeter
Gyroscope
The Invensense IDG 500
gyroscope is an advanced sensor
that separates the X and Y-axes
to quickly determine its position.
The ultrasound altimeter judges

how high it is by the time it
takes ultrasound waves to
return from the ground.
Hubsan X4 H107
Price: +,&.'Get it from: amazon.co.uk
081
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Drones
ANIMAL PROTECT RS
Drones are revolutionising the way wildlife conservationists keep poachers at bay
As well as helping to save the lives of humans,
drones can also come to the rescue of animals
in the wild. The Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya
is East Africas largest black rhino sanctuary
but has lost several rhinos to poachers in recent
years. They have now teamed up with drone
company Airware to see if unmanned aircraft
can help protect this endangered
species. A prototype Aerial
Ranger drone, featuring a
camera that can deliver
real-time video and
thermal imaging to a
team on the
ground, has been tested during the day and

night to respond to poaching incidents. Ol
Pejeta only has around 150 rangers, each
having to cover 2.4 square kilometres (0.93
square miles) of the 364-square-kilometre
(140.5-square-mile) sanctuary. This makes
response times to poaching incidents very
slow, but using a drone allows them to get
there immediately and record
footage of the offending
individuals to use as
evidence in court and
deter further attacks.
The drones would
also be useful for monitoring the rhino, as well

as protecting them. It would allow Ol Pejeta to
conduct their annual wildlife census more
regularly and cheaply, helping them to reliably
keep track of the ecosystem.
Microsoft has also ventured into animaltracking drones with their ZooTracer project. It
involves attaching tiny GPS tracking and
sensing devices, weighing just seven grams
(0.25 ounces), to animals. These devices can
record all sorts of data, such as the animals
speed, and then a drone is deployed to the
animals location to get the data back and
monitor the animal further.
Ol Pejeta is home
to three of the six
remaining northern
white rhino in
the world
082
TRIMBLE UX5
FLIGHT
TIME
50min
MAX
ALTITUDE
750m
80km/h
WINGSPAN
SPEED
THE
STATS
100cm
WEIGHT
2.5kg
DID YOU KNOW? Californias Casa Madrona Hotel uses drones to deliver champagne to guests in their $10,000-a-night luxury suite
min
Set-up
time
The impactresistant foam

structure makes the
Trimble UX5 extremely
durable and strong
AERIAL
MAPPING
The drones making difficult jobs so much easier
The
Trimble
UX5 can be used
for mapping projects
The advancements in drone technology have

been extremely beneficial for industry. From
engineering and surveying to mining and
agriculture, a variety of markets are embracing
this new tool to improve day-to-day operations.
The Trimble UX5 is one of the leading surveying
and mapping drones being used by many
companies. It features a 16.1-megapixel camera
for taking several overlapping high-resolution
images, which are then layered together by
specialist image-editing software to collate a
map. By taking several photos from different
locations, triangulation can be used to
determine accurate coordinates and create
three-dimensional plans of the area free from
distortion. This proves invaluable when
planning new infrastructure, inspecting mines
and monitoring forests, and because the drone
is autonomous and unmanned, it provides a

much safer, quicker and cheaper solution than
the pilot-controlled alternative. Plus, it is made
from expanded polypropylene, a durable
material that enables it to fly in practically any
weather and even float on water.
The Trimble UX5 takes off from an angled
launcher that helps it safely clear the ground
and climb into the air, where it then flies a
preplanned route travelling back and forth over
the area. An application on the Trimble Tablet
Rugged PC is used to plan flights and operate the
drone easily and reliably, but once in the air it
uses GPS to navigate. When its flight is over, the
drone automatically begins its landing
sequence, circling above a preplanned landing
spot and using reverse thrust to help it land in
tight spaces.
Although commercial drones are

mainly being used by specialist
industries, consumer companies
certainly havent failed to notice
their potential. In the not-sodistant future, the skies above us
could be swamped with a network
of drones delivering our shopping,
or even fast food, straight to our
front door. Many big companies
are testing this new delivery
method, but it is likely to be
several years before the idea
becomes reality. Many countries,
including the United States, do
not allow drones to be flown at
low altitude over residential
areas, and the autonomous
aircraft currently have no way of
avoiding obstacles en route.
Amazon Prime Air
DHL parcelcopter
Burrito Bomber
Amazon is already developing and

testing drones for delivering
packages weighing up to 2.3
kilograms (five pounds) to customers
within 30 minutes of ordering. The
retail giant is just waiting for
permission from the FAA before it
can roll out the new system, which is
expected to happen in 2015.
Logistics firm DHL is the first company

to launch a drone-based delivery
service. Its parcelcopter is currently
being used to deliver small parcels to
the German island of Juist in the North
Sea. A restricted flight area has been
established for the service, which
mainly delivers medication and other
urgently needed goods.
The Burrito Bomber is a Mexican

food-delivery system that lets you
place your order via an app. A
drone will then fly to your location
and parachute your snack down to
you in a custom-made Burrito
Delivery Tube. It should be up and
running in the US, at least once
the FAA updates its regulations.
083
DHL; Amazon; Trimble; Draganfly, RTS Ideas;
DELIVERY
DRONES
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Wind tunnels are used to

test the aerodynamics of
aircraft models
HOW TO
BUILD
A PLANE
From concept to check-in, discover how passenger jets
roll off the production line and take to the sky
STEP 1:
Design and testing
Before building can begin, the aircraft
must first be designed in great detail.
Thousands of engineers across the world
often work together to design one plane,
and it can take several years to get it right.
When designing an aircraft, there are
four main areas to consider. First it must
be aerodynamic, so that air flows around
it with as little resistance as possible. To
test this, engineers create computer
simulations of the plane and examine
how airflow and pressure will affect the
body and wings when it is in flight. They
then build a scale model of the aircraft
and place it in a wind tunnel, where air is
084
blown towards it at varying speeds in

order to test its flight performance.
Next they must design the engines,
making sure they are powerful enough to
keep the aircraft in the air, fuel efficient to
minimise running costs and pollution,
and not too noisy. The way the plane
handles in the air must also be
considered, and so flight simulators are
used to ensure it is easy and safe for the
pilot to fly.
Finally, engineers determine what
material to build the aircraft from,
considering strength, weight, durability
and cost, and how exactly it will be built.
Computer
simulations help
engineers see how
air flows around
an aircraft
DID YOU KNOW? By 2018, Airbus aims to be building ten A350 aircraft every month, completing one every two working days
STEP 2:
Making the parts
A plane is made up of millions of different parts,
from the enormous fuselage shell to the tiny
rivets that hold it together. Many are made by the
aircraft manufacturer itself, while others,
including the engines and landing gear, are
produced by external contractors. A huge number
of different skills are required to build an aircraft,
from mechanics and electronics, to plumbing and
painting, so it takes teams from all over the world

to make the finished product. Coordinating the
production of a plane is a task in itself, as
everything has to be made to a tight schedule and
then transported to where it is needed for
assembly. Plus, each part has to undergo rigorous
testing to ensure it functions properly and is safe
to use in the final aircraft.
Engineers building the

aircraft spars, supporting
beams that run the
length of the wings
2.65
million
What is a plane
made of?
The very first planes were built from wood and
fabric, but thankfully modern aircraft are made of
much stronger and less flammable stuff. Metal
was once the material of choice, with strong, light
aluminium used to build the main airframe and outer
skin, but it was soon discovered to be corrosive and
susceptible to stress.
Nowadays, manufacturers favour composite
materials, which are stronger and more durable, yet
still incredibly lightweight. To build the wings and
fuselage of an aircraft, layers of carbon fibre and
resin are built up, like layering several strips of sticky
tape on top of each other.
The entire aircraft part is then placed in an
enormous oven, called an autoclave, to harden the
composite material until it becomes incredibly
strong. Once it is complete, the windows and doors
are cut out, and the whole thing is covered in a green
protective coating, ready to be assembled.
Whats in a plane?
The materials used to build a
typical jumbo jet
The number of parts

in an Airbus
A350 jet
How do jet engines work?
10% Steel
5% Other
Steel is stronger
than aluminium so
is used to build
the landing gear.
Plexiglass windows,
fabric upholstery, and
many other materials
complete the aircraft.
The machines that turn fuel into thrust
Compressor
The air is then squeezed into a
smaller area, slowing it down
and increasing its pressure.
50%
Composites
Combustion
chamber
Layers of carbon fibre

are bound together
with a polymer resin
to make the main
body of the aircraft.
Fuel mixes with the air and

is then ignited, giving off
hot exhaust gases.
15% Titanium
20% Aluminium
Its ability to withstand

high temperatures
makes titanium a
good choice for
constructing
the engines.
Lightweight and strong,

aluminium is still the main
metal of choice for many
parts of an aircraft.
Exhaust
nozzle
Turbine
Fan
The big spinning fan at the
front of the engine sucks
in large volumes of air.
The gases rush past a

set of turbine blades,
causing them to spin
and drive the
compressor and fan.
As the gases exit

the engine, they
are accelerated to
over twice the
speed of the
incoming air to
create thrust.
Enormous ovens are used

to harden the composite
material on an aircraft
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Planes are assembled in

huge aircraft hangars by
thousands of engineers
STEP 3:
The final
assembly
Putting together an enormous passenger jet
requires an even more enormous building to do it
in. Aircraft hangars are some of the largest
buildings in the world, and are able to house
several aircraft at once as they are passed from
team to team along the assembly line.
First though, all the parts need to get there, and
this is done by road, river and even air. Cargo
aircraft such as the Airbus Beluga and Boeing
Dreamlifter, are designed specifically to transport
large pieces of aircraft to the final assembly point.
The individual pieces of the fuselage are
fastened together using thousands of rivets, then
the electrical and hydraulic systems, plumbing
and insulation are installed. Next the wings are
connected, using laser alignment to ensure they
are perfectly level, and the landing gear is fitted
underneath. This is followed by the tail, vertical
stabilisers and an auxiliary power unit, which
provides power to the aircraft when the engines
are turned off. The cabin and cockpit interiors are
then added, complete with seats and toilets.
Last of all, the engines are installed, as these
are the most expensive component of the aircraft,
representing over a third of its total value. Once
assembly is complete, the plane is painted this
can take up to a week, depending on its size.
Aircraft slowly move along
the assembly line as new
parts are added
Giant cranes lift the parts of

the fuselage in place, ready
to be connected
72,000
square
metres
The size of the Airbus
aircraft hangar in
Toulouse, France
The engines are fitted last, as

they are the most expensive
part of the aircraft
086
The Airbus Beluga cargo

plane is so-called because it
resembles a beluga whale
DID YOU KNOW? Some aircraft hangars are so big that air circulation systems are installed to prevent clouds from forming inside
STEP 4:
In-flight testing
If the aircraft is a new design, then the first few
planes to roll off the assembly line undergo
extensive prototype testing. This involves fitting
them with a variety of sensors, and flying in
extreme conditions, such as very hot and cold
climates and really high altitudes. The individual
elements of the aircraft are also tested, as the
wings are forcibly bent to evaluate their strength,
and dead birds are fired into the engines to see
how they would cope with a bird strike.
To ensure the plane can withstand the stress of
multiple take-offs and landings, computeroperated hydraulic jacks place heavy loads on the
airframe for extended periods of time, and the
plane may even be subjected to artificial lightning
strikes to see how it performs in a storm. Once the
first few planes have been rigorously tested, all
successive aircraft are taken on their own test
flights before they are deemed airworthy and
delivered to airlines around the world.
Aircraft are tested on their

ability to land on a
waterlogged runway
Aircraft wings must be able to

bend by nearly 90 degrees
without being damaged
Corbis; Alamy; Science Photo Library; Thinkstock
Ready for take-off!
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
It can seat up to 19
people in upper class
comfort
Lineage 1000
The luxury of
the Lineage
1000 jet
Filthy-rich airlines, you are

clear for take off
4. Catch up
Multiple large displays offer
entertainment, internet and
other facilities which will
keep you busy no matter
how long the flight is.
A luxurious hotel in the sky? Its

yours for a few million dollars
The best private jets offer more than
just rows of seating and the Lineage
1000 includes a shower room, a double
bed, a lounge and an office, a bar and almost
everything else you need in a space that is three
times larger than traditional business jets. It can
seat up to 19 people in upper class comfort and
the interior has been built to include five privacy
areas, Wi-Fi and real-time flight displays, all
thanks to the larger space and innovative
interior design. On top of this the turbofan
engine technology and fuselage interior design
ensure low noise for passengers.
Safety has not been ignored and the pilot has a
CMC (central maintenance computer) at hand to
predict potential problems and offer solutions,
plus an enhanced vision system to improve
awareness at all times. Many of the systems are

integrated into the jet itself, rather than added
on, which reduces weight and other design
enhancements increase approach steepness
which is ideal for landing in smaller airports.
One of these enhancements is Smart Probe,
which will sense airspeed, trim and altitude to
ensure the most accurate positioning at all times.
To sum up, the Lineage 1000 offers the ultimate
flying experience thanks to the designers
pushing the envelope in every single area of the
design process.
6. Preparing food
The galley area is where food and drinks
will be prepared. It can be sealed off from
the rest of the cabin so as not to ruin
the ambiance.
5. Need a restaurant?
Image courtesy of Embraer
The dining area is the perfect

way to enjoy your in-flight meal,
which is highly unlikely to be
served on plastic trays.
8. The serious stuff

Inside the cockpit are some
seriously clever systems designed
to aid safety and ensure the least
disruption possible.
088
What the opposite to

economy class looks like!
HEAD
HEAD
LUXURIOUS
LUXURIOUS
1. Falcon 7X
MORE LUXURIOUS
2. Gulfstream
G650
MOST LUXURIOUS
The Gulfstream is designed

to offer flexible comfort and
succeeds, and at 53 feet
offers great scope for
individual cabin design.
PRIVATE JETS
3. Embraer
Lineage 1000
With a cabin length of 84 feet
the Lineage 1000 is easily the
most luxurious thanks to the
comfort and individualism
offered in every corner.
DID YOU KNOW? The Lineage 1000 interior can be configured from 25 different cabin modules
Pure Know
your jets
airborne
luxury
Class: VLJ
Passengers: 4-8
1. Stay awake
7. More than a wardrobe
The 84 foot long cabin offers a huge

amount of space, which can be
configured into various
private areas for
maximum
comfort.
The 351 cubic feet walk-in baggage compartment

lets you take your entire wardrobe with you and
theres still room for your other luxuries.
The VLJ (very light jet) is often used as

an air taxi to travel between local
airports in a country.
3. Freshen up
A fully equipped luxurious bathroom will
help you arrive at your destination fresh as
a daisy and the fittings rival the best hotels.
No better place to join the
mile high club
Class: Light jets

Passengers: 5-9
Light jets are similar to VLJs in their
target market, but are faster and offer
some extra luxuries for quick journeys.
2. Get some sleep

A double bed will ensure you
catch up on the sleep you
need or you can just lie back
and enjoy the large display on
the wall.
Class: Mid-size jets

Passengers: Up to 18
Mid-size jets typically carry 8-12 people,
but some can accommodate 18 people
for short flights.
Class: Super mid-size jets

These jets are designed to offer luxury
for transatlantic flights and give more
cabin space and luxuries.
9. The power
The turbofan engines ensure
the quietest and smoothest
possible flight and also offer a
longer range than many
other private jets.
The statistics
Lineage 1000
Manufacturer: Embraer
Class: Heavy jet
First flight: 26 October 2007
Know your engines

Jet engines are almost universally used to power private
jets and passenger aircraft, but there are some significant
differences between the type used on each. Private jets often
use high-bypass turbofans, which are very quiet and offer
Gulfstream
Aerospace Corp
enhanced fuel efficiency plus excellent thrust to ensure better
performance. These engines are usually placed below the wing to
reduce drag and turbulence, particularly during take off, which is crucial for a small
passenger plane. Tests have proved that turbofan engines are highly reliable and that most
pilots should never suffer an engine incident in their entire career. The Gulfstream G550 is one
example which is powered by twin Rolls-Royce turbofans.
Wingspan: 28.72m
Length: 36.24m
Height (outside): 10.28m
Class: Large size jets

Large size jets are designed for longer
distances and New York to Tokyo is quite
possible with high levels of comfort.
Cabin height: 2m
Cabin volume: 115.7m3
Cabin area: 68.85m
Weight max payload:
55,000kg
Max speed/cruise speed: 480
knots/469 knots
Propulsion: GE CF34-10E
turbofans (x2)
Ceiling: 12,497km
Class: Heavy jets

Passengers: 100s
Heavy jets range in size and can be
privately hired. The Lineage 1000 is in this
class, but is small compared to some.
089
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
The largest passenger jet
Lightweight materials
The majority of the wings and fuselage
are made from aluminium alloys, but 25
per cent of the structural weight is
composite materials.
The Airbus A380 is greener

and quieter than many
other passenger jets
Cabin comfort
220 cabin windows provide
plenty of natural light and the
cabin air is recycled every two
minutes for a fresh atmosphere.
Thrust reversers
Located on the innermost
engines, these slow down the
aircraft to assist the brakes
when landing on a wet runway.
Boarding the A380

The incredible technology
inside this sky giant
Crew bunks
On long flights, the pilots and
crew can get some rest in
bunks located below the lower
deck or behind the cockpit.
The worlds
largest passenger jet
How does the enormous double-decker Airbus A380 get off the ground?
Ferrying travellers all over the globe is
an expensive business for the worlds
airlines, so it makes sense that they
would want to pack as many passengers as
possible onto each aircraft, reducing the number
of flights they need to make. Thanks to its
double-decker design, the Airbus A380 is capable
of carrying up to 853 passengers at a time, if it is in
090
a single-class cabin configuration. Thats over 150

more than the aircrafts competitor, the Boeing
747-8. Most A380s, however, feature four separate
classes, with economy and premium economy on
the lower deck and the more spacious business
and first class upstairs, which reduces the
passenger number to 544. This is still a 40 per cent
increase on the 747-8s four-class capacity.
As well as being the largest passenger jet, the

A380 is one of the quietest, with dampeners
reducing engine noise to half that of other jets. It
is also more environmentally friendly, because it
needs to take fewer flights to deliver the same
amount of passengers, and the fuel-efficient
engines are claimed to give off 22 per cent fewer
CO2 emissions than the jets closest competitor.
DID YOU KNOW? The Airbus A380 is covered in three layers of paint weighing around 500 kilograms
Upper deck
Business and first class
have room for full-flat beds,
as well as bars and lounge
areas for socialising.
Two staircases provide access to the

aircrafts upper and lower decks
Two sets of landing wheels help

to spread the weight of the
enormous aircraft on the ground,
putting less stress on the runway.
Lower deck
The economy seats are a
roomy 45 centimetres wide,
with more headroom and
personal overhead storage.
Powerful braking
Pistons inside each wheel
apply powerful pressure to
stop them from turning,
bringing the aircraft to a halt.
Next-gen
flight deck
The cockpit of the A380 is
designed to be very similar to that
of other Airbus aircraft, minimising
the amount of time that pilots have
to spend training to fly it. It
features an instrument panel with
eight large, interactive liquid
crystal display units showing
navigation, engine and systems
information, as well as a
transparent head-up display that
superimposes information over the
pilots view. An electronic library
also replaces the traditional paper
documentation used by pilots,
allowing them to locate operational
information more easily and
analyse the aircrafts performance.
As the plane prepares for landing,
the process is made easier as the
flight crew can pre-select the
optimum runway exit at their
destination airport, and leave the
autopilot to regulate deceleration
after touchdown accordingly. This
helps to reduce runway occupancy
time and therefore increase the
number of aircraft the airport can
handle at any given time.
The A380s cockpit is designed to
make Airbus pilots feel at home
Efficient engines
The four-jet engines are designed
to be incredibly fuel-efficient,
burning 22 per cent less fuel per
seat than the nearest competitor.
Building an aircraft of this enormous size does

present a few problems, though. Many airlines
have had to modify their aircraft hangers to
accommodate the increased height and
wingspan of the A380, and some airports just
dont have enough space for them to park. Also, to
speed up the process of boarding and offloading
such a large number of passengers, two
gangways from the aircraft to the terminal

building are needed a set-up that only certain
airports are capable of.
As a result, the A380 can usually be found
travelling to and from the worlds biggest
international airports, making the most of its
15,200-kilometre range to deliver passengers to
far-flung destinations in style.
Airbus; Getty
Landing gear
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
21st Century supersonic flight
THE NEW
CONCORDE
Concordes successors
are now on the horizon,
offering Mach-shattering
speeds, alongside hugely
reduced noise and fuel
consumption compared
to their famous forebear
In 1976 we could fly commercially from

London to New York in just three and a
half hours. Thats over 5,550 kilometres
(3,460 miles) at an average speed of 27 kilometres (17
miles) per minute. For context, the same journey in
a Mini Metro travelling continuously at 97
kilometres (60 miles) per hour would take close to 58
hours (almost two and a half days) and thats not
considering the fact a Mini cant fly!
Today, crossing the pond ie the Atlantic takes
more like seven and a half hours, a trip that
definitely puts the long into long-haul flight. So,
this raises the question: what went wrong? A
one-word answer is sufficient: Concorde. The
Concorde supersonic jet, the piece of technology
092
Fuselage
The fuselage has been
designed in line with the
Sears-Haack body, a cigar
shape that grants the lowest
theoretical wave drag.
that allowed such outrageous flight times was

retired for good in 2003 after 27 years of service (for
more information see the End of Concorde boxout).
Further, no other supersonic jet has been
introduced in its absence leaving customers stuck
travelling at subsonic speeds no matter where they
wish to fly around the globe.
Things, however, are about to change. Driven by
the ever-growing notion of the global village the
interconnectedness of all nations and fired by the
gaping void left by Concorde, a new wave of
supersonic jetliners are in production, aiming to
pick up where Concorde touched down and
radically transform the speed, efficiency and
impact of commercial supersonic travel.
From Lockheed Martins Green Machine concept

(a supersonic jet capable of mitigating the effects of
sonic boom) through Aerion Corporations
Supersonic Business Jet (a machine that introduces
a radical new technology called natural laminar
flow) and on to Boeings Icon-II design (an aircraft
that boasts far greater noise reduction and fuel
efficiency) the future of this industry is already
looking very exciting. For the first time, private
companies are collaborating with the best research
institutes in the world (NASA, for one) to make
supersonic flight a reality once more, outside of the
military sphere.
Of course, while the roadmap to realisation is
becoming more and more concrete with each
RECORD
BREAKERS
2 52
HRS
POND-HOPPING
MINS
FASTEST TRANSATLANTIC FLIGHT

On average Concorde took three and a half hours to get from
London to New York, but on 7 February 1996, the supersonic
SECS aircraft completed the trip in under two hours and 53 minutes.
59
DID YOU KNOW? Lockheed Martin will work closely with NASA to create the Supersonic Green Machine
The Supersonic
Green Machine
Lockheed Martins Green Machine passenger plane offers a
glimpse into the future of high-speed, eco-minded air travel
Lockheed Martins Supersonic Green Machine
recently piqued interest at NASA thanks to its
inverted-V engine array. The array, which sits
above the wings, has been designed to
mitigate the generation of sonic booms, the
loud and distinctive cracking sound heard
when an object passes through the
sound barrier. The
positioning of the engines is
not just an aesthetic choice either,
but a strategic one that harnesses the
wing area to effectively shield portions of
the ground against pressure waves, thereby
Shield
The engines are positioned
above the wings to partially
shield people on the ground
from the immense pressure
waves that are generated.
reducing the audible noise and boom carpet

heard on the ground. Interestingly, the design
has also been developed to get as close as
possible to the ideal aerodynamic form for a
supersonic jet, with the fuselage closely
resembling the Sears-Haack model (a cigar
shape that minimises the creation of wave
drag). While no concrete specifications have
been released, according to Lockheed Martin
and NASA, which have run model-sized trials
in wind tunnels, the jet would offer speeds
comparable to Concorde, but with significant
reductions in fuel burn and noise output.
Engine
Key to the concept design is
its inverted-V engine array,
with each turbine inlet
engineered to produce a low
boom noise output.
The second design for the Green

Machine, a next-gen supersonic jet
created by Lockheed Martin
Banishing the boom

passing day, there are still major hurdles that need to
be overcome something driven by a call from NASA
for companies to investigate ways to cancel out the
damaging effects of sonic booms, increase fuel efficiency
of the aircraft and improve the ability of supersonic
jets to break through the transonic envelope (see the
Shattering Mach 1 boxout over the page). These factors
represent justa few of the many challenges of not only
achieving supersonic flight, but also making it
commercially viable where the old Concorde ultimately
was not.
In this feature, we take a closer look at the science
behind travelling at supersonic speeds as well as at some
of the aircraft and advanced technology currently
leading the charge against Earths sound barrier.
Even when active, Concorde was prohibited

from flying at supersonic speeds over the
USA due to the impact of sonic booms.
Indeed, the inability of Concorde to fly over
the majority of habituated land meant it had
to follow elongated and inefficient flight
routes, greatly damaging its efficiency.
Eradicating these sonic booms is
therefore key to any future supersonic jet
being greenlit for production, with nations
worldwide concerned with the boom
carpet (the avenue on a jets flight path
where sonic booms can be heard). Three key
developments in this area have been the
recent introduction of far thinner wings

than Concorde, the repositioning of the
engines above the wings this effectively
turns the wings into shields, diverting
pressure waves away from the ground and
the creation of pressure-sculpting air inlets
for the aircrafts turbines.
While no physical jet has yet to enter
production, experimentation by US space
agency NASA in 2011 into sonic booms
confirmed that, if the new designs could
adequately hide the engine outlets within a
narrow fuselage, then almost all audible
noise could be cancelled out.
093
2x NASA; Lockheed Martin
For the latest supersonic jets to become a reality, special

technology is being designed to keep the noise down
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
It can
seat
up to 19
No
other
commercial
people in upper
class
supersonic
jet has
been
comfort to the public
introduced
21st Century supersonic flight
Aerion SBJ
Materials
The SBJs empennage (tail),
fuselage and nacelles use a
mix of aluminium and
composite materials for
strength and heat resistance.
The SBJ supersonic plane will

be able to cruise at Mach 1.6,
taking passengers from Paris
to NYC in just over four hours
Aerion Corporation is arguably at the cutting
edge of supersonic flight research, with the
company collaborating closely with NASA on
developing the tech necessary to introduce its
Supersonic Business Jet (SBJ), a piece of kit that
will be able to take passengers anywhere at over
1,900 kilometres (1,200 miles) per hour.
This ability will come courtesy of the advanced
research into a technology called natural
laminar flow (NLF). Laminar flow is the condition
in which air in a thin region adjacent to a planes
wings stays in smoothly shearing layers, rather
than becoming turbulent. This means that the
more laminar the airflow, the less aerodynamic
friction drag impinges on the wings, which
improves both range and fuel economy.
This is possible due to the tapered bi-convex
wing design, which is constructed from carbon
epoxy and coated with a titanium leading edge.
The partnering of this with the SBJs aluminium
composite fuselage delivers an aircraft that not
only provides a range of over 7,400 kilometres
(4,600 miles) and a maximum altitude of 15,544
metres (51,000 feet), but an aircraft that can do all
this while sufficiently reducing fuel burn and
therefore operating costs. The latter point is
incredibly important as it was a primary factor
that led to Concorde being scrapped.
The SBJs cabin measures 9.1m
(30ft) and allows for three
dedicated seating areas
Wing
Aerions NLF wings will be
made from carbon epoxy
and coated with a titanium
edge for erosion resistance.
The SBJ will be able to travel from New

York to Paris in four hours and 15 minutes,
almost half the time of a regular jetliner
The statistics
Engine
Aerion SBJ
Length: 45.2m (148.3ft)
Width: 19.5m (64.2ft)
The SBJ uses a modified

version of Pratt & Whitneys
JT8D-200 jet engine, which
is de-rated to 8,890kg
(19,600lb) of static thrust.

Weight: 20,457kg (45,100lb)
Wing area:
111.5m2 (1,200ft2)
Engines: 2 x PW JT8D-200
Max speed: Mach 1.6
(1,960km/h; 1,218mph)
4x Aerion
Max range: 7,407km (4,603mi)

Max altitude:
15,544m (51,000ft)
The end of Concorde

Concorde was an engineering masterstroke. So
why did the luxurious jetliner get shut down?
What was arguably the death knell for Concorde
was the disastrous crash of Air Frances Flight 4590
in 2000, which killed all 100 of its passengers, nine
crew members and four people on the ground. The
crash was caused by a titanium strip falling off a
Continental Airlines DC-10 aircraft that had taken
off minutes before the ill-fated Concorde. The strip
pierced one of Flight 4590s tyres, caused it to
explode and consequently sent rubber into one of
094
the aircrafts fuel tanks. The resultant shockwave

caused a major fuel leak, which then ignited due to
electrical landing gear wires sparking.
Post-crash, despite Concorde being arguably
one of the safest operational passenger airliners in
the world, both Air France and British Airways
its only two operators reported a steep
decline in passenger numbers, leading
James Gordon
both fleets to be decommissioned in 2003.
A British Airways Concorde

taking off shortly before
the jetliners retirement
KEY
DATES
SUPERSONIC
TRAVEL
1947
Chuck Yeager (right) breaks
the sound barrier for the
first time in an experimental
Bell X-1 rocket plane.
1953
1969
Jacqueline Cochran becomes

Concorde (right), the
the first female pilot to break worlds first supersonic
the sound barrier in a Canadair
jetliner, makes its
Sabre production jet.
maiden test flight.
1997
2012
Andy Green becomes the Lockheed Martin and NASA

first person to break the reveal the Green Machine, a
sound barrier on land in
future supersonic jetliner
his ThrustSSC rocket car. that silences sonic booms.
DID YOU KNOW? The speed of sound in air is approximately 1,225km/h (761mph)
Shattering Mach 1
There is far more to creating a supersonic aircraft than
simply strapping larger engines to a subsonic fuselage
Supersonic aerodynamics are much more complex than subsonic
aerodynamics for a variety of reasons, the foremost being
breaking through the transonic envelope (around Mach 0.85-1.2).
This is because to pass through this speed range supersonic jets
require several times greater thrust to counteract the extreme
drag, a factor that raises two key issues: shockwaves and heat.
Shockwaves come from the passage of air (with positive,
negative or normal pressures) around the fuselage, with each part
of the aircraft affecting its progress. As such, while air is bent
around the thin fuselage with minimal effect, as it reaches the
wings a huge change in the cross-sectional area of the jet it
causes shockwaves along the planes body. The resulting waves
formed at these points bleed away a considerable amount of
energy, and create a very powerful form of drag called wave drag.
To mitigate this, any supersonic jet design must allow for a

smooth-as-possible change in cross-sectional areas, with the
wings fluidly curving out from the fuselage.
Heat is the other big concern. Sustained supersonic flight as a
by-product of the drag it generates causes all of its materials to
experience rapid and prolonged heat, with individual parts
sometimes reaching in excess of 300 degrees Celsius (572 degrees
Fahrenheit). As such, conventional subsonic materials like
duraluminium (or dural) are infeasible for a supersonic jet, as they
experience plastic deformation at high temperatures. To counter
this, harder, heat-resistant materials such as titanium and
stainless steel are called for. However, in many cases these can
push up the overall weight of the aircraft, so reaching a workable
compromise between heat resistance and weight is the key.
This shows the airflow over a supersonic jets surface (including turbulence over the
wing). The colour of the lines shows the air speed from red (fastest) to blue (slowest).
In addition, the fuselage colour indicates its temperature, from blue (coolest) to red
(hottest). Supersonic jet fuselages can be heated to over 100C (212F) by air friction
Sonic boom science

Sonic booms are caused as, when an object
passes through the air, it generates a series
of pressure waves. These pressure waves
travel at the speed of sound and increase in
compaction the closer the object is to Mach 1
approximately 1,225 kilometres (761 miles)
per hour. When an object is travelling at the
speed of sound (ie Mach 1), however, the
sound waves become so compressed that
they form a single shockwave, which for
aircraft, is then shaped into a Mach cone.

The Mach cone has a region of high pressure
at its tip before the nose of the aircraft
and a negative pressure at its tail, with air
pressure behind the cone normal. As the
aeroplane passes through these varying
areas of pressure, the sudden changes
create two distinctive booms: one for the
high-to-low pressure shift and another for
the low-to-normal transition.
Streams of dye are used to show the flow of water over the surface
of a supersonic jet. The flow of water over the surface of the fuselage
indicates what the airflow would be like over a full-sized aircraft
095
2x SPL
What are sonic booms and how are they generated?
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
The flying machines that are fuelled only by the Sun
As the search for renewable and
carbon-neutral forms of energy
intensifies, solar energy is leading the
way in fuelling the next generation of aircraft.
One aircraft breaking boundaries in this
area is the Solar Impulse 2. This incredible
machine is set to launch a non-stop, round-theworld trip powered only by the Sun. It will do
this by using 72-metre (236-foot) wide wings,
each of which will be carrying over 8,500 solar
cells, powering four electric motors and four
lithium batteries. Despite this astonishing
wingspan, the entire aircraft will only weigh
2,300 kilograms (5,071 pounds), about as heavy
as a large great white shark.
Another major player in the world of solar
powered aviation is Solar Flight. Their newest
project is Sunseeker Duo, which is the only
two-seater solar-powered aeroplane in
operation. It follows a similar pattern to the
Solar Impulse 2, with long wings covered with
solar panels and a lightweight body. Its panels
have been improved to become 50 per cent
more efficient than their predecessors. It can fly
for 12 hours and its engine produces 25
kilowatts (33.5 horsepower) of power.
The main question with using solar power is
what happens at night? During the day, not
all the energy is used. Enough will be stored in
the batteries to allow the aircraft fly at night.
The next challenge for solar-powered
aviation is to be able to carry multiple
passengers, so hopefully one day soon
holidaymakers will be able to use the Sun on
their way to soaking it up.
How solar panels work

We have heard a lot about solar panels converting
sunlight to energy, but how does that process
actually work? Inside a solar panel is a number of
silicon cells, placed on top of each other. One of
the silicon atoms has all its electrons, while
the one beneath it has a few missing. In
order to restore the balance, the full
silicon atom transfers electrons to
the one below, but it needs light
to trigger the process. Once the
sunlight hits the panel,
electrons are transferred from
one silicon cell to the other,
thus creating an electric current
that powers a load.
096
Anatomy of a solar aircraft

How the Solar Impulse 2 gets off the ground and stays there
Wings
The wingspan of the plane
is a total of 72m (236ft),
stretching wider than a
jumbo jets wings.
Batteries
There are four
rechargeable lithium
polymer batteries inside
the plane, weighing a
total of 633kg (1,396lb)
that provide the 50kW
(70hp) power.
Insulation
To keep the pilot from
suffering in the +40 to
-40C (104 to -40F)
temperature change, the
cockpit uses advanced
thermal insulation.
The cockpit
The cockpit is only 3.8m3
(134ft3), so it will be fairly
cramped but essential for
the lightweight design.
Lift
The plane will rise to
8,500m (27,887ft) during
the day to make the most of
the power and then drop to
1,500m (4,921ft) at night.
DID YOU KNOW? In 2013, the original Solar Impulse prototype flew across the USA without a single drop of fuel
Close up power
Despite the massive

wingspan, the Solar
Impulse weighs about the
same as two small cars
ESAs Solar Orbiter will be getting a ridiculous

boost of solar energy when it takes off in 2017 as
its mission is to get closer to the Sun than any
probe has before, in order to take incredible
pictures of the star. With its 3.1-metre x 2.4-metre
(10.2-foot x 7.9-foot) sunshield, this craft will
travel just 42 million kilometres (26 million miles)
away from the Sun to take high-resolution images
and perform experiments. It has been rigorously
tested, as it will experience temperatures ranging
from 520 degrees Celsius (968 degrees
Fahrenheit) to -170 degrees Celsius (-274 degrees
Fahrenheit). Its aim is to help scientists lean more
about the inner heliosphere and how solar activity
affects it, answering questions about solar winds,
coronal magnetic fields and solar eruptions.
Airframe
It is constructed from
incredibly strong, yet
lightweight materials such
as carbon fibre in a
honeycomb pattern.
Speed
The plane can travel at a
top speed of 140km/h
(87mph).
Panels
There are a total of 17,000
solar panels, each drawing
in energy from the Sun to
power the plane and
charge the batteries.
Motors
Corbis; Getty; Alamy
There are four electric

13kW (17.5hp) engines,
each about the same as a
small motorbike.
Propellers
These propellers provide
the main thrust behind the
plane, rotating at different
speeds to steer.
097
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Hot-air balloons
Hot-air balloons
How do these gasbags get off the ground and return to Earth safely?
A hot-air balloon consists of

three basic parts: an
envelope big enough to
displace a large amount of air, burners
beneath the envelope to heat the air
inside, and a basket in which to sit
back and enjoy the ride. The scientific
principle that enables this lift is
convection, or heat transfer.
Heating the air inside the envelope
causes it to expand, forcing some of
the air out of the envelope. The weight
of the air inside then decreases,
making the balloon lighter and giving
it some lift. Once the burner has been
shut off, however, the air inside cools
and contracts, causing cold air to rush
in from below, weighing the envelope
down and causing the balloon to
descend. If the burner is powered up
intermittently, the balloon can
maintain a pretty much constant
altitude. Hot-air balloons have an
upper limit because at very high
altitudes the air is so thin that the lift
is not actually strong enough to raise
the balloon.
Because hot-air balloons have no

real means of changing direction
other than upwards and downwards,
the vehicle will drift along with the
wind. However, a skilled balloonist
can manoeuvre horizontally by
altering their altitude. You see, wind is

known to blow in different directions
at different heights and so the pilot can
ascend or descend until they find the
appropriate wind to send them in the
direction they wish to travel.
Envelope
Reinforced ripstop nylon fabric
(also used for kites, sails and
sleeping bags) is the principle
material used for hot-air
balloon envelopes. This
lightweight fabric can also be
coated with silicone to make it
more hard-wearing.
An alternative to
queuing at the airport
What goes up
4. Air expands and rises

Warm air expands and rises, causing
about a quarter of the air to exit through
the bottom of the envelope.
2. Erection
To get the inflated envelope
off the ground, the
propane-fuelled burner
beneath the envelope is
placed at the entrance to
the envelope and blasted.
The envelope is made

from ripstop nylon
1. Inflation
A balloon crew inflate the
envelope using a powerful fan to
blow air in from the base of the
envelope for several minutes.
098
3. Burner on
5. Ascent
The burner heats the air inside

the envelope to a temperature of
about 100C. This causes the air
particles to gain energy and move
about faster and farther apart.
The balloon ascends

because the air
inside the envelope is
lighter and less dense
than cold air outside.
DID YOU KNOW? To lift a weight of 1,000lb you would need nearly 65,000 cubic feet of hot air
Parachute vent
If the balloon needs to descend
quickly, some colder air can enter
via a parachute valve or vent in the
top of the envelope controlled by a
cord pulled by the pilot.
Gores
To create the balloon shape from a
flat piece of material, it must be cut
into long panels (from the crown to
the base) called gores. These gores
are then stitched together to create
the shape.
Turning up the heat
gets you airborne
7. Air contracts
The cooler air contracts
leaving space inside the
envelope to suck in more
cold air from below.
8. Descent
6. Burner off
Shutting off the
burner causes the air
to cool down.
The increased weight of

the cooler air inside the
balloon exceeds the
upthrust and so the
balloon will start to sink.
9. Landing
By gently controlling the burner and
descent, the balloon will normally
come in to land bouncing along the
ground before stopping.
Skirt
The flame-resistant material at the
base of the envelope is called the
skirt. This stops the rest of the
envelope from catching fire.
Propane tanks
10. Landing site
Compressed liquid propane

is stored in lightweight
tanks in the basket.
Given the relatively uncontrollable

nature of directing a hot-air balloon,
the landing site cannot always be
predicted and so the pilot must select
a large enough area free from pylons
and bodies of water where they can
lay out the envelope.
Burner
Basket
Traditionally a hot-air balloons basket is made
of wicker because its durable, flexible and
lightweight. Today hot-air balloons can come
with double-decker baskets that seat 50 people
if necessary. Enclosed gondolas are also
available for serious, long-distance ballooning.
Thinkstock
Liquid propane flows from the tanks

through steel pipes coiled around
the burner. When the balloonist
triggers the burner, liquid propane
flows out and is ignited by a pilot
light. In the meantime this flame
heats the metal pipes, turning the
liquid propane into a gas that is
more powerful and fuel-efficient
than the liquid when its cold.
099
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Cargo planes
On board a cargo plane

How do freight aircraft differ from passenger planes, enabling
them to transport much greater loads all over the planet?
Cargo planes whether used in the
private, military or commercial
sphere are fixed-wing vehicles that
have usually been designed with haulage in
mind or have been converted from standard
aircraft. Passenger planes commonly have a
specialised hold that can store around 150 cubic
metres (over 5,000 cubic feet) of freight, found
on the underside of the craft. Dedicated freight
planes dont need the seats or any of the other
amenities on commercial flights that said,
their design amounts to much more than a
hollowed-out passenger plane.
To make the most efficient use of the space
available, the floor is lined with a walkway and
Plane politics
The Xian Y-20 is a military long-range transport
plane thats still in development by China,
although it has recently been filmed on a short
test flight. Its a similar class of aircraft as
Russias Ilyushin II-76 or the US Boeing C-17, and
though China maintains a tighter guard over its
military secrets than most, it has an estimated
payload in the region of 72,000 kilograms
(160,000 pounds) thats quite a bit, by any
countrys standards! The PLAFF (Peoples
Liberation Army Air Force), or avian branch of
the Chinese military, had long favoured the
development of fighter jets over this kind of
support aircraft, so that the Y-20 project was
sidelined when it started in 2005. However,
following the Sichuan earthquake of 2008, China
was unable to effectively drop relief supplies
with its small fleet of cargo planes, so the US had
to assist with two C-17s. This embarrassment
undoubtedly spurred the Chinese government
into pushing on with the Y-20s development.
Lightening the load

Depending on the type of cargo being carried (very
large items or military vehicles may be exceptions),
many cargo planes will use ULDs, or unit load
devices. These allow the crew to prepackage cargo
into single units that can more easily be loaded into
the hold prior to the flight, saving a great deal of
time. Its a similar system to that used in shipping,
maximising the space used at the same time and,
thus, increasing efficiency (and profits). The ULDs
themselves are either robust and lightweight
aluminium pallets or aluminium-floored containers
with toughened plastic walls. The containers are
sometimes converted into self-contained
refrigeration units to store perishable goods.
100
electronic rollers that allow prepackaged

pallets to be rolled back as far as possible,
without the need for a forklift. Large cargo bay
doors are installed to fit bigger items through
and, in some examples, like the Boeing 747-400,
the nose lifts up to allow particularly large
items to pass down the body of the plane. With
the demands of air freight ever increasing,
aircraft with huge cargo capacities like the
Airbus A300-600 Super Transporter (also
known as the Beluga), are
becoming
the norm.
Its not enough just to increase the size of the
aircraft hold though. In order for a cargo plane
to efficiently and safely transport its mighty

load, a number of adaptations must be made to
the overall avian design. For example, the
wings and tail are built high to allow the freight
to sit near the ground and to facilitate loading;
the fuselage is much bigger; and similar to
heavy goods vehicles cargo planes typically
feature a larger number of wheels to support
their weight on landing.
Cargo plane credentials

HIW pinpoints what a military cargo
transporter needs to get the job done
Engine
Four turbofan jet
engines can provide as
much as 19,504kgf
(43,000lbf) of thrust.
The cargo bay of a freight

airliner, including a conveyer
belt for hauling goods
Vehicle ramp
Large aircraft (like
Lockheeds C-5 Galaxy) are
quite capable of carrying
several light vehicles which
can be driven on via ramps.
RECORD
BREAKERS
LARGEST PAYLOAD
250tons
WORLDS BIGGEST CARGO PLANE

This title goes to Russias Antonov An-225 Mriya. It has a
wingspan roughly the length of a football pitch, can carry four
tanks in its cavernous hold and has space for up to 80 cars.
DID YOU KNOW? Passenger planes have been used to carry mail since 1911 and still do to this day
Lockheed Martins C-5 Galaxy

has 12 internal wing tanks
with a total capacity of
194,370l of fuel
Landing gear
Cargo doors
More cargo means more

weight, so more wheels
and a greater landing
distance are required.
Passengers
On big military craft, an
upper deck carries several
dozen personnel as well.
Both fore and aft of the

aircraft feature cargo
bay doors, with the nose
cone lifting at the front
to allow access.
Cargo bay
A 37m (121ft) cavity can hold
about 880m3 (31,000ft3) of
cargo weighing up to 67 tons.
101
Thinkstock
Cockpit
Military cargo planes
are usually manned by
several crew including
the commander, pilot
and loadmasters.
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
787 Dreamliner
Boeing 787
Dreamliner
This new jetliner promises to transform the commercial airliner

industry, boasting significantly improved fuel economy and a host
of next-gen features. We take a closer look
At first glance the brand-new Boeing 787

Dreamliner appears to be nothing special.
A new mid-sized jetliner that through its
conventional design, standard power output and
modest maximum range seems to, for the most part,
blend in with the crowd. Just another commercial
passenger jet introduced to a market hit severely by
the worldwide recession. A multimillion pound
piece of technology that changes nothing. But if you
believe that, then you couldnt be more wrong
That is because, as is common with most
groundbreaking new technologies and ideas, the
devil is in the details. Indeed, the Boeing 787 is
arguably a slice of the future today, both literally (its
service life is predicted to extend up to 2028) and
metaphorically. The latter comes courtesy of it being
the first aircraft to be designed within a mantra of
102
efficiency over everything else. Thats not to

downplay the aircrafts numerous new
improvements and technological advancements in
any way this is one of the most complex jetliners
currently in operation in the skies but in the
present financial climate and arguably one that will
affect the industry for years to come, this greener,
cheaper and more accommodating aircraft is laying
down a roadmap that others can now follow. The
evidence for this? How about worldwide orders of
821 new planes from 57 operators to the tune of 93
($145) billion?
So how is the 787 turning the dream of cheaper,
more efficient air travel into a reality? The simple
answer is a direct 20 per cent saving on both fuel
usage and outputted emissions. The long answer is a
little more complicated.
The key to the super-high performance granted by

the Dreamliner lies in its adoption of a suite of new
technologies and materials. Composite materials (ie
carbon-fibre/reinforced carbon-fibre plastics) make
up 50 per cent of the primary structure of the 787,
which include both the fuselage and the wings.
These are lighter, stronger and more versatile than
traditional pure-metal offerings. Indeed, when this
model is compared against the Dreamliners
predecessor, the Boeing 777 read: a mere 12 per cent
composite materials and over 50 per cent aluminium
you begin to grasp what a game-changer this
vehicle is to the jetliner industry.
The new materials have been partnered with a
completely revisited build process, which allows
each Dreamliner to be produced from fewer
aluminium sheets, less fasteners (an 80 per cent
5 TOP
FACTS
BOEING 787
DREAMLINER
Rollout
Big brother
Fat boy
Assembly
First
The Boeing 787 Dreamliner

was first unveiled on 8 July
2007 in Washington, USA. By
the time of its unveiling it had
already accrued 677 orders
from companies worldwide.
The 787 got a big brother in

2013, with a larger read:
elongated variant of the
Dreamliner first in
production. This has a
capacity for 290 passengers.
The initial assembly of the 787

did not go smoothly, with the
aircraft coming in overweight
by about 2,300kg (5,000lb).
Boeing used lighter titanium
to reduce this excess.
Until 2011, the final assembly

of all 787s was at the Boeing
factory in Everett, WA. Since
last year, however, the aircraft
have also been put together
at North Charleston, SC.
The first Dreamliner to be

officially delivered was to All
Nippon Airways in September
2011. ANA is one of Japans
largest airlines, operating to 35
global locations out of Tokyo.
DID YOU KNOW? The Boeing 787 consumes 20 per cent less fuel than the similarly sized 767v
Boeing
More than 50 companies have worked on the 787,

each connected virtually at 135 sites worldwide
reduction on the 777) and simpler drill

schematics the latter allowing a 787 to
have fewer than 10,000 holes drilled in its
fuselage (the 747 needed over a
staggering 1 million). This saves on
production costs, assembly time and
streamlines the build, reducing potential
points of failure, while increasing
aerodynamic efficiency. In addition,
more than 60 miles of copper wiring has
been eliminated from the new model,
again saving weight, plus streamlining
the electrical infrastructure.
Talking of electronics, the Dreamliner
has been designed with a state-of-theart, fully electronic architecture, which
through the replacement of all bleed air
and hydraulic power sources with
electrically powered compressors and
pumps, extracts as much as 35 per cent
less power from its engines at any one
time. Further, a new electrothermal
wing ice protection system with
moderate heater mats located on wing
slats improves de-icing levels and
consistency significantly, again boosting
aerodynamic performance. Wing lift
performance is also improved thanks to
the adoption of raked wingtips, which

reduce the thrust needed by the engines.
These efficiencies combine with the
heart of the Dreamliner: its twin
next-generation, high-bypass turbofan
engines. Two engine models are used on
the 787 both the General Electric GEnx
and Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 each
delivering a maximum thrust of 280
kilonewtons (64,000 pounds force) and
a cruise speed of Mach 0.85 (1,041
kilometres/647 miles per hour). Both
engines are designed with lightweight
composite blades, a swept-back fan and
small-diameter hub to maximise airflow
and high-pressure ratio the latter, when
complemented by contra-rotating spools,
improving efficiency significantly.
Finally, both engines are compatible
with the Dreamliners noise-reducing
nacelles, duct covers and air-inlets.
Indeed, the engines are so
technologically advanced that they are
considered to be a two-generation
improvement over any other commercial
passenger jet.
As such, contrary to initial
appearances, the Dreamliner is really a
wolf in sheeps clothing, delivering

standard-bearing improvements, along
with a vast list of incremental ones
including energy-saving LED-only
lighting that make it one of the most
advanced and future-proofed jets in our
skies today. And you know what is most
exciting? Judging by Boeings current
substantial backlog of sales, there is a
high probability that you will be flying
on one of these mighty machines
yourself in the very-near future.
Boeing
787 cabin layouts can be split into one of three

configurations, prioritising capacity or class divisions
Boeing 787 Dreamliner

Crew: 2
Length: 57m (186ft)
Wingspan: 60m (197ft)
Height: 17m (56ft)
Max weight:
228,000kg (502,500lb)
Cruise speed:
1,041km/h (647mph)
Max range:
15,200km (9,440mi)
Max altitude:
13,100m (43,000ft)
Powerplant: 2 x General Electric
GEnx / Rolls-Royce Trent 1000
A General Electric GEnx

high-bypass turbofan jet engine,
one of two used on the Dreamliner
Oliver Cleynen
Boeing
The statistics
103
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
787 Dreamliner
We break down a Boeing 787 to see how it

outpaces, out-specs and outmanoeuvres
the competition
Cockpit
The Dreamliners state-of-the-art cockpit is fitted with
Honeywell and Rockwell Collins avionics, which
include a dual heads-up guidance system. The electrical
power conversion system and standby flight display is
supplied by Thales and an avionics full-duplex
switched ethernet (AFDX) connection transmits data
between the flight deck and aircraft systems.
Cargo bay
The standard 787 referred to as the 787-8 has a cargo
bay capacity of 125m (4,400ft) and a max takeoff weight
of 227,930kg (503,000lb). The larger variant referred to as
the 787-9 has a cargo bay capacity of 153m (5,400ft) and
a max takeoff weight of 247,208kg (545,000lb).
Electronics
The 787 features a host of LCD
multifunction displays throughout the
flight deck. In addition, passengers have
access to an entertainment system based
on the Android OS, with Panasonic-built
touchscreen displays delivering music,
movies and television in-flight.
The first completed Dreamliner was
delivered to All Nippon Airways in 2011
Flight systems
The 787 replaces all bleed air and hydraulic power
sources with electrically powered compressors
and pumps. It is also installed with a new wing ice
protection system that uses electrothermal
heater mats on its wing slats to mitigate ice
buildup. An automatic gust alleviation system
reduces the effects of turbulence too.
Engines
Boeing
Wings
Evolution of
the jetliner
We select some of
the high points in the
development of the
commercial jetliner
104
The 787 Dreamliners wings are manufactured

by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in Japan and
feature raked wingtips. The raked tips primary
purpose is to improve climb performance and,
as a direct consequence, fuel economy.
1945 Vickers VC.1 Viking

A British short-range airliner derived
from the Wellington bomber, the Viking
was the first pure jet transport aircraft.
1952 DH-106 Comet

The Comet was the worlds first
commercial jet airliner to reach
production. It was developed by the
de Havilland company in England.
1955
SE-210 Caravelle
The most successful
first-generation
jetliner, the Caravelle
was sold en masse
throughout Europe
and America. It was
built by French
company Sud Aviation.
Two engine models are compatible with the

Dreamliner: twin General Electric GEnx or
Rolls-Royce Trent turbofans. Both models
produce 280kN (64,000lbf) and grant the 787 a
cruising speed of 1,041km/h (647mph). They are
also compatible with the jets noise-reducing
nacelles, duct covers and exhaust rims.
1958 Boeing 707-120

The first production model of the nowwidespread 707 series, the 707-120 set a
new benchmark for passenger aircraft.
1961 Convair 990
A good example of a narrow-body

jetliner, the 990 offered faster
speeds and greater passengerholding capacity.
1976
Arospatiale-BAC
Concorde
A standout development
in the second generation
of jetliners, the Concorde
delivered supersonic,
transatlantic flight
something unrivalled
even to this day.
Boeing
Boeing
Anatomy of
the Dreamliner
BIG
HEAD
HEAD
AIRLINER
CAPACITY
1. Boeing 787-9
The larger Dreamliner,
which is set to be
introduced in 2013, can
seat up to 290 passengers
when it is configured for
highest seat quantity.
Boeing
2. Boeing
747-400
BIGGER
BIGGEST
A significant redevelopment
of the 747, the 747-400,
when specced out for max
number of seats, can carry
up to 524 passengers.
Rolf Wallner
3. Airbus A380
Singapore Airlines/Altair78
So big that a new term

had to be coined in order
to classify it superjumbo
the A380 has two decks
and can carry up to a
monumental 853 people!
2x Boeing
DID YOU KNOW? To date, over 800 Boeing 787 Dreamliners have been ordered by airlines all around the world
Boeing
Train to gain
Boeing has gone the
extra mile to produce a
complete package with
the 787 Dreamliner,
offering state-of-the-art
simulation facilities for
pilots to get up to speed
A stand-up, fully stocked bar is

available on each 787
Amenities
Cabin
When on board passengers are offered

roomier seats (across all classes), larger
storage bins, manually dimmable
windows, a stand-up bar, gender-specific
lavatories and an on-demand
entertainment system. First-class
passengers receive a complimentary
in-flight meal and, on international
flights, fully reclinable seats for sleeping.
The standard 787 is designed to seat 242 passengers across

a three-class arrangement, with 182 seats in economy, 44
seats in business and 16 seats in first. Cabin interior width
rests at 5.5m (18ft) and on either side is lined with a series of
27 x 47cm (11 x 19in) auto-dimming windows.
Fuselage
The 787 is constructed from 80 per cent
composite materials (carbon fibre and
carbon-fibre reinforced plastic) by volume. In
terms of weight, 50 per cent of the materials are
composite, 20 per cent aluminium, 15 per cent
titanium, 10 per cent steel and 5 per cent other.
1986 Fokker 100

The Fokker 100 was a short-haul specialist that
carried up to 100 passengers. Domestic and
short-range international flights were its remit.
1994 Boeing 777

The first computer-designed commercial
jetliner, the 777 delivered a vast 300-seat
capacity and range (17, 370km/10,793mi). It
became a mainstay of airlines worldwide.
Boeing
Boeing
Compatibility
The 787 Dreamliner is designed to be
compatible with existing airport layout
and taxiing setups. As such the 787 has an
effective steering angle of 65 degrees,
allowing it to rotate fully within a 42m
(138ft)-wide runway. It also has a 32m
(100ft) tyre edge-to-turn centre ratio.
2005 Airbus A380

Since its launch in 2005 the Airbus has been the
largest passenger aircraft in the world. The A380 has
two decks and, when specced out for all economyclass seating, can carry 853 passengers.
2011 Boeing 787 Dreamliner

The most fuel-efficient jetliner of its class, the 787
has been designed to reduce the cost of air travel,
while delivering a range of next-gen tech.
Potential 787 pilots can utilise

Boeings revolutionary full-flight
simulator to train for real-world
flights and specific contextsensitive scenarios. Currently
there are eight 787 training suites
at five Boeing campuses
worldwide, located from Seattle
through to Tokyo, Singapore,
Shanghai and on to London
Gatwick. The simulators, which
are produced by French electronic
systems company Thales, include
dual heads-up displays (HUDs)
and electronic flight bags (EFBs),
and are designed to train pilots to
become proficient in visual
manoeuvres, the instrument
landing system (ILS) and non-ILS
approaches. Further, missed
approaches using integrated
specialist navigation, nonstandard procedures with
emphasis on those affecting
handling characteristics, plus
wind shear and rejected takeoff
training can also be undertaken.
All of the training simulators
are approved by the US
Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA),
making them
officially some of the
most advanced
training suites
around right now.
Pilots and potential
pilots can train at eight
simulators worldwide
105
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Gliders
Gliders
A trainer and pupil

in a dual-seated
trainer glider
How do these engineless aircraft stay airborne?

Gliders work by maximising the
dynamic properties of air to remain
airborne for long periods of time. To
do this they optimise their lift-to-drag (L/D)
ratio the amount of lift generated by a wing
or vehicle, divided by the drag it creates by
moving through the air by extending the
surface area of their lifting surfaces, ie their
wings, streamlining their physical
construction and utilising the lightest
possible construction materials.
The glide ratio the distance a glider falls
for the distance it travels forward of any
glider is also reliant on its airspeed and the

prevalence of rising air in the aircrafts
vicinity. For example, if a glider is too light
then its fall rate will be low but its travel
distance forward will also be low, meaning
high speed and long distance glides are
impossible, as it will never reach the
next area of lift. However, if a glider is
weighted correctly, then the polar
curve of distance travelled to
distance fallen is optimised,
carrying the glider
between areas of uplift.
5 TOP
FACTS
GLIDERS
Weighted
correctly, the
polar curve of
distance travelled
to distance fallen
is optimised
Sink rate (knots)
Airspeed (knots)
Best glide angle
106
Modern gliders were developed

post World War Two, mainly by
enthusiasts just to have fun
during their time off work. Back
then they were made primarily
out of wood, not fibreglass.
2 Tow
Gliders were used in the Second

World War to drop soldiers and
equipment into war zones. The
gliders would be towed half the
way and then left to glide to a set
drop-off point. They were
considered expendable.
3 Cheat
Experiments with gliding
The Wright brothers aircraft

without motor in 1911
successfully gliding
1 Recreational
Gliding isnt a new pursuit of humans, although it only reached

substantial success in the 20th and 21st Centuries. In fact, the first
record of someone attempting to glide through the air occurs in a
17th Century account of a 9th Century attempt by Abbas Ibn Firnas of
Cordoba, Spain. Unfortunately for Firnas who was a respected
polymath and inventor the attempt was reliant on covering
himself with vulture feathers and ended in bad back injuries.
Where Firnas failed, though, the Wright brothers succeeded, and in
1911 they successfully glided in a modified, engineless variant of
their famous aircraft. Since then the engineless glider has evolved
into the sleek, streamlined aircraft we see today.
Not all gliders are engineless,

with many fitted with one to
allow them to take-off on their
own, removing the need for them
to piggyback on another aircraft
in order to get airborne.
4 Boom
The principles of gliding have

been extrapolated to the
armament industry, where
numerous companies make
gliding bombs designed to travel
great distances without needing
any propellant.
5 Training
Many gliders are used by

instructors to educate amateur
pilots in the basic principles of
flight before they are given an
engined aircraft. Trainer gliders
contain a dual-seated cabin.
DID YOU KNOW? The Perlan project is attempting to reach 90,000 feet with an engineless aircraft
Inside a blimp
Graceful forms of transport that are also often
used for advertising and as camera platforms
Blimps keep their shape purely
through the pressure of the gas
inside their main hull and changes
in this pressure are managed by ballonets.
These are bags of pressurised air which are
also located inside the main envelope and
are inflated or deflated to maintain the
external shape.
The envelope itself is often made of
man-made materials, with Mylar and
polyester being common. Within the
envelope the blimps outer skin theres a
second skin, commonly made from
polyurethane, called the bladder. This is
where the lifting gas, most commonly
helium, is located. The gondola, where the
Rudder
Engine
passengers and crew are housed and where

the blimp is controlled from, is often made
of aluminium to minimise the weight of the
gondola and maximise lift. Blimps are best
known as platforms for advertising and
tend to operate between 300 and 900
metres. However, they can operate up to
3,000m off the ground.
Envelope
Modern blimps often sport

reinforced noses and ducted
fans to aid steering
Gas bag
WIKI
The Perlan Project

Gliders can soar without the need for
engines because of currents of air
around the plane that are rising
faster than the glider is sinking. A good
source of these updrafts is when wind strikes
the side of a tall mountain. This creates a
standing wave that ripples across the
mountain range, and gliders are able to hang
in this rising current almost indefinitely.
Mountain waves dont normally extend
above ten kilometres because winds cant
cross the boundary between the troposphere
(the lowest layer of Earths atmosphere) and
the stratosphere the edge of space. But
there are a few places in the world where this
rule is broken. In the far south of Patagonia,
in Argentina, updrafts from the Andes
combine in late summer and early autumn
How the Perlan 2 plans to

soar to the edge of space
with high altitude winds, forming a jet

stream known as the polar night jet.
This year, the Perlan 2, a non-profit
research aircraft currently funded by Airbus,
will ride this wave to soar to heights of over
27 kilometres. At that altitude it will be above

98 per cent of the Earths atmosphere, and it
will break the altitude record for sustained
flight previously set by the SR-71 Blackbird
spy plane.
The Perlan 2 has a 25.6m wingspan, but

weighs just 500kg less than seven people
107
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Air Force One
On board Air Force One

Transporting the US president is no small task, requiring specialised
aircraft that can respond to a variety of threats and situations
Air Force One is the call sign used to
designate aircraft specially fitted out
to carry the president of the United
States while on official business. Currently two
planes carry the Air Force One name both
customised versions of the Boeing VC-25A
jetliner that have been in service since 1990.
Appearing like a standard airliner on the
outside, Air Force One is in fact an incredibly
complex aircraft, decked out with a number of
hi-tech facilities that make it suitable for
carrying arguably the most powerful person on
the planet. Over its 372 square metres (4,000
square feet) of floor space, these include a
surgery-class medical bay, a communications
suite that can act as a command centre for
military operations, plus a fully equipped office
with satellite phone and wireless internet
connection. There are also a hotel-style
presidential suite capable of housing the First
Family with ease, a press cabin for resident
photographers and journalists, a large
conference room, as well as a series of other
cabins for guests, flight staff and security.
Air Force One is powered by four General
Electric CF6-80C2B1F turbofan jet engines,
which each deliver a substantial thrust of
around 25,500 kilograms-force (56,200 poundsforce). Together, these grant Air Force One a
maximum speed of 1,014 kilometres (630 miles)
per hour, which, when combined with its
cavernous fuel tanks, allow the president and
retinue to travel anywhere within a
12,550-kilometre (7,800-mile) range fairly
rapidly and without having to refuel.
If for any reason Air Force One needed to
remain airborne past that distance for
example, in the event of nuclear war then a
fuel top-up can be handled during flight, as the
VC-25A has a refuelling receptacle built in.
There are over 85 telephones and multifrequency radios on board, with a staggering
383 kilometres (238 miles) of electrical wiring
connecting all the various systems. Both the
flight deck and communications centre, as well
as every other electrical system on the aircraft,
are electromagnetically shielded to prevent
them from being taken out by electromagnetic
pulses generated by a nuclear blast.
108
The plane fit for a president

Check out the custom interior and cutting-edge
tech packed into the US premiers private jet
Crew
Air Force One has a large crew
of 26, including two pilots, a
flight engineer, navigator,
communications team and
security staff, among other
cabin attendants.
Medical room
In the event of injury any
passengers on Air Force One can
be treated in a dedicated medical
bay by an on-flight doctor. It can
serve as a full surgery too.
Security
Presidential suite
Presidents office
This has all the

amenities of a high-class
hotel room, allowing the
US premier and his
family to relax or sleep
during long-haul flights.
Despite travelling, more often

than not the US president
needs to work while flying.
This is made possible by a fully
kitted-out office area equipped
with satellite phone.
Members of the US Secret

Service follow the president
at all times, including on Air
Force One. They are
assigned their own cabin
and security positions
throughout the aircraft.
5 TOP
FACTS
Sacred Cow
AIR FORCE ONE
The one and only
The first presidential aircraft

was introduced in 1945 and
was a converted C-54
Skymaster. It was nicknamed
the Sacred Cow and carried
Roosevelt and Truman.
The Air Force One call sign

was created in 1953 after a
presidential plane carrying
Eisenhower entered the same
airspace as a commercial
airliner using the same name.
Previous owners
Shooting some hoops
Ex-US presidents also

sometimes travel on Air Force
One to large state occasions,
such as in 1981 when Nixon,
Ford and Carter all flew to
Cairo, Egypt, for a funeral.
In March 2012 President

Barack Obama invited the
British Prime Minister
David Cameron to fly on Air
Force One to a basketball
game taking place in Ohio.
The new model
The two VC-25As currently in

use by the US president are
set to be replaced in 2017 with
three new jetliners. These will
either be Boeing 747-8s or
Boeing 787 Dreamliners.
DID YOU KNOW? Air Force One isnt actually a plane but a unique call name to distinguish an aircraft carrying the US premier
Communications centre
A dedicated comms hub is
installed to the rear of the flight
deck. This relays critical
information to the president and
White House staff 24 hours a day.
The statistics
Press section
Guest section
Guests of the US president, such
as foreign leaders and dignitaries,
are assigned their own cabin
rear-centre of the aeroplane.
Members of the press

including the presidents
official photographer are
seated at the rear of the
plane in their own cabin.
Air Force One

Crew: 26
Capacity: 102
Powerplant: 4 x General Electric
CF6-80C2B1F turbofans
Thrust per engine:
25,493kgf (56,202lbf)
Max speed:
1,014km/h (630mph)
Max altitude:
13,746m (45,100ft)
Max range:
12,550km (7,800mi)
In the event of a major incident

such as a nuclear attack the
president along with his chiefs of
staff can convene in Air Force
Ones conference room to discuss
tactical options and any intel.
Powerplant
The VC-25A is powered by four General
Electric CF6-80C2B1F turbofans, each
capable of outputting 25,493kgf (56,202lbf)
of thrust. These grant the aircraft a top
speed of 1,014km/h (630mph).
Alex Pang; Corbis
Conference room
109
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Piloting a helicopter
How to fly
a helicopter
Advancements in
helicopter technology
A number of recent advancements have improved
on the existing helicopter design. One of these is
the no-tail rotor, or NOTAR. This functions to solve
two commonly encountered problems; namely
the noise made by the tail rotor and the ease with
which it can be damaged.
It works by blowing spent air from the
helicopters main rotor down the tail boom. Slots
located on the tail boom allow the air to escape,
producing a sideways force that works to oppose
the torque generated by the main rotor. By
varying the amount of air expelled, this can also
aid directional control.
A second engine is also being fitted to some
helicopters, which functions as a fail-safe if the
main engine were to stop working. Either engine
is capable of keeping the aircraft airborne,
enabling the pilot to land safely in the event of an
engine malfunction.
Find out what it takes to fly these amazing aircraft

Piloting this incredible piece of
engineering is no mean feat for anyone.
Immense mental and physical
co-ordination is required; the ability to use each
hand and foot independently to operate the flight
controls is a prerequisite for any prospective pilot.
This means training to become a helicopter pilot

takes a significant amount of time, money,
training and dedication. Typically more than
1,000 registered flying hours and numerous
written exams are needed if you want to fly a
helicopter commercially.
Inside the cockpit
2Instrument panel
Learn how these controls enable a pilot

to manoeuvre a helicopter
1Centre console
The radio and transponder

tend to be located on the centre
console. A variety of other
instrumentation will also be
present, including master
switches for the engine, and
multiple temperature
gauges.
Similar to an aeroplane, there are a

number of instruments that need constant
monitoring while airborne, including speed
indicators, as well as the altitude (height)
and attitude (forward speed) values.
This Belgian police helicopter features the

innovative no-tail rotor (NOTAR) system
4
1
5
3 Anti-torque pedals
Located at the front of the cockpit are two pedals,

which control the tail rotor. Operating the pedals causes a
lateral change in direction, and is used to combat the
torque created by the main rotors during takeoff, which
causes the helicopter to turn.
110
4 Cyclic-pitch lever
Sitting between the pilots legs, the cyclic-pitch lever

works to tilt the aircraft forwards, backwards or
side-to-side. It tilts the rotor disc in the desired direction
of flight, changing the angle of the rotor blades to alter
the helicopters direction.
5Collective-pitch lever
This works to move the aircraft up and down and is used

during the helicopters takeoff. When engaged, a collective
change is imparted on the pitch of all the crafts rotor blades, by
changing the angle of the swashplate (inset image). The
throttle is also located here, which controls the engines power.
Richair/Mikhail Starodubov /Patrick Allen/Dreamstime
DID YOU KNOW? In 1936 the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 became the first operational helicopter
The AirBoard
The contenders
More tiny aircraft proving that bigger
isnt always better
Meet the smallest one-person aircraft in the world

Ever wanted to fly but dont have the
time or money to train as a pilot? The
new AirBoard could be the answer.
The smallest one-person aircraft in the world, it
can carry the weight of a single person using its
powerful battery. The AirBoard is classified as
an ultralight quadcopter aircraft and its small
enough to fit in the boot of your car.
Its thrust is provided by four high-speed
electric motors that each power a propeller. The
drive system is managed by an Intel processor
chip that incorporates a ground collision sensor to
keep the board at a set height above the ground.
What makes
an ultralight
quadcopter?
This system comes into its own when you take the
AirBoard into the great outdoors. Designed for
both urban and rural use, the quadcopter will
hover over nearly all ground, whether its a snowy
plain, water, rocky terrain or just in the street.
The device is easy to control, requiring the
user to merely lean in the direction they want to
go. For safety, the boards altitude is limited to a
tame 1.5 metres (4.9 feet). The AirBoards
qualities make it ideal for recreational use but
its features also make it potentially useful in
search and rescue for the emergency services
and perhaps even espionage for the military.
Messerschmitt Me-328
It may have never made it past the prototype
stage, but the Messerschmitt Me-328 is the
smallest pulsejet fighter of all time. It would
have been used by Nazi Germany as a parasite
fighter launched off larger aircraft.
Size when closed

Easily stowed in a car, the device is
only 80 x 110cm (31 x 43in) and 140cm
(55in) long when shut.
Take a look at the technology

under the bonnet of the AirBoard
Bumble Bee II
The tiny 2.7m (8.8ft)-long Bumble Bee II is
listed by the Guinness Book Of Records as
the smallest aircraft ever made, but it was
sadly destroyed in a crash in 1988.
Intel processor
In charge of all this tech is
an Intel processor that
allows the AirBoard to be
both power-efficient and
high performing.
When in use, the AirBoard

stretches to 190 x 150cm (75 x
59in) and 180cm (71in) in length.
Parachutes
In case of emergency,
parachutes can be
attached to all four
corners of the AirBoard.
Propulsion
The AirBoard gets its lift from
four propellers, which are
powered by high-speed electric
motors to produce a total of
40kW (54hp).
Body
Using an aluminium and carbon
fibre frame, the AirBoard is
both light and sturdy.
Navigation
GPS and a compass are included
within the AirBoard so youll never
get lost when going from A to B.
Bede Bd-5
The Bede BD-5 is considered the smallest
civilian jet but not the worlds smallest
aircraft. Its first flight was in 1971 and despite
its 3.8m (12.5ft) length it can reach a top speed
of 483km/h (300mph).
Added extras
Built-in Bluetooth gives the
device connectivity with
smartphones and tablets, as well
as a host of related apps.
XF-85
A prototype parasite fighter like the Me-328, the
American XF-85 Goblin was the worlds smallest
jet fighter. At 2,050kg (4,519lb) when loaded, it is
significantly heavier than the civilian aircraft
on the list, mainly due to its four machine guns.
111
AirBoard; Thinkstock
Size when open
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Next-gen airships
How next-gen
airships work
Climb aboard these ultra-light giants
for a journey into the future of flight
Hard body
The Aeroscraft is a
rigid-bodied airship
built around an
internal steel skeleton.
No tipping
If cargo shifts mid-flight,
the Aeroscraft can quickly
regain its balance by filling
counterbalanced
compartments with
compressed air.
It makes for a breathtaking image: a

near-silent goliath of an airship
hovering only a few thousand metres
above the Grand Canyon or the Norwegian
fjords. Inside the airships roomy
accommodations, 200 passengers enjoy their
luxury air cruise, a slow but scenic tour of the
worlds most impressive landscapes.
This is the vision of a new generation of
airship engineers and entrepreneurs who
believe that dirigibles rigid-bodied aircraft
filled with helium will be the efficient,
eco-friendly transport of the future.
Dirigibles already have a long history. The
first manned airship flights were made more
than 120 years before the Wright brothers. In
the 1780s, French innovators experimented
112
with the first hot-air balloons and hydrogenfilled blimps. In the early days, hydrogen was
the preferred gas for lighter-than-air vehicles
because it is cheap, plentiful and the lightest
substance on Earth 14 times less dense than
air. Unfortunately, its also highly flammable.
By the early-20th century, German company
Luftschiffbau Zeppelin was creating the
worlds largest and most powerful rigid-bodied
dirigibles as both warships and passenger
liners. The fiery crash of the hydrogen-filled
Zeppelin Hindenburg in 1937, however,
effectively burst the golden age of the airship.
Todays dirigibles, inflated with inert
helium, fly more like aeroplanes than blimps.
These hybrid airships are powered by four or
more jet engines that can fully rotate for both
horizontal and vertical thrust. In vertical

position, the engines are able to lift the airship
straight off the ground, eliminating the need
for runways. Once up in the air, the rigid,
ellipsoid body of the airship also provides
aerodynamic lift when cruising.
The combination of buoyancy (helium),
vectored thrust (jet engines) and aerodynamic
lift (body) results in far greater fuel efficiency
than large planes or helicopters. For that
reason, airships are being marketed as heavy
lifters that can bring 50-500 tons of cargo to
remote locations. In ten years, airship
designers expect a 200-ton capacity airship to
burn 0.1 kilograms (0.22 pounds) of fuel for
every 1,000 kilograms (2,204 pounds) of cargo
flown one kilometre (0.6 miles). Today, a
RECORD
BREAKERS
AEROSCRAFT
PAYLOAD
60,963kg
THE LIGHTWEIGHT HEAVYWEIGHT

Despite its delicate appearance, the Aeroscraft can actually lift
the equivalent of 15 fully grown African elephants (close to
61,000 kilograms/134,400 pounds) in its cargo hold.
DID YOU KNOW? The Hindenburg was designed to fly with helium, but German engineers were forced to retrofit for hydrogen
The statistics
Aeroscraft
Length: 152m (500ft)
Span: 49m (160ft)
Total passengers: 180
Range: 5,744km (3,569mi)
Cruise speed:
222km/h (138mph)
Altitude: 3,658m (12,000ft)
Todays dirigibles,
inflated with inert
helium, fly more like
aeroplanes rather
than blimps
Introducing the Aeroscraft

Measuring 152 metres (500 feet) long, luxury liner Aeroscraft will hold 180
passengers as they cruise at 222 kilometres (138 miles) per hour.
Travellers can admire the view afforded by floor-to-ceiling windows as
the floating giant hovers 3,658 metres (12,000 feet) over the Earth. Aeros
describes it as the only next-gen airship capable of truly vertical takeoff
and landing; even hybrid airships need a running start to achieve lift. On
the Aeroscraft, rapid ascent is powered by a combination of the ships
store of helium and six turbofan jet engines. The difference between
Aeroscraft and other airships is an internal ballast system called
Dynamic Buoyancy Management. When an airship loads or unloads
cargo, the change in weight must be counterbalanced by adding or
removing ballast else the vehicle will be too heavy to fly or too light to
navigate. Instead of loading and unloading water ballast during takeoff
and landing, the Aeroscraft can adjust internal buoyancy by taking in air
from the outside and compressing it in internal compartments.
How does Aeroscraft take to the skies?

Compare the Aeroscraft's takeoff and landing abilities with other airships
Cruise
Conventional airship
Takeoff and
ascent
Descent and
landing
LTA
LTA
Hover craft
The Aeroscrafts six
powerful turbine engines
allow it to hover in place
while carrying a full
payload, even loading
and unloading cargo.
LTA
Cruise
Hybrid airship
Takeoff and
ascent
Descent and
landing
HTA
HTA
HTA
The Aeroscraft
Cruise
Takeoff and
ascent
Descent and
landing
LTA
vertically
HTA
100-ton capacity 747 jumbo jet burns three

times that amount.
A big player in the airship renaissance is the
military. The US Army has invested billions in
airships as surveillance aircraft and troop
movers. Unmanned airships can hover for
three weeks at a safe altitude of 6,000 metres
(20,000 feet) over targets and airship personnel
carriers can take off and land from desert, ice
or water.
Within the next 20 years, airship engineers
expect to witness a transportation revolution.
Green airships will carry drilling rigs to the
Arctic Circle. A flotilla of dirigibles will take
troops and tanks into warzones. And you and
your family may be going on sky cruises on
holidays with a whole new perspective.
LTA/HTA
(mission
dependent)
LTA
vertically
HTA
LTA = Lighter than air HTA = Heavier than air
Its estimated that the

Aeroscraft will be able to cross
the USA in around 18 hours
113
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT
Next-gen airships
Meet the Airlander
Cheap flight
The 90-metre (295-foot) Airlander, manufactured by Hybrid Air Vehicles, is a hybrid

aircraft with the vertical takeoff agility of a helicopter and the long-range flight
capabilities of a conventional airship. Only 40 per cent of the Airlanders lift is
supplied by helium. The rest is powered by four turbine engines. This extra muscle
enables the football field-sized Airlander to carry payloads of up to 200 tons. The
Airlander comes in two models: one for heavy-lift transportation and another for
military use. When fully loaded with six 6.1-metre (20-foot) shipping containers, the
Airlander can travel 2,500 kilometres (1,600 miles) at a top speed of 160 kilometres
(100 miles) per hour. With its vertical takeoff and landing capabilities, the Airlander
doesnt require a runway and can land on any reasonably flat surface, including
water, snow, ice and sand. The US Army has purchased a fleet of Airlanders for
long-range surveillance, both manned and unmanned. On an unmanned
surveillance mission, the Airlander can hover above a target zone and provide what
the military calls an unblinking stare for 21 days straight without refuelling. The
Airlander is marketed as a green transport solution, using far less fuel than
conventional aircraft, and supplying a point-to-point solution that eliminates
environmentally invasive infrastructure like major roads and airstrips.
The unmanned surveillance version

of the Airlander can fly for weeks on
8,000kg (18,000lb) of fuel costing
just 12,600 ($20,000).
Not a blimp
The envelope of the Airlander
isnt a blimp-like balloon, but a
rigid body formed from a blend
of Kevlar, Mylar and Vectran.
The statistics
Airlander
Length: 90m (295ft)
ACLS
The air cushion landing
system deploys an
inflatable cushion to
soften landings and
provide suction to hold
the craft still during
loading and unloading.
Cruise speed:
148km/h (92mph)
Max altitude:
6,096m (20,000ft)
Max payload:
200,000kg (440,925lb)
Endurance: 21 days (unmanned)
Power: 7,457kW (10,000shp)
The Hindenburg disaster
Airships like the Airlander will be

able to land in terrain that most
other aircraft would struggle with
114
Gus Pasquerella
The newsreel footage is as powerful today as it must have

been on 6 May 1937, when announcer Herbert Morrison
choked with emotion as he described the explosive
consumption and crash of the LZ-129 Hindenburg, one of the
largest (and the last) airships of the era. The exact cause of the
fire is unknown engine backfire, lightning, even sabotage
but the explosion was fuelled by the highly flammable
hydrogen gas used to keep the 245-metre (803-foot) dirigible
afloat. Incredibly, only 35 people died of the 97 on board.
DID YOU KNOW? In 1785, Jean-Pierre Blanchard crossed the English Channel in an airship propelled by flapping wings
Enter the SkyTug
The statistics
SkyTug
Aeros; Hybrid Air Vehicles; Lockheed Martin
Lockheed Martin was one of the top competitors when the US Army went
shopping for a new surveillance aircraft. In 2006, the Army passed on
Lockheeds next-generation P-791 hybrid airship in favour of the
Airlander, a similar aircraft built by Britains Hybrid Air Vehicles and
American defence contractor Northrop Grumman. Now the P-791 has
been revived as the SkyTug, a hybrid airship poised to serve oil and gas
rigs drilling in remote locations. The SkyTug works almost exactly like
the Airlander, achieving lift through a combination of helium and fully
rotating turbine engines. A Canadian firm recently ordered a SkyTug
with a 20-ton cargo capacity, but Lockheed says the design is scalable to
handle five times that weight. The SkyTugs air cushion landing system
features inflatable landing surfaces that enable the airship to land on
almost any terrain, much like its competitor the Airlander. Lockheed is
billing the SkyTug as the perfect long-range transport for heavy
machinery and equipment. Instead of building expensive roads or
railways to Arctic drilling sites, we can now ship heavy equipment via
airship. To this end, hybrid airships like the SkyTug can operate in
temperatures as low as -56 degrees Celsius (-68 degrees Fahrenheit).

Max altitude:
6,096m (20,000ft)
Endurance: 21 days
Payload:
From 20,000kg (44,092lb)
Min temperature:
-56C (-68F)
Suction
The SkyTug was originally

intended to be used by the US
Army but lost out to the Airlander
The SkyTug doesnt need to

be tied down to a mooring
station after landing. The
landing system doubles as
suction, gripping the
ground even in high winds.
Floating freight
Lockheed hopes to
launch an entire new
industry with the
SkyTug: point-to-point
shipping of heavy
machinery by airship.
Crash proof
If the SkyTug loses all
engine power, it wont come
crashing to the ground like a
lead weight. It will float
down slowly and be
cushioned by its four
inflatable landing pads.
115
BOOK OF
AIRCRAFT
Spacecraft
140
118
Exploring the outer

Solar System
Meet the handful of spacecraft
that have ventured to the
furthest reaches of space
122
The evolution of
space travel
spacecraft
Automated transfer
128 Voyager
What path have the Voyager
136
vehicles (ATVs)
probes taken and where are
they now?
The MESSENGER probe

130 Discover
the first spacecraft
to make the voyage to and
explore Mercury since 1975
Take a look at ten important

space missions
The Orion spacecraft
124 How the replacement for
132
NASAs Space Shuttle will take

us to the Moon and beyond
board the
126 On
SpaceShipTwo
Will this kickstart commercial
flights into space?
116
134
Big Space Balloon

How will this giant
stratospheric balloon reach
the edge of space?
Space Shuttle
payload bay
Discover how this colossal
craft delivers tons of supplies
and tech into space
Keeping the International

Space Station fully stocked
with the help of ATVs
Solar-powered
138 spacecraft
Harnessing energy from the
Sun, solar-powered probes are
environmentally friendly
Next-gen space planes

140 How
the next generation of
aircraft will help us venture
into space like never before
In five decades, space

travel has truly come
on leaps and bounds
118
128
126
130
117
SPACECRAFT
Exploring the outer Solar System
Exploring the
outer Solar System
Only a handful of spacecraft have ventured to
the farthest reaches of our Solar System, but
what did they find when they got there?
118
THE
STATS
CASSINI MISSION
NAMED SATURNIAN
$3.27bn PHOTOSTOTAKEN
DATE 300,000
MOONS PASSED 53
YEAR OF TITANS
LENGTH OF
DISCOVERY 1655 CASSINIS WIRES 12km DATA CAPTURED 300GB
MISSION
COST
On 14 January 2005, the world got its first proper

look of Titan. A spray of yellow stones on a sandy
backdrop extending into a hazy sky, it could easily
have been mistaken for a sepia-toned photograph from a
desert, taken back in the Sixties. Its not what most people
would expect a land of liquid methane lakes, water-ice
rocks and an average daytime temperature of -179 degrees
Celsius (-290 degrees Fahrenheit) to look like.
This was our first closeup of anything in the outer Solar
System, however. Previously we had nothing but giant
telescopes or passing probes taking photos of the four
planets and their many moons but often from millions of
miles away. The ESAs Huygens probe, piggybacking NASAs
Cassini spacecraft, had plunged through Titans dense
nitrogen and methane clouds that had veiled its surface
from our prying eyes ever since its discovery, down to the
rocky ground below. Because its relay, Cassini, was moving
out of range at the rate of five metres (16 feet) a second,
Huygens was only designed for 30 minutes of data
acquisition in mind, even though it continued to transmit
data for just over an hour and a half.
Though Cassini is revealing unprecedented detail about
Saturn, were still scraping the surface of what we can learn
about this gas giant and theres still a black hole of
knowledge to be filled in about the outer Solar System in

general. Weve managed to visit Mars, Venus and the
planets on our galactic doorstep within the Asteroid Belt
with all manner of spacecraft, but our cosmic backyard is
still wild and unexplored. Historically, the farther beyond
Mars we look, the fewer probes we see making the huge
journey to the strange celestial bodies that dwell far from
the warmth of the Sun. Jupiter has had six successful flybys
by separate spacecraft and one orbiter (Galileo) while
Saturn has had three flybys and one orbiter (Cassini).
Uranus and Neptune have only ever had a fleeting visit by
the Voyager 2 probe, while dwarf planet Pluto (about 5.9
billion kilometres/3.7 billion miles from the Sun) is yet to get
its own closeup, but New Horizons is set to reach it in 2015.
Saturn being the current planet on NASAs Grand Tour of
the outer planets, Cassini is getting a lot of attention at the
moment. Its primary mission was to study Saturn and its
satellites in close proximity, but in the seven-year journey
to the sixth planet from the Sun, it collected a staggering
amount of data simply flying past planets it was using to
carry out a gravitational assist. Venus, Earth and the Moon
got a slew of calibration shots to add to their portfolios as
their gravity was used to propel Cassini towards Saturn.
Jupiter was analysed in greater detail, photographed 26,000
119
SPL
DID YOU KNOW? It takes almost 90 minutes for radio signals from Saturn to reach us on Earth
SPACECRAFT
Pioneer 11 is on a course that will see

it pass one of the stars in the Aquila
constellation in 4 million years time
Exploring the outer Solar System
times in Cassinis six-month Jovian flyby. It

added to the bounty of information gathered
by the Galileo orbiter in its eight-year mission
that concluded in 2003, along with the Galileo
probe that sacrificed itself in the name of
astronomy by plummeting into the vice-like
pressures beneath Jupiters gaseous surface.
Although all contact has now been lost with
the Pioneer 10 spacecraft that launched in 1972,
its mission to fly by Jupiter was a success at a
time when landing on the Moon was still fresh
in everyones mind. It took 500 photos of the
behemoth before moving on to the chilly outer
fringes of our Solar System, gathering data
until its power failed in 2003 at a distance of 12
billion kilometres (7.5 billion miles) from Earth.
Pioneer 11, which has performed flybys of
both Jupiter and Saturn, has suffered from
similar technical issues (in this case with its
radio) and is lost in the outer Solar System on
an extrasolar course that will see it pass one of
the stars in the Aquila constellation in around
4 million years time. Similarly, Voyager 2 is
bordering on the farthest reaches of the Suns
influence, having flown by Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune in the Seventies and
Eighties. In contrast, both Voyager 1 and 2 are,
amazingly, still fully functional and in regular
communication with NASA headquarters.
Cassini entered Saturns orbit on 30 June
2004, seven years after its launch. The next four
years of its initial mission it spent scanning
Saturns surface, its rings and its moons to gain
an unprecedented understanding of the
Saturnian system. Its primary objective was
completed in 2008 and, with nearly a decade of
life left in Cassini, NASA embarked on the
two-year extended Equinox mission in which
the craft orbited Saturn another 60 times with
36 flybys of its moons, including 26 close
encounters with Titan. Cassinis current
extended mission Solstice began on 12
October 2010 and will end in 2017, just in time
for the summer solstice of Saturns 29-year
orbit in its northern hemisphere.
Probably the most famous of all probes,
though, is Voyager 1. It actually launched a
month after Voyager 2 but because of Voyager
2s more convoluted trajectory, it passed its
older sibling as the farthest man-made object
from Earth and is on track to be the first
man-made object to exit the Solar System into
interstellar space. On its path to extrasolar
glory, it has examined Jupiter, Saturn and its
biggest moon Titan, providing the first detailed
images of all three of these celestial bodies.
120
Pioneer 10s technology
Magnetometer
Held out by a boom arm,
this measured the strength
and direction of the Jovian
and interplanetary
magnetic fields.
Powered by a lump of plutonium-238

isotope inside four radioisotope
thermoelectric generators, Pioneer
10 should have been at just under 80
per cent when communication was
lost in 2003, due to rapid
deterioration of several key electrical
points on the craft. It powered a
load-out that included instruments
for gathering and sometimes
processing raw data from deep
space to be sent back to Earth.
Antenna
A low and a high-gain
antenna enabled Pioneer to
communicate with Earth.
Asteroid-meteoroid
detector sensor
Always on the hunt for
interesting objects,
Pioneer 10 could track
anything from motes of
dust to passing asteroids.
Cosmic ray telescope

Data from the charged
particle instrument could
be measured and analysed
with this telescope.
MMRTGs
Pioneer 10 used multimission radioisotope
thermoelectric generators
to power its systems. Each
of the four MMRTGs
harnessed heat from 4.8kg
(10.6lb) of plutonium-238
to produce electricity and
could be used in both an
atmosphere or a vacuum.
Ultraviolet
photometer
Charged
particle instrument
Pioneer 10 used UV
light to determine the
helium/hydrogen
composition of Jupiter.
Cosmic rays originating

from the early universe
were detected with this,
relaying the data to the
cosmic ray telescope.
What are gravitational assists?

Sending a probe directly to the outer
planets by pointing the spacecraft in
the right direction and blasting away
can cost a prohibitive amount of fuel.
Instead, using well-found techniques,
NASA can calculate a trajectory that
uses the gravity of the inner planets to
slingshot the craft in an increasingly
wider orbit. With this added velocity,
they are able to shoot off on course for
a journey beyond the Asteroid Belt. In
this diagram, we reveal how the
Cassini-Huygens craft used gravity
assists to get to Saturn
3. Venus 2 flyby
Over a year after its first
gravitational assist,
Cassini builds up more
momentum with a
second Venus flyby.
Venus
Sun
2. Venus 1 flyby
After a loop around the
Sun, it embarks on the
first of two gravitational
assists from Venus.
Earth
4. Earth flyby
The probe bids farewell to
its home world as Earth
gives it the momentum it
needs to leave the inner
Solar System.
1. Cassini launch
The Cassini-Huygens
launches from Earth on
the back of a Titan IVB/
Centaur booster.
HEAD
HEAD
1. BRIGHTEST
2. WEIRDEST
Enceladus
SATURNIAN
MOONS
3. SPONGIEST
Iapetus
This cold moon (-201

degrees Celsius/-330
degrees Fahrenheit) is
covered in water-ice,
reflecting nearly 100
per cent of sunlight.
Hyperion
Even NASA thinks that this

moon is odd. One side is
jet-black and the other white;
and while it looks like it
should have a 16-hour day, in
fact its 79 Earth days long!
This oddly shaped moon

is the largest irregularshaped satellite ever to be
observed in space. Its
pockmarked surface lends
it a spongy appearance.
DID YOU KNOW? One of Cassinis cameras is so sensitive that it can take clear pictures of a coin 4km (2.5mi) away!
Voyagers journey to the edge of the Solar System

Compare the routes of Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 and discover how they have managed to get so far
Saturn flyby
Voyager 2 launches the

month before Voyager 1
but on a longer, more
circuitous trajectory.
Over a year after the

Jupiter encounter and
Voyager 1 uses the
gravity of Saturn to
propel itself on.
Voyager 1 launch
Exploiting a rare 176-year
planetary alignment
window to slingshot out
of the Solar System,
Voyager 1 launches in
September 1977.
Neptune
Its final, fleeting
visit is to Neptune
before Voyager 2
makes its way out of
the Solar System,
hot on the heels
of Voyager 1.
Voyager 2 launch
Spacecraft overtake
Voyager 2 is overtaken as
Voyager 1 takes a more
direct route onward.
Jupiter flyby
Voyager 1 says a
brief hello to Jupiter
in March 1979.
Interstellar space
Voyager 1 is propelled
onward on a trajectory
that will take it directly
out of the Solar System.
Voyager 1
Uranus
Using the same

slingshot technique as its
sibling, Voyager 2 takes
advantage of Jupiters
gravity to push itself on.
Voyager 2
Unlike Voyager 1,
Voyager 2 pays a visit to
Uranus having swung
around Saturn for
another assist.
Testing Einstein
Saturn
One of the tasks Voyager performed was to put

Einsteins theory of general relativity to the test
specifically the curvature of space-time. The
idea is that a massive body like the Sun would
increase the distance radio waves have to travel
as its gravity greatly distorts space-time. Radio
waves were beamed from Voyager to Earth and
back, resulting in a measured frequency shift as
the radio waves passed by the Sun. The
experiment has also been performed by the
Mars Viking programme and Cassini, and all
three experiments produced the same results
totally supporting Einsteins theory.
7. Saturn
orbit insertion
After a seven-year
cruise, Cassini arrives at
Saturn and inserts itself
into orbit with some help
from its thrusters.
6. Phoebes closeup
The only possible flyby of
Saturns ninth-largest moon,
Phoebe, is made on 11 June
2004. The close-up image
Cassini takes leads scientists
to believe there is water-ice
beneath its surface.
Jupiter
Pioneer 10s route

Where has this probe travelled since
it launched and what has it seen?
Asteroid Belt
Heading directly for
Jupiter, Pioneer 10
becomes the first
man-made object to
pass through the
Asteroid Belt.
5. Jupiter flyby
The probe meets Jupiter
in a well-timed flyby that
gives it an extra kick on
its way to Saturn.
Moon
11 hours after launch, Pioneer
10 reaches the Moon.
Jupiter orbit
Jupiter flyby
A swift flyby of Jupiter
and Pioneer 10s primary
mission is completed,
although it uses a Jupiter
slingshot to continue into
the outer Solar System until
contact was lost in 2003.
NASA
Jupiter flyby
121
Japans Hayabusa probe was

the first spacecraft to return a
SPACECRAFT sample from an asteroid
The evolution of space travel
SPACE TRAVEL
We take a look at ten important space missions
and the craft that undertook them
1969
Since Russias Sputnik 1 satellite entered space on 4
October 1957, thousands of spacecraft, including
Earth satellites and deep-space probes, have
launched into the cosmos.
In those five decades space travel has truly come on leaps
and bounds, with the development of liquid and solid
fuels, and the use of solar panels and radioactive power
sources among many of the impressive innovations,
allowing space agencies across the planet to
undertake evermore ambitious missions that would
once have never been thought possible. Here, How
It Works has compiled ten of the most successful
missions that have advanced the field of space
travel to a whole new level.
1960s
Apollo 11
Probably the most well-known space mission of all time,
Apollo 11 was launched atop the most powerful
rocket to date, the Saturn V. The spacecraft
was composed of two sections the
Lunar Module and the Command
Module the latter of which
remained in orbit around the moon
with Michael Collins on board
while the former took astronauts
Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin to
the surface. Apollo 11 paved the way
for a further five successful missions
to the moon, each spending several
days on the lunar surface.
1970s
1977-present
1961
Voyager 1 and 2
Vostok 1
In 1961 Yuri Gagarin became the first
man to travel to space, and the spacecraft
that took him there for 68 minutes, was a
fairly rudimentary sphere known as
Vostok 1. As this was the first manned
craft to leave Earth orbit, lots of extra
precautions were taken, eg Gagarin was
not able to freely move around the cabin,
nor was he able to manually control the
spacecraft. Nonetheless, in the timeline
of space exploration, Vostok 1 is without
a doubt one of the most important
spacecraft of all time.
1961-1984
Venera probes
The Venera missions have been Russias most
successful space exploration missions to date. In
total, 23 separate probes were launched to the
hottest planet in our solar system, Venus,
between 1961 and 1984, with ten of these
landing on the surface. Each Venera lander
was a technical marvel, withstanding
incredible temperatures of up to 462 degrees
Celsius (864 degrees Fahrenheit) to remain
operational for up to two hours. They returned key
data about the surface of Venus, including detailed
information on the planets atmospheric structure.
122
1980s
The Voyager programme was originally designed to

explore Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, but
the mission was extended to include the boundary
into interstellar space, which they are currently
entering. The Voyager probes both receive power
from three radioisotope thermoelectric
generators, fed by plutonium-238. On
board each probe is a variety of
sounds and images known as the
Golden Record, which also
contains instructions on how to
find Earth for any passing aliens.
1972-2003
Pioneer 10 and 11
The purpose of the Pioneer missions was to
learn about the outer reaches of the solar
system. These two spacecraft were, at the
time of their launch, the most advanced
vehicles to venture into space. They
contained a number of technical tools
never used before, including a charged
particle instrument to measure the extent
of the Suns influence. While comms were
lost in 1995 (Pioneer 11) and 2003 (Pioneer 10),
the probes continue to make their way out of
the solar system, with each possessing an
on-board plaque detailing their origins.
DID YOU KNOW? Voyager 1 was the first spacecraft to enter interstellar space on 25th August, 2012
1981-2011
Space Shuttles
NASAs five cosmos-faring Space
Shuttles were the largest spacecraft of
all time, and each completed numerous
missions that defined them as some of
the most important vehicles to enter
Earth orbit. Their many accolades
include taking the Hubble Space
Telescope into orbit (and later repairing
it) and launching more than 80 per cent
of the modules for the ISS. There were
135 missions in total, but two of these
ended in tragedy. The Challenger
spacecraft exploded 73 seconds after
launch in 1986, while in 2003 the
Columbia spacecraft was torn apart on
re-entry. While the Shuttles are
remembered largely as a success, these
two disasters serve as a reminder of just
how dangerous space travel is.
2003-2010
Hayabusa
Japans Hayabusa probe was the first
spacecraft to return a sample from an
asteroid, but it wasnt without its
problems. A fuel leak rendered its
chemical engines unusable and,
coupled with a variety of mechanical
failures, the probe was forced to limp
home on its weaker ion engines. It
eventually arrived three years behind
schedule in 2010, but the mission was
still a success. Ion engines on
spacecraft have become more and more
popular due to their longevity, rather
than relying on an initial big push.
1990s
2000s
1997-present
1989-2003
Galileo probe/
spacecraft
NASAs Galileo spacecraft was taken
into space in 1989 and went on to study
Jupiter after flybys of Venus and Earth. It
was the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter,
in addition to performing the first
flyby of an asteroid. It also carried
the Galileo Space Probe, which it
released into Jupiters atmosphere
in 1995, providing unprecedented
data about the gas giant. In 2003 the
orbiting spacecraft was sent crashing
into our solar systems biggest planet
to prevent it colliding with a nearby
moon and causing contamination.
The Cassini-Huygens probe was a joint mission

between NASA, the ESA and ASI (Italian Space
Agency) and is often regarded as the most successful
deep-space probe of all time. The orbiting component
of the probe flew by Jupiter and became the first
spacecraft to orbit Saturn. The
landing vehicle was the
Huygens Probe, which
landed on Saturns
moon Titan in 2005,
the first and only
successful
landing in the
outer solar
system. As
with most
probes, it is
powered by
plutonium-238,
which has
enabled its
mission to be
extended to 2017.
2006-present
New Horizons
NASAs New Horizons spacecraft will become
the first probe to fly by Pluto in 2015. While its
primary mission is to study the (now) dwarf
planet, it has also studied Jupiter and its moons.
New Horizons is the fastest probe to have left
Earths orbit. It is currently more than 21 times
further from the Sun than Earth; at that distance it
takes almost three hours to send or receive a signal.
123
NASA/JAXA/JPL/Caltech/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute/Pline
Cassini-Huygens
SPACECRAFT
The crew module will use

parachutes and air bags to allow
a cushioned touchdown
Space Shuttles successor
The Orion
spacecraft
How the replacement for NASAs Space Shuttle
will take us to the moon and beyond
solar panels that are deployed post-launch in
addition to batteries to store power for times of
darkness. Like the Orion crew module, the service
module is also five metres in diameter to provide a
clean fit between the two, and has a mass of about
3,700kg in addition to 8,300kg of propellant.
Exerting 33,000 newtons (7,500 pounds) of thrust,
the engine of the service module uses hypergolic
fuels monomethyl hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide,
which are propellants that ignite on contact with
each other and require no ignition source. Another
benefit of these propellants is that they do not need
to be cooled like other fuels; they can be stored at
room temperature. 24 thrusters around the service
module will also give it control to change its
orientation in all directions, but these are almost 30
times weaker than the main booster.
Upon descent to Earth the Orion crew module will
use a combination of parachutes and air bags to
allow a cushioned touchdown on land or sea. The
service module will detach in space and disintegrate
in the atmosphere. The entire Orion crew module
will be reusable for at most ten missions except for its
ablative heat shield, which burns up on re-entry into
Earths atmosphere to protect the astronauts from
the extreme heat.
NASA
The primary goals of the Orion spacecraft,

which has been contracted to technology
company Lockheed Martin by NASA, are to
deliver crew and cargo to the International Space
Shuttle and return astronauts to the moon after
almost a 50-year wait. Orion made its first test flight
in December 2014 and is scheduled to complete a
lunar mission by the early 2020s.
The Orion crew module is similar in design and
appearance to the Apollo Command Module that
first took astronauts to the moon. It is three times
the volume of the Apollo module with the same 70
sloped top, deemed to be the safest and most reliable
shape for re-entering Earths atmosphere at high
velocity. The Orion module has a diameter of five
metres and a total mass of about 9,000kg including
the cargo and the crew, which increases or decreases
slightly for missions to the International Space
Station and the moon respectively. Unlike the
Apollo module, which had a crew capacity of three
people, the Orion module can carry between four
and six astronauts.
Attached to the crew module is the service
module, responsible for propulsion, electrical
power, communications and water/air storage. The
service module is equipped with a pair of extendable
The Orion spacecraft

will transport a lunar
lander to the moon
124
The first Orion missions

will see it dock with the
ISS to test its systems
5 TOP
FACTS
JAXA PROJECTS
Orion
Boeing CST-100
SpaceX Dragon
Although Orion is currently

still on schedule, there are
murmurs that the project
could be canned in favour of
using private companies for
transporting crew to the ISS.
One of the competitors, the

Dragon capsule is currently
undergoing cargo testing
and could be ready to
transport crew members to
the ISS as early as 2017.
After losing the Orion contract

to Lockheed Martin, Boeings
capsule (similar in design to
Orion) has been helped by
$18m of funding from NASA
and could launch by 2017.
Dream Chaser
X-37B
Under development by the

Sierra Nevada Corporation,
this space plane won $20m
from a NASA competition.
It could land on almost any
runway in the world.
This US military space plane

returned from a seven month
orbit in 2010 and made the
first ever spacecraft landing
by autopilot, but its
intentions are unknown.
NASA
DID YOU KNOW? An Orion test module used over 150,000 ping-pong balls to stop it sinking after splashing down in the ocean
Launch abort
In a launch pad emergency,
this rocket will lift the crew
module and allow it to
parachute safely to ground.
Heat shield
The ablative (burns on re-entry)
heat shield protects the crew
module as it returns to Earth alone
before the parachutes deploy.
Airlock
2015
Low Earth orbit
Jour
ne
Dist y tim
an
ce: e: Te
n
350
km m
es
ut
in
Service module
2019
First lunar
mission
ays
ree d
: Th km
e
tim 0,000
ey
8
rn ce: 3
u
o
n
a
t
is
This module supports the crew

throughout their journey,
providing life support and
propulsion, before detaching
upon Earth re-entry.
Earth / Moon / Mars NASA
Able to accommodate up to
six crew members, this
module provides a safe
habitat for them to stay in
during their journey.
When and where will

Orion be going?*
Crew module
The Launch Abort System

will carry the crew module
to safety in an emergency
NASA
The top of the crew module

allows docking with other
vehicles such as the ISS and
lunar landers.
Journey time: On
e yea
r
Distance: 54 m
illion
km
Cargo
Inside the service
module, unpressurised cargo
for the ISS and science
equipment are stored.
Spacecraft adapter
Connects the Orion
spacecraft to the launch
rocket, and also protects
components in the
service module.
Success now achieved
2031
First mission
to Mars
*Provisional dates from NASA, subject to change
Full success anticipated
125
SPACECRAFT
When it is ready, VSS Unity

should achieve altitudes of
over 80 kilometres
SpaceShipTwo
On board the
SpaceShipTwo
Could this be the vehicle that will take you to space?
Virgin Galactics reusable spaceplane,
SpaceShipTwo, is designed to take two
pilots and six passengers on the trip of
a lifetime. Made by The Spaceship Company,
part of Virgin Galactic, this vessel will be
carried high into the atmosphere by the
jet-powered aircraft WhiteKnightTwo, before
engaging its rocket engines for a brief trip out of
this world.
With 12 windows on the walls and ceiling to
marvel at the view, and articulated seats for
optimum journey comfort, it has been designed
specifically with space tourism in mind.
Passengers will be able to look up at the stars
and down at the Earth below during a
controlled flight in a spaceship that looks like a
plane. After their adventure, they will glide
back through the atmosphere, before landing
on a runway.
The first SpaceShipTwo prototype broke
apart over the Mojave Desert in California
during a test flight in 2014, but Virgin Galactic is
determined to make the project a success. The
second iteration of the craft was officially
unveiled by Richard Branson on 19 February
2016, and has been named VSS Unity. Virgin
Galactic is paying close attention to safety,

commenting in a statement: Starting at the
level of individual pieces and components, we
poked, prodded, stretched, squeezed, bent and
twisted everything used to build these
vehicles. The next step is to test the fully
assembled spacecraft, first on the ground, then
during glide flights, and finally in rocketpowered tests.
When it is ready, VSS Unity should achieve
altitudes of over 80 kilometres high enough
that any passengers will officially be
recognised as astronauts by NASA and could
even reach altitudes of 110 kilometres. However,
it will be some time before we see the first brave
passengers take to the skies. Virgin Galactic
explains: As a thousand-year-old saying goes,
there is no easy way from the Earth to the stars.
But finally, there is a way, and through steady
testing, we will find it.
The first powered flight of

VSS Enterprise shows the
spaceplane in action
Windows
There are 12 windows
in the sides and on
the ceiling of the
craft, allowing
unprecedented views.
Cockpit
Two pilots fly the
craft using a control
panel in the cockpit.
Inside VSS Unity

Take a closer look at
Virgin Galactics
passenger spaceplane
Passenger cabin
Thrusters
Positioned at the front of the
spaceplane and on the wings,
thrusters provide additional
control during flight.
126
Fuselage
The body and nose of the
plane are constructed
from carbon fibre.
SpaceShipTwo has been

designed with the
passengers experience in
mind, aiming to minimise
the discomfort of G-forces.
Articulated seats
The passenger seats are
upright during ascent, and
reclined during re-entry.
Thrusters
DID YOU KNOW? There has only been one eight-person crew in space before, on board NASAs Space Shuttle Challenger
VSS Enterprise crash

After 55 successful test flights, the first SpaceShipTwo, VSS
Enterprise, broke apart over the Mojave Desert in California, killing
co-pilot Michael Alsbury. SpaceShipTwo is equipped with a
feathering system, designed to rotate the tail and wings for a
smooth descent through Earths atmosphere, but Alsbury unlocked
it too early. With the rocket engine still firing, and with VSS
Enterprise travelling at a little under the speed of sound, the
feather system deployed, pulling the spaceplane apart. The other
co-pilot, Peter Siebold, managed to parachute to safety. However,
the computer system should have prevented the disaster, and it
has been changed for the new SpaceShipTwo. This time, it will not
be possible for the crew to unlock the feather system too soon.
Flying
high
The National Transportation

Safety Board examines the
remains of VSS Enterprise
See how
SpaceShipTwo
compares to other
high fliers
KM
115
SpaceShipOne
112km
110
SpaceShipTwo
110km
105
100
95
Fuel
90
The VSS Unity will use a

rubber-based, solid fuel,
making combustion
more efficient.
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
The wings move

upwards during re-entry,
slowing descent.
50
45
Highest manned
balloon
41km
40
35
Standard
configuration
30
SpaceShipTwo can adopt

two different configurations,
behaving like a winged plane
or a capsule.
25
SR-71 Blackbird
26km
Concorde
18km
20
15
Nitrous
oxide tank
The hybrid solid and
liquid fuel engine can
be shut down during
the flight.
We poked, prodded,
stretched, squeezed, bent
and twisted everything
Virgin Galactic
hopes to take
tourists on short
trips to space
Airbus A380
13km
10
Ruppells
griffon
vulture
11km
KC-135A
VomitComet
10km
Virgin Galactic; Illustration by Adrian Mann
Feathered
configuration
SPACECRAFT
The probes have studied

all the major planets of the
solar system past Mars
Probing far from home
Voyager
spacecraft
Distance from Earth today: 14 billion km

NEPTUNE
How the furthest man-made objects from Earth work

On 20 August 1977 Voyager 2
launched from Cape Canaveral in
Florida aboard a Titan-Centaur
rocket, heralding the start of one of the most
ambitious deep space exploration missions
of all time. Two weeks later Voyager 1 was
sent up in an identical launch, although its
greater speed meant that it eventually
overtook Voyager 2. The list of
accomplishments by the two probes is
astounding. Between them they have
studied all of the major planets of the solar
system past Mars, in addition to some moons
of Jupiter and Saturn, making countless new
discoveries in the process. Now, as the
furthest man-made objects from Earth, they
are on their way out of the solar system.
The launch of the mission coincided with a
favourable alignment of the planets in the
Seventies that would allow Voyager 2 to visit
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The
list of achievements by the two Voyager
spacecraft is extensive. The Voyager mission
was only the second after Pioneer 10 and 11
in 1974 and 1975, respectively to visit Jupiter
and then Saturn, but it also discovered the
existence of rings around Jupiter, while
Voyager 2 was the first mission to visit
Uranus and Neptune.
The primary objective of the mission was
to study Jupiter and Saturn, but once it
became apparent that the spacecraft could
continue working, the mission was extended
to include Neptune and Uranus for Voyager 2.
Voyager 1 could have travelled to Pluto, but
NASA decided to extend its mission to Saturn
and its moon Titan, leaving the dwarf planet
Pluto one of the largest bodies in the solar
system yet to be explored.
The Voyager probes obtain power from
their radioactive generators, which have kept
them running even at such a great distance
from Earth and will continue to do so until
about 2020, when they will no longer be able
to power their instruments. Voyager 1 is
roughly now over 17 billion kilometres (10.6
billion miles) from the Sun, while Voyager 2
is at a distance of over 14 billion kilometres
(8.5 billion miles).
128
After making so many groundbreaking

discoveries, both spacecraft are now on their
way out of the solar system. They are both
expected to pass out of the Suns influence
and into interstellar space in the coming
years, although it is not entirely clear when
this will happen as no machine has yet
experienced the conditions that the Voyager
probes are about to endure.
In 40,000 years, Voyager 1 should be within
1.6 light years (9.4 trillion miles) of a star in
the constellation of Camelopardalis thought
to harbour a planetary system. 256,000 years
later, Voyager 2 will be 4.3
light years (25 trillion miles) from Sirius,
which is the brightest star other than the
Sun in our night sky.
Data
A single 8-track
digital tape recorder
(DTR) and Flight
Data Subsystem
(FDS) handle data
and calibrate
instruments too.
Voyager 2
launched atop a
Titan III-Centaur
rocket on
20 August 1977
Instruments
On board both probes is a science
payload with ten instruments,
including those to measure solar
wind and those that can detect
low-energy particles.
Golden Record
The Golden Record is a
collection of sounds
and imagery from
Earth, intended to
provide any passing
extraterrestrial race
with information about
our home planet.
Date reached: 25/8/89
Inside Voyager
Whats going on inside the
long-distance probes?
Antenna
Communication
The high-gain
antenna (HGA)
transmits data
to Earth.
It takes 16 hours for a message from the Voyager

probes to reach Earth. However, theyre not in
constant communication, and only
periodically send data back to our planet.
Phone home
Each of the identical
spacecraft use celestial or
gyroscopic attitude control to
ensure that their high-gain
antennas are constantly
pointed towards Earth for
communication.
Thrust
The probes manoeuvre
via Hydrazine thrusters,
although since leaving
the planets they have
stopped doing so.
Power down
Power up
Three radioisotope thermoelectric
generators (RTGs) supply electrical
power , which will eventually diminish
but currently supply about 315 watts.
To conserve energy as
the probes continue
their journeys, many
instruments deemed
unnecessary have or
will be switched off.
Magnetometer
This instrument enables the probes
to measure nearby magnetic field
intensities, which was used to study the
magnetospheres of the outer planets.
Weight
Each Voyager
probe weighs
773kg (1,704lbs),
with the science
payload making
up about 105kg
(231lbs) of this.
5 TOP
FACTS
VOYAGER
Moons
Interstellar medium
Atmospheres
Jupiter
Io
DISCOVERIES
Around the outer planets the

Voyager probes discovered
23 new moons, including five
around Saturn and 11 around
Uranus, in addition to
imaging our own.
Both of the Voyager

probes are now in a region
where the Suns influence
is increasingly waning,
and soon they will enter
the interstellar medium.
Voyager probes 1 and 2 both

provided unprecedented
information about the
atmospheres of the
following planets: Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
The probes discovered

for the first time a ring
system encircling Jupiter,
and they also observed
hurricane-like storms in
the planets atmosphere.
Voyager 1 discovered the only

known body in the solar system
other than Earth to be
volcanically active: Jupiters
moon Io. This moon also affects
the surrounding Jovian system.
DID YOU KNOW? Voyager 1 is now travelling at 38,000mph, while Voyager 2 is slightly slower at 35,000mph
The journey so far

What path have the Voyager probes
taken through the solar system, and
where are they now?
Distance from Earth today: 17 billion km
URANUS
JUPITER
VOYAGER 1 launch: 5/9/77
SATURN
EARTH
Heliopause
This is where the Suns influence

is almost non-existent and the
Voyager probes will enter the
interstellar medium, the matter
between stars in our galaxy. No
one is sure how far the probes
are from this point.
Termination shock
Bow shock
Voyager 1
At the edge of the heliosheath, the

Suns influence in the form of solar
wind slows dramatically and
heats up at an area known as the
termination shock, which
Voyager 1 passed in 2004.
VOYAGER 2 launch: 20/8/77

On 16 November 1980,
Voyager 1 looked back at
Saturn and snapped this
picture four days after it
had passed the planet
Heliosphere
Voyager 2
What lies
ahead
All images NASA
Our solar system is contained

within an area of space where
the Sun exerts an influence,
known as the heliosphere.
129
SPACECRAFT
MESSENGERs mission
comprises six main goals
Probing Mercury
NASA
The statistics
MESSENGER
Operator: NASA/APL
Dimensions: 1.42 x 1.85 x 1.27
metres (56 x 73 x 50 inches)
Launch vehicle: Delta II Rocket
Launch date: 3 August 2004
Orbital insertion date:
17 March 2011
Which planets have had
MESSENGER flybys?: One
Earth flyby, two Venus flybys,
three Mercury flybys
Mass: 507.9kg (1,120lbs)
Power: Maximum of 640W
from two solar arrays and 11
nickel hydrogen batteries
Status: Collecting data in
Mercury orbit as of 4 April 2011
NASA
An artists impression of MESSENGER

approaching Mercury
The MESSENGER probe

Discover the first spacecraft to
explore Mercury since 1975
MESSENGER, an acronym short for
MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment,
GEochemistry and Ranging, is a probe
launched by NASA in 2004 to study the planet
Mercury in our Solar System. After a journey of
7.9 billion kilometres (4.9 billion miles),
MESSENGER finally entered Mercurys orbit on 17
March 2011.
Mercury has remained one of the most
mysterious planets in the solar system, not
having been studied closely since Mariner 10s
flybys more than three decades ago. In addition
to being the smallest inner planet, Mercury is
also the most dense and has the oldest surface.
Scientists believe that learning more about
Mercury will help us to better understand how
the other terrestrial planets Venus, Earth and
Mars came to be.
MESSENGERs mission comprises six main
goals. It will determine the structure of
Mercurys core, reveal why the planet is so
dense, find out the nature of its magnetic field,
measure the gases in the exosphere, solve the
mystery of unusual materials at the poles, and
130
delve into the planets geologic past. Although

launched by NASA, MESSENGER was designed
and built at the Applied Physics Laboratory at
Johns Hopkins University. It carries seven
instruments to collect data and images, housed
together on a small pallet. MESSENGER also has
two rotatable solar panels, which generate
energy stores in batteries, as well as a large
thruster for deep space manoeuvres, four
smaller thrusters for steering, deep space
transponders and antennae for communication
and an integrated electronics module that allows
it to be controlled from the ground.
2
MESSENGER had already made some
significant discoveries before entering Mercurys
orbit. During the flybys of the planet, the probe
surprised NASA by revealing that the upper layer
of Mercurys atmosphere contained water. It also
collected data suggesting that the planet has a
liquid core and may have had volcanic activity in
the past. MESSENGER is scheduled to send back
03/08/04
data and images from Mercurys orbit for one
Earth
year. When it was no longer operational, the
launch
probe crashed into the planet.
Mercury
orbit insertion
SUN
3
VENUS
MESSENGER flyby dates

DSM1
DSM2
02/08/05 24/10/06 05/06/07 14/01/08

Earth
fly-by
Venus
fly-by
Venus
fly-by
Mercury
fly-by
DSM3
06/10/08
Mercury
fly-by
DID YOU KNOW? The MESSENGER probe crashed on Mercurys surface on 30th April 2015
NASA didnt send another spacecraft to explore Mercury for so long

because it would have required a very large, powerful launch
vehicle and too much fuel for the mission to be practical. In 1985,
scientist Chen-wan Yen suggested a trajectory that would
ultimately allow a probe to launch as part of NASAs low-cost
Discovery program. The probe could not be launched on a direct
path to enter Mercurys orbit, because the gravity of the Sun would
have accelerated it right past the planet. Instead, in a series of flybys
(of Earth, Venus and Mercury itself) the probe used each planets
gravity field to slow down. Deep space manoeuvres, in which
MESSENGER fired its rocket thruster for anywhere from a few
seconds to a few minutes, allowed the probe to speed up when
necessary or change course. While it took almost seven years to
reach Mercury, this also meant that the probe used very little fuel.
Hiding near
the Sun
As the innermost planet, Mercurys orbit gets

no further than 70 million kilometres (43.5
million miles) from the Sun, compared with
Earths 152 million-kilometre (94.4 millionmile) orbit. This closeness means that the
planet is difficult to see from Earth, because it
gets lost in the Suns glow. It can sometimes be
seen during sunrise or sunset, depending on
your location and the time of year.
Energetic particle and plasma

spectrometer (EPPS)
The EPPS uses two different spectrometers
to measure charged particles. One
measures them in the magnetosphere and
the other measures them on the surface.
Gamma ray and neutron

spectrometer (GRNS)
Solar panel
These two solar panels provide
640 watts of power, which is
stored in 11 on-board nickel
hydrogen batteries.
Sunshade
The probes sunshade
protects its sensitive
instruments from heat and
radiation from the Sun.
Mercury dual
imaging system
(MDIS)
MESSENGER flybys and

deep space manoeuvres
This instrument
comprises two
cameras one
narrow-angle and one
wide-angle that will
capture the entirety of
Mercurys surface.
1. Earth flyby and DSM 1

The Earth flyby took place on 2 August
2005. Then the probe made its first DSM by
firing its large thruster to change trajectory
towards Venus.
MESSENGER
anatomy
NASA
GRNS measures gamma rays as

emitted by atoms struck by cosmic
rays, as well as variations in types of
neutrons struck by cosmic rays.
This first image taken from Mercurys orbit

was shot by MESSENGER on 29 March 2011. It
shows the planets southern hemisphere,
including a bright crater called Debussy
MERCURY
NASA
Voyage to Mercury
2. Venus flybys and DSM 2
EARTH
3. Mercury flyby 1 and DSM 3
This instrument extends on a

three-metre (10ft) boom, to measure
Mercurys magnetic field without
interference from the probes field.
The probe reached Mercury on 14 January

2008, then fired its thrusters again to
speed things up for another flyby.
Mercury laser altimeter (MLA)

DSM4
On 6 October 2008, Mercury conducted

another flyby of Mercury. A fourth DSM
slowed the probe to allow it to be
captured by Mercurys gravitational field.
DSM5

29/09/09
18/03/11
Mercury
fly-by
Mercury
orbit
Magnometer (MAG)
The third and final flyby of Mercury took

place on September 29 2009. The fifth DSM,
on 24 November 2009, slowed the probe
further for entry into Mercurys orbit.
The MLA measures the height of land formations

and other features by detecting infrared laser
light bounced off the planets surface.
X-ray spectrometer (XRS)

This instrument detects light on the x-ray
spectrum on the wavelength of the
minerals magnesium, aluminium,
sulphur, calcium, titanium and iron.
Mercury atmospheric and

surface composition
spectrometer (MASCS)
This instrument comprises a
spectrometer, which measures
ultraviolet light, and a spectrograph,
which measures reflected infrared
light on the wavelength of iron and
silicate materials.
131
NASA
On 24 October 2006 and 5 June 2007,

MESSENGER conducted flybys of Venus.
Another DSM resulted in a course
correction to put the probe closer to
Mercurys orbit.
SPACECRAFT
Stratospheric balloons
The target altitude is

40,000m (130,000ft)
The balloon will be

almost 75 metres
(245 feet) tall and,
once it has
expanded in the
thin atmosphere, it
will reach a
diameter of 100
metres (330 feet)
Big Space
Balloon
How will this giant balloon perform
experiments at the edge of space?
The Big Space Balloon will be
Britains largest high-altitude
research balloon, taking experiments
up to the edge of the cosmos and exploring the
upper echelons of Earths atmosphere. Once it
has been funded it will launch, carrying a
capsule full of scientific experiments to study
the Earth and its atmosphere, before returning
to our planet and possibly being re-launched
in the future.
The balloon will be almost 75 metres (245
feet) tall and, once it has expanded in the thin
atmosphere, it will reach a diameter of 100
metres (330 feet) and a volume of 400,000 cubic
metres (14 million cubic feet). It has been
designed to provide a low-cost alternative to
taking a payload into orbit compared to an
expensive rocket launch. The entire balloon
and capsule system will be roughly twice the
height of Nelsons Column and almost as wide
as the height of the most powerful rocket of all
time, the Saturn V. The design is a superpressure balloon envelope, which is designed
to survive several days at the border of space.
The balloon material will be made from 100
per cent recycled polythene.
Attached to the balloon by a cable will be a
capsule 2.9 metres (9.5 feet) tall and two metres
(6.5 feet) wide. This will be made from the latest
132
composite materials for strength and

durability. Filled with scientific instruments,
the capsule will study the Earth and its
atmosphere from a height of 40,000 metres
(130,000 feet). At the end of its mission the
capsule will parachute safely back to Earth,
where it will be recovered and potentially
used again in other similar missions.
A concept shot of the
balloon envelope
at the launch site
A laser may be installed in

order to push space debris
out of harms way
DID YOU KNOW? The Big Space Balloon is raising funds by selling advertising space for logos on the exterior of the capsule
Inside the
capsule
Upper
The upper section of the capsule will
be kept at sea-level pressure by
steadily releasing nitrogen, which
will help to protect the more
sensitive scientific instruments.
Interview
Richard Curtis
Parachute
The landing
parachute is
secured on the
cable that attaches
the capsule to
the balloon.
We speak to the project director of

the Big Space Balloon mission
Debris
One proposed experiment is a laser
turret, which could be used to push
pieces of space debris out of the way.
Central
How It Works: How and

why did you get involved
with this project?
Richard Curtis: The Big
Space Balloon is an idea Ive
been working on for a couple
of years. I was part of the
generation growing up
during the Apollo missions,
Skylab, Soyuz and then the
Space Shuttle, so Ive had a
lifelong interest in space and
space tech. It would be very
exciting to use some of the
latest technologies such as
printed solar cells and
additive layer manufacturing
to build a substantial vehicle
and send it on its way to the
edge of space and see the
images of the Big Space
Balloon flying above the
Earths atmosphere.
Cameras
The majority of the capsules

experiments are located in the
central section. The capsules doors
can be opened to expose the
experiments to space if needed.
The capsule will be monitored

by four cameras surrounding
it, which will also highlight
sponsorship logos on the
outside of the capsule.
THE MISSION STEP BY STEP

We take a look at the Big Space
Balloons proposed seven-day journey
4. Target
After two hours the balloon will
have reached its target altitude of
40km (25mi) and a maximum
volume of 400,000m3 (14m ft3).
HIW: Why did you pick a

balloon for this project?
RC: A big stratospheric
balloon allows you to lift a
reasonably substantial
payload of up to several tons
into a space environment.
The Big Space Balloon will be
aiming for a total payload
weight including the
science capsule of around
one ton. This should allow us
to carry up to half a ton of
science equipment. Although
there is now a lot of great
science being done with
mini-payloads and balloons,
there are still areas where
the bigger the kit the better,
particularly with imaging and
sensing devices.
5. Descent
3. Stratosphere
On the envelope is a series of
photovoltaic cells, which convert
solar energy into electricity as
the balloon rises.
2. Ascent
As atmospheric pressure drops the
balloon starts to swell, because the gas
inside is able to expand more easily and
pushes out the thin polythene material.
To begin the journey home, an

explosive panel detonates a hole
in the envelope so the balloons
return to Earth can be controlled.
6. Parachute
At about 3km (1.9mi) the landing
parachute is released, returning
the capsule safely to the surface
so it can be recovered.
1. Launch
On the ground, a crane will hold
the capsule stationary as the
balloon is filled with a mix of
hydrogen and helium gas.
The deflated balloon lands

separately and is also recovered
after completing its mission.
All images www.bigspaceballoon.co.uk
7. Landing
HIW: Is there any danger in

launching this balloon?
RC: There is a range of
challenges [we may face].
The main one is the balloon
fabric tearing during launch.
The material used for most
large stratospheric
projects tends to be a very

lightweight polythene,
similar in thickness to a
supermarket carrier bag.
Hopefully weve arrived at a
size thats [thin enough but
durable]. Im also hoping that
by combining the fabric with
printed solar cells we can
make a stronger composite
balloon material. This will
probably mean a heavier
fabric, but as were not trying
to break any altitude records,
its not too critical if we only
achieve, say, [38,000
metres] 125,000 feet instead
of [41,000 metres] 135,000.
HIW: What does the future
hold for space balloons?
RC: The hope is that the Big
Space Balloons science
capsule could be reused in
further missions. Im keen for
the Big Space Balloon to act
as a platform to test out new
technologies in the space
environment, such as printed
solar cells on the balloon
envelope, which could pave
the way for a new way of
powering future spacecraft
or stations. Additive layer
manufacturing (aka 3D
printing) is another process
Im aiming to use in the
fabrication of the science
capsule, as this allows fairly
complex and bespoke
structures to be
manufactured straight from
the computer.
Theres also the possibility
of using the technology for
interplanetary missions. One
of the instruments the
science capsule may carry
could be to detect microorganisms in the Earths
upper atmosphere
technology that could be
then transferable to a future
Mars or Venus mission.
133
SPACECRAFT
In the case of human payloads, these

were delivered via an airlock located
at the front of the shuttle
Space Shuttle payload bay
Space Shuttle
payload bay
How did this colossus deliver tons of
supplies and technology into space?
NASAs Space Shuttle launch vehicles undertook over 130
missions during their lifetime, carrying hundreds of tons of
technology into space. It had a refined system for delivering
payloads to the intended target be that simply low-Earth orbit or space
stations such as the ISS following a five-step mission profile.
After liftoff, solid-rocket booster separation, external fuel tank
separation and orbital insertion, the in-orbit operations could begin. In
the case of human payloads, these were delivered via an airlock located
at the front of the shuttle, but when dealing with inanimate cargo, that
required accessing the internal storage hold, known as the payload bay.
Tech and supplies were accessed by the opening of the
shuttles payload bay doors, which swung
open from the top of the spacecraft.
Once the bay doors were open,
the resources within could be
collected either by an EVA
(extravehicular activity, or
spacewalk), or using a robotic
mechanical arm called Canadarm.
This arm, 15.2 metres (50 feet) long and 38
centimetres (15 inches) in diameter, had six
degrees of freedom and was specially built to manoeuvre
cargo from the bay to their final position on the ISS. Once the payload
for a mission had been successfully delivered, the Space Shuttle
would then be prepared for re-entry and the return trip to Earth.
The STS-133 payload canister is

lifted into the rotating service
structure on Launch Pad 39A
134
The Canadarm being used

to retrieve cargo from
within the Space Shuttle
RECORD
BREAKERS
EPIC DELIVERY
22,753kg
BIGGEST PAYLOAD TO SPACE

The heaviest non-commercial payload ever launched the
Chandra X-ray Observatory weighed in at 22,753 kilograms
(50,161 pounds) on Space Shuttle mission STS-93 in 1999.
DID YOU KNOW? The last Space Shuttle launch STS-135 carried a payload of 3,630kg (8,000lb) of supplies
NASA
Endeavour in flight clearly

showing its spacious
payload bay on STS-111
135
SPACECRAFT
ATV spacecraft
How do these European resupply

craft keep the ISS fully stocked?
The European Space Agencys automated

transfer vehicles (ATVs) are unmanned
spacecraft designed to take cargo and
supplies to the International Space Station (ISS),
before detaching and burning up in Earths
atmosphere. They are imperative in maintaining a
human presence on the ISS, bringing various life
essentials to the crew suchas water, food and
oxygen, in addition to new equipment and tools for
conducting experiments and general maintenance
of the station.
The first ATV to fly was the Jules Verne ATV-1 in
2008; it was named after the famous 19th-century
French author who wrote Around The World In 80
Days. This was followed by the (astronomer)
Johannes Kepler ATV-2 in February 2011, and will be
succeeded by the (physicists) Edoardo Amaldi and
Albert Einstein ATVs in 2012 and 2013, respectively.
Each ATV is capable of carrying

6.6 tons of cargo to the ISS
The ATV-1 mission differed somewhat from the

subsequent ones as it was the first of its kind
attempted by the ESA and thus various additional
procedures were carried out, such as testing the
vehicles ability to manoeuvre in close proximity to
the ISS for several days to prevent it damaging the
station when docking. However, for the most part,
all ATV missions are and will be the same.
ATVs are launched into space atop the ESAs
Ariane 5 heavy-lift rocket. Just over an hour after
launch the rocket points the ATV in the direction of
the ISS and gives it a boost to send it on its way, with
journey time to the station after separation from the
rocket taking about ten days. The ATV is
multifunctional, meaning that it is a fully automatic
vehicle that also possesses the necessary human
safety requirements to be boarded by astronauts
when attached to the ISS. Approximately 60 per cent
ATV docking
procedure
of the entire volume of the ATV is made up of the

integrated cargo carrier (ICC). This attaches to the
service module, which propels and manoeuvres the
vehicle. The ICC can transport 6.6 tons of dry and
fluid cargo to the ISS, the former being pieces of
equipment and personal effects and the latter being
refuelling propellant and water for the station.
As well as taking supplies, ATVs also push the ISS
into a higher orbit, as over time it is pulled towards
Earth by atmospheric drag. To raise the ISS, an ATV
uses about four tons of its own fuel over 10-45 days to
slowly nudge the station higher.
The final role of an ATV is to act as a wastedisposal unit. When all the useful cargo has been
taken off the vehicle, it is filled with superfluous
matter from the ISS until no more can be squeezed
in. At this point the ATV undocks from the station
and is sent to burn up in the atmosphere.
APPROACH
POST-LAUNCH
Tracking
The ATV uses a star tracker
and GPS satellites to map its
position relative to the
stellar constellations and
Earth so it can accurately
locate the space station.
Locking on
Release
After launch, the Ariane 5s
main stage gives the ATV an
additional boost to send it
on its way to the ISS.
136
When its 300m (984ft) from

the ISS, the ATV switches to
a high-precision rendezvous
sensor called the video
meter to bring it in to dock.
ESA
Automated
transfer
vehicles
THE
STATS
HOW AN ATV
MEASURES UP
10.7m (35.1ft) DIAMETER 4.5m (14.8ft) SPAN 22.3m (73.2ft)

3
VOLUME 48m (1,695ft ) LAUNCH MASS 20,700kg (45,636lb)
LENGTH
DID YOU KNOW? The ESA hopes to upgrade the ATV into a human-carrying vehicle by 2020
The MPLM was
transported inside
NASAs Space Shuttle
ATV anatomy
Non-solid cargo,
including drinking
water, air and fuel, is
stored in tanks.
Docking
Inside the nose of the ATV
are rendezvous sensors
and equipment that allow
the ATV to slowly
approach and dock with
the ISS without causing
damage to either vehicle.
NASA
Liquids
The spacecraft module

of the ATV has four
main engines and 28
small thrusters.
ESA/D Ducros
Propulsion
Other resupply
vehicles
Protection
Racks
Equipment is stored in
payload racks. These are like
trays, and must be configured
to be able to fit into the same
sized berths on the ISS.
Navigation
On board the ATV is a
high-precision navigation
system that guides the
vehicle in to the ISS dock.
Currently, ESA ground control
pilots the ATVs remotely
Solar power
Four silicon-based solar
arrays in an X shape provide
the ATV with the power it
needs to operate in space.
DOCK
Lasers
Two laser beams are
bounced off mirrors on the
ISS so the ATV can measure
its distance from the station,
approaching at just a few
centimetres a second.
Emergency
In the case of an
emergency the astronauts
can stop the ATV moving
towards the ISS or propel it
away from the station.
Boost
The ISS moves 100m (328ft)
closer to Earth daily, so to
prevent it falling too far
ATVs use their main engines
to push it into a higher orbit.
3x ESA D Ducros
Like most modules

on board the ISS, a
micrometeoroid
shield and insulation
blanket protect an
ATV from small
objects that may
strike it in space.
The ESAs automated transfer vehicle isnt the only

spacecraft capable of taking supplies to the ISS. Since its
launch, three other classes of spacecraft have been used to
take cargo the 400 kilometres (250 miles) above Earths
surface to the station. The longest serving of these is
Russias Progress supply ship, which between 1978 and the
present day has completed over 100 missions to Russias
Salyut 6, Salyut 7 and Mir space stations, as well as the ISS.
Succeeding Progress was the Italian-built multipurpose
logistics module (MPLM), which was actually flown inside
NASAs Space Shuttle and removed once the shuttle was
docked to the space station. MPLMs were flown 12 times to
the ISS, but one notable difference with the ATV is that they
were brought back to Earth inside the Space Shuttle on
every mission. The ATV and MPLM share some similaritie
s, though, such as the pressurised cargo section, which is
near identical on both vehicles.
The last and most recent resupply vehicle is the Japanese
H-II transfer vehicle (HTV). It has completed one docking
mission with the ISS to date, in late 2009, during which it
spent 30 days attached to the station.
137
SPACECRAFT
Practical solar cells only became a

reality thanks to the development of
new semiconductors such as silicon
Solar-powered spacecraft
Solar-powered spacecraft
Harnessing energy from the Sun, solar-powered space probes like Juno are
taking environmentally friendly technology farther than ever before
When youre launching a space probe
to a distant planet, every kilogram
counts. Every aspect of the design is a
compromise between weight and scientific
capability. With engine fuel at a premium, and
batteries heavy and limited in life, solar cells
which draw their energy from the Sun itself
are an ideal way of generating power.
Solar cells rely on the photoelectric effect,
which causes current to flow through certain
materials when they are struck by light. The
effect was discovered as early as the mid-1800s,
and explained by Albert Einstein in 1905. It
arises when individual photons of light
striking a surface provide enough energy for
charge-carrying subatomic electrons to break
free of their individual atoms.
However, practical solar cells only became a
reality thanks to the development of new
semiconductor materials such as silicon and
gallium arsenide in the mid-Fifties just in
time for them to be used in some of the earliest
Earth satellites, and later in space probes.
For more far-flung missions, however, theres

a stumbling block: the energy available from
sunlight drops proportionally with distance
from the star. As a result, solar energy has until
recently only been a viable power source for
missions to the inner Solar System (ie as far out
as Mars). Advances in the efficiency of solar
cells, along with the ability to pack and unfurl
larger arrays (each carrying many separate
cells) are starting to change that, as ably
demonstrated by the Juno mission to Jupiter.
While most spacecraft still use solar cells
purely for powering on-board systems, an
increasing number are using them for
propulsion too. Solar-electric, or ion engine,
propulsion uses sunlight to split propellant
into electrically charged ions and fire them out
of the engine at extremely high speeds. The
acceleration force this produces is tiny, but can
be sustained for months or even years with just
a small fuel supply. This makes it perfect for
use on complex missions such as the Dawn
probe currently touring the Asteroid Belt.
Coming online
Directly after launch, Juno
only needed the power from
two of its solar array panels;
the others are needed as it
travels farther from the Sun.
Harvesting solar
power at Jupiter
Junos primary objective is

to help us understand the
origins of gas giant Jupiter
138
Launched in August 2011 and scheduled to arrive

at Jupiter in 2016, NASAs Juno mission will push
solar power technology to its limits in order to
give us a unique new view of the largest planet in
the Solar System. Previous probes to the outer
Solar System, such as the Voyager missions and
the Cassini orbiter, had to carry a radioactive
power source with them, but advances in solar
cell design specifically the use of highly
efficient multi-junction photoelectric materials
made from crystals of gallium arsenide will
enable Juno to operate despite receiving just four
per cent of the sunlight available at Earth.
Three huge solar arrays will generate 486
watts of power, roughly half of which will be
used to keep the spacecraft warm, while the
other half powers Junos flight systems and
scientific instruments. Junos orbit will carry it
high above Jupiters poles, and as it will spend
long periods of time in the gas giants shadow,
the power will also be used to charge a pair of
lithium-ion batteries that should keep the
spacecraft operating while its in the dark.
KEY
DATES
SOLAR POWER
1958
1970
1998
2010
2011
The US launches Vanguard 1

(right), a grapefruit-sized
satellite and the first to be
powered by the Sun.
The Soviet Unions

Lunokhod 1 is the first
solar-powered rover to
land on the Moon.
NASAs Deep Space 1 mission

(right) pioneers solar-electric
propulsion, paving the way for
missions like the Dawn probe.
JAXAs IKAROS spacecraft

launches and successfully
uses a solar sail as its main
means of propulsion.
Juno launches the first

spacecraft to use solar
power in the outer
Solar System.
DID YOU KNOW? The solar cells on Vanguard 1 powered a transmitter that kept sending signals to Earth for almost seven years
Unfurling Junos wings

This artists impression captures the moment Juno deployed
its enormous solar arrays, just 54 minutes after launch
Solar cells
The solar arrays carry a
total of more than 18,000
individual cells and could
generate around 15kW of
power in Earth orbit.
Twin arrays
Two of Junos solar arrays are
8.9m (29ft) long and 2.7m
(8.9ft) wide, each consisting
of four separate panels.
Rotation
Juno spins on its central axis
roughly once every two
minutes, with the distribution
of the solar arrays helping it
to remain stable.
Communications
Stabilised by Junos slow spin, the
high-gain antenna will keep a lock
on Earth throughout the mission,
allowing radio communication.
The statistics
Launch: 5 August 2011

Launch mass:
3,625kg (7,992lb)
Scheduled Jupiter arrival:
July 2016
Number of Jupiter orbits: 33
Planned orbit altitude:
5,000km (3,100mi)
Key instruments:
UV imager/spectrometer; plasma
detector; radio/plasma wave
experiment; six-wavelength
microwave radiometer
Ready for radiation

All Junos electrical components,
including the solar cells, are
specially designed to operate in
the harsh radiation belts around
Jupiter. Nevertheless, the
components are still expected to
fail after 15 or so months.
Smaller array
NASA; JPL Caltech
Juno spacecraft
Junos third array has just

three panels, with the place
of the fourth taken by a
magnetometer for studying
Jupiters magnetic field.
139
SPACECRAFT
Getting into space is no mean feat.

Since the dawn of the Space Age we
have relied on large, expensive and at
times dangerous launch vehicles namely
rockets to give payloads the necessary
altitude and speed to get off our planet. Rockets
use a huge amount of fuel, theyre not reusable
(hence their expense) and, perhaps most
importantly, they have been known to fail with
often disastrous consequences. But what if
there was another way to travel off our world?
The holy grail of space exploration has long
been to design some sort of vehicle that can
launch from the ground, journey into space and
return to Earth in one piece, with no
expendable components and minimal risk.
Space planes are one such idea that have been
touted (and partially tested, as well explain
later). They are vehicles that can take off from
runways, travel into space and return to Earth.
As their name would suggest they are
essentially aeroplanes, but with a key
difference: they are capable of operating both
in the forgiving atmosphere of Earth and in the
much harsher environment of space.
The first space plane of sorts was the rocketpowered X-15 jet in the Sixties. It remains the
fastest manned vehicle ever launched and
performed what is known as a suborbital flight,
where a vehicle reaches the boundary of space
and returns to Earth but does not enter orbit.
Only two of the multitude of flights it performed
technically reached space, but it lent weight to
the concept of a space plane nonetheless.
Since then we have seen a few other
pretenders take to the skies. NASAs Space
Shuttle was a space plane in the sense that it
glided back to Earth after completing
operations in orbit, but as it launched on top of a
rocket it was never regarded as a true space
plane. The Soviet-built Buran spacecraft
performed in much the same manner.
Now, in the coming years, we can expect to
see more genuine space planes, each with a
different design. The vehicle that has garnered
the most attention in recent years has been
140
SpaceShipTwo
Lynx Mk 1
Virgin Galactics eight-seater SpaceShipTwo

space plane will take off from Virgins own
Spaceport America in New Mexico. It will be
carried by a larger mothership
WhiteKnightTwo before detaching in the
upper atmosphere and using a rocket motor to
propel itself into orbit. It will be used initially
for space tourism, with 400 passengers
already paid up, and will aim to begin flights in
late-2015/early-2016.
Unlike SpaceShipTwo, California-based

XCORs Lynx space plane lifts off and lands all
by itself. Carrying one pilot and just one
paying passenger, it can take off from a
conventional runway, taking a steep climb of
about 75 degrees before levelling out into
suborbit and then returning to Earth. It too
will begin flights later in 2015 or
at the beginning of 2016.
RECORD
BREAKERS
PRIZE FLIGHT
$10MN
FIRST PRIVATE SPACEFLIGHT
In 2004, SpaceShipTwos predecessor SpaceShipOne completed the first

two-manned private spaceflights with pilots Brian Binnie and Mike
Melvill, scooping the $10mn (6.6mn) Ansari X Prize in the process.
DID YOU KNOW? In the 1960s Pan Am opened registration for trips to the Moon in space planes, but they never materialised
Spaceport vs airport
There are currently two major spaceports being built in
the USA: the Mojave Air and Space Port in California and
Spaceport America in New Mexico.
Spaceports must be able to support the added force
associated with a space plane both at launch and landing.
Thus, runways must be reinforced and also longer than
conventional ones as space planes require a longer
distance to accelerate and brake.
Spaceports also need training facilities to prepare their
passengers for the rigours of spaceflight. Like rocket
launch sites, spaceports benefit from being placed near
the equator too. This allows the aircraft to get an added
boost from the rotation of the Earth, making it slightly
easier (and so less costly) to reach orbit than if they were
launching farther away from the equator.
Dream Chaser
Skylon
Sierra Nevada Corporations Dream Chaser

will launch on top of a rocket (probably an
Atlas V) into orbit. It is expected to be able to
dock with the ISS before gliding back to
Earth, just like the Space Shuttle once did. It
should make its maiden trip in 2015.
UK-based Reaction Engines Limiteds Skylon

plane could be a game-changer. Its intended
to launch from a reinforced runway and
return to Earth in a single unit and could carry
24 passengers. Development is ongoing and
it may well be flying before the decade is out.
141
SPACECRAFT
Virgin Galactics SpaceShipTwo. This rocketpowered aeroplane is lifted into the sky by a
larger mothership, WhiteKnightTwo, before
separating and using its rocket engine to take
six paying customers into space. Here, at a cost
of $200,000 (133,000) each although this has
recently risen to $250,000 (166,000) they
experience six minutes of weightlessness.
Its not the only space plane in development
though. A company called XCOR Aerospace has
been quietly building its own vehicle, known as
the Lynx aircraft, which will be able to take
paying passengers into space. Unlike
SpaceShipTwo it doesnt have a carrier vessel,

and thus will be able to launch and land itself
on a runway, bringing us a big step closer to the
true vision of a space plane.
But aside from taking tourists on out-of-thisworld trips, space planes have another more
important use. It is expected, specifically with
future versions of SpaceShipTwo and Lynx (eg
SpaceShipThree and Lynx Mk 2), that they will
eventually be able to launch payloads such as
satellites into orbit. To do so they will reach
their peak altitude before releasing a smaller
spacecraft, which carries the payload into orbit.
Inside SpaceShipTwo
This would be a huge advancement for satellite

operators, who at the moment must rely on
rockets to get satellites off Earth but, in future,
they could use aircraft at a much lower cost.
Space planes are also expected to fly
passengers and crew not only into suborbit, but
into full orbits around the Earth. One company
hoping to do this is Sierra Nevada Corporation
(SNC) with its Dream Chaser craft. With funding
from NASA, they are hoping to launch this plane
as the successor to the Space Shuttle. Travelling
atop an Atlas V rocket, it will be capable of
taking up to seven people into low Earth orbit
Rudder
The rudders can rotate 90
degrees into a feathered
position to lessen the
heat of re-entry.
Dimensions
SpaceShipTwo is 18m
(60ft) long and has a
wingspan of 8m (27ft).
Glide
The carbon-fibre wings of
SpaceShipTwo allow it to
glide safely back to Earth.
Rocket
SpaceShipTwos hybrid
rocket engine boosts
the vehicle for 70
seconds to reach space.
Elevon
SpaceShipTwo controls its
pitch and roll in the atmosphere
with movable elevons.
Composition
The vehicles chassis
is made entirely of
carbon-fibre composites.
Nose skid
The vehicle has wheels
and a front nose skid
for landing on a runway.
Window
Cabin
Crew
The interior of SpaceShipTwo is

pressurised, so passengers can
enjoy space without spacesuits.
On board Virgin Galactics

plane there are two pilots
and six passengers.
History of
space planes
How It Works picks out a few
key dates in the evolution of
space-faring vehicles
142
1959
The first rocketpowered plane, the
North American
X-15, makes its
maiden flight.
A series of reinforced
windows affords the
passengers a great
view of the Earth.
1963
1981
Pilot Joseph Walker

takes the X-15 into
space, making it the
worlds first space plane.
The Space Shuttle,

capable of taking a crew
and cargo to and from orbit,
launches for the first time.
1988
The Soviet-built
Buran space
shuttle makes
its first and only
flight into space.
DID YOU KNOW? Rolls-Royce and British Aerospace studied a space plane concept called HOTOL back in the Eighties
650 ($990) per kilogram. It could also transport

as many as 24 people off our planet at a time.
The vehicle will use a hybrid air-breathing
rocket engine to reach orbit in a single stage
before gliding back to the surface.
The goal of space planes is, ultimately, to
reduce the cost of going to space. While the
early flights of SpaceShipTwo and Lynx will
predominantly be centred around tourism, it is
fully expected that space-faring aircraft will be
used to take useful cargo into orbit in the
not-too-distant future. Making space more
accessible will enable us to operate more
efficiently in Earth orbit, while the tourism
aspect will help to fund those endeavours.
Indeed, companies like Virgin Galactic have
said that, while the first few hundred tourist
flights will be quite expensive, future tickets
should become much more affordable.
Flying into space

110,000m
(360,000ft)
SpaceShipTwo
Lynx
1. Takeoff
3. Re-entry
Virgins SpaceShipTwo is
released from the
WhiteKnightTwo
mothership at a height of
15km (9mi), with its hybrid
rocket engine propelling
it up to 4,260km/h
(2,650mph).
The tail is moved into a

feathered position for
re-entry to slow the
descent. At a height of
21km (13mi) it moves back
and SpaceShipTwo glides to
a landing.
2. Space
The vehicle levels out at 110km
(69mi) officially space where
the passengers then experience
about six minutes of
weightlessness before the return
to Earth begins.
1. Takeoff
The Lynx lifts off from a runway of its own
accord. It climbs between 70 and 80 degrees at
a speed of Mach 2 for about five minutes.
54,900m
(180,000ft)
2. Suborbit
The service height of the Lynx Mk 1 is 62km
(38mi), where the pilot and passenger will
experience a few minutes of weightlessness.
Lynx Mk II will reach above 100km (62mi).
3. Re-entry
The Lynx has reaction control thrusters that

allow for a controlled, smooth re-entry before it
glides back down for an unpowered runway
landing, ready to fly again the same day.
Steve Isakowitz
The Executive Vice President
and Chief Technology Officer
at Virgin Galactic tells us
why we should be excited
about space planes
Why are space planes important?
Space travel is one of the only
transportation modes where we throw
everything away every time we fly. What
were trying to achieve is the ability to fly
these suborbital flights, bring down the
[space plane], turn it around quickly and
re-fly it over and over again.
Will tickets to space become cheaper?
That is our goal, to open up the space
frontier for anybody who has the desire to
go there. Once we prove this secondgeneration vehicle [SpaceShipOne was the
first] we expect to have a third, fourth and
fifth generation that will continue to drive
down costs and improve reliability.
What differentiates SpaceShipTwo
from the Lynx?
Were giving people the opportunity to
unbuckle from their seats and have the
opportunity to float within the cabin and
experience both the euphoria of zero-g
and looking out the windows and seeing
an incredible view of Earth.
What can we expect in the future?
One of the things we keep our eyes on is
point-to-point travel, the idea of flying
between two very distant cities but at a
fraction of the time that it takes a
commercial airline to do it. You might be
able to fly from Tokyo to Los Angeles in a
third of the time that an airline currently
does. That could be a huge industry that
one could tap into [sometime in this
decade] with some of the very technologies
that were trying to develop.
0m
0hrs
2004
Scaled Composites
space plane
completes the first
privately funded
human spaceflight.
30mins
2005
Richard Bransons
Virgin Galactic acquires Scaled
Composites and then begins
work on SpaceShipTwo.
1hr
2hrs
2008
XCOR Aerospace
announces that
it will begin
development of the
Lynx space plane.
2013
SpaceShipTwo makes its first
rocket-powered flight, a key
step to full launches.
143
NASA; SNC; Virgin Galactic; Jeff Foust; XCOR; Reaction Engines Ltd; USAF
(LEO) where they could dock with the

International Space Station (ISS). This would
provide the ISS with another means of
transporting crews to the station aside from
Russias Soyuz spacecraft. After leaving the
ISS, the Dream Chaser will fly back down to
Earth much like a regular aeroplane.
Another vehicle designed to take both people
and cargo into orbit but which is further
behind in its development than the Dream
Chaser is the Skylon space plane. Currently
being developed by UK-based Reaction Engines
Limited (REL), Skylon could be a revolution in
space travel if it ever flies, as it is larger than
SpaceShipTwo and boasts a much bigger hold.
REL has stated that when Skylon lifts off
hopefully at some point towards the end of this
decade it will reduce the cost of taking a
payload into space from 15,000 ($23,000) to just
tr Sp
ia ec
l o ia
ff l
er
Enjoyed
this book?
Exclusive offer for new
Try
3 issues
for just
* This offer entitles new UK Direct Debit subscribers to receive their first 3 issues for 5. After these issues, subscribers will then pay
19.25 every 6 issues. Subscribers can cancel this subscription at any time. New subscriptions will start from the next available issue.
Offer code ZGGZINE must be quoted to receive this special subscriptions price. Direct Debit guarantee available on request. This offer will
expire 30 September 2017.
** This is a US subscription offer. The USA issue rate is based on an annual subscription price of 53 for 13 issues, which is equivalent to
$80 at the time of writing compared with the newsstand price of $9.50 for 13 issues being $123.50. Your subscription will start from the
next available issue. This offer expires 30 September 2017.
The magazine
that feeds minds
Full-colour illustrations
Jam-packed with amazing visuals to really get
you excited about science and technology
Expert writers
About
the
mag
We commission a pool of highly intelligent

and talented experts to write every article
Join the community

Link up with other readers with a passion for
knowledge at www.howitworksdaily.com
subscribers to

! $ $
Try 3 issues for 5 in the UK*

or just $6.15 per issue in the USA**
(saving 35% off the newsstand price)
For amazing offers please visit
www.imaginesubs.co.uk/hiw
Quote code ZGGZINE

Or telephone UK 0844 815 5944* overseas +44 (0)1795 418 680
*Calls will cost 7p per minute plus your telephone company's access charge
From the makers of
DRONES
THE
BOOK
Discover everything you need to know about one of the

hottest gadgets on the market. Packed with essential advice
and in-depth guides to how drones are changing the world,
this is a must-have for any gadget lover.
Also available
A world of content at your fingertips

Whether you love gaming, history,
animals, photography, Photoshop,
sci-fi or anything in between, every
magazine and bookazine from
Imagine Publishing is packed with
expert advice and fascinating facts.
BUY YOUR COPY TODAY

Print edition available at www.imagineshop.co.uk
Digital edition available at www.greatdigitalmags.com

How It Works Book of Aircraft

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

How It Works Book of Aircraft

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

How It Works Book of Aircraft

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the history of human aviation?

What is the history of human aviation?

What are some modern aircraft discussed in the book?

What are some modern aircraft discussed in the book?

T HE I C

TAKE AN ADRENALINE-FUELLED RIDE INTO THE SKY AND BEYOND!

Imagine Publishing Ltd

Exploring the outer

122 The evolution of

124 The Orion spacecraft

076 Commercial drones

126 On board the

084 How to build a plane

128 Voyager spacecraft

088 The luxury of the

130 The MESSENGER probe

090 Worlds largest

134 Space Shuttle

092 The new Concorde

136 ATV spacecraft

096 Solar-powered aircraft

098 Hot air balloons

102 Boeing 787 Dreamliner

How to fly a helicopter

BREA KING THER

pilot their invention. The aircraft was launched

heavier than air machine to get airborne.

Giants of the sky

In the 1960s, aviation companies had a

silenced critics. Since its inception, the 747s have

10,000 people employed on the project. The

system. The most frightening attribute of the

The most frightening

helped the Concorde fly around the globe in 1992, on

The Enola Gay

Enola Gay; and Little Boy. Two

Boy and was a 15-kiloton bomb. Taking off at

hour and half afterwards as the aircraft

State of the art

The operation ran

on by European and Australian firms. The

Amelia Earhart, the mission was simple; fly

The Nazis were aware of the

In the first few decades of the 20th century,

carrying both passengers and cargo. It even had an

The most famous German aircraft of the Great War

The fighter remains

Max speed: 165km/h (103mph)

Remembered as one of the greatest

Baron. As the war progressed, the triplane was

Dr.I returned to the skies in the spring of 1918 but

Destructive on land, sea and air, the Apache isnt far

in particular saw the Apache come into its own,

Max speed: 279km/h (173mph)

can be used in almost any terrain. It has also

The design was so

Need for speed

US Air Force pilot, Captain Charles E Yeager,

a manned airplane up to that time. A single engine,

The heroic British fighter of World War Two that took